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diff --git a/41773-0.txt b/41773-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..254db0d --- /dev/null +++ b/41773-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17997 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41773 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE LAMPETER: "Lampeter was first incorporated under Edward + II., but the earliest known charter dates from the reign of Henry + VI., whereby the principal officer of the town, a portreeve, was to + be appointed annually at the court-leet of the manor." + 'incorporated' amended from 'imcorporated'. + + ARTICLE LANCASHIRE: "None of the summits of the range within + Lancashire attains an elevation of 2000 ft., the highest being + Blackstone Edge (1523 ft.), Pendle Hill (1831 ft.) and Boulsworth + Hill (1700 ft.)." '1523' amended from '1323'. + + ARTICLE LANCELOT: "... Die verschiedenen Redaktionen des + Graal-Lancelot Cyklus; J. L. Weston, The Legend of Sir Lancelot du + Lac ..." 'Cyklus' amended from 'Cycklus'. + + ARTICLE LANDLORD AND TENANT: "Powers of granting building and other + leases have been conferred by modern legislation on municipal + corporations and other local authorities." 'authorities' amended + from 'authorites'. + + ARTICLE LAND REGISTRATION: "... Cherry and Marigold, The Land + Transfer Acts (1898); ..." 'Transfer' amended from 'Tranfer'. + + ARTICLE LANFRANC: "But in 1042 he embraced the monastic profession + in the newly founded house of Bec. Until 1045 he lived at Bec in + absolute seclusion." '1042' amended from '1142' and '1045' amended + from '1145'. + + ARTICLE LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE: "... Brantôme's Vies des Capitaines + français; C. Vincens' Les Héros de la Réforme. Fr. de La Noue + (1875); and Hauser, François de La Noue (Paris, 1892)." "Vincens'" + amended from "Vincen's". + + ARTICLE LAON: "Of the six towers flanking the façades, only four + are complete to the height of the base of the spires, two at the + west front with huge figures of oxen beneath the arcades of their + upper portion, and one at each end of the transept." 'huge' amended + from 'hugh'. + + ARTICLE LAPLAND: "Meantime the Karelians were pressing on the + eastern Lapps, and in the course of the 11th century the rulers of + Novgorod began to treat them as the Norsemen had treated their + western brethren." 'Meantime' amended from 'Meantine'. + + ARTICLE LA ROCHELLE: "Of these old houses the most interesting is + one built in the middle of the 16th century and wrongly known as + that of Henry II. The parade-ground, which forms the principal + public square, occupies the site of the castle demolished in 1590." + 'middle' amended from 'midddle'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVI, SLICE II + + Lamennais, Robert de to Latini, Brunetto + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + LAMENNAIS, HUGUES ROBERT DE LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN + LAMENTATIONS LANTERN + LAMETH, ALEXANDRE VICTOR LANTERN-FLY + LAMETTRIE, JULIEN OFFRAY DE LANTERNS OF THE DEAD + LAMIA LANTHANUM + LAMMAS LANUVIUM + LÄMMERGEYER LANZA, DOMENICO GIUSEPPE MARIA + LAMOIGNON LANZAROTE + LAMONT, JOHANN VON LANZI, LUIGI + LAMORICIÈRE, JUCHAULT DE LAOAG + LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANÇOIS DE LAOCOON + LA MOTTE, ANTOINE HOUDAR DE LAODICEA + LAMOUREUX, CHARLES LAODICEA, SYNOD OF + LAMP LAOMEDON + LAMP-BLACK LAON + LAMPEDUSA LAOS (territory) + LAMPERTHEIM LAOS (Thai race) + LAMPETER LÂO-TSZE + LAMPOON LA PAZ (department of Bolivia) + LAMPREY LA PAZ (capital of Bolivia) + LAMPROPHYRES LA PÉROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE GALAUP + LAMPSACUS LAPIDARY, and GEM CUTTING + LAMPSTAND LAPILLI + LANARK LAPIS LAZULI + LANARKSHIRE LAPITHAE + LANCASHIRE LA PLACE, JOSUÉ DE + LANCASTER, HOUSE OF LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON + LANCASTER, HENRY LAPLAND + LANCASTER, SIR JAMES LA PLATA + LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT LAPORTE, ROLAND + LANCASTER, JOSEPH LA PORTE + LANCASTER, THOMAS LAPPA + LANCASTER (England) LAPPARENT, ALBERT COCHON DE + LANCASTER (Ohio, U.S.A.) LAPPENBERG, JOHANN MARTIN + LANCASTER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) LAPRADE, PIERRE MARTIN RICHARD DE + LANCE LAPSE + LANCELOT LAPWING + LANCET LAPWORTH, CHARLES + LANCEWOOD LAR + LAN-CHOW-FU LARA + LANCIANO LARAISH + LANCRET, NICOLAS LARAMIE + LAND LARBERT + LANDAU LARCENY + LANDECK LARCH + LANDEN, JOHN LARCHER, PIERRE HENRI + LANDEN (Belgium) LARCIUS, TITUS + LANDER, RICHARD LEMON and JOHN LARD + LANDES (department in France) LARDNER, DIONYSIUS + LANDES (region of France) LARDNER, NATHANIEL + LANDESHUT LAREDO + LANDGRAVE LA RÉOLE + LANDLORD AND TENANT LARES + LANDON, CHARLES PAUL LA RÉVELLIÈRE-LÉPEAUX, MARIE DE + LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH LARGENTIÈRE + LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE LARGILLIÈRE, NICOLAS + LANDOUR LARGS + LAND REGISTRATION LARGUS, SCRIBONIUS + LANDSBERG AM LECH LARINO + LANDSBERG-AN-DER-WARTHE LARISSA + LANDSBERG BEI HALLE LARISTAN + LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY LARIVEY, PIERRE + LAND'S END LARK + LANDSHUT LARKHALL + LANDSKNECHT LARKHANA + LANDSKRONA LARKSPUR + LANDSTURM LARNACA + LANDWEHR LA ROCHE + LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM LA ROCHEFOUCAULD + LANE, GEORGE MARTIN LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS DE + LANE, JAMES HENRY LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRÉDÉRIC + LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE LA ROCHEJACQUELEIN, DE + LANFRANC LA ROCHELLE + LANFREY, PIERRE LA ROCHE-SUR-YON + LANG, ANDREW LAROMIGUIÈRE, PIERRE + LANG, KARL HEINRICH LARRA, MARIANO JOSÉ DE + LANGDELL, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS LARSA + LANGDON, JOHN LARTET, EDOUARD + LANGE, ANNE FRANÇOISE ELIZABETH LARVAL FORMS + LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL LARYNGITIS + LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT LA SABLIÈRE, MARGUERITE DE + LANGE, JOHANN PETER LA SALE, ANTOINE DE + LANGEAIS LASALLE, ANTOINE CHEVALIER COLLINET + LANGEN, JOSEPH LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT CAVELIER + LANGENBECK, BERNHARD KONRAD VON LA SALLE, ST JEAN BAPTISTE DE + LANGENSALZA LA SALLE (Illinois, U.S.A.) + LANGHAM, SIMON LASAULX, ARNOLD CONSTANTIN FRANZ VON + LANGHOLM LASCAR + LANGHORNE, JOHN LASCARIS, CONSTANTINE + LANGIEWICZ, MARYAN LASCARIS, JOANNES + LANGLAND, WILLIAM LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE + LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN JOSEPH + LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE LASHIO + LANGPORT LASKER, EDUARD + LANGREO LASKI + LANGRES LAS PALMAS + LANGTOFT, PETER LASSALLE, FERDINAND + LANGTON, JOHN LASSEN, CHRISTIAN + LANGTON, STEPHEN LASSEN, EDUARD + LANGTON, WALTER LASSO, ORLANDO + LANGTRY, LILLIE LASSO + LANGUAGE LAST + LANGUEDOC LASUS + LANGUET, HUBERT LAS VEGAS + LANGUR LASWARI + LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS LATACUNGA + LANIER, SIDNEY LA TAILLE, JEAN DE + LANJUINAIS, JEAN DENIS LATAKIA + LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL LATEEN + LANNES, JEAN LA TÈNE + LANNION LATERAN COUNCILS + LANNOY, GUILLEBERT DE LATERITE + LANOLIN LATH + LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE LATHE + LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM FITZMAURICE LATHROP, FRANCIS + LANSDOWNE LATIMER, HUGH + LANSING LATINA, VIA + LANSING MAN LATINI, BRUNETTO + LANSQUENET + + + + +LAMENNAIS, HUGUES FÉLICITÉ ROBERT DE (1782-1854), French priest, and +philosophical and political writer, was born at Saint Malo, in Brittany, +on the 19th of June 1782. He was the son of a shipowner of Saint Malo +ennobled by Louis XVI. for public services, and was intended by his +father to follow mercantile pursuits. He spent long hours in the library +of an uncle, devouring the writings of Rousseau, Pascal and others. He +thereby acquired a vast and varied, though superficial, erudition, which +determined his subsequent career. Of a sickly and sensitive nature, and +impressed by the horrors of the French Revolution, his mind was early +seized with a morbid view of life, and this temper characterized him +throughout all his changes of opinion and circumstance. He was at first +inclined towards rationalistic views, but partly through the influence +of his brother Jean Marie (1775-1861), partly as a result of his +philosophical and historical studies, he felt belief to be indispensable +to action and saw in religion the most powerful leaven of the community. +He gave utterance to these convictions in the _Réflexions sur l'état de +l'église en France pendant le 18^(ième) siècle et sur sa situation +actuelle_, published anonymously in Paris in 1808. Napoleon's police +seized the book as dangerously ideological, with its eager +recommendation of religious revival and active clerical organization, +but it awoke the ultramontane spirit which has since played so great a +part in the politics of churches and of states. + +As a rest from political strife, Lamennais devoted most of the following +year to a translation, in exquisite French, of the _Speculum Monachorum_ +of Ludovicus Blosius (Louis de Blois) which he entitled _Le Guide +spirituel_ (1809). In 1811 he received the tonsure and shortly +afterwards became professor of mathematics in an ecclesiastical college +founded by his brother at Saint Malo. Soon after Napoleon had concluded +the Concordat with Pius VII. he published, in conjunction with his +brother, _De la tradition de l'église sur l'institution des évêques_ +(1814), a writing occasioned by the emperor's nomination of Cardinal +Maury to the archbishopric of Paris, in which he strongly condemned the +Gallican principle which allowed bishops to be created irrespective of +the pope's sanction. He was in Paris at the first Bourbon restoration in +1814, which he hailed with satisfaction, less as a monarchist than as a +strenuous apostle of religious regeneration. Dreading the _Cent Jours_, +he escaped to London, where he obtained a meagre livelihood by giving +French lessons in a school founded by the abbé Jules Carron for French +émigrés; he also became tutor at the house of Lady Jerningham, whose +first impression of him as an imbecile changed into friendship. On the +final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815 he returned to Paris, and in the +following year, with many misgivings as to his calling, he yielded to +his brother's and Carron's advice, and was ordained priest by the bishop +of Rennes. + +The first volume of his great work, _Essai sur l'indifférence en matière +de religion_, appeared in 1817 (Eng. trans. by Lord Stanley of Alderley, +London, 1898), and affected Europe like a spell, investing, in the words +of Lacordaire, a humble priest with all the authority once enjoyed by +Bossuet. Lamennais denounced toleration, and advocated a Catholic +restoration to belief. The right of private judgment, introduced by +Descartes and Leibnitz into philosophy and science, by Luther into +religion and by Rousseau and the Encyclopaedists into politics and +society, had, he contended, terminated in practical atheism and +spiritual death. Ecclesiastical authority, founded on the absolute +revelation delivered to the Jewish people, but supported by the +universal tradition of all nations, he proclaimed to be the sole hope of +regenerating the European communities. Three more volumes (Paris, +1818-1824) followed, and met with a mixed reception from the Gallican +bishops and monarchists, but with the enthusiastic adhesion of the +younger clergy. The work was examined by three Roman theologians, and +received the formal approval of Leo XII. Lamennais visited Rome at the +pope's request, and was offered a place in the Sacred College, which he +refused. On his return to France he took a prominent part in political +work, and together with Chateaubriand, the vicomte de Villèle, was a +regular contributor to the _Conservateur_, but when Villèle became the +chief of the supporters of absolute monarchy, Lamennais withdrew his +support and started two rival organs, _Le Drapeau blanc_ and _Le +Mémorial catholique_. Various other minor works, together with _De la +religion considérée dans ses rapports avec l'ordre civil et politique_ +(2 vols., 1825-1826), kept his name before the public. + +He retired to La Chênaie and gathered round him a host of brilliant +disciples, including C. de Montalembert, Lacordaire and Maurice de +Guérin, his object being to form an organized body of opinion to +persuade the French clergy and laity to throw off the yoke of the state +connexion. With Rome at his back, as he thought, he adopted a frank and +bold attitude in denouncing the liberties of the Gallican church. His +health broke down and he went to the Pyrenees to recruit. On his return +to La Chênaie in 1827 he had another dangerous illness, which powerfully +impressed him with the thought that he had only been dragged back to +life to be the instrument of Providence. _Les Progrès de la révolution +et de la guerre contre l'église_ (1828) marked Lamennais's complete +renunciation of royalist principles, and henceforward he dreamt of the +advent of a theocratic democracy. To give effect to these views he +founded _L'Avenir_, the first number of which appeared on the 16th of +October 1830, with the motto "God and Liberty." From the first the paper +was aggressively democratic; it demanded rights of local administration, +an enlarged suffrage, universal freedom of conscience, freedom of +instruction, of meeting, and of the press. Methods of worship were to be +criticized, improved or abolished in absolute submission to the +spiritual, not to the temporal authority. With the help of Montalembert, +he founded the _Agence générale pour la défense de la liberté +religieuse_, which became a far-reaching organization, it had agents all +over the land who noted any violations of religious freedom and reported +them to headquarters. As a result, _L'Avenir's_ career was stormy, and +the opposition of the Conservative bishops checked its circulation; +Lamennais, Montalembert and Lacordaire resolved to suspend it for a +while, and they set out to Rome in November 1831 to obtain the approval +of Gregory XVI. The "pilgrims of liberty" were, after much opposition, +received in audience by the pope, but only on the condition that the +object which brought them to Rome should not be mentioned. This was a +bitter disappointment to such earnest ultramontanes, who received, a few +days after the audience, a letter from Cardinal Pacca, advising their +departure from Rome and suggesting that the Holy See, whilst admitting +the justice of their intentions, would like the matter left open for the +present. Lacordaire and Montalembert obeyed; Lamennais, however, +remained in Rome, but his last hope vanished with the issue of Gregory's +letter to the Polish bishops, in which the Polish patriots were reproved +and the tsar was affirmed to be their lawful sovereign. He then "shook +the dust of Rome from off his feet." At Munich, in 1832, he received the +encyclical _Mirari vos_, condemning his policy; as a result _L'Avenir_ +ceased and the _Agence_ was dissolved. + +Lamennais, with his two lieutenants, submitted, and deeply wounded, +retired to La Chênaie. His genius and prophetic insight had turned the +entire Catholic church against him, and those for whom he had fought so +long were the fiercest of his opponents. The famous _Paroles d'un +croyant_, published in 1834 through the intermediary of Sainte-Beuve, +marks Lamennais's severance from the church. "A book, small in size, but +immense in its perversity," was Gregory's criticism in a new encyclical +letter. A tractate of aphorisms, it has the vigour of a Hebrew prophecy +and contains the choicest gems of poetic feeling lost in a whirlwind of +exaggerations and distorted views of kings and rulers. The work had an +extraordinary circulation and was translated into many European +languages. It is now forgotten as a whole, but the beautiful appeals to +love and human brotherhood are still reprinted in every hand-book of +French literature. + +Henceforth Lamennais was the apostle of the people alone. _Les Affaires +de Rome, des maux de l'église et de la société_ (1837) came from old +habit of religious discussions rather than from his real mind of 1837, +or at most it was but a last word. _Le Livre du peuple_ (1837), _De +l'esclavage moderne_ (1839), _Politique à l'usage du peuple_ (1839), +three volumes of articles from the journal of the extreme democracy, _Le +Monde_, are titles of works which show that he had arrived among the +missionaries of liberty, equality and fraternity, and he soon got a +share of their martyrdom. _Le Pays et le gouvernement_ (1840) caused him +a year's imprisonment. He struggled through difficulties of lost +friendships, limited means and personal illnesses, faithful to the last +to his hardly won dogma of the sovereignty of the people, and, to judge +by his contribution to Louis Blanc's _Revue du progrès_ was ready for +something like communism. He was named president of the "Société de la +solidarité républicaine," which counted half a million adherents in +fifteen days. The Revolution of 1848 had his sympathies, and he started +_Le Peuple constituant_; however, he was compelled to stop it on the +10th of July, complaining that silence was for the poor, but again he +was at the head of _La Révolution démocratique et sociale_, which also +succumbed. In the constituent assembly he sat on the left till the +_coupe d'état_ of Napoleon III. in 1851 put an end to all hopes of +popular freedom. While deputy he drew up a constitution, but it was +rejected as too radical. Thereafter a translation of Dante chiefly +occupied him till his death, which took place in Paris on the 27th of +February 1854. He refused to be reconciled to the church, and was buried +according to his own directions at Père La Chaise without funeral rites, +being mourned by a countless concourse of democratic and literary +admirers. + +During the most difficult time of his republican period he found solace +for his intellect in the composition of _Une voix de prison_, written +during his imprisonment in a similar strain to _Les paroles d'un +croyant_. This is an interesting contribution to the literature of +captivity; it was published in Paris in 1846. He also wrote _Esquisse de +philosophie_ (1840). Of the four volumes of this work the third, which +is an exposition of art as a development from the aspirations and +necessities of the temple, stands pre-eminent, and remains the best +evidence of his thinking power and brilliant style. + + There are two so-called _Oeuvres complètes de Lamennais_, the first in + 10 volumes (Paris, 1836-1837), and the other in 10 volumes (Paris, + 1844); both these are very incomplete and only contain the works + mentioned above. The most noteworthy of his writings subsequently + published are: _Amschaspands et Darvands_ (1843), _Le Deuil de la + Pologne_ (1846), _Mélanges philosophiques et politiques_ (1856), _Les + Évangiles_ (1846) and _La Divine Comédie_, these latter being + translations of the Gospels and of Dante. + + Part of his voluminous correspondence has also appeared. The most + interesting volumes are the following: _Correspondance de F. de + Lamennais_, edited by E. D. Forgues (2 vols., 1855-1858); _Oeuvres + inédites de F. Lamennais_, edited by Ange Blaize (2 vols., 1866); + _Correspondance inédite entre Lamennais et le baron de Vitrolles_, + edited by E. D. Forgues (1819-1853); _Confidences de Lamennais, + lettres inédites de 1821 à 1848_, edited by A. du Bois de la + Villerabel (1886); _Lamennais d'après des documents inédits_, by + Alfred Roussel (Rennes, 2 vols., 1892); _Lamennais intime, d'après une + correspondance inédite_, by A. Roussel (Rennes, 1897); _Un Lamennais + inconnu_, edited by A. Laveille (1898); _Lettres de Lamennais à + Montalembert_, edited by E. D. Forgues (1898); and many other letters + published in the _Revue bleue_, _Revue britannique_, &c. + + A list of lives or studies on Lamennais would fill several columns. + The following may be mentioned. A Blaize, _Essai biographique sur M. + de Lamennais_ (1858); E. D. Forgues, _Notes et souvenirs_ (1859); F. + Brunetière, _Nouveaux essais sur la littérature contemporaine_ (1893); + E. Faguet, _Politiques et moralistes_, ii. (1898); P. Janet, _La + Philosophie de Lamennais_ (1890); P. Mercier, S.J., _Lamennais d'après + sa correspondance et les travaux les plus récents_ (1893); A. Mollien + et F. Duine, _Lamennais, sa vie et ses idées_; _Pages choisies_ + (Lyons, 1898); The Hon. W. Gibson, _The Abbé de Lammenais and the + Liberal Catholic Movement in France_ (London, 1896); E. Renan _Essais + de morale et de critique_ (1857); E. Schérer, _Mélanges de critique + religieuse_ (1859); G. E. Spuller, _Lamennais, étude d'histoire et de + politique religieuse_ (1892); Mgr. Ricard, _L'école menaisienne_ + (1882), and Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits contemporains_, tome i. (1832), + and _Nouveaux Lundis_, tome i. p. 22; tome xi. p. 347. + + + + +LAMENTATIONS (_Lamentations of Jeremiah_), a book of the Old Testament. +In Hebrew MSS. and editions this little collection of liturgical poems +is entitled [Hebrew: eiha] _Ah how!_, the first word of ch. i. (and chs. +ii., iv.); cf. the books of the Pentateuch, and the Babylonian Epic of +Creation (a far older example). In the Septuagint it is called [Greek: +Thrênoi], "Funeral-songs" or "Dirges," the usual rendering of Heb. +[Hebrew: kinot] (Am. v. 1; Jer. vii. 29; 2 Sam. i. 17), which is, in +fact, the name in the Talmud (_Baba Bathra_ 15a) and other Jewish +writings; and it was known as such to the Fathers (Jerome, _Cinoth_). +The Septuagint (B) introduces the book thus: "And it came to pass, after +Israel was taken captive and Jerusalem laid waste, Jeremiah sat weeping, +and lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem, and said...," a +notice which may have related originally to the first poem only. Some +Septuagint MSS., and the Syriac and other versions, have the fuller +title _Lamentations of Jeremiah_. In the Hebrew Bible Lamentations is +placed among the _Cetubim_ or Hagiographa, usually as the middle book of +the five _Megilloth_ or Ferial Rolls (Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, +Ecclesiastes, Esther) according to the order of the days on which they +are read in the Synagogue, Lamentations being read on the 9th of Ab (6th +of August), when the destruction of the Temple is commemorated (_Mass. +Sopherim_ 18). But the Septuagint appends the book to Jeremiah (_Baruch_ +intervening), just as it adds Ruth to Judges; thus making the number of +the books of the Hebrew Canon the same as that of the letters of the +Hebrew alphabet, viz. twenty-two (so Jos. c. Ap. i. 8), instead of the +Synagogal twenty-four (see _Baba Bathra_ 14b). + +_External features and poetical structure._--These poems exhibit a +peculiar metre, the so-called "limping verse," of which Am. v. 2 is a +good instance: + + "She is fállen, to ríse no móre-- + Maid Israël! + Left lórn upón her lánd-- + none raísing hér!" + +A longer line, with three accented syllables, is followed by a shorter +with two. Chs. i.-iii. consist of stanzas of three such couplets each; +chs. iv. and v. of two like Am. v. 2. This metre came in time to be +distinctive of elegy. The text of Lamentations, however, so often +deviates from it, that we can only affirm the _tendency_ of the poet to +cast his couplets into this type (Driver). Some anomalies, both of metre +and of sense, may be removed by judicious emendation; and many lines +become smooth enough, if we assume a crasis of open vowels of the same +class, or a diphthongal pronunciation of others, or contraction or +silence of certain suffixes as in Syriac. The oldest elegiac utterances +are not couched in this metre; e.g. David's (2 Sam. iii. 33 f. Abner; +ib. i. 19-27 Saul and Jonathan). Yet the refrain of the latter, '_Eik +náf 'lu gíbborím_, "Ah how are heroes fallen!" agrees with our longer +line. The remote ancestor of this Hebrew metre may be recognized in the +Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh, written at least a thousand years +earlier:-- + + _Ea-báni íbri kutáni_ | _Nímru sha çéri_ + "Eabani, my friend, my little brother! | Leopard of the Wild!" + +and again:-- + + _Kíki lúskut_ | _Kíki luqúl-ma_ + Íbri shá arámmu_ | _Itémi tittish_ + "How shall I be dumb? | How shall I bewail? + The friend whom I love | Is turned to clay!" + +Like a few of the Psalms, Lamentations i.-iv. are alphabetical +acrostics. Each poem contains twenty-two stanzas, corresponding to the +twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet; and each stanza begins with +its proper letter. (In ch. iii. each of the three couplets in a stanza +begins with the same letter, so that the alphabet is repeated thrice: +cf. Psalm cxix. for an eight-fold repetition.) The alphabet of +Lamentations ii. iii. iv. varies from the usual order of the letters by +placing _Pe_ before _Ain_. The same was doubtless the case in ch. i. +also until some scribe altered it. He went no further, because the sense +forbade it in the other instances. The variation may have been one of +local use, either in Judea or in Babylonia; or the author may have had +some fanciful reason for the transposition, such as, for example, that +_Pe_ following _Samech_ ([Hebrew: sp]) might suggest the word [Hebrew: +sifdu], "Wail ye!" (2 Sam. iii. 31). Although the oldest Hebrew elegies +are not alphabetic acrostics, it is a curious fact that the word +[Hebrew: aidach], "Was he a coward?" (Sc. [Hebrew: libo]; Is. vii. 4), +is formed by the initial letters of the four lines on Abner (om. +[Hebrew: ve], line 3); and the initials of the verses of David's great +elegy are [Hebrew: ha amshech eze], which may be read as a sentence +meaning, perhaps, "Lo, I the Avenger" (cf. Deut. xxxii. 41, 43) "will go +forth!"; or the first two letters ([Hebrew: he'alef']) may stand for +[Hebrew: hoi ahi], "Alas, my brother!" (Jer. xxii. 18; cf. xxxiv. 5). In +cryptic fashion the poet thus registers a vow of vengeance on the +Philistines. Both kinds of acrostic occur side by side in the Psalms. +Psalm cx., an acrostic of the same kind as David's elegy, is followed by +Psalms cxi. cxii., which are alphabetical acrostics, like the +Lamentations. Such artifices are not in themselves greater clogs on +poetic expression than the excessive alliteration of old Saxon verse or +the strict rhymes of modern lyrics. (Alliteration, both initial and +internal, is common in Lamentations.) + +As the final piece, ch. v. may have suffered more in transmission than +those which precede it--even to the extent of losing the acrostic form +(like some of the Psalms and Nahum i.), besides half of its stanzas. If +we divide the chapter into quatrains, like ch. iv., we notice several +vestiges of an acrostic. The _Aleph_ stanza (verses 7, 8) still precedes +the _Beth_ (verses 9, 10), and the _Ain_ is still quite clear (verses +17, 18; cf. i. 16). Transposing verses 5, 6, and correcting their text, +we see that the _Jod_ stanza (verses 3, 4) precedes the _Lamed_ (verses +6, 5), _Caph_ having disappeared between them. With this clue, we may +rearrange the other quatrains in alphabetical sequence, each according +to its initial letter. We thus get a broken series of eleven stanzas, +beginning with the letters [Hebrew: alef] (verses 7, 8), [Hebrew: beth] +(9, 10), [Hebrew: hei] (21, 22), [Hebrew: vav] (19, cf. Psalm cii. 13; +and 20), [Hebrew: nun] (1, 2), [Hebrew: het] (13, [Hebrew: horim]; 14), +[Hebrew: iod] (3, 4), [Hebrew: lamed] (6, [Hebrew: latzadim]; 5, +[Hebrew: hibkiru] ... [Hebrew: ol]), [Hebrew: nun] (11, 12), [Hebrew: +ayin] (17, 18), and [Hebrew: shin] (15, 16), successively. An internal +connexion will now be apparent in all the stanzas. + +_General subject and outline of contents._--The theme of Lamentations is +the final siege and fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), and the attendant and +subsequent miseries of the Jewish people. + +In ch. i. we have a vivid picture of the distress of Zion, after all is +over. The poet does not describe the events of the siege, nor the +horrors of the capture, but the painful experience of subjection and +tyranny which followed. Neither this nor ch. ii. is strictly a "dirge." +Zion is not dead. She is personified as a widowed princess, bereaved and +desolate, sitting amid the ruins of her former joys, and brooding over +her calamities. From verse 11c to the end (except verse 17) she herself +is the speaker:-- + + "O come, ye travellers all! + Behold and see + If grief there be like mine!" + +She images her sorrows under a variety of metaphors (cf. ch. iii. 1-18); +ascribing all her woes to Yahweh's righteous wrath, provoked by her +sins, and crying for vengeance on the malicious rivals who had rejoiced +at her overthrow. + + The text has suffered much. Verse 5c read: [Hebrew: bashevi] (v. 18), + "into captivity," [Hebrew: zarim] (v. 7), "adversaries." For verse 7, + see Budde, V. 14: [Hebrew: nishkod], read [Hebrew: nikshar], "was + bound." Verse 19c read: [Hebrew: aval lhashiv nefesh velo matzu ki + bikshu] "For they sought food to restore life, and found it not:" cf. + Septuagint; and verses 11, 16. Verse 20: the incongruous [Hebrew: ki + maro mariti], "For I grievously rebelled," should be [Hebrew: nihmeru + rahamai], "My inwards burn"; Hos. xi. 8. Verses 21 f.: "All my foes + heard, rejoiced That IT" (cf. Psalm ix. 13), "Thou didst. Bring Thou" + ([Hebrew: havee et]), "the Day Thou hast proclaimed; Let them become + like me! Let the time" ([Hebrew: et]; see Septuagint) "of their + calamity come!" + +Chapter ii.--"Ah how in wrath the Lord | Beclouds Bath-Sion!" The poet +laments Yahweh's anger as the true cause which destroyed city and +kingdom, suspended feast and Sabbath, rejected altar and sanctuary. He +mentions the uproar of the victors in the Temple; the dismantling of the +walls; the exile of king and princes (verses 1-9). He recalls the +mourning in the doomed city; the children dying of hunger in the +streets; the prophets deluding the people with vain hopes. Passers-by +jeered at the fallen city; and all her enemies triumphed over her +(verses 10-17). Sion is urged to cry to the Lord in protest against His +pitiless work (verses 18-22). + + Here too emendation is necessary. Verse 4a: [Hebrew: hetziv hatzev], + "He fixed His arrow," sc. on the string (Septuagint, [Greek: + estereôsen]); cf. Psalm xi. 2. Add at the end [Hebrew: kila (et) apo], + "He spent His anger:" see iv. 11; Ezek. vii. 8, xx. 8, 21. Verse 6: + [Hebrew: vaifratz gader mishkano], "And He broke down the wall of His + dwelling-place" (Septuagint [Greek: tho skênôma autou]; cf. Psalm + lxxxiv. 7f., where [Hebrew: moed] follows, as here). Is. v. 5; Psalms + lxxx. 13, lxxxix. 41. Perhaps [Hebrew: vaiehares], verses 2, 17. But + Septuagint [Greek: kahi diepetasen] = [Hebrew: vaifros] (i. 13, 17) = + [Hebrew: vaifros] (iv. 4) or even [Hebrew: vaifrotz]. Verse 9, + perhaps: "He sunk ([Hebrew: tava]) her gates in the ground,--He + shattered her bars; He made her king and her princes wander ([Hebrew: + ybir], Jer. xxiii. 1)--Among the nations without Torah" (cf. Ezek. + vii. 26 f.). Verse 18: "Cry much" ([Hebrew: rabat]; or bitterly, + [Hebrew: mar], Zeph. i. 14) "unto the Lord, O Virgin Daughter of + Zion!" Verse 19 is metrically redundant, and the last clauses do not + agree with what follows. "For the life of thy children" was altered + from "for what He hath done to thee" ([Hebrew: al sheolel leha]); and + then the rest was added. The uniform gloom of this, the most + dirge-like of all the pieces, is unrelieved by a single ray of hope, + even the hope of vengeance; cf. chapters i. iii. iv. _ad fin_. + +Chapter iii.--Here the nation is personified as a man (cf. Hos. xi. 1), +who laments his own calamities. In view of i. 12-22, ii. 20-22, this is +hardly a serious deviation from the strict form of elegy (_Klagelied_). +Budde makes much of "the close external connexion with ch. ii." The +truth is that the break is as great as between any two of these poems. +Chapter ii. ends with a mother's lament over her slaughtered children; +chapter iii. makes an entirely new beginning, with its abruptly +independent "I am the Man!" The suppression of the Divine Name is +intentional. Israel durst not breathe it, until compelled by the climax, +verse 18: cf. Am. vi. 10. Contrast its frequency afterwards, when ground +of hope is found in the Divine pity and purpose (verses 22-40), and when +the contrite nation turns to its God in prayer (verses 55-66). The +spiritual aspect of things is now the main topic. The poet deals less +with incident, and more with the moral significance of the nation's +sufferings. It is the religious culmination of the book. His poem is +rather lyrical than narrative, which may account for some obscurities in +the connexion of thought; but his alphabetic scheme proves that he +_designed_ twenty-two stanzas, not sixty-six detached couplets. There is +something arresting in that bold "I am the Man"; and the lyrical +intensity, the religious depth and beauty of the whole, may well blind +us to occasional ruggedness of metre and language, abrupt transitions +from figure to figure and other alleged blemishes, some of which may not +have seemed such to the poet's contemporaries (e.g. the repetition of +the acrostic word, far more frequent in Psalm cxix.); and some disappear +on revision of the text. + + Verse 5, perhaps: "He swallowed me up" (Jer. li. 34) "and begirt my + head" (Septuagint) "with gloom" ([Hebrew: afela] Is. lviii. 10, cf. + verse 6, yet cf. also [Hebrew: halaa], Neh. ix. 32). Verse 14: "all + my people," rather _all peoples_ (Heb. MSS. and Syr.). Verse 16b, rd. + [Hebrew: yflishani], "He made me bore" (i.e. grovel) "in the ashes:" + cf. Jer. vi. 26; Ezek. xxvii. 30. Verse 17a should be: [Hebrew: + vaiznah leolam nafshi] "And He cast off my soul for ever:" see verse + 31; Psalm lxxxviii. 15. Verse 26: "It is good _to wait_" [Hebrew: + leohil] "_in silence_" ([Hebrew: dumam] Is. xlvii. 5); or "It is good + _that he wait and be silent_" ([Hebrew: ki yohil vedamam]; cf. verse + 27). Verse 31, add [Hebrew: nafsho], "his soul." The verse is a reply + to 17a. Verses 34-36 render: "To crush under His feet ... Adonai + _purposed_ not" (Gen. xx. 10; Psalm lxvi. 18). Verse 39, [Hebrew: hai] + (Gen. v. 5; or [Hebrew: haya] Neh. ix. 29) is the necessary second + verb: "Why doth a mortal complain?" (or "What ... lament?"). "Doth a + man live by his sins?": Man "lives by" righteousness (Ezek. xxxiii. + 19). For the wording, cf. Psalm lxxxix. 49. Verse 43a: "Thou didst + encompass with" (rg. [Hebrew: savota]; Hos. xii. 1) "anger and pursue + us." Syntax as verse 66a. Verse 49, rd. [Hebrew: tefune] (cf. ii. 18 + also). Verse 51: "Mine eye did hurt to herself" [Hebrew: lenafsha]), + "By weeping over my people:" Verse 48: ch. i. 16; Jer. xxxi. 15. Verse + 52: "They quelled my life in the pit" (Sheol; Psalms xxx. 4, lxxxviii. + 4, 7; verse 55); "They _brought me down to Abaddon_" ([Hebrew: + horiduni abaddon]; cf. Psalm lxxxviii. 12). Verse 58: "O plead, Lord, + the cause of my soul! O redeem my life!"; cf. Psalm cxix. 154. If the + prayer for vengeance begins here, Budde's "deep division in the middle + of an acrostic letter-group" vanishes. Verse 59, rd. [Hebrew: uti], + "my perverting;" inf. pi. c. suff. obj.; cf. verse 36. Verse 61b + repeated by mistake from 60b. Perhaps: "Wherewith they dogged my + steps:" [Hebrew: shihrefu ekvotai]: Psalm lxxxix. 51 f. Verse 63, rd. + [Hebrew: komem], as usual, and [Hebrew: neginatam], as in verse 14 and + Job xxx. 9. Verse 65: "Thou wilt give them madness" (cf. Arab. + _gunûn_; _magnûn_, mad) "of heart; Thou wilt curse and consume them!" + ([Hebrew: tohar tohlam]). + + Chapter iv. + + "Ah, how doth gold grow dim,-- + The finest ore change hue!" + +The poet shows how famine and the sword desolated Zion (verses 1-10). +All was Yahweh's work; a wonder to the heathen world, but accounted for +by the crimes of prophets and priests (Jer. xxiii. 11, 14, xxvi. 8, 20 +ff., xxix. 21-23), who, like Cain, became homeless wanderers and +outcasts (verses 11-16). Vainly did the besieged watch for succours from +Egypt (Jer. xxxvii. 5 ff.); and even the last forlorn hope, the flight +of "Yahweh's Anointed," King Zedekiah, was doomed to fail (verses 17-20; +Jer. xxxix. 4 ff). Edom rejoiced in her ruin (Ezek. xxv. 12; xxxv. 15; +Obad.; Psalm cxxxvii. 7); but Zion's sin is now atoned for (cf. Is. xl. +2), and she may look forward to the judgment of her foe (verses 21-22). + + Verse 6d, perhaps: "And their ruin tarried not" ([Hebrew: ukt yihel + piryam]); cf. Pro. xxiv. 22. Verse 7d: "Their body" (rd. [Hebrew: + noiham]) "was a sapphire:" see Ct. v. 14; Dn. x. 6. Verse 9: "Happier + were the slain of the sword Than the slain of famine! For they" + (Septuagint om.), "they passed away" ([Hebrew: halhu] Septuagint; + Psalm xxxix. 14) "with a stab" (Ju. ix. 54; Is. xiii. 15; Jer. li. 4), + "Suddenly, in the field" ([Hebrew: pitom besh']; Jer. xiv. 18). Verse + 13, add [Hebrew: hi] after [Hebrew: nevieia]; cf. Ju. xiv. 4; Jer. + xxii. 16. Verse 17c: "While we watched" (Septuagint) "continually:" + [Hebrew: betzapoteinu tzafu]. Verse 18: "Our steps were curbed" + ([Hebrew: tzaru] MSS.; see Pro. iv. 12; Job xviii. 7) "from walking In + our open places" (before the city gates: Neh. viii. 1, 3); "The + completion of our days drew nigh" ([Hebrew: karev yom meleot yameinu]; + cf. Lev. viii. 33; Job xx. 22), "For our end was come" (Ezek. vii. 2, + 6, &c.). Verse 21, Septuagint om. Uz (dittogr.?); "Settler in the + Land!" (i.e. of Judah; cf. Ezek. xxxv. 10, xxxvi. 5. Perhaps [Hebrew: + yorashti ha'] "Seizer of the Land"). + +Chapter v.--A sorrowful supplication, in which the speakers deplore, not +the fall of Jerusalem, but their own state of galling dependence and +hopeless poverty. They are still suffering for the sins of their +fathers, who perished in the catastrophe (verse 7). They are at the +mercy of "servants" (verse 8; cf. 2 Kings xxv. 24; Neh. v. 15: "Yea, +even their 'boys' lorded it over the people"), under a tyranny of pashas +of the worst type (verses 11 f.). The soil is owned by aliens; and the +Jews have to buy their water and firewood (verses 2, 4; cf. Neh. ix. 36 +f.). While busy harvesting, they are exposed to the raids of the +Bedouins (verse 9). Jackals prowl among the ruins of Zion (verse 18; cf. +Neh. iv. 3). And this condition of things has already lasted a very long +time (verse 20). + + Verses 5 f. transpose and read: "To adversaries" ([Hebrew: latzarim]) + "we submitted, Saying" ([Hebrew: leemor]), "'We shall be satisfied + with bread'" (cf. Jer. xlii. 14); "The yoke of our neck they made + heavy" (Neh. v. 15: [Hebrew: ehbidu al haam]); "We toil, and no rest + is allowed us." Verse 13: "Nobles endured to grind, And princes + staggered under logs" ([Hebrew: horim] for [Hebrew: bahurim], which + belongs to verse 14; [Hebrew: sarim] for [Hebrew: nearim]. Eccl. x. 7; + Is. xxxiv. 12; Neh. iv. 14; v. 7; vi. 17). Verse 19, "But Thou..." + Psalm cii. 13 ([Hebrew: ve] fell out after preceding [Hebrew: vav], + verse 18). Verse 22, omit [Hebrew: em]; dittogr. of following [Hebrew: + ma]. + +_Authorship and date._--The tradition of Jeremiah's authorship cannot be +traced higher than the Septuagint version. The prefatory note there may +come from a Hebrew MS., but perhaps refers to chapter i. only ("Jeremiah +sang _this dirge_"). The idea that Lamentations was originally appended +to Jeremiah in the Hebrew Canon, as it is in the old versions, and was +afterwards separated from it and added to the other Megilloth for the +liturgical convenience of the Synagogue, rests on the fact that Josephus +(Ap. i. 1, 8) and, following him, Jerome and Origen reckon 22 books, +taking Ruth with Judges and Lamentations with Jeremiah; whereas the +ordinary Jewish reckoning gives 24 books, as in our Hebrew Bibles. There +is no evidence that this artificial reckoning according to the number of +letters in the Hebrew alphabet was ever much more than a fanciful +suggestion. Even in the Septuagint the existing order may not be +original. It appears likely that Lamentations was not translated by the +same hand as Jeremiah (Nöldeke). Unlike the latter, the Septuagint +Lamentations sticks closely to the Massoretic text. The two books can +hardly have been united from the first. On the strength of 2 Chron. +xxxv. 25, some ancient writers (e.g. Jerome _ad_ Zech. xii. 11) held +that Jeremiah composed Lamentations. When, however, Josephus (Ant. x. 5, +1) states that Jeremiah wrote an elegy on Josiah still extant in his +day, he may be merely quoting a little too much of Chron. loc. cit.; and +it is obvious that he need not mean our book (see Whiston's note). It is +urged, indeed, that the author of Chronicles could not have imagined a +prophet to have sympathized with such a king as Zedekiah so warmly as is +implied by Lamentations iv. 20; and, therefore, he must have connected +the passage with Josiah, the last of the good kings. However that may +have been, the Chronicler neither says that Jeremiah wrote _all_ the +elegies comprised in _The Qinoth_, nor does he imply that the entire +collection consisted of only five pieces. Rather, the contrary; for he +implies that _The Qinoth_ contained not only Jeremiah's single dirge on +Josiah, but also the elegies of "all the singing men and singing women," +from the time of Josiah's death (608) down to his own day (3rd century). +The untimely fate of Josiah became a stock allusion in dirges. It is not +meant that for three centuries the dirge-writers had nothing else to +sing of; much less, that they sang of the fall of Jerusalem (presupposed +by our book) before its occurrence. Upon the whole, it does not seem +probable, either that the Chronicler mistook Lamentations iv. for +Jeremiah's dirge on Josiah, or that the book he calls _The Qinoth_ was +identical with our Qinoth. Later writers misunderstood him, because--on +the ground of certain obtrusive similarities between Jeremiah and +Lamentations (see Driver, L.O.T. p. 433 f.), and the supposed reference +in Lamentations iii. 53 ff. to Jeremiah xxxviii. 6 ff., as well as the +fact that Jeremiah was the one well-known inspired writer who had lived +through the siege of Jerusalem--they naturally enough ascribed this +little book to the prophet. It is certainly true that the same emotional +temperament, dissolving in tears at the spectacle of the country's woes, +and expressing itself to a great extent in the same or similar language, +is noticeable in the author(s) of Lamentations i.-iv. and in Jeremiah. +And both refer these woes to the same cause, viz. the sins of the +nation, and particularly of its prophets and priests. + +This, however, is not enough to prove identity of authorship; and the +following considerations militate strongly against the tradition. (i.) +The language and style of Lamentations are in general very unlike those +of Jeremiah (see the details in Nägelsbach and Löhr); whatever allowance +may be made for conventional differences in the phraseology of elegiac +poetry and prophetic prose, even of a more or less lyrical cast. (ii.) +Lamentations i.-iv. show a knowledge of Ezekiel (cf. Lamentations ii. +4c; Ez. xx. 8, 21; Lam. ii. 14; Ez. xii. 24; xiii. 10, 14; Lam. ii. 15; +Ez. xxvii. 3; xxviii. 12; Lam. iv. 20; Ez. xix. 4, 8) and of Is. +xl.-lxvi. (Lam. i. 10, [Hebrew: mahmadim]; Is. lxiv. 10; Lam. i. 15; Is. +lxiii. 2; Lam. ii. 1; Is. lxvi. 1; Lam. ii. 2c; Is. xliii. 28; Lam. ii. +13 _the 3 verbs_; Is. xl. 18, 25; Lam. ii. 15c; Is. lx. 15b; Lam. iii. +26 [Hebrew: dumam]; Is. xlvii. 5; Lam. iii. 30; Is. i. 6; Lam. iv. 14; +Is. lix. 3, 10; Lam. iv. 15; Is. lii. 11; Lam. iv. 17c; Is. xlv. 20; +Lam. iv. 22; Is. xl. 2). Jeremiah does not quote Ezekiel; and he could +hardly have quoted writings of the age of Cyrus. (iii.) The coincidences +of language between Lamentations and certain late Psalms, such as Psalms +lxix., lxxiv., lxxx., lxxxviii., lxxxix., cxix., are numerous and +significant, at least as a general indication of date. (iv.) The point +of view of Lamentations sometimes differs from that of the prophet. This +need not be the case in i. 21 f. where the context shows that the +"enemies" are not the Chaldeans, but Judah's ill neighbours, Edom, +Ammon, Moab and the rest (cf. iv. 21 f.; iii. 59-66 may refer to the +same foes). Ch. ii. 9c may refer to popular prophecy ("_her_ prophets"; +cf. verse 14), which would naturally be silenced by the overwhelming +falsification of its comfortable predictions (iv. 14 ff.; cf. Jer. xiv. +13; Ezek. vii. 26 f.; Psalm lxxiv. 9). But though Jeremiah was by no +means disloyal (Jer. xxxiv. 4 f.), he would hardly have spoken of +Zedekiah in the terms of Lam. iv. 20; and the prophet never looked to +Egypt for help, as the poet of iv. 17 appears to have done. It must be +admitted that Lamentations exhibits, upon the whole, "a poet (more) in +sympathy with the old life of the nation, whose attitude towards the +temple and the king is far more popular than Jeremiah's" (W. Robertson +Smith); cf. i. 4, 10, 19, ii. 6, 7, 20c. (v.) While we find in +Lamentations some things that we should not have expected from Jeremiah, +we miss other things characteristic of the prophet. There is no trace of +his confident faith in the restoration of both Israel and Judah (Jer. +iii. 14-18, xxiii. 3-8, xxx.-xxxiii.), nor of his unique doctrine of the +New Covenant (Jer. xxxi. 31-34), as a ground of hope and consolation for +Zion. The only hope expressed in Lamentations i. is the hope of Divine +vengeance on Judah's malicious rivals (i. 21 f.); and even this is +wanting from ch. ii. Chapter iii. finds comfort in the thought of +Yahweh's unfailing mercy; but ends with a louder cry for vengeance. +Chapter iv. suggests neither hope nor consolation, until the end, where +we have an assurance that Zion's punishment is complete, and she will +not again be exiled (iv. 21 f.). The last word is woe for Edom. In +chapter v. we have a prayer for restoration: "Make us return, O Yahweh, +and we shall return!" (i.e. to our pristine state). Had Jeremiah been +the author, we should have expected something more positive and +definitely prophetic in tone and spirit. (The author of chapter iii. +seems to have felt this. It was apparently written in view of chapter +ii. as a kind of religious counterpoise to its burden of despair, which +it first takes up, verses 1-20, and then dissipates, verses 21 ff.). +(vi.) It seems almost superfluous to add that, in the brief and troubled +story of the prophet's life after the fall of the city Jer. +xxxix.-xliv.), it is difficult to specify an occasion when he may be +supposed to have enjoyed the necessary leisure and quiet for the +composition of these elaborate and carefully constructed pieces, in a +style so remote from his ordinary freedom and spontaneity of utterance. +And if at the very end of his stormy career he really found time and +inclination to write anything of this nature, we may wonder why it was +not included in the considerable and somewhat miscellaneous volume of +his works, or at least mentioned in the chapters which relate to his +public activity after the catastrophe. + +Budde's date, 550 B.C., might not be too early for chapter v., if it +stood alone. But it was evidently written as the close of the book, and +perhaps to complete the number of five divisions, after the model of the +Pentateuch; which would bring it below the date of Ezra (457 B.C.). And +this date is supported by internal indications. The Divine forgetfulness +has already lasted a very long time since the catastrophe ("for ever," +verse 20); which seems to imply the lapse of much more than thirty-six +years (cf. Zech. i. 12). The hill of Zion is still a deserted site +haunted by jackals, as it was when Nehemiah arrived, 445 B.C. (Neh. i. +3, ii. 3, 13, 17, iv. 3). And the conditions, political and economic, +seem to agree with what is told us by Nehemiah of the state of things +which he found, and which prevailed before his coming: cf. esp. Neh. v. +2-5 with Lamentations v. 2, 10, and Neh. v. 15 with Lamentations v. 5, +8. There is nothing in chapter i. which Nehemiah himself might not have +written, had he been a poet (cf. Neh. i. 4). The narrative of Neh. xiii. +throws light on verse 10; and there are many coincidences of language, +e.g. "The Province" (of Judea), Neh. i. 3, cf. verse 1; "adversaries" +[Hebrew: tzarim], of Judah's hostile neighbours, verse 7, Neh. iv. 11; +"made my strength stumble," verse 14, cf. Neh. iv. 4 (Heb.); the +prayers, verses 21 f., Neh. iv. 4 f. (Heb. iii. 36 f.), are similar. The +memory of what is told in Neh. iv. 5 (11), Ezra iv. 23 f., v. 5, may +perhaps have suggested the peculiar term [Hebrew: meshabeah], +_stoppage_, _arrest_, verse 7. With verse 3 "Judah migrated from +oppression; From greatness of servitude; She settled among the nations, +Without finding a resting-place," cf. Neh. v. 18 end, Jer. xl. 11 f. The +"remnant of the captivity" (Neh. i. 2 f.) became much attenuated (cf. +verse 4), because all who could escape from the galling tyranny of the +foreigner left the country (cf. verse 6). Verses 11, 19 (dearth of +food), 20 (danger in the field, starvation in the house) agree curiously +with Neh. v. 6, 9 f. + +Chapters ii. and iv. can hardly be dated earlier than the beginning of +the Persian period. They might then have been written by one who, as a +young man of sixteen or twenty, had witnessed the terrible scenes of +fifty years before. If, however, as is generally recognized, these poems +are not the spontaneous and unstudied outpourings of passionate grief, +but compositions of calculated art and studied effects, written for a +purpose, it is obvious that they need not be contemporary. A poet of a +later generation might have sung of the great drama in this fashion. The +chief incidents and episodes would be deeply graven in the popular +memory; and it is the poet's function to make the past live again. There +is much metaphor (i. 13-15, ii. 1-4, iii. 1-18, iv. 1 ff.), and little +detail beyond the horrors usual in long sieges (see Deut. xxviii. 52 +ff.; 2 Kings vi. 28 f.) Acquaintance with the existing literature and +the popular reminiscences of the last days of Jerusalem would supply an +ample foundation for all that we find in these poems. + + LITERATURE.--The older literature is fully given by Nägelsbach in + Lange's _Bibelwerk A.T._ xv. (1868, Eng. trans., 1871, p. 17). Among + commentaries may be noticed those of Kalkar (in Latin) (1836); O. + Thenius in _Kurzgefasstes Exeg. Handbuch_ (1855), who ascribes + chapters ii. and iv. to Jeremiah (comp. K. Budde in _Z.A.T.W._, 1882, + p. 45); Vaihinger (1857); Neumann (1858); H. Ewald in his _Dichter_, + vol. i. pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1866); Engelhardt (1867); Nägelsbach, op. + cit. (1868); E. Gerlach, _Die Klagelied. Jer._ (1868); A. Kamphausen + in Bunsen's _Bibelwerk_ iii. (1868); C. F. Keil (1872) (Eng. trans., + 1874); Payne Smith in _The Speaker's Commentary_; Reuss, _La Bible: + poésie lyrique_ (1879); T. K. Cheyne, at end of "Jeremiah," _Pulpit + Commentary_ (1883-1885); E. H. Plumptre, in Ellicott's _O.T. for + English Readers_ (1884); S. Oettli in Strack-Zöckler's _Kurzgef. Komm. + A.T._ vii. (1889); M. Löhr (1891) and again _Handkommentar zum A.T._ + (1893); F. Baethgen _ap._ Kautzsch, _Die Heilige Schrift d. A.T._ + (1894); W. F. Adeney, _Expositor's Bible_ (1895); S. Minocchi, _Le + Lamentazioni di Geremia_ (Rome, 1897); and K. Budde, "Fünf Megillot," + in _Kurzer Hd.-Comm. zum A. T._ (1898). + + For textual and literary criticism see also Houbigant, _Notae + Criticae_, ii. 477-483 (1777); E. H. Rodhe, _Num Jeremias Threnos + scripserit quaestiones_ (Lundae, 1871); F. Montet, _Étude sur le livre + des Lamentations_ (Geneva, 1875); G. Bickell, _Carmina V. T. metrice_, + 112-120 (1882), and _Wiener Zeitschrift für Kunde des Morgenlandes_, + viii. 101 ff. (1894) (Cf. also his _Dichtungen der Hebräer_, i. + 87-108, 1882); Merkel, _Über das A.T. Buch der Klagelieder_ (Halle, + 1889); J. Dyserinck, _Theologisch Tijdschrift_, xxvi. 359 ff. (1892); + S. A. Fries, "Parallele zwischen Thr. iv., v. und der + Makkabäerzeit,"_Z.A.T.W._, xiii. 110 ff. (1893) (chaps. iv. v. + Maccabean; i.-iii. Jeremiah's); and on the other side Löhr, _Z.A.T.W._ + xiv. 51 ff. (1894); id. ib., p. 31 ff., _Der Sprachgebrauch des Buches + der Klagelieder_; and Löhr, "Threni iii. und die jeremianische + Autorschaft des Buches der Klagelieder," _Z.A.T.W._, xxiv. 1 ff. + (1904). + + On the prosody, see (besides the works of Bickell and Dyserinck) K. + Budde, "Das hebräische Klagelied," _Z.A.T.W._, ii. 1 ff. (1882), iii. + 299 ff. (1883), xi. 234 ff. (1891), xii. 31 ff. 261 ff. (1892); + _Preussische Jahrbücher_, lxxiii. 461 ff. (1893); and C. J. Ball, "The + Metrical Structure of Qinoth," _P.S.B.A._ (March 1887). (The writer + was then unacquainted with Budde's previous labours.) + + The following may also be consulted, Nöldeke, _Die A.T. Literatur_, + pp. 142-148 (1868); Seinecke, _Gesch. des Volkes Israel_, ii. 29 ff. + (1884); Stade, _Gesch._ p. 701, n. 1 (1887); Smend in _Z.A.T.W._ + (1888), p. 62 f.; Steinthal, "Die Klagelieder Jer." in _Bibel und + Rel.-philosophie_, 16-33 (1890); Driver, _L.O.T._ (1891), p. 428, "The + Lamentations"; and Cheyne's article "Lamentations (Book)," in _Enc. + Bibl._ iii. (C. J. B.*) + + + + +LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THÉODORE VICTOR, COMTE DE (1760-1829), French soldier +and politician, was born in Paris on the 20th of October 1760. He served +in the American War of Independence under Rochambeau, and in 1789 was +sent as deputy to the States General by the nobles of the _bailliage_ of +Péronne. In the Constituent Assembly he formed with Barnave and Adrien +Duport a sort of association called the "Triumvirate," which controlled +a group of about forty deputies forming the advanced left of the +Assembly. He presented a famous report in the Constituent Assembly on +the organization of the army, but is better known by his eloquent speech +on the 28th of February 1791, at the Jacobin Club, against Mirabeau, +whose relations with the court were beginning to be suspected, and who +was a personal enemy of Lameth. However, after the flight of the king to +Varennes, Lameth became reconciled with the court. He served in the army +as _maréchal-de-camp_ under Luckner and Lafayette, but was accused of +treason on the 15th of August 1792, fled the country, and was imprisoned +by the Austrians. After his release he engaged in commerce at Hamburg +with his brother Charles and the duc d'Aiguillon, and did not return to +France until the Consulate. Under the Empire he was made prefect +successively in several departments, and in 1810 was created a baron. In +1814 he attached himself to the Bourbons, and under the Restoration was +appointed prefect of Somme, deputy for Seine-Inférieure and finally +deputy for Seine-et-Oise, in which capacity he was a leader of the +Liberal opposition. He died in Paris on the 18th of March 1829. He was +the author of an important _History of the Constituent Assembly_ (Paris, +2 vols., 1828-1829). + +Of his two brothers, THÉODORE LAMETH (1756-1854) served in the American +war, sat in the Legislative Assembly as deputy from the department of +Jura, and became _maréchal-de-camp_; and CHARLES MALO FRANÇOIS LAMETH +(1757-1832), who also served in America, was deputy to the States +General of 1789, but emigrated early in the Revolution, returned to +France under the Consulate, and was appointed governor of Würzburg under +the Empire. Like Alexandre, Charles joined the Bourbons, succeeding +Alexandre as deputy in 1829. + + See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de l'Assemblée Constituante_ (Paris, + 1905); also M. Tourneux, _Bibliog. de l'histoire de Paris_ (vol. iv., + 1906, _s.v._ "Lameth"). + + + + +LAMETTRIE, JULIEN OFFRAY DE (1709-1751), French physician and +philosopher, the earliest of the materialistic writers of the +Illumination, was born at St Malo on the 25th of December 1709. After +studying theology in the Jansenist schools for some years, he suddenly +decided to adopt the profession of medicine. In 1733 he went to Leiden +to study under Boerhaave, and in 1742 returned to Paris, where he +obtained the appointment of surgeon to the guards. During an attack of +fever he made observations on himself with reference to the action of +quickened circulation upon thought, which led him to the conclusion that +psychical phenomena were to be accounted for as the effects of organic +changes in the brain and nervous system. This conclusion he worked out +in his earliest philosophical work, the _Histoire naturelle de l'âme_, +which appeared about 1745. So great was the outcry caused by its +publication that Lamettrie was forced to take refuge in Leiden, where he +developed his doctrines still more boldly and completely, and with great +originality, in _L'Homme machine_ (Eng. trans., London, 1750; ed. with +introd. and notes, J. Assézat, 1865), and _L'Homme plante_, treatises +based upon principles of the most consistently materialistic character. +The ethics of these principles were worked out in _Discours sur le +bonheur_, _La Volupté_, and _L'Art de jouir_, in which the end of life +is found in the pleasures of the senses, and virtue is reduced to +self-love. Atheism is the only means of ensuring the happiness of the +world, which has been rendered impossible by the wars brought about by +theologians. The soul is only the thinking part of the body, and with +the body it passes away. When death comes, the farce is over (_la farce +est jouée_), therefore let us take our pleasure while we can. Lamettrie +has been called "the Aristippus of modern materialism." So strong was +the feeling against him that in 1748 he was compelled to quit Holland +for Berlin, where Frederick the Great not only allowed him to practise +as a physician, but appointed him court reader. He died on the 11th of +November 1751. His collected _Oeuvres philosophiques_ appeared after his +death in several editions, published in London, Berlin and Amsterdam +respectively. + + The chief authority for his life is the _Éloge_ written by Frederick + the Great (printed in Assézat's ed. of _Homme machine_). In modern + times Lamettrie has been judged less severely; see F. A. Lange, + _Geschichte des Materialismus_ (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas, ii. + 1880); Nérée Quépat (i.e. René Paquet), _La Mettrie, sa vie et ses + oeuvres_ (1873, with complete history of his works); J. E. Poritzky, + _J. O. de Lamettrie, Sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1900); F. Picavet, + "La Mettrie et la critique allemande," in _Compte rendu des séances de + l'Acad. des Sciences morales et politiques_, xxxii. (1889), a reply to + German rehabilitations of Lamettrie. + + + + +LAMIA, in Greek mythology, queen of Libya. She was beloved by Zeus, and +when Hera robbed her of her children out of jealousy, she killed every +child she could get into her power (Diod. Sic. xx. 41; Schol. +Aristophanes, _Pax_, 757). Hence Lamia came to mean a female bogey or +demon, whose name was used by Greek mothers to frighten their children; +from the Greek she passed into Roman demonology. She was represented +with a woman's face and a serpent's tail. She was also known as a sort +of fiend, the prototype of the modern vampire, who in the form of a +beautiful woman enticed young men to her embraces, in order that she +might feed on their life and heart's blood. In this form she appears in +Goethe's _Die Braut von Corinth_, and Keats's _Lamia_. The name Lamia is +clearly the feminine form of Lamus, king of the Laestrygones (q.v.). At +some early period, or in some districts, Lamus and Lamia (both, +according to some accounts, children of Poseidon) were worshipped as +gods; but the names did not attain general currency. Their history is +remarkably like that of the malignant class of demons in Germanic and +Celtic folk-lore. Both names occur in the geographical nomenclature of +Greece and Asia Minor; and it is probable that the deities belong to +that religion which spread from Asia Minor over Thrace into Greece. + + + + +LAMMAS (O. Eng. _hlammaesse_, _hlafmaesse_, from _hlaf_, loaf, and +_maesse_, mass, "loaf-mass"), originally in England the festival of the +wheat harvest celebrated on the 1st of August, O.S. It was one of the +old quarter-days, being equivalent to midsummer, the others being +Martinmas, equivalent to Michaelmas, Candlemas (Christmas) and +Whitsuntide (Easter). Some rents are still payable in England at +Lammastide, and in Scotland it is generally observed, but on the 12th of +August, since the alteration of the calendar in George II.'s reign. Its +name was in allusion to the custom that each worshipper should present +in the church a loaf made of the new wheat as an offering of the +first-fruits. + +A relic of the old "open-field" system of agriculture survives in the +so-called "Lammas Lands." These were lands enclosed and held in +severalty during the growing of corn and grass and thrown open to +pasturage during the rest of the year for those who had common rights. +These commoners might be the several owners, the inhabitants of a +parish, freemen of a borough, tenants of a manor, &c. The opening of the +fields by throwing down the fences took place on Lammas Day (12th of +August) for corn-lands and on Old Midsummer Day (6th of July) for grass. +They remained open until the following Lady Day. Thus, in law, "lammas +lands" belong to the several owners in fee-simple subject for half the +year to the rights of pasturage of other people (_Baylis_ v. +_Tyssen-Amherst_, 1877, 6 Ch. D., 50). + + See further F. Seebohm, _The English Village Community_; C. I. Elton, + _Commons and Waste Lands_; P. Vinogradoff, _Villainage in England_. + + + + +LÄMMERGEYER (Ger. _Lämmergeier_, _Lamm_, lamb, and _Geier_, vulture), or +bearded vulture, the _Falco barbatus_ of Linnaeus and the _Gypaetus +barbatus_ of modern ornithologists, one of the grandest birds-of-prey of +the Palaearctic region--inhabiting lofty mountain chains from Portugal +to the borders of China, though within historic times it has been +exterminated in several of its ancient haunts. Its northern range in +Europe does not seem to have extended farther than the southern frontier +of Bavaria, or the neighbourhood of Salzburg;[1] but in Asia it +formerly reached a higher latitude, having been found even so lately as +1830 in the Amur region where, according to G. F. Radde (_Beitr._ +_Kenntn._ _Russ._ _Reichs_, xxiii. p. 467), it has now left but its +name. It is not uncommon on many parts of the Himalayas, where it +breeds; and on the mountains of Kumaon and the Punjab, and is the +"golden eagle" of most Anglo-Indians. It is found also in Persia, +Palestine, Crete and Greece, the Italian Alps, Sicily, Sardinia and +Mauritania. + +In some external characters the lämmergeyer is intermediate between the +families _Vulturidae_ and _Falconidae_, and the opinion of systematists +has from time to time varied as to its proper position. It is now +generally agreed, however, that it is more closely allied with the +eagles than with the vultures, and the sub-family _Gypaëtinae_ of the +_Falconidae_ has been formed to contain it. + +The whole length of the bird is from 43 to 46 in., of which, however, +about 20 are due to the long cuneiform tail, while the pointed wings +measure more than 30 in. from the carpal joint to the tip. The top of +the head is white, bounded by black, which, beginning in stiff bristly +feathers turned forwards over the base of the beak, proceeds on either +side of the face in a well-defined band to the eye, where it bifurcates +into two narrow stripes, of which the upper one passes above and beyond +that feature till just in front of the scalp it suddenly turns upwards +across the head and meets the corresponding stripe from the opposite +side, enclosing the white forehead already mentioned, while the lower +stripe extends beneath the eye about as far backwards and then suddenly +stops. A tuft of black, bristly feathers projects beardlike from the +base of the mandible, and gives the bird one of its commonest epithets +in many languages. The rest of the head, the neck, throat and lower +parts generally are clothed with lanceolate feathers of a pale tawny +colour--sometimes so pale as to be nearly white beneath; while the +scapulars, back and wing-coverts generally, are of a glossy +greyish-black, most of the feathers having a white shaft and a median +tawny line. The quill-feathers, both of the wings and tail, are of a +dark blackish-grey. The irides are of a light orange, and the sclerotic +tunics--equivalent to the "white of the eye" in most animals--which in +few birds are visible, are in this very conspicuous and of a bright +scarlet, giving it an air of great ferocity. In the young of the year +the whole head, neck and throat are clothed in dull black, and most of +the feathers of the mantle and wing-coverts are broadly tipped and +mesially streaked with tawny or lightish-grey. + +The lämmergeyer breeds early in the year. The nest is of large size, +built of sticks, lined with soft material and placed on a ledge of +rock--a spot being chosen, and often occupied for many years, which is +nearly always difficult of access. Here in the month of February a +single egg is usually laid. This is more than 3 in. in length by nearly +2½ in breadth, of a pale but lively brownish-orange. The young when in +the nest are clad in down of a dirty white, varied with grey on the head +and neck, and with ochraceous in the iliac region. + +There is much discrepancy as to the ordinary food of the lämmergeyer, +some observers maintaining that it lives almost entirely on carrion, +offal and even ordure; but there is no question of its frequently taking +living prey, and it is reasonable to suppose that this bird, like so +many others, is not everywhere uniform in its habits. Its name shows it +to be the reputed enemy of shepherds, and it is in some measure owing to +their hostility that it has been exterminated in so many parts of its +European range. But the lämmergeyer has also a great partiality for +bones, which when small enough it swallows. When they are too large, it +is said to soar with them to a great height and drop them on a rock or +stone that they may be broken into pieces of convenient size. Hence its +name ossifrage,[2] by which the Hebrew _Peres_ is rightly translated in +the Authorized Version of the Bible (Lev. xi. 13; Deut. xiv. 12)--a word +corrupted into osprey, and applied to a bird which has no habit of the +kind. + +The lämmergeyer of north-eastern and south Africa is specifically +distinct, and is known as _Gypaetus meridionalis_ or _G. nudipes_. In +habits it resembles the northern bird, from which it differs in little +more than wanting the black stripe below the eye and having the lower +part of the tarsus bare of feathers. It is the "golden eagle" of Bruce's +_Travels_, and has been beautifully figured by Joseph Wolf in E. +Rüppell's _Syst. Übers. der Vögel Nord-Ost-Afrika's_ (Taf. 1). + (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See a paper by Dr Girtanner on this bird in Switzerland + (_Verhandl. St-Gall. naturw. Gesellschaft_, 1869-1870, pp. 147-244). + + [2] Among other crimes attributed to the species is that, according + to Pliny (_Hist. Nat._ x. cap. 3), of having caused the death of the + poet Aeschylus, by dropping a tortoise on his bald head! In the Atlas + range the food of this bird is said to consist chiefly of the + _Testudo mauritanica_, which "it carries to some height in the air, + and lets fall on a stone to break the shell" (_Ibis_, 1859, p. 177). + It was the [Greek: harpê] and [Greek: phênê] of Greek classical + writers. + + + + +LAMOIGNON, a French family, which takes its name from Lamoignon, a place +said to have been in its possession since the 13th century. One of its +several branches is that of Lamoignon de Malesherbes. Several of the +Lamoignons have played important parts in the history of France and the +family has been specially distinguished in the legal profession. +GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON (1617-1677), attained eminence as a lawyer and +became president of the parlement of Paris in 1658. First on the +popular, and later on the royalist side during the Fronde, he presided +at the earlier sittings of the trial of Fouquet, whom he regarded as +innocent, and he was associated with Colbert, whom he was able more than +once to thwart. Lamoignon tried to simplify the laws of France and +sought the society of men of letters like Boileau and Racine. Having +received rich rewards for his public services, he died in Paris on the +10th of December 1677. Guillaume's second son, NICOLAS DE LAMOIGNON +(1648-1724), took the surname of Basville. Following his hereditary +calling he filled many public offices, serving as intendant of +Montauban, of Pau, of Poitiers and of Languedoc before his retirement in +1718. His administration of Languedoc was chiefly remarkable for +vigorous measures against the Camisards and other Protestants, but in +other directions his work in the south of France was more beneficent, +as, following the example of Colbert, he encouraged agriculture and +industry generally and did something towards improving the means of +communication. He wrote a _Mémoire_, which contains much interesting +information about his public work. This was published at Amsterdam in +1724. Lamoignon, who is called by Saint Simon, "the king and tyrant of +Languedoc," died in Paris on the 17th of May 1724. CHRÉTIEN FRANÇOIS DE +LAMOIGNON (1735-1789) entered public life at an early age and was an +actor in the troubles which heralded the Revolution. First on the side +of the parlement and later on that of the king he was one of the +assistants of Loménie de Brienne, whose unpopularity and fall he shared. +He committed suicide on the 15th of May 1789. + + + + +LAMONT, JOHANN VON (1805-1879), Scottish-German astronomer and +magnetician, was born at Braemar, Aberdeenshire, on the 13th of December +1805. He was sent at the age of twelve to be educated at the Scottish +monastery in Regensburg, and apparently never afterwards returned to his +native country. His strong bent for scientific studies was recognized by +the head of the monastery, P. Deasson, on whose recommendation he was +admitted in 1827 to the then new observatory of Bogenhausen (near +Munich), where he worked under J. Soldner. After the death of his chief +in 1835 he was, on H. C. Schumacher's recommendation, appointed to +succeed him as director of the observatory. In 1852 he became professor +of astronomy at the university of Munich, and held both these posts till +his death, which took place on the 6th of August 1879. Lamont was a +member of the academies of Brussels, Upsala and Prague, of the Royal +Society of Edinburgh, of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and of many +other learned corporations. Among his contributions to astronomy may be +noted his eleven zone-catalogues of 34,674 stars, his measurements, in +1836-1837, of nebulae and clusters, and his determination of the mass of +Uranus from observations of its satellites (_Mem. Astron. Soc._ xi. 51, +1838). A magnetic observatory was equipped at Bogenhausen in 1840 +through his initiative; he executed comprehensive magnetic surveys +1849-1858; announced the magnetic decennial period in 1850, and his +discovery of earth-currents in 1862. His _Handbuch des Erdmagnetismus_ +(Berlin, 1849) is a standard work on the subject. + + See _Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_ (S. Günther); V. J. Schrift, + _Astr. Gesellschaft_, xv. 60; _Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, + xl. 203; _Nature_, xx. 425; _Quart. Journal Meteor. Society_, vi. 72; + _Proceedings Roy. Society of Edinburgh_, x. 358; _The Times_ (12 Aug., + 1879); Sir F. Ronalds's _Cat. of Books relating to Electricity and + Magnetism_, pp. 281-283; _Royal Society's Cat. of Scientific Papers_, + vols. iii. vii. + + + + +LAMORICIÈRE, CHRISTOPHE LÉON LOUIS JUCHAULT DE (1806-1865), French +general, was born at Nantes on the 11th of September 1806, and entered +the Engineers in 1828. He served in the Algerian campaigns from 1830 +onwards, and by 1840 he had risen to the grade of _maréchal-de-camp_ +(major-general). Three years later he was made a general of division. He +was one of the most distinguished and efficient of Bugeaud's generals, +rendered special service at Isly (August 14, 1844), acted temporarily as +governor-general of Algeria, and finally effected the capture of Abd +el-Kader in 1847. Lamoricière took some part in the political events of +1848, both as a member of the Chamber of Deputies and as a military +commander. Under the régime of General Cavaignac he was for a time +minister of war. From 1848 to 1851 Lamoricière was one of the most +conspicuous opponents of the policy of Louis Napoleon, and at the _coup +d'état_ of the 2nd of December 1851 he was arrested and exiled. He +refused to give in his allegiance to the emperor Napoleon III., and in +1860 accepted the command of the papal army, which he led in the Italian +campaign of 1860. On the 18th of September of that year he was severely +defeated by the Italian army at Castelfidardo. His last years were spent +in complete retirement in France (he had been allowed to return in +1857), and he died at Prouzel (Somme) on the 11th of September 1865. + + See E. Keller, _Le Général de Lamoricière_ (Paris, 1873). + + + + +LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANÇOIS DE (1588-1672), French writer, was born in +Paris of a noble family of Maine. His father was an _avocat_ at the +parlement of Paris and author of a curious treatise on the functions of +ambassadors, entitled _Legatus, seu De legatorum privilegiis, officio et +munere libellus_ (1579) and illustrated mainly from ancient history. +François succeeded his father at the parlement, but gave up his post +about 1647 and devoted himself to travel and _belles lettres_. His +_Considérations sur l'éloquence française_ (1638) procured him admission +to the Academy, and his _De l'instruction de Mgr. le Dauphin_ (1640) +attracted the attention of Richelieu. In 1649 Anne of Austria entrusted +him with the education of her second son and subsequently with the +completion of Louis XIV.'s education, which had been very much +neglected. The outcome of his pedagogic labours was a series of books +comprising the _Géographie_, _Rhétorique_, _Morale_, _Économique_, +_Politique_, _Logique_, and _Physique du prince_ (1651-1658). The king +rewarded his tutor by appointing him historiographer of France and +councillor of state. La Mothe Le Vayer died in Paris. Modest, sceptical, +and occasionally obscene in his Latin pieces and in his verses, he made +himself a _persona grata_ at the French court, where libertinism in +ideas and morals was hailed with relish. Besides his educational works, +he wrote _Jugement sur les anciens et principaux historiens grecs et +latins_ (1646); a treatise entitled _Du peu de certitude qu'il y a en +histoire_ (1668), which in a sense marks the beginning of historical +criticism in France; and sceptical _Dialogues_, published posthumously +under the pseudonym of Orosius Tubero. An incomplete edition of his +works was published at Dresden in 1756-1759. + + See Bayle, _Dictionnaire critique_, article "Vayer"; L. Étienne, + _Essai sur La Mothe Le Vayer_ (Paris, 1849). + + + + +LA MOTTE, ANTOINE HOUDAR DE (1672-1731), French author, was born in +Paris on the 18th of January 1672. In 1693 his comedy _Les Originaux_ +proved a complete failure, which so depressed the author that he +contemplated joining the Trappists, but four years later he again began +writing operas and ballets, e.g. _L'Europe galante_ (1697), and +tragedies, one of which, _Inès de Castro_ (1723), was produced with +immense success at the Théâtre Français. He was a champion of the +moderns in the revived controversy of the ancients and moderns. Madame +Dacier had published (1699) a translation of the _Iliad_, and La Motte, +who knew no Greek, made a translation (1714) in verse founded on her +work. The nature of his work may be judged from his own expression: "I +have taken the liberty to change what I thought disagreeable in it." He +defended the moderns in the _Discours sur Homère_ prefixed to his +translation, and in his _Réflexions sur la critique_ (1716). Apart from +the merits of the controversy, it was conducted on La Motte's side with +a wit and politeness which compared very favourably with his opponent's +methods. He was elected to the Academy in 1710, and soon after became +blind. La Motte carried on a correspondence with the duchesse du Maine, +and was the friend of Fontenelle. He had the same freedom from +prejudice, the same inquiring mind as the latter, and it is on the +excellent prose in which his views are expressed that his reputation +rests. He died in Paris on the 26th of December 1731. + + His _Oeuvres du théâtre_ (2 vols.) appeared in 1730, and his _Oeuvres_ + (10 vols.) in 1754. See A. H. Rigault, _Histoire de la querelle des + anciens et des modernes_ (1859). + + + + +LAMOUREUX, CHARLES (1834-1899), French conductor and violinist, was born +at Bordeaux on the 28th of September 1834. He studied at the Pau +Conservatoire, was engaged as violinist at the Opéra, and in 1864 +organized a series of concerts devoted to chamber music. Having +journeyed to England and assisted at a Handel festival, he thought he +would attempt something similar in Paris. At his own expense he founded +the "Société de l'Harmonie Sacrée," and in 1873 conducted the first +performance in Paris of Handel's _Messiah_. He also gave performances of +Bach's _St Matthew Passion_, Handel's _Judas Maccabaeus_, Gounod's +_Gallia_, and Massenet's _Eve_. In 1875 he conducted the festival given +at Rouen to celebrate the centenary of Boïeldieu. The following year he +became _chef d'orchestre_ at the Opéra Comique. In 1881 he founded the +famous concerts associated with his name, which contributed so much to +popularize Wagner's music in Paris. The performances of detached pieces +taken from the German master's works did not, however, satisfy him, and +he matured the project to produce _Lohengrin_, which at that time had +not been heard in Paris. For this purpose he took the Eden Theatre, and +on the 3rd of May 1887 he conducted the first performance of Wagner's +opera in the French capital. Owing to the opposition of the Chauvinists, +the performance was not repeated; but it doubtless prepared the way for +the production of the same masterpiece at the Paris Opéra a few years +later. Lamoureux was successively second _chef d'orchestre_ at the +Conservatoire, first _chef d'orchestre_ at the Opéra Comique, and twice +first _chef d'orchestre_ at the Opéra. He visited London on several +occasions, and gave successful concerts at the Queen's Hall. Lamoureux +died at Paris on the 21st of December 1899. _Tristan und Isolde_ had +been at last heard in Paris, owing to his initiative and under his +direction. After conducting one of the performances of this masterpiece +he was taken ill and succumbed in a few days, having had the consolation +before his death of witnessing the triumph of the cause he had so +courageously championed. + + + + +LAMP (from Gr. [Greek: lampas], a torch, [Greek: lampein], to shine), +the general term for an apparatus in which some combustible substance, +generally for illuminating purposes, is held. Lamps are usually +associated with lighting, though the term is also employed in connexion +with heating (e.g. spirit-lamp); and as now employed for oil, gas and +electric light, they are dealt with in the article on LIGHTING. From the +artistic point of view, in modern times, their variety precludes +detailed reference here; but their archaeological history deserves a +fuller account. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bronze Lamp in British Museum.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +_Ancient Lamps._--Though Athenaeus states (xv. 700) that the lamp +([Greek: lychnos]) was not an ancient invention in Greece, it had come +into general use there for domestic purposes by the 4th century B.C., +and no doubt had long before been employed for temples or other places +where a permanent light was required in room of the torch of Homeric +times. Herodotus (ii. 62) sees nothing strange in the "festival of +lamps," Lychnokaie, which was held at Sais in Egypt, except in the vast +number of them. Each was filled with oil so as to burn the whole night. +Again he speaks of evening as the time of lamps ([Greek: peri lychnôn], +vii. 215). Still, the scarcity of lamps in a style anything like that of +an early period, compared with the immense number of them from the late +Greek and Roman age, seems to justify the remark of Athenaeus. The +commonest sort of domestic lamps were of terra-cotta and of the shape +seen in figs. 1 and 2 with a spout or nozzle ([Greek: myktêr]) in which +the wick ([Greek: thryallis]) burned, a round hole on the top to pour in +oil by, and a handle to carry the lamp with. A lamp with two or more +spouts was [Greek: dimyxos], [Greek: trimyxos], &c., but these terms +would not apply strictly to the large class of lamps with numerous holes +for wicks but without nozzles. Decoration was confined to the front of +the handle, or more commonly to the circular space on the top of the +lamp, and it consisted almost always of a design in relief, taken from +mythology or legend, from objects of daily life or scenes such as +displays of gladiators or chariot races, from animals and the chase. A +lamp in the British Museum has a view of the interior of a Roman circus +with spectators looking on at a chariot race. In other cases the lamp is +made altogether of a fantastic shape, as in the form of an animal, a +bull's head, or a human foot. Naturally colour was excluded from the +ornamentation except in the form of a red or black glaze, which would +resist the heat. The typical form of hand lamp (figs. 1, 2) is a +combination of the flatness necessary for carrying steady and remaining +steady when set down, with the roundness evolved from the working in +clay and characteristic of vessels in that material. In the bronze lamps +this same type is retained, though the roundness was less in keeping +with metal. Fanciful shapes are equally common in bronze. The standard +form of handle consists of a ring for the forefinger and above it a kind +of palmette for the thumb. Instead of the palmette is sometimes a +crescent, no doubt in allusion to the moon. It would only be with bronze +lamps that the cover protecting the flame from the wind could be used, +as was the case out of doors in Athens. Such a lamp was in fact a +lantern. Apparently it was to the lantern that the Greek word _lampas_, +a torch, was first transferred, probably from a custom of having guards +to protect the torches also. Afterwards it came to be employed for the +lamp itself ([Greek: lychnos], _lucerna_). When Juvenal (_Sat._ iii. +277) speaks of the _aenea lampas_, he may mean a torch with a bronze +handle, but more probably either a lamp or a lantern. Lamps used for +suspension were mostly of bronze, and in such cases the decoration was +on the under part, so as to be seen from below. Of this the best example +is the lamp at Cortona, found there in 1840 (engraved, _Monumenti d. +inst. arch._ iii. pls. 41, 42, and in Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of +Etruria_, 2nd ed. ii. p. 403). It is set round with sixteen nozzles +ornamented alternately with a siren and a satyr playing on a double +flute. Between each pair of nozzles is a head of a river god, and on the +bottom of the lamp is a large mask of Medusa, surrounded by bands of +animals. These designs are in relief, and the workmanship, which appears +to belong to the beginning of the 5th century B.C., justifies the esteem +in which Etruscan lamps were held in antiquity (Athenaeus xv. 700). Of a +later but still excellent style is a bronze lamp in the British Museum +found in the baths of Julian in Paris (figs. 3, 4, 5). The chain is +attached by means of two dolphins very artistically combined. Under the +nozzles are heads of Pan (fig. 3); and from the sides project the +foreparts of lions (fig. 5). To what extent lamps may have been used in +temples is unknown. Probably the Erechtheum on the acropolis of Athens +was an exception in having a gold one kept burning day and night, just +as this lamp itself must have been an exception in its artistic merits. +It was the work of the sculptor Callimachus, and was made apparently for +the newly rebuilt temple a little before 400 B.C. When once filled with +oil and lit it burned continuously for a whole year. The wick was of a +fine flax called Carpasian (now understood to have been a kind of +cotton), which proved to be the least combustible of all flax (Pausanias +i. 26. 7). Above the lamp a palm tree of bronze rose to the roof for the +purpose of carrying off the fumes. But how this was managed it is not +easy to determine unless the palm be supposed to have been inverted and +to have hung above the lamp spread out like a reflector, for which +purpose the polished bronze would have served fairly well. The stem if +left hollow would collect the fumes and carry them out through the roof. +This lamp was refilled on exactly the same day each year, so that there +seems to have been an idea of measuring time by it, such as may also +have been the case in regard to the lamp stand ([Greek: lychneion]) +capable of holding as many lamps as there were days of the year, which +Dionysius the Sicilian tyrant placed in the Prytaneum of Tarentum. At +Pharae in Achaia there was in the market-place an oracular statue of +Hermes with a marble altar before it to which bronze lamps were attached +by means of lead. Whoever desired to consult the statue went there in +the evening and first filled the lamps and lit them, placing also a +bronze coin on the altar. A similar custom prevailed at the oracle of +Apis in Egypt (Pausanias vii. 22. 2). At Argos he speaks of a chasm into +which it was a custom continued to his time to let down burning lamps, +with some reference to the goddess of the lower world, Persephone (ii. +22. 4). At Cnidus a large number of terra-cotta lamps were found crowded +in one place a little distance below the surface, and it was conjectured +that there must have been there some statue or altar at which it had +been a custom to leave lamps burning at night (Newton, _Discoveries at +Halicarnassus, &c._, ii. 394). These lamps are of terra-cotta, but with +little ornamentation, and so like each other in workmanship that they +must all have come from one pottery, and may have been all brought to +the spot where they were found on one occasion, probably the funeral of +a person with many friends, or the celebration of a festival in his +honour, such as the _parentalia_ among the Romans, to maintain which it +was a common custom to bequeath property. For example, a marble slab in +the British Museum has a Latin inscription describing the property which +had been left to provide among other things that a lighted lamp with +incense on it should be placed at the tomb of the deceased on the +kalends, nones and ides of each month (_Mus. Marbles_, v. pl. 8, fig. +2). For birthday presents terra-cotta lamps appear to have been +frequently employed, the device generally being that of two figures of +victory holding between them a disk inscribed with a good wish for the +new year: ANNV NOV FAVSTV FELIX. This is the inscription on a lamp in +the British Museum, which besides the victories has among other symbols +a disk with the head of Janus. As the torch gave way to the lamp in +fact, so also it gave way in mythology. In the earlier myths, as in that +of Demeter, it is a torch with which she goes forth to search for her +daughter, but in the late myth of Cupid and Psyche it is an oil lamp +which Psyche carries, and from which to her grief a drop of hot oil +falls on Cupid and awakes him. Terra-cotta lamps have very frequently +the name of the maker stamped on the foot. Clay moulds from which the +lamps were made exist in considerable numbers. (A. S. M.) + + + + +LAMP-BLACK, a deep black pigment consisting of carbon in a very fine +state of division, obtained by the imperfect combustion of highly +carbonaceous substances. It is manufactured from scraps of resin and +pitch refuse and inferior oils and fats, and other similar combustible +bodies rich in carbon, the finest lamp-black being procured by the +combustion of oils obtained in coal-tar distillation (see COAL-TAR). +Lamp-black is extensively used in the manufacture of printing ink, as a +pigment for oil painting and also for "ebonizing" cabinet work, and in +the waxing and lacquering of leather. It is the principal constituent of +China ink. + + + + +LAMPEDUSA, a small island in the Mediterranean, belonging to the +province of Girgenti, from which it is about 112 m. S.S.W. Pop. (1901, +with Linosa--see below) 2276. Its greatest length is about 7 m., its +greatest width about 2 m.; the highest point is 400 ft. above sea-level. +Geologically it belongs to Africa, being situated on the edge of the +submarine platform which extends along the east coast of Tunisia, from +which (at Mahadia) it is 90 m. distant eastwards. The soil is +calcareous; it was covered with scrub (chiefly the wild olive) until +comparatively recent times, but this has been cut, and the rock is now +bare. The valleys are, however, fairly fertile. On the south, near the +only village, is the harbour, which has been dredged to a depth of 13 +ft. and is a good one for torpedo boats and small craft. + +The island was, as remains of hut foundations show, inhabited in +prehistoric times. Punic tombs and Roman buildings also exist near the +harbour. The island is the Lopadusa of Strabo, and the Lipadosa of +Ariosto's _Orlando Furioso_, the scene of the landing of Roger of Sicily +and of his conversion by the hermit. A thousand slaves were taken from +its population in 1553. In 1436 it was given by Alfonso of Aragon to Don +Giovanni de Caro, baron of Montechiaro. In 1661, Ferdinand Tommasi, its +then owner, received the title of prince from Charles II. of Spain. In +1737 the earl of Sandwich found only one inhabitant upon it; in 1760 +some French settlers established themselves there. Catherine II. of +Russia proposed to buy it as a Russian naval station, and the British +government thought of doing the same if Napoleon had succeeded in +seizing Malta. In 1800 a part of it was leased to Salvatore Gatt of +Malta, who in 1810 sublet part of it to Alessandro Fernandez. In 1843 +onwards Ferdinand II. of Naples established a colony there. There is now +an Italian penal colony for _domicilio coatto_, with some 400 convicts +(see B. Sanvisente, _L'Isola di Lampedusa eretta a colonia_, Naples, +1849). Eight miles W. is the islet of Lampione. Linosa, some 30 m. to +the N.N.E., measures about 2 by 2 m., and is entirely volcanic; its +highest point is 610 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) about 200. It has +landing-places on the S. and W., and is more fertile than Lampedusa; but +it suffers from the lack of springs. Sanvisente says the water in +Lampedusa is good. A few fragments of undoubtedly Roman pottery and some +Roman coins have been found there, but the cisterns and the ruins of +houses are probably of later date (P. Calcara, _Descrizione dell' isola +di Linosa_, Palermo, 1851, 29). (T. As.) + + + + +LAMPERTHEIM, a town in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, 8 m. N. from +Mannheim by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main via Biblis, and at the +junction of lines to Worms and Weinheim. It contains a Roman Catholic +church and a fine Evangelical church, and has chemical and cigar +factories. Pop. (1900) 8020. + + + + +LAMPETER (_Llanbedr-pont-Stephan_), a market town, municipal borough and +assize town of Cardiganshire, Wales, on the right bank of the Teifi, +here crossed by an ancient stone bridge. Pop. (1901) 1722. Lampeter is a +station on the so-called Manchester-and-Milford branch line of the Great +Western railway. Though of ancient origin, the town is entirely modern +in appearance, its most conspicuous object being the Gothic buildings of +St David's College, founded in 1822, which cover a large area and +contain a valuable library of English, Welsh and foreign works (see +UNIVERSITIES). The modernized parish church of St Peter, or Pedr, +contains some old monuments of the Lloyd family. North of the town are +the park and mansion of Falcondale, the seat of the Harford family. + +The name of Llanbedr-pont-Stephan goes to prove the early foundation of +the place by St Pedr, a Celtic missionary of the 6th century, while one +Stephen was the original builder of the bridge over the Teifi. As an +important outpost in the upper valley of the Teifi, Lampeter possessed a +castle, which was demolished by Owen Gwynedd in the 12th century. In +1188 the town was visited by Archbishop Baldwin on his way from Cardigan +to Strata-Florida Abbey, and the Crusade was vigorously preached at this +spot. Lampeter was first incorporated under Edward II., but the earliest +known charter dates from the reign of Henry VI., whereby the principal +officer of the town, a portreeve, was to be appointed annually at the +court-leet of the manor. The town was subsequently governed under a +confirmatory charter of 1814, but in 1884 a new charter was obtained, +whereby the corporation was empowered to consist of a mayor, 4 aldermen +and 12 councillors. Although only a small agricultural centre, Lampeter +has since 1886 become the assize town of Cardiganshire owing to its +convenient position. Until the Redistribution Act of 1885 Lampeter +formed one of the group of boroughs comprising the Cardigan +parliamentary district. + + + + +LAMPOON, a virulent satire either in prose or verse; the idea of +injustice and unscrupulousness seems to be essential to its definition. +Although in its use the word is properly and almost exclusively English, +the derivation appears to be French. Littré derives it from a term of +Parisian argot, _lamper_, to drink, greedily, in great mouthfuls. This +word appears to have begun to be prevalent in the middle of the 17th +century, and Furetière has preserved a fragment from a popular song, +which says:-- + + Jacques fuyant de Dublin + Dit à Lauzun, son cousin, + "Prenez soin de ma couronne, + J'aurai soin de ma personne, + Lampons! lampons!" + +--that is to say, let us drink heavily, and begone dull care. Scarron +speaks of a wild troop, singing _leridas_ and _lampons_. There is, also, +a rare French verb, _lamponner_, to attack with ridicule, used earlier +in the 17th century by Brantôme. In its English form, lampoon, the word +is used by Evelyn in 1645, "Here they still paste up their drolling +lampoons and scurrilous papers," and soon after it is a verb,--"suppose +we lampooned all the pretty women in Town." Both of these forms, the +noun and the verb, have been preserved ever since in English, without +modification, for violent and reckless literary censure. Tom Brown +(1663-1704) was a past master in the art of lampooning, and some of his +attacks on the celebrities of his age have a certain vigour. When Dryden +became a Roman Catholic, Brown wrote:-- + + Traitor to God and rebel to thy pen, + Priest-ridden Poet, perjured son of Ben, + If ever thou prove honest, then the nation + May modestly believe in transubstantiation. + +Several of the heroes of the _Dunciad_, and in particular John Oldmixon +(1673-1742), were charged without unfairness with being professional +lampooners. The coarse diatribes which were published by Richard Savage +(1697-1743), mainly against Lady Macclesfield, were nothing more nor +less than lampoons, and the word may with almost equal justice be +employed to describe the coarser and more personal portions of the +satires of Churchill. As a rule, however, the lampoon possessed no +poetical graces, and in its very nature was usually anonymous. The +notorious _Essay on Woman_ (1764) of John Wilkes was a lampoon, and was +successfully proceeded against as an obscene libel. The progress of +civilization and the discipline of the law made it more and more +impossible for private malice to take the form of baseless and +scurrilous attack, and the lampoon, in its open shape, died of public +decency in the 18th century. Malice, especially in an anonymous form, +and passing in manuscript from hand to hand, has continued, however, to +make use of this very unlovely form of literature. It has constantly +reappeared at times of political disturbance, and the French have seldom +failed to exercise their wicked wit upon their unpopular rulers. See +also PASQUINADE. (E. G.) + + + + +LAMPREY, a fish belonging to the family _Petromyzontidae_ (from [Greek: +petros] and [Greek: myzô], literally, stone-suckers), which with the +hag-fishes or _Myxinidae_ forms a distinct subclass of fishes, the +_Cyclostomata_, distinguished by the low organization of their skeleton, +which is cartilaginous, without vertebral segmentation, without ribs or +real jaws, and without limbs. The lampreys are readily recognized by +their long, eel-like, scaleless body, terminating anteriorly in the +circular, suctorial mouth characteristic of the whole sub-class. On each +side, behind the head, there is a row of seven branchial openings, +through which the water is conveyed to and from the gills. By means of +their mouth they fasten to stones, boats, &c., as well as to other +fishes, their object being to obtain a resting-place on the former, +whilst they attach themselves to the latter to derive nourishment from +them. The inner surface of their cup-shaped mouth is armed with pointed +teeth, with which they perforate the integuments of the fish attacked, +scraping off particles of the flesh and sucking the blood. Mackerel, +cod, pollack and flat-fishes are the kinds most frequently attacked by +them in the sea; of river-fish the migratory _Salmonidae_ and the shad +are sometimes found with the marks of the teeth of the lamprey, or with +the fish actually attached to them. About fifteen species are known from +the coasts and rivers of the temperate regions of the northern and +southern hemispheres. In Great Britain and Europe generally three +species occur, viz. the large spotted sea-lamprey (_Petromyzon +marinus_), the river-lamprey or lampern (_P. fluviatilis_), and the +small lampern or "pride" or "sand-piper" (_P. branchialis_). The first +two are migratory, entering rivers in the spring to spawn; of the +river-lamprey, however, specimens are met with in fresh water all the +year round. In North America about ten species of lamprey occur, while +in South America and Australasia still others are found. Lampreys, +especially the sea-lamprey, are esteemed as food, formerly more so than +at present; but their flesh is not easy of digestion. Henry I. of +England is said to have fallen a victim to this, his favourite dish. The +species of greatest use is the river-lamprey, which as bait is preferred +to all others in the cod and turbot fisheries of the North Sea. Yarrell +states that formerly the Thames alone supplied from 1,000,000 to +1,200,000 lamperns annually, but their number has so much fallen off +that, for instance, in 1876 only 40,000 were sold to the cod-fishers. +That year, however, was an unusually bad year; the lamperns, from their +scarcity, fetched £8, 10s. a thousand, whilst in ordinary years £5 is +considered a fair price. The season for catching lamperns closes in the +Thames about the middle of March. The origin of the name lamprey is +obscure; it is an adaptation of Fr. _lamproie_, Med. Lat. _lampreda_; +this has been taken as a variant of another Med. Lat. form _Lampetra_, +which occurs in ichthyological works of the middle ages; the derivation +from _lambere petras_, to lick stones, is a specimen of etymological +ingenuity. The development of lampreys has received much attention on +the part of naturalists, since Aug. Müller discovered that they undergo +a metamorphosis, and that the minute worm-like lamperns previously known +under the name of _Ammocoetes_, and abundant in the sand and mud of many +streams, were nothing but the undeveloped young of the river-lampreys +and small lamperns. See CYCLOSTOMATA. + + + + +LAMPROPHYRES (from Gr. [Greek: lampros], bright, and the terminal part +of the word porphyry, meaning rocks containing bright porphyritic +crystals), a group of rocks containing phenocrysts, usually of biotite +and hornblende (with bright cleavage surfaces), often also of olivine +and augite, but not of felspar. They are thus distinguished from the +porphyries and porphyrites in which the felspar has crystallized in two +generations. They are essentially "dike rocks," occurring as dikes and +thin sills, and are also found as marginal facies of plutonic +intrusions. They furnish a good example of the correlation which often +exists between petrographical types and their mode of occurrence, +showing the importance of physical conditions in determining the +mineralogical and structural characters of rocks. They are usually dark +in colour, owing to the abundance of ferro-magnesian silicates, of +relatively high specific gravity and liable to decomposition. For these +reasons they have been defined as a _melanocrate_ series (rich in the +dark minerals); and they are often accompanied by a complementary +_leucocrate_ series (rich in the white minerals felspar and quartz) such +as aplites, porphyries and felsites. Both have been produced by +differentiation of a parent magma, and if the two complementary sets of +rocks could be mixed in the right proportions, it is presumed that a +mass of similar chemical composition to the parent magma would be +produced. + +Both in the hand specimens and in microscopic slides of lamprophyric +rocks biotite and hornblende are usually conspicuous. Though black by +reflected light they are brown by transmitted light and highly +pleochroic. In some cases they are yellow-brown, in other cases +chestnut-brown and reddish brown; in the same rock the two minerals have +strikingly similar colour and pleochroism. Augite, when it occurs, is +sometimes green, at other times purple. Felspar is restricted to the +ground mass; quartz occurs sometimes but is scarce. Although porphyritic +structure is almost universal, it is sometimes not very marked. The +large biotites and hornblendes are not sharply distinct from those of +intermediate size, which in turn graduate into the small crystals of the +same minerals in the ground mass. As a rule all the ingredients have +rather perfect crystalline forms (except quartz), hence these rocks have +been called "panidiomorphic." In many lamprophyres the pale quartz and +felspathic ingredients tend to occur in rounded spots, or _ocelli_, in +which there has been progressive crystallization from the margins +towards the centre. These spots may consist of radiate or brush-like +felspars (with some mica and hornblende) or of quartz and felspar. A +central area of quartz or of analcite probably represents an original +miarolitic cavity infilled at a later period. + +There are two great groups of lamprophyres differing in composition +while retaining the general features of the class. One of these +accompanies intrusions of granite and diorite and includes the minettes, +kersantites, vogesites and spessartites. The other is found in +association with nepheline syenites, essexites and teschenites, and is +exemplified by camptonites, monchiquites and alnoites. The complementary +facies of the first group is the aplites, porphyrites and felsites; that +of the second group includes bostonites, tinguaites and other rocks. + + The _granito-dioritic-lamprophyres_ (the first of these two groups) + are found in many districts where granites and diorites occur, e.g. + the Scottish Highlands and Southern Uplands, the Lake district, + Ireland, the Vosges, Black Forest, Harz, &c. As a rule they do not + proceed directly from the granite, but form separate dikes which may + be later than, and consequently may cut, the granites and diorites. In + other districts where granites are abundant no rocks of this class are + known. It is rare to find only one member of the group present, but + minettes, vogesites, kersantites, &c., all appear and there are + usually transitional forms. For this reason these rock species must + not be regarded as sharply distinct from one another. The group as a + whole is a well-characterized one and shows few transitions to + porphyries, porphyrites and other dike types; its subdivisions, + however, tend to merge into one another and especially when they are + weathered are hard to differentiate. The presence or absence of the + four dominant minerals, orthoclase, plagioclase, biotite and + hornblende, determines the species. Minettes contain biotite and + orthoclase; kersantites, biotite and plagioclase. Vogesites contain + hornblende and orthoclase; spessartites, hornblende and plagioclase. + Each variety of lamprophyre may and often does contain all four + minerals but is named according to the two which preponderate. These + rocks contain also iron oxides (usually titaniferous), apatite, + sometimes sphene, augite and olivine. The hornblende and biotite are + brown or greenish brown, and as a rule their crystals even when small + are very perfect and give the micro-sections an easily recognizable + character. Green hornblende occurs in some of these rocks. The augite + builds eumorphic crystals of pale green colour, often zonal and + readily weathering. Olivine in the fresh state is rare; it forms + rounded, corroded grains; in many cases it is decomposed to green or + colourless hornblende in radiating nests (pilite). The plagioclase + occurs as small rectangular crystals; orthoclase may have similar + shapes or may be fibrous and grouped in sheaflike aggregates which are + narrow in the middle and spread out towards both ends. If quartz is + present it is the last product of crystallization and the only mineral + devoid of idiomorphism; it fills up the spaces between the other + ingredients of the rock. As all lamprophyres are prone to alteration + by weathering a great abundance of secondary minerals is usually found + in them; the principal are calcite and other carbonates, limonite, + chlorite, quartz and kaolin. + + Ocellar structure is common; the ocelli consist mainly of orthoclase + and quartz, and may be a quarter of an inch in diameter. Another + feature of these rocks is the presence of large foreign crystals or + xenocrysts of felspar and of quartz. Their forms are rounded, + indicating partial resorption by the solvent action of the + lamprophyric magma; and the quartz may be surrounded by corrosion + borders of minerals such as augite and hornblende produced where the + magma is attacking the crystal. These crystals are of doubtful origin; + they are often of considerable size and may be conspicuous in + hand-specimens of the rocks. It is supposed that they did not + crystallize in the lamprophyre dike but in some way were caught up by + it. Other enclosures, more certainly of foreign origin, are often + seen, such as quartzite, schists, garnetiferous rocks, granite, &c. + These may be baked and altered or in other cases partly dissolved. + Cordierite may be formed either in the enclosure or in the + lamprophyre, where it takes the shape of hexagonal prisms which in + polarized light break up into six sectors, triangular in shape, + diverging from the centre of the crystal. + + The second group of lamprophyric dike rocks (_the camptonite, + monchiquite, alnoite series_) is much less common than those above + described. As a rule they occur together, and there are transitions + between the different sub-groups as in the granito-dioritic + lamprophyres. In Sweden, Brazil, Portugal, Norway, the north of + Scotland, Bohemia, Arkansas and other places this assemblage of rock + types has been met with, always presenting nearly identical features. + In most cases, though not in all, they have a close association with + nepheline or leucite syenites and similar rocks rich in alkalies. This + indicates a genetic affinity like that which exists between the + granites and the minettes, &c., and further proof of this connexion is + furnished by the occasional occurrence in those lamprophyres of + leucite, haüyne and other felspathoid minerals. + + The camptonites (called after Campton, New Hampshire) are dark brown, + nearly black rocks often with large hornblende phenocrysts. Their + essential minerals in thin section are hornblende of a strong + reddish-brown colour; augite purple, pleochroic and rich in titanium, + olivine and plagioclase felspar. They have the porphyritic and + panidiomorphic structures described in the rocks of the previous + group, and like them also have an ocellar character, often very + conspicuous under the microscope. The accessory minerals are biotite, + apatite, iron oxides and analcite. They decompose readily and are then + filled with carbonates. Many of these rocks prove on analysis to be + exceedingly rich in titanium; they may contain 4 or 5% of titanium + dioxide. + + The monchiquites (called after the Serra de Monchique, Portugal) are + fine-grained and devoid of felspar. Their essential constituents are + olivine and purplish augite. Brown hornblende, like that of the + camptonites, occurs in many of them. An interstitial substance is + present, which may sometimes be a brown glass, but at other times is + colourless and is believed by some petrographers to be primary + crystalline analcite. They would define the monchiquites as rocks + consisting of olivine, augite and analcite; others regard the analcite + as secondary, and consider the base as essentially glassy. Some + monchiquites contain haüyne; while in others small leucites are found. + Ocellar structure is occasionally present, though less marked than in + the camptonites. A special group of monchiquites rich in deep brown + biotite has been called fourchites (after the Fourche Mountains, + Arkansas). + + The alnoites (called after the island of Alnö in Norway) are rare + rocks found in Norway, Montreal and other parts of North America and + in the north of Scotland. They contain olivine, augite, brown biotite + and melilite. They are free from felspar, and contain very low + percentages of silica. + + The chemical composition of some of these rocks will be indicated by + the analyses of certain well-known examples. + + +--------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | SiO2 | TiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | FeO | MgO | CaO | Na2O | K2O | + +--------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | I.[1]| 52.70 | 1.71 | 15.07 | 8.41 | ... | 7.23 | 5.33 | 3.12 | 4.81 | + | II. | 52.12 | 1.20 | 13.52 | 2.56 | 4.53 | 6.36 | 5.78 | 2.34 | 5.36 | + | III. | 45.15 | ... | 15.39 | 2.76 | 5.64 | 6.38 | 8.83 | 2.67 | 2.77 | + | IV. | 54.67 | ... | 12.68 | 11.68 | 2.13 | 6.11 | 4.96 | 3.85 | 3.65 | + | V. | 41.96 | 4.15 | 15.36 | 3.27 | 9.89 | 5.01 | 9.47 | 5.15 | 0.19 | + | VI. | 43.74 | 2.80 | 14.82 | 2.40 | 7.52 | 6.98 |10.81 | 3.06 | 2.90 | + | VII. | 29.25 | 2.54 | 8.80 | 3.92 | 5.42 |17.66 |17.86 | 0.77 | 2.45 | + +--------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + In addition to the oxides given these rocks contain small quantities + of water (combined and hygroscopic), CO2, S, MnO, P2O5, Ca2O3, &c. + (J. S. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] I. Minette (Weiler, Alsace). II. Kersantite (Neubrunn, + Thuringia). III. Vogesite (Castle Mountain, Montana). IV. Spessartite + (Waldmichael, Spessart). V. Camptonite (Campton Falls). VI. + Monchiquite (Ria do Ouro, Serra de Tingua). VII. Alnöite (Alnö, + Sweden). + + + + +LAMPSACUS, an ancient Greek colony in Mysia, Asia Minor, known as +Pityusa or Pityussa before its colonization by Ionian Greeks from +Phocaea and Miletus, was situated on the Hellespont, opposite Callipolis +(Gallipoli) in Thrace. It possessed a good harbour; and the +neighbourhood was famous for its wine, so that, having fallen into the +hands of the Persians during the Ionian revolt, it was assigned by +Artaxerxes I. to Themistocles to provide him with wine, as Percote did +with meat and Magnesia with bread. After the battle of Mycale (479 +B.C.), Lampsacus joined the Athenians, but, having revolted from them in +411, was reduced by force. It was defended in 196 B.C. against Antiochus +the Great of Syria, after which its inhabitants were received as allies +of Rome. Lampsacus was the chief seat of the worship of Priapus, a gross +nature-god closely connected with the culture of the vine. The ancient +name is preserved in that of the modern village of Lapsaki, but the +Greek town possibly lay at Chardak immediately opposite Gallipoli. + + See A. L. Castellan, _Lettres sur la Morée, l'Hellespont, &c._ (Paris, + 1820); Choiseul Gouffier, _Voyage pittoresque dans l'empire ottoman_ + (1842). + + + + +LAMPSTAND, a pillar, tripod or figure extending to the floor for +supporting or holding a lamp. The lampstand (_lampadère_) is probably of +French origin; it appears to have been in use in France before the end +of the 17th century. + + + + +LANARK, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and county town of +Lanarkshire, Scotland, standing on high ground about half a mile from +the right bank of the Clyde, 31 m. S.E. of Glasgow by the Caledonian +railway. Pop. (1901) 6440. It is a favourite holiday resort, being the +point from which the falls of the Clyde are usually visited. The +principal buildings are the town hall, the county buildings, the +assembly rooms, occupying the site of an old Franciscan monastery, three +hospitals, a convalescent home, the Smyllum orphanage and the Queen +Victoria Jubilee fountain. The industries include cotton-spinning, +weaving, nail-making and oilworks, and there are frequent markets for +cattle and sheep. Lanark is a place of considerable antiquity. Kenneth +II. held a parliament here in 978, and it was sometimes the residence of +the Scottish kings, one of whom, William the Lion (d. 1214), granted it +a charter. Several of the earlier exploits of William Wallace were +achieved in the neighbourhood. He burned the town and slew the English +sheriff William Hezelrig. About 1 m. N.W. are Cartland Craigs, where +Mouse Water runs through a precipitous red sandstone ravine, the sides +of which are about 400 ft. high. The stream is crossed by a bridge of +single span, supposed to be Roman, and by a three-arched bridge, +designed by Thomas Telford and erected in 1823. On the right bank, near +this bridge, is the cave in which Wallace concealed himself after +killing Hezelrig and which still bears his name. Lanark was the centre +of much activity in the days of the Covenanters. William Lithgow +(1582-1645), the traveller, William Smellie (1697-1763), the +obstetrician and Gavin Hamilton (1730-1797), the painter, were born at +Lanark. The town is one of the Falkirk district group of parliamentary +burghs, the other constituents being Airdrie, Hamilton, Falkirk and +Linlithgow. + +New Lanark (pop. 795), 1 m. S., is famous in connexion with the +socialist experiments of Robert Owen. The village was founded by David +Dale (1739-1806) in 1785, with the support of Sir Richard Arkwright, +inventor of the spinning-frame, who thought the spot might be made the +Manchester of Scotland. In ten years four cotton mills were running, +employing nearly 1400 hands. They were sold in 1799 to a Manchester +company, who appointed Owen manager. In the same year he married Dale's +daughter. For many years the mills were successfully conducted, but +friction ultimately arose and Owen retired in 1828. The mills, however, +are still carried on. + + There are several interesting places near Lanark. Braxfield, on the + Clyde, gave the title of Lord Braxfield to Robert Macqueen + (1722-1799), who was born in the mansion and acquired on the bench the + character of the Scottish Jeffreys. Robert Baillie, the patriot who + was executed for conscience' sake (1684), belonged to Jerviswood, an + estate on the Mouse. Lee House, the home of the Lockharts, is 3 m. + N.W. The old castle was largely rebuilt in the 19th century. It + contains some fine tapestry and portraits, and the Lee Penny--familiar + to readers of Sir Walter Scott's _Talisman_--which was brought from + Palestine in the 14th century by the Crusading knight, Sir Simon + Lockhart. It is described as a cornelian encased in a silver coin. + Craignethan Castle on the Nethan, a left-hand tributary joining the + Clyde at Crossford, is said to be the original of the "Tillietudiem" + of Scott's _Old Mortality_. + + + + +LANARKSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland, bounded N. by the +shires of Dumbarton and Stirling, E. by Linlithgowshire, Mid-Lothian and +Peeblesshire, S. by Dumfriesshire and W. by the counties of Ayr, Renfrew +and Dumbarton. Its area is 879 sq. m. (562,821 acres). It may be +described as embracing the valley of the Clyde; and, in addition to the +gradual descent from the high land in the south, it is also +characterized by a gentle slope towards both banks of the river. The +shire is divided into three wards, the Upper, comprising all the +southern section, or more than half the whole area (over 330,000 acres); +the Middle, with Hamilton for its chief town, covering fully 190,000 +acres; and the Lower, occupying the northern area of about 40,000 acres. +The surface falls gradually from the uplands in the south to the Firth +of Clyde. The highest hills are nearly all on or close to the borders of +Peeblesshire and Dumfriesshire, and include Culter Fell (2454 ft.) and +Lowther Hill (2377). The loftiest heights exclusively belonging to +Lanarkshire are Green Lowther (2403), Tinto (2335), Ballencleuch Law +(2267), Rodger Law (2257), Dun Law (2216), Shiel Dod (2190), Dungrain +Law (2186) and Comb Law (2107). The principal rivers are the Clyde and +its head waters and affluents (on the right, the Medwin, Mouse, South +Calder, North Calder and Kelvin; on the left, the Douglas, Nethan, +Avon, Rotten Calder and Cart). There are no lochs of considerable size, +the few sheets of water in the north--Woodend Reservoir, Bishop Loch, +Hogganfield Loch, Woodend Loch, Lochend Loch--mainly feeding the +Monkland and the Forth and Clyde Canals. The most famous natural +features are the Falls of Clyde at Bonnington, Corra, Dundaff and +Stonebyres. + + _Geology._--The southern upland portion is built up of Silurian and + Ordovician rocks; the northern lower-lying tracts are formed of + Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone rocks. Ordovician strata cross the + county from S.W. to N.E. in a belt 5-7 m. in breadth which is brought + up by a fault against the Old Red and the Silurian on the northern + side. This fault runs by Lamington, Roberton and Crawfordjohn. The + Ordovician rocks lie in a synclinal fold with beds of Caradoc age in + the centre flanked by graptolitic shales, grits and conglomerates, + including among the last-named the local "Haggis-rock"; the well-known + lead mines of Leadhills are worked in these formations. Silurian + shales and sandstones, &c., extend south of the Ordovician belt to the + county boundary; and again, on the northern side of the Ordovician + belt two small tracts appear through the Old Red Sandstone on the + crests of anticlinal folds. The Old Red Sandstone covers an irregular + tract north of the Ordovician belt; a lower division consisting of + sandstone, conglomerates and mud-stones is the most extensively + developed; above this is found a series of contemporaneous porphyrites + and melaphyres, conformable upon the lower division in the west of the + county but are not so in the east. An upper series of sandstones and + grits is seen for a short distance west of Lamington. Lanark stands on + the Old Red Sandstone and the Falls of Clyde occur in the same rocks. + Economically the most important geological feature is the coal basin + of the Glasgow district. The axis of this basin lies in a N.E.-S.W. + direction; in the central part, including Glasgow, Airdrie, + Motherwell, Wishaw, Carluke, lie the coal-measures, consisting of + sandstones, shales, marls and fireclays with seams of coal and + ironstone. There are eleven beds of workable coal, the more important + seams being the Ell, Main, Splint, Pyotshaw and Virtuewell. Underlying + the coal-measures is the Millstone Grit seen on the northern side + between Glenboig and Hogganfield--here the fireclays of Garnkirk, + Gartcosh and Glenboig are worked--and on the south and south-east of + the coal-measures, but not on the western side, because it is there + cut out by a fault. Beneath the last-named formation comes the + Carboniferous Limestone series with thin coals and ironstones, and + again beneath this is the Calciferous Sandstone series which in the + south-east consists of sandstones, shales, &c., but in the west the + greater part of the series is composed of interbedded volcanic + rocks--porphyrites and melaphyres. It will be observed that in general + the younger formations lie nearer the centre of the basin and the + older ones crop out around them. Besides the volcanic rocks mentioned + there are intrusive basalts in the Carboniferous rocks like that in + the neighbourhood of Shotts, and the smaller masses at Hogganfield + near Glasgow and elsewhere. Volcanic necks are found in the Carluke + and Kilcadzow districts, marking the vents of former volcanoes and + several dikes of Tertiary age traverse the older rocks. An intrusion + of pink felsite in early Old Red times has been the cause of Tinto + Hill. Evidences of the Glacial period are abundant in the form of + kames and other deposits of gravel, sand and boulder clay. The ice in + flowing northward and southward from the higher ground took an + easterly direction when it reached the lower ground. In the lower + reaches of the Clyde the remains of old beaches at 25, 50 and 100 ft. + above the present sea-level are to be observed. + + _Climate and Agriculture._--The rainfall averages 42 in. annually, + being higher in the hill country and lower towards the north. The + temperature for the year averages 48° F., for January 38° and for July + 59°. The area under grain has shown a downward tendency since 1880. + Oats is the principal crop, but barley and wheat are also grown. + Potatoes and turnips are raised on a large scale. In the Lower Ward + market-gardening has increased considerably, and the quantity of + vegetables, grapes and tomatoes reared under glass has reached great + proportions. An ancient industry in the vale of the Clyde for many + miles below Lanark is the cultivation of fruit, several of the + orchards being said to date from the time of Bede. The apples and + pears are of good repute. There has been a remarkable extension in the + culture of strawberries, hundreds of acres being laid down in beds. + The sheep walks in the upper and middle wards are heavily stocked and + the herds of cattle are extensive, the favoured breeds being Ayrshire + and a cross between this and "improved Lanark." Dairy-farming + flourishes, the cheeses of Carnwath and Lesmahagow being in steady + demand. Clydesdale draught-horses are of high class. They are supposed + to have been bred from Flanders horses imported early in the 18th + century by the 5th duke of Hamilton. Most of the horses are kept for + agricultural work, but a considerable number of unbroken horses and + mares are maintained for stock. Pigs are numerous, being extensively + reared by the miners. The largest farms are situated in the Upper + Ward, but the general holding runs from 50 to 100 acres. More than + 21,000 acres are under wood. + + _Other Industries._--The leading industries are those in connexion + with the rich and extensive coal and iron field to the east and + southeast of Glasgow; the shipbuilding at Govan and Partick and in + Glasgow harbour; the textiles at Airdrie, Blantyre, Hamilton, Lanark, + New Lanark, Rutherglen and Glasgow; engineering at Cambuslang, + Carluke, Coatbridge, Kinning Park, Motherwell and Wishaw, and the + varied and flourishing manufactures centred in and around Glasgow. + + _Communications._--In the north of the county, where population is + most dense and the mineral field exceptionally rich, railway + facilities are highly developed, there being for 10 or 12 m. around + Glasgow quite a network of lines. The Caledonian Railway Company's + main line to the south runs through the whole length of the shire, + sending off branches at several points, especially at Carstairs + Junction. The North British Railway Company serves various towns in + the lower and middle wards and its lines to Edinburgh cross the + northwestern corner and the north of the county. Only in the immediate + neighbourhood of Glasgow does the Glasgow and South Western system + compete for Lanarkshire traffic, though it combines with the + Caledonian to work the Mid-Lanarkshire and Ayrshire railway. The + Monkland Canal in the far north and the Forth and Clyde Canal in the + north and north-west carry a considerable amount of goods, and before + the days of railways afforded one of the principal means of + communication between east and west. + + _Population and Administration._--The population amounted in 1891 to + 1,105,899 and in 1901 to 1,339,327, or 1523 persons to the sq. m. Thus + though only tenth in point of extent, it is much the most populous + county in Scotland, containing within its bounds nearly one-third of + the population of the country. In 1901 there were 104 persons speaking + Gaelic only, and 26,905 speaking Gaelic and English. The chief towns, + with populations in 1901, apart from Glasgow, are Airdrie (22,288), + Cambuslang (12,252), Coatbridge (36,991), Govan (82,174), Hamilton + (32,775), Kinning Park (13,852), Larkhall (11,879), Motherwell + (30,418), Partick (54,298), Rutherglen (17,220), Shettleston (12,154), + Wishaw (20,873). Among smaller towns are Bellshill, Carluke, Holytown, + Lanark, Stonefield, Tollcross and Uddingston; and Lesmahagow and East + Kilbride are populous villages and mining centres. The county is + divided into six parliamentary divisions:--North-east, North-west, Mid + and South Lanark, Govan and Partick each returning one member. The + royal burghs are Glasgow, Lanark and Rutherglen; the municipal and + police burghs Airdrie, Biggar, Coatbridge, Glasgow, Govan, Hamilton, + Kinning Park, Lanark, Motherwell, Partick, Rutherglen and Wishaw. + Glasgow returns seven members to Parliament; Airdrie, Hamilton and + Lanark belong to the Falkirk group and Rutherglen to the Kilmarnock + group of parliamentary burghs. Lanarkshire is a sheriffdom, whose + sheriff-principal is confined to his judicial duties in the county, + and he has eight substitutes, five of whom sit constantly in Glasgow, + and one each at Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark. The shire is under + school-board jurisdiction, many schools earning grants for higher + education. For advanced education, besides the university and many + other institutions in Glasgow there are a high school in Hamilton, and + technical schools at Coatbridge and Wishaw. The county council expends + the "residue" grant in supporting lectures and classes in agriculture + and agricultural chemistry, mining, dairying, cookery, laundry work, + nursery and poultry-keeping, in paying fees and railway fares and + providing bursaries for technical students, and in subsidizing science + and art and technical classes in day and evening schools. A director + of technical education is maintained by the council. Lanark, + Motherwell and Biggar entrust their shares of the grant to the county + council, and Coatbridge and Airdrie themselves subsidize science and + art and evening classes and continuation schools. + +_History._--At an early period Lanarkshire was inhabited by a Celtic +tribe, the Damnonii, whose territory was divided by the wall of +Antoninus between the Forth and Clyde (remains of which are found in the +parish of Cadder), but who were never wholly subjugated by the Romans. +Traces of their fortifications, mounds and circles exist, while stone +axes, bronze celts, querns and urns belonging to their age are +occasionally unearthed. Of the Romans there are traces in the camp on +Beattock summit near Elvanfoot, in the fine bridge over the Mouse near +Lanark, in the road to the south of Strathaven, in the wall already +mentioned and in the coins and other relics that have been dug up. After +their departure the country which included Lanarkshire formed part of +the kingdom of Strathclyde, which, in the 7th century, was subdued by +Northumbrian Saxons, when great numbers of the Celts migrated into +Wales. The county once embraced a portion of Renfrewshire, but this was +disjoined in the time of Robert III. The shire was then divided into two +wards, the Over (with Lanark as its chief town) and the Nether (with +Rutherglen as its capital). The present division into three wards was +not effected till the 18th century. Independently of Glasgow, +Lanarkshire has not borne any part continuously in the general history +of Scotland, but has been the scene of several exciting episodes. Many +of Wallace's daring deeds were performed in the county, Queen Mary met +her fate at Langside (1568) and the Covenanters received constant +support from the people, defeating Claverhouse at Drumclog (1679), but +suffering defeat themselves at Bothwell Brig (1679). + + See W. Hamilton, _Description of the Sheriffdoms of Lanark and + Renfrew_, Maitland Club (1831); C. V. Irving and A. Murray, _The Upper + Ward of Lanarkshire_ (Glasgow, 1864); _The Clydesdale Stud Book_ + (Glasgow); W. A. Cowan, _History of Lanark_ (Lanark, 1867); _Extracts + from the Records of the Burgh of Lanark_ (Glasgow, 1893). + + + + +LANCASHIRE, a north-western county of England, bounded N.E. by +Westmorland, E. by Yorkshire, S. by Cheshire, W. by the Irish Sea and +N.W. by Cumberland. The area is 1880.2 sq. m., the county being the +sixth in size in England. The coast is generally flat, and broken by +great inlets, with wide expanses of sandy foreshore at low tide. The +chief inlets, from N. to S., are--the estuary of the river Duddon, +which, with the river itself, separates the county from Cumberland; +Morecambe Bay; and the estuaries of the Ribble and the Mersey. Morecambe +Bay receives the rivers Crake and Leven in a common estuary, and the +Kent from Westmorland; while the Lune and the Wyre discharge into +Lancaster Bay, which is only partially separated from Morecambe Bay by +the promontory of Red Nab. Morecambe Bay also detaches from the rest of +the county the district of Furness (q.v.), extending westward to the +Duddon, and having off its coast the island of Walney, 8 m. in length, +and several small isles within the strait between Walney and the +mainland. The principal seaside resorts and watering-places, from S. to +N., are Southport, Lytham, St Anne's-on-the-Sea, Blackpool, Fleetwood +and Morecambe; while at the head of Morecambe Bay are several pleasant +villages frequented by visitors, such as Arnside and Grange. Of the +rivers the Mersey (q.v.), separating the county from Cheshire, is the +principal, and receives from Lancashire the Irwell, Sankey and other +small streams. The Ribble, which rises in the mountains of the West +Riding of Yorkshire, forms for a few miles the boundary with that +county, and then flows S.W. to Preston, receiving the Hodder from the N. +and the Calder and Darwen from the S. Lancashire has a share in two of +the English districts most famous for their scenery, but does not +include the finest part of either. Furness, entirely hilly except for a +narrow coastal tract, extends N. to include the southern part of the +Lake District (q.v.); it contains Coniston Lake and borders Windermere, +which are drained respectively by the Leven and Crake, with some smaller +lakes and such mountains as the Old Man and Wetherlam. Another elevated +district, forming part of a mountainous chain stretching from the +Scottish border, covered by the name of Pennine uplands in its broader +application, runs along the whole eastern boundary of the main portion +of the county, and to the south of the Ribble occupies more than half +the area, stretching west nearly to Liverpool. The moorlands in the +southern district are generally bleak and covered with heather. Towards +the north the scenery is frequently beautiful, the green rounded +elevated ridges being separated by pleasant cultivated valleys +variegated by woods and watered by rivers. None of the summits of the +range within Lancashire attains an elevation of 2000 ft., the highest +being Blackstone Edge (1523 ft.), Pendle Hill (1831 ft.) and Boulsworth +Hill (1700 ft.). + +Along the sea-coast from the Mersey to Lancaster there is a continuous +plain formerly occupied by peat mosses, many of which have been +reclaimed. The largest is Chat Moss between Liverpool and Manchester. In +some instances these mosses have exhibited the phenomenon of a moving +bog. A large district in the north belonging to the duchy of Lancaster +was at one time occupied by forests, but these have wholly disappeared, +though their existence is recalled in nomenclature, as in the Forest of +Rossendale, near the Yorkshire boundary somewhat south of the centre. + + _Geology._--The greater part of Lancashire, the central and eastern + portions, is occupied by Carboniferous rocks; a broad belt of Triassic + strata fringes the west and south; while most of the detached northern + portion is made up of Silurian and Ordovician formations. The + Carboniferous system includes the great coal-field in which are + gathered all the principal manufacturing towns, Colne, Burnley, + Blackburn, Chorley, Wigan, Bolton, Preston, Oldham, Rochdale and + Manchester. In the centre of the coal-field is an elevated moorland + tract formed of the grits and shales of the Millstone Grit series. + Part of the small coal-field of Ingleton also lies within the county. + Between these two coal basins there is a moderately hilly district in + which grits and black shales predominate, with a broad tract of + limestone and shales which are well exposed in the quarries at + Clitheroe and at Longridge, Chipping, Whalley and Downham. The + limestone again appears in the north at Bolton-le-Sands, + Burton-in-Kendall, Grange, Ulverston and Dalton-in-Furness. Large + pockets of rich iron ore are worked in the limestone in the Furness + district. The belt of Trias includes the Bunter sandstone and + conglomerate, which ranges from Barrow-in-Furness, through Garstang, + Preston, Ormskirk, Liverpool, Warrington and Salford; and Keuper + marls, which underlie the surface between the Bunter outcrop and the + sea. On the coast there is a considerable development of blown sand + between Blackpool and Lytham and between Southport and Seaforth. North + of Broughton-in-Furness, Ulverston and Cartmel are the Silurian rocks + around Lakes Windermere and Coniston Water, including the Coniston + grits and flags and the Brathay flags. These rocks are bounded by the + Ordovician Coniston limestone, ranging north-east and south-west, and + the volcanic series of Borrowdale. A good deal of the solid geology is + obscured in many places by glacial drift, boulder clay and sands. + + The available coal supply of Lancashire has been estimated at about + five thousand millions of tons. In 1852 the amount raised was + 8,225,000 tons; in 1899 it was 24,387,475 tons. In the production of + coal Lancashire vies with Yorkshire, but each is about one-third below + Durham. There are also raised in large quantities--fireclay, + limestone, sandstone, slate and salt, which is also obtained from + brine. The red hematitic iron obtained in the Furness district is very + valuable, but is liable to decrease. The district also produces a fine + blue slate. Metals, excepting iron, are unimportant. + + _Climate and Agriculture._--The climate in the hilly districts is + frequently cold, but in the more sheltered parts lying to the south + and west it is mild and genial. From its westerly situation and the + attraction of the hills there is a high rainfall in the hilly + districts (e.g. at Bolton the average is 58.71 in.), while the average + for the other districts is about 35. The soil after reclamation and + drainage is fertile; but, as it is for the most part a strong clayey + loam it requires a large amount of labour. In some districts it is + more of a peaty nature, and in the Old Red Sandstone districts of the + Mersey there is a tract of light sandy loam, easily worked, and well + adapted for wheat and potatoes. In many districts the ground has been + rendered unfit for agricultural operations by the rubbish from + coal-pits. A low proportion (about seven-tenths) of the total area is + under cultivation, and of this nearly three-fourths is in permanent + pasture, cows being largely kept for the supply of milk to the towns, + while in the uplands many sheep are reared. In addition to the + cultivated area, about 92,000 acres are under hill pasturage. A + gradual increase is noticeable in the acreage under oats, which occupy + more than seven-tenths of the area under grain crops, and in that + under wheat, to the exclusion of the cultivation of barley. Of green + crops the potato is the chief. + +_Industries and Trade._--South Lancashire is the principal seat of the +cotton manufacture in the world, the trade centring upon Manchester, +Oldham and the neighbouring densely populated district. It employs +upwards of 400,000 operatives. The worsted, woollen and silk +manufactures, flax, hemp and jute industries, though of less importance, +employ considerable numbers. Non-textile factories employ about 385,000 +hands. The manufacture of machines, appliances, conveyances, tools, &c., +are very important, especially in supplying the needs of the immense +weaving and spinning industries. For the same purpose there is a large +branch of industry in the manufacture of bobbins from the wood grown in +the northern districts of the county. Of industries principally confined +to certain definite centres there may be mentioned--the manufacture of +iron and steel at Barrow-in-Furness, a town of remarkably rapid growth +since the middle of the 19th century; the great glass works at St +Helens; the watch-making works at Prescot and the leather works at +Warrington. Printing, bleaching and dyeing works, paper and chemical +works, india-rubber and tobacco manufactures are among the chief of the +other resources of this great industrial region. Besides the port of +Liverpool, of worldwide importance, the principal ports are Manchester, +brought into communication with the sea by the Manchester Ship Canal +opened in 1894, Barrow-in-Furness and Fleetwood, while Preston and +Lancaster have docks and a considerable shipping trade by the rivers +Lune and Ribble respectively. The sea fisheries, for which Fleetwood and +Liverpool are the chief ports, are of considerable value. + +[Illustration: Map of Lancashire.] + + _Communications._--Apart from the Manchester Ship Canal, canal-traffic + plays an important part in the industrial region. In 1760 the Sankey + canal, 10 m. long, the first canal opened in Britain (apart from very + early works), was constructed to carry coal from St Helens to + Liverpool. Shortly afterwards the duke of Bridgewater projected the + great canal from Manchester across the Irwell to Worsley, completed in + 1761 and bearing the name of its originator. The Leeds and Liverpool + canal, begun in 1770, connects Liverpool and other important towns + with Leeds by a circuitous route of 130 m. The other principal canals + are the Rochdale, the Manchester (to Huddersfield) and the Lancaster, + connecting Preston and Kendal. A short canal connects Ulverston with + Morecambe Bay. A network of railways covers the industrial region. The + main line of the London and North Western railway enters the county at + Warrington, and runs north through Wigan, Preston, Lancaster and + Carnforth. It also serves Liverpool and Manchester, providing the + shortest route to each of these cities from London, and shares with + the Lancashire and Yorkshire company joint lines to Southport, to + Blackpool and to Fleetwood, whence there is regular steamship + communication with Belfast. The Lancashire and Yorkshire line serves + practically all the important centres as far north as Preston and + Fleetwood. All the northern trunk lines from London have services to + Manchester and Liverpool. The Cheshire Lines system, worked by a + committee of the Great Northern, Great Central and Midland companies, + links their systems with the South Lancashire district generally, and + maintains lines between Liverpool and Manchester, both these cities + with Southport, and numerous branches. Branches of the Midland railway + from its main line in Yorkshire serve Lancaster, Morecambe, and + Heysham and Carnforth, where connexion is made with the Furness + railway to Ulverston, Barrow, Lake Side, Coniston, &c. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +1,203,365 acres. Its population in 1801 was 673,486; in 1891, 3,926,760; +and in 1901, 4,406,409. The area of the administrative county is +1,196,753 acres. The distribution of the industrial population may be +best appreciated by showing the parliamentary divisions, parliamentary, +county and municipal boroughs and urban districts as placed among the +four divisions of the ancient county. In the case of urban districts the +name of the great town to which each is near or adjacent follows where +necessary. The figures show population in 1901. + + NORTHERN DIVISION.--This embraces almost all the county N. of the + Ribble, including Furness, and a small area S. of the Ribble estuary. + It is considerably the largest of the divisions. _Parliamentary + divisions_, from N. to S.--North Lonsdale, Lancaster, Blackpool, + Chorley. _Parliamentary, county and municipal + boroughs_--Barrow-in-Furness (57,586; one member); Preston (112,989; + two members). _Municipal boroughs_--Blackpool (county borough; + 47,348), Chorley (26,852), Lancaster (40,329; county town), Morecambe + (11,798). _Urban districts_--Adlington (4523; Chorley), + Bispham-with-Norbreck (Blackpool), Carnforth (3040; Lancaster), + Croston (2102; Chorley), Dalton-in-Furness (13,020), Fleetwood + (12,082), Fulwood (5238; Preston), Grange (1993), Heysham (3381; + Morecambe), Kirkham (3693; Preston), Leyland (6865; Chorley), + Longridge (4304; Preston), Lytham (7185), Poulon-le-Fylde (2223; + Blackpool). Preesall-with-Hackinsall (1423; Fleetwood), St + Anne's-on-the-Sea (6838, a watering-place between Blackpool and + Lytham), Thornton (3108; Fleetwood), Ulverston (10,064, in Furness), + Withnell (3349; Chorley). + + NORTH-EASTERN-DIVISION.--This lies E. of Preston, and is the smallest + of the four. _Parliamentary divisions_--Accrington, Clitheroe, Darwen, + Rossendale. _Parliamentary, county and municipal boroughs_--Blackburn + (127,626; two members); Burnley (97,043; one member). _Municipal + boroughs_--Accrington (43,122), Bacup (22,505), Clitheroe (11,414), + Colne (23,000), Darwen (38,212), Haslingden (18,543, extending into + South-Eastern division), Nelson (32,816), Rawtenstall (31,053). _Urban + districts_--Barrowford (4959; Colne), Brierfield (7288; Burnley), + Church (6463; Accrington), Clayton-le-Moors (8153; Accrington), Great + Harwood (12,015; Blackburn), Oswaldtwistle (14,192; Blackburn), + Padiham (12,205; Burnley), Rishton (7031; Blackburn), Trawden (2641; + Colne), Walton-le-Dale (11,271; Preston). + + SOUTH-WESTERN DIVISION.--This division represents roughly a quadrant + with radius of 20 m. drawn from Liverpool. _Parliamentary + divisions_--Bootle, Ince, Leigh, Newton, Ormskirk, Southport, Widnes. + _Parliamentary boroughs_--the city and county and municipal borough of + Liverpool (684,958; nine members); the county and municipal boroughs + of St Helens (84,410; one member); Wigan (60,764; one member), + Warrington (64,242; a part only of the parliamentary borough is in + this county). _Municipal boroughs_--Bootle (58,566), Leigh (40,001), + Southport (county borough; 48,083), Widnes (28,580). _Urban + districts_--Abram (6306; Wigan), Allerton (1101; Liverpool), + Ashton-in-Makerfield (18,687), Atherton (16,211), Billinge (4232; + Wigan), Birkdale (14,197; Southport), Childwall (219; Liverpool), + Formby (6060), Golborne (6789; St Helens), Great Crosby (7555; + Liverpool), Haydock (8575; St Helens), Hindley (23,504; Wigan), + Huyton-with-Roby (4661; St Helens), Ince-in-Makerfield (21,262), + Lathom-and-Burscough (7113; Ormskirk), Litherland (10,592; Liverpool), + Little Crosby (563; Liverpool), Little Woolton (1091; Liverpool), Much + Woolton (4731; Liverpool), Newton-in-Makerfield (16,699), Ormskirk + (6857), Orrell (5436; Wigan), Prescot (7855; St Helens), Rainford + (3359; St Helens), Skelmersdale (5699; Ormskirk), + Standish-with-Langtree (6303; Wigan), Tyldesley-with-Shakerley + (14,843), Upholland (4773; Wigan), Waterloo-with-Seaforth (23,102; + Liverpool). + + SOUTH-EASTERN DIVISION.--This is of about the same area as the + South-Western division, and it constitutes the heart of the industrial + region. _Parliamentary divisions_--Eccles, Gorton, Heywood, Middleton, + Prestwich, Radcliffe-cum-Farnworth, Stretford, Westhoughton. + _Parliamentary boroughs_--the city and county of a city of Manchester + (543,872; six members); with which should be correlated the adjoining + county and municipal borough of Salford (220,957; three members), also + the county and municipal boroughs of Bolton (168,215; two members), + Bury (58,029; one member), Rochdale (83,114; one member), Oldham + (137,246; two members), and the municipal borough of Ashton-under-Lyne + (43,890). Part only of the last parliamentary borough is within the + county, and this division also contains part of the parliamentary + boroughs of Stalybridge and Stockport. _Municipal boroughs_--Eccles + (34,369), Heywood (25,458), Middleton (25,178), Mossley (13,452). + _Urban districts_--Aspull (8388; Wigan), Audenshaw (7216; + Ashton-under-Lyne), Blackrod (3875; Wigan), Chadderton (24,892; + Oldham), Crompton (13,427; Oldham), Denton (14,934; + Ashton-under-Lyne), Droylsden (11,087; Manchester), Failsworth + (14,152; Manchester), Farnworth (25,925; Bolton), Gorton (26,564; + Manchester), Heaton Norris (9474; Stockport). Horwich (15,084; + Bolton), Hurst (7145; Ashton-under-Lyne), Irlam (4335; Eccles), + Kearsley (9218; Bolton), Lees (3621; Oldham), Levenshulme (11,485; + Manchester), Littleborough (11,166; Rochdale), Little Hulton (7294; + Bolton), Little Lever (5119; Bolton), Milnrow (8241; Rochdale), Norden + (3907; Rochdale), Prestwich (12,839; Manchester), Radcliffe (25,368; + Bury), Ramsbottom (15,920; Bury), Royton (14,881; Oldham), Stretford + (30,436; Manchester), Swinton-and-Pendlebury (27,005; Manchester), + Tottington (6118; Bury), Turton (12,355; Bolton), Urmston (6594; + Manchester), Wardle (4427; Rochdale), Westhoughton (14,377; Bolton), + Whitefield or Stand (6588; Bury), Whitworth (9578; Rochdale), Worsley + (12,462; Eccles). + +Lancashire is one of the counties palatine. It is attached to the duchy +of Lancaster, a crown office, and retains the chancery court for the +county palatine. The chancery of the duchy of Lancaster was once a court +of appeal for the chancery of the county palatine, but now even its +jurisdiction in regard to the estates of the duchy is merely nominal. +The chancery of the county palatine has concurrent jurisdiction with the +High Court of Chancery in all matters of equity within the county +palatine, and independent jurisdiction in regard to a variety of other +matters. The county palatine comprises six hundreds. + + Lancashire is in the northern circuit, and assizes are held at + Lancaster for the north, and at Liverpool and Manchester for the south + of the county. There is one court of quarter sessions, and the county + is divided into 33 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of + Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Liverpool, Manchester, Oldham, Salford and + Wigan have separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter + sessions; and those of Accrington, Ashton-under-Lyne, + Barrow-in-Furness, Blackpool, Bolton, Bury, Clitheroe, Colne, Darwen, + Eccles, Heywood, Lancaster, Middleton, Mossley, Nelson, Preston, + Rochdale, St Helens, Southport and Warrington have separate + commissions of the peace only. There are 430 civil parishes. + Lancashire is mainly in the diocese of Manchester, but parts are in + those of Liverpool, Carlisle, Ripon, Chester and Wakefield. There are + 787 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the + county. + + Manchester and Liverpool are each seats of a university and of other + important educational institutions. Within the bounds of the county + there are many denominational colleges, and near Clitheroe is the + famous Roman Catholic college of Stonyhurst. There is a day training + college for schoolmasters in connexion with University College, + Liverpool, and a day training college for both schoolmasters and + schoolmistresses in connexion with Owens College, Manchester. At + Edgehill, Liverpool, there is a residential training college for + schoolmistresses which takes day pupils, at Liverpool a residential + Roman Catholic training college for schoolmasters, and at Warrington a + residential training college (Chester, Manchester and Liverpool + diocesan) for schoolmistresses. + +_History._--The district afterwards known as Lancashire was after the +departure of the Romans for many years apparently little better than a +waste. It was not until the victory of Æthelfrith, king of Deira, near +Chester in 613 cut off the Britons of Wales from those of Lancashire and +Cumberland that even Lancashire south of the Ribble was conquered. The +part north of the Ribble was not absorbed in the Northumbrian kingdom +till the reign of Ecgfrith (670-685). Of the details of this long +struggle we know nothing, but to the stubborn resistance made by the +British leaders are due the legends of Arthur; and of the twelve great +battles he is supposed to have fought against the English, four are +traditionally, though probably erroneously, said to have taken place on +the river Douglas near Wigan. In the long struggle for supremacy between +Mercia and Northumbria, the country between the Mersey and Ribble was +sometimes under one, sometimes under the other kingdom. During the 9th +century Lancashire was constantly invaded by the Danes, and after the +peace of Wedmore (878) it was included in the Danish kingdom of +Northumbria. The _A.S. Chronicle_ records the reconquest of the district +between the Ribble and Mersey in 923 by the English king, when it +appears to have been severed from the kingdom of Northumbria and united +to Mercia, but the districts north of the Ribble now comprised in the +county belonged to Northumbria until its incorporation with the kingdom +of England. The names on the Lancashire coast ending in _by_, such as +Crosby, Formby, Roby, Kirkby, Derby, show where the Danish settlements +were thickest. William the Conqueror gave the lands between the Ribble +and Mersey, and Amounderness to Roger de Poictou, but at the time of +Domesday Book these had passed out of his hand and belonged to the king. + +The name Lancashire does not appear in Domesday; the lands between the +Ribble and Mersey were included in Cheshire and those north of the +Ribble in Yorkshire. Roger de Poictou soon regained his lands, and Rufus +added to his possessions the rest of Lonsdale south of the Sands, of +which he already held a part; and as he had the Furness fells as well, +he owned all that is now known as Lancashire. In 1102 he finally +forfeited all his lands, which Henry I. held till, in 1118, he created +the honour of Lancaster by incorporating with Roger's forfeited lands +certain escheated manors in the counties of Nottingham, Derby and +Lincoln, and certain royal manors, and bestowed it upon his nephew +Stephen, afterwards king. During Stephen's reign the history of the +honour presents certain difficulties, for David of Scotland held the +lands north of the Ribble for a time, and in 1147 the earl of Chester +held the district between the Ribble and Mersey. Henry II. gave the +whole honour to William, Stephen's son, but in 1164 it came again into +the king's hands until 1189, when Richard I. granted it to his brother +John. In 1194, owing to John's rebellion, it was confiscated and the +honour remained with the crown till 1267. In 1229, however, all the +crown demesne between the Ribble and Mersey was granted to Ranulf, earl +of Chester, and on his death in 1232 came to William Ferrers, earl of +Derby, in right of his wife Agnes, sister and co-heir of Ranulf. The +Ferrers held it till 1266, when it was confiscated owing to the earl's +rebellion. In 1267 Henry III. granted the honour and county and all the +royal demesne therein to his son Edmund, who was created earl of +Lancaster. His son, Earl Thomas, married the heiress of Henry de Lacy, +earl of Lincoln, and thus obtained the great estates belonging to the de +Lacys in Lancashire. On the death of Henry, the first duke of Lancaster, +in 1361, the estates, title and honour fell to John of Gaunt in right of +his wife Blanche, the duke's elder daughter, and by the accession of +Henry IV., John of Gaunt's only son, to the throne, the duchy and honour +became merged in the crown. + +The county of Lancaster is first mentioned in 1169 as contributing 100 +marks to the Royal Exchequer for defaults and fines. The creation of the +honour decided the boundaries, throwing into it Furness and Cartmel, +which geographically belong to Westmorland; Lonsdale and Amounderness, +which in Domesday had been surveyed under Yorkshire; and the land +between the Ribble and Mersey. In Domesday this district south of the +Ribble was divided into the six hundreds of West Derby, Newton, +Warrington, Blackburn, Salford and Leyland, but before Henry II.'s reign +the hundreds of Warrington and Newton were absorbed in that of West +Derby. Neither Amounderness nor Lonsdale was called a hundred in +Domesday, but soon after that time the former was treated as a hundred. +Ecclesiastically the whole of the county originally belonged to the +diocese of York, but after the reconquest of the district between the +Ribble and Mersey in 923 this part was placed under the bishop of +Lichfield in the archdeaconry of Chester, which was subdivided into the +rural deaneries of Manchester, Warrington and Leyland. Up to 1541 the +district north of the Ribble belonged to the archdeaconry of Richmond in +the diocese of York, and was subdivided into the rural deaneries of +Amounderness, Lonsdale and Coupland. In 1541 the diocese of Chester was +created, including all Lancashire, which was divided into two +archdeaconries: Chester, comprising the rural deaneries of Manchester, +Warrington and Blackburn, and Richmond, comprising the deaneries of +Amounderness, Furness, Lonsdale and Kendal. In 1847 the diocese of +Manchester was created, which included all Lancashire except parts of +West Derby, which still belonged to the diocese of Chester, and Furness +and Cartmel, which were added to Carlisle in 1856. In 1878 by the +creation of the diocese of Liverpool the south-eastern part of the +county was subtracted from the Manchester diocese. + +No shire court was ever held for the county, but as a duchy and county +palatine it has its own special courts. It may have enjoyed palatine +jurisdiction under Earl Morcar before the Conquest, but these +privileges, if ever exercised, remained in abeyance till 1351, when +Henry, duke of Lancaster, received power to have a chancery in the +county of Lancaster and to issue writs therefrom under his own seal, as +well touching pleas of the crown as any other relating to the common +laws, and to have all _Jura Regalia_ belonging to a county palatine. In +1377 the county was erected into a palatinate for John of Gaunt's life, +and in 1390 these rights of jurisdiction were extended and settled in +perpetuity on the dukes of Lancaster. The county palatine courts consist +of a chancery which dates back at least to 1376, a court of common +pleas, the jurisdiction of which was transferred in 1873 by the +Judicature Act to the high court of justice, and a court of criminal +jurisdiction which in no way differs from the king's ordinary court. In +1407 the duchy court of Lancaster was created, in which all questions of +revenue and dignities affecting the duchy possessions are settled. The +chancery of the duchy has been for years practically obsolete. The duchy +and county palatine each has its own seal. The office of chancellor of +the duchy and county palatine dates back to 1351. + + Lancashire is famed for the number of old and important county + families living within its borders. The most intimately connected with + the history of the county are the Stanleys, whose chief seat is + Knowsley Hall. Sir John Stanley early in the 15th century married the + heiress of Lathom and thus obtained possession of Lathom and Knowsley. + In 1456 the head of the family was created a peer by the title of + Baron Stanley and in 1485 raised to the earldom of Derby. The + Molyneuxes of Sephton and Croxteth are probably descended from William + de Molines, who came to England with William the Conqueror, and is on + the roll of Battle Abbey. Roger de Poictou gave him the manor of + Sephton, and Richard de Molyneux who held the estate under Henry II. + is undoubtedly an ancestor of the family. In 1628 Sir Richard Molyneux + was advanced to the peerage of Ireland by the title of Viscount + Maryborough, and in 1771 Charles, Lord Maryborough, became earl of + Sefton in the peerage of Ireland. His son was created a peer of the + United Kingdom as Baron Sefton of Croxteth. The Bootle Wilbrahams, + earls of Lathom, are, it is said, descended from John Botyll of + Melling, who was alive in 1421, and from the Wilbrahams of Cheshire, + who date back at least to Henry III.'s reign. In 1755 the two families + intermarried. In 1828 the title of Baron Skelmersdale was bestowed on + the head of the family and in 1880 that of earl of Lathorn. The + Gerards of Bryn are said to be descended from an old Tuscan family, + one of whom came to England in Edward the Confessor's time, and whose + son is mentioned in Domesday. Bryn came into this family by marriage + early in the 14th century. Sir Thomas Gerard was created a baronet by + James I. in 1611, and in 1876 a peerage was conferred on Sir Robert + Gerard. The Gerards of Ince were a collateral branch. The Lindsays, + earls of Crawford and Balcarres, are representative on the female side + of the Bradshaighs of Haigh Hall, who are said to be of Saxon origin. + Other great Lancashire families are the Hoghtons of Hoghton Tower, + dating back to the 12th century, the Blundells of Ince Blundell, who + are said to have held the manor since the 12th century, now + represented by the Weld-Blundells, the Tyldesleys of Tyldesley, now + extinct, and the Butlers of Bewsey, barons of Warrington, of whom the + last male heir died in 1586. + +At the close of the 12th and during the 13th century there was a +considerable advance in the importance of the towns; in 1199 Lancaster +became a borough, in 1207 Liverpool, in 1230 Salford, in 1246 Wigan, and +in 1301 Manchester. The Scottish wars were a great drain to the county, +not only because the north part was subject to frequent invasions, as in +1322, but because some of the best blood was taken for these wars. In +1297 Lancashire raised 1000 men, and at the battle of Falkirk (1298) +1000 Lancashire soldiers were in the vanguard, led by Henry de Lacy, +earl of Lincoln. In 1349 the county was visited by the Black Death and a +record exists of its ravages in Amounderness. In ten parishes between +September 1349 and January 1350, 13,180 persons perished. At Preston +3000 died, at Lancaster 3000, at Garstang 2000 and at Kirkham 3000. From +the effects of this plague Lancashire was apparently slow to recover; +its boroughs ceased to return members early in the 14th century and +trade had not yet made any great advance. The drain of the Wars of the +Roses on the county must also have been heavy, although none of the +battles was fought within its borders; Lord Stanley's force of 5000 +raised in Lancashire and Cheshire virtually decided the battle of +Bosworth Field. The poverty of the county is shown by the fact that out +of £40,000 granted in 1504 by parliament to the king, Lancashire's share +was only £318. At the battle of Flodden (1513) the Lancashire archers +led by Sir Edward Stanley almost totally destroyed the Highlanders on +the right Scottish wing and greatly contributed to the victory. Under +the Tudors the county prospered; the parliamentary boroughs once more +began to return members, the towns increased in size, many halls were +built by the gentry and trade increased. + + In 1617 James I. visited Lancashire, and in consequence of a petition + presented to him at Hoghton, complaining of the restrictions imposed + upon Sunday amusements, he issued in 1618 the famous _Book of Sports_. + Another of James's works, the _Daemonologie_, is closely connected + with the gross superstitions concerning witches which were specially + prevalent in Lancashire. The great centre of this witchcraft was + Pendle Forest, in the parish of Whalley, and in 1612 twelve persons + from Pendle and eight from Samlesbury were tried for witchcraft, nine + of whom were hanged. In 1633 another batch of seventeen witches from + Pendle were tried and all sentenced to be executed, but the king + pardoned them. This was the last important case of witchcraft in + Lancashire. + +In the assessment of ship money in 1636 the county was put down for +£1000, towards which Wigan was to raise £50, Preston £40, Lancaster £30, +and Liverpool £25, and these figures compared with the assessments of +£140 on Hull and £200 on Leeds show the comparative unimportance of the +Lancashire boroughs. On the eve of the Great Rebellion in 1641 +parliament resolved to take command of the militia, and Lord Strange, +Lord Derby's eldest son, was removed from the lord lieutenancy. On the +whole, the county was Royalist, and the moving spirit among the +Royalists was Lord Strange, who became Lord Derby in 1642. Manchester +was the headquarters of the Parliamentarians, and was besieged by Lord +Derby in September 1642 for seven days, but not taken. Lord Derby +himself took up his headquarters at Warrington and garrisoned Wigan. At +the opening of 1643 Sir Thomas Fairfax made Manchester his headquarters. +Early in February the Parliamentarians from Manchester successfully +assaulted Preston, which was strongly Royalist; thence the +Parliamentarians marched to Hoghton Tower, which they took, and within a +few days captured Lancaster. On the Royalist side Lord Derby made an +unsuccessful attack on Bolton from Wigan. In March a large Spanish ship, +laden with ammunition for the use of parliament, was driven by a storm +on Rossall Point and seized by the Royalists; Lord Derby ordered the +ship to be burned, but the parliament forces from Preston succeeded in +carrying off some of the guns to Lancaster castle. In March Lord Derby +captured the town of Lancaster but not the castle, and marching to +Preston regained it for the king, but was repulsed in an attack on +Bolton. In April Wigan, one of the chief Royalist strongholds in the +county, was taken by the parliament forces, who also again captured +Lancaster, and the guns from the Spanish ship were moved for use against +Warrington, which was obliged to surrender in May after a week's siege. +Lord Derby also failed in an attempt on Liverpool, and the tide of war +had clearly turned against the Royalists in Lancashire. In June Lord +Derby went to the Isle of Man, which was threatened by the king's +enemies. Soon after, the Parliamentarians captured Hornby castle, and +only two strongholds, Thurland castle and Lathom house, remained in +Royalist hands. In the summer, after a seven weeks' siege by Colonel +Alexander Rigby, Thurland castle surrendered and was demolished. In +February 1644 the Parliamentarians, under Colonel Rigby, Colonel Ashton +and Colonel Moore, besieged Lathom house, the one refuge left to the +Royalists, which was bravely defended by Lord Derby's heroic wife, +Charlotte de la Trémoille. The siege lasted nearly four months and was +raised on the approach of Prince Rupert, who marched to Bolton and was +joined on his arrival outside the town by Lord Derby. Bolton was carried +by storm; Rupert ordered that no quarter should be given, and it is +usually said at least 1500 of the garrison were slain. Prince Rupert +advanced without delay to Liverpool, which was defended by Colonel +Moore, and took it after a siege of three weeks. After the battle of +Marston Moor Prince Rupert again appeared in Lancashire and small +engagements took place at Ormskirk, Upholland and Preston; in November +Liverpool surrendered to the Parliamentarians. Lathom house was again +the only strong place in Lancashire left to the Royalists, and in +December 1645 after a five months' siege it was compelled to surrender +through lack of provisions, and was almost entirely destroyed. For the +moment the war in Lancashire was over. In 1648, however, the Royalist +forces under the duke of Hamilton and Sir Marmaduke Langdale marched +through Lancaster to Preston, hoping to reach Manchester; but near +Preston were defeated by Cromwell in person. The remnant retreated +through Wigan towards Warrington, and after being again defeated at +Winwick surrendered at Warrington. In 1651 Charles II. advanced through +Lancaster, Preston and Chorley on his southward march, and Lord Derby +after gathering forces was on his way to meet him when he was defeated +at Wigan. In 1658, after Cromwell's death, a Royalist rebellion was +raised in which Lancashire took a prominent part, but it was quickly +suppressed. During the Rebellion of 1715 Manchester was the chief centre +of Roman Catholic and High Church Toryism. On the 7th of November the +Scottish army entered Lancaster, where the Pretender was proclaimed +king, and advanced to Preston, at which place a considerable body of +Roman Catholics joined it. The rebels remained at Preston a few days, +apparently unaware of the advance of the government troops, until +General Wills from Manchester and General Carpenter from Lancaster +surrounded the town, and on the 13th of November the town and the rebel +garrison surrendered. Several of the rebels were hanged at Preston, +Wigan, Lancaster and other places. In 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed +through the county and was joined by about 200 adherents, called the +Manchester regiment and placed under the command of Colonel Townley, who +was afterwards executed. + +The first industry established in Lancashire was that of wool, and with +the founding of Furness abbey in 1127 wool farming on a large scale +began here, but the bulk of the wool grown was exported, not worked up +in England. In 1282, however, there was a mill for fulling or bleaching +wool in Manchester, and by the middle of the 16th century there was +quite a flourishing trade in worsted goods. In an act of 1552 Manchester +"rugs and frizes" are specially mentioned, and in 1566 another act +regulated the fees of the aulnager who was to have his deputies at +Manchester, Rochdale, Bolton, Blackburn and Bury; the duty of the +aulnagers was to prevent "cottons, frizes and rugs" from being sold +unsealed, but it must be noted that by cottons is not meant what we now +understand by the word, but woollen goods. The 17th century saw the +birth of the class of clothiers, who purchased the wool in large +quantities or kept their own sheep, and delivered it to weavers who +worked it up into cloth in their houses and returned it to the +employers. The earliest mention of the manufacture of real cotton goods +is in 1641, when Manchester made fustians, vermilions and dimities, but +the industry did not develop to any extent until after the invention of +the fly shuttle by John Kay in 1733, of the spinning jenny by James +Hargreaves of Blackburn in 1765, of the water frame throstle by Richard +Arkwright of Bolton in 1769, and of the mule by Samuel Crompton of +Hall-in-the-Wood near Bolton in 1779. So rapid was the development of +the cotton manufacture that in 1787 there were over forty cotton mills +in Lancashire, all worked by water power. In 1789, however, steam was +applied to the industry in Manchester, and in 1790 in Bolton a cotton +mill was worked by steam. The increase in the import of raw cotton from +3,870,000 lb. in 1769 to 1,083,600,000 in 1860 shows the growth of the +industry. The rapid growth was accompanied with intermittent periods of +depression, which in 1819 in particular led to the formation of various +political societies and to the Blanketeers' Meeting and the Peterloo +Massacre. During the American Civil War the five years' cotton famine +caused untold misery in the county, but public and private relief +mitigated the evils, and one good result was the introduction of +machinery capable of dealing with the shorter staple of Indian cotton, +thus rendering the trade less dependent for its supplies on America. + +During the 18th century the only town where maritime trade increased was +Liverpool, where in the last decade about 4500 ships arrived annually of +a tonnage about one-fifth that of the London shipping. The prosperity of +Liverpool was closely bound up with the slave trade, and about +one-fourth of its ships were employed in this business. With the +increase of trade the means of communication improved. In 1758 the duke +of Bridgewater began the Bridgewater canal from Worsley to Salford and +across the Irwell to Manchester, and before the end of the century the +county was intersected by canals. In 1830 the first railway in England +was opened between Manchester and Liverpool, and other railways rapidly +followed. + + The first recorded instance of parliamentary representation in + Lancashire was in 1295, when two knights were returned for the county + and two burgesses each for the boroughs of Lancaster, Preston, Wigan + and Liverpool. The sheriff added to this return "There is no city in + the county of Lancaster." The boroughs were, however, excused one + after another from parliamentary representation, which was felt as a + burden owing to the compulsory payment of the members' wages. + Lancaster ceased to send members in 1331 after making nineteen + returns, but renewed its privileges in 1529; from 1529 to 1547 there + are no parliamentary returns, but from 1547 to 1867 Lancaster + continued to return two members. Preston similarly was excused after + 1331, after making eleven returns, but in 1529 and from 1547 onwards + returned two members. Liverpool and Wigan sent members in 1295 and + 1307, but not again till 1547. To the writ issued in 1362 the sheriff + in his return says: "There is not any City or Borough in this County + from which citizens or burgesses ought or are accustomed to come as + this Writ requires." In 1559 Clitheroe and Newton-le-Willows first + sent two members. Thus in all Lancashire returned fourteen members, + and, with a brief exception during the Commonwealth, this continued to + be the parliamentary representation till 1832. By the Reform Act of + 1832 Lancashire was assigned four members, two for the northern and + two for the southern division. Lancaster, Preston, Wigan and Liverpool + continued to send two members, Clitheroe returned one and Newton was + disfranchised. The following new boroughs were created: Manchester, + Bolton, Blackburn, Oldham, returning two members each; + Ashton-under-Lyne, Bury, Rochdale, Salford and Warrington, one each. + In 1861 a third member was given to South Lancashire and in 1867 the + county was divided into four constituencies, to each of which four + members were assigned; since 1885 the county returns twenty-three + members. The boroughs returned from 1867 to 1885 twenty-five members, + and since 1885 thirty-four. + + _Antiquities._--The Cistercian abbey of Furness (q.v.) is one of the + finest and most extensive ecclesiastical ruins in England. Whalley + abbey, first founded at Stanlawe in Cheshire in 1178, and removed in + 1296, belonged to the same order. There was a priory of Black Canons + at Burscough, founded in the time of Richard I., one at Conishead + dating from Henry II.'s reign, and one at Lancaster. A convent of + Augustinian friars was founded at Cartmel in 1188, and one at + Warrington about 1280. There are some remains of the Benedictine + priory of Upholland, changed from a college of secular priests in + 1318; and the same order had a priory at Lancaster founded in 1094, a + cell at Lytham, of the reign of Richard I., and a priory at + Penwortham, founded shortly after the time of the Conqueror. The + Premonstratensians had Cockersand abbey, changed in 1190 from a + hospital founded in the reign of Henry II., of which the chapter-house + remains. At Kersal, near Manchester, there was a cell of Cluniac monks + founded in the reign of John, while at Lancaster there were convents + of Dominicans and Franciscans, and at Preston a priory of Grey Friars + built by Edmund, earl of Lancaster, son of Henry III. + + Besides the churches mentioned under the several towns, the more + interesting are those of Aldingham, Norman doorway; Aughton; Cartmel + priory church (see Furness); Hawkshead; Heysham, Norman with traces of + earlier date; Hoole; Huyton; Kirkby, rebuilt, with very ancient font; + Kirkby Ireleth, late Perpendicular, with Norman doorway; Leyland; + Melling (in Lonsdale), Perpendicular, with stained-glass windows; + Middleton, rebuilt in 1524, but containing part of the Norman church + and several monuments; Ormskirk, Perpendicular with traces of Norman, + having two towers, one of which is detached and surmounted by a spire; + Overton, with Norman doorway; Radcliffe, Norman; Sefton, + Perpendicular, with fine brass and recumbent figures of the Molyneux + family, also a screen exquisitely carved; Stidd, near Ribchester, + Norman arch and old monuments; Tunstall, late Perpendicular; Upholland + priory church, Early English, with low massy tower; Urswick, Norman, + with embattled tower and several old monuments; Walton-on-the-hill, + anciently the parish church of Liverpool; Walton-le-Dale; Warton, with + old font; Whalley abbey church, Decorated and Perpendicular, with + Runic stone monuments. + + The principal old castles are those of Lancaster; Dalton, a small rude + tower occupying the site of an older building; two towers of Gleaston + castle, built by the lords of Aldingham in the 14th century; the ruins + of Greenhalgh castle, built by the first earl of Derby, and demolished + after a siege by order of parliament in 1649; the ruins of Fouldrey in + Piel Island near the entrance to Barrow harbour, erected in the reign + of Edward III., now most dilapidated. There are many old timber houses + and mansions of interest, as well as numerous modern seats. + + See _Victoria History of Lancashire_ (1906-1907); E. Baines, _The + History of the County Palatine and Duchy of Lancaster_ (1888); H. + Fishwick, _A History of Lancashire_ (1894); W. D. Pink and A. B. + Beavan, _The Parliamentary Representation of Lancashire_ (1889). + + + + +LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. The name House of Lancaster is commonly used to +designate the line of English kings immediately descended from John of +Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III. But the history of the family and +of the title goes back to the reign of Henry III., who created his +second son, Edmund, earl of Lancaster in 1267. This Edmund received in +his own day the surname of Crouchback, not, as was afterwards supposed, +from a personal deformity, but from having worn a cross upon his back in +token of a crusading vow. He is not a person of much importance in +history except in relation to a strange theory raised in a later age +about his birth, which we shall notice presently. His son Thomas, who +inherited the title, took the lead among the nobles of Edward II.'s time +in opposition to Piers Gaveston and the Despensers, and was beheaded for +treason at Pontefract. At the commencement of the following reign his +attainder was reversed and his brother Henry restored to the earldom; +and Henry being appointed guardian to the young king Edward III., +assisted him to throw off the yoke of Mortimer. On this Henry's death in +1345 he was succeeded by a son of the same name, sometimes known as +Henry Tort-Col or Wryneck, a very valiant commander in the French wars, +whom the king advanced to the dignity of a duke. Only one duke had been +created in England before, and that was fourteen years previously, when +the king's son Edward, the Black Prince, was made duke of Cornwall. This +Henry Wryneck died in 1361 without heir male. His second daughter, +Blanche, became the wife of John of Gaunt, who thus succeeded to the +duke's inheritance in her right; and on the 13th of November 1362, when +King Edward attained the age of fifty, John was created duke of +Lancaster, his elder brother, Lionel, being at the same time created +duke of Clarence. It was from these two dukes that the rival houses of +Lancaster and York derived their respective claims to the crown. As +Clarence was King Edward's third son, while John of Gaunt was his +fourth, in ordinary course on the failure of the elder line the issue of +Clarence should have taken precedence of that of Lancaster in the +succession. But the rights of Clarence were conveyed in the first +instance to an only daughter, and the ambition and policy of the house +of Lancaster, profiting by advantageous circumstances, enabled them not +only to gain possession of the throne but to maintain themselves in it +for three generations before they were dispossessed by the +representatives of the elder brother. + +As for John of Gaunt himself, it can hardly be said that this sort of +politic wisdom is very conspicuous in him. His ambition was generally +more manifest than his discretion; but fortune favoured his ambition, +even as to himself, somewhat beyond expectation, and still more in his +posterity. Before the death of his father he had become the greatest +subject in England, his three elder brothers having all died before him. +He had even added to his other dignities the title of king of Castile, +having married, after his first wife's death, the daughter of Peter the +Cruel. The title, however, was an empty one, the throne of Castile being +actually in the possession of Henry of Trastamara, whom the English had +vainly endeavoured to set aside. His military and naval enterprises were +for the most part disastrous failures, and in England he was exceedingly +unpopular. Nevertheless, during the later years of his father's reign +the weakness of the king and the declining health of the Black Prince +threw the government very much into his hands. He even aimed, or was +suspected of aiming, at the succession to the crown; but in this hope he +was disappointed by the action of the Good Parliament a year before +Edward's death, in which it was settled that Richard the son of the +Black Prince should be king after his grandfather. Nevertheless the +suspicion with which he was regarded was not altogether quieted when +Richard came to the throne, a boy in the eleventh year of his age. The +duke himself complained in parliament of the way he was spoken of out of +doors, and at the outbreak of Wat Tyler's insurrection the peasants +stopped pilgrims on the road to Canterbury and made them swear never to +accept a king of the name of John. On gaining possession of London they +burnt his magnificent palace of the Savoy. Richard found a convenient +way to get rid of John of Gaunt by sending him to Castile to make good +his barren title, and on this expedition he was away three years. He +succeeded so far as to make a treaty with his rival, King John, son of +Henry of Trastamara, for the succession, by virtue of which his +daughter Catherine became the wife of Henry III. of Castile some years +later. After his return the king seems to have regarded him with greater +favour, created him duke of Aquitaine, and employed him in repeated +embassies to France, which at length resulted in a treaty of peace, and +Richard's marriage to the French king's daughter. + +Another marked incident of his public life was the support which he gave +on one occasion to the Reformer Wycliffe. How far this was due to +religious and how far to political considerations may be a question; but +not only John of Gaunt but his immediate descendants, the three kings of +the house of Lancaster, all took deep interest in the religious +movements of the times. A reaction against Lollardy, however, had +already begun in the days of Henry IV., and both he and his son felt +obliged to discountenance opinions which were believed to be politically +and theologically dangerous. + +Accusations had been made against John of Gaunt more than once during +the earlier part of Richard II.'s reign of entertaining designs to +supplant his nephew on the throne. But these Richard never seems to have +wholly credited, and during his three years' absence his younger +brother, Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, showed himself a far +more dangerous intriguer. Five confederate lords with Gloucester at +their head took up arms against the king's favourite ministers, and the +Wonderful Parliament put to death without remorse almost every agent of +his former administration who had not fled the country. Gloucester even +contemplated the dethronement of the king, but found that in this matter +he could not rely on the support of his associates, one of whom was +Henry, earl of Derby, the duke of Lancaster's son. Richard soon +afterwards, by declaring himself of age, shook off his uncle's control, +and within ten years the acts of the Wonderful Parliament were reversed +by a parliament no less arbitrary. Gloucester and his allies were then +brought to account; but the earl of Derby and Thomas Mowbray, earl of +Nottingham, were taken into favour as having opposed the more violent +proceedings of their associates. As if to show his entire confidence in +both these noblemen, the king created the former duke of Hereford and +the latter duke of Norfolk. But within three months from this time the +one duke accused the other of treason, and the truth of the charge, +after much consideration, was referred to trial by battle according to +the laws of chivalry. But when the combat was about to commence it was +interrupted by the king, who, to preserve the peace of the kingdom, +decreed by his own mere authority that the duke of Hereford should be +banished for ten years--a term immediately afterwards reduced to +five--and the duke of Norfolk for life. + +This arbitrary sentence was obeyed in the first instance by both +parties, and Norfolk never returned. But Henry, duke of Hereford, whose +milder sentence was doubtless owing to the fact that he was the popular +favourite, came back within a year, having been furnished with a very +fair pretext for doing so by a new act of injustice on the part of +Richard. His father, John of Gaunt, had died in the interval, and the +king, troubled with a rebellion in Ireland, and sorely in want of money, +had seized the duchy of Lancaster as forfeited property. Henry at once +sailed for England, and landing in Yorkshire while King Richard was in +Ireland, gave out that he came only to recover his inheritance. He at +once received the support of the northern lords, and as he marched +southwards the whole kingdom was soon practically at his command. +Richard, by the time he had recrossed the channel to Wales, discovered +that his cause was lost. He was conveyed from Chester to London, and +forced to execute a deed by which he resigned his crown. This was +recited in parliament, and he was formally deposed. The duke of +Lancaster then claimed the kingdom as due to himself by virtue of his +descent from Henry III. + +The claim which he put forward involved, to all appearance, a strange +falsification of history, for it seemed to rest upon the supposition +that Edmund of Lancaster, and not Edward I., was the eldest son of Henry +III. A story had gone about, even in the days of John of Gaunt, who, if +we may trust the rhymer John Hardyng (_Chronicle_, pp. 290, 291), had +got it inserted in chronicles deposited in various monasteries, that +this Edmund, surnamed Crouchback, was really hump-backed, and that he +was set aside in favour of his younger brother Edward on account of his +deformity. No chronicle, however, is known to exist which actually +states that Edmund Crouchback was thus set aside; and in point of fact +he had no deformity at all, while Edward was six years his senior. +Hardyng's testimony is, moreover, suspicious as reflecting the +prejudices of the Percys after they had turned against Henry IV., for +Hardyng himself expressly says that the earl of Northumberland was the +source of his information (see note, p. 353 of his _Chronicle_). But a +statement in the continuation of the chronicle called the _Eulogium_ +(vol. iii. pp. 369, 370) corroborates Hardyng to some extent; for we are +told that John of Gaunt had once desired in parliament that his son +should be recognized on this flimsy plea as heir to the crown; and when +Roger Mortimer, earl of March, denied the story and insisted on his own +claim as descended from Lionel, duke of Clarence, Richard imposed +silence on both parties. However this may be, it is certain that this +story, though not directly asserted to be true, was indirectly pointed +at by Henry when he put forward his claim, and no one was then bold +enough to challenge it. + +This was partly due, no doubt, to the fact that the true lineal heir +after Richard was then a child, Edmund, who had just succeeded his +father as earl of March. Another circumstance was unfavourable to the +house of Mortimer--that it derived its title through a woman. No case +precisely similar had as yet arisen, and, notwithstanding the precedent +of Henry II., it might be doubted whether succession through a female +was favoured by the constitution. If not, Henry could say with truth +that he was the direct heir of his grandfather, Edward III. If, on the +other hand, succession through females was valid, he could trace his +descent through his mother from Henry III. by a very illustrious line of +ancestors. And, in the words by which he formally made his claim, he +ventured to say no more than that he was descended from the king last +mentioned "by right line of the blood." In what particular way that +"right line" was to be traced he did not venture to indicate. + +A brief epitome of the reigns of the three successive kings belonging to +the house of Lancaster (Henry IV., V. and VI.) will be found elsewhere. +With the death of Henry VI. the direct male line of John of Gaunt became +extinct. But by his daughters he became the ancestor of more than one +line of foreign kings, while his descendants by his third wife, +Catherine Swynford, conveyed the crown of England to the house of Tudor. +It is true that his children by this lady were born before he married +her; but they were made legitimate by act of parliament, and, though +Henry IV. in confirming the privilege thus granted to them endeavoured +to debar them from the succession to the crown, it is now ascertained +that there was no such reservation in the original act, and the title +claimed by Henry VII. was probably better than he himself supposed. + +We show on the following page a pedigree of the royal and illustrious +houses that traced their descent from John of Gaunt. (J. Ga.) + + + + +LANCASTER, HENRY, EARL OF (c. 1281-1345), was the second son of Edmund, +earl of Lancaster (d. 1296), and consequently a grandson of Henry III. +During his early days he took part in campaigns in Flanders, Scotland +and Wales, but was quite overshadowed by his elder brother Thomas (see +below). In 1324, two years after Thomas had lost his life for opposing +the king, Henry was made earl of Leicester by his cousin, Edward II., +but he was not able to secure the titles and estates of Lancaster to +which he was heir, and be showed openly that his sympathies were with +his dead brother. When Queen Isabella took up arms against her husband +in 1326 she was joined at once by the earl, who took a leading part in +the proceedings against the king and his favourites, the Despensers, +being Edward's gaoler at Kenilworth castle. Edward III. being now on the +throne, Leicester secured the earldom of Lancaster and his brother's +lands, becoming also steward of England; he knighted the young king and +was the foremost member of the royal council, but he was soon at +variance with Isabella and her paramour, Roger Mortimer, and was +practically deprived of his power. In 1328 his attempt to overthrow +Mortimer failed, and he quietly made his peace with the king; a second +essay against Mortimer was more successful. About this time Lancaster +became blind; he retired from public life and died on the 22nd of +September, 1345. + + TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DESCENDANTS OF JOHN OF GAUNT. + + John of Gaunt, = Blanche, = Constance, = Catherine, + duke of Lancaster, titular king | daughter and heiress of | the elder of the two daughters | daughter of Sir Payne Roet, + of Castile. | Henry, duke of Lancaster. | and heiresses of Peter, king of | widow of Sir Hugh Swynford. + | | Castile and Leon. | + +---------------+------------+-----------------------------+ | +----------+-------+--+------------------+ + | | | | | | | | | + Philippa, Henry IV.,= Mary de Bohun,= Joan, Elizabeth, Catherine, John Henry Thomas Joan Beaufort, + married to king of | daughter and daughter of married to John married to Prince Beaufort, Beaufort, Beaufort, wife of Ralph Nevill, 1st + John I., king England. | co-heir of Charles the Holand, duke of Henry, afterwards earl of cardinal. duke of earl of Westmoreland, by + of Portugal. | Humphrey de Bad, king Exeter, who was Henry III. of Somerset. Exeter. whom she became an ancestor + | | Bohun, earl of of Navarre. beheaded by Henry Castile. | of Edward IV., Richard III., + Edward, | Hereford and No issue. IV.; afterwards to | +-+------------------+ Warwick the King Maker and + king of | Essex. Sir John Cornwall, John II. | | many noble families. + Portugal. | created Baron king of Castile. Henry John + | | Fanhope. | Beaufort, Beaufort, + +----+--------+ +-+------------------------+----------+-----+----+ Isabella of Castile, earl of earl, afterwards + | | | | | | | queen of Ferdinand Somerset. duke, of + | | | | | | | of Aragon; whose Somerset. + | | | | | | | descendants were | + Alphonso V. Ferdinand, Henry V., = Catherine, Thomas, John, | Humphrey, kings of Spain till Edmund, = Margaret + of Portugal. duke of Viseu. king of | daughter of duke of duke of | duke of the accession of the earl of Rich- | Beaufort. + | | England. | Charles IV. Clarence. Bedford.| Gloucester. Bourbons in 1700. mond, son of | + John II Emmanuel, | of France | Sir Owen Tudor | + of Portugal. king of Portugal; | afterwards | by Catherine, | + whose descendants | Tudor. Philippa, widow of Henry | + have reigned in that | married V. | + country ever since. Henry VI. to Eric | + | VII. of Henry VII., + Edward, Denmark king of England. + prince of Wales. of Sweden. | + | + +---------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | + Henry VIII. Margaret = James IV. Mary. = Charles Brandon, + | | king of Scotland. | duke of Suffolk. + +-----------+-----------+ | | + | | | James V., +-------+---+-----------------+ + Edward VI. Mary, Elizabeth, king of Scotland. | | | + queen of queen of | Henry, Frances, Eleanor, + England. England. Mary Stuart. earl of wife of Henry wife of Henry, + | Lincoln. Grey, marquess 2nd. earl of + James VI. of Scotland of Dorset, Cumberland. + and I. of England created duke of + whose descendants Suffolk. + have reigned in Great | + Britain ever since. Lady Jane Grey + and others. + +His son and successor, HENRY, 1st duke of Lancaster (c. 1300-1361), was +a soldier of unusual distinction. Probably from his birthplace in +Monmouthshire he was called Henry of Grosmont. He fought in the naval +fight off Sluys and in the one off Winchelsea in 1350; he led armies +into Scotland, Gascony and Normandy, his exploits in Gascony in 1345 and +1346 being especially successful; he served frequently under Edward III. +himself; and he may be fairly described as one of the most brilliant and +capable of the English warriors during the earlier part of the Hundred +Years' War. During a brief respite from the king's service he led a +force into Prussia and he was often employed on diplomatic business. In +1354 he was at Avignon negotiating with Pope Innocent VI., who wished to +make peace between England and France, and one of his last acts was to +assist in arranging the details of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360. In +1337 he was made earl of Derby; in 1345 he succeeded to his father's +earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester; in 1349 he was created earl of +Lincoln, and in 1351 he was made duke of Lancaster. He was steward of +England and one of the original knights of the order of the garter. He +died at Leicester on the 13th of March 1361. He left no sons; one of his +daughters, Maud (d. 1362), married William V., count of Holland, a son +of the emperor Louis the Bavarian, and the other, Blanche (d. 1369), +married Edward III.'s son, John of Gaunt, who obtained his +father-in-law's titles and estates. + + + + +LANCASTER, SIR JAMES (fl. 1591-1618), English navigator and statesman, +one of the foremost pioneers of the British Indian trade and empire. In +early life he fought and traded in Portugal. On the 10th of April 1591 +he started from Plymouth, with Raymond and Foxcroft, on his first great +voyage to the East Indies; this fleet of three ships is the earliest of +English oversea Indian expeditions. Reaching Table Bay (1st of August +1591), and losing one ship off Cape Corrientes on the 12th of September, +the squadron rested and refitted at Zanzibar (February 1592), rounded +Cape Comorin in May following, and was off the Malay Peninsula in June. +Crossing later to Ceylon, the crews insisted on returning home; the +voyage back was disastrous; only twenty-five officers and men reappeared +in England in 1594. Lancaster himself reached Rye on the 24th of May +1594; in the same year he led a military expedition against Pernambuco, +without much success; but his Indian voyage, like Ralph Fitch's overland +explorations and trading, was an important factor in the foundation of +the East India Company. In 1600 he was given command of the company's +first fleet (which sailed from Torbay towards the end of April 1601); he +was also accredited as Queen Elizabeth's special envoy to various +Eastern potentates. Going by the Cape of Good Hope (1st of November +1601) Lancaster visited the Nicobars (from the 9th of April 1602), Achin +and other parts of Sumatra (from the 5th of June 1602), and Bantam in +Java; an alliance was concluded with Achin, a factory established at +Bantam and a commercial mission despatched to the Moluccas. The return +voyage (20th of February to 11th of September 1603) was speedy and +prosperous, and Lancaster (whose success both in trade and in diplomacy +had been brilliant) was rewarded with knighthood (October 1603). He +continued to be one of the chief directors of the East India Company +till his death in May 1618; most of the voyages of the early Stuart time +both to India and in search of the North-West passage were undertaken +under his advice and direction; Lancaster Sound, on the north-west of +Baffin's Bay (in 74° 20' N.), was named by William Baffin after Sir +James (July 1616). + + See Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_, vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 102-110, + vol. iii. pp. 708-715 (1599); Purchas, _Pilgrims_, vol. i. pt. ii. pp. + 147-164; also _The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster ... to the East + Indies ..._, ed. Sir Clements Markham, Hakluyt Soc. (1877), _Calendars + of State Papers, East Indies_. The original journals of Lancaster's + voyage of 1601-1603 have disappeared, and here we have only Purchas to + go on. + + + + +LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT, _Duke of_ (1340-1399), fourth son of Edward +III. and Queen Philippa, was born in March 1340 at Ghent, whence his +name. On the 29th of September 1342 he was made earl of Richmond; as a +child he was present at the sea fight with the Spaniards in August 1350, +but his first military service was in 1355, when he was knighted. On the +19th of May 1359 he married his cousin Blanche, daughter and ultimately +sole heiress of Henry, duke of Lancaster. In her right he became earl of +Lancaster in 1361, and next year was created duke. His marriage made him +the greatest lord in England, but for some time he took no prominent +part in public affairs. In 1366 he joined his eldest brother, Edward the +Black Prince, in Aquitaine, and in the year after led a strong +contingent to share in the campaign in support of Pedro the Cruel of +Castile. With this began the connexion with Spain, which was to have so +great an influence on his after-life. John fought in the van at Najera +on the 3rd of April 1367, when the English victory restored Pedro to his +throne. He returned home at the end of the year. Pedro proved false to +his English allies, and was finally overthrown and killed by his rival, +Henry of Trastamara, in 1369. The disastrous Spanish enterprise led +directly to renewed war between France and England. In August 1369 John +had command of an army which invaded northern France without success. In +the following year he went again to Aquitaine, and was present with the +Black Prince at the sack of Limoges. Edward's health was broken down, +and he soon after went home, leaving John as his lieutenant. For a year +John maintained the war at his own cost, but whilst in Aquitaine a +greater prospect was opened to him. The duchess Blanche had died in the +autumn of 1369 and now John married Constance (d. 1394), the elder +daughter of Pedro the Cruel, and in her right assumed the title of king +of Castile and Leon. For sixteen years the pursuit of his kingdom was +the chief object of John's ambition. No doubt he hoped to achieve his +end, when he commanded the great army which invaded France in 1373. But +the French would not give battle, and though John marched from Calais +right through Champagne, Burgundy and Auvergne, it was with disastrous +results; only a shattered remnant of the host reached Bordeaux. + +The Spanish scheme had to wait, and when John got back to England he was +soon absorbed in domestic politics. The king was prematurely old, the +Black Prince's health was broken. John, in spite of the unpopularity of +his ill-success, was forced into the foremost place. As head of the +court party he had to bear the brunt of the attack on the administration +made by the Good Parliament in 1376. It was not perhaps altogether just, +and John was embittered by reflections on his loyalty. As soon as the +parliament was dissolved he had its proceedings reversed, and next year +secured a more subservient assembly. There came, however, a new +development. The duke's politics were opposed by the chief +ecclesiastics, and in resisting them he had made use of Wycliffe. With +Wycliffe's religious opinions he had no sympathy. Nevertheless when the +bishops arraigned the reformer for heresy John would not abandon him. +The conflict over the trial led to a violent quarrel with the Londoners, +and a riot in the city during which John was in danger of his life from +the angry citizens. The situation was entirely altered by the death of +Edward III. on the 21st of June. Though his enemies had accused him of +aiming at the throne, John was without any taint of disloyalty. In his +nephew's interests he accepted a compromise, disclaimed before +parliament the truth of the malicious rumours against him, and was +reconciled formally with his opponents. Though he took his proper place +in the ceremonies at Richard's coronation, he showed a tactful +moderation by withdrawing for a time from any share in the government. +However, in the summer of 1378, he commanded in an attack on St Malo, +which through no fault of his failed. To add to this misfortune, during +his absence some of his supporters violated the sanctuary at +Westminster. He vindicated himself somewhat bitterly in a parliament at +Gloucester, but still avoiding a prominent part in the government, +accepted the command on the Scottish border. He was there engaged when +his palace of the Savoy in London was burnt during the peasants' revolt +in June 1381. Wild reports that even the government had declared him a +traitor made him seek refuge in Scotland. Richard had, however, +denounced the calumnies, and at once recalled his uncle. + +John's self-restraint had strengthened his position, and he began again +to think of his Spanish scheme. He urged its undertaking in parliament +in 1382, but nearer troubles were more urgent, and John himself was +wanted on the Scottish border. There he sought to arrange peace, but +against his will was forced into an unfortunate campaign in 1384. His +ill-success renewed his unpopularity, and the court favourites of +Richard II. intrigued against him. They were probably responsible for +the allegation, made by a Carmelite, called Latemar, that John was +conspiring against his nephew. Though Richard at first believed it, the +matter was disposed of by the friar's death. However, the court party +soon after concocted a fresh plot for the duke's destruction; John +boldly denounced his traducers, and the quarrel was appeased by the +intervention of the king's mother. The intrigue still continued, and +broke out again during the Scottish campaign in 1385. John was not the +man to be forced into treason to his family, but the impossibility of +the position at home made his foreign ambitions more feasible. + +The victory of John of Portugal over the king of Castile at Aljubarrota, +won with English help, offered an opportunity. In July 1386 John left +England with a strong force to win his Spanish throne. He landed at +Corunna, and during the autumn conquered Galicia. Juan, who had +succeeded his father Henry as king of Castile, offered a compromise by +marriage. John of Gaunt refused, hoping for greater success with the +help of the king of Portugal, who now married the duke's eldest daughter +Philippa. In the spring the allies invaded Castile. They could achieve +no success, and sickness ruined the English army. The conquests of the +previous year were lost, and when Juan renewed his offers, John of Gaunt +agreed to surrender his claims to his daughter by Constance of Castile, +who was to marry Juan's heir. After some delay the peace was concluded +at Bayonne in 1388. The next eighteen months were spent by John as +lieutenant of Aquitaine, and it was not till November 1389 that he +returned to England. By his absence he had avoided implication in the +troubles at home. Richard, still insecure of his own position, welcomed +his uncle, and early in the following year marked his favour by creating +him duke of Aquitaine. John on his part was glad to support the king's +government; during four years he exercised his influence in favour of +pacification at home, and abroad was chiefly responsible for the +conclusion of a truce with France. Then in 1395 he went to take up the +government of his duchy; thanks chiefly to his lavish expenditure his +administration was not unsuccessful, but the Gascons had from the first +objected to government except by the crown, and secured his recall +within less than a year. Almost immediately after his return John +married as his third wife Catherine Swynford; Constance of Castile had +died in 1394. Catherine had been his mistress for many years, and his +children by her, who bore the name of Beaufort, were now legitimated. In +this and in other matters Richard found it politic to conciliate him. +But though John presided at the trial of the earl of Arundel in +September 1397, he took no active part in affairs. The exile of his son +Henry in 1398 was a blow from which he did not recover. He died on the +3rd of February 1399, and was buried at St Paul's near the high altar. + + John was neither a great soldier nor a statesman, but he was a + chivalrous knight and loyal to what he believed were the interests of + his family. In spite of opportunities and provocations he never lent + himself to treason. He deserves credit for his protection of Wycliffe, + though he had no sympathy with his religious or political opinions. He + was also the patron of Chaucer, whose _Boke of the Duchesse_ was a + lament for Blanche of Lancaster. + + The chief original sources for John's life are Froissart, the + maliciously hostile _Chronicon Angliae_ (1328-1388), and the + eulogistic _Chronicle_ of Henry Knighton (both the latter in the Rolls + Series). But fuller information is to be found in the excellent + biography by S. Armytage-Smith, published in 1904. For his descendants + see the table under LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. (C. L. K.) + + + + +LANCASTER, JOSEPH (1778-1838), English educationist, was born in +Southwark in 1778, the son of a Chelsea pensioner. He had few +opportunities of regular instruction, but he very early showed unusual +seriousness and desire for learning. At sixteen he looked forward to the +dissenting ministry; but soon after his religious views altered, and he +attached himself to the Society of Friends, with which he remained +associated for many years, until long afterwards he was disowned by that +body. At the age of twenty he began to gather a few poor children under +his father's roof, and to give them the rudiments of instruction, +without a fee, except in cases in which the parent was willing to pay a +trifle. Soon a thousand children were assembled in the Borough Road; +and, the attention of the duke of Bedford, Mr Whitbread, and others +having been directed to his efforts, he was provided with means for +building a schoolroom and supplying needful materials. The main features +of his plan were the employment of older scholars as monitors, and an +elaborate system of mechanical drill, by means of which these young +teachers were made to impart the rudiments of reading, writing and +arithmetic to large numbers at the same time. The material appliances +for teaching were very scanty--a few leaves torn out of spelling-books +and pasted on boards, some slates and a desk spread with sand, on which +the children wrote with their fingers. The order and cheerfulness of the +school and the military precision of the children's movements began to +attract much public observation at a time when the education of the poor +was almost entirely neglected. Lancaster inspired his young monitors +with fondness for their work and with pride in the institution of which +they formed a part. As these youths became more trustworthy, he found +himself at leisure to accept invitations to expound what he called "his +system" by lectures in various towns. In this way many new schools were +established, and placed under the care of young men whom he had trained. +In a memorable interview with George III., Lancaster was encouraged by +the expression of the king's wish that every poor child in his dominions +should be taught to read the Bible. Royal patronage brought in its train +resources, fame and public responsibility, which proved to be beyond +Lancaster's own powers to sustain or control. He was vain, reckless and +improvident. In 1808 a few noblemen and gentlemen paid his debts, became +his trustees and founded the society at first called the Royal +Lancasterian Institution, but afterwards more widely known as the +British and Foreign School Society. The trustees soon found that +Lancaster was impatient of control, and that his wild impulses and +heedless extravagance made it impossible to work with him. He quarrelled +with the committee, set up a private school at Tooting, became bankrupt, +and in 1818 emigrated to America. There he met at first a warm +reception, gave several courses of lectures which were well attended, +and wrote to friends at home letters full of enthusiasm. But his fame +was short-lived. The miseries of debt and disappointment were aggravated +by sickness, and he settled for a time in the warmer climate of Carácas. +He afterwards visited St Thomas and Santa Cruz, and at length returned +to New York, the corporation of which city made him a public grant of +500 dollars in pity for the misfortunes which had by this time reduced +him to lamentable poverty. He afterwards visited Canada, where he gave +lectures at Montreal, and was encouraged to open a school which enjoyed +an ephemeral success, but was soon abandoned. A small annuity provided +by his friends in England was his only means of support. He formed a +plan for returning home and giving a new impetus to his "system," by +which he declared it would be possible "to teach ten thousand children +in different schools, not knowing their letters, all to read fluently in +three weeks to three months." But these visions were never realized. He +was run over by a carriage in the streets of New York on the 24th of +October 1838, and died in a few hours. + + As one of the two rival inventors of what was called the "monitorial" + or "mutual" method of instruction, Lancaster's name was prominent for + many years in educational controversy. Dr Andrew Bell (q.v.) had in + 1797 published an account of his experiments in teaching; and + Lancaster in his first pamphlet, published in 1803, frankly + acknowledges his debt to Bell for some useful hints. The two worked + independently, but Lancaster was the first to apply the system of + monitorial teaching on a large scale. As an economical experiment his + school at the Borough Road was a signal success. He had one thousand + scholars under discipline, and taught them to read, write and work + simple sums at a yearly cost of less than 5s. a head. His tract + _Improvements in Education_ described the gradation of ranks, the + system of signals and orders, the functions of the monitors, the + method of counting and of spelling and the curious devices he adopted + for punishing offenders. Bell's educational aims were humbler, as he + feared to "elevate above their station those who were doomed to the + drudgery of daily labour," and therefore did not desire to teach even + writing and ciphering to the lower classes. The main difference + between them was that the system of the one was adopted by + ecclesiastics and Conservatives,--the "National Society for the + Education of the Poor in the principles of the Established Church" + having been founded in 1811 for its propagation; while Lancaster's + method was patronized by the _Edinburgh Review_, by Whig statesmen, by + a few liberal Churchmen and by Nonconformists generally. It was the + design of Lancaster and his friends to make national education + Christian, but not sectarian,--to cause the Scriptures to be read, + explained and reverenced in the schools, without seeking by catechisms + or otherwise to attract the children to any particular church or sect. + This principle was at first vehemently denounced as deistic and + mischievous, and as especially hostile to the Established Church. To + do them justice, it must be owned that the rival claims and merits of + Bell and Lancaster were urged with more passion and unfairness by + their friends than by themselves. Yet neither is entitled to hold a + very high place among the world's teachers. Bell was cold, shrewd and + self-seeking. Lancaster had more enthusiasm, a genuine and abounding + love for children, and some ingenuity in devising plans both for + teaching and governing. But he was shiftless, wayward and + unmethodical, and incapable of sustained and high-principled personal + effort. His writings were not numerous. They consist mainly of short + pamphlets descriptive of the successes he attained at the Borough + Road. His last publication, _An Epitome of the Chief Events and + Transactions of my Own Life_, appeared in America in 1833, and is + characterized, even more strongly than his former writings, by + looseness and incoherency of style, by egotism and by a curious + incapacity for judging fairly the motives either of his friends or his + foes. We have since come to believe that intelligent teaching requires + skill and previous training, and that even the humblest rudiments are + not to be well taught by those who have only just acquired them for + themselves, or to be attained by mere mechanical drill. But in the + early stages of national education the monitorial method served a + valuable purpose. It brought large numbers of hitherto neglected + children under discipline, and gave them elementary instruction at a + very cheap rate. Moreover, the little monitors were often found to + make up in brightness, tractability and energy for their lack of + experience, and to teach the arts of reading, writing and computing + with surprising success. And one cardinal principle of Bell and + Lancaster is of prime importance. They regarded a school, not merely + as a place to which individual pupils should come for guidance from + teachers, but as an organized community whose members have much to + learn from each other. They sought to place their scholars from the + first in helpful mutual relations, and to make them feel the need of + common efforts towards the attainment of common ends. (J. G. F.) + + + + +LANCASTER, THOMAS, EARL OF (c. 1277-1322), was the eldest son of Edmund, +earl of Lancaster and titular king of Sicily, and a grandson of the +English king, Henry III.; while he was related to the royal house of +France both through his mother, Blanche, a granddaughter of Louis VIII., +and his step-sister, Jeanne, queen of Navarre, the wife of Philip IV. A +minor when Earl Edmund died in 1296, Thomas received his father's +earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester in 1298, but did not become +prominent in English affairs until after the accession of his cousin, +Edward II., in July 1307. Having married Alice (d. 1348), daughter and +heiress of Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and added the earldom of Derby +to those which he already held, he was marked out both by his wealth and +position as the leader of the barons in their resistance to the new +king. With his associates he produced the banishment of the royal +favourite, Piers Gaveston, in 1308; compelled Edward in 1310 to +surrender his power to a committee of "ordainers," among whom he himself +was numbered; and took up arms when Gaveston returned to England in +January 1312. Lancaster, who had just obtained the earldoms of Lincoln +and Salisbury on the death of his father-in-law in 1311, drove the king +and his favourite from Newcastle to Scarborough, and was present at the +execution of Gaveston in June 1312. After lengthy efforts at mediation, +he made his submission and received a full pardon from Edward in October +1313; but he refused to accompany the king on his march into Scotland, +which ended at Bannockburn, and took advantage of the English disaster +to wrest the control of affairs from the hands of Edward. In 1315 he +took command of the forces raised to fight the Scots, and was soon +appointed to the "chief place in the council," while his supporters +filled the great offices of state, but his rule was as feeble as that of +the monarch whom he had superseded. Quarrelling with some of the barons, +he neglected both the government and the defence of the kingdom, and in +1317 began a private war with John, Earl Warrenne, who had assisted his +countess to escape from her husband. The capture of Berwick by the +Scots, however, in April 1318 led to a second reconciliation with +Edward. A formal treaty, made in the following August, having been +ratified by parliament, the king and earl opened the siege of Berwick; +but there was no cohesion between their troops, and the undertaking was +quickly abandoned. On several occasions Lancaster was suspected of +intriguing with the Scots, and it is significant that his lands were +spared when Robert Bruce ravaged the north of England. He refused to +attend the councils or to take any part in the government until 1321, +when the Despensers were banished, and war broke out again between +himself and the king. Having conducted some military operations against +Lancaster's friends on the Welsh marches, Edward led his troops against +the earl, who gradually fell back from Burton-on-Trent to Pontefract. +Continuing this movement, Lancaster reached Boroughbridge, where he was +met by another body of royalists under Sir Andrew Harclay. After a +skirmish he was deserted by his troops, and was obliged to surrender. +Taken to his own castle at Pontefract, where the king was, he was +condemned to death as a rebel and a traitor, and was beheaded near the +town on the 22nd of March 1322. He left no children. + +Although a coarse, selfish and violent man, without any of the +attributes of a statesman, Lancaster won a great reputation for +patriotism; and his memory was long cherished, especially in the north +of England, as that of a defender of popular liberties. Over a hundred +years after his death miracles were said to have been worked at his tomb +at Pontefract; thousands visited his effigy in St Paul's Cathedral, +London, and it was even proposed to make him a saint. + + See _Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II._, edited + with introduction by W. Stubbs (London, 1882-1883); and W. Stubbs, + _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896). + + + + +LANCASTER, a market town and municipal borough, river port, and the +county town of Lancashire, England, in the Lancaster parliamentary +division, 230 m. N.W. by N. from London by the London & North-Western +railway (Castle Station); served also by a branch of the Midland railway +(Green Ayre station). Pop. (1891) 33,256; (1901) 40,329. It lies at the +head of the estuary of the river Lune, mainly on its south bank, 7 m. +from the sea. The site slopes sharply up to an eminence crowned by the +castle and the church of St Mary. Fine views over the rich valley and +Morecambe Bay to the west are commanded from the summit. St Mary's +church was originally attached by Roger de Poictou to his Benedictine +priory founded at the close of the 11th century. It contains some fine +Early English work in the nave arcade, but is of Perpendicular +workmanship in general appearance, while the tower dates from 1759. +There are some beautiful Decorated oak stalls in the chancel, brought +probably from Cockersand or Furness Abbey. + +The castle occupies the site of a Roman _castrum_. The Saxon foundations +of a yet older structure remain, and the tower at the south-west corner +is supposed to have been erected during the reign of Hadrian. The +Dungeon Tower, also supposed to be of Roman origin, was taken down in +1818. The greater part of the old portion of the present structure was +built by Roger de Poictou, who utilized some of the Roman towers and the +old walls. In 1322 much damage was done to the castle by Robert Bruce, +whose attack it successfully resisted, but it was restored and +strengthened by John of Gaunt, who added the greater part of the Gateway +Tower as well as a turret on the keep or Lungess Tower, which on that +account has been named "John o' Gaunt's Chair." During the Civil War the +castle was captured by Cromwell. Shortly after this it was put to public +use, and now, largely modernized, contains the assize courts and gaol. +Its appearance, with massive buildings surrounding a quadrangle, is +picturesque and dignified. Without the walls is a pleasant terrace walk. +Other buildings include several handsome modern churches and chapels +(notably the Roman Catholic church); the Storey Institute with art +gallery, technical and art schools, museum and library, presented to the +borough by Sir Thomas Storey in 1887; Palatine Hall, Ripley hospital (an +endowed school for the children of residents in Lancaster and the +neighbourhood), the asylum, the Royal Lancaster infirmary and an +observatory in the Williamson Park. A new town hall, presented by Lord +Ashton in 1909, is a handsome classical building from designs of E. W. +Mountford. The Ashton Memorial in Williamson Park, commemorating members +of the Ashton family, is a lofty domed structure. The grammar school +occupies modern buildings, but its foundation dates from the close of +the 15th century, and in its former Jacobean house near the church +William Whewell and Sir Richard Owen were educated. A horseshoe inserted +in the pavement at Horseshoe Corner in the town, and renewed from time +to time, is said to mark the place where a shoe was cast by John of +Gaunt's horse. + +The chief industries are cotton-spinning, cabinet-making, oil +cloth-making, railway wagon-building and engineering. Glasson Dock, 5 m. +down the Lune, with a graving dock, is accessible to vessels of 600 +tons. The Kendal and Lancaster canal reaches the town by an aqueduct +over the Lune, which is also crossed by a handsome bridge dated 1788. +The town has further connexion by canal with Preston. The corporation +consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 3506 acres. + +_History._--Lancaster (Lone-caster or Lunecastrum) was an important +Roman station, and traces of the Roman fortification wall remain. The +Danes left few memorials of their occupation, and the Runic Cross found +here, once supposed to be Danish, is now conclusively proved to be +Anglo-Saxon. At the Conquest, the place, reduced in size and with its +Roman castrum almost in ruins, became a possession of Roger de Poictou, +who founded or enlarged the present castle on the old site. The town and +castle had a somewhat chequered ownership till in 1266 they were granted +by Henry III. to his son Edmund, first earl of Lancaster, and continued +to be a part of the duchy of Lancaster till the present time. A town +gathered around the castle, and in 1193 John, earl of Mertoun, +afterwards king, granted it a charter, and another in 1199 after his +accession. Under these charters the burgesses claimed the right of +electing a mayor, of holding a yearly fair at Michaelmas and a weekly +market on Saturday. Henry III. in 1226 confirmed the charter of 1199; in +1291 the style of the corporation is first mentioned as _Ballivus et +communitas burgi_, and Edward III.'s confirmation and extension (1362) +is issued to the mayor, bailiffs and commonalty. Edward III.'s charter +was confirmed by Richard II. (1389), Henry IV. (1400), Henry V. (1421), +Henry VII. (1488) and Elizabeth (1563). James I. (1604) and Charles II. +(1665 and 1685) ratified, with certain additions, all previous charters, +and again in 1819 a similar confirmation was issued. John of Gaunt in +1362 obtained a charter for the exclusive right of holding the sessions +of pleas for the county in Lancaster itself, and up to 1873 the duchy +appointed a chief justice and a puisne justice for the court of common +pleas at Lancaster. In 1322 the Scots burnt the town, the castle alone +escaping; the town was rebuilt but removed from its original position on +the hill to the slope and foot. Again in 1389, after the battle of +Otterburn, it was destroyed by the same enemy. At the outbreak of the +Great Rebellion the burgesses sided with the king, and the town and +castle were captured in February 1643 by the Parliamentarians. In March +1643 Lord Derby assaulted and took the town with great slaughter, but +the castle remained in the hands of the Parliamentarians. In May and +June of the same year the castle was again besieged in vain, and in 1648 +the Royalists under Sir Thomas Tyldesley once more fruitlessly besieged +it. During the rebellion of 1715 the northern rebels occupied Lancaster +for two days and several of them were later executed here. During the +1745 rebellion Prince Charles Edward's army passed through the town in +its southward march and again in its retreat, but the inhabitants stood +firm for the Hanoverians. + + Two chartered markets are held weekly on Wednesday and Saturday and + three annual fairs in April, July and October. A merchant gild existed + here, which was ratified by Edward III.'s charter (1362), and in 1688 + six trade companies were incorporated. The chief manufactures used to + be sailcloth, cabinet furniture, candles and cordage. The borough + returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1331 and again from + some time in Henry VIII.'s reign before 1529 till 1867, when it was + merged in the Lancaster division of north Lancashire. A church existed + here, probably on the site of the parish church of St Mary's, in + Anglo-Saxon times, but the present church dates from the early 15th + century. An act of parliament was passed in 1792 to make the canal + from Kendal through Lancaster and Preston, which is carried over the + Lune about a mile above Lancaster by a splendid aqueduct. + + See Fleury, _Time-Honoured Lancaster_ (1891); E. Baines, _History of + Lancashire_ (1888). + + + + +LANCASTER, a city and the county-seat of Fairfield county, Ohio, U.S.A., +on the Hocking river (non-navigable), about 32 m. S.E. of Columbus. Pop. +(1900) 8991, of whom 442 were foreign-born and 212 were negroes; (1910 +census) 13,093. Lancaster is served by the Hocking Valley, the Columbus +& Southern and the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania Lines) +railways, and by the electric line of the Scioto Valley Traction +Company, which connects it with Columbus. Near the centre of the city is +Mt. Pleasant, which rises nearly 200 ft. above the surrounding plain and +about which cluster many Indian legends; with 70 acres of woodland and +fields surrounding it, this has been given to the city for a park. On +another hill is the county court house. Lancaster has a public library +and a children's home; and 6 m. distant is the State Industrial School +for Boys. The manufactures include boots and shoes, glass and +agricultural implements. The total value of the city's factory product +in 1905 was $4,159,410, being an increase of 118.3% over that of 1900. +Lancaster is the trade centre of a fertile agricultural region, has good +transportation facilities, and is near the Hocking Valley and Sunday +Creek Valley coal-fields; its commercial and industrial importance +increased greatly, after 1900, through the development of the +neighbouring natural gas fields and, after 1907-1908, through the +discovery of petroleum near the city. Good sandstone is quarried in the +vicinity. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks and natural +gas plant. Lancaster was founded in 1800 by Ebenezer Zane (1747-1811), +who received a section of land here as part compensation for opening a +road, known as "Zane's Trace," from Wheeling, West Virginia, to +Limestone (now Maysville), Kentucky. Some of the early settlers were +from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, whence the name. Lancaster was +incorporated as a village in 1831 and twenty years later became a city +of the third class. + + + + +LANCASTER, a city and the county-seat of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the Conestoga river, 68 m. W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900) +41,459, of whom 3492 were foreign-born and 777 were negroes; (1910 +census) 47,227. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & +Reading and the Lancaster, Oxford & Southern railways, and by tramways +of the Conestoga Traction Company, which had in 1909 a mileage of 152 m. +Lancaster has a fine county court house, a soldiers' monument about 43 +ft. in height, two fine hospitals, the Thaddeus Stevens Industrial +School (for orphans), a children's home, the Mechanics' Library, and the +Library of the Lancaster Historical Society. It is the seat of Franklin +and Marshall College (Reformed Church), of the affiliated Franklin and +Marshall Academy, and of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed +Church, conducted in connexion with the college. The college was founded +in 1852 by the consolidation of Franklin College, founded at Lancaster +in 1787, and Marshall College, founded at Mercersburg in 1836, both of +which had earned a high standing among the educational institutions of +Pennsylvania. Franklin College was named in honour of Benjamin Franklin, +an early patron; Marshall College was founded by the Reformed Church and +was named in honour of John Marshall. The Theological Seminary was +opened in 1825 at Carlisle, Pa., and was removed to York, Pa., in 1829, +to Mercersburg, Pa., in 1837 and to Lancaster in 1871; in 1831 it was +chartered by the Pennsylvania legislature. Among its teachers have been +John W. Nevin and Philip Schaff, whose names, and that of the seminary, +are associated with the so-called "Mercersburg Theology." At +Millersville, 4 m. S.W. of Lancaster, is the Second Pennsylvania State +Normal School. At Lancaster are the graves of General John F. Reynolds, +who was born here; Thaddeus Stevens, who lived here after 1842; and +President James Buchanan, who lived for many years on an estate, +"Wheatland," near the city and is buried in the Woodward Hill Cemetery. +The city is in a productive tobacco and grain region, and has a large +tobacco trade and important manufactures. The value of the city's +factory products increased from $12,750,429 in 1900 to $14,647,681 in +1905, or 14.9%. In 1905 the principal products were umbrellas and canes +(valued at $2,782,879), cigars and cigarettes ($1,951,971), and foundry +and machine-shop products ($1,036,526). Lancaster county has long been +one of the richest agricultural counties in the United States, its +annual products being valued at about $10,000,000; in 1906 the value of +the tobacco crop was about $3,225,000, and there were 824 manufactories +of cigars in the county. + +Lancaster was settled about 1717 by English Quakers and Germans, was +laid out as a town in 1730, incorporated as a borough in 1742, and +chartered as a city in 1818. An important treaty with the Iroquois +Indians was negotiated here by the governor of Pennsylvania and by +commissioners from Maryland and Virginia in June 1744. Some of General +Burgoyne's troops, surrendered at Saratoga, were confined here after the +autumn of 1780. The Continental Congress sat here on the 27th of +September 1777 after being driven from Philadelphia by the British; and +subsequently, after the organization of the Federal government, +Lancaster was one of the places seriously considered when a national +capital was to be chosen. From 1799 to 1812 Lancaster was the capital of +Pennsylvania. + + + + +LANCE, a form of spear used by cavalry (see SPEAR). The use of the +lance, dying away on the decay of chivalry and the introduction of +pistol-armed cavalry, was revived by the Polish and Cossack cavalry who +fought against Charles XII. and Frederick the Great. It was not until +Napoleon's time, however, that lancer regiments appeared in any great +numbers on European battlefields. The effective use of the weapon--long +before called by Montecucculi the "queen of weapons"--by Napoleon's +lancers at Waterloo led to its introduction into the British service, +and except for a short period after the South African War, in which it +was condemned as an anachronism, it has shared, or rather contested, +with the sword the premier place amongst cavalry arms. In Great Britain +and other countries lances are carried by the front rank of cavalry, +except light cavalry, regiments, as well as by lancer regiments. In +Germany, since 1889, the _whole_ of the cavalry has been armed with the +lance. In Russia, on the other hand, line cavalry being, until recently, +considered as a sort of mounted infantry or dragoons, the lance was +restricted to the Cossacks, and in Austria it enjoys less favour than in +Germany. Altogether there are few questions of armament or military +detail more freely disputed, in the present day as in the past, than +this of sword _versus_ lance. + + The lances used in the British service are of two kinds, those with + ash and those with bamboo staves. The latter are much preferred and + are generally used, the "male" bamboo being peculiarly tough and + elastic. The lance is provided with a sling, through which the trooper + passes his right arm when the lance is carried slung, the point of the + steel shoe fitting into a bucket attached to the right stirrup. A + small "dee" loop is also provided, by which the lance can be attached + to the saddle when the trooper dismounts. The small flag is removed on + service. The head is of the best steel. The Germans, doubtless owing + to difficulty in obtaining bamboos, or ash in large quantity straight + enough in the grain over a considerable length, for lance staves, + have adopted a stave of steel tubing as well as one of pine (figs. 2, + 3 and 4). + + [Illustration: TYPES OF BRITISH AND GERMAN LANCES. + + FIG. 1 is the British bamboo lance; figs. 2 and 3 the German steel + tubular lance, and fig. 4 the German pine-wood lance. The full + length of the German lance is 11 ft. 9 in., that of the Cossacks 9 + ft. 10 in., that of the Austrian lancers 8 ft. 8 in., and the French + lance 11 ft. The British lance is 9 ft. long. The weight of a lance + varies but slightly. The steel-staved lance weighs 4 lb, the bamboo + 4½.] + + As to the question of the relative efficiency of the lance and the + sword as the principal arm for cavalry, it is alleged that the former + is heavy and fatiguing to carry, conspicuous, and much in the way when + reconnoitring in close country, working through woods and the like; + that, when unslung ready for the charge, it is awkward to handle, and + may be positively dangerous if a horse becomes restive and the rider + has to use both hands on the reins; that unless the thrust be + delivered at full speed, it is easily parried; and, lastly, that in + the _mêlée_, when the trooper has not room to use his lance, he will + be helpless until he either throws it away or slings it, and can draw + his sword. While admitting the last-mentioned objection, those who + favour the lance contend that success in the first shock of contact is + all-important, and that this success the lancer will certainly obtain, + owing to his long reach enabling him to deliver a blow before the + swordsman can retaliate, while, when the _mêlée_ commences, the rear + rank will come to the assistance of the front rank. Further, it is + claimed that the power of delivering the first blow gives confidence + to the young soldier; that the appearance of a lancer regiment, + preceded as it were by a hedge of steel, has an immense moral effect; + that in single combat a lancer, with room to turn, can always defeat + an opponent armed with a sword; and, lastly, that in pursuit a lancer + is terrible to an enemy, whether the latter be mounted or on foot. As + in the case of the perennial argument whether a sword should be + designed mainly for cutting or thrusting, it is unlikely that the + dispute as to the merits of the lance over the sword will ever be + definitely settled, since so many other factors--horsemanship, the + training of the horse, the skill and courage of the + adversary--determine the trooper's success quite as much as the weapon + he happens to wield. The following passage from _Cavalry: its History + and Tactics_ (London, 1853), by Captain Nolan, explains how the lance + gained popularity in Austria:--"In the last Hungarian war (1848-49) + the Hungarian Hussars were ... generally successful against the + Austrian heavy cavalry--cuirassiers and dragoons; but when they met + the Polish Lancers, the finest regiments of light horse in the + Austrian service, distinguished for their discipline, good riding, + and, above all, for their _esprit de corps_ and gallantry in action, + against those the Hungarians were not successful, and at once + attributed this to the lances of their opponents. The Austrians then + extolled the lance above the sword, and armed all their light cavalry + regiments with it." + + The lancer regiments in the British service are the 5th, the 9th, the + 12th, the 16th, the 17th and the 21st. All these were converted at + different dates from hussars and light dragoons, the last-named in + 1896. The typical lancer uniform is a light-fitting short-skirted + tunic with a double-breasted front, called the plastron, of a + different colour, a girdle, and a flat-topped lancer "cap," adapted + from the Polish czapka (see UNIFORMS: _Naval and Military_). The + British lancers, with the exception of the 16th, who wear scarlet with + blue facings, are clad in blue, the 5th, 9th and 12th having scarlet + facings and green, black and red plumes respectively, the 17th (famous + as the "death or glory boys" and wearing a skull and crossbones badge) + white facings and white plume, and the 21st light-blue facings and + plume. + + + + +LANCELOT (Lancelot du Lac, or Lancelot of the Lake), a famous figure in +the Arthurian cycle of romances. To the great majority of English +readers the name of no knight of King Arthur's court is so familiar as +is that of Sir Lancelot. The mention of Arthur and the Round Table at +once brings him to mind as the most valiant member of that brotherhood +and the secret lover of the Queen. Lancelot, however, is not an original +member of the cycle, and the development of his story is still a source +of considerable perplexity to the critic. + +Briefly summarized, the outline of his career, as given in the German +_Lanzelet_ and the French prose _Lancelot_, is as follows: Lancelot was +the only child of King Ban of Benoic and his queen Helaine. While yet an +infant, his father was driven from his kingdom, either by a revolt of +his subjects, caused by his own harshness (_Lanzelet_), or by the action +of his enemy Claudas de la Deserte (_Lancelot_). King and queen fly, +carrying the child with them, and while the wife is tending her husband, +who dies of a broken heart on his flight, the infant is carried off by a +friendly water-fairy, the Lady of the Lake, who brings the boy up in her +mysterious kingdom. In the German poem this is a veritable "Isle of +Maidens," where no man ever enters, and where it is perpetual spring. In +the prose _Lancelot_, on the other hand, the Lake is but a mirage, and +the Lady's court does not lack its complement of gallant knights; +moreover the boy has the companionship of his cousins, Lionel and +Bohort, who, like himself, have been driven from their kingdom by +Claudas. When he reaches the customary age (which appears to be +fifteen), the young Lancelot, suitably equipped, is sent out into the +world. In both versions his name and parentage are concealed, in the +_Lanzelet_ he is genuinely ignorant of both; here too his lack of all +knightly accomplishments (not unnatural when we remember he has here +been brought up entirely by women) and his inability to handle a steed +are insisted upon. Here he rides forth in search of what adventure may +bring. In the prose _Lancelot_ his education is complete, he knows his +name and parentage, though for some unexplained reason he keeps both +secret, and he goes with a fitting escort and equipment to Arthur's +court to demand knighthood. The subsequent adventures differ widely: in +the _Lanzelet_ he ultimately reconquers his kingdom, and, with his wife +Iblis, reigns over it in peace, both living to see their children's +children, and dying on the same day, in good old fairy-tale fashion. In +fact, the whole of the _Lanzelet_ has much more the character of a fairy +or folk-tale than that of a knightly romance. + +In the prose version, Lancelot, from his first appearance at court, +conceives a passion for the queen, who is very considerably his senior, +his birth taking place some time after her marriage to Arthur. This +infatuation colours all his later career. He frees her from imprisonment +in the castle of Meleagant, who has carried her off against her will--(a +similar adventure is related in _Lanzelet_, where the abductor is +Valerîn, and Lanzelet is not the rescuer)--and, although he recovers his +kingdom from Claudas, he prefers to remain a simple knight of Arthur's +court, bestowing the lands on his cousins and half-brother Hector. +Tricked into a liaison with the Fisher King's daughter Elaine, he +becomes the father of Galahad, the Grail winner, and, as a result of the +queen's jealous anger at his relations with the lady, goes mad, and +remains an exile from the court for some years. He takes part, +fruitlessly, in the Grail quest, only being vouchsafed a fleeting +glimpse of the sacred Vessel, which, however, is sufficient to cast him +into unconsciousness, in which he remains for as many days as he has +spent years in sin. Finally, his relations with Guenevere are revealed +to Arthur by the sons of King Lot, Gawain, however, taking no part in +the disclosure. Surprised together, Lancelot escapes, and the queen is +condemned to be burnt alive. As the sentence is about to be carried into +execution Lancelot and his kinsmen come to her rescue, but in the fight +that ensues many of Arthur's knights, including three of Gawain's +brothers, are slain. Thus converted into an enemy, Gawain urges his +uncle to make war on Lancelot, and there follows a desperate struggle +between Arthur and the race of Ban. This is interrupted by the tidings +of Mordred's treachery, and Lancelot, taking no part in the last fatal +conflict, outlives both king and queen, and the downfall of the Round +Table. Finally, retiring to a hermitage, he ends his days in the odour +of sanctity. + +The process whereby the independent hero of the _Lanzelet_ (who, though +his mother is Arthur's sister, has but the slightest connexion with the +British king), the faithful husband of Iblis, became converted into the +principal ornament of Arthur's court, and the devoted lover of the +queen, is by no means easy to follow, nor do other works of the cycle +explain the transformation. In the pseudo-chronicles, the _Historia_ of +Geoffrey and the translations by Wace and Layamon, Lancelot does not +appear at all; the queen's lover, whose guilty passion is fully +returned, is Mordred. Chrétien de Troyes' treatment of him is +contradictory; in the _Erec_, his earliest extant poem, Lancelot's name +appears as third on the list of the knights of Arthur's court. (It is +well, however, to bear in mind the possibility of later addition or +alteration in such lists.) In _Cligés_ he again ranks as third, being +overthrown by the hero of the poem. In _Le Chevalier de la Charrette_, +however, which followed _Cligés_, we find Lancelot alike as leading +knight of the court and lover of the queen, in fact, precisely in the +position he occupies in the prose romance, where, indeed, the section +dealing with this adventure is, as Gaston Paris clearly proved, an +almost literal adaptation of Chrétien's poem. The subject of the poem is +the rescue of the queen from her abductor Meleagant; and what makes the +matter more perplexing is that Chrétien handles the situation as one +with which his hearers are already familiar; it is Lancelot, and not +Arthur or another, to whom the office of rescuer naturally belongs. +After this it is surprising to find that in his next poem, _Le Chevalier +au Lion_, Lancelot is once, and only once, casually referred to, and +that in a passing reference to his rescue of the queen. In the +_Perceval_, Chrétien's last work, he does not appear at all, and yet +much of the action passes at Arthur's court. + +In the continuations added at various times to Chrétien's unfinished +work the rôle assigned to Lancelot is equally modest. Among the fifteen +knights selected by Arthur to accompany him to Chastel Orguellous he +only ranks ninth. In the version of the _Luite Tristran_ inserted by +Gerbert in his _Perceval_, he is publicly overthrown and shamed by +Tristan. Nowhere is he treated with anything approaching the importance +assigned to him in the prose versions. Welsh tradition does not know +him; early Italian records, which have preserved the names of Arthur and +Gawain, have no reference to Lancelot; among the group of Arthurian +knights figured on the architrave of the north doorway of Modena +cathedral (a work of the 12th century) he finds no place; the real cause +for his apparently sudden and triumphant rise to popularity is extremely +difficult to determine. What appears the most probable solution is that +which regards Lancelot as the hero of an independent and widely diffused +folk-tale, which, owing to certain special circumstances, was brought +into contact with, and incorporated in, the Arthurian tradition. This +much has been proved certain of the adventures recounted in the +_Lanzelet_; the theft of an infant by a water-fairy; the appearance of +the hero three consecutive days, in three different disguises, at a +tournament; the rescue of a queen, or princess, from an Other-World +prison, all belong to one well-known and widely-spread folk-tale, +variants of which are found in almost every land, and of which numerous +examples have been collected alike by M. Cosquin in his _Contes +Lorrains_, and by Mr J. F. Campbell in his _Tales of the West +Highlands_. + +The story of the loves of Lancelot and Guenevere, as related by +Chrétien, has about it nothing spontaneous and genuine; in no way can it +be compared with the story of Tristan and Iseult. It is the exposition +of a relation governed by artificial and arbitrary rules, to which the +principal actors in the drama must perforce conform. Chrétien states +that he composed the poem (which he left to be completed by Godefroi de +Leigni) at the request of the countess Marie of Champagne, who provided +him with _matière et san_. Marie was the daughter of Louis VII. of +France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine, subsequently wife of Henry II. of +Anjou and England. It is a matter of history that both mother and +daughter were active agents in fostering that view of the social +relations of the sexes which found its most famous expression in the +"Courts of Love," and which was responsible for the dictum that love +between husband and wife was impossible. The logical conclusion appears +to be that the _Charrette_ poem is a "_Tendenz-Schrift_," composed under +certain special conditions, in response to a special demand. The story +of _Tristan and Iseult_, immensely popular as it was, was too +genuine--(shall we say too crude?)--to satisfy the taste of the court +for which Chrétien was writing. Moreover, the Arthurian story was the +popular story of the day, and Tristan did not belong to the magic +circle, though he was ultimately introduced, somewhat clumsily, it must +be admitted, within its bounds. The Arthurian cycle must have its own +love-tale; Guenevere, the leading lady of that cycle, could not be +behind the courtly ladies of the day and lack a lover; one had to be +found for her. Lancelot, already popular hero of a tale in which an +adventure parallel to that of the _Charrette_ figured prominently, was +pressed into the service, Modred, Guenevere's earlier lover, being too +unsympathetic a character; moreover, Modred was required for the final +rôle of traitor. + +But to whom is the story to be assigned? Here we must distinguish +between the _Lancelot_ proper and the _Lancelot-Guenevere_ versions; so +far as the latter are concerned, we cannot get behind the version of +Chrétien,--nowhere, prior to the composition of the _Chevalier de la +Charrette_ is there any evidence of the existence of such a story. Yet +Chrétien does not claim to have invented the situation. Did it spring +from the fertile brain of some court lady, Marie, or another? The +authorship of the _Lancelot_ proper, on the other hand, is invariably +ascribed to Walter Map (see MAP), the chancellor of Henry II., but so +also are the majority of the Arthurian prose Romances. The trend of +modern critical opinion is towards accepting Map as the author of a +_Lancelot_ romance, which formed the basis for later developments, and +there is a growing tendency to identify this hypothetical original +_Lancelot_ with the source of the German _Lanzelet_. The author, Ulrich +von Zatzikhoven, tells us that he translated his poem from a French +(_welsches_) book in the possession of Hugo de Morville, one of the +English hostages, who, in 1194, replaced Richard Coeur de Lion in the +prison of Leopold of Austria. Further evidence on the point is, +unfortunately, not at present forthcoming. To the student of the +original texts Lancelot is an infinitely less interesting hero than +Gawain, Perceval or Tristan, each of whom possesses a well-marked +personality, and is the centre of what we may call individual +adventures. Saving and excepting the incident of his being stolen and +brought up by a water-fairy (from a _Lai_ relating which adventure the +whole story probably started), there is absolutely nothing in Lancelot's +character or career to distinguish him from any other romantic hero of +the period. The language of the prose _Lancelot_ is good, easy and +graceful, but the adventures lack originality and interest, and the +situations repeat themselves in a most wearisome manner. English +readers, who know the story only through the medium of Malory's noble +prose and Tennyson's melodious verse, carry away an impression entirely +foreign to that produced by a study of the original literature. The +_Lancelot_ story, in its rise and development, belongs exclusively to +the later stage of Arthurian romance; it was a story for the court, not +for the folk, and it lacks alike the dramatic force and human appeal of +the genuine "popular" tale. + + The prose _Lancelot_ was frequently printed; J. C. Brunet chronicles + editions of 1488, 1494, 1513, 1520 and 1533--of this last date there + are two, one published by Jehan Petit, the other by Philippe Lenoire, + this last by far the better, being printed from a much fuller + manuscript. There is no critical edition, and the only version + available for the general reader is the modernized and abridged text + published by Paulin Paris in vols. iii. to v. of _Romans de la Table + Ronde_. A Dutch verse translation of the 13th century was published by + M. W. J. A. Jonckbloet in 1850, under the title of _Roman van + Lanceloet_. This only begins with what Paulin Paris terms the + _Agravain_ section, all the part previous to Guenevere's rescue from + Meleagant having been lost; but the text is an excellent one, agreeing + closely with the Lenoire edition of 1533. The Books devoted by Malory + to Lancelot are also drawn from this latter section of the romance; + there is no sign that the English translator had any of the earlier + part before him. Malory's version of the _Charrette_ adventure differs + in many respects from any other extant form, and the source of this + special section of his work is still a question of debate among + scholars. The text at his disposal, especially in the _Queste_ + section, must have been closely akin to that used by the Dutch + translator and the compiler of Lenoire, 1533. Unfortunately, Dr + Sommer, in his study on the _Sources of Malory_, omitted to consult + these texts, with the result that the sections dealing with _Lancelot_ + and _Queste_ urgently require revision. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Lanzelet_ (ed. Hahn, 1845, out of print and extremely + difficult to obtain). Chrétien's poem has been published by Professor + Wendelin Foerster, in his edition of the works of that poet, _Der + Karrenritter_ (1899). A Dutch version of a short episodic poem, + _Lancelot et le cerf au pied blanc_ will be found in M. Jonckbloet's + volume, and a discussion of this and other _Lancelot_ poems, by Gaston + Paris, is contained in vol. xxx. of _Histoire littéraire de la + France_. For critical studies on the subject cf. Gaston Paris's + articles in _Romania_, vols. x. and xii.; Wechssler, _Die + verschiedenen Redaktionen des Graal-Lancelot Cyklus_; J. L. Weston, + _The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac_ (Grimm Library, vol. xii.); and + _The Three Days' Tournament_ (Grimm Library, vol. xv.) an appendix to + the previous vol. (J. L. W.) + + + + +LANCET (from Fr. _lancette_, dim. of _lance_, lance), the name given to +a surgical instrument, with a narrow two-edged blade and a lance-shaped +point, used for opening abscesses, &c. The term is applied, in +architecture, to a form of the pointed arch, and to a window of which +the head is a lancet-arch. + + + + +LANCEWOOD, a straight-grained, tough, light elastic wood obtained from +the West Indies and Guiana. It is brought into commerce in the form of +taper poles of about 20 ft. in length and from 6 to 8 in. in diameter at +the thickest end. Lancewood is used by carriage-builders for shafts; but +since the practice of employing curved shafts has come largely into use +it is not in so great demand as formerly. The smaller wood is used for +whip-handles, for the tops of fishing-rods, and for various minor +purposes where even-grained elastic wood is a desideratum. The wood is +obtained from two members of the natural order Anonaceae. The black +lancewood or carisiri of Guiana (_Guatteria virgata_) grows to a height +of 50 ft., is of remarkably slender form, and seldom yields wood more +than 8 in. diameter. The yellow lancewood tree (_Duguetia quitarensis_, +yari-yari, of Guiana) is of similar dimensions, found in tolerable +abundance throughout Guiana, and used by the Indians for arrow-points, +as well as for spars, beams, &c. + + + + +LAN-CHOW-FU, the chief town of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, and one +of the most important cities of the interior part of the empire, on the +right bank of the Hwang-ho. The population is estimated at 175,000. The +houses, with very few exceptions, are built of wood, but the streets are +paved with blocks of granite and marble. Silks, wood-carvings, silver +and jade ornaments, tin and copper wares, fruits and tobacco are the +chief articles of the local trade. Tobacco is very extensively +cultivated in the vicinity. + + + + +LANCIANO (anc. _Anxanum_), a town and episcopal see of the Abruzzi, +Italy, in the province of Chieti, situated on three hills, 984 ft. above +sea-level, about 8 m. from the Adriatic coast and 12 m. S.E. of Chieti. +Pop. (1901) 7642 (town), 18,316 (commune). It has a railway station on +the coast railway, 19 m. S.E. of Castellammare Adriatico. It has broad, +regular streets, and several fine buildings. The cathedral, an imposing +structure with a fine clock-tower of 1619, is built upon bridges of +brickwork, dating perhaps from the Roman period (though the inscription +attributing the work to Diocletian is a forgery), that span the gorge of +the Feltrino, and is dedicated to S. Maria del Ponte, Our Lady of the +Bridge. The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore dates from 1227 and has a +fine façade, with a portal of 1317 by a local sculptor. The processional +cross by the silversmith Nicola di Guardiagrele (1422) is very +beautiful. In S. Nicola is a fine reliquary of 1445 by Nicola di +Francavilla. The church of the Annunziata has a good rose window of +1362. The industries of the town, famous in the middle ages, have +declined. Anxanum belonged originally to the tribe of the Frentani and +later became a _municipium_. It lay on the ancient highroad, which +abandoned the coast at Ortona 10 m. to the N. and returned to it at +Histonium (Vasto). Remains of a Roman theatre exist under the bishop's +palace. + + See V. Bindi, _Monumenti degli Abruzzi_ (Naples, 1889, 690 sqq.), and + for discoveries in the neighbourhood see A. de Nino in _Notizie degli + scavi_ (1884), 431. (T. As.) + + + + +LANCRET, NICOLAS (1660-1743), French painter, was born in Paris on the +22nd of January 1660, and became a brilliant depicter of light comedy +which reflected the tastes and manners of French society under the +regent Orleans. His first master was Pierre d'Ulin, but his acquaintance +with and admiration for Watteau induced him to leave d'Ulin for Gillot, +whose pupil Watteau had been. Two pictures painted by Lancret and +exhibited on the Place Dauphine had a great success, which laid the +foundation of his fortune, and, it is said, estranged Watteau, who had +been complimented as their author. Lancret's work cannot now, however, +be taken for that of Watteau, for both in drawing and in painting his +touch, although intelligent, is dry, hard and wanting in that quality +which distinguished his great model; these characteristics are due +possibly in part to the fact that he had been for some time in training +under an engraver. The number of his paintings (of which over eighty +have been engraved) is immense; he executed a few portraits and +attempted historical composition, but his favourite subjects were balls, +fairs, village weddings, &c. The British Museum possesses an admirable +series of studies by Lancret in red chalk, and the National Gallery, +London, shows four paintings--the "Four Ages of Man" (engraved by +Desplaces and l'Armessin), cited by d'Argenville amongst the principal +works of Lancret. In 1719 he was received as Academician, and became +councillor in 1735; in 1741 he married a grandchild of Boursault, author +of _Aesop at Court_. He died on the 14th of September 1743. + + See d'Argenville, _Vies des peintres_; and Ballot de Sovot, _Éloge de + M. Lancret_ (1743, new ed. 1874). + + + + +LAND, the general term for that part of the earth's surface which is +solid and dry as opposed to sea or water. The word is common to Teutonic +languages, mainly in the same form and with essentially the same +meaning. The Celtic cognate forms are Irish _lann_, Welsh _llan_, an +enclosure, also in the sense of "church," and so of constant occurrence +in Welsh place-names, Cornish _lan_ and Breton _lann_, health, which has +given the French _lande_, an expanse or tract of sandy waste ground. The +ultimate root is unknown. From its primary meaning have developed +naturally the various uses of the word, for a tract of ground or country +viewed either as a political, geographical or ethnographical division of +the earth, as property owned by the public or state or by a private +individual, or as the rural as opposed to the urban or the cultivated as +opposed to the built on part of the country; of particular meanings may +be mentioned that of a building divided into tenements or flats, the +divisions being known as "houses," a Scottish usage, and also that of a +division of a ploughed field marked by the irrigating channels, hence +transferred to the smooth parts of the bore of a rifle between the +grooves of the rifling. + + For the physical geography of the land, as the solid portion of the + earth's surface, see GEOGRAPHY. For land as the subject of cultivation + see AGRICULTURE and SOIL, also RECLAMATION OF LAND. For the history of + the holding or tenure of land see VILLAGE COMMUNITIES and FEUDALISM; a + particular form of land tenure is dealt with under MÉTAYAGE. The + article AGRARIAN LAWS deals with the disposal of the public land + (_Ager publicus_) in Ancient Rome, and further information with regard + to the part played by the land question in Roman history will be found + under ROME: § _History_. The legal side of the private ownership of + land is treated under REAL PROPERTY and CONVEYANCING (see also + LANDLORD AND TENANT, and LAND REGISTRATION). + + + + +LANDAU, a town in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the Queich, lying under +the eastern slope of the Hardt Mountains, 32 m. by rail S.W. from +Mannheim, at the junction of lines to Neustadt an der Hardt, Weissenburg +and Saarbrücken. Pop. (1905) 17,165. Among its buildings are the Gothic +Evangelical church, dating from 1285; the chapel of St Catherine built +in 1344; the church of the former Augustinian monastery, dating from +1405; and the Augustinian monastery itself, founded in 1276 and now +converted into a brewery. There are manufactures of cigars, beer, hats, +watches, furniture and machines, and a trade in wine, fruit and cereals. +Large cattle-markets are held here. Landau was founded in 1224, becoming +an imperial city fifty years later. This dignity was soon lost, as in +1317 it passed to the bishopric of Spires and in 1331 to the Palatinate, +recovering its former position in 1511. Captured eight times during the +Thirty Years' War the town was ceded to France by the treaty of +Westphalia in 1648, although with certain ill-defined reservations. In +1679 Louis XIV. definitely took possession of Landau. Its fortifications +were greatly strengthened; nevertheless it was twice taken by the +Imperialists and twice recovered by the French during the Spanish +Succession War. In 1815 it was given to Austria and in the following +year to Bavaria. The fortifications were finally dismantled in 1871. + +The town is commonly supposed to have given its name to the four-wheeled +carriage, with an adjustable divided top for use either open or closed, +known as a "landau" (Ger. _Landauer_). But this derivation is doubtful, +the origin of the name being also ascribed to that of an English +carriage-builder, Landow, who introduced this form of equipage. + + See E. Heuser, _Die Belagerungen von Landau in den Jahren 1702 und + 1703_ (Landau, 1894); Lehmann, _Geschichte der ehemaligen freien + Reichsstadt Landau_ (1851); and Jost, _Interessante Daten aus der 600 + jährigen Geschichte der Stadt Landau_ (Landau, 1879). + + + + +LANDECK, a town and spa in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the +Biele, 73 m. by rail S. of Breslau and close to the Austrian frontier. +Pop. (1905) 3,481. It is situated at an altitude of 1400 ft. It has +manufactures of gloves. Landeck is visited by nearly 10,000 people +annually on account of its warm sulphur baths, which have been known +since the 13th century. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castle +of Karpenstein. + + See Langner, _Bad Landeck_ (Glatz, 1872); Schütze, _Die Thermen von + Landeck_ (Berlin, 1895); Wehse, _Bad Landeck_ (Breslau, 1886); Joseph, + _Die Thermen von Landeck_ (Berlin, 1887), and Patschovsky, _Führer + durch Bad Landeck und Umgebung_ (Schweidnitz, 1902). + + + + +LANDEN, JOHN (1719-1790), English mathematician, was born at Peakirk +near Peterborough in Northamptonshire on the 23rd of January 1719, and +died on the 15th of January 1790 at Milton in the same county. He lived +a very retired life, and saw little or nothing of society; when he did +mingle in it, his dogmatism and pugnacity caused him to be generally +shunned. In 1762 he was appointed agent to the Earl Fitzwilliam, and +held that office to within two years of his death. He was first known as +a mathematician by his essays in the _Ladies' Diary_ for 1744. In 1766 +he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He was well acquainted +with the works of the mathematicians of his own time, and has been +called the "English d'Alembert." In his _Discourse_ on the "Residual +Analysis," he proposes to avoid the metaphysical difficulties of the +method of fluxions by a purely algebraical method. The idea may be +compared with that of Joseph Louis Lagrange's _Calcul des Fonctions_. +His memoir (1775) on the rotatory motion of a body contains (as the +author was aware) conclusions at variance with those arrived at by Jean +le Rond, d'Alembert and Leonhard Euler in their researches on the same +subject. He reproduces and further develops and defends his own views in +his _Mathematical Memoirs_, and in his paper in the _Philosophical +Transactions_ for 1785. But Landen's capital discovery is that of the +theorem known by his name (obtained in its complete form in the memoir +of 1775, and reproduced in the first volume of the _Mathematical +Memoirs_) for the expression of the arc of an hyperbola in terms of two +elliptic arcs. His researches on elliptic functions are of considerable +elegance, but their great merit lies in the stimulating effect which +they had on later mathematicians. He also showed that the roots of a +cubic equation can be derived by means of the infinitesimal calculus. + + The list of his writings is as follows:--_Ladies' Diary_, various + communications (1744-1760); papers in the _Phil. Trans._ (1754, 1760, + 1768, 1771, 1775, 1777, 1785); _Mathematical Lucubrations_ (1755); _A + Discourse concerning the Residual Analysis_ (1758); _The Residual + Analysis_, book i. (1764); _Animadversions on Dr Stewart's Method of + computing the Sun's Distance from the Earth_ (1771); _Mathematical + Memoirs_ (1780, 1789). + + + + +LANDEN, a town in the province of Liége, Belgium, an important junction +for lines of railway from Limburg, Liége and Louvain. Pop. (1904) 2874. +It is the birthplace of the first Pippin, distinguished as Pippin of +Landen from his grandson Pippin of Herstal. In 1693 the French under +Marshal Luxemburg defeated here the Anglo-Dutch army under William III. +This battle is also called Neerwinden from a village 3 m. W. of Landen. +Here in 1793 the Austrians under Frederick of Saxe-Coburg and Clerfayt +defeated the French under Dumouriez. + + + + +LANDER, RICHARD LEMON (1804-1834) and JOHN (1807-1839), English +explorers of the Niger, were natives of Cornwall, sons of an innkeeper +at Truro. At the age of eleven Richard went to the West Indies in the +service of a merchant. Returning to England after an absence of three +years he took service with various wealthy families, with whom he +travelled on the continent. In 1823-1824 he accompanied Major +(afterwards General Sir) W. M. Colebrooke, on a tour through Cape +Colony. In 1825 Richard offered his services to Hugh Clapperton, then +preparing for his second expedition to West Africa. He was Clapperton's +devoted servant and companion in this expedition, and on Clapperton's +death near Sokoto in April 1827 Richard Lander, after visiting Kano and +other parts of the Hausa states, returned to the Guinea coast through +Yoruba bringing with him Clapperton's journal. To this on its +publication (1829) was added _The Journal of Richard Lander from Kano to +the Coast_, and in the next year Lander published another account of the +expedition entitled _Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to +Africa ... with the subsequent Adventures of the Author_. To this +narrative he prefixed an autobiographical note. Richard Lander, though +without any scientific attainments, had exhibited such capacity for +exploration that the British government decided to send him out to +determine the course of the lower Niger. In the expedition he was +accompanied by his brother John, by trade a printer, and better educated +than Richard, who went as an unsalaried volunteer. Leaving England in +January 1830, the brothers landed at Badagry on the Guinea coast on the +22nd of March. They then travelled by the route previously taken by +Clapperton to Bussa on the right bank of the Niger, reached on the 17th +of June. Thence they ascended the river for about 100 m. Going back to +Bussa the travellers began, on the 20th of September, the descent of the +river, not knowing whither it would lead them. They journeyed in canoes +accompanied by a few negroes, their only scientific instrument a common +compass. They discovered the Benue river, ascertaining when passing its +confluence, by paddling against its stream, that their course was not in +that direction. At the beginning of the delta they were captured by the +Ibos, from whom they were ransomed by "King Boy" of Brass Town; by him +they were taken to the Nun mouth of the river, whence a passage was +obtained to Fernando Po, reached on the 1st of December. The Landers +were thus able to lay down with approximate correctness the lower course +of the Niger--a matter till then as much in dispute as was the question +of the Nile sources. In the attack by the Ibos the Landers lost many of +their records, but they published a narrative of their discoveries in +1832, in three small volumes--_Journal of an Expedition to Explore the +Course and Termination of the Niger_. In recognition of his services the +Royal Geographical Society--formed two years previously--granted Richard +Lander in 1832 the royal medal, he being the first recipient of such an +award. In the same year Richard went to Africa again as leader of an +expedition organized by Macgregor Laird and other Liverpool merchants to +open up trade on the Niger and to found a commercial settlement at the +junction of the Benue with the main stream. The expedition encountered +many difficulties, suffered great mortality from fever, and was not able +to reach Bussa. Lander made several journeys up and down stream, and +while going up the river in a canoe was attacked by the natives on the +20th of January 1834 at a spot about 84 m. above the Nun mouth, and +wounded by a musket ball in the thigh. He was removed to Fernando Po, +where he died on the 6th of February. John Lander, who on his return to +England in 1831 obtained a situation at the London customs house, died +on the 16th of November 1839 of a disease contracted in Africa. + + See, besides the books mentioned, the _Narrative_ of the Niger + expedition of 1832-1834, published in 1837 by Macgregor Laird and R. + A. K. Oldfield. + + + + +LANDES, a department in the south-west of France, formed in 1790 of +portions of the ancient provinces of Guyenne (Landes, Condomios +Chalosse), Gascony and Béarn, and bounded N. by Gironde, E. by +Lot-et-Garonne and Gers, S. by Basses Pyrenées, and W. (for 68 m.) by +the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1906) 293,397. Its area, 3615 sq. m., is second +only to that of the department of Gironde. The department takes its name +from the _Landes_, which occupy three-quarters of its surface, or +practically the whole region north of the Adour, the chief river of the +department. They are separated from the sea by a belt of dunes fringed +on the east by a chain of lakes. South of the Adour lies the Chalosse--a +hilly region, intersected by the Gabas, Luy and Gave de Pau, left-hand +tributaries of the Adour, which descend from the Pyrenees. On the right +the Adour is joined by the Midouze, formed by the junction of the Douze +and the Midou. The climate of Landes is the Girondine, which prevails +from the Loire to the Pyrenees. Snow is almost unknown, the spring is +rainy, the summer warm and stormy. The prevailing wind is the +south-west, and the mean temperature of the year is 53° F., the +thermometer hardly ever rising above 82° or falling below 14°. The +annual rainfall in the south of the department in the neighbourhood of +the sea reaches 55 in., but diminishes by more than half towards the +north-east. + +The fertility of La Chalosse is counterbalanced by the comparative +poorness of the soil of the Landes, and small though the population is, +the department does not produce wheat enough for its own consumption. +The chief cereal is maize; next in importance are rye, wheat and millet. +Of vegetables, the bean is most cultivated. The vine is grown in the +Chalosse, sheep are numerous, and the "Landes" breed of horses is well +known. Forests, chiefly composed of pines, occupy more than half the +department, and their exploitation forms the chief industry. The resin +of the maritime pine furnishes by distillation essence of turpentine, +and from the residue are obtained various qualities of resin, which +serve to make varnish, tapers, sealing-wax and lubricants. Tar, and an +excellent charcoal for smelting purposes, are also obtained from the +pine-wood. The department has several mineral springs, the most +important being those of Dax, which were frequented in the time of the +Romans, and of Eugénie-les-Bains and Préchacq. The cultivation of the +cork tree is also important. There are salt-workings and stone quarries. +There are several iron-works in the department; those at Le Boucau, at +the mouth of the Adour, are the most important. There are also +saw-mills, distilleries, flour-mills, brick and tile works and +potteries. Exports include resinous products, pine-timber, metal, +brandy; leading imports are grain, coal, iron, millinery and furniture. +In its long extent of coast the department has no considerable port. +Opposite Cape Breton, however, where the Adour formerly entered the sea, +there is, close to land, a deep channel where there is safe anchorage. +It was from this once important harbour of Capbreton that the +discoverers of the Canadian island of that name set out. Landes includes +three arrondissements (Mont-de-Marsan, Dax and St Sever), 28 cantons and +334 communes. + +Mont-de-Marsan is the capital of the department, which comes within the +circumscription of the appeal court of Pau, the académie (educational +division) of Bordeaux and the archbishopric of Auch, and forms part of +the region of the 18th army corps. It is served by the Southern railway; +there is some navigation on the Adour, but that upon the other rivers is +of little importance. Mont-de-Marsan, Dax, St Sever and +Aire-sur-l'Adour, the most noteworthy towns, receive separate notice. +Hagetmau has a church built over a Romanesque crypt, the roof of which +is supported on columns with elaborately-carved capitals. Sorde has an +interesting abbey-church of the 13th and 14th centuries. + + + + +LANDES, an extensive natural region of south-western France, known more +strictly as the Landes de Gascogne. It has an area of 5400 sq. m., and +occupies three-quarters of the department of Landes, half of that of +Gironde, and some 175,000 acres of Lot-et-Garonne. The Landes, formerly +a vast tract of moorland and marsh, now consist chiefly of fields and +forests of pines. They form a plateau, shaped like a triangle, the base +of which is the Atlantic coast while the apex is situated slightly west +of Nérac (Lot-et-Garonne). Its limits are, on the S. the river Adour; on +the E. the hills of Armagnac, Eauzan, Condomois, Agenais and Bazadais; +and on the N.E. the Garonne, the hills of Médoc and the Gironde. The +height of the plateau ranges in general from 130 to 260 ft.; the highest +altitude (498 ft.) is found in the east near Baudignan (department of +Landes), from which point there is a gradual slope towards north, south, +east and west. The soil is naturally sterile. It is composed of fine +sand resting on a subsoil of tufa (_alios_) impermeable by water; for +three-quarters of the year, consequently, the waters, settling on the +almost level surface and unable to filter through, used to transform the +country into unwholesome swamps, which the Landesats could only traverse +on stilts. About the middle of the 18th century an engineer, François +Chambrelent, instituted a scheme of draining and planting to remedy +these evils. As a result about 1600 m. of ditches have been dug which +carry off superficial water either to streams or to the lakes which +fringe the landes on the west, and over 1,600,000 acres have been +planted with maritime pines and oaks. The coast, for a breadth of about +4 m., and over an area of about 225,000 acres, is bordered by dunes, in +ranges parallel to the shore, and from 100 to 300 ft. in height. Driven +by the west wind, which is most frequent in these parts, the dunes were +slowly advancing year by year towards the east, burying the cultivated +lands and even the houses. Nicolas Thomas Brémontier, towards the end of +the 18th century, devised the plan of arresting this scourge by planting +the dunes with maritime pines. Upwards of 210,000 acres have been thus +treated. In the south-west, cork trees take the place of the pines. To +prevent the formation of fresh dunes, a "dune littorale" has been formed +by means of a palisade. This barrier, from 20 to 30 ft. high, presents +an obstacle which the sand cannot cross. On the eastern side of the +dunes is a series of lakes (Hourtin et Carcans, Lacanau, Cazau or +Sanguinet, Biscarrosse, Aureilhan, St Julien, Léon and Soustons) +separated from the sea by the heaping up of the sand. The salt water has +escaped by defiltration, and they are now quite fresh. The Basin of +Arcachon, which lies midway between the lakes of Lacanau and Cazau, +still communicates with the ocean, the current of the Leyre which flows +into it having sufficient force to keep a passage open. + + + + +LANDESHUT, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, at the north foot +of the Riesengebirge, and on the river Bober, 65 m. S.W. of Breslau by +rail. Pop. (1905) 9000. Its main industries are flax-spinning, +linen-weaving and manufactures of cloth, shoes and beer. The town dates +from the 13th century, being originally a fortress built for protection +against the Bohemians. There the Prussians defeated the Austrians in May +1745, and in June 1760 the Prussians were routed by a greatly superior +force of Austrians. + + See Perschke, _Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Landeshut_ + (Breslau, 1829). + + + + +LANDGRAVE (Ger. _Landgraf_, from _Land_, "a country" and _Graf_, "count" +), a German title of nobility surviving from the times of the Holy Roman +Empire. It originally signified a count of more than usual power or +dignity, and in some cases implied sovereignty. The title is now rare; +it is borne by the former sovereign of Hesse-Homburg, now incorporated +in Prussia, the heads of the various branches of the house of Hesse, and +by a branch of the family of Fürstenberg. In other cases the title of +landgrave is borne by German sovereigns as a subsidiary title; e.g. the +grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar is landgrave of Thuringia. + + + + +LANDLORD AND TENANT. In _Roman Law_, the relationship of landlord and +tenant arose from the contract of letting and hiring (_locatio +conductio_), and existed also with special incidents, under the forms of +tenure known as _emphyteusis_--the long lease of Roman law--and +_precarium_, or tenancy at will (see ROMAN LAW). + +_Law of England._--The law of England--and the laws of Scotland and +Ireland agree with it on this point--recognizes no absolute private +ownership of land. The absolute and ultimate owner of all land is the +crown, and the highest interest that a subject can hold therein--viz. an +estate in fee simple--is only a tenancy. But this aspect of the law, +under which the landlord, other than the crown, is himself always a +tenant, falls beyond the scope of the present article, which is +restricted to those holdings that arise from the hiring and leasing of +land. + + + Leases. + +The legal relationship of landlord and tenant is constituted by a lease, +or an agreement for a lease, by assignment, by attornment and by +estoppel. And first of a lease and an agreement for a lease. All kinds +of interests and property, whether corporeal, such as lands or +buildings, or incorporeal, such as rights of common or of way, may be +let. The Benefices Act 1898, however, now prohibits the grant of a lease +of an advowson. Titles of honour, offices of trust or relating to the +administration of justice, and pensions granted by the crown for +military services are also inalienable. Generally speaking, any person +may grant or take a lease. But there are a number of common-law and +statutory qualifications and exceptions. A lease by or to an infant is +voidable at his option. But extensive powers of leasing the property of +infants have been created by the Settled Estates Act 1877 and the +Settled Land Act 1882. A person of unsound mind can grant or take a +lease if he is capable of contracting. Leases may be made on behalf of +lunatics subject to the jurisdiction in lunacy under the provisions of +the Lunacy Act 1890 and the Settled Land Act 1882. A married woman can +lease her "separate property" apart from or under the Married Women's +Property Acts, as if she were a single woman (_feme sole_). As regards +other property, the concurrence of her husband is generally necessary. +An alien was, at common law, incapable of being either a lessor or a +lessee. But this disqualification is removed by the Naturalization Act +1870. The right to deal with the property of a convict while he is +undergoing sentence (but not while he is out of prison on leave) is, by +the Forfeiture Act 1870, vested in his administrator. Leases by or to +corporations must be by deed under their common seal, and the leasing +powers of ecclesiastical corporations in particular are subject to +complicated statutory restrictions which cannot here be examined (see +Phillimore, _Eccl. Law_, 2nd ed., p. 1281). Powers of granting building +and other leases have been conferred by modern legislation on municipal +corporations and other local authorities. + +A person having an interest in land can, in general, create a valid +interest only to the extent of that interest. Thus a tenant for years, +or even from year to year only, may stand in his turn as landlord to +another tenant. If he profess, however, to create a tenancy for a period +longer than that to which his own interest extends, he does not thereby +give to his tenant an interest available against the reversioner or +remainder man. The subtenant's interest will expire with the interest of +the person who created it. But as between the subtenant and his +immediate lessor the subtenancy will be good, and should the interest of +the lessor become greater than it was when the subtenancy was created +the subtenant will have the benefit of it. On his side, again, the +subtenant, by accepting that position, is estopped from denying that his +lessor's title (whatever it be) is good. There are also special rules of +law with reference to leases by persons having only a limited interest +in the property leased, e.g. a tenant for life under the Settled Land +Acts, or a mortgagor or mortgagee. + +_The Letting._--To constitute the relationship of landlord and tenant in +the mode under consideration, it is necessary not only that there should +be parties capable of entering into the contract, but that there should +be a letting, as distinct from a mere agreement to let, and that the +right conveyed should be a right to the exclusive possession of the +subject of the letting and not a simple licence to use it. Whether a +particular instrument is a lease, or an agreement for a lease, or a bare +licence, is a question the answer to which depends to a large extent on +the circumstances of individual cases; and the only general rule is +that in a lease there must be an expression of intention on the part of +the lessor to convey, and of the lessee to accept, the exclusive +possession of the thing let for the prescribed term and on the +prescribed conditions. The landlord must not part with the whole of his +interest, since, if he does so, the instrument is not a lease but an +assignment. Where a tenant enters under an agreement for a lease and +pays rent, the agreement will be regarded as a lease from year to year; +and if the agreement is one of which specific performance would be +decreed (i.e. if it contains a complete contract between the parties +and satisfies the provisions--to be noted immediately--of the Statute of +Frauds, and if, in all the circumstances, its enforcement is just and +equitable), the lessee is treated as having a lease for the term fixed +in the agreement from the time that he took possession under it, just as +if a valid lease had been executed. At common law a lease for a term of +years (other than a lease by a corporation) might be made by parol. But +under the Statute of Frauds (1677, ss., 1, 2) leases, except those the +term of which does not exceed three years, and in which the reserved +rent is equal to two-thirds at least of the improved value of the +premises, were required to be in writing signed by the parties or their +lawfully authorized agents; and, under the Real Property Act 1845, a +lease required by law to be in writing is void unless made by deed. The +Statute of Frauds also prohibits an action from being brought upon any +agreement for a lease, for any term, unless such agreement is in writing +and signed by the party to be charged therewith or by some agent +lawfully authorized by him. + + _Forms of Tenancy._--The following are the principal forms of tenancy: + (i.) _Tenancy for Life._--A lease for life must be made by deed, and + the term may be the life of the lessee and the life or lives of some + other person or persons, and in the latter case either for their joint + lives or for the life of the survivor; also for the lives of the + lessee himself and of some other person or persons, and this + constitutes a single estate. A tenant for life under a settlement has + extensive powers of leasing under the Settled Land Act 1882. He may + lease the settled land, or any part of it, for any time not exceeding + (a) in the case of a building lease, 99 years; (b) in the case of a + mining lease, 60 years, (c) in the case of any other lease, 21 years. + He may also grant either a lease of the surface of settled land, + reserving the mines and minerals, or a lease of the minerals without + the surface. A lease under the Settled Land Act 1882 must be by deed + and must be made to take effect in possession not later than 12 months + after its date; the best rent that can reasonably be obtained must be + reserved and the lease must contain a covenant by the lessee for + payment of the rent, and a condition of re-entry on non-payment within + a specified time not exceeding 30 days, (ii.) _Tenancy for Years_, + i.e. for a term of years.--This tenancy is created by an express + contract between the parties and never by implication, as in the case + of tenancy from year to year and tenancy at will. Here the tenancy + ends on the expiry of the prescribed term, without notice to quit or + any other formality. (iii.) _Tenancy from Year to Year._--This tenancy + may be created by express agreement between the parties, or by + implication as, e.g. where a person enters and pays rent under a + lease for years, void either by law or by statute, or without any + actual lease or agreement, or holds over after the determination of a + lease whether for years or otherwise. In the absence of express + agreement or custom or statutory provision (such as is made by the + Agricultural Holdings Act 1883), a tenancy from year to year is + determinable on half a year's notice expiring at the end of some + current year of the tenancy. Where there is no express stipulation + creating a yearly tenancy, if the parties have contracted that the + tenant may be dispossessed by a notice given at any time, effect will + be given to this provision. The common law doctrine of a six months' + notice being required to terminate a tenancy from year to year of a + corporeal hereditament, does not apply to an incorporeal hereditament + such as a right to shoot. (iv.) _Tenancies for Shorter + Periods._--Closely associated with tenancies from year to year are + various other tenancies for shorter periods than a year--weekly, + monthly or quarterly. Questions of considerable importance frequently + arise as to the notice necessary to terminate tenancies of this + character. The issue is one of fact; the date at which the rent is + payable is a material circumstance, but it may be said generally that + a week's notice should be given to determine a weekly tenancy, a + month's to determine a monthly tenancy, and a quarter's to determine a + quarterly tenancy. It is chiefly in connexion with the letting of + lodgings, flats, &c., that tenancies of this class arise (see FLATS, + LODGER AND LODGINGS). (v.) _Tenancy at Will._--A tenancy at will is + one which endures at the will of the parties only, i.e. at the will + of both, for if a demise be made to hold at the will of the lessor, + the law implies that it is at the will of the lessee also and vice + versa. Any signification of a desire to terminate the tenancy, whether + expressed as "notice" or not, will bring it to an end. This form of + tenancy, like tenancy from year to year, may be treated either by + express contract or by implication, as where premises are occupied + with the consent of the owner, but without any express or implied + agreement as to the duration of the tenancy, or where a house is lent + rent free by one person to another. A tenancy at will is determined by + either party alienating his interest as soon as such alienation comes + to the knowledge of the other. (vi.) _Tenancy at Sufferance._--A + tenant who comes into possession by a lawful demise, but "holds over" + or continues in possession after his estate is ended, is said to be a + "tenant at sufferance." Properly speaking, tenancy at sufferance is + not a tenancy at all, inasmuch as if the landlord acquiesces in it, it + becomes a tenancy at will; and it is to be regarded merely as a legal + fiction which prevented the rightful owner from treating the tenant as + a trespasser until he had himself made an actual entry on or had + brought an action to recover the land. The Distress for Rent Act 1737, + however, enables a landlord to recover double rent from a tenant who + holds over after having himself given notice to quit; while another + statute in the reign of George II.--the Landlord and Tenant Act + 1730--makes a tenant who holds over after receiving a notice from his + landlord liable to the extent of double the value of the premises. + There is no tenancy by sufferance against the crown. + +_Form of a Lease._--The component parts of a lease are the parties, the +recitals (when necessary) setting out such matters as the title of the +lessor; the demise or actual letting (the word "demise" is ordinarily +used, but any term indicating an express intention to make a present +letting is sufficient); the parcels in which the extent of the premises +demised is stated; the _habendum_ (which defines the commencement and +the term of the lease), the _reddendum_ or reservation of rent, and the +covenants and conditions. The Conveyancing Act 1881 provides that, as +regards conveyances subsequent to 1881, unless a contrary intention is +expressed, a lease of "land" is to be deemed to include all buildings, +fixtures, easements, &c., appertaining to it; and, if there are houses +or other buildings on the land demised, all out-houses, erections, &c., +are to pass with the lease of the land. Rights which the landlord +desires to retain over the lands let are excepted or reserved. Sporting +rights will pass to the lessee unless reserved (see GAME LAWS). A grant +or reservation of mines in general terms confers, or reserves, a right +to work the mines, subject to the obligation of leaving a reasonable +support to the surface as it exists at the time of the grant or +reservation. It is not necessary that a lease should be dated. In the +absence of a date, it will take effect from the day of delivery. + + _Covenants in Leases._--These may be roughly divided into four groups: + (i.) _Implied Covenants._--A covenant is said to be implied when it is + raised by implication of law without any express provision being made + for it in the lease. Thus a lessee is under an implied obligation to + treat the premises demised in a tenant-like or "husband-like" manner, + and again, where in a lease by deed the word "demise" is used, the + lessor probably covenants impliedly for his own title and for the + quiet enjoyment of the premises by the lessee. (ii.) _"Usual" + Covenants._--Where an agreement for a lease specifies only such + essential conditions as the payment of rent, and either mentions no + other terms, or provides that the lease shall contain the "usual" + covenants, the parties are entitled to have inserted in the lease made + in pursuance of the agreement such other provisions as are "usual" in + leases of property of the same character, and in the same district, + not being provisions tending to abridge or qualify the legal incidents + of the estate intended to be granted to the lessee. The question what + covenants are "usual" is a question of fact. A covenant by the lessor, + limited to his own acts and those of persons claiming under or through + him, for the "quiet enjoyment" by the lessee of the demised premises, + and covenants by the lessee to pay rent, to pay taxes, except such as + fall upon the landlord, to keep the premises in repair, and to allow + the landlord to enter and view the condition of the premises may be + taken as typical instances of "usual" covenants. Covenants by the + lessee to build and repair, not to assign or underlet without license, + or to insure, or not to carry on a particular trade on the premises + leased, have been held not to be "usual." Where the agreement provides + for the insertion in the lease of "proper" covenants, such covenants + only are pointed at as are calculated to secure the full effect of the + contract, and a covenant against assignment or under-letting would not + ordinarily be included. (iii.) _The Covenants running with the + Land._--A covenant is said to "run with the land" when the rights and + duties which it creates are not merely personal to the immediate + parties (in which case a covenant is said to be "collateral"), but + pass also to their assignees. At common law, it was said that + covenants "ran with the land" but not with the reversion, the assignee + of the reversion not having the rights of the original lessor. But the + assignees of both parties were placed on the same footing by a statute + of Henry VIII. (1540). A covenant "runs with the land" if it relates + either to a thing _in esse_, which is part and parcel of the demise, + e.g. the payment of rent, the repair of houses or fixtures or + machinery already built or set up, or to a thing not _in esse_ at the + time of the demise, but touching the land, provided that the word + "assigns" is used in the covenant. All implied covenants run with the + land. As instances of "collateral" covenants, we may take a covenant + by a lessor to give the lessee a right of pre-emption over a piece of + land adjoining the subject of the demise, or in the case of a lease of + a beer-shop, not to keep any similar shop within a prescribed distance + from the premises demised, or a covenant by a lessee to pay rates on + premises not demised. A covenant not to assign without the lessor's + assent runs with the land and applies to a re-assignment to the + original lessee. (iv.) _Restrictive Covenants._--These may be + subdivided into two classes--covenants not to assign or underlet + without the lessor's consent (it may be noted that such consent must + be applied for even if, under the covenant, it cannot be withheld); + and covenants in restraint of trade, e.g. not to use the demised + premises for certain trading purposes, and in the case of "tied + houses" a covenant by the lessees to purchase all beer required from + the lessors. + + In addition a lease frequently contains covenants for renewal of the + lease at the option of the lessee, and for repairs or insurance + against damage by fire by the lessee. Leases frequently contain a + covenant by the lessee to bear and pay rates, taxes, assessments and + other "impositions" or "charges," or "duties" or "outgoings," or + "burdens" (except property tax) imposed upon the demised premises + during the term. Considerable difficulty has arisen as to the scope of + the terms "impositions," "charges," "duties," "outgoings," "burdens." + The words, "rates, taxes, assessments" point to payments of a + periodical or recurring character. Are the latter words in such + covenants limited to payments of this kind, or do they include single + and definite payments demanded, for example, by a local authority, + acting under statutory powers, for improvements of a permanent kind + affecting the premises demised? The decisions on the point are + numerous and difficult to reconcile, but the main test is whether, on + the true construction of the particular covenant, the lessee has + undertaken to indemnify the landlord against payments of all kinds. + The stronger current of modern authority is in favour of the landlords + and not in favour of restricting the meaning of covenants of this + class. It may be added that, if a lessee covenants to pay rates and + taxes, no demand by the collector apparently is necessary to + constitute a breach of the covenant; where a rate is duly made and + published it is the duty of the parties assessed to seek out the + collector and pay it. + + + Repairs. + +_Mutual Rights and Liabilities of Landlord and Tenant._--These are to a +large extent regulated by the covenants of the lease. (i.) The landlord +generally covenants--and, in the absence of such a proviso, a covenant +will be implied from the fact of letting--that the tenant shall have +quiet enjoyment of the premises for the time agreed upon. This +obligation makes the landlord responsible for any lawful eviction of the +tenant during the term, but not for wrongful eviction unless he is +himself the wrong-doer or has expressly made himself responsible for +evictions of all kinds. It may be noted here that at common law no lease +for years is complete till actual entry has been made by the lessee. +Till then, he has only a right of entry or _interesse termini_. (ii.) +The tenant, on his part, is presumed to undertake to use the property in +a reasonable manner, according to the purposes for which it was let, and +to do reasonable repairs. A landlord is not presumed to have undertaken +to put the premises in repair, nor to execute repairs. But the +respective obligations of parties where repairs are, as they always are +in leases for years, the subject of express covenant, may vary +indefinitely. The obligation is generally imposed upon the tenant to +keep the premises in "good condition" or "tenantable repair." The amount +and quality of the repairs necessary to fulfil the covenant are always +relative to the age, class and condition of the premises at the time of +the lease. A tenant is not responsible, under such a covenant, for +deterioration due to diminution in value caused by lapse of time or by +the elements. Where there is an unqualified covenant to repair, and the +premises during the tenancy are burnt down, or destroyed by some other +inevitable calamity, the tenant is bound to rebuild and restore them at +his own expense, even although the landlord has taken out a policy on +his own account and been paid by the insurance company in respect of it. +A covenant to keep in repair requires the tenant to put the premises in +repair if they are out of it, and to maintain them in that condition up +to and at the end of the tenancy. A breach of the covenant to repair +gives the landlord an action for damages which will be measured by the +estimated injury to the reversion if the action be brought during the +tenancy, and by the sum necessary to execute the repairs, if the action +be brought later. (iii.) The improper user of the premises to the injury +of the reversioner is _waste_ (q.v.). (iv.) Covenants by the tenants to +insure the premises and keep them insured are also common; and if the +premises are left uninsured for the smallest portion of the term, though +there is no damage by fire, the covenant is broken. (v.) Covenants to +bear and pay rates and taxes have been discussed above. (vi.) As to the +tenant's obligation to pay rent, see RENT. + +_Assignment, Attornment, Estoppel._--The relationship of landlord and +tenant may be altered either voluntarily, by the act of the parties, or +involuntarily, by the operation of law, and may also be dissolved. The +principal mode of voluntary alteration is an assignment either by the +tenant of his term or by the landlord of his reversion. An assignment +which creates the relationship of landlord and tenant between the lessor +or lessee and the assignee, must be by deed, but the acceptance by a +landlord of rent from a tenant under an invalid assignment may create an +implied tenancy from year to year; and similarly payment of rent by a +tenant may amount to an acknowledgment of his landlord's title. This is +one form of tenancy by estoppel. The principle of all tenancies of this +kind is that something has been done by the party estopped, amounting to +an admission which he cannot be allowed to contradict. "Attornment," or +the agreement by a tenant to become tenant to a new landlord, is a term +now often used to indicate an acknowledgment of the existence of the +relationship of landlord and tenant. It may be noted that it is still +common to insert in mortgage deeds what is called an "attornment +clause," by which the mortgagor "attorns" tenant to the mortgagee, and +the latter thereupon acquires a power of distress as an additional +security. If the lands assigned are situated in Middlesex or Yorkshire, +the assignment should be registered under the Middlesex Registry or +Yorkshire Registries Acts, as the case may be; and similar provision is +now made for the registration by an assignee of his title under the Land +Transfer Acts 1875 and 1897. + +_Underlease._--Another form of alteration in a contract of tenancy is an +under-lease, which differs from assignment in this--that the lessor +parts with a portion of his estate instead of, as in assignment, with +the whole of it. There is no privity of contract between an underlessee +and the superior landlord, but the latter can enforce against the former +restrictive covenants of which he had notice; it is the duty of the +underlessee to inform himself as to the covenants of the original lease, +and, if he enters and takes possession, he will be considered to have +had full notice of, and will be bound by, these covenants. + +_Bankruptcy, Death._--The contract of tenancy may also be altered by +operation of law. If a tenant become bankrupt, his interest passes to +his trustee in bankruptcy--unless, as is frequently the case, the lease +makes the occurrence of that contingency determine the lease. So, on the +death of a tenant, his interest passes to his legal representatives. + +_Dissolution of Tenancy._--Tenancy is dissolved by the expiry of the +term for which it was created, or by forfeiture of the tenant's interest +on the ground of the breach of some condition by the tenant and re-entry +by the landlord. A breach of condition may, however, be waived by the +landlord, and the legislature has made provision for the relief of the +tenant from the consequences of such breaches in certain cases. Relief +from forfeiture and rights of re-entry are now regulated chiefly by the +Conveyancing Acts 1881 and 1882. Under these acts a right of re-entry or +forfeiture is not to be enforceable unless and until the lessor has +served on the lessee a written notice specifying the breach of covenant +or condition complained of, and requiring him to remedy it or make +compensation, and this demand has not within a reasonable time been +complied with; and when a lessor is proceeding to enforce such a right +the court may, if it think fit, grant relief to the lessee. A forfeiture +is also waived if the landlord elects not to take advantage of it--and +shows his election either expressly or impliedly by some act, which +acknowledges the continuance of the tenancy, e.g. by the acceptance of, +or even by an absolute and unqualified demand for, rent, which has +accrued due since the forfeiture, by bringing an action for such rent, +or by distraining for rent whether due before or after the forfeiture. + +A tenancy may also be determined by merger, i.e. where a greater and a +less estate coincide and meet in one and the same person, without any +intermediate estate, as, for instance, when a tenant for years obtains +the fee simple. There may also be a surrender, either voluntary or by +operation of law, which will determine a tenancy, as, for example, when +a tenant is party to some act, the validity of which he is legally +estopped from denying and which would not have been valid had the +tenancy continued to exist. + +The land, on the expiration of the tenancy, becomes at common law the +absolute property of the landlord, no matter how it may have been +altered or improved during the occupation. In certain cases, however, +the law has discriminated between the contending claims of landlord and +tenant. (1) In respect of _fixtures_ (which may be shortly defined as +movables so affixed to the soil as to become part thereof), the tenant +may sometimes remove them, e.g. when they have been brought on the +premises for the purpose of being used in business (see FIXTURES). (2) +In respect of _emblements_, i.e. the profits of sown land, a tenant may +be entitled to these whose term comes to an end by the happening of an +uncertain contingency (see EMBLEMENTS). (3) A similar right is very +generally recognized by custom in tenants whose term expires in the +ordinary way. The custom of the district, in the absence of stipulations +between the parties, would be imported into their contract--the tenant +going out on the same conditions as he came in. Such customary tenant +right only arises at the expiration of the lease, and on the substantial +performance of the covenants; and is forfeited if the tenant abandons +his tenancy during the term. Tenant right is assignable, and will pass +under an assignment of "all the estate and interest" of the outgoing +tenant in the farm. But, with the exceptions noted, the land in its +improved condition passes over at common law to the landlord. The tenant +may have added to its value by buildings, by labour applied to the land, +or by the use of fertilizing manures, but, whatever be the amount of the +additional value, he is not entitled to any compensation whatever. This +again is a matter which the parties may, if they please, regulate for +themselves. + +The law as to _Ejectment_ is dealt with under that heading. + + _Statutory Provisions._--Reference may be made, in conclusion, to a + few modern statutes which have affected the law of landlord and + tenant. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1908 (which repeals the + Agricultural Holdings Acts of 1883, 1900 and 1906) gives to the + agricultural tenant a right to compensation for (i.) certain specified + improvements made by him with the landlord's previous consent in + writing; and (ii.) certain other classes of improvements although the + landlord's consent has not been obtained. As examples of class (i.) + may be mentioned--erection or enlargement of buildings, laying down of + permanent pasture, making of gardens or fences, planting of hops, + embankments and sluices; as examples of (ii.)--chalking of land, clay + burning, application to land of purchased artificial or purchased + manure, except they have been made for the purpose of making provision + to protect the holding from injury or deterioration. In the case of + proposed drainage improvements, notice in writing must be given to the + landlord, who may then execute the improvements himself and charge the + tenant with interest not exceeding 5% per annum on the outlay, or such + annual instalments, payable for a period of twenty-five years, and + recoverable as rent, as will repay the outlay, with interest at the + rate of 3% a year. Under s. 11 of the act a tenant is entitled to + compensation for disturbance, when he is compelled to quit without + good and sufficient cause, and for reasons inconsistent with good + estate management. An agricultural tenant may not contract himself out + of his statutory right to compensation, but "contracting out" is + apparently not prohibited with regard to the right given him by the + acts of 1883 and 1900 to remove fixtures which he has erected and for + which he is not otherwise entitled to compensation, after reasonable + notice to the landlord, unless the latter elects to purchase such + fixtures at a valuation. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1906 conferred + upon every tenant (with slight exceptions) entire freedom of cropping + and of disposal of produce, notwithstanding any custom of the county + or explicit agreement to the contrary. (See further the articles + EJECTMENT, FIXTURES, RENT.) The Small Holdings and Allotments Act + 1908, which repealed previous acts of 1887, 1890 and 1907, deals, on + terms similar to those of the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908, with + small holdings and allotments (the expression "small holding" meaning + an agricultural holding which exceeds one acre, and either does not + exceed fifty acres, or, if exceeding fifty acres, is at the date of + sale or letting of an annual value for the purposes of income tax not + exceeding fifty pounds; the expression "allotment" includes a field + garden). Section 47 of the act gives the tenant the same rights to + compensation as if his holding had been a holding under the + Agricultural Holdings Act 1908 (_vide supra_). Compensation was given + to market gardeners for unexhausted improvements by the Market + Gardeners' Compensation Act 1895 and by the Agricultural Holdings Act + 1906 for improvements effected before the commencement of that act on + a holding cultivated to the knowledge of the landlord as a market + garden, if the landlord had not dissented in writing to the + improvements. The important sections of these acts were incorporated + in the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908, s. 42. + +_Scots Law._--The original lease in Scots law took the form of a grant +by the proprietor or lessor. But, with advancing civilization and the +consequent increase in the number of the conditions to be imposed on +both parties, leases became mutual contracts, bilateral in form. The law +of Scotland as to landlord and tenant may be considered under two main +heads:--I. _Ordinary Leases, Common Law and Statutory_; II. _Building or +Long Leases_. + + I. _Ordinary Leases, Common Law and Statutory._--A verbal lease for a + year is good. Such a lease for more than a year is not effectual even + for a year, except where the lessee has taken possession. At common + law, while a lease was binding on the grantor and his heirs, it was + not good against "singular successors," i.e. persons acquiring by + purchase or adjudication, and the lessee was liable to be ejected by + such persons, unless (a precaution usually taken) sasine of the + subjects demised was expressly conferred on him by the lease. To + obviate this difficulty, the Scots Act 1449, c. 18, made possession of + the subjects of the lease equivalent to sasine. This enactment applies + to leases of agricultural subjects, houses, mills, fisheries and + whatever is _fundo annexum_; provided that (a) the lease, when for + more than one year, must be in writing, (b) it must be definite as to + subject, rent (which may consist of money, grain or services, if the + _reddendum_ is not illusory) and term of duration, (c) possession must + follow on the lease. Special powers of granting leases are conferred + by statute on trustees. (Trusts [Scotland] Act 1867, s. 2), _curatores + bonis_ (Judicial Factors [Scotland] Act 1889) and heirs of entail (cf. + Entail Act 1882, ss. 5, 6, 8, 9). The requisites of the statutory + leases, last mentioned, are similar to those imposed in England upon + tenants for life by the Settled Land Acts (_v. sup._ p. 3). The rent + stipulated for must not be illusory, and must fairly represent the + value of the subjects leased, and the term of the lease must not be + excessive (as to rent generally, see RENT). A life-renter can only + grant a lease that is effectual during the subsistence of the + life-rent. There is practically no limitation, but the will of the + parties, as to the persons to whom a lease may be granted. A lease + granted to a tenant by name will pass, on his death during the + subsistence of the term to his heir-at-law, even if the lease contains + no destination to heirs. The rights and obligations of the lessor and + the tenant (e.g. as to the use of the produce, the payment of rent, + the quiet possession of the subjects demised, and as to the payment of + rates and taxes) are similar to those existing under English law. An + agricultural lease does not, apart from stipulation, confer any right + to kill game, other than hares and rabbits (as to which, see the + Ground Game Act 1880, and GAME LAWS) or any right of fishing. A tenant + is not entitled, without the landlord's consent, to change the + character of the subjects demised, and, except under an agricultural + lease, he is bound to quit the premises on the expiration of the + lease. In the case of urban leases, however, ejectment + (q.v.)--called in Scots Law "removing"--will not be authorized + unless the tenant received 40 days' warning before the term of + removal. In the absence of such notice, the parties are held, if there + be nothing in their conduct or in the lease inconsistent with this + presumption, to renew their agreement in all its terms, and so on from + year to year till due notice is given. This is called "tacit + relocation." A lease may be transmitted (i.) by "assignation," + intimated to the landlord, and followed by possession on the part of + the assignee; (ii.) by sub-lease--the effect of which is equivalent to + that of under-lease in English law; (iii.) by succession, as of the + heir of a tenant; (iv.) in the case of agricultural holdings, by + bequest (Agricultural Holdings [Scotland] Act 1883, s. 29). A lease + terminates (i.) by the expiration of its term or by advantage being + taken by the party in whose favour it is stipulated, of a "break" in + the term; (ii.) by the occurrence of an "irritancy" of ground of + forfeiture, either conventional, or statutory, e.g. where a tenant's + rent is in arrear, or he fails to remove on the expiry of his lease + (Act of Sederunt, 14th of Dec. 1756: Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, + s. 27); (iii.) by the bankruptcy or insolvency of the tenant, at the + landlord's option, if it is so stipulated in the lease; (iv.) by the + destruction, e.g. by fire, of the subject leased, unless the + landlord is bound to restore it. Complete destruction of the subject + leased, e.g. where a house is burnt down, or a farm is reduced to + "sterility" by flood or hurricane, discharges the tenant from the + obligation to pay rent. The effect of partial destruction has given + rise to some uncertainty. "The distinction seems to be that if the + destruction be permanent, though partial, the failure of the subject + let will give relief by entitling the tenant to renounce the lease, + unless a deduction shall be allowed, but that if it be merely + temporary or occasional, it will not entitle the tenant to relief" + (Bell's _Prin._ s. 1208). Agricultural leases usually contain special + provisions as to the order of cropping, the proper stocking of the + farm, and the rights of the incoming and outgoing tenant with regard + to the waygoing crop. Where the rent is in money, it is generally + payable at Whitsunday and Martinmas--the two "legal terms." Sometimes + the term of payment is _before_ the crop is reaped, sometimes _after_. + "The terms thus stipulated are called 'the conventional terms'; the + rent payable by anticipation being called 'forehand rent,' that which + is payable after the crop is reaped, 'back rent.' Where the rent is in + grain, or otherwise payable in produce, it is to be satisfied from the + produce of the farm, if there be any. If there be none the tenant is + bound and entitled to deliver fair marketable grain of the same kind." + (Bell's _Principles_, ss. 1204, 1205). The general rule with regard to + "waygoing crops" on arable farms is that the tenant is entitled to + reap the crop sown before the term of removal (whether or not that be + the natural termination of the lease), the right of exclusive + possession being his during seed time. But he is not entitled to the + use of the barns in threshing, &c., the corn. + + The Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 and 1900, already + referred to incidentally, contain provisions--similar to those of the + English acts--as to a tenant's right to compensation for unexhausted + improvements, removal for non-payment of rent, notice to quit at the + termination of a tenancy, and a tenant's property in fixtures. The + Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1886, 1887 and 1888, confer on + "crofters" special rights. A crofter is defined as "a tenant of a + holding"--being arable or pasture land, or partly arable and partly + pasture land--"from year to year who resides on his holding, the + annual rent of which does not exceed £30 in money, and which is + situated in a 'crofting parish.'" Nearly all the parishes in Argyll, + Inverness, Ross, Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness and Orkney and + Shetland answer to this description. The crofter enjoys a perpetual + tenure subject to the fulfilment of certain conditions as to payment + of rent, non-assignment of tenancy, &c., and to defeasance at his own + option on giving one year's notice to the landlord. A Crofters' + Commission constituted under the acts has power to fix fair rents, and + the crofter on renunciation of his tenancy or removal from his holding + is entitled to compensation for permanent improvements. The Small + Holdings Act 1892 applies to Scotland. + + Under the law of Scotland down to 1880, a landlord had as security for + rent due on an agricultural lease a "hypothec"--i.e. a preferential + right over ordinary creditors, and extending, subject to certain + limitations, over the whole stock and crop of the tenant. This right + was enforceable by sequestration and sale. It was abolished in 1880 as + regards all leases entered into after the 11th of November 1881, where + the land demised exceeded two acres in extent, and the landlord was + left to remedies akin to ejectment (Hypothec Abolition, Scotland, Act + 1880). + + II. _Building or Long Leases._--Under these leases, the term of which + is usually 99 and sometimes 999 years, the tenant is to a certain + extent in the position of a fee simple proprietor, except that his + right is terminable, and that he can only exercise such rights of + ownership as are conferred on him either by statute or by the terms of + his lease. Extensive powers of entering into such leases have been + given by statute to trustees subject to the authority of the Court + (Trusts [Scotland] Act 1867, s. 3) and to heirs of entail (Entail Acts + 1840, 1849, 1882). Where long leases are "probative," i.e. holograph + or duly tested, do not exceed 31 years, or, except as regards leases + of mines and minerals, and of lands held by burgage tenure, relate to + an extent of land exceeding 50 acres, and contain provisions for + renewal, they may be recorded for publication in the _Register of + Sasines_, and such publication has the effect of possession + (Registration of Leases [Scotland] Act 1857). + + _Ireland._--The law of landlord and tenant was originally + substantially the same as that described for England is. But the + modern Land Acts have readjusted the relation between landlords and + tenants, while the Land Purchase Acts have aimed at abolishing those + relations by enabling the tenant to become the owner of his holding. + The way was paved for these changes by the existence in Ulster of a + local custom having virtually the force of law, which had two main + features--fixity of tenure, and free right of sale by the tenant of + his interest. These principles, with the addition of that of fair + rents settled by judicial means, were gradually established by the + Land Acts of 1870 and subsequent years, and the whole system was + remodelled by the Land Purchase Acts (see IRELAND). + +_United States._--The law of landlord and tenant in the United States is +in its principles similar to those of English law. It is only possible +to indicate, by way of example, some of the points of similarity. The +relationship of landlord and tenant is created, altered and dissolved in +the same way, and the rights and duties of parties are substantially +identical. A lease must contain, either in itself or by clear reference, +all the terms of a complete contract--the names of the parties, +description of the property let, the rent (see RENT) and the conditions. +The date is not essential. That is a matter of identification as to +time only. In Pennsylvania, parol evidence of the date is allowed. The +general American doctrine is that where the contract is contained in +separate writings they must connect themselves by reference, and that +parol evidence is not admissible to connect them. The English doctrine +that a verbal lease may be specifically enforced if there has been part +performance by the person seeking the remedy has been fully adopted in +nearly all the American states. The law as to the rights and obligations +of assignees and sub-lessees and as to surrender is the same as in +England. Forfeiture only renders a lease void as regards the lessee; it +may be waived by the lessor, and acceptance by the landlord of rent due +after forfeiture, with notice of such forfeiture, amounts to waiver. +Where there is a lease for a certain period, no notice to quit is +necessary. In uncertain tenancies there must be reasonable +notice--i.e. at common law six months generally. The notice necessary +to determine a monthly or weekly tenancy is generally a month or a week +(see further under LODGER; LODGINGS). In the United States, as in +England, the covenant for quiet enjoyment only extends, so far as +relates to the acts of third parties, to lawful acts of disturbance in +the enjoyment of the subject agreed to be let. + +_Laws of other Countries._--It is impossible here to deal with the +systems of land tenure in force in other countries. Only the question of +the legal relations between landlord and tenant can be touched upon. In +France, the Code Civil recognizes two such relationships, the letting to +hire of houses (_bail à loyer_) and the letting to farm of rural +properties (_bail à ferme_). To a certain extent, both forms of tenancy +are governed by the same rules. The letting may be either written or +verbal. But a verbal lease presents this disadvantage that, if it is +unperformed and one of the parties denies its existence, it cannot be +proved by witnesses. The party who denies the letting can only be put to +his oath (Arts. 1714-1715). It may further be noted that in the case of +a verbal lease, notice to quit is regulated by the custom of the place +(Art. 1736). The tenant or farmer has the right of underletting or +assigning his lease, in the absence of prohibiting stipulation (Art. +1717). The lessor is bound by the nature of his contract and without the +need of any particular stipulation (i.) to deliver to the lessee the +thing hired in a good state of repair; (ii.) to maintain it in a state +to serve the purpose for which it has been hired; (iii.) to secure to +the lessee peaceable enjoyment during the continuance of the lease +(Arts. 1719-1720). He is bound to warrant the lessee against, and to +indemnify him for, any loss arising from any faults or defects in the +thing hired which prevent its use, even though he was not aware of them +at the time of the lease (Art. 1721). If during the continuance of the +letting, the thing hired is entirely destroyed by accident, the lease is +cancelled. In case of partial destruction, the lessee may, according to +circumstances, demand either a diminution of the price, or the +cancellation of the lease. In neither case is there ground for damages +(Art. 1722). The lessor cannot, during the lease, change the form of the +thing hired (Art. 1723). The lessee is bound, on his side (i.) to use +the thing hired like a good head of a household (_bon père de famille_), +in accordance with the express or presumed purpose of the hiring; (ii.) +to pay the price of the hiring at the times agreed (Art. 1728). On +breach of the former obligation, the lease may be judicially cancelled +(Art. 1729). As to the consequences of breach of the latter, see RENT. +If a statement of the condition of the property (_état des lieux_) has +been prepared, the lessee must give it up such as he received it +according to the statement, except what has perished or decayed by age +or by means of _force majeure_ (Art. 1730). In the absence of an _état +des lieux_, the lessee is presumed to have received the thing hired in a +good state of tenantable repair, and must so yield it up, saving proof +to the contrary (Art. 1731). He is liable for injuries or losses +happening during his enjoyment, unless he prove that they have taken +place without his fault (Art. 1732); in particular, for loss by fire +unless he show that the fire happened by accident, _force majeure_, or +defect of construction, or through communication from a neighbouring +house (Art. 1733). The lessee is liable for injuries and losses +happening by the act of persons belonging to his house or of his +sub-tenants (Art. 1735). A lease terminates (i.) at the expiration of +the prescribed term (Art. 1737)--if at that period the lessee remains +and is left in possession, there is, in the case of written leases, a +tacit renewal (_tacite reconduction_) of the lease as a verbal lease +(Arts. 1738-1739); (ii.) by the loss of the thing hired and by the +default of the lessor or lessee in the fulfilment of their respective +obligations (Art. 1741), but (iii.) not by the death either of the +lessor or of the lessee (1742). The conditions of EJECTMENT are stated +under that heading. The special rules (Arts. 1752-1762) relative to the +hire of houses are touched upon in LODGER AND LODGINGS. It only remains +here to refer to those applicable to leases to farm. The lessee is bound +to stock the farm with the cattle and implements necessary for its +husbandry (Art. 1766), and to stack in the places appointed for the +purpose in the lease (Art. 1767). A lessee, who farms on condition of +dividing the produce with the lessor, can only underlet or assign if he +is expressly empowered to do so by the lease (Art. 1763). The lessee +must give notice to the lessor of any acts of usurpation committed on +the property (Art. 1768). If at least half of the harvest in any year is +destroyed by accident, the lessee (a) in the case of a lease for several +years, obtains, at the end of his lease, a refund of rent, by way of +indemnity, unless he has been indemnified by preceding harvests; (b) in +the case of a lease for a year only, may secure a proportional abatement +of the current rent. No refund is payable if the produce was severed +before the accident, unless the lessor was entitled to a portion of it, +when he must bear his share of the loss, provided the lessee was not _in +morâ_ as regards the delivery of the lessor's portion. The lessee has no +right to a refund when the cause of damage was existing and known at the +date of the lease (Arts. 1769-1771). Liability for loss by "accidents" +may be thrown on the lessee by express stipulation (Art. 1772). +"Accidents" here mean ordinary accidents only, such as hail, lightning +or frost, and the lessee will not be answerable for loss caused by +extraordinary accidents such as war or floods, unless he has been made +liable for all accidents, foreseen or unforeseen (Art. 1773). A verbal +lease is deemed to be for the term necessary to enable the lessee to +gather in all the produce, thus for a year in the case of a meadow or +vineyard; in the case of lands leased in tillage, where they are divided +into shifts or seasons, for as many years as there are shifts (Art. +1774). The outgoing must leave for the incoming tenant convenient +housing and other facilities for the labours of the year following; the +incoming must procure for the outgoing tenant conveniences for the +consumption of his fodder and for the harvests remaining to be got in. +In either case the custom of the place is to be followed (Art. 1777). +The outgoing tenant must leave the straw and manure of the year, if he +received them at the beginning of his lease, and even where he has not +so received them, the owner may retain them according to valuation (Art. +1778). A word must be added as to letting by cheptel (_bail à +cheptel_)--a contract by which one of the parties gives to the other a +stock of cattle to keep under conditions agreed on between them (Art. +1800). There are several varieties of the contract, (i.) simple cheptel +(_cheptel simple_) in which the whole stock is supplied by the +lessor--the lessee taking half the profit and bearing half the loss +(Art. 1804); (ii.) cheptel by moiety (_cheptel à moietié_)--here each of +the contracting parties furnishes half of the stock, which remains +common for profit or loss (Art. 1818); (iii.) cheptel given to a farmer +(_fermier_) or participating cultivator (_colon partiaire_)--in the +cheptel given to the farmer (also called _cheptel de fer_) stock of a +value equal to the estimated price of the stock given must be left at +the expiry of the lease (Art. 1821); cheptel given to the participating +cultivator resembles simple cheptel, except in points of detail (Arts. +1827-1830); (iv.) the term "cheptel" is also improperly applied to a +contract by which cattle are given to be housed and fed--here the lessor +retains the ownership, but has only the profit of the calves (Art. +1831). + +The French system just described is in force in its entirety in Belgium +(Code Civil, Arts. 1713 et seq.) and has been followed to some extent +in Italy (Civil Code, Arts. 1568 et seq.), Spain (Civil Code, Arts 1542 +et seq.), and Portugal (Civil Code, Arts. 1298 et seq., 1595 et seq.). +In all these countries there are varieties of emphyteutic tenure; and in +Italy the mezzadria or metayer system (see Civil Code, Arts. 1647 et +seq.) exists. The German Civil Code adopts the distinction between _bail +à loyer_ (Miehl, Arts. 535 et seq.) and _bail à ferme_ (Pacht, Arts. 581 +et seq.). Dutch law also (Civil Code, Arts. 1583 et seq.) is similar to +the French. + +The Indian law of landlord and tenant is described in the article INDIAN +LAW. The laws of the various British colonies on the subject are too +numerous and too different to be dealt with here. In Mauritius, the +provisions of the Code Civil are in force without modification. In +Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 1605 et seq.) and St Lucia (Civil Code, Arts. +1512 et seq.) they have been reproduced by the local law. In many of the +colonies, parts of the English law of landlord and tenant, common law +and statutory, have been introduced by local enactments (cf. British +Guiana, Ord. 4 of 1846; Jamaica, 1 Vict. c. 26). In others (e.g. +Victoria, Landlord and Tenant Act 1890, No. 1108; Ontario, Rev. Stats. +1897, c. 170) consolidating statutes have been passed. + + AUTHORITIES.--English Law: Wolstenholme, Brinton and Cherry, + _Conveyancing and Settled Land Acts_ (London, 9th ed., 1905); Hood and + Challis, _Conveyancing and Settled Land Acts_ (London, 7th ed., 1909); + Foà, on _Landlord and Tenant_ (London, 4th ed., 1907); Woodfall, on + _Landlord and Tenant_ (London, 18th ed., 1907); Fawcett, _Landlord and + Tenant_ (London, 3rd ed., 1905). Scots Law: Hunter, on _Landlord and + Tenant_ (Edinburgh, 4th ed., 1876); Rankine, on _Land Ownership_ + (Edinburgh, 3rd ed., 1891); Rankine, on _Leases_ (Edinburgh, 2nd ed., + 1893); Hunter, _Landlord and Tenant_ (4th ed. G. Guthrie, Edinburgh, + 1876). Irish Law: Kelly's _Statute Law of Landlord and Tenant in + Ireland_ (Dublin, 1898); Barton and Cherry's _Land Act 1896_ (Dublin, + 1896); Quill, Hamilton and Longworth, _Irish Land Acts of 1903 and + 1904_ (Dublin, 1904). American Law: Bouvier, _Law Dictionary_ (ed. + Rawle) (London, 1897); McAdam, _Rights, Remedies and Liabilities of + Landlord and Tenant_ (New York, 1900); Wood, _Law of Landlord and + Tenant_ (New York, 1888). Foreign and Colonial Laws: Field, + _Landholding and the relation of Landlord and Tenant in various + Countries; Ruling Cases_ (American Notes), (London and Boston, + 1894-1901). (A. W. R.) + + + + +LANDON, CHARLES PAUL (1760-1826), French painter and art-author, was +born at Nonant in 1760. He entered the studio of Regnault, and won the +first prize of the Academy in 1792. After his return from Italy, +disturbed by the Revolution, he seems to have abandoned painting for +letters, but he began to exhibit in 1795, and continued to do so at +various intervals up to 1814. His "Leda" obtained an award of merit in +1801, and is now in the Louvre. His "Mother's Lesson," "Paul and +Virginia Bathing," and "Daedalus and Icarus" have been engraved; but his +works on painting and painters, which reach nearly one hundred volumes, +form his chief title to be remembered. In spite of a complete want of +critical accuracy, an extreme carelessness in the biographical details, +and the feebleness of the line engravings by which they are illustrated, +Landon's _Annales du Musée_, in 33 vols., form a vast repertory of +compositions by masters of every age and school of permanent value. +Landon also published _Lives of Celebrated Painters_, in 22 vols.; _An +Historical Description of Paris_, 2 vols.; a _Description of London_, +with 42 plates; and descriptions of the Luxembourg, of the Giustiniani +collection, and of the gallery of the duchesse de Berry. He died at +Paris in 1826. + + + + +LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH (1802-1838), English poet and novelist, better +known by her initials L. E. L. than as Miss Landon or Mrs Maclean, was +descended from an old Herefordshire family, and was born at Chelsea on +the 14th of August 1802. She went to a school in Chelsea where Miss +Mitford also received her education. Her father, an army agent, amassed +a large property, which he lost by speculation shortly before his death. +About 1815 the Landons made the acquaintance of William Jerdan, and +Letitia began her contributions to the _Literary Gazette_ and to various +Christmas annuals. She also published some volumes of verse, which soon +won for her a wide literary fame. The gentle melancholy and romantic +sentiment her writings embodied suited the taste of the period, and +would in any case have secured her the sympathy and approval of a wide +class of readers. She displays richness of fancy and aptness of +language, but her work suffered from hasty production, and has not stood +the test of time. The large sums she earned by her literary labours were +expended on the support of her family. An engagement to John Forster, it +is said, was broken off through the intervention of scandalmongers. In +June 1838 she married George Maclean, governor of the Gold Coast, but +she only survived her marriage, which proved to be very unhappy, by a +few months. She died on the 15th of October 1838 at Cape Coast from an +overdose of prussic acid, which, it is supposed, was taken accidentally. + + For some time L. E. L. was joint editor of the _Literary Gazette_. Her + first volume of poetry appeared in 1820 under the title The _Fate of + Adelaide_, and was followed by other collections of verses with + similar titles. She also wrote several novels, of which the best is + _Ethel Churchill_ (1837). Various editions of her _Poetical Works_ + have been published since her death, one in 1880 with an introductory + memoir by W. B. Scott. _The Life and Literary Remains of Letilia + Elizabeth Landon_, by Laman Blanchard, appeared in 1841, and a second + edition in 1855. + + + + +LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE (1775-1864), English writer, eldest son of Walter +Landor and his wife Elizabeth Savage, was born at Warwick on the 30th of +January 1775. [He was sent to Rugby school, but was removed at the +headmaster's request and studied privately with Mr Langley, vicar of +Ashbourne. In 1793 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He adopted +republican principles and in 1794 fired a gun at the windows of a Tory +for whom he had an aversion. He was rusticated for a year, and, although +the authorities were willing to condone the offence, he refused to +return. The affair led to a quarrel with his father in which Landor +expressed his intention of leaving home for ever. He was, however, +reconciled with his family through the efforts of his friend Dorothea +Lyttelton. He entered no profession, but his father allowed him £150 a +year, and he was free to live at home or not as he pleased.] + +In 1795 appeared in a small volume, divided into three books, _The Poems +of Walter Savage Landor_, and, in pamphlet form of nineteen pages, an +anonymous _Moral Epistle, respectfully dedicated to Earl Stanhope_. No +poet at the age of twenty ever had more vigour of style and fluency of +verse; nor perhaps has any ever shown such masterly command of epigram +and satire, made vivid and vital by the purest enthusiasm and most +generous indignation. Three years later appeared the first edition of +the first great work which was to inscribe his name for ever among the +great names in English poetry. The second edition of _Gebir_ appeared in +1803, with a text corrected of grave errors and improved by magnificent +additions. About the same time the whole poem was also published in a +Latin form, which for might and melody of line, for power and perfection +of language, must always dispute the palm of precedence with the English +version. [His father's death in 1805 put him in possession of an +independent fortune. Landor settled in Bath. Here in 1808 he met +Southey, and the mutual appreciation of the two poets led to a warm +friendship.] In 1808, under an impulse not less heroic than that which +was afterwards to lead Byron to a glorious death in redemption of Greece +and his own good fame, Landor, then aged thirty-three, left England for +Spain as a volunteer to serve in the national army against Napoleon at +the head of a regiment raised and supported at his sole expense. After +some three months' campaigning came the affair of Cintra and its +disasters; "his troop," in the words of his biographer, "dispersed or +melted away, and he came back to England in as great a hurry as he had +left it," but bringing with him the honourable recollection of a brave +design unselfishly attempted, and the material in his memory for the +sublimest poem published in our language, between the last masterpiece +of Milton and the first masterpiece of Shelley--one equally worthy to +stand unchallenged beside either for poetic perfection as well as moral +majesty--the lofty tragedy of _Count Julian_, which appeared in 1812, +without the name of its author. No comparable work is to be found in +English poetry between the date of _Samson Agonistes_ and the date of +_Prometheus Unbound_; and with both these great works it has some +points of greatness in common. The superhuman isolation of agony and +endurance which encircles and exalts the hero is in each case expressed +with equally appropriate magnificence of effect. The style of _Count +Julian_, if somewhat deficient in dramatic ease and the fluency of +natural dialogue, has such might and purity and majesty of speech as +elsewhere we find only in Milton so long and so steadily sustained. + +In May 1811 Landor had suddenly married Miss Julia Thuillier, with whose +looks he had fallen in love at first sight in a ball-room at Bath; and +in June they settled for a while at Llanthony Abbey in Monmouthshire, +from whence he was worried in three years' time by the combined vexation +of neighbours and tenants, lawyers and lords-lieutenant; not before much +toil and money had been nobly wasted on attempts to improve the +sterility of the land, to relieve the wretchedness and raise the +condition of the peasantry. He left England for France at first, but +after a brief residence at Tours took up his abode for three years at +Como; "and three more wandering years he passed," says his biographer, +"between Pisa and Pistoja, before he pitched his tent in Florence in +1821." + +In 1835 he had an unfortunate difference with his wife which ended in a +complete separation. In 1824 appeared the first series of his _Imaginary +Conversations_, in 1826 "the second edition, corrected and enlarged"; a +supplementary third volume was added in 1828; and in 1829 the second +series was given to the world. Not until 1846 was a fresh instalment +added, in the second volume of his collected and selected works. During +the interval he had published his three other most famous and greatest +books in prose: _The Citation and Examination of William Shakespeare_ +(1834), _Pericles and Aspasia_ (1836), _The Pentameron_ (1837). To the +last of these was originally appended _The Pentalogia_, containing five +of the very finest among his shorter studies in dramatic poetry. In 1847 +he published his most important Latin work, _Poemata et inscriptiones_, +comprising, with large additions, the main contents of two former +volumes of idyllic, satiric, elegiac and lyric verse; and in the same +golden year of his poetic life appeared the very crown and flower of its +manifold labours, the _Hellenics of Waller Savage Landor_, enlarged and +completed. Twelve years later this book was re-issued, with additions of +more or less value, with alterations generally to be regretted, and with +omissions invariably to be deplored. In 1853 he put forth _The Last +Fruit off an Old Tree_, containing fresh conversations, critical and +controversial essays, miscellaneous epigrams, lyrics and occasional +poems of various kind and merit, closing with _Five Scenes_ on the +martyrdom of Beatrice Cenci, unsurpassed even by their author himself +for noble and heroic pathos, for subtle and genial, tragic and profound, +ardent and compassionate insight into character, with consummate mastery +of dramatic and spiritual truth. In 1856 he published _Antony and +Octavius--Scenes for the Study_, twelve consecutive poems in dialogue +which alone would suffice to place him high among the few great masters +of historic drama. + +In 1858 appeared a metrical miscellany bearing the title of _Dry Sticks +Fagoted by W. S. Landor_, and containing among other things graver and +lighter certain epigrammatic and satirical attacks which reinvolved him +in the troubles of an action for libel; and in July of the same year he +returned for the last six years of his life to Italy, which he had left +for England in 1835. [He was advised to make over his property to his +family, on whom he was now dependent. They appear to have refused to +make him an allowance unless he returned to England. By the exertions of +Robert Browning an allowance was secured. Browning settled him first at +Siena and then at Florence.] Embittered and distracted by domestic +dissensions, if brightened and relieved by the affection and veneration +of friends and strangers, this final period of his troubled and splendid +career came at last to a quiet end on the 17th of September 1864. In the +preceding year he had published a last volume of _Heroic Idyls, with +Additional Poems_, English and Latin,--the better part of them well +worthy to be indeed the "last fruit" of a genius which after a life of +eighty-eight years had lost nothing of its majestic and pathetic power, +its exquisite and exalted loveliness. + +A complete list of Landor's writings, published or privately printed, in +English, Latin and Italian, including pamphlets, fly-sheets and +occasional newspaper correspondence on political or literary questions, +it would be difficult to give anywhere and impossible to give here. From +nineteen almost to ninety his intellectual and literary activity was +indefatigably incessant; but, herein at least like Charles Lamb, whose +cordial admiration he so cordially returned, he could not write a note +of three lines which did not bear the mark of his "Roman hand" in its +matchless and inimitable command of a style at once the most powerful +and the purest of his age. The one charge which can ever seriously be +brought and maintained against it is that of such occasional obscurity +or difficulty as may arise from excessive strictness in condensation of +phrase and expurgation of matter not always superfluous, and sometimes +almost indispensable. His English prose and his Latin verse are perhaps +more frequently and more gravely liable to this charge than either his +English verse or his Latin prose. At times it is well-nigh impossible +for an eye less keen and swift, a scholarship less exquisite and ready +than his own, to catch the precise direction and follow the perfect +course of his rapid thought and radiant utterance. This apparently +studious pursuit and preference of the most terse and elliptic +expression which could be found for anything he might have to say could +not but occasionally make even so sovereign a master of two great +languages appear "dark with excess of light"; but from no former master +of either tongue in prose or verse was ever the quality of real +obscurity, of loose and nebulous incertitude, more utterly alien or more +naturally remote. There is nothing of cloud or fog about the path on +which he leads us; but we feel now and then the want of a bridge or a +handrail; we have to leap from point to point of narrative or argument +without the usual help of a connecting plank. Even in his dramatic +works, where least of all it should have been found, this lack of +visible connexion or sequence in details of thought or action is too +often a source of sensible perplexity. In his noble trilogy on the +history of Giovanna queen of Naples it is sometimes actually difficult +to realize on a first reading what has happened or is happening, or how, +or why, or by what agency--a defect alone sufficient, but unhappily +sufficient in itself, to explain the too general ignorance of a work so +rich in subtle and noble treatment of character, so sure and strong in +its grasp and rendering of "high actions and high passions," so rich in +humour and in pathos, so royally serene in its commanding power upon the +tragic mainsprings of terror and of pity. As a poet, he may be said on +the whole to stand midway between Byron and Shelley--about as far above +the former as below the latter. If we except Catullus and Simonides, it +might be hard to match and it would be impossible to overmatch the +flawless and blameless yet living and breathing beauty of his most +perfect elegies, epigrams or epitaphs. As truly as prettily was he +likened by Leigh Hunt "to a stormy mountain pine which should produce +lilies." His passionate compassion, his bitter and burning pity for all +wrongs endured in all the world, found only their natural and inevitable +outlet in his lifelong defence or advocacy of tyrannicide as the last +resource of baffled justice, the last discharge of heroic duty. His +tender and ardent love of children, of animals and of flowers makes +fragrant alike the pages of his writing and the records of his life. He +was as surely the most gentle and generous as the most headstrong and +hot-headed of heroes or of men. Nor ever was any man's best work more +thoroughly imbued and informed with evidence of his noblest qualities. +His loyalty and liberality of heart were as inexhaustible as his bounty +and beneficence of hand. Praise and encouragement, deserved or +undeserved, came yet more readily to his lips than challenge or +defiance. Reviled and ridiculed by Lord Byron, he retorted on the +offender living less readily and less warmly than he lamented and +extolled him dead. On the noble dramatic works of his brother Robert he +lavished a magnificence of sympathetic praise which his utmost +self-estimate would never have exacted for his own. Age and the lapse +of time could neither heighten nor lessen the fulness of this rich and +ready generosity. To the poets of his own and of the next generation he +was not readier to do honour than to those of a later growth, and not +seldom of deserts far lower and far lesser claims than theirs. That he +was not unconscious of his own, and avowed it with the frank simplicity +of nobler times, is not more evident or more certain than that in +comparison with his friends and fellows he was liable rather to +undervalue than to overrate himself. He was a classic, and no formalist; +the wide range of his just and loyal admiration had room for a genius so +far from classical as Blake's. Nor in his own highest mood or method of +creative as of critical work was he a classic only, in any narrow or +exclusive sense of the term. On either side, immediately or hardly below +his mighty masterpiece of _Pericles and Aspasia_, stand the two scarcely +less beautiful and vivid studies of medieval Italy and Shakespearean +England. The very finest flower of his immortal dialogues is probably to +be found in the single volume comprising only "Imaginary Conversations +of Greeks and Romans"; his utmost command of passion and pathos may be +tested by its transcendent success in the distilled and concentrated +tragedy of _Tiberius and Vipsania_, where for once he shows a quality +more proper to romantic than classical imagination--the subtle and +sublime and terrible power to enter the dark vestibule of distraction, +to throw the whole force of his fancy, the whole fire of his spirit, +into the "shadowing passion" (as Shakespeare calls it) of gradually +imminent insanity. Yet, if this and all other studies from ancient +history or legend could be subtracted from the volume of his work, +enough would be left whereon to rest the foundation of a fame which time +could not sensibly impair. (A. C. S.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See _The Works and Life of Walter Savage Landor_ (8 + vols., 1846), the life being the work of John Forster. Another edition + of his works (1891-1893), edited by C. G. Crump, comprises _Imaginary + Conversations_, _Poems_, _Dialogues in Verse and Epigrams_ and _The + Longer Prose Works_. His _Letters and other Unpublished Writings_ were + edited by Mr Stephen Wheeler (1897). There are many volumes of + selections from his works, notably one (1882) for the "Golden + Treasury" series, edited by Sidney Colvin, who also contributed the + monograph on _Landor_ (1881) in the "English Men of Letters" series. A + bibliography of his works, many of which are very rare, is included in + Sir Leslie Stephen's article on Landor in the _Dictionary of National + Biography_ (vol. xxxii., 1892). (M. Br.) + + + + +LANDOUR, a hill station and sanatorium in India, in Dehra Dun district +of the United Provinces, adjoining Mussoorie. Pop. (1901) 1720, rising +to 3700 in the hot season. Since 1827 it has been a convalescent station +for European troops, with a school for their children. + + + + +LAND REGISTRATION, a legal process connected with the transfer of landed +property, comprising two forms--registration of deeds and registration +of title, which may be best described as a species of machinery for +assisting a purchaser or mortgagee in his inquiries as to his vendor's +or mortgagor's title previously to completing his dealing, and for +securing his own position afterwards. The expediency of making inquiry +into the vendor's title before completing a purchase of land (and the +case of a mortgage is precisely similar) is obvious. In the case of +goods possession may ordinarily be relied on as proof of full ownership; +in the case of land, the person in ostensible possession is very seldom +the owner, being usually only a tenant, paying rent to someone else. +Even the person to whom the rent is paid is in many cases--probably, in +England, in most cases--not the full owner, but only a life owner, or a +trustee, whose powers of disposing of the property are of a strictly +limited nature. Again, goods are very seldom the subject of a mortgage, +whereas land has from time immemorial been the frequent subject of this +class of transaction. Evidently, therefore, some sort of inquiry is +necessary to enable a purchaser to obtain certainty that the land for +which he pays full price is not subject to an unknown mortgage or charge +which, if left undiscovered, might afterwards deprive him of a large +part or even the whole of its value. Again, the probability of serious +consequences to the purchaser ensuing from a mistake as to title is +infinitely greater in the case of land than in the case of goods. Before +the rightful owner can recover misappropriated goods, he has to find +out where they are. This is usually a matter of considerable difficulty. +By the time they have reached the hands of a _bonâ fide_ purchaser all +chance of their recovery by the true owner is practically at an end. But +with land the case is far otherwise. A dispossessed rightful owner never +has any difficulty in tracing his property, for it is immovable. All he +has to do is to bring an action for ejectment against the person in +possession. For these reasons, among others, any attempt to deal with +land on the simple and unsuspecting principles which obtain in regard to +goods would be fraught with grave risks. + +Apart from very early and primitive social conditions, there appear to +be only two ways in which the required certainty as to title to land can +be obtained. Either the purchaser must satisfy himself, by an exhaustive +scrutiny and review of all the deeds, wills, marriages, heirships and +other documents and events by which the property has been conveyed, +mortgaged, leased, devised or transmitted during a considerable period +of time, that no loophole exists whereby an adverse claim can enter or +be made good--this is called the system of private investigation of +title--or the government must keep an authoritative list or register of +the properties within its jurisdiction, together with the names of the +owners and particulars of the encumbrances in each case, and must +protect purchasers and others dealing with land, on the faith of this +register, from all adverse claims. This second system is called +Registration of Title. To these two alternatives may perhaps be added a +third, of very recent growth--Insurance of Title. This is largely used +in the United States. But it is in reality only a phase of the system of +private investigation. The insurance company investigates the title, and +charges the purchaser a premium to cover the expense and the risk of +error. Registration of deeds is an adjunct of the system of private +investigation, and, except in England, is a practically invariable +feature of it. It consists in the establishment of public offices in +which all documents affecting land are to be recorded--partly to +preserve them in a readily accessible place, partly to prevent the +possibility of any material deed or document being dishonestly concealed +by a vendor. Where registration is effected by depositing a full copy of +the deed, it also renders the subsequent falsification of the original +document dangerous. Registration of deeds does not (except perhaps to a +certain extent indirectly) cheapen or simplify the process of +investigation--the formalities at the registry add something to the +trouble and cost incurred--but it prevents the particular classes of +fraud mentioned. + +The history of land registration follows, as a general rule, a fairly +uniform course of development. In very early times, and in small and +simple communities, the difficulty afterwards found in establishing +title to land does not arise, owing to the primitive habit of attaching +ceremony and publicity to all dealings. The parties meet on the land, +with witnesses; symbolical acts (such as handing over a piece of earth, +or the bough of a tree) are performed; and a set form of words is +spoken, expressive of the intention to convey. By this means the +ownership of each estate in the community becomes to a certain extent a +matter of common knowledge, rendering fraud and mistake difficult. But +this method leaves a good deal to be desired in point of security. +Witnesses die, and memory is uncertain; and one of the earliest +improvements consists in the establishment of a sort of public record +kept by the magistrate, lord or other local authority, containing a +series of contemporary notes of the effect of the various transactions +that take place. This book becomes the general title-deed of the whole +community, and as long as transactions remain simple, and not too +numerous, the results appear to be satisfactory. Of this character are +the Manorial Court Rolls, which were in the middle ages the great +authorities on title, both in England and on the continent. The entries +in them in early times were made in a very few words. The date, the +names of the parties, the name or short verbal description of the land, +the nature of the transaction, are all that appear. In the land registry +at Vienna there is a continuous series of registers of this kind going +back to 1368, in Prague to 1377, in Munich to 1440. No doubt there are +extant (though in a less easily accessible form) manorial records in +England of equal or greater antiquity. This may be considered the first +stage in the history of Land Registration. It can hardly be said to be +in active operation at the present day in any civilized country--in the +sense in which that term is usually understood. Where dealings become +more numerous and complicated, written instruments are required to +express the intentions of the parties, and afterwards to supply evidence +of the landowner's title. It appears, too, that as a general rule the +public books already described continue to be used, notwithstanding this +change; only (as would be expected) the entries in them, once plain and +simple, either grow into full copies of the long and intricate deeds, or +consist of mere notes stating that such and such deeds have been +executed, leaving the persons interested to inquire for the originals, +in whose custody soever they may be found. This system, which may be +regarded as the second stage in the history of land registration, is +called Registration of Deeds. It prevails in France, Belgium, parts of +Switzerland, in Italy, Spain, India, in almost all the British colonies +(except Australasia and Canada), in most of the states of the American +Union, in the South American republics, in Scotland and Ireland, and in +the English counties of Yorkshire and Middlesex. Where it exists, there +is generally a law to the effect that in case of dispute a registered +deed shall prevail over an unregistered one. The practical effect is +that a purchaser can, by searching the register, find out exactly what +deeds he ought to inquire for, and receives an assurance that if, after +completion, he registers his own conveyance, no other deeds--even if +they exist--will prevail against him. + +The expenses and delays, not to mention the occasional actual losses of +property through fraud or mistake, attendant on the system of making +every purchaser responsible for the due examination of his vendor's +title--whether or not assisted by registration of deeds--have induced +several governments to establish the more perfect system of Registration +of Title, which consists in collecting the transactions affecting each +separate estate under a separate head, keeping an accurate account of +the parcels of which each such estate is composed, and summarizing +authoritatively, as each fresh transaction occurs, the subsisting rights +of all parties in relation to the land itself. This system prevails in +Germany, Austria, Hungary, parts of Switzerland, the Australasian +colonies, nearly the whole of Canada, some of the states of the American +Union, to a certain extent in Ireland, and is in course of establishment +in England and Wales. The Register consists of three portions:--(1) The +description of the land, usually, but not necessarily, accompanied by a +reference to a map; (2) the ownership, giving the name and address of +the person who can sell and dispose of the land; and (3) the +encumbrances, in their order of priority, and the names of the persons +for the time being entitled to them. When any fresh transaction takes +place the instrument effecting it is produced, and the proper +alterations in, or additions to, the register are made: if it be a sale, +the name of the vendor is cancelled from the register, and that of the +purchaser is entered instead; if it be a mortgage, it is added to the +list of encumbrances; if a discharge, the encumbrance discharged is +cancelled; if it is a sale of part of the land, the original description +is modified or the plan is marked to show the piece conveyed, while a +new description or plan is made and a new register is opened for the +detached parcel. In the English and Australian registries a "land +certificate" is also issued to the landowner containing copies of the +register and of the plan. This certificate takes the place more or less +of the old documents of title. On a sale, the process is as follows: The +vendor first of all produces to the purchaser his land certificate, or +gives him the number of his title and an authority to inspect the +register. In Austria and in some colonial registries this is not +necessary, the register being open to public inspection, which in +England is not the case. The purchaser, on inspecting this, can easily +see for himself whether the land he wishes to buy is comprised in the +registered description or plan, whether the vendor's name appears on the +register as the owner of the land, and whether there are any +encumbrances or other burdens registered as affecting it. If there are +encumbrances, the register states their amount and who are entitled to +them. The purchaser then usually[1] prepares a conveyance or transfer of +the land (generally in a short printed form issued by the registry), and +the vendor executes it in exchange for the purchase money. If there are +mortgages, he pays them off to the persons named in the register as +their owners, and they concur in a discharge. He then presents the +executed instruments at the registry, and is entered as owner of the +land instead of the vendor, the mortgages, if any, being cancelled. +Where "land certificates" are used (as in England and Australia), a new +land certificate is issued to the purchaser showing the existing state +of the register and containing a copy of the registered plan of the +land. The above is only a brief outline of the processes employed. For +further information as to practical details reference may be made to the +treatises mentioned at the end of this article. + + _England and Wales._--The first attempt to introduce general + registration of conveyances appears to have been made by the Statute + of Enrolments, passed in the 27th year of Henry VIII. But this was + soon found to be capable of evasion, and it became a dead letter. A + Registration Act applying to the counties of Lancaster, Chester and + Durham was passed in Queen Elizabeth's reign, but failed for want of + providing the necessary machinery for its observance. The subject + reappeared in several bills during the Commonwealth, but these failed + to pass, owing, it would seem, to the objection of landowners to + publicity. In 1669 a committee of the House of Lords reported that one + cause of the depreciation of landed property was the uncertainty of + titles, and proposed registration of deeds as a remedy, but nothing + was done. + + During the next thirty years numerous pamphlets for and against a + general registry were published. In 1704 the first Deed Registry Act + was passed, applying to the West Riding of Yorkshire. In 1707 the + system was extended to the East Riding, and in 1708 to Middlesex. + These Middlesex and Yorkshire registries (modified considerably in + practice, but not seriously in principle, by the Yorkshire Registries + Acts 1884, 1885, and Land Registry [Middlesex Deeds] Act 1891) remain + in operation, and are greatly valued by the smaller proprietors and + mortgagees, owing to the security against fraud which they provide at + a trifling cost. The selection of these counties seems capricious: its + probable explanation is that in them trade was flourishing, and the + fortunes made were frequently invested in land, and a protection + against secret encumbrances was most in demand. In 1728 and 1732 + Surrey and Derby petitioned, unsuccessfully, for local registries. In + 1735 the North Riding Deed Registry Act was passed. In 1739 a General + Registry bill passed the Commons, but did not reach the Lords. Next + year the Lords passed a similar bill, but it did not reach the + Commons. In 1759 a General Registry bill was thrown out by a majority + of one. In 1784 Northumberland unsuccessfully petitioned for a local + registry. After this the subject went almost out of sight till the + Real Property Commission of 1828. They reported in 1830 in favour of a + general register of deeds, but though several bills were introduced, + none were passed. In 1846 a committee of the House of Lords reported + that the marketable value of real property was seriously diminished by + the tedious and expensive process of the transfer of land, and that a + registry of title to all real property was essential to the success of + any attempt to simplify the system of conveyancing. In 1850 a Royal + Commission reported in favour of a general register of deeds, and in + 1851 Lord Campbell introduced a bill accordingly, but it was opposed, + and was dropped. In 1853 Lord Cranworth introduced a bill, which + passed the Lords but not the Commons. + + Hitherto only registration of deeds had been considered, but in 1854 a + new Royal Commission was appointed, which reported in 1857 in favour + of a register of title. The scheme they recommended was substantially + embodied in a bill introduced in 1859 by Lord Cairns--then + Solicitor-General--but a dissolution stopped its progress. In 1862 + Lord Westbury had the satisfaction of carrying the first act for + registration of title. This act enabled any landowner to register an + indefeasible title on production of strict proof. The proof required + was to be such as the court of chancery would force an unwilling + purchaser to accept. Only a few hundred titles were registered under + this act, and in 1868 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into + the causes of its failure. They reported in 1870, making various + suggestions of detail, and especially adverting to the great expense + caused by the strictness of the official investigation of title before + a property could be admitted to the register. In the same year Lord + Hatherley introduced a Transfer of Land Bill, but it was not proceeded + with. In 1873 Lord Selborne introduced a Land Titles and Transfer + Bill, following more or less the recommendations of the report of + 1870, proposing for the first time compulsory registration of title + upon every next sale after a prescribed date. Lord Cairns again + introduced this bill (with some modifications) in 1874, but it had to + be dropped. In 1875 Lord Cairns's Land Transfer Act of that year was + passed, which was much the same as the former bill, but without + compulsion. This act had no better success in the way of voluntary + general adoption than the act of 1862, but as its adoption has since + been made compulsory, its provisions are important. Its most + noticeable feature, from a practical point of view, is the additional + prominence given to an expedient called "Possessory" registration + (which also existed under another name in Lord Westbury's Act), + whereby is removed the great initial difficulty of placing titles on + the register in the first instance. Two sorts of registration were + established, "Absolute" and "Possessory." The effect of an absolute + registration was immediately to destroy all claims adverse to the + registered title. But this was only to be granted on a regular + investigation of title, which, though not so strict as under the + former act, yet necessarily involved time and cost. Possessory + registration, however, was to be granted to any one who could show a + prima facie title--a quick and cheap process. But the effect of such + registration would not be immediately felt. It would not destroy + existing adverse claims. It would only prevent new difficulties from + arising. In course of time such a title would be practically as good + as an absolute one. In 1885 the duke of Marlborough introduced a bill + for a registry of titles, and in the following vacation Lord Davey + wrote three letters to _The Times_ advocating the same thing on the + general lines afterwards adopted.[2] In 1887 Lord Halsbury, by + introducing his Land Transfer Bill, commenced a struggle with the + opponents of reform, which, after ten years of almost continuous + effort, resulted in the passing of his act of 1897, establishing + compulsory registration of title. Lord Halsbury introduced bills in + 1887, 1888 and 1889. Lord Herschell, who succeeded him after the + change of government, introduced bills in 1893, 1894 and 1895, these + last three being unanimously passed by the House of Lords on every + occasion. The bill of 1895 reached committee in the Commons, but was + stopped by the dissolution of parliament. In 1897 Lord Halsbury (who + had returned to the woolsack) again introduced the same bill with + certain modifications which caused the Incorporated Law Society to + withdraw its opposition in the House of Commons, and the act was + finally passed on the last day of the session. Under it the Privy + Council has power to issue orders declaring that on a certain date + registration of title is to be compulsory on sale in a given district. + The effect of such an order is to oblige every purchaser of land in + the district after that date to register a "possessory title," + immediately after his purchase. The compulsory provisions of the act + extend to freeholds and (by a rule afterwards made) to leaseholds + having forty years to run. No order except the first can be made, save + on the request of a county council. The first order was made in July + 1898. It embraced the whole administrative county of London (including + the City of London), proceeding gradually by groups of parishes. Under + this order upwards of 122,000 titles had been registered by 1908, + representing a value exceeding one hundred millions sterling. + + Under the operation of this act, at the expense of a slightly + increased cost on all transactions during a few years, persons dealing + with land in the county will ultimately experience great relief in the + matter both of cost and of delay. The costs of a sale (including + professional assistance, if required) will ultimately be for the + vendor about one-fifth, and for the purchaser (at the most usual + values) less than half, of the present expenses. The delay will be no + more than in dealings with stock. Mortgagees will also be protected + from risks of fraud, which at present are very appreciable, and of + which the Redgrave and Richards cases are recent examples. Further + particulars of the practical operation of the acts will be found in + the Registrar's Reports of 1902 and 1906, embracing the period from + 1899 to 1905 inclusive, with comments on the general position, + suggestions for future legislation, &c. In the autumn of 1908 a Royal + Commission under the chairmanship of Lord St Aldwyn, was appointed to + inquire into the working of the Land Transfer Acts. The evidence given + before them in October, November and December 1908 comprised a general + exposition by the registrar of the origin and history of the acts, and + the principles of their working, and suggestions for amendments in + certain details. It also comprised the experience of several + landowners and others, who had found the acts highly beneficial, and + who had carried through a large number of dealings under absolute + titles, without professional help, very quickly, and at a greatly + reduced cost. + + _Scotland._--In Scotland registration of _deeds_ was established by an + act of 1617, which remained unaltered till 1845. There are also acts + of 1868 and 1874. The registry is in Edinburgh. Deeds are registered + almost invariably by full copy. The deeds are indexed according to + properties--each property having a separate number and folio called a + "search sheet," on which all deeds affecting it are referred to. About + 40,000 deeds are registered annually. The consequence of the existence + of this register is to render fraud in title absolutely unknown. Forty + years is the usual period investigated. The investigation can, if + desired, be made from the records in the registry alone. The fees are + trifling, but suffice to pay the expenses of the office, which employs + between 70 and 80 permanent officers in addition to temporary + assistants. The total costs of conveyancing amount, roughly speaking, + to between 1 and 2% on the purchase money, and are equally shared + between vendor and purchaser. In 1906 a royal commission was + appointed, with Lord Dunedin as chairman, to inquire into the + expediency of instituting in Scotland a system of registration of + title. + + _Australia and New Zealand._--These states now furnish the most + conspicuous examples in the British empire of the success of + registration of _title_. But prior to the year 1857 they had only + registration of _deeds_, and the expense, delay and confusion + resulting from the frequent dealings appear to have been a crying + evil. Sir Robert Torrens, then registrar of deeds in South Australia, + drew up and carried an act establishing a register of title similar to + the shipping register. The act rapidly became popular, and was adopted + (with variations) in all the other Australasian states in the years + 1861, 1862, 1870 and 1874. Consolidating and amending acts have since + been passed in most of these states. Only absolute title is + registered. All land granted by government, after the passing of the + several acts, is placed on the register compulsorily. But voluntary + applications are also made in very large numbers. It is said ordinary + purchasers will not buy land unless the vendor first registers the + title. The fees are very low--£1 to £3 is a usual maximum--though in + some states, e.g. Victoria, the fees rise indefinitely, _ad + valorem_, at a rate of about 10s. per £1000. Insurance funds are + established to provide compensation for errors. At a recent date they + amounted to over £400,000, while only £14,600 odd had been paid in + claims. All the registries pay their own expenses. Bankers and men of + business generally are warm in their appreciation of the acts, which + are popularly called Torrens Acts, after their originator, who, though + not a lawyer, originated and carried through this important and + difficult legal work. + + _Canada._--Registration of _title_ was introduced in Vancouver Island + in 1861, was extended to the rest of British Columbia in 1870, and was + in 1885 adopted by Ontario, Manitoba and the North-West Territories. + Only Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island + retain the old English system, plus registration of deeds. The three + provinces which have adopted registration of title have adopted it in + somewhat different forms. In British Columbia it is similar to Lord + Westbury's Act of 1862. The North-West Territories follow closely the + Torrens Acts. The Ontario Act is almost a transcript of Lord Cairns's + Act of 1875. The fees are very low, seldom exceeding a few shillings, + but all expenses of the office are paid from this source. The Ontario + registry has five district offices, as well as the central one at + Toronto. This is apparently the only colonial registry not open to + public inspection. + + _Other British Colonies._--In the other British colonies private + investigation of title, plus registration of deeds, is the prevailing + system, but registration of title has been introduced in one or two + instances. + + _Germany and Austria-Hungary._--By far the most important examples of + registration of _title_ at present existing--because they show how the + system works when applied to large European communities, with all the + intricacies and complications of modern civilized life--are to be + found in Germany and Austria-Hungary. In some parts of these countries + registration of title has been established for several + centuries--notably in Bohemia; in most parts it has existed for the + greater part of the 19th century; in some districts, again, notably + Tirol and the Rhine Provinces, it is still in course of introduction. + In all cases it appears to have been preceded by a system of deed + registration, which materially facilitated its introduction. In some + cases, Prussia, for instance, the former registers were kept in such a + way as to amount in themselves to little short of a registry of title. + Very low scales of fees suffice to pay all official expenses. In + Prussia the fees for registering sales begin at 5d. for a value of £1; + at £20 the fee is 2s 7d.; at £100 it is 7s. 3d.; at £1000 it is £1, + 10s.; at £5000, £4, 5s., and so on. In case of error, the officials + are personally liable; failing these, the state. Other states are very + similar. In 1894, 1,159,995 transactions were registered in Prussia. + In 1893, 938,708 were registered in Austria. Some idea of the extent + to which small holdings prevail in these countries may be gathered + from the fact that 36% of the sales and mortgages in Austria were for + under £8, 6s. 8d. value--74% were for under £50. Owing to the ease and + simplicity of the registers, it is not always necessary to employ + professional help. When such help is required, the fees are low. In + Vienna £1 is a very usual fee for the purchaser's lawyer. £10 is + seldom reached. In Germany the register is private. In Austria it is + open to public inspection. In these registers may be found examples of + large estates in the country with numerous charges and encumbrances + and dealings therewith; peasants' properties, in numerous scattered + parcels, acquired and disposed of at different times, and variously + mortgaged; town and suburban properties, flats, small farms, rights to + light and air, rights of way, family settlements, and dealings of all + sorts--inheritances and wills, partitions, bankruptcies, mortgages, + and a great variety of dealings therewith. The Continental systems are + usually administered locally in districts, about 20 to 30 m. across, + attached to the local law courts. In Baden and Württemberg every + parish (commune) has its own registry. All ordinary dealings are + transacted with the greatest expedition. Security is absolute.[3] + + _The United States._--Up to a late date the ordinary English system, + with registration of _deeds_, was universal in the United States. The + registries appear to go back practically to the original settlement of + the country. Registration is by full copy. It is said that in the + large towns the name indexes were often much overgrown owing to the + want of subdivision into smaller areas corresponding to the parishes + into which the Middlesex and Yorkshire indexes are divided. In the New + York registry not many years ago 25,000 deeds were registered + annually. At the same time 35,000 were registered in Middlesex. + Complaints are made by American lawyers of want of accuracy in the + indexes also. In 1890 an act was passed in New York for splitting the + indexes into "blocks," which is believed to have given much relief. + The average time and cost of an examination of title, as estimated by + a committee of the Bar Association of New York in 1887, was about + thirty days and 150 dollars (about £30). A later State Commission in + Illinois estimates the law costs of a sale there at about 25 dollars + (£5); the time may run into many months. Allusion has already been + made to the insurance of title companies. The rates of insurance are + substantial, e.g. 65 dollars (£13) on the first 3000 dollars (£600), + and 5 dollars (£1) on each additional 1000 dollars (£200). This would + amount to £20 on £2000 value, £110 on £20,000, £510 on £100,000. The + guarantee given is very ample, and may be renewed to subsequent owners + at one-third of the fee. Registration of title has lately been + introduced, on a voluntary basis, into the states of California, + Oregon, Illinois, Massachusetts, Minnesota and Colorado, and also into + Hawaii and the Philippines. + + _France._--In France registration of _deeds_ is universal. Sales, + mortgages, gifts and successions; easements, leases of over eighteen + years, and transactions affecting the land to the extent of three + years' rent may lose priority if not registered. Wills need not be + registered. Mortgages must be re-registered every ten years. Purchase + deeds are registered by filing full copies. Registries are established + in all the considerable towns. The duty on sales amounts to the high + figure of about 6½% on the value. Part of this is allocated to + registration, in addition to which a fixed fee of one franc, and + stationers' charges averaging 6 francs are also chargeable. The title + can usually be fully investigated from the documents in the registry. + Official searches for mortgages are commonly resorted to, at a cost of + about 5 francs. Under the monarchy the land system was practically + copyhold tenure, but greater validity was attached to the Court Rolls + than was the case in England. The present system was established by a + law of 1790 after the abolition of seigniorial institutions in 1789. + This was modified by the Code Napoleon, and further perfected by a law + of 1855. The average value of transactions in France is very small. + Probably at the present time four-fifths of the properties are of + under £25 value. The costs of a sale for 200 francs (£8) would be + about as follows: Duty, 13 fr.; Notary (1%), 2 fr.; expenses, 12 + fr.--total 27 fr. A sale for 1000 fr. (£40) would cost about 110 fr. + Taking all values, the cost of conveyance and duty reaches the high + figure of 10% in the general run of transactions. The vendor as a rule + has no costs. _Indefeasible_ title is not obtainable, but frauds are + almost unknown. A day or two usually suffices for all formalities. On + large sales a further process known as the "purge" is undergone, which + requires a few weeks and more expense, in order to guard against + possible claims against which the deed registries afford no + protection, such as dowries of wives, claims under guardianships, &c. + A commission (Commission Extraparlementaire du Cadastre), appointed in + 1891 to consider the revision of the government cadastral maps (which + are in very serious arrear) and the establishment of registration of + title, collected, in nine volumes of Comptes Rendus, a great mass of + most interesting particulars relating to land questions in France, and + in 1905 reported in favour of the general establishment of a register + of title, with a draft of the necessary enactment. + + AUTHORITIES.--A very complete list of some 114 English publications + from 1653 to 1895 will be found in R. Burnet Morris, _Land + Registration_ (1895); Parliamentary Publications: _Second Report of + the Real Property Commissioners_ (1831); _Report of the Registration + and Conveyancing Commission_ (1850); _Report of the Registration of + Title Commission_ (1857); _Report of the Land Transfer Commission_ + (1870); _Reports on Registration of Title in Australasian Colonies_ + (1871 and 1881); _Report on Registration of Title in Germany and + Austria-Hungary_ (1896); _The Registrar's Reports of 1902 and 1906 on + the Formation of a Register in London; Royal Commission on the Land + Transfer Acts, Minutes of Evidence_ (1909). General reviews of land + registration in the British Isles, the Colonies, and in foreign + countries: R. Burnet Morris, as above, and C. F. Brickdale, _Land + Transfer in Various Countries_ (1894). Books on practice: + England--Brickdale and Sheldon, _The Land Transfer Acts_ (2nd ed., + 1905); Cherry and Marigold, _The Land Transfer Acts_ (1898); Hay, + _Land Registration under the Land Transfer Acts_ (1904); _Land + Transfer, &c._ (1901); C. F. Brickdale, _Registration in Middlesex_ + (1892). _Australia--The Australian Torrens System_; Hogg, _The + Transfer of Land Act 1890_ (Melbourne). Prussia--Oberneck, _Die + Preussischen Grundbuchgesetze_ (Berlin). Austria--_Das allgemeine + Grundbuchsgesetz_, &c. (Vienna); Bartsch, _Das Oesterreichische + allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz in seiner practischen Anwendung_ (Vienna). + Saxony--Siegmann, _Sächsische Hypothekenrecht_ (Leipzig). + Statistics--_Oesterreichische Statistik_ (_Grundbuchs-ämter_) (Vienna, + annually). (C. F.-Br.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In Prussia all conveyances are verbal, made in person or by + attorney before the registrar, who forthwith notes them in his books. + + [2] This summary is an abridgement (with permission) of pp. 7 to 26 + of Mr R. Burnet Morris's book referred to at the end of this article. + + [3] Full information as to the German and Austrian systems is to be + found in a Parliamentary Report of 1896 (C.--8139) on the subject. + + + + +LANDSBERG AM LECH, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the river Lech, +38 m. by rail W. by S. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 6505. It has eight Roman +Catholic churches, among them the Liebfrauen Kirche dating from 1498, +several monasteries, and a fine medieval town-hall, with frescoes by +Karl von Piloty and a painting by Hubert von Herkomer. Here also are a +fine gateway, the Bayer-Tor, an agricultural and other schools. Brewing, +tanning and the manufacture of agricultural machinery are among the +principal industries. + + See Schober, _Landsberg am Lech und Umgebung_ (1902); and Zwerger, + _Geschichte Landsbergs_ (1889). + + + + +LANDSBERG-AN-DER-WARTHE, a town in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, +at the confluence of the Warthe and the Kladow, 80 m. N.E. of Berlin by +rail. Pop. (1905) 36,934. It has important engine and boiler works and +iron-foundries; there are also manufactures of tobacco, cloth, +carriages, wools, spirits, jute products and leather. An active trade is +carried on in wood, cattle and the produce of the surrounding country. +Landsberg obtained civic privileges in 1257, and later was besieged by +the Poles and then by the Hussites. + + See R. Eckert, _Geschichte von Landsberg-Warthe_ (1890). + + + + +LANDSBERG BEI HALLE, a town in Prussia on the Strengbach, on the railway +from Berlin to Weissenfels. Pop. (1905) 1770. Its industries include +quarrying and malting, and the manufacture of sugar and machinery. +Landsberg was the capital of a small margraviate of this name, ruled in +the 12th century by a certain Dietrich, who built the town. Later it +belonged to Meissen and to Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1814. + + + + +LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY (1802-1873), English painter, third son of +John Landseer, A.R.A., a well-known engraver and writer on art, was born +at 71 Queen Anne Street East (afterwards 33 Foley Street), London, on +March 7th 1802. His mother was Miss Potts, who sat to Sir Joshua +Reynolds as the reaper with a sheaf of corn on her head, in "Macklin's +Family Picture," or "The Gleaners."[1] Edwin Henry Landseer began his +artistic education under his father so successfully that in his fifth +year he drew fairly well, and was familiar with animal character and +passion. Drawings of his, at South Kensington, dated by his father, +attest that he drew excellently at eight years of age; at ten he was an +admirable draughtsman and his work shows considerable sense of humour. +At thirteen he drew a majestic St Bernard dog so finely that his brother +Thomas engraved and published the work. At this date (1815) he sent two +pictures to the Royal Academy, and was described in the catalogue as +"Master E. Landseer, 33 Foley Street." Youth forbade his being reckoned +among practising artists, and caused him to be considered as the +"Honorary Exhibitor" of "No. 443, Portrait of a Mule," and "No. 584, +Portraits of a Pointer Bitch and Puppy." Adopting the advice of B. R. +Haydon, he studied the Elgin Marbles, the animals in the Tower of London +and Exeter 'Change, and dissected every animal whose carcass he could +obtain. In 1816 Landseer was admitted a student of the Royal Academy +schools. In 1817 he sent to the Academy a portrait of "Old Brutus," a +much-favoured dog, which, as well as its son, another Brutus, often +appeared in his later pictures. Even at this date Landseer enjoyed +considerable reputation, and had more work than he could readily +perform, his renown having been zealously fostered by his father in +James Elmes's _Annals of the Fine Arts_. At the Academy he was a +diligent student and a favourite of Henry Fuseli's, who would look +about the crowded antique school and ask, "Where is my curly-headed +dog-boy?" Although his pictures sold easily from the first, the prices +he received at this time were comparatively small. In 1818 Landseer sent +to the Society of Painters in Oil and Water Colours, which then held its +exhibitions in Spring Gardens, his picture of "Fighting Dogs getting +Wind." The sale of this work to Sir George Beaumont vastly enhanced the +fame of the painter, who soon became "the fashion." This picture +illustrates the prime strength of Landseer's earlier style. Unlike the +productions of his later life, it displays not an iota of sentiment. +Perfectly drawn, solidly and minutely finished, and carefully composed, +its execution attested the skill acquired during ten years' studies from +nature. Between 1818 and 1825 Landseer did a great deal of work, but on +the whole gained little besides facility of technical expression, a +greater zest for humour and a larger style. The work of this stage ended +with the production of the painting called "The Cat's Paw," which was +sent to the British Institution in 1824, and made an enormous sensation. +The price obtained for this picture, £100, enabled Landseer to set up +for himself in the house No. 1 St John's Wood Road, where he lived +nearly fifty years and in which he died. During this period Landseer's +principal pictures were "The Cat Disturbed"; "Alpine Mastiffs +reanimating a Distressed Traveller," a famous work engraved by his +father; "The Ratcatchers"; "Pointers to be"; "The Larder Invaded"; and +"Neptune," the head and shoulders of a Newfoundland dog. In 1824 +Landseer and C. R. Leslie made a journey to the Highlands--a momentous +visit for the former, who thenceforward rarely failed annually to repeat +it in search of studies and subjects. + +In 1826 Landseer was elected an A.R.A. In 1827 appeared "The Monkey who +has seen the World," a picture which marked the growth of a taste for +humorous subjects in the mind of the painter that had been evoked by the +success of the "Cat's Paw." "Taking a Buck" (1825) was the painter's +first Scottish picture. Its execution marked a change in his style +which, in increase of largeness, was a great improvement. In other +respects, however, there was a decrease of solid qualities; indeed, +finish, searching modelling, and elaborate draughtsmanship rarely +appeared in Landseer's work after 1823. The subject, as such, soon after +this time became a very distinct element in his pictures; ultimately it +dominated, and in effect the artist enjoyed a greater degree of +popularity than technical judgment justified, so that later criticism +has put Landseer's position in art much lower than the place he once +occupied. Sentiment gave new charm to his works, which had previously +depended on the expression of animal passion and character, and the +exhibition of noble qualities of draughtsmanship. Sentimentality ruled +in not a few pictures of later dates, and _quasi_-human humour, or +pathos, superseded that masculine animalism which rioted in its energy, +and enabled the artist to rival Snyders, if not Velazquez, as a painter +of beasts. After "High Life" and "Low Life," now in the Tate Gallery, +London, Landseer's dogs, and even his lions and birds, were sometimes +more than half civilized. It was not that these later pictures were less +true to nature than their forerunners, but the models were chosen from +different grades of animal society. As Landseer prospered he kept finer +company, and his new patrons did not care about rat-catching and +dog-fighting, however vigorously and learnedly those subjects might be +depicted. It cannot be said that the world lost much when, in exchange +for the "Cat Disturbed" and "Fighting Dogs getting Wind," came "Jack in +Office," "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner," and "The Swannery invaded +by Eagles," three pictures which are types of as many diverse moods of +Landseer's art, and each a noble one. + +Landseer was elected a Royal Academician in 1831. "Chevy Chase" (1826), +which is at Woburn, "The Highland Whisky Still" (1829), "High Life" +(1829) and "Low Life" (1829), besides other important works, had +appeared in the interval. Landseer had by this time attained such +amazing mastery that he painted "Spaniel and Rabbit" in two hours and a +half, and "Rabbits," which was at the British Institution, in +three-quarters of an hour; and the fine dog-picture "Odin" (1836) was +the work of one sitting, i.e. painted within twelve hours. But perhaps +the most wonderful instance of his rapid but sure and dexterous +brush-handling was "The Cavalier's Pets" (1845), the picture of two King +Charles's spaniels in the National Gallery, which was executed in two +days. Another remarkable feat consisted in drawing, simultaneously, a +stag's head with one hand and a head of a horse with the other. "Harvest +in the Highlands," and that masterpiece of humour, "Jack in Office," +were exhibited in 1833. In 1834 a noble work of sentiment was given to +the world in "Suspense," which is now at South Kensington, and shows a +dog watching at the closed door of his wounded master. Many think this +to be Landseer's finest work, others prefer "The Old Shepherd's Chief +Mourner" (1837). The over-praised and unfortunate "Bolton Abbey in the +Olden Time," a group of portraits in character, was also shown in 1834, +and was the first picture for which the painter received £400. A few +years later he sold "Peace" and "War" for £1500, and for the copyrights +alone obtained £6000. In 1881 "Man proposes, God Disposes" (1864) was +resold for 6300 guineas, and a cartoon of "The Chase" (1866) fetched +5000 guineas. "A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society," a dog +reclining on a quay wall (1838), was succeeded by "Dignity and +Impudence" (1839). The "Lion Dog of Malta," and "Laying down the Law" +appeared in 1840. In 1842 was finished the capital "Highland Shepherd's +Home" (Sheepshanks Gift), together with the beautiful "Eos," a portrait +of Prince Albert's most graceful of greyhounds, to which Thomas Landseer +added an ineffable charm and solidity not in the painting. The "Rout of +Comus" was painted in the summerhouse of Buckingham Palace garden in +1843. The "Challenge" was accompanied (1844) by "Shoeing the Bay Mare" +(Bell Gift), and followed by "Peace" and "War," and the "Stag at Bay" +(1846). "Alexander and Diogenes," and a "Random Shot," a dead kid lying +in the snow, came forth in 1848. In 1850 Landseer received a national +commission to paint in the Houses of Parliament three subjects connected +with the chase. Although they would have been worth three times as much +money, the House of Commons refused to grant £1500 for these pictures, +and the matter fell through, more to the artist's profit than the +nation's gain. The famous "Monarch of the Glen" (1851) was one of these +subjects. "Night" and "Morning," romantic and pathetic deer subjects, +came in due order (1853). For "The Sanctuary" (1842) the Fine Arts jury +of experts awarded to the artist the great gold medal of the Exposition +Universelle, Paris, 1855. + +The "Dialogue at Waterloo" (1850), which he afterwards regarded with +strong disapproval, showed how Landseer, like nearly all English artists +of original power and considerable fertility, owed nothing to French or +Italian training. In the same year he received the honour of knighthood. +Next came "Geneva" (1851), "Titania and Bottom" (1851), which comprises +a charming queen of the fairies, and the "Deer Pass" (1852), followed by +"The Children of the Mist" (1853), "Saved" (1856), "Braemar," a noble +stag, "Rough and Ready," and "Uncle Tom and his Wife for Sale" (1857). +"The Maid and the Magpie" (1858), the extraordinarily large cartoon +called "Deer Browsing" (1857), "The Twa Dogs" (1858), and one or two +minor paintings were equal to any previously produced by the artist. +Nevertheless, signs of failing health were remarked in "Doubtful Crumbs" +and a "Kind Star" (1859). The immense and profoundly dramatic picture +called "A Flood in the Highlands" (1860) more than reinstated the +painter before the public, but friends still saw ground for uneasiness. +Extreme nervous excitability manifested itself in many ways, and in the +choice (1864) of the dreadful subject of "Man Proposes, God Disposes," +bears clumsily clambering among relics of Sir John Franklin's party, +there was occult pathos, which some of the artist's intimates suspected, +but did not avow. In 1862 and 1863 Landseer produced nothing; but "A +Piper and a Pair of Nutcrackers" (1864) revealed his old power. He +declined the presidentship of the Royal Academy in 1865, in succession +to Sir Charles Eastlake. In 1867 the four lions which he had modelled +for the base of the Nelson Monument in Trafalgar Square, London, were +unveiled, and with "The Swannery invaded by Eagles" (1869) he achieved +his last triumph. After four years more, full of suffering, mainly of +broken art and shattered mental powers, Sir Edwin Landseer died on the +1st of October 1873, and was buried, ten days later, in St Paul's +Cathedral. Those who would see the full strength of Landseer's brush +should examine his sketches and the like in the Victoria and Albert +Museum and similar works. In these he shows himself endowed with the +strength of Paul Potter. + + See Algernon Graves's _Catalogue of the Works of the late Sir Edwin + Landseer_, R.A. (London, n.d.); Frederic G. Stephens's _Sir Edwin + Landseer_ (1880); W. Cosmo Monkhouse's _The Studies of Sir Edwin + Landseer, R.A., with a History of his Art-Life_ (London, n.d.); W. P. + Frith's _My Autobiography and Reminiscences_ (1887); Vernon Heath's + _Recollections_ (1892); and James A. Manson's "Sir Edwin Landseer, + R.A.," _The Makers of British Art_ (London, 1902). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] John Landseer died February 29, 1852, aged ninety-one (or + eighty-three, according to Cosmo Monkhouse). Sir Edwin's eldest + brother Thomas, an A.R.A. and a famous engraver, whose + interpretations of his junior's pictures have made them known + throughout the world, was born in 1795, and died January 20, 1880. + Charles Landseer, R.A., and Keeper of the Royal Academy, the second + brother, was born in 1799, and died July 22, 1879. John Landseer's + brother Henry was a painter of some reputation, who emigrated to + Australia. + + + + +LAND'S END, a promontory of Cornwall, forming the western most point of +England. It is a fine headland of granite, pierced by a natural arch, on +a coast renowned for its cliff scenery. Dangerous reefs lie off the +point, and one group a mile from the mainland is marked by the Longships +Lighthouse, in 50° 4´ N. 5° 43´ W. The Land's End is the westernmost of +the granite masses which rise at intervals through Cornwall from +Dartmoor. The phenomenon of a raised beach may be seen here, but +indications of a submerged forest have also been discovered in the +neighbourhood. + + + + +LANDSHUT, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the right bank of the +Isar, 40 m. N.E. of Munich on the main line of railway to Regensburg. +Pop. (1905) 24,217. Landshut is still a quaint, picturesque place; it +consists of an old and a new town and of four suburbs, one part of it +lying on an island in the Isar. It contains a fine street, the Altstadt, +and several interesting medieval buildings. Among its eleven churches +the most noteworthy are those of St Martin, with a tower 432 ft. high, +of St Jodocus, and of the Holy Ghost, or the Hospital church, all three +begun before 1410. The former Dominican convent, founded in 1271, once +the seat of the university, is now used as public offices. The +post-office, formerly the meeting-house of the Estates, a building +adorned with old frescoes; the royal palace, which contains some very +fine Renaissance work; and the town-hall, built in 1446 and restored in +1860, are also noteworthy. The town has monuments to the Bavarian king, +Maximilian II., and to other famous men; it contains a botanical garden +and a public park. On a hill overlooking Landshut is the castle of +Trausnitz, called also Burg Landshut, formerly a stronghold of the dukes +of Lower Bavaria, whose burial-place was at Seligenthal also near the +town. The original building was erected early in the 13th century, but +the chapel, the oldest part now existing, dates from the 14th century. +The upper part of the castle has been made habitable. The industries of +Landshut are not important; they include brewing, tanning and spinning, +and the manufacture of tobacco and cloth. Market gardening and an +extensive trade in grain are also carried on. + +Landshut was founded about 1204, and from 1255 to 1503 it was the +principal residence of the dukes of Lower Bavaria and of their +successors, the dukes of Bavaria-Landshut. During the Thirty Years' War +it was captured several times by the Swedes and in the 18th century by +the Austrians. In April 1809 Napoleon defeated the Austrians here and +the town was stormed by his troops. From 1800 to 1826 the university, +formerly at Ingolstadt and now at Munich, was located at Landshut. Owing +to the three helmets which form its arms the town is sometimes called +"Dreihelm Stadt." + + See Staudenraus, _Chronik der Stadt Landshut_, (Landshut 1832); + Wiesend, _Topographische Geschichte von Landshut_ (Landshut, 1858); + Rosenthal, _Zur Rechtsgeschichte der Städte Landshut und Straubing_ + (Würzberg, 1883); Kalcher, _Führer durch Landshut_ (Landshut, 1887); + Haack, _Die gotische Architektur und Plastik der Stadt Landshut_ + (Munich, 1894); and _Geschichte der Stadt Landshut_ (Landshut, 1835). + + + + +LANDSKNECHT, a German mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century. The +name (German for "man of the plains") was given to mark the contrast +between the force of these soldiers, formed by the emperor Maximilian +I. about the end of the 15th century, and the Swiss, the "men of the +mountains," at that time the typical mercenary infantry of Europe. After +the battles of Marignan and Pavia, where the military reputation of the +Swiss had been broken, the Swabian _landsknechte_ came to be considered +the best fighting troops in Europe. Though primarily a German force and +always the mainstay of imperial armies, they served in organized bodies +as mercenaries elsewhere in Europe; in France they fought for the League +and for the Protestants indiscriminately. In fact _landsknecht_, and +more particularly its French corruption _lansquenet_, became in western +Europe a general term for mercenary foot-soldiers. It is owing to the +_lange Spiesse_ (long pike or lance), the typical weapon with which they +were armed, that the corrupted French form, as well as a German form, +_lanzknecht_, and an English "lance-knight" came into use. + +The landsknechts were raised by colonels (_Oberst_), to whom the emperor +issued recruiting commissions corresponding to the English "indents"; +they were organized in regiments made up of a colonel, lieut.-colonel +and regimental staff, with a varying number of companies, "colours" +(_Fähnlein_), commanded by captains (_Hauptmann_); subaltern officers +were lieutenants and ensigns (_Fähnrich_). In thus defining the titles +and duties of each rank, and in almost every detail of regimental +customs and organization, discipline and interior economy, the +landsknechts may be considered as the founders of the modern military +system on a regimental basis (see further ARMY). + + + + +LANDSKRONA, a seaport of Sweden, on the east side of the Sound, 15 m. +N.E. of Copenhagen. Pop. (1900) 14,399. The harbour is excellent, giving +a depth of 35 ft., with 15 ft. beside the quays. The town is among the +first twelve manufacturing centres of Sweden in value of output, the +principal industries being tanning and sugar manufacture and refining +from beetroot. On the little island of Hven, immediately opposite the +town, Tycho Brahe built his famous subterranean observatory of +Uranienborg in the second half of the 16th century. Landskrona, +originally called Landora or Landör, owed its first importance to King +Erik XIII., who introduced a body of Carmelite monks from Germany in +1410, and bestowed on the place the privileges of a town. During the +wars of the 16th and 17th centuries it played too conspicuous a part for +its own prosperity. On the 24th of July 1677 a great naval battle was +fought in the neighbourhood in which the Swedes defeated the Danes. + + + + +LANDSTURM, the German equivalent of the _levée en masse_, or general +levy of all men capable of bearing arms and not included in the other +regularly organized forces, standing army or its second line formations, +of Continental nations. + + + + +LANDWEHR, a German word meaning "defence of the country"; but the term +as applied to an insurrectional militia is very ancient, and "lantveri" +are mentioned in _Baluzii Capitularia_, as quoted in Hallam's _Middle +Ages_, i. 262, 10th ed. The landwehr in Prussia was first formed by a +royal edict of the 17th of March 1813, which called up all men capable +of bearing arms between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, and not +serving in the regular army, for the defence of the country. After the +peace of 1815 this force was made an integral part of the Prussian army, +each brigade being composed of one line and one landwehr regiment. This, +however, retarded the mobilization and diminished the value of the first +line, and by the re-organization of 1859 the landwehr troops were +relegated to the second line. In Austria the landwehr is a totally +different organization. It is in reality a _cadre_ force existing +alongside the regular army, and to it are handed over such recruits as, +for want of vacancies, cannot be placed in the latter. In Switzerland +the landwehr is a second line force, in which all citizens serve for +twelve years, after passing twelve in the "Auszug" or field army. + + + + +LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM (1801-1876), English Arabic scholar, son of Dr +Theophilus Lane, prebendary of Hereford, was born on the 17th of +September 1801. He was educated at Bath and Hereford grammar schools, +where he showed marked mathematical ability, and was designed for +Cambridge and the church, but this purpose was abandoned, and for some +time he studied the art of engraving. Failure of health compelled him to +throw aside the burin, and in 1825 he started for Egypt, where he spent +three years, twice ascended the Nile, proceeding as far as the second +cataract, and composed a complete description of Egypt, with a portfolio +of one hundred and one drawings. This work was never published, but the +account of the modern Egyptians, which formed a part of it, was accepted +for separate publication by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful +Knowledge. To perfect this work Lane again visited Egypt in 1833-1835, +residing mainly in Cairo, but retiring to Luxor during the plague of +1835. Lane took up his residence in the Mahommedan quarter, and under +the name of Mansur Effendi lived the life of an Egyptian scholar. He was +fortunate in the time when he took up his work, for Cairo had not then +become a modern city, and he was thus able to describe aspects of +Arabian life that no longer exist there. Perfected by the additional +observations collected during these years, the _Modern Egyptians_ +appeared in 1836, and at once took the place which it has never lost as +the best description of Eastern life and an Eastern country ever +written. It was followed from 1838 to 1840 by a translation of the +_Arabian Nights_, with notes and illustrations, designed to make the +book a sort of encyclopaedia of Eastern manners. The translation itself +is an admirable proof of scholarship, but is characterized by a somewhat +stilted mannerism, which is not equally appropriate to all parts of the +motley-coloured original. The character of some of the tales and the +tedious repetitions of the same theme in the Arabic collection induced +Lane to leave considerable parts of the work untranslated. The value of +his version is increased by the exhaustive notes on Mahommedan life and +customs. In 1840 Lane married a Greek lady. A useful volume of +_Selections from the Kur-an_ was published in 1843, but before it passed +through the press Lane was again in Egypt, where he spent seven years +(1842-1849) collecting materials for a great Arabic lexicon, which the +munificence of Lord Prudhoe (afterwards duke of Northumberland) enabled +him to undertake. The most important of the materials amassed during +this sojourn (in which he was accompanied by his wife and by his sister, +Mrs Poole, authoress of the _Englishwoman in Egypt_, with her two sons, +afterwards well known in Eastern letters) was a copy in 24 thick quarto +volumes of Sheikh Murtada's great lexicon, the _Taj el 'Arus_, which, +though itself a compilation, is so extensive and exact that it formed +the main basis of Lane's subsequent work. The author, who lived in Egypt +in the 18th century, used more than a hundred sources, interweaving what +he learned from them with the _al-Qamus_ of Fairuzabadi in the form of a +commentary. By far the larger part of this commentary was derived from +the _Lisan el 'Arab_ of Ibn Mokarram, a work of the 13th century, which +Lane was also able to use while in Cairo. + +Returning to England in 1849, Lane devoted the remaining twenty-seven +years of his life to digesting and translating his Arabic material in +the form of a great thesaurus of the lexicographical knowledge of the +Arabs. In spite of weak health he continued this arduous task with +unflagging diligence till a few days before his death at Worthing on the +10th of August 1876. Five parts appeared during his lifetime +(1863-1874), and three posthumous parts were afterwards edited from his +papers by S. Lane-Poole. Even in its imperfect state the _Lexicon_ is an +enduring monument, the completeness and finished scholarship with which +it is executed making each article an exhaustive monograph. Two essays, +the one on Arabic lexicography and the other on Arabic pronunciation, +contributed to the magazine of the German Oriental Society, complete the +record of Lane's publications. His scholarship was recognized by many +learned European societies. He was a member of the German Oriental +Society, a correspondent of the French Institute, &c. In 1863 he was +awarded a small civil list pension, which was after his death continued +to his widow. Lane was not an original mind; his powers were those of +observation, industry and sound judgment. His personal character was +elevated and pure, his strong sense of religious and moral duty being of +the type that characterized the best circles of English evangelicalism +in the early part of the 19th century. + + A Memoir, by his grand-nephew, S. Lane-Poole, was prefixed to part vi. + of the _Lexicon_. It was published separately in 1877. + + + + +LANE, GEORGE MARTIN (1823-1897), American scholar, was born at +Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of December 1823. He graduated +in 1846 at Harvard, and in 1847-1851 studied at the universities of +Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg and Göttingen. In 1851 he received his doctor's +degree at Göttingen for his dissertation _Smyrnaeorum Res Gestae et +Antiquitates_, and on his return to America he was appointed University +Professor of Latin in Harvard College. From 1869 until 1894, when he +resigned and became professor emeritus, he was Pope Professor of Latin +in the same institution. His _Latin Pronunciation_, which led to the +rejection of the English method of Latin pronunciation in the United +States, was published in 1871. He died on the 30th of June 1897. His +_Latin Grammar_, completed and published by Professor M. H. Morgan in +the following year, is of high value. Lane's assistance in the +preparation of Harper's Latin lexicons was also invaluable. English +light verse he wrote with humour and fluency, and his song _Jonah_ and +the _Ballad of the Lone Fishball_ were famous. + + + + +LANE, JAMES HENRY (1814-1866), American soldier and politician, was born +at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, on the 22nd of June 1814. He was the son of +Amos Lane (1778-1849), a political leader in Indiana, a member of the +Indiana House of Representatives in 1816-1818 (speaker in 1817-1818), in +1821-1822 and in 1839-1840, and from 1833 to 1837 a Democratic +representative in Congress. The son received a common school education, +studied law and in 1840 was admitted to the bar. In the Mexican War he +served as a colonel under General Taylor, and then commanded the Fifth +Indiana regiment (which he had raised) in the Southern Campaign under +General Scott. Lane was lieutenant-governor of Indiana from 1849 to +1853, and from 1853 to 1855 was a Democratic representative in Congress. +His vote in favour of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill ruined his political +future in his own state, and he emigrated in 1855 to the Territory of +Kansas, probably as an agent of Stephen A. Douglas to organize the +Democratic party there. He soon joined the Free State forces, however, +was a member of the first general Free State convention at Big Springs +in September 1855, and wrote its "platform," which deprecated +abolitionism and urged the exclusion of negroes from the Territory; and +he presided over the Topeka Constitutional Convention, composed of Free +State men, in the autumn of 1855. Lane was second in command of the +forces in Lawrence during the "Wakarusa War"; and in the spring of 1856 +was elected a United States senator under the Topeka Constitution, the +validity of which, however, and therefore the validity of his election, +Congress refused to recognize. In May 1856, with George Washington +Deitzler (1826-1884), Dr Charles Robinson, and other Free State leaders, +he was indicted for treason; but he escaped from Kansas, made a tour of +the northern cities, and by his fiery oratory aroused great enthusiasm +in behalf of the Free State movement in Kansas. Returning to the +Territory with John Brown in August 1856, he took an active part in the +domestic feuds of 1856-1857. After Kansas became a state, Lane was +elected in 1861 to the United States Senate as a Republican. Immediately +on reaching Washington he organized a company to guard the President; +and in August 1861, having gained the ear of the Federal authorities and +become intimate with President Lincoln, he went to Kansas with vague +military powers, and exercised them in spite of the protests of the +governor and the regular departmental commanders. During the autumn, +with a brigade of 1500 men, he conducted a devastating campaign on the +Missouri border, and in July 1862 he was appointed commissioner of +recruiting for Kansas, a position in which he rendered faithful service, +though he frequently came into conflict with the state authorities. At +this time he planned a chimerical "great Southern expedition" against +New Mexico, but this came to nothing. In 1864 he laboured earnestly for +the re-election of Lincoln. When President Johnson quarrelled with the +Radical Republicans, Lane deserted the latter and defended the +Executive. Angered by his defection, certain senators accused him of +being implicated in Indian contracts of a fraudulent character; and in a +fit of depression following this accusation he took his own life, dying +near Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, on the 11th of July 1866, ten days after +he had shot himself in the head. Ambitious, unscrupulous, rash and +impulsive, and generally regarded by his contemporaries as an unsafe +leader, Lane was a man of great energy and personal magnetism, and +possessed oratorical powers of a high order. + + See the article by L. W. Spring entitled "The Career of a Kansas + Politician," in vol. iv. (October 1898) of the _American Historical + Review_; and for the commoner view, which makes him not a coward as + does Spring, but a "grim chieftain" and a hero, see John Speer, _Life + of Gen. James H. Lane_, "_The Saviour of Kansas_," (Garden City, + Kansas, 1896). + + Senator Lane should not be confused with James Henry Lane (1833-1907), + who served on the Confederate side during the Civil War, attaining the + rank of brigadier-general in 1862, and after the war was professor of + natural philosophy and military tactics in the Virginia Agricultural + and Mechanical College from 1872 to 1880, and professor of civil + engineering and drawing in the Alabama Polytechnic Institute from 1882 + until his death. + + + + +LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE (1843- ), French statesman and +naturalist, was born at Sainte-André de Cubzac (Gironde) on the 13th of +July 1843. He entered the navy in 1862, serving on the East African and +Cochin-China stations in the medical department until the Franco-German +War, when he resigned and volunteered for the army medical service. He +now completed his studies, taking his doctorate in 1872. Elected to the +Municipal Council of Paris in 1879, he declared in favour of communal +autonomy and joined with Henri Rochefort in demanding the erection of a +monument to the Communards; but after his election to the Chamber of +Deputies for the 5th arrondissement of Paris in 1881 he gradually veered +from the extreme Radical party to the Republican Union, and identified +himself with the cause of colonial expansion. A government mission to +the French colonies in 1886-1887, in connexion with the approaching +Paris exhibition, gave him the opportunity of studying colonial +questions, on which, after his return, he published three works: _La +Tunisie_ (Paris, 1887); _L'Expansion coloniale de la France_ (_ib._, +1888), _L'Indo-Chine française_ (_ib._, 1889). In 1891 he was made civil +and military governor of French Indo-China, where his administration, +which involved him in open rupture with Admiral Fournier, was severely +criticized. Nevertheless he consolidated French influence in Annam and +Cambodia, and secured a large accession of territory on the Mekong river +from the kingdom of Siam. He was recalled in 1894, and published an +apology for his administration (_La Colonisation française en +Indo-Chine_) in the following year. In the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet of +1899 to 1902 he was minister of marine, and in 1901 he secured the +passage of a naval programme intended to raise the French navy during +the next six years to a level befitting the place of France among the +great powers. At the general election of 1906 he was not re-elected. He +was political director of the _Siècle_, and president of the French +Colonization Society, and wrote, besides the books already mentioned, +various works on political and biological questions. + + + + +LANFRANC (d. 1089), archbishop of Canterbury, was a Lombard by +extraction. He was born in the early years of the 11th century at Pavia, +where his father, Hanbald, held the rank of a magistrate. Lanfranc was +trained in the legal studies for which northern Italy was then becoming +famous, and acquired such proficiency that tradition links him with +Irnerius of Bologna as a pioneer in the renaissance of Roman law. Though +designed for a public career Lanfranc had the tastes of a student. After +his father's death he crossed the Alps to found a school in France; but +in a short while he decided that Normandy would afford him a better +field. About 1039 he became the master of the cathedral school at +Avranches, where he taught for three years with conspicuous success. But +in 1042 he embraced the monastic profession in the newly founded house +of Bec. Until 1045 he lived at Bec in absolute seclusion. He was then +persuaded by Abbot Herluin to open a school in the monastery. From the +first he was celebrated (_totius Latinitatis magister_). His pupils were +drawn not only from France and Normandy, but also from Gascony, +Flanders, Germany and Italy. Many of them afterwards attained high +positions in the Church; one, Anselm of Badagio, became pope under the +title of Alexander II. In this way Lanfranc set the seal of intellectual +activity on the reform movement of which Bec was the centre. The +favourite subjects of his lectures were logic and dogmatic theology. He +was therefore naturally invited to defend the doctrine of +transubstantiation against the attacks of Berengar of Tours. He took up +the task with the greatest zeal, although Berengar had been his personal +friend; he was the protagonist of orthodoxy at the councils of Vercelli +(1050), Tours (1054) and Rome (1059). To his influence we may attribute +the desertion of Berengar's cause by Hildebrand and the more +broad-minded of the cardinals. Our knowledge of Lanfranc's polemics is +chiefly derived from the tract _De corpore et sanguine Domini_ which he +wrote many years later (after 1079) when Berengar had been finally +condemned. Though betraying no signs of metaphysical ability, his work +was regarded as conclusive and became a text-book in the schools. It is +the most important of the works attributed to Lanfranc; which, +considering his reputation, are slight and disappointing. + +In the midst of his scholastic and controversial activities Lanfranc +became a political force. While merely a prior of Bec he led the +opposition to the uncanonical marriage of Duke William with Matilda of +Flanders (1053) and carried matters so far that he incurred a sentence +of exile. But the quarrel was settled when he was on the point of +departure, and he undertook the difficult task of obtaining the pope's +approval of the marriage. In this he was successful at the same council +which witnessed his third victory over Berengar (1059), and he thus +acquired a lasting claim on William's gratitude. In 1066 he became the +first abbot of St Stephen's at Caen, a house which the duke had been +enjoined to found as a penance for his disobedience to the Holy See. +Henceforward Lanfranc exercised a perceptible influence on his master's +policy. William adopted the Cluniac programme of ecclesiastical reform, +and obtained the support of Rome for his English expedition by assuming +the attitude of a crusader against schism and corruption. It was +Alexander II., the former pupil of Lanfranc, who gave the Norman +Conquest the papal benediction--a notable advantage to William at the +moment, but subsequently the cause of serious embarrassments. + +Naturally, when the see of Rouen next fell vacant (1067), the thoughts +of the electors turned to Lanfranc. But he declined the honour, and he +was nominated to the English primacy as soon as Stigand had been +canonically deposed (1070). The new archbishop at once began a policy of +reorganization and reform. His first difficulties were with Thomas of +Bayeux, archbishop-elect of York, who asserted that his see was +independent of Canterbury and claimed jurisdiction over the greater part +of midland England. Lanfranc, during a visit which he paid the pope for +the purpose of receiving his pallium, obtained an order from Alexander +that the disputed points should be settled by a council of the English +Church. This was held at Winchester in 1072. Thanks to a skilful use of +forged documents, the primate carried the council's verdict upon every +point. Even if he were not the author of the forgeries he can scarcely +have been the dupe of his own partisans. But the political dangers to be +apprehended from the disruption of the English Church were sufficiently +serious to palliate the fraud. This was not the only occasion on which +Lanfranc allowed his judgment to be warped by considerations of +expediency. Although the school of Bec was firmly attached to the +doctrine of papal sovereignty, he still assisted William in maintaining +the independence of the English Church; and appears at one time to have +favoured the idea of maintaining a neutral attitude on the subject of +the quarrels between papacy and empire. In the domestic affairs of +England the archbishop showed more spiritual zeal. His grand aim was to +extricate the Church from the fetters of the state and of secular +interests. He was a generous patron of monasticism. He endeavoured to +enforce celibacy upon the secular clergy. He obtained the king's +permission to deal with the affairs of the Church in synods which met +apart from the Great Council, and were exclusively composed of +ecclesiastics. Nor can we doubt that it was his influence which shaped +the famous ordinance separating the ecclesiastical from the secular +courts (_c._ 1076). But even in such questions he allowed some weight to +political considerations and the wishes of his sovereign. He +acknowledged the royal right to veto the legislation of national synods. +In the cases of Odo of Bayeux (1082) and of William of St Calais, bishop +of Durham (1088), he used his legal ingenuity to justify the trial of +bishops before a lay tribunal. He accelerated the process of +substituting Normans for Englishmen in all preferments of importance; +and although his nominees were usually respectable, it cannot be said +that all of them were better than the men whom they superseded. For this +admixture of secular with spiritual aims there was considerable excuse. +By long tradition the primate was entitled to a leading position in the +king's councils; and the interests of the Church demanded that Lanfranc +should use his power in a manner not displeasing to the king. On several +occasions when William I. was absent from England Lanfranc acted as his +vicegerent; he then had opportunities of realizing the close connexion +between religious and secular affairs. + +Lanfranc's greatest political service to the Conqueror was rendered in +1075, when he detected and foiled the conspiracy which had been formed +by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford. But this was not the only occasion +on which he turned to good account his influence with the native +English. Although he regarded them as an inferior race he was just and +honourable towards their leaders. He interceded for Waltheof's life and +to the last spoke of the earl as an innocent sufferer for the crimes of +others; he lived on terms of friendship with Bishop Wulfstan. On the +death of the Conqueror (1087) he secured the succession for William +Rufus, in spite of the discontent of the Anglo-Norman baronage; and in +1088 his exhortations induced the English militia to fight on the side +of the new sovereign against Odo of Bayeux and the other partisans of +Duke Robert. He exacted promises of just government from Rufus, and was +not afraid to remonstrate when the promises were disregarded. So long as +he lived he was a check upon the worst propensities of the king's +administration. But his restraining hand was too soon removed. In 1089 +he was stricken with fever and he died on the 24th of May amidst +universal lamentations. Notwithstanding some obvious moral and +intellectual defects, he was the most eminent and the most disinterested +of those who had co-operated with William I. in riveting Norman rule +upon the English Church and people. As a statesman he did something to +uphold the traditional ideal of his office; as a primate he elevated the +standards of clerical discipline and education. Conceived in the +Hildebrandine spirit, his reforms led by a natural sequence to strained +relations between Church and State; the equilibrium which he established +was unstable, and depended too much upon his personal influence with the +Conqueror. But of all the Hildebrandine statesmen who applied their +teacher's ideas within the sphere of a particular national church he was +the most successful. + + The chief authority is the _Vita Lanfranci_ by Milo Crispin, who was + precentor at Bec and died in 1149. Milo drew largely upon the _Vita + Herluini_, composed by Gilbert Crispin, abbot of Westminster. The + _Chronicon Beccensis abbatiae_, a 14th-century compilation, should + also be consulted. The first edition of these two sources, and of + Lanfranc's writings, is that of L. d'Achery, _Beati Lanfranci opera + omnia_ (Paris, 1648). Another edition, slightly enlarged, is that of + J. A. Giles, _Lanfranci opera_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). The + correspondence between Lanfranc and Gregory VII. is given in the + _Monumenta Gregoriana_ (ed. P. Jaffé, Berlin, 1865). Of modern works + A. Charma's _Lanfranc_ (Paris, 1849), H. Boehmer's _Die Fälschungen + Erzbischof Lanfranks von Canterbury_ (Leipzig, 1902), and the same + author's _Kirche und Staat in England und in der Normandie_ (Leipzig, + 1899) are useful. See also the authorities cited in the articles on + WILLIAM I. and WILLIAM II. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +LANFREY, PIERRE (1828-1877), French historian and politician, was born +at Chambéry (Savoie) on the 26th of October 1828. His father had been +one of Napoleon's officers. The son studied philosophy and history in +Paris and wrote historical works of an anti-clerical and rationalizing +tendency. These included _L'Église et les philosophes au XVIII^e siècle_ +(1855; new edition, with a notice of the author by E. de Pressensé, +1879); _Essai sur la révolution française_ (1858); _Histoire politique +des papes_ (1860); _Lettres d Evérard_ (1860), a novel in the form of +letters; _Le Rétablissement de la Pologne_ (1863). His _magnum opus_ was +his _Histoire de Napoléon I^(er)_ (5 vols., 1867-1875 and 1886; Eng. +trans., 4 vols., 1871-1879), which ceased unfortunately at the end of +1811 with the preparations for the Russian campaign of 1812. This book, +based on the emperor's correspondence published in 1858-1870, attempted +the destruction of the legends which had grown up around his subject, +and sought by a critical examination of the documents to explain the +motives of his policy. In his desire to controvert current +misconceptions and exaggerations of Napoleon's abilities Lanfrey unduly +minimized his military and administrative genius. A stanch republican, +he was elected to the National Assembly in 1871, became ambassador at +Bern (1871-1873), and life senator in 1875. He died at Pau on the 15th +of November 1877. + + His _Oeuvres complètes_ were published in 12 vols. (1879 seq.), and + his _Correspondance_ in 2 vols. (1885). + + + + +LANG, ANDREW (1844- ), British man of letters, was born on the 31st of +March 1844, at Selkirk, Scotland. He was educated at the Edinburgh +Academy, St Andrews University and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he +took a first class in the final classical schools in 1868, becoming a +fellow and subsequently honorary fellow of Merton College. As a +journalist, poet, critic and historian, he soon made a reputation as one +of the ablest and most versatile writers of the day. His first +publication was a volume of metrical experiments, _The Ballads and +Lyrics of Old France_ (1872), and this was followed at intervals by +other volumes of dainty verse, _xxii._ _Ballades in Blue China_ (1880, +enlarged edition, 1888), _Ballads and Verses Vain_ (1884), selected by +Mr Austin Dobson; _Rhymes à la Mode_ (1884), _Grass of Parnassus_ +(1888), _Ban and Arrière Ban_ (1894), _New Collected Rhymes_ (1905). He +collaborated with S. H. Butcher in a prose translation (1879) of the +_Odyssey_, and with E. Myers and Walter Leaf in a prose version (1883) +of the _Iliad_, both of them remarkable for accurate scholarship and +excellence of style. As a Homeric scholar, of conservative views, he +took a high rank. His _Homer and the Epic_ appeared in 1893; a new prose +translation of _The Homeric Hymns_ in 1899, with essays literary and +mythological, in which parallels to the Greek myths are given from the +traditions of savage races; and his _Homer and his Age_ in 1906. His +purely journalistic activity was from the first of a varied description, +ranging from sparkling "leaders" for the _Daily News_ to miscellaneous +articles for the _Morning Post_, and for many years he was literary +editor of _Longman's Magazine_; no critic was in more request, whether +for occasional articles and introductions to new editions or as editor +of dainty reprints. To the study of Scottish history Mr Lang brought a +scholarly care for detail, a piquant literary style, and a gift for +disentangling complicated questions. The _Mystery of Mary Stuart_ (1901, +new and revised ed., 1904) was a consideration of the fresh light thrown +on Mary's history by the Lennox MSS. in the University library, +Cambridge, strengthening her case by restating the perfidy of her +accusers. He also wrote monographs on _The Portraits and Jewels of Mary +Stuart_ (1906) and _James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery_ (1902). The +somewhat unfavourable view of John Knox presented in his book _John Knox +and the Reformation_ (1905) aroused considerable controversy. He gave +new information about the continental career of the Young Pretender in +_Pickle the Spy_ (1897), an account of Alastair Ruadh Macdonell, whom he +identified with Pickle, a notorious Hanoverian spy. This was followed in +1898 by _The Companions of Pickle_, and in 1900 by a monograph on +_Prince Charles Edward_. In 1900 he began a _History of Scotland from +the Roman Occupation_, the fourth volume of which (1907) brought +Scottish history down to 1746. _The Valet's Tragedy_ (1903), which takes +its title from an essay on the "Man with the Iron Mask," (see IRON +MASK), collects twelve papers on historical mysteries, and _A Monk of +Fife_ (1896) is a fictitious narrative purporting to be written by a +young Scot in France in 1429-1431. Mr Lang's versatility was also shown +in his valuable works on folk-lore and on primitive religion. The +earliest of these works was _Custom and Myth_ (1884); in _Myth, +Literature and Religion_ (2 vols., 1887, French trans., 1896) he +explained the irrational elements of mythology as survivals from earlier +savagery; in _The Making of Religion_ (an idealization of savage +animism) he maintained the existence of high spiritual ideas among +savage races, and instituted comparisons between savage practices and +the occult phenomena among civilized races; he dealt with the origins of +totemism (q.v.) in _Social Origins_, printed (1903) together with J. +J. Atkinson's _Primal Law_. He was one of the founders of the study of +"Psychical Research," and his other writings on anthropology include +_The Book of Dreams and Ghosts_ (1897), _Magic and Religion_ (1901) and +_The Secret of the Totem_ (1905). He carried the humour and sub-acidity +of discrimination which marked his criticism of fellow folk-lorists into +the discussion of purely literary subjects in his _Books and Bookmen_ +(1886), _Letters to Dead Authors_ (1886), _Letters on Literature_ +(1889), &c. His _Blue Fairy Tale Book_ (1889), beautifully produced and +illustrated, was followed annually at Christmas by a book of fairy tales +and romances drawn from many sources. He edited _The Poems and Songs of +Robert Burns_ (1896), and was responsible for the _Life and Letters_ +(1897) of J. G. Lockhart, and _The Life, Letters and Diaries_ (1890) of +Sir Stafford Northcote, first earl of Iddesleigh. + + + + +LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835), German historian, was born +on the 7th of June 1764 at Balgheim, near Nördlingen. From the first he +was greatly attracted towards historical studies, and this was shown +when he began to attend the gymnasium of Oettingen, and in 1782, when he +went to the university of Altdorf, near Nuremberg. At the same time he +studied jurisprudence, and in 1782 became a government clerk at +Oettingen. About the same period began his activities as a journalist +and publicist. But Lang did not long remain an official. He was of a +restless, changeable character, which constantly involved him in +personal quarrels, though he was equally quick to retire from them. In +1788 he obtained a position as private tutor in Hungary, and in 1789 +became private secretary to Baron von Bühler, the envoy of Württemberg +at Vienna. This led to further travels and to his entering the service +of the prince of Oettingen-Wallerstein. In 1792 Lang again betook +himself to a university, this time to Göttingen. Here he came under the +influence of the historian, Ludwig Timotheus Spittler, from whom, as +also from Johannes von Müller and Friedrich Schlegel, his historical +studies received a fresh impulse. At intervals from 1793 to 1801 Lang +was closely connected with the Prussian statesman Hardenberg, who +employed him as his private secretary and archivist, and in 1797 he was +present with Hardenberg at the congress of Rastadt as secretary to the +legation. He was occupied chiefly with affairs of the principalities of +Anspach and Bayreuth, newly acquired by Prussia, and especially in the +settlement of disputes with Bavaria as to their boundaries. + +When in 1805 the principalities became part of Bavaria, Lang entered the +Bavarian service (1806), was ennobled in 1808 and from 1810 to 1817 held +the office of archivist in Munich. He again devoted himself with great +enthusiasm to historical studies, which naturally dealt chiefly with +Bavarian history. He evolved the theory, among other things, that the +boundaries of the old counties or _pagi_ (_Gaue_) were identical with +those of the dioceses. This theory was combated in later days, and +caused great confusion in the province of historical geography. For the +rest, Lang did great service to the study of the history of Bavaria, +especially by bringing fresh material from the archives to bear upon it. +He also kept up his activity as a publicist, in 1814 defending in a +detailed and somewhat biassed pamphlet the policy of the minister +Montgelas, and he undertook critical studies in the history of the +Jesuits. In 1817 Lang retired from active life, and until his death, +which took place on the 26th of March 1835, lived chiefly in Ansbach. + +Lang is best known through his _Memoiren_, which appeared at Brunswick +in two parts in 1842, and were republished in 1881 in a second edition. +They contain much of interest for the history of the period, but have to +be used with the greatest caution on account of their pronounced +tendency to satire. Lang's character, as can be gathered especially from +a consideration of his behaviour at Munich, is darkened by many shadows. +He did not scruple, for instance, to strike out of the lists of +witnesses to medieval charters, before publishing them, the names of +families which he disliked. + + Of his very numerous literary productions the following may be + mentioned: _Beiträge zur Kenntnis der natürlichen und politischen + Verfassung des oettingischen Vaterlandes_ (1786); _Ein Votum über den + Wucher von einem Manne sine voto_ (1791); _Historische Entwicklung der + deutschen Steuerverfassungen_ (1793); _Historische Prüfung des + vermeintlichen Alters der deutschen Landstände_ (1796); _Neuere + Geschichte des Fürstentums Bayreuth_ (1486-1603) (1798-1811); + _Tabellen über Flächeninhalt &c. und bevorstehende Verluste der + deutschen Reichsstände_. (On the occasion of the congress of Rastadt, + 1798); _Der Minister Graf von Montgelas_ (1814); _Geschichte der + Jesuiten in Bayern_ (1819); and _Bayerns Gauen_ (Nuremberg, 1830). + + See K. Th. v. Heigel, _Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung_ for 1878, p. + 1969 et seq., 1986 et seq. (Beilage of the 14th and 15th of May); F. + Muncker, in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol. xvii. (1883); F. X. + v. Wegele, _Geschichte der deutschen Historiographie_ (1885). + (J. Hn.) + + + + +LANGDELL, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS (1826-1906), American jurist, was born in +New Boston, Hillsborough county, New Hampshire, on the 22nd of May 1826, +of English and Scotch-Irish ancestry. He studied at Phillips Exeter +Academy in 1845-1848, at Harvard College in 1848-1850 and in the Harvard +Law School in 1851-1854. He practised law in 1854-1870 in New York City, +but he was almost unknown when, in January 1870, he was appointed Dane +professor of law (and soon afterwards Dean of the Law Faculty) of +Harvard University, to succeed Theophilus Parsons, to whose _Treatise on +the Law of Contracts_ (1853) he had contributed as a student. He +resigned the deanship in 1895, in 1900 became Dane professor emeritus, +and on the 6th of July 1906 died in Cambridge. He received the degree of +LL.D. in 1875; in 1903 a chair in the law school was named in his +honour; and after his death one of the school's buildings was named +Langdell Hall. He made the Harvard Law School a success by remodelling +its administration and by introducing the "case" system of instruction. + + Langdell wrote _Selection of Cases on the Law of Contracts_ (1870, the + first book used in the "case" system; enlarged, 1877); _Cases on + Sales_ (1872); _Summary of Equity Pleading_ (1877, 2nd ed., 1883); + _Cases in Equity Pleading_ (1883); and _Brief Survey of Equity + Jurisdiction_ (1905). + + + + +LANGDON, JOHN (1741-1819), American statesman, was born in Portsmouth, +New Hampshire, on the 25th of June 1741. After an apprenticeship in a +counting-house, he led a seafaring life for several years, and became a +shipowner and merchant. In December 1774, as a militia captain he +assisted in the capture of Fort William and Mary at New Castle, New +Hampshire, one of the first overt acts of the American colonists against +the property of the crown. He was elected to the House of +Representatives of the last Royal Assembly of New Hampshire and then to +the second Continental Congress in 1775, and was a member of the first +Naval Committee of the latter, but he resigned in 1776, and in June 1776 +became Congress's agent of prizes in New Hampshire and in 1778 +continental (naval) agent of Congress in this state, where he supervised +the building of John Paul Jones's "Ranger" (completed in June 1777), the +"America," launched in 1782, and other vessels. He was a judge of the +New Hampshire Court of Common Pleas in 1776-1777, a member (and speaker) +of the New Hampshire House of Representatives from 1776 until 1782, a +member of the state Constitutional Convention of 1778 and of the state +Senate in 1784-1785, and in 1783-1784 was again a member of Congress. He +contributed largely to raise troops in 1777 to meet Burgoyne; and he +served as a captain at Bennington and at Saratoga. He was president of +New Hampshire in 1785-1786 and in 1788-1789; a member of the Federal +Constitutional Convention in 1787, where he voted against granting to +Congress the power of issuing paper money; a member of the state +convention which ratified the Federal Constitution for New Hampshire; a +member of the United States Senate in 1789-1801, and its president _pro +tem_. during the first Congress and the second session of the second +Congress; a member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives in +1801-1805 and its speaker in 1803-1805; and governor of the state in +1805-1809 and in 1810-1812. He received nine electoral votes for the +vice-presidency in 1808, and in 1812 was an elector on the Madison +ticket. He died in Portsmouth on the 18th of September 1819. He was an +able leader during the Revolutionary period, when his wealth and social +position were of great assistance to the patriot party. In the later +years of his life in New Hampshire he was the most prominent of the +local Republican leaders and built up his party by partisan +appointments. He refused the naval portfolio in Jefferson's cabinet. + +His elder brother, WOODBURY LANGDON (1739-1805), was a delegate to the +Continental Congress in 1779-1780, a member of the executive council of +New Hampshire in 1781-1784, judge of the Supreme Court of the state in +1782 and in 1786-1790 (although he had had no legal training), and a +state senator in 1784-1785. + + Alfred Langdon Elwyn has edited _Letters by Washington, Adams, + Jefferson and Others, Written During and After the Revolution, to John + Langdon of New Hampshire_ (Philadelphia, 1880), a book of great + interest and value. See a biographical sketch of John Langdon by + Charles R. Corning in the _New England Magazine_, vol. xxii. (Boston, + 1897). + + + + +LANGE, ANNE FRANÇOISE ELIZABETH (1772-1816), French actress, was born in +Genoa on the 17th of September 1772, the daughter of a musician and an +actress at the Comédie Italienne. She made her first appearance on the +stage at Tours in 1787 and a successful début at the Comédie Française +in 1788 in _L'Écossaise_ and _L'Oracle_. She followed Talma and the +others in 1791 to the Rue Richelieu, but returned after a few months to +the Comédie Française. Here her talent and beauty gave her an enormous +success in François de Neuchâteau's _Pamela_, the performance of which +brought upon the theatre the vials of wrath of the Committee of Safety. +With the author and the other members of the caste, she was arrested and +imprisoned. After the 9th Thermidor she rejoined her comrades at the +Feydeau, but retired on the 16th of December 1797, reappearing only for +a few performances in 1807. She had, meantime, married the son of a rich +Belgian named Simons. She died on the 25th of May 1816. + + + + +LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL (1813-1899), German novelist, who wrote under +the pseudonym _Philipp Galen_, was born at Potsdam on the 21st of +December 1813. He studied medicine at Berlin (1835-1840), and on taking +his degree, in 1840, entered the Prussian army as surgeon. In this +capacity he saw service in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign of 1849. He +settled at Bielefeld as medical practitioner and here issued his first +novel, _Der Inselkönig_ (1852, 3rd ed., 1858), which enjoyed +considerable popularity. In Bielefeld he continued to work at his +profession and to write, until his retirement, with the rank of +_Oberstabsarzt_ (surgeon-general) to Potsdam in 1878; there he died on +the 20th of February 1899. Lange's novels are distinguished by local +colouring and pretty, though not powerful, descriptions of manners and +customs. He particularly favoured scenes of English life, though he had +never been in that country, and on the whole he succeeded well in his +descriptions. Chief among his novels are, _Der Irre von St James_ (1853, +5th ed., 1871), and _Emery Glandon_ (3rd ed., Leip., 1865), while of +those dealing with the Schleswig-Holstein campaign _Andreas Burns_ +(1856) and _Die Tochter des Diplomaten_ (1865) commanded considerable +attention. + + His _Gesammelte Schriften_ appeared in 36 vols. (1857-1866). + + + + +LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT (1828-1875), German philosopher and sociologist, +was born on the 28th of September 1828, at Wald, near Solingen, the son +of the theologian, J. P. Lange (q.v.). He was educated at Duisburg, +Zürich and Bonn, where he distinguished himself by gymnastics as much as +by study. In 1852 he became schoolmaster at Cologne; in 1855 +_privatdozent_ in philosophy at Bonn; in 1858 schoolmaster at Duisburg, +resigning when the government forbade schoolmasters to take part in +political agitation. Lange then entered on a career of militant +journalism in the cause of political and social reform. He was also +prominent in the affairs of his town, yet found leisure to write most of +his best-known books, _Die Leibesübungen_ (1863), _Die Arbeiterfrage_ +(1865, 5th ed. 1894), _Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner +Bedeutung in der Gegenwart_ (1866; 7th ed. with biographical sketch by +H. Cohen, 1902; Eng. trans., E. C. Thomas, 1877), and _J. S. Mill's +Ansichten über die sociale Frage_ (1866). In 1866, discouraged by +affairs in Germany, he moved to Winterthur, near Zürich, to become +connected with the democratic newspaper, _Winterthurer Landbote_. In +1869 he was _Privatdozent at Zürich_, and next year professor. The +strong French sympathies of the Swiss in the Franco-German War led to +his speedy resignation. Thenceforward he gave up politics. In 1872 he +accepted a professorship at Marburg. Unhappily, his vigorous frame was +already stricken with disease, and, after a lingering illness, he died +at Marburg, on the 23rd of November 1875, diligent to the end. His +_Logische Studien_ was published by H. Cohen in 1877 (2nd ed., 1894). +His main work, the _Geschichte des Materialismus_, which is brilliantly +written, with wide scientific knowledge and more sympathy with English +thought than is usual in Germany, is rather a didactic exposition of +principles than a history in the proper sense. Adopting the Kantian +standpoint that we can know nothing but phenomena, Lange maintains that +neither materialism nor any other metaphysical system has a valid claim +to ultimate truth. For empirical phenomenal knowledge, however, which is +all that man can look for, materialism with its exact scientific methods +has done most valuable service. Ideal metaphysics, though they fail of +the inner truth of things, have a value as the embodiment of high +aspirations, in the same way as poetry and religion. In Lange's +_Logische Studien_, which attempts a reconstruction of formal logic, the +leading idea is that reasoning has validity in so far as it can be +represented in terms of space. His _Arbeiterfrage_ advocates an +ill-defined form of socialism. It protests against contemporary +industrial selfishness, and against the organization of industry on the +Darwinian principle of struggle for existence. + + See O. A. Ellissen, _F. A. Lange_ (Leipzig, 1891), and in _Monatsch. + d. Comeniusgesell_. iii., 1894, 210 ff.; H. Cohen in _Preuss_. + _Jahrb._ xxvii., 1876, 353 ff.; Vaihinger, _Hartmann, Dühring und + Lange_ (Iserlohn, 1876); J. M. Bösch, _F. A. Lange und sein Standpunkt + d. Ideals_ (Frauenfeld, 1890); H. Braun, _F. A. Lange, als + Socialökonom_ (Halle, 1881). (H. St.) + + + + +LANGE, JOHANN PETER (1802-1884), German Protestant theologian, was of +peasant origin and was born at Sonneborn near Elberfeld on the 10th of +April 1802. He studied theology at Bonn (from 1822) under K. I. Nitzsch +and G. C. F. Lücke, held several pastorates, and eventually (1854) +settled at Bonn as professor of theology in succession to Isaac A. +Dorner, becoming also in 1860 counsellor to the consistory. He died on +the 9th of July 1884. Lange has been called the poetical theologian _par +excellence_: "It has been said of him that his thoughts succeed each +other in such rapid and agitated waves that all calm reflection and all +rational distinction become, in a manner, drowned" (F. Lichtenberger). +As a dogmatic writer he belonged to the school of Schleiermacher. His +_Christliche Dogmatik_ (3 vols., 1849-1852, new edition, 1870) "contains +many fruitful and suggestive thoughts, which, however, are hidden under +such a mass of bold figures and strange fancies, and suffer so much from +want of clearness of presentation, that they did not produce any lasting +effect" (Otto Pfleiderer). + + His other works include Das Leben Jesu (3 vols., 1844-1847), _Das + apostolische Zeitalter_ (2 vols., 1853-1854). _Grundriss der + theologischen Enzyklopädie_ (1877). _Grundriss der christlichen Ethik_ + (1878), and _Grundriss der Bibelkunde_ (1881). In 1857 he undertook + with other scholars a _Theologisch-homiletisches Bibelwerk_, to which + he contributed commentaries on the first four books of the Pentateuch, + Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Matthew, Mark, Revelation. The _Bibelwerk_ + has been translated, enlarged and revised under the general editorship + of Dr Philip Schaff. + + + + +LANGEAIS, a town of west-central France in the department of +Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Loire, 16 m. W.S.W. of Tours by +rail. Pop. (1906) town, 1755; commune, 3550. Langeais has a church of +the 11th, 12th and 15th centuries but is chiefly interesting for the +possession of a large château built soon after the middle of the 15th +century by Jean Bourré, minister of Louis XI. Here the marriage of +Charles VIII. and Anne of Brittany took place in 1491. In the park are +the ruins of a keep of late 10th-century architecture, built by Fulk +Nerra, count of Anjou. + + + + +LANGEN, JOSEPH (1837-1901), German theologian, was born at Cologne on +the 3rd of June 1837. He studied at Bonn, was ordained priest in 1859, +was nominated professor extraordinary at the university of Bonn in 1864, +and a professor in ordinary of the exegesis of the New Testament in +1867--an office which he held till his death. He was one of the able +band of professors who in 1870 supported Döllinger in his resistance to +the Vatican decrees, and was excommunicated with Ignaz v. Döllinger, +Johann Huber, Johann Friedrich, Franz Heinrich Reusch, Joseph Hubert +Reinkens and others, for refusing to accept them. In 1878, in +consequence of the permission given to priests to marry, he ceased to +identify himself with the Old Catholic movement, although he was not +reconciled with the Roman Catholic Church. Langen was more celebrated as +a writer than as a speaker. His first work was an inquiry into the +authorship of the Commentary on St Paul's Epistles and the Treatise on +Biblical Questions, ascribed to Ambrose and Augustine respectively. In +1868 he published an _Introduction to the New Testament_, a work of +which a second edition was called for in 1873. He also published works +on the _Last Days of the Life of Jesus_, on _Judaism in the Time of +Christ_, on _John of Damascus_ (1879) and an _Examination of the Vatican +Dogma in the Light of Patristic Exegesis of the New Testament_. But he +is chiefly famous for his _History of the Church of Rome to the +Pontificate of Innocent III._ (4 vols., 1881-1893), a work of sound +scholarship, based directly upon the authorities, the most important +sources being woven carefully into the text. He also contributed largely +to the _Internationale theologische Zeitschrift_, a review started in +1893 by the Old Catholics to promote the union of National Churches on +the basis of the councils of the Undivided Church, and admitting +articles in German, French and English. Among other subjects, he wrote +on the School of Hierotheus, on Romish falsifications of the Greek +Fathers, on Leo XIII., on Liberal Ultramontanism, on the Papal Teaching +in regard to Morals, on Vincentius of Lerins and he carried on a +controversy with Professor Willibald Beyschlag, of the German +Evangelical Church, on the respective merits of Protestantism and Old +Catholicism regarded as a basis for teaching the Christian faith. An +attack of apoplexy put an end to his activity as a teacher and hastened +his death, which occurred in July 1901. (J. J. L.*) + + + + +LANGENBECK, BERNHARD RUDOLF KONRAD VON (1810-1887), German surgeon, was +born at Horneburg on the 9th of November 1810, and received his medical +education at Göttingen, where he took his doctor's degree in 1835 with a +thesis on the structure of the retina. After a visit to France and +England, he returned to Göttingen as _Privatdozent_, and in 1842 became +professor of surgery and director of the Friedrichs Hospital at Kiel. +Six years later he succeeded J. F. Dieffenbach (1794-1847) as director +of the Clinical Institute for Surgery and Ophthalmology at Berlin, and +remained there till 1882, when failing health obliged him to retire. He +died at Wiesbaden on the 30th of September 1887. Langenbeck was a bold +and skilful operator, but was disinclined to resort to operation while +other means afforded a prospect of success. He devoted particular +attention to military surgery, and was a great authority in the +treatment of gunshot wounds. Besides acting as general field-surgeon of +the army in the war with Denmark in 1848, he saw active service in 1864, +1866, and again in the Franco-German campaign of 1870-71. He was in +Orleans at the end of 1870, after the city had been taken by the +Prussians, and was unwearied in his attentions, whether as operator or +consultant, to wounded men with whom every public building was packed. +He also utilized the opportunities for instruction that thus arose, and +the "Militär-Aerztliche Gesellschaft," which met twice a week for some +months, and in the discussions of which every surgeon in the city was +invited to take part, irrespective of nationality, was mainly formed by +his energy and enthusiasm. He was ennobled for his services in the +Danish War of 1864. + + + + +LANGENSALZA, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Salza, +about 20 m. N. W. from Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 12,545. Near it are the +remains of the old Benedictine monastery of Homburg or Hohenburg, where +the emperor Henry IV. defeated the Saxons in 1075. The manufacture of +cloth is the chief industry; lace, starch, machines, cigars and +chemicals are also produced, while spinning, dyeing, brewing and +printing are carried on. There is a sulphur bath in the neighbourhood, +situated in a pleasant park, in which there are monuments to those who +fell in the war of 1866. Langensalza became a town in 1211 and was +afterwards part of the electorate of Saxony. In 1815 it came into the +possession of Prussia. It is remarkable in history as the scene of three +battles: (1) the victory of the Prussians and English over the imperial +army on the 15th of February 1761; (2) that of the Prussians over the +Bavarians on the 17th of April 1813; and (3) the engagement on the 27th +of June 1866 between the Prussians and the Hanoverians, in which the +latter, though victorious in the field, were compelled to lay down their +arms on the arrival of overwhelming Prussian reinforcements. + + See Göschel, _Chronik der Stadt Langensalza_ (Langensalza, 1818-1842); + G. and H. Schütz, _Chronik der Stadt Langensalza_ (Langensalza, 1901); + and Gutbier, _Schwefelbad Langensalza_ (Langensalza, 1900). + + + + +LANGHAM, SIMON (d. 1376), archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal, was +born at Langham in Rutland, becoming a monk in the abbey of St Peter at +Westminster, and later prior and then abbot of this house. In 1360 he +was made treasurer of England and in 1361 he became bishop of Ely; he +was appointed chancellor of England in 1363 and was chosen archbishop of +Canterbury in 1366. Perhaps the most interesting incident in his primacy +was when he drove the secular clergy from their college of Canterbury +Hall, Oxford, and filled their places with monks. The expelled head of +the seculars was a certain John de Wiclif, who has been identified with +the great reformer Wycliffe. Notwithstanding the part Langham as +chancellor had taken in the anti-papal measures of 1365 and 1366 he was +made a cardinal by Pope Urban V. in 1368. This step lost him the favour +of Edward III., and two months later he resigned his archbishopric and +went to Avignon. He was soon allowed to hold other although less exalted +positions in England, and in 1374 he was elected archbishop of +Canterbury for the second time; but he withdrew his claim and died at +Avignon on the 22nd of July 1376. Langham's tomb is the oldest monument +to an ecclesiastic in Westminster Abbey; he left the residue of his +estate--a large sum of money--to the abbey, and has been called its +second founder. + + + + +LANGHOLM, a burgh of barony and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 3142. It is situated on both sides of the Esk, 16 m. N.E. of +Annan, the terminus of a branch line connecting with the North British +railway system at Riddings Junction. The Esk is crossed by a +three-arched stone bridge, uniting the old town on the left bank with +the new on the right, and a suspension bridge. Ewes Water, which falls +into the river, is spanned by a two-arched bridge, 1 m. N. of the town. +The public buildings include the town hall--a substantial edifice with a +tower rising in three tiers from the body of the structure, the Telford +library, and the Hope hospital for aged poor. Already famous for its +plaids and blankets, the prosperity of the burgh advanced when it took +up the manufacture of tweeds. Distilling, brewing, dyeing and tanning +are also important industries. The Esk and Liddel being favourite +fishing streams, Langholm is the headquarters of the association which +protects the rights of anglers. About 1 m. to the N.W. stands Langholm +Lodge, a seat of the duke of Buccleuch, and some 4 m. S.E. is Gilnockie +Tower, the peel-house that belonged to Johnny Armstrong, the freebooter, +who was executed by order of James V. in 1530. + + + + +LANGHORNE, JOHN (1735-1779), English poet and translator of Plutarch, +was born at Kirkby Stephen, Westmorland. He At first supported himself +as a private tutor and schoolmaster, and, having taken orders, was +appointed (1766) to the rectory of Blagdon, Somerset, where he died on +the 1st of April 1779. His poems (original and translations), and +sentimental tales, are now forgotten, but his translation of Plutarch's +_Lives_ (1770), in which he had the co-operation of his elder brother +William (1721-1772), is not yet superseded. It is far less vigorous than +Sir Thomas North's version (translated from Amyot) but is free from its +inaccuracies. His poems were published in 1804 by his son, J. T. +Langhorne, with a memoir of the author; they will also be found in R. +Anderson's _Poets of Great Britain_, xi. (1794) and A. Chalmers's +_English Poets_, xvi. (1810), with memoir. Of his poems, _The Country +Justice_, a plea for the neglected poor, and _The Fables of Flora_, were +the most successful; of his prose writings, _The Correspondence between +Theodosius and Constantia_, founded on a well-known story in the +_Spectator_ (No. 164). + + + + +LANGIEWICZ, MARYAN (1827-1887), Polish patriot, was born at Krotoszyn, +in the province of Posen, on the 5th of August 1827, his father being +the local doctor. Langiewicz was educated at Posen, Breslau and Prague, +and was compelled to earn his daily bread by giving lectures. He +subsequently entered the Prussian _Landwehr_ and served for a year in +the royal guard. In 1860 he migrated to Paris and was for a time +professor in the high school founded there by Mieroslawski. The same +year he took part in Garibaldi's Neapolitan campaign, and was then a +professor in the military school at Cuneo till the establishment was +closed. In 1862 he entered into communication with the central Polish +committee at Warsaw, and on the outbreak of the insurrection of the 22nd +of January 1863, took the command of the armed bands. He defeated the +Russians at Wachock and Slupia (February), capturing 1000 muskets and 8 +cannon. This victory drew hundreds of young recruits to his standard, +till at last he had 12,000 men at his disposal. On the 23rd of February +he again defeated the Russians, at Malogoszcza, and captured 500 muskets +and 2 cannon. On the 10th of March he proclaimed himself dictator and +attempted to form a regular government; but either he had insufficient +organizing talent, or had not time enough to carry out his plans, and +after a fresh series of engagements his army was almost annihilated at +Zagosc (18th of March), whereupon he took refuge in Austrian territory +and was interned at Tarnow. He was subsequently transferred to the +fortress of Josephstadt, from which he was released in 1865. He then +lived at Solothurn as a citizen of the Swiss Republic, and subsequently +entered the Turkish service as Langie Bey. He died at Constantinople on +the 11th of May 1887. + + See Boleslaw Limanowski, _The National Insurrection of 1863-64_ (Pol.) + (Lemberg, 1900); Paolo Mazzoleni, _I Bergamaschi in Polonia nel 1863_ + (Bergamo, 1893); W. H. Bavink, _De Poolsche opstand 1863_, &c. + (Haarlem, 1864). + + + + +LANGLAND, WILLIAM (_c._ 1332-_c._ 1400), the supposed English poet, +generally regarded until recently as the single author of the remarkable +14th-century poem _Piers the Plowman_. Its full title is--_The Vision of +William concerning Piers the Plowman, together with Vita de Do-wel, +Do-bet, et Do-best, secundum Wit et Resoun_; usually given in Latin as +_Visio Willelmi de Petra Plowman, &c._; the whole work being sometimes +briefly described as _Liber de Petro Plowman_. We know nothing of +William Langland except from the supposed evidence of the MSS. of the +poem and the text itself, and it will be convenient first to give a +brief general description of them. + +The poem exists in three forms. If we denote these by the names of +A-text (or Vernon), B-text (or Crowley), and C-text (or Whitaker), we +find, of the first, ten MSS., of the second fourteen, and of the third +seventeen, besides seven others of a mixed type. It will be seen that we +thus have abundance of material, a circumstance which proves the great +popularity of the poem in former times. Owing to the frequent +expressions which indicate a desire for reformation in religion, it was, +in the time of Edward VI., considered worthy of being printed. Three +impressions of the B-text were printed by Robert Crowley in 1550; and +one of these was badly reprinted by Owen Rogers in 1561. In 1813 the +best MS. of the C-text was printed by Dr E. Whitaker. In 1842 Mr Thomas +Wright printed an edition from an excellent MS. of the B-text in the +library of Trinity College, Cambridge (2nd ed., 1856, new ed., 1895). A +complete edition of all three texts was printed for the Early English +Text Society as edited by the Rev. W. W. Skeat, with the addition of +_Richard the Redeless_, and containing full notes to all three texts, +with a glossary and indexes, in 1867-1885. The Clarendon Press edition, +by the same editor, appeared in 1886. + +The A-text contains a prologue and 12 passus or cantos (i.-iv., the +vision of the Lady Meed; v.-viii., the vision of Piers the Plowman; +ix.-xii., the vision of Do-wel, Do-bet and Do-best), with 2567 lines. +The B-text is much longer, containing 7242 lines, with additional passus +following after xi. of A, the earlier passus being altered in various +respects. The C-text, with 7357 lines, is a revision of B. + +The general contents of the poem may be gathered from a brief +description of the C-text. This is divided into twenty-three passus, +nominally comprising four parts, called respectively Visio de Petro +Plowman, Visio de Do-wel, Visio de Do-bet and Visio de Do-best. Here +_Do-bet_ signifies "do better" in modern English; the explanation of the +names being that he who does a kind action _does well_, he who teaches +others to act kindly _does better_, whilst he who combines both practice +and theory, both doing good himself and teaching others to do the same, +_does best_. But the visions by no means closely correspond to these +descriptions; and Skeat divides the whole into a set of eleven visions, +which may be thus enumerated: (1) Vision of the Field Full of Folk, of +Holy Church, and of the Lady Meed (passus i.-v.); (2) Vision of the +Seven Deadly Sins, and of Piers the Plowman (pass. vi.-x.); (3) Wit, +Study, Clergy and Scripture (pass. xi., xii.); (4) Fortune, Nature, +Recklessness and Reason (pass. xiii., xiv.); (5) Vision of Imaginative +(pass. xv.); (6) Conscience, Patience and Activa-Vita (pass. xvi., +xvii.); (7) Free-will and the Tree of Charity (pass. xviii., xix.); (8) +Faith, Hope and Charity (pass. xx.); (9) The Triumph of Piers the +Plowman, i.e. the Crucifixion, Burial and Resurrection of Jesus Christ +(pass. xxi.); (10) The Vision of Grace (pass. xxii.); (11) The Vision of +Antichrist (pass. xxiii.). + +The bare outline of the C-text gives little idea of the real nature of +the poem. The author's object, as Skeat describes it, was to "afford +himself opportunities (of which he has amply availed himself) for +describing the life and manners of the poorer classes; for inveighing +against clerical abuses and the rapacity of the friars; for representing +the miseries caused by the great pestilences then prevalent and by the +hasty and ill-advised marriages consequent thereupon; and for denouncing +lazy workmen and sham beggars, the corruption and bribery then too +common in the law courts, and all the numerous forms of falsehood which +are at all time the fit subjects for satire and indignant exposure. In +describing, for example, the seven deadly sins, he gives so exact a +description of Glutton and Sloth that the reader feels them to be no +mere abstractions, but drawn from the life; and it becomes hardly more +difficult to realize Glutton than it is to realize Sir John Falstaff. +The numerous allegorical personages so frequently introduced, such as +Scripture, Clergy, Conscience, Patience and the like, are all +mouthpieces of the author himself, uttering for the most part his own +sentiments, but sometimes speaking in accordance with the character +which each is supposed to represent. The theological disquisitions which +are occasionally introduced are somewhat dull and tedious, but the +earnestness of the author's purpose and his energy of language tend to +relieve them, and there are not many passages which might have been +omitted without loss. The poem is essentially one of those which improve +on a second reading, and as a linguistic monument it is of very high +value. Mere extracts from the poem, even if rather numerous and of some +length, fail to give a fair idea of it. The whole deserves, and will +repay, a careful study; indeed, there are not many single works from +which a student of English literature and of the English language may +derive more substantial benefit. + +"The metre is alliterative, and destitute of final rhyme. It is not very +regular, as the author's earnestness led him to use the fittest words +rather than those which merely served the purpose of rhythm. The chief +rule is that, in general, the same letter or combination of letters +should begin _three_ stressed syllables in the same line, as, for +example, in the line which may be modernized thus: 'Of all _m_anner of +_m_en, the _m_ean and the rich.' Sometimes there are but _two_ such +rhyme-letters, as: '_M_ight of the commons _m_ade him to reign.' +Sometimes there are _four_, as: 'In a summer season, when soft was the +sun.' There is invariably a pause, more or less distinct, in the middle +of each line" (_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed., art. LANGLAND). + +The traditional view, accepted by such great authorities as Skeat and +Jusserand, that a single author--and that author Langland--was +responsible for the whole poem, in all its versions, has been so +recently disputed that it seems best to state it in Skeat's own words, +before giving briefly the alternative view, which propounds a theory of +composite authorship, denying any real existence to "William Langland." +The account of the single-author theory is repeated from Professor +Skeat's article in the 9th edition of this work, slightly revised by him +in 1905 for this edition. + +"The author's name is not quite certain, and the facts concerning his +life are few and scanty. As to his Christian name we are sure, from +various allusions in the poem itself, and the title _Visio Willelmi_, +&c., in many MSS.; so that we may at once reject the suggestion that his +name may have been Robert. In no less than three MSS. [of the C-text; +one not later than 1427] occurs the following colophon: 'Explicit visio +Willelmi W. de Petro le Plowman.' What is here meant by W. it is +difficult to conjecture; but it is just possible that it may represent +Wychwood (of which more presently), or Wigornensis, i.e. of Worcester. +As to the surname, we find the note that 'Robert or William Langland +made pers ploughman,' in a handwriting of the 15th century, on the +fly-leaf of a MS. copy [of the B-text] formerly belonging to Lord +Ashburnham, and now in the British Museum; and in a Dublin MS. [of the +C-text] is the note [in a 15th-century hand]: 'Memorandum, quod Stacy de +Rokayle, pater Willielmi de Langlond, qui Stacius fuit generosus et +morabatur in Schiptone-under-Whicwode, tenens domini le Spenser in +comitatu Oxon., qui predictus Willielmus fecit librum qui vocatur Perys +Ploughman.' There is no trace of any Langland family in the midland +counties, while the Langley family were wardens of Wychwood forest in +Oxfordshire between the years 1278 and 1362; but this consideration can +hardly set aside the above statement. According to Bale, our author was +born at Cleobury Mortimer, which is quite consistent with the +supposition that his father may have removed from that place to Shipton +in Oxfordshire, as there seems to have been a real connexion between the +families in those places. + +"The internal evidence concerning the author is fuller and more +satisfactory. By piecing together the various hints concerning himself +which the poet gives us, we may compile the following account. His name +was William (and probably Langland), and he was born about 1332, perhaps +at Cleobury Mortimer in Shropshire. His father, who was doubtless a +franklin or farmer, and his other friends put him to school, made a +'clerk' or scholar of him, and taught him what Holy Writ meant. In 1362, +at the age of about thirty, he found himself wandering upon the Malvern +hills, and fell asleep beside a stream, and saw in a vision a field full +of folk, i.e. this present world, and many other remarkable sights +which he duly records. From this supposed circumstance he named his poem +_The Vision of William_, though it is really a succession of visions, +since he mentions several occasions on which he awoke, and afterwards +again fell asleep; and he even tells us of some adventures which befel +him in his waking moments. In some of these visions there is no mention +of Piers the Plowman, but in others he describes him as being the coming +reformer who was to remedy all abuses, and restore the world to a right +condition. It is remarkable that his conception of this reformer changes +from time to time, and becomes more exalted as the poem advances. At +first he is no more than a ploughman, one of the true and honest +labourers who are the salt of the earth; but at last he is identified +with the great reformer who has come already, the regenerator of the +world in the person of Jesus Christ; in the author's own +phrase--'Petrus est Christus.' If this be borne in mind, it will not be +possible to make the mistake into which so many have fallen, of speaking +of Piers the Plowman as being the author, not the subject, of the poem. +The author once alludes to the nickname of Long Will bestowed upon him +from his tallness of stature--just as the poet Gascoigne was familiarly +called Long George. Though there is mention of the Malvern hills more +than once near the beginning of the poem, it is abundantly clear that +the poet lived for 'many years in Cornhill (London), with his wife Kitte +and his daughter Calote.' He seems to have come to London soon after the +date of the first commencement of his work, and to have long continued +there. He describes himself as being a tall man, one who was loath to +reverence lords or ladies or persons in gay apparel, and not deigning to +say 'God save you' to the sergeants whom he met in the street, insomuch +that many people took him to be a fool. He was very poor, wore long +robes, and had a shaven crown, having received the clerical tonsure. But +he seems only to have taken minor orders, and earned a precarious living +by singing the _placebo_, _dirige_ and seven psalms for the good of +men's souls. The fact that he was married may explain why he never rose +in the church. But he had another source of livelihood in his ability to +write out legal documents, and he was extremely familiar with the law +courts at Westminster. His leisure time must have been entirely occupied +with his poem, which was essentially the work of his lifetime. He was +not satisfied with rewriting it once, but he actually re-wrote it twice; +and from the abundance of the MSS. which still exist we can see its +development from the earliest draught (A-text), written about 1362, to +its latest form (C-text), written about 1393.[1] + +"In 1399, just before the deposition of Richard II., appeared a poem +addressed to the king, who is designated as 'Richard the Redeless,' +i.e. devoid of counsel. This poem, occurring in only one MS. [of the +B-text] in which it is incomplete, breaking off abruptly in the middle +of a page, may safely be attributed to Langland, who was then in +Bristol. As he was at that time about sixty-seven years of age, we may +be sure that he did not long survive the accession of Henry IV. It may +here be observed that the well-known poem, entitled _Pierce Ploughman's +Crede_, though excellently written, is certainly an imitation by another +hand; for the Pierce Ploughman of the _Crede_ is very different in +conception from the subject of 'William's Vision.'" + +On the other hand, the view taken by Professor J. M. Manly, of Chicago, +which has recently obtained increasing acceptance among scholars, is +that the early popularity of the _Piers Plowman_ poems has resulted in +"the confusion of what is really the work of five different men," and +that Langland himself is "a mythical author." The argument for the +distinction in authorship rests on internal evidence, and on analysis of +the style, diction and "visualizing" quality within the different texts. +Whereas Skeat, regarding the three texts as due to the same author, +gives most attention to the later versions, and considers B the +intermediate form, as on the whole the best, Manly recognizes in A the +real poet, and lays special stress on the importance of attention to the +A-text, and particularly pass. i.-viii. In this A-text the two first +visions are regarded as by a single author of genius, but the third is +assigned to a continuator who tried to imitate him, the whole conclusion +of the 12th passus being, moreover, by a third author, whose name, John +But, is in fact given towards the end, but in a way leading Skeat only +to credit him with a few lines. The same process of analysis leads to +crediting the B-text and the C-text to separate and different authors, B +working over the three visions of the A-text and making additions of his +own, while C again worked over the B-text. The supposed references to +the original author A, introduced by B and C, are then to be taken as +part of the fiction. Who were the five authors? That question is left +unsolved. John But, according to Professor Manly, was "doubtless a +scribe" or "a minstrel." B, C and the continuator of A "seem to have +been clerics, and, from their criticisms of monks and friars, to have +been of the secular clergy," C being "a better scholar than either the +continuator of A or B." A, who "exempts from his satire no order of +society except monks," may have been himself a monk, but "as he exhibits +no special technical knowledge or interests" he "may have been a +layman." As regards Richard the Redeless, Professor Manly attributes +this to another imitator; he regards identity of authorship as out of +the question, in consequences of differences in style and thought, apart +altogether from the conclusion as to the authorship of _Piers the +Plowman_. + + See the editions already referred to: _The Deposition of Richard II._, + ed. T. Wright (Camden Society), which is the same poem as _Richard the + Redeless_; Warton, _Hist. of Eng. Poetry_; Rev. H. H. Milman, _Hist. + of Latin Christianity_; G. P. Marsh, _Lectures on English_; H. Morley, + _English Writers_; B. ten Brink, _Early English Literature_; J. J. + Jusserand, _Observations sur la vision de P. P._ (Paris, 1879); _Les + Anglais au moyen âge: L'Épopée mystique de William Langland_ (1893, + Eng. trans. _Piers Plowman_, revised and enlarged by another 1894); J. + M. Manly in _Cambridge Hist. of English Lit._, vol. ii. and + bibliography. A long and careful summary of the whole poem is given in + Morley's _English Writers_, and is repeated in his _Illustrations of + English Religion_, ch. iii. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to Jusserand, 1398. + + + + +LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT (1834-1906), American physicist and astronomer, +was born at Roxbury, Boston, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of August 1834. +After acting for a short time as assistant in Harvard College +Observatory, he was appointed assistant professor of mathematics in the +U.S. Naval Academy in 1866, and in the following year became director of +the Allegheny Observatory at Pittsburg, a position which he held until +his selection in 1887 as secretary of the Smithsonian Institution at +Washington. His name is especially associated with two main branches of +investigation--aeronautics, and the exploration of the infra-red +portions of the solar spectrum. The study of the latter he took up as a +result of the publication in 1871 of an energy-curve of the spectrum by +S. I. Lamansky. The imperfections of the thermopile, with which he began +his work, led him, about 1880, to the invention of the bolometer, an +instrument of extraordinary delicacy, which in its most refined form is +believed to be capable of detecting a change of temperature amounting to +less than one-hundred-millionth of a degree Centigrade. Depending on the +fact that the electrical conductivity of a metallic conductor is +decreased by heat, it consists of two strips of platinum, arranged to +form the two arms of a Wheatstone bridge; one strip being exposed to a +source of radiation from which the other is shielded, the heat causes a +change in the resistance of one arm, the balance of the bridge is +destroyed, and a deflection is marked on the galvanometer. The platinum +strips are exceedingly minute, being in some cases only 1/250 in. in +width, and less than one-tenth of that amount in thickness. By the aid +of this instrument, Langley, working on Mount Whitney, 12,000 ft. above +sea-level, discovered in 1881 an entirely unsuspected extension of the +invisible infra-red rays, which he called the "new spectrum." The +importance of his achievement may be judged from the fact that, while +the visible spectrum includes rays having wave-lengths of from about 0.4 +[mu] to 0.76 [mu], and no invisible heat-rays were known before 1881 +having a wave-length greater than 1.8 [mu], he detected rays having a +wave-length of 5.3 [mu]. In addition, taking advantage of the accuracy +with which the bolometer can determine the position of a source of heat +by which it is affected, he mapped out in this infra-red spectrum over +700 dark lines or bands resembling the Fraunhofer lines of the visible +spectrum, with a probable accuracy equal to that of refined astronomical +observations. In aeronautics he succeeded in demonstrating the +practicability of mechanical flight. He first undertook a preliminary +inquiry into the principles upon which flight depends, and established +at Allegheny a huge "whirling table," the revolving arm of which could +be driven by a steam-engine at any circumferential speed up to 70 m. an +hour. The construction of a flying machine was next attempted. The first +difficulty was to make it sufficiently light in relation to the power +its machinery could develop; and several machines were built in which +trials were made of steam, and of compressed air and carbonic acid gas +as motive agents. About 1893 a satisfactory machine was ready, and a +new series of troubles had to be faced, for it had to be launched at a +certain initial speed, and in the face of any wind that might be +blowing. To enable these conditions to be fulfilled, as well as to +ensure that the machine, when it fell, should fall on water, the +experiments were carried out on the Potomac river, some 30 m. below +Washington. It was not till the autumn of 1894 that an efficient +launching apparatus was devised, and then the wings were found not to be +strong enough to bear the pressures to which they were subjected. +Various other delays and mishaps followed, but ultimately, on the 6th of +May 1896, a successful flight was made. On that day an aerodrome, +weighing about 30 lb. and about 16 ft. in length, with wings measuring +between 12 and 13 ft. from tip to tip, twice sustained itself in the air +for 1½ minutes (the full time for which it was supplied with fuel and +water), and traversed on each occasion a distance of over half a mile, +falling gently into the water when the engines stopped. Later in the +same year, on the 28th of November, a similar aerodrome flew about +three-quarters of a mile, attaining a speed of 30 m. an hour. In 1903 he +experimented with an aerodrome capable of carrying a man, but repeated +accidents prevented it from being launched, and finally through lack of +funds the experiments had to be abandoned without the machine ever +having been free in the air (see also FLIGHT AND FLYING). Langley died +on the 27th of February 1906. + + + + +LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE (1839- ), French general, was born at Besançon in +1839, and, after passing through the École Polytechnique, was appointed +to the artillery as sub-lieutenant in 1858, attaining the rank of +captain in 1866. He served in the army of Metz in the war of 1870. Eight +years later he became major, in 1887 lieutenant-colonel and in 1888 +colonel. At this time he was appointed professor of artillery at the +École de Guerre, and in this post he devoted himself to working out the +tactical principles of the employment of field artillery under the new +conditions of armament of which he foresaw the advent. The public result +of his work was the great treatise _L'Artillerie de campagne_ +(1891-1892), which may still be regarded as the classic of the arm. In +1894 he became general of brigade, and in 1898 general of division. For +two years after this he was the commandant of the École de Guerre at the +time that the modern French strategical and tactical "doctrine" was +being developed and taught. He was, however, regarded as a leader as +well as a theorist, and in 1901 he was selected to command the XX. Army +Corps on the German frontier, popularly called the "iron" corps. In 1902 +he became a member of the Conseil supérieur de la Guerre, consisting of +senior generals marked out for the higher commands in war. He retired +from the active list in 1904 on reaching the age limit, and devoted +himself with the greatest energy to critical military literature. In +1907 he began the publication of a monthly journal of military art and +history, the _Revue militaire générale_. The most important of his other +works are _Enseignements de deux guerres recentes_ and _Conséquences +tactiques du progrès de l'armement_. + + + + +LANGPORT, a market town in the eastern parliamentary division of +Somersetshire, England, 13½ m. E. of Taunton by the Great Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 890. It lies on the right (east) bank of the river +Parret, near the point where that river debouches from the hills on to +the plain through which it flows to the Bristol Channel. The main street +leads up a slope from the river to the fine Perpendicular church of All +Saints. Close to this an archway crosses the road, bearing a +Perpendicular building known as the hanging chapel. After serving this +purpose it housed first the grammar-school (founded 1675), then the +Quekett museum, named after John Thomas Quekett (1815-1861) the +histologist, a native of the town, whose father was master of the +school. The hanging chapel afterwards became a masonic hall. Not far +distant is the church of Huish Episcopi, with one of the finest of the +Perpendicular towers for which Somersetshire is noted. Langport has a +considerable general and agricultural trade. + + Langport (_Llongborth_, _Langeberga_, _Langeport_) owed its origin to + its defensible position on a hill, and its growth to its facilities + for trade on the chief river of Somerset. It occupies the site of the + British town of Llongborth, and was important during the Roman + occupation. It was a royal borough in Saxon times, and in 1086 had 34 + resident burgesses. The first charter, given by Elizabeth in 1562, + recognized that Langport was a borough of great antiquity, which had + enjoyed considerable privileges, being governed by a portreve. It was + incorporated by James I. in 1617, but the corporation was abolished in + 1883. Langport was represented in parliament in 1304 and 1306. The + charter of 1562 granted three annual fairs to Langport, on the 28th of + June, the 11th of November and the second Monday in Lent. One fair + only is now held, on the 3rd of September, which is a horse and cattle + fair. A Saturday market was held under the grant of 1562, but in the + 19th century the market day was changed to Tuesday. + + + + +LANGREO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, in very +hilly country, on the left bank of the river Nalon, and on a branch +railway from Oviedo to Labiana. Pop. (1900) 18,714. In the neighbourhood +large quantities of wheat, hemp, fruit and cider are produced; and there +are important coal and iron mines, foundries, and factories for the +manufacture of coarse cloth. + + + + +LANGRES, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Haute-Marne, 22 m. S.S.E. of Chaumont on the eastern +railway to Belfort. Pop. (1906) town, 6663; commune, 9803. Langres +stands at a height of some 1550 ft. on a jutting promontory of the +tableland known as the plateau de Langres, and overlooks eastward and +westward respectively the valleys of the Marne and its tributary the +Bonnelle. From the cathedral tower and the ramparts which surround the +town there is an extensive view over the valley of the Marne, the Vosges +and the Côte d'Or, and in clear weather Mt Blanc (160 m. distant) is +visible. The cathedral of St Mammès, for the most part in the +Transitional style of the 12th century, has a west front in the +Graeco-Roman style of the 18th century and a fine Renaissance chapel. +The church of St Martin (13th, 15th and 18th centuries) possesses a +figure of Christ of the 16th century, one of the finest wood carvings +known. The ramparts are protected by several towers, most of which date +from the 16th century. The Gallo-Roman gate, one of four entrances in +the Roman period, is preserved, but is walled up. The Porte des Moulins +(17th century) is the most interesting of the other gates. The town +possesses a museum rich in Gallo-Roman antiquities, a picture gallery +and an important library. The birth of Denis Diderot here is +commemorated by a statue. Langres is the seat of a bishop and a +sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a +higher ecclesiastical seminary and communal colleges for both sexes. It +manufactures well-known cutlery and grind-stones. Trade is in grain and +other farm-produce, live stock, wine, &c. + +Langres, the ancient _Andematunum_, was capital of the _Lingones_. Under +Roman rule it was at first to some extent autonomous, but was reduced to +the rank of colony after the revolt of the chief Sabinus in A.D. 71. The +bishopric was founded about 200 and in the middle ages its holders +became peers of the realm and enjoyed the temporal power in the town. In +301 the Alemanni were defeated at Langres by the Romans, but in the next +century it was burnt by the Vandals and by Attila. + + The "plateau of Langres" appears frequently in the military history of + the 18th and 19th centuries as a dominant strategic point, though its + importance as such has appealed chiefly to the advocates of wars of + positions and passive defence. The modern fortifications of Langres, + which serves as a second line fortress, consist of (a) Fort St Menge + or Ligniville on high ground above the confluence of the Marne and the + Neuilly brook, about 5 m. N. by W. of the town; (b) the west front, + comprising Humes battery (2¼ m. N.W. of Langres), Fort de la Pointe de + Diamant, and the redoubts of Perrancey, Le Fays and Noidant (the last + 4 m. S.W. of the town), overlooking the deep valley of the Mouche + brook (this front was attacked in the mock siege of August 1907); (c) + the south front, comprising Fort de la Bonnelle or Décrès (2 m. S.S.W. + of the town), a small work commanding the Chalon-Langres road, Le Mont + and Le Pailly batteries, Fort Vercingetorix, the last, 5 m. S.W. of + the place, standing on a steep and narrow spur of the main plateau, + and in second line the old fort de la Marnotte, and the large + bastioned citadel (the town enceinte is "déclassée"); (d) the east + front, marked by Forts Montlandon and Plesnoy at the north and south + ends respectively of a long steep ridge, 6 m. E. of Langres, the + bridges over the Marne leading to these works being commanded by Fort + Peigney, a work about half a mile east of the town; (e) Fort + Dampierre, 8 m. N.E. of the town, which commands all the main + approaches from the north, and completes the circle by crossing its + fire with that of Fort St Menge. + + + + +LANGTOFT, PETER (d. c. 1307), English chronicler, took his name from the +village of Langtoft in Yorkshire, and was a canon of the Augustinian +priory in Bridlington. His name is also given as Langetoft and +Langetost. He wrote in French verse a _Chronicle_ dealing with the +history of England from the earliest times to the death of Edward I. in +1307. It consists of three parts and contains about 9000 rhyming verses. +The earlier part of the _Chronicle_ is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth +and other writers; for the period dealing with the reign of Edward I. +Langtoft is a contemporary and valuable authority, especially for +affairs in the north of England and in Scotland. Langtoft's _Chronicle_ +seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity in the north, and the +latter part of it was translated into English by Robert Mannyng, +sometimes called Robert of Brunne, about 1330. It has been edited for +the Rolls Series by T. Wright (1866-1868). + + See Wright's preface, and also O. Preussner, _Robert Mannyng of + Brunne's Übersetzung von Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle und ihr + Verhältniss zum Originale_ (Breslau, 1891). + + + + +LANGTON, JOHN (d. 1337), chancellor of England and bishop of Chichester, +was a clerk in the royal chancery, and became chancellor in 1292. He +obtained several ecclesiastical appointments, but owing to the +resistance of Pope Boniface VIII. he failed to secure the bishopric of +Ely in 1298, although he was supported by Edward I. and visited Rome to +attain his end. Resigning his office as chancellor in 1302, he was +chosen bishop of Chichester in 1305, and again became chancellor shortly +after the accession of Edward II. in 1307. Langton was one of the +"ordainers" elected in 1310, and it was probably his connexion with this +body that led to his losing the office of chancellor about this time. He +continued, however, to take part in public affairs; mediating between +the king and Earl Thomas of Lancaster in 1318, and attempting to do so +between Edward and his rebellious barons in 1321. He died in June or +July 1337. Langton built the chapterhouse at Chichester, and was a +benefactor of the university of Oxford. + + + + +LANGTON, STEPHEN (d. 1228), cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury, was +the son of English parents; but the date and place of his birth are +unknown. Since he became early in his career a prebendary of York, and +since his brother Simon (d. 1248) was elected[1] to that see in 1215, we +may suppose the family to have been of northern extraction. Stephen, +however, migrated to Paris, and having graduated in that university +became one of its most celebrated theologians. This was probably the +time when he composed his voluminous commentaries (many of which still +exist in manuscript) and divided the Bible into chapters. At Paris also +he contracted the friendship with Lothar of Segni, the future Innocent +III., which played so important a part in shaping his career. Upon +becoming pope, Innocent summoned Langton to Rome, and in 1206 designated +him as cardinal-priest of S. Chrysogonus. Immediately afterwards Langton +was drawn into the vortex of English politics. + +Archbishop Hubert Walter had died in 1205, and the election of his +successor had raised thorny questions. The suffragans of Canterbury +claimed a share in choosing the new primate, although that right had +been exclusively reserved to the monks of Canterbury by a papal +privilege; and John supported the bishops since they were prepared to +give their votes for his candidate, John de Gray, bishop of Norwich. A +party of the younger monks, to evade the double pressure of the king and +bishops, secretly elected their sub-prior Reginald and sent him to Rome +for confirmation. The plot leaked out; the rest of the monks were +induced to elect John de Gray, and he too was despatched to Rome. After +hearing the case Innocent declared both elections void; and with John's +consent ordered that a new election should be made in his presence by +the representatives of the monks. The latter, having confessed that they +had given John a secret pledge to elect none but the bishop of Norwich, +were released from the promise by Innocent; and at his suggestion +elected Stephen Langton, who was consecrated by the pope on the 17th of +June 1207. On hearing the news the king banished the monks of Canterbury +and lodged a protest with the pope, in which he threatened to prevent +any English appeals from being brought to Rome. Innocent replied by +laying England under an interdict (March 1208), and excommunicating the +king (November 1209). As John still remained obstinate, the pope at +length invited the French king Philip Augustus to enter England and +depose him. It was this threat which forced John to sue for a +reconciliation; and the first condition exacted was that he should +acknowledge Langton as archbishop. During these years Langton had been +residing at Pontigny, formerly the refuge of Becket. He had addressed to +the English people a dignified protest against the king's conduct, and +had at last pressed the pope to take extreme measures. But he had +consistently adopted towards John as conciliatory an attitude as his +duty to the church would allow, and had more than once entered upon +negotiations for a peaceful compromise. Immediately after entering +England (July 1213) he showed his desire for peace by absolving the +king. But, unlike the pope, he gave ear to the popular cry for redress +of political grievances; and persisted in associating with the baronial +opposition, even after he was ordered by Innocent to excommunicate them +as disturbers of the peace. Langton encouraged the barons to formulate +their demands, and is said to have suggested that they should take their +stand upon the charter of Henry I. It is uncertain what further share he +took in drafting Magna Carta. At Runnymede he appeared as a commissioner +on the king's side, and his influence must therefore be sought in those +clauses of the Charter which differ from the original petitions of the +barons. Of these the most striking is that which confirms the +"liberties" of the church; and this is chiefly remarkable for its +moderation. + +Soon after the issue of the charter the archbishop left England to +attend the Fourth Lateran Council. At the moment of his departure he was +suspended by the representatives of Innocent for not enforcing the papal +censures against the barons. Innocent confirmed the sentence, which +remained in force for two years. During this time the archbishop resided +at Rome. He was allowed to return in 1218, after the deaths of Innocent +and John. From that date till his death he was a tower of strength to +the royal party. Through his influence Pandulf was recalled to Rome +(1221) and Honorius III. promised that no legate should be sent to +reside in England during the archbishop's lifetime. In 1222, in a synod +held at Oseney, he promulgated a set of Constitutions still recognized +as forming a part of the law of the English Church. Beyond this little +is recorded of his latter years. He died on the 9th of July 1228, and +was buried in Canterbury Cathedral, where his tomb, unless tradition +errs, may still be seen. + + The authorities are mainly those for the reign of John. No + contemporary biography has come down to us. Some letters, by Langton + and others, relating to the quarrel over his election are preserved in + a Canterbury Chronicle (ed. W. Stubbs in the "Rolls" edition of + _Gervase of Canterbury_, vol. ii.). There are many references to him + in the correspondence of Innocent III. (Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, + vols. ccxiv.-ccxvii.). Of modern works see F. Hurter, _Geschichte + Papst Innocenz III._ (Hamburg, 1841-1844); W. F. Hook, _Lives of the + Archbishops of Canterbury_ (London, 1860-1876), and W. Stubbs's + preface to the second volume of _Walter of Coventry_ ("Rolls" ed.), + which devotes special attention to Langton. The MSS. of Langton's + writings are noticed in J. Bale's _Index Britanniae scriptorum_ (ed. + R. L. Poole, 1902); his Constitutions are printed in D. Wilkin's + _Concilia_, vol. ii. (London, 1737). (H. W. C. D.) + + Another English prelate who bore the name of Langton was THOMAS + LANGTON, bishop of Winchester, chaplain to Edward IV. In 1483 he was + chosen bishop of St Davids; in 1485 he was made bishop of Salisbury + and provost of Queen's College, Oxford, and he became bishop of + Winchester in 1493. In 1501 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury, + but he died on the 27th of January 1501, before his election had been + confirmed. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Pope Innocent, however, would not confirm this election, and the + disappointed candidate threw himself into the contest between the + English barons on the one side and King John and the pope on the + other. Later Simon made peace with Henry III. and was appointed + archdeacon of Canterbury; he was consulted by Pope Gregory IX. and + was sent to France on diplomatic business by Henry III. + + + + +LANGTON, WALTER (d. 1321), bishop of Lichfield and treasurer of England, +was probably a native of Langton West in Leicestershire. Appointed a +clerk in the royal chancery, he became a favourite servant of Edward I., +taking part in the suit over the succession to the Scottish throne in +1292, and visiting France more than once on diplomatic business. He +obtained several ecclesiastical preferments, became treasurer in 1295, +and in 1296 bishop of Lichfield. Having become unpopular, the barons in +1301 vainly asked Edward to dismiss him; about the same time he was +accused of murder, adultery and simony. Suspended from his office, he +went to Rome to be tried before Pope Boniface VIII., who referred the +case to Winchelsea, archbishop of Canterbury; the archbishop, although +Langton's lifelong enemy, found him innocent, and this sentence was +confirmed by Boniface in 1303. Throughout these difficulties, and also +during a quarrel with the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward II., the +treasurer was loyally supported by the king. Visiting Pope Clement V. on +royal business in 1305, Langton appears to have persuaded Clement to +suspend Winchelsea; after his return to England he was the chief adviser +of Edward I., who had already appointed him the principal executor of +his will. His position, however, was changed by the king's death in July +1307. The accession of Edward II. and the return of Langton's enemy, +Piers Gaveston, were quickly followed by the arrest of the bishop and +his removal from office. His lands, together with a great hoard of +movable wealth, were seized, and he was accused of misappropriation and +venality. In spite of the intercession of Clement V. and even of the +restored archbishop, Winchelsea, who was anxious to uphold the +privileges of his order, Langton, accused again by the barons in 1309, +remained in prison after Edward's surrender to the "ordainers" in 1310. +He was released in January 1312 and again became treasurer; but he was +disliked by the "ordainers," who forbade him to discharge the duties of +his office. Excommunicated by Winchelsea, he appealed to the pope, +visited him at Avignon, and returned to England after the archbishop's +death in May 1313. He was a member of the royal council from this time +until his dismissal at the request of parliament in 1315. He died in +November 1321, and was buried in Lichfield cathedral, which was improved +and enriched at his expense. Langton appears to have been no relation of +his contemporary, John Langton, bishop of Chichester. + + + + +LANGTRY, LILLIE (1852- ), English actress, was the daughter of the Rev. +W. C. le Breton, dean of Jersey, and married in 1874 Edward Langtry (d. +1897). For many years she was famous as one of the most beautiful women +in England. It was not till 1881 that she definitely went on the stage, +appearing from that time under her own management both in London and in +America. In 1899 she married Sir Hugo de Bathe, Bart. + + + + +LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. _langage_, from _langue_, tongue, Lat. +_lingua_), the whole body of words and combinations of words as used in +common by a nation, people or race, for the purpose of expressing or +communicating their thoughts; also, more widely, the power of expressing +thought by verbal utterance. See generally under PHILOLOGY, PHONETICS, +VOICE, WRITING, GRAMMAR, &c.; and the articles on the various languages, +or under headings of countries and races. + + + + +LANGUEDOC, one of the old provinces of France, the name of which dates +from the end of the 13th century. In 1290 it was used to refer to the +country in whose tongue (_langue_) the word for "yes" was _oc_, as +opposed to the centre and north of France, the _langue d'oil_ (the _oui_ +of to-day). Territorially Languedoc varied considerably in extent, but +in general from 1360 until the French Revolution it included the +territory of the following departments of modern France: part of Tarn et +Garonne, Tarn, most of Haute-Garonne, Ariège, Aude, Pyrénées-Orientales, +Hérault, Gard, Lozère, part of Ardèche and Haute-Loire. The country had +no natural geographical unity. Stretching over the Cevennes into the +valleys of the upper Loire on the north and into that of the upper +Garonne on the west, it reached the Pyrenees on the south and the +rolling hills along the Rhone on the east. Its unity was entirely a +political creation, but none the less real, as it was the great state of +the Midi, the representative of its culture and, to some degree, the +defence of its peculiar civilization. Its climate, especially in Hérault +(Montpellier), is especially delightful in spring and early summer, and +the scenery still holds enough ruined remains of Roman and feudal times +to recall the romance and the tragedy of its history. + +Although the name is of comparatively late medieval origin, the history +of Languedoc, which had little in common with that of northern France, +begins with the Roman occupation. Toulouse was an important place as +early as 119 B.C.; the next year Narbonne, the seaport, became a Roman +colony. By the time of Julius Caesar the country was sufficiently +Romanized to furnish him with men and money, and though at first +involved in the civil wars which followed, it prospered under Roman rule +as perhaps no other part of the empire did. While it corresponded +exactly to no administrative division of the Roman empire, it was +approximately the territory included in _Gallia Narbonensis_, one of the +seventeen provinces into which the empire was divided at the death of +Augustus. It was rich and flourishing, crowded with great and densely +populated towns, Nîmes, Narbonne, Béziers, Toulouse; with schools of +rhetoric and poetry still vigorous in the 5th century; theatres, +amphitheatres and splendid temples. In the 5th century this high culture +was an open prize for the barbarians; and after the passing of the +Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths into Spain, the Visigoths returned under +Wallia, who made his capital at Toulouse in 419. This was the foundation +of the Visigothic kingdom which Clovis dismembered in 507, leaving the +Visigoths only Septimania--the country of seven cities, Narbonne, +Carcassonne, Elne, Béziers, Maguelonne, Lodève and Agde--that is, very +nearly the area occupied later by the province of Languedoc. At the +council of Narbonne in 589 five races are mentioned as living in the +province, Visigoths, Romans, Jews--of whom there were a great +many--Syrians and Greeks. The repulse of the Arabs by Charles Martel in +732 opened up the country for the Frankish conquest, which was completed +by 768. Under the Carolingians Septimania became part of the kingdom of +Aquitaine, but became a separate duchy in 817. + +Until the opening of the 13th century there is no unity in the history +of Languedoc, the great houses of Toulouse and Carcassonne and the swarm +of warlike counts and barons practically ignoring the distant king of +France, and maintaining a chronic state of civil war. The feudal régime +did not become at all universal in the district, as it tended to become +in the north of France. Allodial tenures survived in sufficient numbers +to constitute a considerable class of non-vassal subjects of the king, +with whose authority they were little troubled. By the end of the 11th +century the house of the counts of Toulouse began to play the +predominant rôle; but their court had been famous almost a century +before for its love of art and literature and its extravagance in dress +and fashions, all of which denoted its wealth. Constance, wife of King +Robert II. and daughter of the count of Toulouse, gave great offence to +the monks by her following of gallant gentlemen. They owed their tastes, +not only to their Roman blood, and the survival of their old love for +rhetoric and poetry, but also to their intercourse with the Mahommedans, +their neighbours and enemies, and their friends when they were not +fighting. Under Raymond of Saint Gilles, at the end of the 11th century, +the county of Toulouse began its great career, but Raymond's ambition to +become an Oriental prince, which led him--and the hundred thousand men +who, according to the chroniclers, followed him--away on the first +crusade, left a troubled heritage to his sons Bertrand and Alphonse +Jourdain. The latter successfully beat off William IX., duke of +Aquitaine, and won from the count of Barcelona that part of Provence +between the Drôme and the Durance. The reign of Alphonse lasted from +1109 to 1148. By the opening of the 13th century the sovereignty of the +counts of Toulouse was recognized through about half of Provence, and +they held the rich cities of the most cultured and wealthiest portion of +France, cities which had a high degree of local independence. Their +local governments, with their consuls at the head, show, at least in +name, the influence of Roman ideas. It is still an open question how +much of their autonomy had remained untouched by the barbarian invasions +from the Roman period. The citizens of these free cities were in +continual intercourse with Saracens of Palestine and Moors of Spain; +they had never entirely abandoned pagan customs; their poetry--the +poetry of the troubadours--taught them the joys of life rather than the +fear of death, the licence of their chivalry with its courts of love led +to the other extreme of asceticism in such as were of religious +temperament; all things combined to make Languedoc the proper soil for +heresy. The Church never had the hold upon the country that it had in +the north, the people of the Midi were always lukewarm in the faith; +there was no noteworthy ecclesiastical literature in Languedoc from the +end of the Carolingian period until after the Albigensian crusade, no +theological centre like Paris, Bec or Laon. Yet Languedoc furnished the +most heroic martyrs for the ascetic Manichaean creed. The era of heresy +began with the preaching of Peter de Brueys and his follower, Henry of +Lausanne, who emptied the churches and taught contempt for the clergy. +Saint Bernard himself was able to make but temporary headway against +this rebellion from a sacramental and institutionalized Christianity. In +the first decade of the 13th century came the inevitable conflict. The +whole county of Toulouse, with its fiefs of Narbonne, Béziers, Foix, +Montpellier and Quercy, was in open and scornful secession from the +Catholic Church, and the suppression of this Manichaean or Cathar +religion was the end of the brilliant culture of Languedoc. (See +ALBIGENSES, CATHARS, INQUISITION.) The crusade against the Albigenses, +as the Cathars were locally termed, in 1209, resulted in the union to +the crown of France in 1229 of all the country from Carcassonne to the +Rhone, thus dividing Languedoc into two. The western part left to +Raymond VII., by the treaty of 1229, included the Agenais, Quercy, +Rouergue, the Toulousain and southern Albigeois. He had as well the +Venaissin across the Rhone. From 1229 to his death in 1249 Raymond VII. +worked tirelessly to bring back prosperity to his ruined country, +encouraging the foundation of new cities, and attempting to gain +reconciliation with the Church. He left only a daughter, Jeanne, who was +married to Alphonse of Poitiers. Alphonse, a sincere Catholic, upheld +the Inquisition, but, although ruling the country from Paris, maintained +peace. Jeanne died without heirs four days after her husband, upon their +return from the crusade in Africa, in 1271, and although she attempted +by will to prevent the reversion of her lands to the crown, they were +promptly seized by King Philip III., who used the opposition of Roger +Bernard, count of Foix, as an excuse to appear with a formidable army, +which had little to do to secure entire submission. Thus the county of +Toulouse passed to the crown, though Philip III. turned over the Agenais +to Edward I. of England in 1279. In 1274 he ceded the county of +Venaissin to Pope Gregory X., the papacy having claimed it, without +legal grounds, since the Albigensian crusade (see AVIGNON). + +Such was the fate of the reduced county of Toulouse. At the division of +Languedoc in 1229 Louis IX. was given all the country from Carcassonne +to the Rhone. This royal Languedoc was at first subject to much trickery +on the part of northern speculators and government officials. In 1248 +Louis IX. sent royal _enquêteurs_, much like Charlemagne's _missi +dominici_, to correct all abuses, especially to inquire concerning +peculation by royal agents. On the basis of their investigations the +king issued royal edicts in 1254 and 1259 which organized the +administration of the province. Two _sénéchaussées_ were created--one at +Nîmes, the other at Carcassonne--each with its lesser divisions of +_vigueries_ and _bailliages_. During the reign of Philip III. the +_enquêteurs_ were busily employed securing justice for the conquered, +preventing the seizure of lands, and in 1279 a supreme court of justice +was established at Toulouse. In 1302 Philip IV. convoked the estates of +Languedoc, but in the century which followed they were less an +instrument for self-government than one for securing money, thus aiding +the _enquêteurs_, who during the Hundred Years' War became mere revenue +hunters for the king. In 1355 the Black Prince led a savage plundering +raid across the country to Narbonne. After the battle of Poitiers, +Languedoc supported the count of Armagnac, but there was no enthusiasm +for a national cause. Under Charles V., Louis of Anjou, the king's +brother, was governor of Languedoc, and while an active opponent of the +English, he drained the country of money. But his extortions were +surpassed by those of another brother, the duc de Berry, after the death +of Charles V. In 1382 and 1383 the infuriated peasantry, abetted by some +nobles, rose in a rebellion--known as the Tuchins--which was put down +with frightful butchery, while still greater sums were demanded from the +impoverished country. In the anarchy which followed brigandage +increased. Redress did not come until 1420, when the dauphin, afterwards +Charles VII., came to Languedoc and reformed the administration. Then +the country he saved furnished him with the means for driving out the +English in the north. For the first time, in the climax of its miseries, +Languedoc was genuinely united to France. But Charles VII. was not able +to drive out the brigands, and it was not until after the English were +expelled in 1453 that Languedoc had even comparative peace. Charles VII. +united Comminges to the crown; Louis XI. Roussillon and Cerdagne, both +of which were ceded to Aragon by Charles VIII. as the price of its +neutrality during his expedition into Italy. From the reign of Louis XI. +until 1523 the governorship of Languedoc was held by the house cf +Bourbon. After the treason of the constable Bourbon it was held by the +Montmorency family with but slight interruption until 1632. + +The Reformation found Languedoc orthodox. Persecution had succeeded. The +Inquisition had had no victims since 1340, and the cities which had been +centres of heresy were now strongly orthodox. Toulouse was one of the +most fanatically orthodox cities in Europe, and remained so in +Voltaire's day. But Calvinism gained ground rapidly in the other parts +of Languedoc, and by 1560 the majority of the population was Protestant. +It was, however, partly a political protest against the misrule of the +Guises. The open conflict came in 1561, and from that until the edict of +Nantes (1598) there was intermittent civil war, accompanied with +iconoclasm on the one hand, massacres on the other and ravages on both. + +The main figure in this period is that of Henri de Montmorency, seigneur +de Damville, later duc de Montmorency, governor of the province from +1563, who was, at first, hostile to the Protestants, then from 1574 to +1577, as leader of the "_Politiques_," an advocate of compromise. But +peace was hardly ever established, although there was a yearly truce for +the ploughing. By the edict of Nantes, the Protestants were given ten +places of safety in Languedoc; but civil strife did not come to an end, +even under Henry IV. In 1620 the Protestants in Languedoc rose under +Henri, duc de Rohan (1579-1638), who for two years defied the power of +Louis XIII. When Louis took Montpellier in 1622, he attempted to +reconcile the Calvinists by bribes of money and office, and left +Montauban as a city of refuge. Richelieu's extinction of Huguenotism is +less the history of Languedoc than of the Huguenots (q.v.). By 1629 +Protestantism was crushed in the Midi as a political force. Then +followed the tragic episode of the rebellion of Henri II., duc de +Montmorency, son of the old governor of Languedoc. As a result, +Languedoc lost its old provincial privilege of self-assessment until +1649, and was placed under the governorship of Marshal Schomberg. During +Louis XIV.'s reign Languedoc prospered until the revocation of the edict +of Nantes. Industries and agriculture were encouraged, roads and bridges +were built, and the great canal giving a water route from the Atlantic +to the Mediterranean increased the trade of its cities. Colbert +especially encouraged its manufactures. The religious persecutions which +accompanied the revocation of the edict of Nantes bore hardest on +Languedoc, and resulted in a guerilla warfare known as the rebellion of +the Camisards (q.v.). On the eve of the Revolution some of the +brightest scenes of contentment and prosperity which surprised Arthur +Young, the English traveller in France, were those of the grape harvests +in Languedoc vineyards. + +In 1790 Languedoc disappeared from the map of France, with the other old +provinces; and the departments mentioned took its place. But the +peculiar characteristics of the men of the Midi remain as clearly +distinct from those of the north as the Scottish type is distinct from +the English. The "peaceful insurrection" of the Languedoc vine-growers +in the summer of 1907 revealed to the astonished Parisians the same +spirit of independence as had underlain the resistance to Simon de +Montfort and Richelieu. + + The one monumental history of Languedoc is that of the Benedictines, + Dom Claude Devic and Dom J. J. Vaissete, _Histoire générale de la + province de Languedoc_ (5 vols., Paris, 1730-1745). This has been + re-edited, and continued and increased by the addition of important + monographs, to 15 volumes (Toulouse, 1872-1892). It is the great + library of sources, critical apparatus and bibliographies concerning + Languedoc, and carries the history up to 1790. The fine article + "Languedoc" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_ is by A. Molinier, perhaps the + greatest modern authority on Languedoc. (J. T. S.*) + + + + +LANGUET, HUBERT (1518-1581), French Huguenot writer and diplomat, was +born at Vitteaux in Burgundy, of which town his father was governor. He +received his early education from a distinguished Hellenist, Jean +Perelle, and displayed remarkable ability in Greek and Latin. He studied +law, theology and science at the university of Poitiers from 1536 to +1539; then, after some travel, attended the universities of Bologna and +Padua, receiving the doctorate from the latter in 1548. At Bologna he +read Melanchthon's _Loci communes theologiae_ and was so impressed by it +that in 1549 he went to Wittenberg to see the author, and shortly +afterwards became a Protestant. He made his headquarters at Wittenberg +until the death of Melanchthon in 1560, although during that period, as +well as throughout the rest of his life, he travelled extensively in +France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Sweden, and even Finland and Lapland. In +1557 he declined the invitation of Gustavus I. to enter the service of +Sweden, but two years later accepted a similar invitation of Augustus +I., elector of Saxony. He showed great ability in diplomacy, +particularly in organizing the Protestants. He represented the elector +at the French court from 1561 to 1572 except when the religious and +political troubles in France occasionally compelled him temporarily to +withdraw. He performed many minor diplomatic missions for the elector, +and in 1567 accompanied him to the siege of Gotha. He delivered a +violent harangue before Charles IX. of France in 1570 on behalf of the +Protestant princes, and escaped death on St Bartholomew's Day (1572) +only through the intervention of Jean de Morvilliers, the moderate and +influential bishop of Orleans. He represented the elector of Saxony at +the imperial court from 1573 to 1577. Financial embarrassment and +disgust at the Protestant controversies in which he was forced to +participate caused him to seek recall from the imperial court. His +request being granted, Languet spent the last years of his life mainly +in the Low Countries, and though nominally still in the service of the +elector, he undertook a mission to England for John Casimir of Bavaria +and was a valuable adviser to William the Silent, prince of Orange. +Languet died at Antwerp on the 30th of September 1581. + + His correspondence is important for the history of the 16th century. + Three hundred and twenty-nine letters to Augustus of Saxony dating + from the 17th of November 1565 to the 8th of September 1581, and one + hundred and eleven letters to the chancellor Mordeisen dating from + November 1559 to the summer of 1565, are preserved in MS. in the Saxon + archives, and were published by Ludovicus at Halle in 1699 under the + title _Arcana seculi decimi sexti_. One hundred and eight letters to + Camerarius were published at Groningen in 1646 under the title + _Langueti Epistolae ad Joach. Camerarium, patrem et filium_; and + ninety-six to his great friend Sir Philip Sidney, dating from the 22nd + of April 1573 to the 28th of October 1580, appeared at Frankfort in + 1633 and have been translated into English by S. A. Pears (London, + 1845). The _Historica Descriptio_ of the siege and capture of Gotha + appeared in 1568 and has been translated into French and German. The + authorship of the work by which Languet is best known has been + disputed. It is entitled _Vindiciae contra tyrannos, sive de principis + in populum populique in principem legitima potestate, Stephano Junio + Bruto Celta auctore_, and is thought to have been published at Basel + (1579) although it bears the imprint of Edinburgh. It has been + attributed to Beza, Hotman, Casaubon and Duplessis-Mornay, by divers + writers on various grounds--to the last-named on the very respectable + authority of Grotius. The authorship of Languet was supported by Peter + Bayle (for reasons stated in the form of a supplement to the + _Dictionnaire_) and confirmed by practically all later writers. The + work has been frequently reprinted, the Leipzig edition (1846) + containing a life of Languet by Treitschke. A French translation + appeared in 1581 and an English translation in 1689. The work upholds + the doctrine of resistance, but affirms that resistance must come from + properly constituted authorities and objects to anything which savours + of anabaptism or other extreme views. The _Apologie ou défence du très + illustre Prince Guillaume contre le ban et l'édit du roi d'Espagne_ + (Leiden, 1581) is sometimes attributed to Languet. There seems little + doubt, however, that it was really the work of the prince himself, + with the help either of Languet (Groen van Prinsterer, _Archives_) or + of Pierre de Villiers (Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; and Blok, + _History of the People of the Netherlands_). + + See Ph. de la Mare, _Vie d'Hubert Languet_ (Halle, 1700); E. and E. + Haag, _La France protestante_; H. Chevreul, _Hubert Languet_ (Paris, + 1852); J. Blasel, _Hubert Languet_ (Breslau, 1872); O. Scholz, _Hubert + Languet als kursächsischer Berichterstatter u. Gesandter in Frankreich + während 1560-1572_ (Halle, 1875); G. Touchard, _De politica Huberti + Langueti_ (Paris, 1898). There is a good article on Languet by P. + Tschackert in Hauck's _Real-Encyklopädie_, 3rd ed., xi. 274-280. + + + + +LANGUR, one of the two Hindu names (the other being _hanuman_) of the +sacred Indian monkey scientifically known as _Semnopithecus entellus_, +and hence sometimes called the entellus monkey. A prodigiously long +tail, beetling eyebrows with long black hairs, black ears, face, feet +and hands, and a general greyish-brown colour of the fur are the +distinctive characteristics of the langur. These monkeys roam at will in +the bazaars of Hindu cities, where they help themselves freely from the +stores of the grain-dealers, and they are kept in numbers at the great +temple in Benares. In a zoological sense the term is extended to embrace +all the monkeys of the Asiatic genus _Semnopithecus_, which includes a +large number of species, ranging from Ceylon, India and Kashmir to +southern China and the Malay countries as far east as Borneo and +Sumatra. These monkeys are characterized by their lank bodies, long +slender limbs and tail, well-developed thumbs, absence of cheek-pouches, +and complex stomachs. They feed on leaves and young shoots. (R. L.*) + + + + +LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS (1469-1540), German statesman and +ecclesiastic, was the son of a burgher of Augsburg. He afterwards +assumed the name of Wellenburg from a castle that came into his +possession. After studying at Ingolstadt, Vienna and Tübingen he entered +the service of the emperor Frederick III. and quickly made his way to +the front. He was also one of the most trusted advisers of Frederick's +son and successor Maximilian I., and his services were rewarded in 1500 +with the provostship of the cathedral at Augsburg and in the following +year with the bishopric of Gurk. In 1511 he was made a cardinal by Pope +Julius II., and in 1514 he became coadjutor to the archbishop of +Salzburg, whom he succeeded in 1519. He also received the bishopric of +Cartagena in Murcia in 1521, and that of Albano in 1535. Lang's +adherence to the older faith, together with his pride and arrogance, +made him very unpopular in his diocese of Salzburg; in 1523 he was +involved in a serious struggle with his subjects, and in 1525, during +the Peasants' War, he had again to fight hard to hold his own. He was +one of the chief ministers of Charles V.; he played an important part in +the tangled international negotiations of his time; and he was always +loyal to his imperial masters. Not without reason has he been compared +with Cardinal Wolsey. He died on the 30th of March 1540. + + + + +LANIER, SIDNEY (1842-1881), American poet, was born at Macon, Georgia, +on the 3rd of February 1842. He was of Huguenot descent on his father's +side, and of Scottish and Virginian on his mother's. From childhood he +was passionately fond of music. His subsequent mastery of the flute +helped to support him and greatly increased his reputation. At the age +of fourteen he entered Oglethorpe College, where, after graduating with +distinction, he held a tutorship. He enlisted in the Confederate army in +April 1861, serving first in Virginia, and finding opportunities to +continue his studies. After the Seven Days' battles around Richmond, he +was transferred to the signal service. About this time the first +symptoms of consumption appeared. He subsequently served in a +blockade-runner, but his vessel was captured, and he was confined for +five months in a Federal prison, his flute proving the best of +companions. Exchanged early in 1865, he started home on foot, arriving +in a state of exhaustion that led to a severe illness. In 1867 he +visited New York in connexion with his novel _Tiger Lilies_--an immature +work, dealing in part with his war experiences, and now difficult to +obtain. Later in the same year he took charge of a country school in +Alabama, and was married to Miss Mary Day of his native town. The next +year he returned to Macon in low health, and began to study and practise +law with his father. In 1872 he went to Texas for his health, but was +forced to return, and he secured an engagement as first flute in the +Peabody concerts at Baltimore (December 1873). He wrote a guide-book to +Florida (1876), and tales for boys from Froissart, Malory, the +Mabinogion and Percy's _Reliques_ (1878-1882). He now made congenial +friends, such as Bayard Taylor, his reputation gradually increased, and +he was enabled to study music and literature, especially Anglo-Saxon +poetry. In 1876 he wrote his ambitious cantata for the Centennial +Exhibition, and brought his family north. A small volume of verse +appeared in the next year. In 1879 he was made lecturer on English +literature at Johns Hopkins University. His lectures became the basis of +his _Science of English Verse_ (1880)--his most important prose work, +and an admirable discussion of the relations of music and poetry--and +also of his _English Novel_ (New York, 1883), which, devoted largely to +George Eliot, is suggestive, but one-sided. Work had to be abandoned on +account of growing feebleness, and in the spring of 1881 he was carried +to Lynn, North Carolina, to try camp life, and died there on the 7th of +September. Since his death his fame has grown steadily and greatly, an +enlarged and final edition (1884) of his poems, prepared by his wife, +his _Letters, 1866-1881_ (1899), and several volumes of miscellaneous +prose having assisted in keeping his name before the public. A +posthumous work on _Shakspere and his Forerunners_ (London, 2 vols., +1902) was edited by H. W. Lanier. Among his more noteworthy poems are +"Corn," "The Revenge of Hamish," "Song of the Chattahoochee" and "The +Marshes of Glynn." By some his genius is regarded as musical rather than +poetic, and his style is considered hectic; by others he is held to be +one of the most original and most talented of modern American poets. He +is considered the leading writer of the New South, the greatest Southern +poet since Poe, and a man of heroic and exquisite character. + + See a "Memorial," by William Hayes Ward, prefixed to the _Poems_ + (1884); _Letters of Sidney Lanier 1866-1881_ (1899), edited by H. W. + Lanier and Mrs Sidney Lanier; E. Mims, _Sidney Lanier_ (1905). There + is a bibliography of Lanier's scattered writings in _Select Poems_ + (New York, 1896; Toronto, 1900) edited by Morgan Callaway. + (W. P. T.) + + + + +LANJUINAIS, JEAN DENIS, COMTE (1753-1827), French politician, was born +at Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine) on the 12th of March 1753. After a brilliant +college career, which made him doctor of laws and a qualified barrister +at nineteen, he was appointed counsel to the Breton estates and in 1775 +professor of ecclesiastical law at Rennes. At this period he wrote two +important works which, owing to the distracted state of public affairs, +remained unpublished, _Institutiones juris ecclesiastici_ and +_Praelectiones juris ecclesiastici_. He had begun his career at the bar +by pleading against the feudal _droit du colombier_, and when he was +sent by his fellow-citizens to the states-general of 1789 he demanded +the abolition of nobility and the substitution of the title of king of +the French and the Navarrese for king of France and Navarre, and helped +to establish the civil constitution of the clergy. Returned to the +Convention in September 1792 he developed moderate, even reactionary +views, becoming one of the fiercest opponents of the Mountain, though he +never wavered in his support of republican principles. He refused to +vote for the death of Louis XVI., alleging that the nation had no right +to despatch a vanquished prisoner. His daily attacks on the Mountain +resulted, on the 15th of April 1793, in a demand by the commune for his +exclusion from the assembly, but, undaunted, when the Parisian populace +invaded the Chamber on the 2nd of June, Lanjuinais renewed his defiance +of the victorious party. Placed under arrest with the Girondins, he +escaped to Rennes where he drew up a pamphlet denouncing the +constitution of 1793 under the curious title _Le Dernier Crime de +Lanjuinais_ (Rennes, 1793). Pursued by J. B. Carrier, who was sent to +stamp out resistance in the west, he lay hidden until some time after +the revolution of Thermidor (July 1794), but he was readmitted to the +Convention on the 8th of March 1795. He maintained his liberal and +independent attitude in the Conseil des Anciens, the Senate and the +Chamber of Peers, being president of the upper house during the Hundred +Days. Together with G. J. B. Target, J. E. M. Portalis and others he +founded under the empire an academy of legislation in Paris, himself +lecturing on Roman law. Closely associated with oriental scholars, and a +keen student of oriental religions, he entered the Academy of +Inscriptions in 1808. After the Bourbon restoration Lanjuinais +consistently defended the principles of constitutional monarchy, but +most of his time was given to religious and political subjects. Besides +many contributions to periodical literature he wrote, among other works, +_Constitutions de la nation française_ (1819); _Appréciation du projet +de loi relatif aux trois concordats_ (1806, 6th ed. 1827), in defence of +Gallicanism; and _Études biographiques et littéraires sur Antoine +Arnauld, P. Nicole et Jacques Necker_ (1823). He died in Paris on the +13th of January 1827. + +His son, VICTOR AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE LANJUINAIS (1802-1869), was also a +politician, becoming a deputy in 1838. His interests lay chiefly in +financial questions and in 1849 he became minister of commerce and +agriculture in the cabinet of Odilon Barrot. He wrote a _Notice +historique sur la vie et les ouvrages du comte de Lanjuinais_, which was +prefixed to an edition of his father's _Oeuvres_ (4 vols., 1832). + + For the life of the comte de Lanjuinais see also A. Robert and G. + Cougny, _Dictionnaire des parlementaires_, vol. ii. (1890); and F. A. + Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention_ (Paris, + 1885-1886). For a bibliography of his works see J. M. Quérard, _La + France littéraire_, vol. iii. (1829). + + + + +LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL (1850- ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born +in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1850. He graduated at Yale +in 1871, was a graduate student there (1871-1873) under James Hadley and +W. D. Whitney, and in Germany (1873-1876) studied Sanskrit under Weber +and Roth and philology under Georg Curtius and Leskien. He was professor +of Sanskrit at Johns Hopkins University in 1876-1880 and subsequently at +Harvard University. In 1889 he travelled in India and bought for Harvard +University Sanskrit and Prakrit books and manuscripts, which, with those +subsequently bequeathed to the university by Fitzedward Hall, make the +most valuable collection of its kind in America, and made possible the +_Harvard Oriental Series_, edited by Professor Lanman. In 1879-1884 he +was secretary and editor of the _Transactions_, and in 1889-1890 +president of the American Philological Association, and in 1884-1894 he +was corresponding secretary of the American Oriental Society, in +1897-1907 vice-president, and in 1907-1908 president. In the _Harvard +Oriental Series_ he translated (vol. iv.) into English Rajaçekhara's +Karpura-Mañjari (1900), a Prakrit drama, and (vols. vii. and viii.) +revised and edited Whitney's translation of, and notes on, the +_Atharva-Veda Samhita_ (2 vols., 1905); he published _A Sanskrit Reader, +with Vocabulary and Notes_ (2 vols., 1884-1888); and he wrote on early +Hindu pantheism and contributed the section on Brahmanism to _Messages +of the World's Religions_. + + + + +LANNES, JEAN, duke of Montebello (1769-1809), marshal of France, was +born at Lectoure (Gers) on the 11th of April 1769. He was the son of a +livery stables keeper, and was apprenticed to a dyer. He had had little +education, but his great strength and proficiency in all manly sports +caused him in 1792 to be elected sergeant-major of the battalion of +volunteers of Gers, which he had joined on the breaking out of war +between Spain and the French republic. He served through the campaigns +in the Pyrenees in 1793 and 1794, and rose by distinguished conduct to +the rank of _chef de brigade_. However, in 1795, on the reform of the +army introduced by the Thermidorians, he was dismissed from his rank. He +re-enlisted as a simple volunteer in the army of Italy, and in the +famous campaign of 1796 he again fought his way up to high rank, being +eventually made a general of brigade by Bonaparte. He was distinguished +in every battle, and was wounded at Arcola. He was chosen by Bonaparte +to accompany him to Egypt as commander of one of Kléber's brigades, in +which capacity he greatly distinguished himself, especially on the +retreat from Syria. He went with Bonaparte to France, assisted at the +18th Brumaire, and was appointed general of division, and commandant of +the consular guard. He commanded the advanced guard in the crossing of +the Alps in 1800, was instrumental in winning the battle of Montebello, +from which he afterwards took his title, and bore the brunt of the +battle of Marengo. In 1801 Napoleon sent him as ambassador to Portugal. +Opinions differ as to his merits in this capacity; Napoleon never made +such use of him again. On the establishment of the empire he was created +a marshal of France, and commanded once more the advanced guard of a +great French army in the campaign of Austerlitz. At Austerlitz he had +the left of the Grand Army. In the 1806-07 campaign he was at his best, +commanding his corps with the greatest credit in the march through the +Thuringian Forest, the action of Saalfeld (which is studied as a model +to-day at the French Staff College) and the battle of Jena. His +leadership of the advanced guard at Friedland was even more conspicuous. +He was now to be tried as a commander-in-chief, for Napoleon took him to +Spain in 1808, and gave him a detached wing of the army, with which he +won a victory over Castaños at Tudela on November 22. In January 1809 he +was sent to attempt the capture of Saragossa, and by February 21, after +one of the most stubborn defences in history, was in possession of the +place. Napoleon then created him duc de Montebello, and in 1809, for the +last time, gave him command of the advanced guard. He took part in the +engagements around Eckmühl and the advance on Vienna. With his corps he +led the French army across the Danube, and bore the brunt, with Masséna, +of the terrible battle of Aspern-Essling (q.v.). On the 22nd of May he +had to retreat. During the retreat Lannes exposed himself as usual to +the hottest fire, and received a mortal wound, to which he succumbed at +Vienna on the 31st of May. As he was being carried from the field to +Vienna he met the emperor hurrying to the front. It was reported that +the dying man reproached Napoleon for his ambition, but this rests on +little evidence save the fact that Lannes was the most blunt and +outspoken of all Napoleon's marshals. He was one of the few men for whom +the emperor felt a real and deep affection, and at this their last +meeting Napoleon gave way to a passionate burst of grief, even in the +midst of the battle. His eldest son was made a peer of France by Louis +XVIII. + + Lannes ranks with Davout and Masséna as the ablest of all Napoleon's + marshals, and consciously or unconsciously was the best exponent of + the emperor's method of making war. Hence his constant employment in + tasks requiring the utmost resolution and daring, and more especially + when the emperor's combinations depended upon the vigour and + self-sacrifice of a detachment or fraction of the army. It was thus + with Lannes at Friedland and at Aspern as it was with Davout at + Austerlitz and Auerstädt, and Napoleon's estimate of his subordinates' + capacities can almost exactly be judged by the frequency with which he + used them to prepare the way for his own shattering blow. Routine + generals with the usual military virtue, or careful and exact troop + leaders like Soult and Macdonald, Napoleon kept under his own hand for + the final assault which he himself launched, but the long hours of + preparatory fighting against odds of two to one, which alone made the + final blow possible, he entrusted only to men of extraordinary courage + and high capacity for command. In his own words, he found Lannes a + pigmy, and lost him a giant. Lannes's place in his affections was + never filled. + + See R. Périn, _Vie militaire de Jean Lannes_ (Paris, 1809). + + + + +LANNION, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Léguer, 45 m. +W.N.W. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5336. Lannion is 5 m. in direct +line from the mouth of the Léguer; its port does a small trade (exports +of agricultural produce, imports of wine, salt, timber, &c.), and there +is an active fishing industry. The town contains many houses of the +15th and 16th centuries and other old buildings, the chief of which is +the church of St Jean-du-Baly (16th and 17th centuries). On an eminence +close to Lannion is the church of Brélevenez of the 12th century, +restored in the 15th or 16th century; it has an interesting 16th-century +Holy Sepulchre. + +Some 6 m. S.E. of the town are the imposing ruins of the château of +Tonquédec (_c._ 1400) styled the "Pierrefonds of Brittany," and there +are other buildings of antiquarian interest in the vicinity. The coast +north of Lannion at Trégastel and Ploumanac presents curious rock +formations. + +Lannion is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance +and a communal college. Its industries include saw-milling, tanning and +the manufacture of farm implements. The town was taken in 1346 by the +English; it was defended against them by Geoffroy de Pontblanc whose +valour is commemorated by a cross close to the spot where he was slain. + + + + +LANNOY, GUILLEBERT DE (1386-1462), Flemish diplomatist, was chamberlain +to the duke of Burgundy, governor of the fort of Sluys, and a knight of +the Golden Fleece. He discharged several diplomatic missions in France, +England, Prussia, Poland and Lithuania, and was one of the negotiators +of the treaty of Troyes (1420). In 1421 he was sent by Henry V. of +England to Palestine to inquire into the possibility of reviving the +kingdom of Jerusalem, and wrote an account of his travels, _Les +Pèlerinages de Surye et de Egipte_, which was published in 1826 and +again in 1842. + + + + +LANOLIN (Lat. _lana_, wool, and _oleum_, oil), the commercial name of +the preparation styled _adeps lanae hydrosus_ in the British +Pharmacopoeia, and which consists of 7 oz. of neutral wool-fat (_adeps +lanae_) mixed with 3 fluid oz. of water. The wool-fat is obtained by +purification of the "brown grease," "recovered grease" or dégras +extracted from raw sheep's wool in the process of preparing it for the +spinner. It is a translucent unctuous substance which has the property +of taking up large quantities of water and forming emulsions which are +very slow to separate into their constituents. Owing to the ease with +which it penetrates the skin, wool-fat both in the anhydrous form and as +lanolin, sometimes mixed with such substances as vaseline or fatty oils, +is largely employed as a basis for ointments. It is slightly antiseptic +and does not become rancid. + + + + +LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE (1531-1591), called Bras-de-Fer, one of the +Huguenot captains of the 16th century, was born near Nantes in 1531, of +an ancient Breton family. He served in Italy under Marshal Brissac, and +in the first Huguenot war, but his first great exploit was the capture +of Orleans at the head of only fifteen cavaliers in 1567, during the +second war. At the battle of Jarnac in March 1569 he commanded the +rearguard, and at Moncontour in the following October he was taken +prisoner; but he was exchanged in time to resume the governorship of +Poitou, and to inflict a signal defeat on the royalist troops before +Rochefort. At the siege of Fontenay (1570) his left arm was shattered by +a bullet; but a mechanic of Rochelle made him an iron arm (hence his +sobriquet) with a hook for holding his reins. When peace was made in +France in the same year, La Noue carried his sword against the Spaniards +in the Netherlands, but was taken at the recapture of Mons by the +Spanish in 1572. Permitted to return to France, he was commissioned by +Charles IX., after the massacre of St Bartholomew, to reconcile the +inhabitants of La Rochelle, the great stronghold of the Huguenots, to +the king. But the Rochellois were too much alarmed to come to terms; and +La Noue, perceiving that war was imminent, and knowing that his post was +on the Huguenot side, gave up his royal commission, and from 1574 till +1578 acted as general of La Rochelle. When peace was again concluded La +Noue once more went to aid the Protestants of the Low Countries. He took +several towns and captured Count Egmont in 1580; but a few weeks +afterwards he fell into the hands of the Spaniards. Thrust into a +loathsome prison at Limburg, La Noue, the admiration of all, of whatever +faith, for his gallantry, honour and purity of character, was kept +confined for five years by a powerful nation, whose reluctance to set +him free is one of the sincerest tributes to his reputation. It was in +captivity that he wrote his celebrated _Discours politiques et +militaires_, a work which was published at Basel in 1587 [republished at +La Rochelle 1590, Frankfurt on Main (in German) 1592 and 1612; and +London (in English) 1597] and had an immense influence on the soldiers +of all nations. The abiding value of La Noue's "Discourses" lies in the +fact that he wrote of war as a human drama, before it had been +elaborated and codified. At length, in June 1585, La Noue was exchanged +for Egmont and other prisoners of consideration, while a heavy ransom +and a pledge not to bear arms against his Catholic majesty were also +exacted from him. Till 1589 La Noue took no part in public matters, but +in that year he joined Henry of Navarre against the Leaguers. He was +present at both sieges of Paris, at Ivry and other battles. At the siege +of Lamballe in Brittany he received a wound of which he died at +Moncontour on the 4th of August 1591. + + He wrote, besides the Discourses, _Déclaration pour prise d'armes et + la défense de Sedan et Jamets_ (1588); _Observations sur l'histoire de + Guicciardini_ (2 vols., 1592); and notes on _Plutarch's Lives_. His + _Correspondance_ was published in 1854. See _La Vie de François, + seigneur de La Noue_, by Moyse Amirault (Leiden, 1661); Brantôme's + _Vies des Capitaines français_; C. Vincens' _Les Héros de la Réforme. + Fr. de La Noue_ (1875); and Hauser, _François de La Noue_ (Paris, + 1892). + + + + +LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM PETTY FITZMAURICE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1737-1805), +British statesman, better known under his earlier title of earl of +Shelburne, was born at Dublin on the 20th of May 1737. He was a +descendant of the lords of Kerry (dating from 1181), and his grandfather +Thomas Fitzmaurice, who was created earl of Kerry (1723), married the +daughter of Sir William Petty (q.v.). On the death without issue of +Sir William Petty's sons, the first earls of Shelburne, the estates +passed to his nephew John Fitzmaurice (advanced in 1753 to the earldom +of Shelburne), who in 1751 took the additional name of Petty. His son +William spent his childhood "in the remotest parts of the south of +Ireland," and, according to his own account, when he entered Christ +Church, Oxford, in 1755, he had both "everything to learn and everything +to unlearn." From a tutor whom he describes as "narrow-minded" he +received advantageous guidance in his studies, but he attributes his +improvement in manners and in knowledge of the world chiefly to the fact +that, as was his "fate through life," he fell in "with clever but +unpopular connexions." Shortly after leaving the university he served in +Wolfe's regiment during the Seven Years' War, and so distinguished +himself at Minden and Kloster-Kampen that he was raised to the rank of +colonel and appointed aide-de-camp to the king (1760). Being thus +brought into near communication with Lord Bute, he was in 1761 employed +by that nobleman to negotiate for the support of Henry Fox, Lord +Holland. He was returned to the House of Commons as member for Wycombe, +but in 1761 he succeeded his father as earl of Shelburne in the Irish +peerage, and Baron Wycombe in the peerage of Great Britain (created +1760). Though he declined to take office under Bute he undertook +negotiations to induce C. J. Fox to gain the consent of the Commons to +the peace of 1763. Fox affirmed that he had been duped, and, although +Shelburne always asserted that he had acted in thorough good faith, Bute +spoke of the affair as a "pious fraud." Shelburne joined the Grenville +ministry in 1763 as president of the Board of Trade, but, failing in his +efforts to replace Pitt in the cabinet, he in a few months resigned +office. Having moreover on account of his support of Pitt on the +question of Wilkes's expulsion from the House of Commons incurred the +displeasure of the king, he retired for a time to his estate. After +Pitt's return to power in 1766 he became secretary of state, but during +Pitt's illness his conciliatory policy towards America was completely +thwarted by his colleagues and the king, and in 1768 he was dismissed +from office. In 1782 he consented to take office under the marquess of +Rockingham on condition that the king would recognize the United States. +On the death of Lord Rockingham in the same year he became premier; but +the secession of Fox and his supporters led to the famous coalition of +Fox with North, which caused his resignation in the following February, +his fall being perhaps hastened by his plans for the reform of the +public service. He had also in contemplation a bill to promote free +commercial intercourse between England and the United States. When Pitt +acceded to office in 1784, Shelburne, instead of receiving a place in +the cabinet, was created marquess of Lansdowne. Though giving a general +support to the policy of Pitt, he from this time ceased to take an +active part in public affairs. He died on the 7th of May 1805. During +his lifetime he was blamed for insincerity and duplicity, and he +incurred the deepest unpopularity, but the accusations came chiefly from +those who were dissatisfied with his preference of principles to party, +and if he had had a more unscrupulous regard to his personal ambition, +his career as a statesman would have had more outward success. He was +cynical in his estimates of character, but no statesman of his time +possessed more enlightened political views, while his friendship with +those of his contemporaries eminent in science and literature must be +allowed considerable weight in qualifying our estimate of the moral +defects with which he has been credited. He was twice married, first to +Lady Sophia (1745-1771), daughter of John Carteret, Earl Granville, +through whom he obtained the Lansdowne estates near Bath, and secondly +to Lady Louisa (1755-1789), daughter of John Fitzpatrick, 1st earl of +Upper Ossory. John Henry Petty Fitzmaurice (1765-1809), his son by the +first marriage, succeeded as 2nd marquess, after having sat in the House +of Commons for twenty years as member for Chipping Wycombe. + +HENRY PETTY FITZMAURICE, 3rd marquess of Lansdowne (1780-1863), son of +the 1st marquess by his second marriage, was born on the 2nd of July +1780 and educated at Edinburgh University and at Trinity College, +Cambridge. He entered the House of Commons in 1802 as member for the +family borough of Calne and quickly showed his mettle as a politician. +In February 1806, as Lord Henry Petty, he became chancellor of the +exchequer in the ministry of "All the Talents," being at this time +member for the university of Cambridge; but he lost both his seat and +his office in 1807. In 1809 he became marquess of Lansdowne; and in the +House of Lords and in society he continued to play an active part as one +of the Whig leaders. His chief interest was perhaps in the question of +Roman Catholic emancipation, a cause which he consistently championed, +but he sympathized also with the advocates of the abolition of the +slave-trade and with the cause of popular education. Lansdowne, who had +succeeded his cousin, Francis Thomas Fitzmaurice, as 4th earl of Kerry +in 1818, took office with Canning in May 1827 and was secretary for home +affairs from July of that year until January 1828; he was lord president +of the council under Earl Grey and then under Lord Melbourne from +November 1830 to August 1841, with the exception of the few months in +1835 when Sir Robert Peel was prime minister. He held the same office +during the whole of Lord John Russell's ministry (1846-1852), and, +having declined to become prime minister, sat in the cabinets of Lord +Aberdeen and of Lord Palmerston, but without office. In 1857 he refused +the offer of a dukedom, and he died on the 31st of January 1863. +Lansdowne's social influence and political moderation made him one of +the most powerful Whig statesmen of the time; he was frequently +consulted by Queen Victoria on matters of moment, and his long official +experience made his counsel invaluable to his party. He married Louisa +(1785-1851), daughter of the 2nd earl of Ilchester, and was succeeded by +his son Henry, the 4th marquess (1816-1866). The latter, who was member +of parliament for Calne for twenty years and chairman of the Great +Western railway, married for his second wife Emily (1819-1895), daughter +of the comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, a lady who became Baroness +Nairne in her own right in 1867. By her he had two sons, the 5th +marquess and Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice (Baron Fitzmaurice of Leigh). + +HENRY CHARLES KEITH PETTY FITZMAURICE, 5th marquess of Lansdowne (b. +1845), was educated at Balliol, Oxford, where he became one of Jowett's +favourite pupils. In 1869 he married the daughter of the 1st duke of +Abercorn. As a member of the Liberal party he was a lord of the treasury +(1869-1872), under-secretary of war (1872-1874), and under-secretary of +India (1880); in 1883 he was appointed governor-general of Canada, and +from 1888 to 1893 he was viceroy of India. He joined the Liberal +Unionist party when Mr Gladstone proposed home rule for Ireland, and on +returning to England became one of its most influential leaders. He was +secretary of state for war from 1895 to 1900, and foreign secretary from +1900 to 1906, becoming leader of the Unionist party in the House of +Lords on Lord Salisbury's death. + +His brother EDMOND GEORGE FITZMAURICE, Baron Fitzmaurice (b. 1846), was +educated at Trinity, Cambridge, where he took a first class in classics. +Unlike Lord Lansdowne, he remained a Liberal in politics and followed Mr +Gladstone in his home rule policy. As Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice he entered +the House of Commons in 1868, and was under-secretary for foreign +affairs from 1882 to 1885. He then had no seat in parliament till 1898, +when he was elected for the Cricklade division of Wilts, and retiring in +1905, he was created Baron Fitzmaurice of Leigh in 1906, and made +under-secretary for foreign affairs in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's +ministry. In 1908 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and a +member of the Liberal cabinet, but resigned his post in 1909. He devoted +much time to literary work, and was the author of excellent biographies +of the 1st marquess, of Sir William Petty (1895), and of Lord Granville +(1905), under whom he had served at the foreign office. + + For the 1st marquess, see Lord Fitzmaurice, _Life of William, Earl of + Shelburne_ (3 vols., London, 1875-1876). + + + + +LANSDOWNE, a hill cantonment in India, in Garhwal district of the United +Provinces, about 6000 ft. above the sea, 19 m. by cart road from the +station of Kotdwara on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901) +3943. The cantonment, founded in 1887, extends for more than 3 m. +through pine and oak forests, and can accommodate three Gurkha +battalions. + + + + +LANSING, the capital of Michigan, U.S.A., in Ingham county, at the +confluence of the Grand and Cedar rivers, about 85 m. W.N.W. of Detroit +and about 64 m. E.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 16,485, of whom 2397 +were foreign-born; (1910 census) 31,229. It is served by the Michigan +Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the +Père Marquette railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Grand +river on its way through the city makes a horse-shoe bend round a +moderately elevated plateau; this is the commercial centre of the city, +and here, in a square covering 10 acres, is the State Capitol, erected +in 1873-1878 and containing the State library. On the opposite side of +the river, farther N., and also extending across the southern portion of +the city, are districts devoted largely to manufacturing. Lansing has a +public library and a city hospital. About 3 m. E. of the city, at East +Lansing, is the State Agricultural College (coeducational), the oldest +agricultural college in the United States, which was provided for by the +state constitution of 1850, was organized in 1855 and opened in 1857. +Its engineering course was begun in 1885; a course in home economics for +women was established in 1896; and a forestry course was opened in 1902. +In connexion with the college there is an agricultural experiment +station. Lansing is the seat of the Michigan School for the Blind, and +of the State Industrial School for Boys, formerly the Reform School. The +city has abundant water-power and is an important manufacturing centre. +The value of the factory products increased from $2,942,306 in 1900 to +$6,887,415 in 1904, or 134.1%. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works and the electric-lighting plant. The place was selected as +the site for the capital in 1847, when it was still covered with +forests, and growth was slow until 1862, when the railways began to +reach it. Lansing was chartered as a city in 1859 and rechartered in +1893. + + + + +LANSING MAN, the term applied by American ethnologists to certain human +remains discovered in 1902 during the digging of a cellar near Lansing, +Kansas, and by some authorities believed to represent a prehistoric +type of man. They include a skull and several large adult bones and a +child's jaw. They were found beneath 20 ft. of undisturbed silt, in a +position indicating intentional burial. The skull is preserved in the U. +S. National Museum at Washington. It is similar in shape to those of +historic Indians of the region. Its ethnological value as indicating the +existence of man on the Missouri in the glacial period is very doubtful, +it being impossible accurately to determine the age of the deposits. + + See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + + + + +LANSQUENET, the French corrupted form of the German _Landsknecht_ +(q.v.), a mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century. It is also the +name of a card game said to have been introduced into France by the +_Landsknechte_. The pack of 52 cards is cut by the player at the +dealer's right. The dealer lays the two first cards face upwards on the +table to his left; the third he places in front of him and the fourth, +or _réjouissance_ card, in the middle of the table. The players, usually +called (except in the case of the dealer) _punters_, stake any sum +within the agreed limit upon this réjouissance card; the dealer, who is +also the banker, covers the bets and then turns up the next card. If +this fails to match any of the cards already exposed, it is laid beside +the réjouissance card and then punters may stake upon it. Other cards +not matching are treated in the same manner. When a card is turned which +matches the réjouissance card, the banker wins everything staked on it, +and in like manner he wins what is staked on any card (save his own) +that is matched by the card turned. The banker pays all stakes, and the +deal is over as soon as a card appears that matches his own; excepting +that should the two cards originally placed at his left both be matched +before his own, he is then entitled to a second deal. In France matching +means winning, not losing, as in Great Britain. There are other +variations of play on the continent of Europe. + + + + +LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN (1729-1778), French landscape painter, was born +at Oncy on the 24th of March 1729. His father was a weaver, and he +himself began life as a herdboy; but, having attracted the notice of +Gille de Reumont, a son of his master, he was placed under a painter at +Versailles. Endowed with great facility and real talent, his powers +found ready recognition; but he found the constraint of a regular life +and the society of educated people unbearably tiresome; and as long as +the proceeds of the last sale lasted he lived careless of the future in +the company of obscure workmen. Rich amateurs more than once attracted +him to their houses, only to find that in ease and high living Lantara +could produce nothing. He died in Paris on the 22nd of December 1778. +His works, now much prized, are not numerous; the Louvre has one +landscape, "Morning," signed and dated 1761. Bernard, Joseph Vernet, and +others are said to have added figures to his landscapes and sea-pieces. +Engravings after Lantara will be found in the works of Lebas, Piquenot, +Duret, Mouchy and others. In 1809 a comedy called _Lantara, or the +Painter in the Pothouse_, was brought out at the Vaudeville with great +success. + + See E. Bellier de la Chavignerie, _Recherches sur le peintre Lantara_ + (Paris, 1852). + + + + +LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. _lanterne_ from Lat. _lanterna_ or +_laterna_, supposed to be from Gr. [Greek: lamptêr], a torch or lamp, +[Greek: lampein], to shine, cf. "lamp"; the 16th- and 17th-century form +"lanthorn" is due to a mistaken derivation from "horn," as a material +frequently used in the making of lanterns), a metal case filled in with +some transparent material, and used for holding a light and protecting +it from rain or wind. The appliance is of two kinds--the hanging lantern +and the hand lantern--both of which are ancient. At Pompeii and +Herculaneum have been discovered two cylindrical bronze lanterns, with +ornamented pillars, to which chains are attached for carrying or hanging +the lantern. Plates of horn surrounded the bronze lamp within, and the +cover at the top can be removed for lighting and for the escape of +smoke. The hanging lantern for lighting rooms was composed of ornamental +metal work, of which iron and brass were perhaps most frequently used. +Silver, and even gold, were, however, sometimes employed, and the +artificers in metal of the 17th and 18th centuries produced much +exceedingly artistic work of this kind. Oriental lanterns in open-work +bronze were often very beautiful. The early lantern had sides of horn, +talc, bladder or oiled paper, and the primitive shape remains in the +common square stable lantern with straight glass sides, to carry a +candle. The hand lantern was usually a much more modest appliance than +the hanging lantern, although in great houses it was sometimes richly +worked and decorated. As glass grew cheaper it gradually ousted all +other materials, but the horn lantern which was already ancient in the +13th century was still being used in the early part of the 19th. By the +end of the 18th century lanterns in rooms had been superseded by the +candlestick. The collapsible paper lanterns of China and Japan, usually +known as Chinese lanterns, are globular or cylindrical in shape, and the +paper is pleated and when not in use folds flat. For illuminative and +decorative purposes they are coloured with patterns of flowers, &c. The +lanterns carried by the ordinary foot passenger are made of oiled paper. +In China the "Feast of Lanterns" takes place early in the New Year and +lasts for four days. In Japan the festival of Bon is sometimes known as +the "feast of lanterns." It is then that the spirits of the dead +ancestors return to the household altar. The festival takes place in +July. The "bull's-eye" lantern has a convex lens which concentrates the +light and allows it to be thrown in the shape of a diverging cone. The +"dark lantern" has a shutter or slide arrangement by which the light can +be shut off at will. Ships' lanterns are used as masthead or other +signal lights. On Trajan's column is a representation of a heavy +poop-lantern on a ship. The ships' lanterns of the 16th and 17th +centuries were highly ornamental, especially when placed on the poop. At +the Armeria Real in Madrid is a collection of these 16th-century ships' +lanterns. The protected cages which contain the lights used in +lighthouses are also known as "lanterns" (see LIGHTHOUSES). + +In architecture a lantern is primarily a framework of timber, with +windows all round, to admit ample light, placed on the top of a roof. In +a broader sense, it is applied to those portions of buildings which are +largely perforated with windows, and more especially to the upper part +of the towers of cathedrals and churches, as in the octagon of Ely +cathedral, or the tower of Boston church, Lincolnshire. The term is also +applied to the entire church, as in the case of Bath Abbey church, which +was called the "lantern of England," from the number of its windows, and +St John's Priory at Kilkenny, the "lantern of Ireland," on account of +the window on the south side of the choir which was 54 ft. long. In the +Renaissance style the lantern was looked upon as a decorative feature +surmounting the dome, as in St Peter's, Rome, the Invalides, Paris, and +St Paul's, London. + + +_Magic or Optical Lantern._ + +The magic or optical lantern is an instrument for projecting on a white +wall or screen largely magnified representations of transparent pictures +painted or photographed on glass, or of objects--crystals, animals, +&c.--carried on glass slides or in glass vessels. If the light traverses +the object, the projection is said to be diascopic, if by reflected +light, episcopic. + +The invention of the magic lantern is usually attributed to Athanasius +Kircher, who described it in the first edition (1646) of his _Ars magna +lucis et umbrae_, but it is very probably of earlier discovery. For a +long period the magic lantern was used chiefly to exhibit comic +pictures, or in the hands of so-called wizards to summon up ghosts and +perform other tricks, astonishing to those ignorant of the simple +optical principles employed. Within recent years, however, the optical +lantern has been greatly improved in construction, and its use widely +extended. By its means finely executed photographs on glass can be shown +greatly magnified to large audiences, thus saving the trouble and +expense of preparing large diagrams. When suitably constructed, it can +be used in the form of a microscope to exhibit on a screen the forms and +movements of minute living organisms, or to show to an audience delicate +physical and chemical experiments which could otherwise be seen only by +a few at a time Another application of the optical lantern is found in +the cinematograph (q.v.). + + The optical lantern, in its simpler forms, consists of the following + parts: (1) the lantern body, (2) a source of light, (3) an optical + system for projecting the images. The lantern body is a rectangular + casing usually made of Russian iron, but sometimes covered with wood + (which must be protected by asbestos at parts liable to damage by + heat), provided with the openings necessary to the insertion of the + source of light, windows for viewing the same, a chimney for conveying + away the products of combustion, fittings to carry the slides and the + optical system. In the earlier and simpler lanterns, oil lamps were + commonly used, and in the toy forms either an oil flame or an ordinary + gas jet is still employed. Natural petroleum burnt in a specially + constructed lamp by means of two or three parallel wicks set edgeways + to the lenses was employed in the sciopticon, an improved lantern + invented in America which gave well-defined pictures 6 to 10 ft. in + diameter. The Argand gas burner also found application. A great + improvement attended the introduction of lime-light, i.e. the light + emitted by a block of lime made incandescent by an impinging + oxyhydrogen or oxygen-coal-gas flame, and the readiness with which + hydrogen and oxygen can be prepared and rendered available by + compression in steel cylinders and the increased commercial supply of + coal-gas greatly popularized these illuminants. Many improvements have + been made on the original apparatus. The lime-cylinders are specially + prepared to withstand better the disintegrating effects of the flame, + and are mounted on a rotating pin in order that fresh surfaces may be + brought into play. Cones of zirconia are also used in the same way; or + a thorium mantle in conjunction with alcohol vapour may be employed. + Two types of burner are in use: (1) the "blow-through jet," in which + the oxygen is forced through the jet of the burning gas (this is the + safest type), and (2) where the gases are mixed before combustion + (this is the more dangerous but also the more powerful type). Ether + burners are also in use. In one type the oxygen supply is divided into + two streams, one of which passes through a chamber containing cotton + wool soaked with ether, and then rejoins the undiverted stream at the + jet. The application of the incandescent gas mantle is limited by the + intensity of the heat emitted and the large area of the source. Of + electrical illuminants the platinum and carbon filament lamps are not + much used, the Nernst lamp (in which the preliminary heating is + effected by a spirit lamp and not by an auxiliary coil) being + preferred. But the arc light is undoubtedly the best illuminant for + use in the projecting lantern. The actual size of the source is + comparatively small, and hence it is necessary to mount the carbons so + that the arc remains at one point on the axis of the optical system. + It is also advisable to set back the carbons relatively to one another + and to tilt them, so that the brightest part of the "crater" faces the + lens. + + _Optical System._--In the ordinary (or vertically) projecting lantern + the rays are transmitted through a lens termed the "condenser," then + through the object, and finally through another lens termed the + "objective." In the horizontally projecting types the light, after + passing through the condenser, is reflected vertically by a plane + mirror inclined at 45° to the direction of the light; it then + traverses another lens, then the object, then the objective, and is + finally projected horizontally by a plane mirror inclined at 45°, or + by a right angled glass prism, the hypothenuse face of which is + silvered. In episcopic projection, the light, having traversed the + condenser, is reflected on to the object, placed horizontally, by an + inclined mirror. The rays reflecting the object then traverse the + objective, and are then projected horizontally by a mirror or prism. + This device inverts the object; a convenient remedy is to place an + erecting prism before the lens. The object of the condenser is to + collect as much light as possible from the source, and pass it through + the object in a uniform beam. For this purpose the condenser should + subtend as large an angle as possible at the source of light. To + secure this, it should be tolerably large, and its distance from the + light, that is, its focal length, small. Since effective single lenses + of large diameter are necessarily of long focus, a really good + condenser of considerable diameter and yet of short focus must be a + combination of two or more lenses. It is essential that the condenser + be white and limpid and free from defects or striae. + + In the earlier lanterns, as still in the cheaper forms, only a single + plano-convex lens or bull's-eye was employed as a condenser. A good + compound condenser for ordinary work is that proposed by Herschel, + consisting of a biconvex lens and a meniscus mounted together with the + concave side of the meniscus next the light. Other types employ two + plano-convex lenses, the curved surfaces nearly in contact; or a + concavo-convex and a plano-convex lens. Or it may be a triple + combination, the object always being to increase the aperture. The + focus must not be so short as to bring the lens too near the light, + and render it liable to crack from the intense heat. In some lanterns + this is guarded against by placing a plate of thin glass between the + condenser and the light. If the source of light be broad, an iris + diaphragm may be introduced so as to eliminate inequalities in + illumination. + + The function of the objective is to produce a magnified inverted image + of the picture on the screen. In toy lanterns it is a simple + double-convex lens of short focus. This, however, can only produce a + small picture, and that not very distinct at the edges. The best + objective is the portrait combination lens usually of the Petzval type + as used in ordinary photographic cameras. These are carefully + corrected both for spherical and chromatic aberration, which is + absolutely essential in the objective, although not so necessary in + the condenser. + + _Objects._--The commonest objects used for exhibiting with the optical + lantern are named "slides" and consist of pictures printed on + transparent surfaces. Solid objects mounted on glass after the + ordinary manner of mounting microscopic objects are also possible of + exhibition, and hollow glass tanks containing organisms or substances + undergoing some alteration are also available for use with the + lantern. If it be necessary to eliminate the heat rays, which may act + deleteriously on the object, a vessel is introduced containing either + water or a 5% solution of ferric chloride. In the ordinary slide the + pictures are painted with transparent water or oil colours, or + photographed on pieces of glass. If parts of the picture are to be + movable, two disks of glass are employed, the one movable in front of + the other, the fixed part of the picture being painted on the fixed + disk and the movable part on the other. By means of a lever the latter + disk is moved in its own plane; and in this way a cow, for instance, + can be represented drinking, or a donkey cutting amusing capers. In + the chromatrope slide two circular disks of glass are placed face to + face, each containing a design radiating from the centre, and painted + with brilliant transparent colours. By a small pinion gearing in + toothed wheels or endless bands the disks are made to move in opposite + directions in their own plane. The effect produced is a singularly + beautiful change of design and colour. In astronomical slides the + motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, the phases of the moon or + the like are similarly represented by mechanical means. + + _Dissolving Views._--For this purpose two magic lanterns are + necessary, arranged either side by side or the one on the top of the + other. The fronts of the lanterns are slightly inclined to each other + so as to make the illuminated disks on the screen due to each lantern + coincide. By means of a pair of thin metallic shutters terminating in + comb-like teeth, and movable by a rack or lever, the light from either + lantern can be gradually cut off at the same time that the light from + the other is allowed gradually to fall on the screen. In this way one + view appears to melt or dissolve into another. This arrangement was + first adopted by Childe in 1811. + + _Phantasmagoria._--In this arrangement the pictures on the screen + appear gradually to increase or diminish in size and brightness. To + effect this a semi-transparent screen of cotton or other material is + used, the lantern being behind and the audience in front. The lantern + is mounted on wheels so that it can be rapidly moved up to or + withdrawn from the screen; and an automatic arrangement is provided + whereby simultaneously with this the objective is made to approach or + recede from the slide so as to focus the picture on the screen in any + position of the lantern. In this way a very small picture appears + gradually to grow to enormous dimensions. + + See L. Wright, _Optical Projection_ (1891); E. Trutat, _Traité des + Projections_ (Paris, 1897 and 1901); P. E. Liesegang, _Die + Projektions-Kunst_ (Leipzig, 1909). + + + + +LANTERN-FLY, the name given to insects belonging to the homopterous +division of the Hemiptera, and referable to the genus _Fulgora_ and +allied forms. They are mostly of large size, with a superficial +resemblance to lepidoptera due to their brilliant and varied coloration. +Characteristic of the group is the presence on the front of the head of +a hollow process, simulating a snout, which is sometimes inflated and as +large as the rest of the insect, sometimes elongated, narrow and +apically upturned. It was believed, mainly on the authority of Marie +Sibylle de Mérian, that this process, the so-called "lantern," was +luminous at night. Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and +made use of a number of specific names, such as _lanternaria_, +_phosphorea_, _candelaria_, &c., to illustrate the supposed fact, and +thus aided in disseminating a belief which subsequent observations have +failed to establish and which is now generally rejected. + + + + +LANTERNS OF THE DEAD, the architectural name for the small towers in +stone, found chiefly in the centre and west of France, pierced with +small openings at the top, where a light was exhibited at night to +indicate the position of a cemetery. These towers were usually circular, +with a small entrance in the lower part giving access to the interior, +so as to raise the lamps by a pulley to the required height. One of the +most perfect in France is that at Cellefrouin (Charente), which consists +of a series of eight attached semicircular shafts, raised on a pedestal, +and is crowned with a conical roof decorated with fir cones; it has only +one aperture, towards the main road. Other examples exist at Ciron +(Indre) and Antigny (Vienne). + +[Illustration: Lantern of the Dead at Cellefrouin (Charente).] + + + + +LANTHANUM [symbol La, atomic weight 139.0 (O = 16)] one of the metals of +the cerium group of rare earths. Its name is derived from the Gr. +[Greek: lanthanein], to lie hidden. It was first isolated in 1839 by C. +G. Mosander from the "cerium" of J. Berzelius. It is found in the +minerals gadolinite, cerite, samarskite and fergusonite, and is usually +obtained from cerite. For details of the complex process for the +separation of the lanthanum salts from cerite, see R. Bunsen (_Pogg. +Ann._, 1875, 155, p. 377); P. T. Cleve (_Bull. de la soc. chim._, 1874, +21, p. 196); and A. v. Welsbach (_Monats. f. Chem._, 1884, 5, p. 508). +The metal was obtained by Mosander on heating its chloride with +potassium, and by W. F. Hillebrand and T. Norton (_Pogg. Ann._, 1875, +156, p. 466) on electrolysis of the fused chloride, while C. Winkler +(_Ber._, 1890, 23, p. 78) prepared it by heating the oxide with a +mixture of magnesium and magnesia. Muthmann and Weiss (_Ann._, 1904, +331, p. 1) obtained it by electrolysing the anhydrous chloride. It may +be readily hammered, but cannot be drawn. Its specific gravity is +6.1545, and it melts at 810°. It decomposes cold water slowly, but hot +water violently. It burns in air, and also in chlorine and bromine, and +is readily oxidized by nitric acid. + + _Lanthanum oxide_, La2O3, is a white powder obtained by burning the + metal in oxygen, or by ignition of the carbonate, nitrate or sulphate. + It combines with water with evolution of heat, and on heating with + magnesium powder in an atmosphere of hydrogen forms a hydride of + probable composition La2H3 (C. Winkler, _Ber._ 1891, 24, p. 890). + _Lanthanum hydroxide_, La(OH)3, is a white amorphous powder formed by + precipitating lanthanum salts by potassium hydroxide. It decomposes + ammonium salts. _Lanthanum chloride_, LaCl3, is obtained in the + anhydrous condition by heating lanthanum ammonium chloride or, + according to C. Matignon (_Compt. rend._, 1905, 40, p. 1181), by the + action of chlorine or hydrochloric acid on the residue obtained by + evaporating the oxide with hydrochloric acid. It forms a deliquescent + crystalline mass. By evaporation of a solution of lanthanum oxide in + hydrochloric acid to the consistency of a syrup, and allowing the + solution to stand, large colourless crystals of a hydrated chloride of + the composition 2LaCl3·15H2O are obtained. _Lanthanum sulphide_, + La2S3, is a yellow powder, obtained when the oxide is heated in the + vapour of carbon bisulphide. It is decomposed by water, with evolution + of sulphuretted hydrogen. _Lanthanum sulphate_, La2(SO4)3·9H2O, forms + six-sided prisms, isomorphous with those of the corresponding cerium + salt. By careful heating it may be made to yield the anhydrous salt. + _Lanthanum nitrate_, La(NO3)3·6H2O, is obtained by dissolving the + oxide in nitric acid. It crystallizes in plates, and is soluble in + water and alcohol. _Lanthanum carbide_, LaC2, is prepared by heating + the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace (H. Moissan, _Compt. + rend._, 1896, 123, p. 148). It is decomposed by water with the + formation of acetylene, methane, ethylene, &c. _Lanthanum carbonate_, + La2CO3·8H2O, occurs as the rare mineral lanthanite, forming + greyish-white, pink or yellowish rhombic prisms. The atomic weight of + lanthanum has been determined by B. Brauner (_Proc. Chem. Soc._, 1901, + 17, p. 63) by ignition of lanthanum sulphate at 500° C., the value + obtained being 139 (O = 16). + + + + +LANUVIUM (more frequently _Lanivium_ in imperial times, mod. _Civita +Lavinia_), an ancient city of Latium, some 19 m. S.E. of Rome, a little +S.W. of the Via Appia. It was situated on an isolated hill projecting S. +from the main mass of the Alban Hills, and commanding an extensive view +over the low country between it and the sea. It was one of the members +of the Latin League, and remained independent until conquered by Rome in +338 B.C. At first it did not enjoy the right of Roman citizenship, but +acquired it later; and even in imperial times its chief magistrate and +municipal council kept the titles of _dictator_ and _senatus_ +respectively. It was especially famous for its rich and much venerated +temple of Juno Sospes, from which Octavian borrowed money in 31 B.C., +and the possessions of which extended as far as the sea-coast (T. Ashby +in _Mélanges de l'école française_, 1905, 203). It possessed many other +temples, repaired by Antoninus Pius, who was born close by, as was also +Commodus. Remains of the ancient theatre and of the city walls exist in +the modern village, and above it is an area surrounded by a portico, in +_opus reticulatum_, upon the north side of which is a rectangular +building in _opus quadratum_, probably connected with the temple of +Juno. Here archaic decorative terra-cottas were discovered in +excavations carried on by Lord Savile. The acropolis of the primitive +city was probably on the highest point above the temple to the north. +The neighbourhood, which is now covered with vineyards, contains remains +of many Roman villas, one of which is traditionally attributed to +Antoninus Pius. + + See _Notizie degli Scavi, passim._ (T. As.) + + + + +LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA (1810-1882), Italian politician, +was born at Casale, Piedmont, on the 15th of February 1810. He studied +medicine at Turin, and practised for some years in his native place. He +was one of the promoters of the agrarian association in Turin, and took +an active part in the rising of 1848. He was elected to the Piedmontese +parliament in that year, and attached himself to the party of Cavour, +devoting his attention chiefly to questions of economy and finance. He +became minister of public instruction in 1855 in the cabinet of Cavour, +and in 1858 minister of finance. He followed Cavour into his temporary +retirement in July 1859 after the peace of Villafranca, and for a year +(1860-1861) was president of the Chamber. He was minister of the +interior (1864-1865) in the La Marmora cabinet, and arranged the +transference of the capital to Florence. He maintained a resolute +opposition to the financial policy of Menabrea, who resigned when Lanza +was a second time elected, in 1869, president of the Chamber. Lanza +formed a new cabinet in which he was himself minister of the interior. +With Quintino Sella as minister of finance he sought to reorganize +Italian finance, and resigned office when Sella's projects were rejected +in 1873. His cabinet had seen the accomplishment of Italian unity and +the installation of an Italian government in Rome. He died in Rome on +the 9th of March 1882. + + See Enrico Tavallini, _La Vita ed i tempi di Giovanni Lanza_ (2 vols., + Turin and Naples, 1887). + + + + +LANZAROTE, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish +archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 17,546; area, +326 sq. m. Lanzarote, the most easterly of the Canaries, has a length of +31 m. and a breadth varying from 5 to 10 m. It is naked and mountainous, +bearing everywhere marks of its volcanic origin. Montaña Blanca, the +highest point (2000 ft.), is cultivated to the summit. In 1730 the +appearance of half the island was altered by a volcanic outburst. A +violent earthquake preceded the catastrophe, by which nine villages +were destroyed. In 1825 another volcanic eruption took place accompanied +by earthquakes, and two hills were thrown up. The port of Naos on the +south-east of the island affords safe anchorage. It is protected by two +forts. A short distance inland is the town of Arrecife (pop. 3082). The +climate is hot and dry. There is only a single spring of fresh water on +the island, and that in a position difficult of access. From the total +failure of water the inhabitants were once compelled to abandon the +island. Dromedaries are used as beasts of burden. Teguise (pop. 3786), +on the north-west coast, is the residence of the local authorities. A +strait about 6 m. in width separates Lanzarote from Fuerteventura. + +Graciosa, a small uninhabited island, is divided from the north-eastern +extremity of Lanzarote by a channel 1 m. in width, which affords a +capacious and safe harbour for large ships; but basaltic cliffs, 1500 +ft. high, prevent intercourse with the inhabited part of Lanzarote. A +few persons reside on the little island Allegranza, a mass of lava and +cinders ejected at various times from a now extinct volcano, the crater +of which has still a well-defined edge. + + + + +LANZI, LUIGI (1732-1810), Italian archaeologist, was born in 1732 and +educated as a priest. In 1773 he was appointed keeper of the galleries +of Florence, and thereafter studied Italian painting and Etruscan +antiquities and language. In the one field his labours are represented +by his _Storia Pittorica della Italia_, the first portion of which, +containing the Florentine, Sienese, Roman and Neapolitan schools, +appeared in 1792, the rest in 1796. The work is translated by Roscoe. In +archaeology his great achievement was _Saggio di lingua Etrusca_ (1789), +followed by _Saggio delle lingue Ital. antiche_ (1806). In his memoir on +the so-called Etruscan vases (_Dei vasi antichi dipinti volgarmente +chiamati Etruschi_, 1806) Lanzi rightly perceived their Greek origin and +characters. What was true of the antiquities would be true also, he +argued, of the Etruscan language, and the object of the _Saggio di +lingua Etrusca_ was to prove that this language must be related to that +of the neighbouring peoples--Romans, Umbrians, Oscans and Greeks. He was +allied with E. Q. Visconti in his great but never accomplished plan of +illustrating antiquity altogether from existing literature and +monuments. His notices of ancient sculpture and its various styles +appeared as an appendix to the _Saggio di lingua Etrusca_, and arose out +of his minute study of the treasures then added to the Florentine +collection from the Villa Medici. The abuse he met with from later +writers on the Etruscan language led Corssen (_Sprache der Etrusker_, i. +p. vi.) to protest in the name of his real services to philology and +archaeology. Among his other productions was an edition of Hesiod's +_Works and Days_, with valuable notes, and a translation in _terza +rima_. Begun in 1785, it was recast and completed in 1808. The list of +his works closes with his _Opere sacre_, a series of treatises on +spiritual subjects. Lanzi died on the 30th of March 1810. He was buried +in the church of the Santa Croce at Florence by the side of +Michelangelo. + + + + +LAOAG, a town, port for coasting vessels, and capital of the province of +Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Laoag river, about 5 m. +from its mouth, and in the N.W. part of the island. Pop. (1903) 34,454; +in 1903, after the census had been taken, the municipality of San +Nicolás (pop. 1903, 10,880) was added to Laoag. Laoag is on an extensive +coast plain, behind which is a picturesque range of hills; it is well +built and is noted for its fine climate, the name "Laoag" signifying +"clear." It is especially well equipped for handling rice, which is +shipped in large quantities; Indian corn, tobacco and sugar are also +shipped. Cotton is grown in the vicinity, and is woven by the women into +fabrics, which find a ready sale among the pagan tribes of the +mountains. The language is Ilocano. + + + + +LAOCOON, in Greek legend a brother of Anchises, who had been a priest of +Apollo, but having profaned the temple of the god he and his two sons +were attacked by serpents while preparing to sacrifice a bull at the +altar of Poseidon, in whose service Laocoon was then acting as priest. +An additional motive for his punishment consisted in his having warned +the Trojans against the wooden horse left by the Greeks. But, whatever +his crime may have been, the punishment stands out even among the +tragedies of Greek legend as marked by its horror--particularly so as it +comes to us in Virgil (_Aeneid_, ii. 199 sq.), and as it is represented +in the marble group, the Laocoon, in the Vatican. In the oldest existing +version of the legend--that of Arctinus of Miletus, which has so far +been preserved in the excerpts of Proclus--the calamity is lessened by +the fact that only one of the two sons is killed; and this, as has been +pointed out (_Arch. Zeitung_, 1879, p. 167), agrees with the +interpretation which Goethe in his _Propylaea_ had put on the marble +group without reference to the literary tradition. He says: "The younger +son struggles and is powerless, and is alarmed; the father struggles +ineffectively, indeed his efforts only increase the opposition; the +elder son is least of all injured, he feels neither anguish nor pain, +but he is horrified at what he sees happening to his father, and he +screams while he pushes the coils of the serpent off from his legs. He +is thus an observer, witness, and participant in the incident, and the +work is then complete." Again, "the gradation of the incident is this: +the father has become powerless among the coils of the serpent; the +younger son has still strength for resistance but is wounded; the elder +has a prospect of escape." Lessing, on the other hand, maintained the +view that the marble group illustrated the version of the legend given +by Virgil, with such differences as were necessary from the different +limits of representation imposed on the arts of sculpture and of poetry. +These limits required a new definition, and this he undertook in his +still famous work, _Laokoon_ (see the edition of Hugo Blümner, Berlin, +1876, in which the subsequent criticism is collected). The date of the +Laocoon being now fixed (see AGESANDER) to 40-20 B.C., there can be no +question of copying Virgil. The group represents the extreme of a +pathetic tendency in sculpture (see GREEK ART, Plate I. fig. 52). + + + + +LAODICEA, the name of at least eight cities, founded or renovated in the +later Hellenic period. Most of them were founded by the Seleucid kings +of Syria. Seleucus, founder of the dynasty, is said by Appian to have +named five cities after his mother Laodice. Thus in the immense realm of +the Seleucidae from the Aegean Sea to the borders of India we find +cities called Laodicea, as also Seleucia (q.v.). So long as Greek +civilization held its ground, these were the commercial and social +centres. The chief are Laodicea _ad Lycum_ (see below); _Combusta_ on +the borders of Phrygia, Lycaonia and Pisidia; a third in Pontus; a +fourth, _ad mare_, on the coast of Syria; a fifth, _ad Libanum_, beside +the Lebanon mountains; and three others in the far east--Media, Persia +and the lower Tigris valley. In the latter countries Greek civilization +was short-lived, and the last three cities disappeared; the other five +continued great throughout the Greek and Roman period, and the second, +third and fourth retain to the present day the ancient name under the +pronunciation Ladik, Ladikiyeh or Latakia (q.v.). + +LAODICEA AD LYCUM (mod. _Denizli_, q.v.) was founded probably by +Antiochus II. Theos (261-46 B.C.), and named after his wife Laodice. Its +site is close to the station of Gonjeli on the Anatolian railway. Here +was one of the oldest homes of Christianity and the seat of one of the +seven churches of the Apocalypse. Pliny states (v. 29) that the town was +called in older times Diospolis and Rhoas; but at an early period +Colossae, a few miles to the east, and Hierapolis, 6 m. to the north, +were the great cities of the neighbourhood, and Laodicea was of no +importance till the Seleucid foundation (Strabo, p. 578). A favourable +site was found on some low hills of alluvial formation, about 2 m. S. of +the river Lycus (Churuk Su) and 9 m. E. of the confluence of the Lycus +and Maeander. The great trade route from the Euphrates and the interior +passed to it through Apamea. There it forked, one branch going down the +Maeander valley to Magnesia and thence north to Ephesus, a distance of +about 90 m., and the other branch crossing the mountains by an easy pass +to Philadelphia and the Hermus valley, Sardis, Thyatira and at last +Pergamum. St Paul (Col. iv. 15) alludes to the situation of Laodicea +beside Colossae and Hierapolis; and the order in which the last five +churches of the Apocalypse are enumerated (Rev. i. 11) is explained by +their position on the road just described. Placed in this situation, in +the centre of a very fertile district, Laodicea became a rich city. It +was famous for its money transactions (Cic. _Ad Fam._ ii. 17, iii. 5), +and for the beautiful soft wool grown by the sheep of the country +(Strabo 578). Both points are referred to in the message to the church +(Rev. iii. 17, 18). + + Little is known of the history of the town. It suffered greatly from a + siege in the Mithradatic war, but soon recovered its prosperity under + the Roman empire. The Zeus of Laodicea, with the curious epithet Azeus + or Azeis, is a frequent symbol on the city coins. He is represented + standing, holding in the extended right hand an eagle, in the left a + spear, the _hasta pura_. Not far from the city was the temple of Men + Karou, with a great medical school; while Laodicea itself produced + some famous Sceptic philosophers, and gave origin to the royal family + of Polemon and Zenon, whose curious history has been illustrated in + recent times (W. H. Waddington, _Mélanges de Numism._ ser. ii.; Th. + Mommsen, _Ephem. Epigraph._ i. and ii.; M. G. Rayet, _Milet et le + Golfe Latmique_, chap. v.). The city fell finally into decay in the + frontier wars with the Turkish invaders. Its ruins are of wide extent, + but not of great beauty or interest; there is no doubt, however, that + much has been buried beneath the surface by the frequent earthquakes + to which the district is exposed (Strabo 580; Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 27). + + See W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i.-ii. (1895); + _Letters to the Seven Churches_ (1904); and the beautiful drawings of + Cockerell in the _Antiquities of Ionia_, vol. iii. pl. 47-51. + (A. H. S.) + + + + +LAODICEA, SYNOD OF, held at Laodicea ad Lycum in Phrygia, some time +between 343 and 381 (so Hefele; but Baronius argues for 314, and others +for a date as late as 399), adopted sixty canons, chiefly disciplinary, +which were declared ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451. The +most significant canons are those directly affecting the clergy, wherein +the clergy appear as a privileged class, far above the laity, but with +sharply differentiated and carefully graded orders within itself. For +example, the priests are not to be chosen by the people; penitents are +not to be present at ordinations (lest they should hear the failings of +candidates discussed); bishops are to be appointed by the metropolitan +and his suffragan; sub-deacons may not distribute the elements of the +Eucharist; clerics are forbidden to leave a diocese without the bishop's +permission. Other canons treat of intercourse with heretics, admission +of penitent heretics, baptism, fasts, Lent, angel-worship (forbidden as +idolatrous) and the canonical books, from which the Apocrypha and +Revelation are wanting. + + See Mansi ii. 563-614; Hardouin i. 777-792; Hefele, 2nd ed., i. + 746-777 (Eng. trans. ii. 295-325). (T. F. C.) + + + + +LAOMEDON, in Greek legend, son of Ilus, king of Troy and father of +Podarces (Priam). The gods Apollo and Poseidon served him for hire, +Apollo tending his herds, while Poseidon built the walls of Troy. When +Laomedon refused to pay the reward agreed upon, Apollo visited the land +with a pestilence, and Poseidon sent up a monster from the sea, which +ravaged the land. According to the oracle, the wrath of Poseidon could +only be appeased by the sacrifice of one of the king's daughters. The +lot fell upon Hesione, who was chained to a rock to await the monster's +coming. Heracles, on his way back from the land of the Amazons, offered +to slay the monster and release Hesione, on condition that he should +receive the wonderful horses presented by Zeus to Tros, the father of +Ganymede, to console him for the loss of his son. Again Laomedon broke +his word; whereupon Heracles returned with a band of warriors, attacked +Troy, and slew Laomedon and all his sons except Priam. According to +Diodorus Siculus, Laomedon aggravated his offence by imprisoning +Iphiclus and Telamon, who had been sent by Heracles to demand the +surrender of the horses. Laomedon was buried near the Scaean gate, and +it was said that so long as his grave remained undisturbed, so long +would the walls of Troy remain impregnable. + + See Homer, _Iliad_, v. 265, 640, vii. 452, xxi. 443; Apollodorus ii. + 5. 9 and 6. 4; Diod. Sic. iv. 32, 42, 49; Hyginus, _Fab._ 89; Horace, + _Odes_ iii. 3, 22; Ovid, _Metam._ xi. 194. + + + + +LAON, a town of northern France, capital of the department of Aisne, 87 +m. N.E. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906), town, 9787, +commune (including troops) 15,288. It is situated on an isolated ridge, +forming two sides of a triangle, which rises some 330 ft. above the +surrounding plain and the little river of Ardon. The suburbs of St +Marcel and Vaux extend along the foot of the ridge to the north. From +the railway station, situated in the plain to the north, a straight +staircase of several hundred steps leads to the gate of the town, and +all the roads connecting Laon with the surrounding district are cut in +zigzags on the steep slopes, which are crowned by promenades on the site +of the old ramparts. The 13th-century gates of Ardon, Chenizelles and +Soissons, the latter in a state of ruin, have been preserved. At the +eastern extremity of the ridge rises the citadel; at its apex is the +parade-ground of St Martin, and at the southern end stands the ancient +abbey of St Vincent. The deep depression between the arms of the ridge, +known as the Cuve St Vincent, has its slopes covered with trees, +vegetable gardens and vineyards. From the promenade along the line of +the ramparts there is an extensive view northward beyond St Quentin, +westward to the forest of St Gobain, and southward over the wooded hills +of the Laonnais and Soissonnais. + +The cathedral of Laon (see ARCHITECTURE, Romanesque and Gothic +Architecture in France) is one of the most important creations of the +art of the 12th and 13th centuries. It took the place of the old +cathedral, burned at the beginning of the communal struggles mentioned +below. The building is cruciform, and the choir terminates in a straight +wall instead of in an apse. Of the six towers flanking the façades, only +four are complete to the height of the base of the spires, two at the +west front with huge figures of oxen beneath the arcades of their upper +portion, and one at each end of the transept. A square central tower +forms a lantern within the church. The west front, with three porches, +the centre one surmounted by a fine rose window, ranks next to that of +Notre-Dame at Paris in purity. The cathedral has stained glass of the +13th century and a choir grille of the 18th century. The chapter-house +and the cloister contain beautiful specimens of the architecture of the +beginning of the 13th century. The old episcopal palace, contiguous to +the cathedral, is now used as a court-house. The front, flanked by +turrets, is pierced by great pointed windows. There is also a Gothic +cloister and an old chapel of two storeys, of a date anterior to the +cathedral. The church of St Martin dates from the middle of the 12th +century. The old abbey buildings of the same foundation are now used as +the hospital. The museum of Laon had collections of sculpture and +painting. In its garden there is a chapel of the Templars belonging to +the 12th century. The church of the suburb of Vaux near the railway +station dates from the 11th and 12th centuries. Numerous cellars of two +or three storeys have taken the place of the old quarries in the +hill-side. Laon forms with La Fère and Reims a triangle of important +fortresses. Its fortifications consist of an inner line of works on the +eminence of Laon itself, and two groups of detached forts, one some 2½ +m. S.E. about the village of Bruyères, the other about 3 m. W.S.W., near +Laniscourt. To the S.S.W. forts Malmaison and Condé connect Laon with +the Aisne and with Reims. + +Laon is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and possesses a +tribunal of first instance, a lycée for boys, a college for girls, a +school of agriculture and training colleges. Sugar-making and +metal-founding are carried on, but neither industry nor trade, which is +in grain and wine, are of much importance. + + The hilly district of Laon (Laudunum) has always had some strategic + importance. In the time of Caesar there was a Gallic village where the + Remi (inhabitants of the country round Reims) had to meet the onset of + the confederated Belgae. Whatever may have been the precise locality + of that battlefield, Laon was fortified by the Romans, and + successively checked the invasions of the Franks, Burgundians, + Vandals, Alani and Huns. St Remigius, the archbishop of Reims who + baptized Clovis, was born in the Laonnais, and it was he who, at the + end of the 5th century, instituted the bishopric of the town. + Thenceforward Laon was one of the principal towns of the kingdom of + the Franks, and the possession of it was often disputed. Charles the + Bald had enriched its church with the gift of very numerous domains. + After the fall of the Carolingians Laon took the part of Charles of + Lorraine, their heir, and Hugh Capet only succeeded in making himself + master of the town by the connivance of the bishop, who, in return + for this service, was made second ecclesiastical peer of the kingdom. + Early in the 12th century the communes of France set about + emancipating themselves, and the history of the commune of Laon is one + of the richest and most varied. The citizens had profited by a + temporary absence of Bishop Gaudry to secure from his representatives + a communal charter, but he, on his return, purchased from the king of + France the revocation of this document, and recommenced his + oppressions. The consequence was a revolt, in which the episcopal + palace was burnt and the bishop and several of his partisans were put + to death. The fire spread to the cathedral, and reduced it to ashes. + Uneasy at the result of their victory, the rioters went into hiding + outside the town, which was anew pillaged by the people of the + neighbourhood, eager to avenge the death of their bishop. The king + alternately interfered in favour of the bishop and of the inhabitants + till 1239. After that date the liberties of Laon were no more + contested till 1331, when the commune was abolished. During the + Hundred Years' War it was attacked and taken by the Burgundians, who + gave it up to the English, to be retaken by the French after the + consecration of Charles VII. Under the League Laon took the part of + the Leaguers, and was taken by Henry IV. During the campaign of 1814 + Napoleon tried in vain to dislodge Blücher from it. In 1870 an + engineer blew up the powder magazine of the citadel at the moment when + the German troops were entering the town. Many lives were lost; and + the cathedral and the old episcopal palace were damaged. At the + Revolution Laon permanently lost its rank as a bishopric. + + + + +LAOS, a territory of French Indo-China, bounded N. by the Chinese +province of Yun-nan, W. by the British Shan states and Siam, S. by +Cambodia and Annam, E. by Annam and N.E. by Tongking. Northern Laos is +traversed by the Mekong (q.v.) which from Chieng-Khan to a point below +Stung-Treng forms the boundary between Laos (on the left bank) and Siam +and Cambodia (on the right). French Laos constitutes a strip of +territory between 700 and 800 m. in length with an average breadth of +155 m., an approximate area of 88,780 sq. m., and a population of about +550,000. Its northern region between the Mekong and Tongking is covered +by a tangle of mountain chains clothed with dense forests and traversed +by the Nam-Hou, the Nam-Ta and other tributaries of the Mekong. The +culminating point exceeds 6500 ft. in height. South of this is the +extensive wooded plateau of Tran-Ninh with an average altitude of +between 3000 and 5000 ft. Towards the 18th degree of latitude this +mountain system narrows into a range running parallel to and closely +approaching the coast of the China Sea as it descends south. The +boundary between Laos and Annam follows the crest-line of this range, +several peaks of which exceed 6500 ft. (Pu-Atwat, over 8000 ft.). On the +west its ramifications extend to the Mekong enclosing wide plains +watered by the affluents of that river. + +Laos is inhabited by a mixed population falling into three main +groups--the Thais (including the Laotions (see below)); various +aboriginal peoples classed as Khas; and the inhabitants of neighbouring +countries, e.g. China, Annam, Cambodia, Siam, Burma, &c. + +Laos has a rainy season lasting from June to October and corresponding +to the S.W. monsoon and a dry season coinciding with the N.E. monsoon +and lasting from November to May. Both in northern and southern Laos the +heat during April and May is excessive, the thermometer reaching 104° F. +and averaging 95° F. With the beginning of the rains the heat becomes +more tolerable. December, January and February are cool months, the +temperature in south Laos (south of 19°) averaging 77°, in north Laos +from 50° to 53°. The plateau of Tran-Ninh and, in the south, that of the +Bolovens are distinguished by the wholesomeness of their climate. + +The forests contain bamboo and many valuable woods amongst which only +the teak of north Laos and rattan are exploited to any extent; other +forest products are rubber, stick lac, gum, benjamin, cardamoms, &c. +Rice and maize, and cotton, indigo, tobacco, sugar-cane and cardamoms +are among the cultivated plants. Elephants are numerous and the forests +are inhabited by tigers, panthers, bears, deer and buffalo. Hunting and +fishing are leading occupations of the inhabitants. Many species of +monkeys, as well as peacocks, pheasants and woodcock are found, and the +reptiles include crocodiles, turtles, pythons and cobras. + +Scarcity of labour and difficulty of communication hinder the working +of the gold, tin, copper, argentiferous lead, precious stones and other +minerals of the country and the industries in general are of a primitive +kind and satisfy only local needs. + +The buffalo, the ox, the horse and the elephant are domesticated, and +these together with cardamoms, rice, tobacco and the products of the +forests form the bulk of the exports. Swine are reared, their flesh +forming an important article of diet. Imports are inconsiderable, +comprising chiefly cotton fabrics, garments and articles for domestic +use. Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese and is carried on for +the most part with Siam. The Mekong is the chief artery of transit; +elsewhere communication is afforded by tracks sometimes passable only +for pedestrians. Luang-Prabang (q.v.) is the principal commercial +town. Before the French occupation of Laos, it was split up into small +principalities (_muongs_) of which the chief was that of Vien-Tiane. +Vien-Tiane was destroyed in 1828 by the Siamese who annexed the +territory. In 1893 they made it over to the French, who grouped the +_muongs_ into provinces. Of these there are twelve each administered by +a French commissioner and, under his surveillance, by native officials +elected by the people from amongst the members of an hereditary +nobility. At the head of the administration there is a resident-superior +stationed at Savannaket. Up till 1896 Laos had no special budget, but +was administered by Cochin-China, Annam and Tongking. The budget for +1899 showed receipts £78,988 and expenditure £77,417. For 1904 the +budget figures were, receipts £82,942, expenditure £76,344. The chief +sources of revenue are the direct taxes (£15,606 in 1904), especially +the poll-tax, and the contribution from the general budget of Indo-China +(£54,090 in 1904). The chief items of expenditure in 1904 were +Government house, &c., £22,558, transport, £19,191, native guard, +£17,327. + + See M. J. F. Garnier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_ (Paris, + 1873); C. Gosselin, _Le Laos et le protectorat français_ (Paris, + 1900); L. de Reinach, _Le Laos_ (Paris, 1902) and _Notes sur le Laos_ + (Paris, 1906); and bibliography under INDO-CHINA, FRENCH. + + + + +LAOS, or LAOTIONS, an important division of the widespread Thai or Shan +race found throughout Indo-China from 28° N. and the sources of the +Irrawaddy as far as Cambodia and 7° N. in the Malay Peninsula. This Thai +family includes the Shans proper, and the Siamese. The name Lao, which +appears to mean simply "man," is the collective Siamese term for all the +Thai peoples subject to Siam, while Shan, said to be of Chinese origin, +is the collective Burmese term for those subject to Burma. Lao is +therefore rather a political than an ethnical title, and the people +cordially dislike the name, insisting on their right to be called Thai. +Owing to the different circumstances which have attended their +migrations, the Thai peoples have attained to varying degrees of +civilization. The Lao, who descended from the mountain districts of +Yunnan, Szechuen and Kweichow to the highland plains of upper +Indo-China, and drove the wilder Kha peoples whom they found in +possession into the hills, mostly adopted Buddhism, and formed small +settled communities or states in which laws were easy, taxes light and a +very fair degree of comfort was attained. There are two main divisions, +the Lao Pong Dam ("Black Paunch Laos"), so-called from their habit of +tattooing the body from the waist to the knees, and the Lao Pong Kao +("White Paunch Laos") who do not tattoo. Lao tattooing is of a most +elaborate kind. The Lao Pong Dam now form the western branch of the Lao +family, inhabiting the Siamese Lao states of Chieng Mai Lapaun, 'Tern +Pre and Nan, and reaching as far south as 17° N. Various influences have +contributed to making the Lao the pleasant, easy-going, idle fellow that +he is. The result is that practically all the trade of these states is +in the hands of Bangkok Chinese firms, of a certain number of European +houses and others, while most of the manual labour connected with the +teak industry is done by Ka Mus, who migrate in large numbers from the +left bank of the Mekong. The Lao Pong Kao, or eastern branch, appear to +have migrated southwards by the more easterly route of the Nam-u and the +Mekong valley. In contradistinction to the Lao Pong Dam, who have +derived their written language from the Burmese character, the eastern +race has retained what appears to be the early form of the present +Siamese writing, from which it differs little. They formed important +settlements at various points on the Mekong, notably Luang Prabang, +Wieng Chan (Vien-Tiane) Ubon and Bassac; and, heading inland as far as +Korat on the one side and the Annamite watershed in the east, they drove +out the less civilized Kha peoples, and even the Cambodians, as the Lao +Pong Dam did on the west. Vien-Tiane during the 18th century was the +most powerful of the Lao principalities, and was feared and respected +throughout Indo-China. It was destroyed by the Siamese in 1828. The +inhabitants, in accordance with the Indo-Chinese custom of the day, were +transported to Lower Siam. The Lao Pong Kao below 18° N. are a less +merry and less vivacious people, and are for the most part shorter and +more thick-set than those of Luang Prabang and the north. If possible, +they are as a race lazier than the western Lao, as they are certainly +more musical. The "khen," or mouth organ, which is universal among them, +is the sweetest-toned of eastern instruments. + +After 1828 the Laos became entirely subject to Siam, and were governed +partly by khiao, or native hereditary princes, partly by mandarins +directly nominated by the Bangkok authorities. The khiao were invested +by a gold dish, betel-box, spittoon and teapot, which were sent from +Bangkok and returned at their death or deposition. Of all the khiao the +most powerful was the prince of Ubon (15° N., 105° E.), whose +jurisdiction extended nearly from Bassac on the Mekong northwards to the +great southern bend of that river. Nearly all the Laos country is now +divided between France and Siam, and only a few tribes retain a nominal +independence. + +The many contradictory accounts of the Laos are due to the fact that the +race has become much mixed with the aboriginal inhabitants. The +half-castes sprung from alliances with the wild tribes of Caucasic stock +present every variety between that type and the Mongolian. But the pure +Laos are still distinguished by the high cheek-bones, small flat nose, +oblique eyes, wide mouth, black lank hair, sparse beard, and yellow +complexion of the Thai and other branches of the Mongol family. In +disposition the Laos are an apathetic, peace-loving, pleasant-mannered +race. Though the women have to work, they are free and well treated, and +polygamy is rare. The Laos are very superstitious, believe in +wer-wolves, and that all diseases are caused by evil spirits. Their +chief food is rice and fish. Men, women and children all smoke tobacco. +The civilized Laos were long addicted to slave-hunting, not only with +the sanction but even with the co-operation of their rulers, the Lao +mandarins heading regular expeditions against the wilder tribes. + + Closely allied with the Lao are a number of tribes found throughout + the hill regions of the upper Mekong, between Yunnan and Kwangsi in + China and the upper waters of the Menam in Siam. They have all within + recent times been partakers in the general movement towards the + south-west from the highland districts of southern China, which has + produced so many recruits for the peopling of the Indo-Chinese + peninsula. Of this group of people, among whom may be named the Yao, + Yao Yin, Lanten, Meo, Musur (or Muhso) and Kaw, perhaps the best known + and most like the Lao are the Lu--both names meaning originally + "man"--who have in many cases adopted a form of Buddhism (flavoured + strongly by their natural respect for local spirits as well as + tattooing) and other relatively civilized customs, and have forsaken + their wandering life among the hills for a more settled village + existence. Hardy, simple and industrious, fond of music, kind-hearted, + and with a strangely artistic taste in dress, these people possess in + a wonderful degree the secret of cheerful contentment. + + AUTHORITIES.--M. J. F. Garnier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_; + A. H. Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, Cambodia + and Laos_ (1864); Holt S. Hallett, _A Thousand Miles on an Elephant in + the Shan States_ (1890); A. R. Colquhoun, _Amongst the Shâns_ (1885); + Lord Lamington, _Proc. R.G.S._ vol. xiii. No. 12; Archer, _Report on a + Journey in the Mekong Valley_; Prince Henri d'Orléans, _Around Tonkin + and Siam_ (1894); M'Carthy, _Report on a Survey in Siam_ (1894); + Bulletins, Paris Geographical Society: H. Warington Smyth, _Notes of a + Journey on the Upper Mekong_ (1895); _Five Years in Siam_ (1898); + Harmand, _Le Laos et les populations sauvages de l'Indo-Chine_ (1880). + See also bibliography to preceding article. + + + + +LÂO-TSZE, or LAOU-TSZE, the designation of the Chinese author of the +celebrated treatise called _Tâo Teh King_, and the reputed founder of +the religion called _Tâoism_. The Chinese characters composing the +designation may mean either "the Old Son," which commonly assumes with +foreigners the form of "the Old Boy," or "the Old Philosopher." The +latter significance is attached to them by Dr Chalmers in his +translation of the treatise published in 1868 under the title of _The +Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity and Morality of "the Old +Philosopher," Lâo-tsze_. The former is derived from a fabulous account +of Lâo-tsze in the _Shan Hsien Chwan_; "The Account of Spirits and +Immortals," of Ko Hung in the 4th century A.D. According to this, his +mother, after a supernatural conception, carried him in her womb +sixty-two years (or seventy-two, or eighty-one--ten years more or fewer +are of little importance in such a case), so that, when he was born at +last, his hair was white as with age, and people might well call him +"the old boy." The other meaning of the designation rests on better +authority. We find it in the _Kiâ Yü_, or "Narratives of the Confucian +School," compiled in the 3rd century A.D. from documents said to have +been preserved among the descendants of Confucius, and also in the brief +history of Lâo-tsze given in the historical records of Sze-ma Ch'ien +(about 100 B.C.). In the latter instance the designation is used by +Confucius, and possibly it originated with him. It should be regarded +more as an epithet of respect than of years, and is equivalent to "the +Venerable Philosopher." + + All that Ch'ien tells us about Lâo-tsze goes into small compass. His + surname was Lî, and his name Urh. He was a native of the state of + Ch'û, and was born in a hamlet not far from the present prefectural + city of Kwei-te in Ho-nan province. He was one of the recorders or + historiographers at the court of Chow, his special department being + the charge of the whole or a portion of the royal library. He must + thus have been able to make himself acquainted with the history of his + country. Ch'ien does not mention the year of his birth, which is often + said, though on what Chinese authority does not appear, to have taken + place in the third year of King Phing, corresponding to 604 B.C. That + date cannot be far from the truth. That he was contemporary with + Confucius is established by the concurrent testimony of the _Lî Kî_ + and the _Kiâ Yü_ on the Confucian side, and of Chwang-tsze and Sze-ma + Ch'ien on the Tâoist. The two men whose influence has been so great on + all the subsequent generations of the Chinese people--Kung-tsze + (Confucius) and Lâo-tsze--had at least one interview, in 517 B.C., + when the former was in his thirty-fifth year. The conversation between + them was interesting. Lâo was in a mocking mood; Kung appears to the + greater advantage. If it be true that Confucius, when he was fifty-one + years old, visited Lâo-tsze as Chwang-tsze says (in the _Thien Yun_, + the fourteenth of his treatises), to ask about the _Tâo_, they must + have had more than one interview. Dr Chalmers, however, has pointed + out that both Chwang-tsze and Lieh-tsze (a still earlier Tâoist + writer) produce Confucius in their writings, as the lords of the + Philistines did the captive Samson on their festive occasions, "to + make sport for them." Their testimony is valueless as to any matter of + fact. There may have been several meetings between the two in 517 + B.C., but we have no evidence that they were together in the same + place after that time. Ch'ien adds:--"Lâo-tsze cultivated the _Tâo_ + and virtue, his chief aim in his studies being how to keep himself + concealed and unknown. He resided at (the capital of) Chow; but after + a long time, seeing the decay of the dynasty, he left it, and went + away to the Gate (leading from the royal domain into the regions + beyond--at the entrance of the pass of Han-kû, in the north-west of + Ho-nan). Yin Hsî, the warden of the Gate, said to him, 'You are about + to withdraw yourself out of sight; I pray you to compose for me a book + (before you go).' On this Lâo-tsze made a writing, setting forth his + views on the _tâo_ and virtue, in two sections, containing more than + 5000 characters. He then went away, and it is not known where he + died." The historian then mentions the names of two other men whom + some regarded as the true Lâo-tsze. One of them was a Lâo Lâi, a + contemporary of Confucius, who wrote fifteen treatises (or sections) + on the practices of the school of _Tâo_. Subjoined to the notice of + him is the remark that Lâo-tsze was more than one hundred and sixty + years old, or, as some say, more than two hundred, because by the + cultivation of the _Tâo_ he nourished his longevity. The other was "a + grand historiographer" of Chow, called Tan, one hundred and + twenty-nine (? one hundred and nineteen) years after the death of + Confucius. The introduction of these disjointed notices detracts from + the verisimilitude of the whole narrative in which they occur. + + Finally, Ch'ien states that "Lâo-tsze was a superior man, who liked to + keep in obscurity," traces the line of his posterity down to the 2nd + century B.C., and concludes with this important statement:--"Those who + attach themselves to the doctrine of Lâo-tsze condemn that of the + literati, and the literati on their part condemn Lâo-tsze, thus + verifying the saying, 'Parties whose principles are different cannot + take counsel together.' Lî Urh taught that transformation follows, as + a matter of course, the doing nothing (to bring it about), and + rectification ensues in the same way from being pure and still." + + +Accepting the _Tâo Teh King_ as the veritable work of Lâo-tsze, we may +now examine its contents. Consisting of not more than between five and +six thousand characters, it is but a short treatise--not half the size +of the Gospel of St Mark. The nature of the subject, however, the want +of any progress of thought or of logical connexion between its different +parts, and the condensed style, with the mystic tendencies and poetical +temperament of the author, make its meaning extraordinarily obscure. +Divided at first into two parts, it has subsequently and conveniently +been subdivided into chapters. One of the oldest, and the most common, +of these arrangements makes the chapters eighty-two. + + + Supposed harmony with Biblical teaching. + +Some Roman Catholic missionaries, two centuries ago, fancied that they +found a wonderful harmony between many passages and the teaching of the +Bible. Montucci of Berlin ventured to say in 1808: "Many things about a +Triune God are so clearly expressed that no one who has read this book +can doubt that the mystery of the Holy Trinity was revealed to the +Chinese five centuries before the coming of Jesus Christ." Even Rémusat, +the first occupant of a Chinese chair in Europe, published at Paris in +1823 his _Mémoire sur la vie et les opinions de Lâo-tsze_, to vindicate +the view that the Hebrew name Yahweh was phonetically represented in the +fourteenth chapter by Chinese characters. These fancies were exploded by +Stanislas Julien, when he issued in 1842 his translation of the whole +treatise as _Le Livre de la voie et de la vertu_. + +The most important thing is to determine what we are to understand by +the _Tâo_, for _Teh_ is merely its outcome, especially in man, and is +rightly translated by "virtue." Julien translated _Tâo_ by "la voie." +Chalmers leaves it untranslated. "No English word," he says (p. xi.), +"is its exact equivalent. Three terms suggest themselves--the way, +reason and the word; but they are all liable to objection. Were we +guided by etymology, 'the way' would come nearest the original, and in +one or two passages the idea of a way seems to be in the term; but this +is too materialistic to serve the purpose of a translation. 'Reason,' +again, seems to be more like a quality or attribute of some conscious +being than _Tâo_ is. I would translate it by 'the Word,' in the sense of +the Logos, but this would be like settling the question which I wish to +leave open, viz. what resemblance there is between the Logos of the New +Testament and this Chinese Tâo." Later Sinologues in China have employed +"nature" as our best analogue of the term. Thus Watters (_Lâo-tsze, A +Study in Chinese Philosophy_, p. 45) says:--"In the _Tâo Teh King_ the +originator of the universe is referred to under the names Non-Existence, +Existence, Nature (_Tâo_) and various designations--all which, however, +represent one idea in various manifestations. It is in all cases Nature +(_Tâo_) which is meant." This view has been skilfully worked out; but it +only hides the scope of "the Venerable Philosopher." "Nature" cannot be +accepted as a _translation_ of _Tâo_. That character was, primarily, the +symbol of a way, road or path; and then, figuratively, it was used, as +we also use _way_, in the senses of means and method--the _course_ that +we pursue in passing from one thing or concept to another as its end or +result. It is the name of a quality. Sir Robert Douglas has well said +(_Confucianism and Tâoism_, p. 189): "If we were compelled to adopt a +single word to represent the _Tâo_ of Lâo-tsze, we should prefer the +sense in which it is used by Confucius, 'the way,' that is, [Greek: +methodos]." + + + The doctrine of "the way." + +What, then, was the quality which Lâo-tsze had in view, and which he +thought of as the _Tâo_--there in the library of Chow, at the pass of +the valley of Han, and where he met the end of his life beyond the +limits of the civilized state? It was the simplicity of spontaneity, +action (which might be called non-action) without motive, free from all +selfish purpose, resting in nothing but its own accomplishment. This is +found in the phenomena of the material world. "All things spring up +without a word spoken, and grow without a claim for their production. +They go through their processes without any display of pride in them; +and the results are realized without any assumption of ownership. It is +owing to the absence of such assumption that the results and their +processes do not disappear" (chap. ii.). It only needs the same quality +in the arrangements and measures of government to make society beautiful +and happy. "A government conducted by sages would free the hearts of the +people from inordinate desires, fill their bellies, keep their ambitions +feeble and strengthen their bones. They would constantly keep the people +without knowledge and free from desires; and, where there were those who +had knowledge, they would have them so that they would not dare to put +it in practice" (chap. iii.). A corresponding course observed by +individual man in his government of himself becoming again "as a little +child" (chaps. x. and xxviii.) will have corresponding results. "His +constant virtue will be complete, and he will return to the primitive +simplicity" (chap. xxviii.). + +Such is the subject matter of the _Tâo Teh King_--the operation of this +method or _Tâo_, "without striving or crying," in nature, in society and +in the individual. Much that is very beautiful and practical is +inculcated in connexion with its working in the individual character. +The writer seems to feel that he cannot say enough on the virtue of +humility (chap. viii., &c.). There were three things which he prized and +held fast--gentle compassion, economy and the not presuming to take +precedence in the world (chap. lxvii.). His teaching rises to its +highest point in chap. lxiii.:--"It is the way of _Tâo_ not to act from +any personal motive, to conduct affairs without feeling the trouble of +them, to taste without being aware of the flavour, to account the great +as small and the small as great, to recompense injury with kindness." +This last and noblest characteristic of the _Tâo_, the requiting "good +for evil," is not touched on again in the treatise; but we know that it +excited general attention at the time, and was the subject of +conversation between Confucius and his disciples (_Confucian Analects_, +xiv. 36). + +What is said in the _Tâo_ on government is not, all of it, so +satisfactory. The writer shows, indeed, the benevolence of his heart. He +seems to condemn the infliction of capital punishment (chaps. lxxiii. +and lxxiv.), and he deplores the practice of war (chap. lxix.); but he +had no sympathy with the progress of society or with the culture and +arts of life. He says (chap. lxv.):--"Those who anciently were skilful +in practising the _Tâo_ did not use it to enlighten the people; their +object rather was to keep them simple. The difficulty in governing the +people arises from their having too much knowledge, and therefore he who +tries to govern a state by wisdom is a scourge to it, while he who does +not try to govern thereby is a blessing." The last chapter but one is +the following:--"In a small state with a few inhabitants, I would so +order it that the people, though supplied with all kinds of implements, +would not (care to) use them; I would give them cause to look on death +as a most grievous thing, while yet they would not go away to a distance +to escape from it. Though they had boats and carriages, they should have +no occasion to ride in them. Though they had buff-coats and sharp +weapons, they should not don or use them. I would make them return to +the use of knotted cords (instead of written characters). They should +think their coarse food sweet, their plain clothing beautiful, their +poor houses places of rest and their common simple ways sources of +enjoyment. There should be a neighbouring state within sight, and the +sound of the fowls and dogs should be heard from it to us without +interruption, but I would make the people to old age, even to death, +have no intercourse with it." + +On reading these sentiments, we must judge of Lâo-tsze that, with all +his power of thought, he was only a dreamer. But thus far there is no +difficulty arising from his language in regard to the _Tâo_. It is +simply a quality, descriptive of the style of character and action, +which the individual should seek to attain in himself, and the ruler to +impress on his administration. The language about the _Tâo_ in nature is +by no means so clear. While Sir Robert Douglas says that "the way" would +be the best translation of _Tâo_, he immediately adds:--"But _Tâo_ is +more than the way. It is the way and the way-goer. It is an eternal +road; along it all beings and things walk; but no being made it, for it +is being itself; it is everything, and nothing and the cause and effect +of all. All things originate from _Tâo_, conform to _Tâo_ and to _Tâo_ +at last they return." + + + The Tâo and the Deity. + +Some of these representations require modification; but no thoughtful +reader of the treatise can fail to be often puzzled by what is said on +the point in hand. Julien, indeed, says with truth (p. xiii.) that "it +is impossible to take _Tâo_ for the primordial Reason, for the sublime +Intelligence, which has created and governs the world"; but many of +Lâo-tsze's statements are unthinkable if there be not behind the _Tâo_ +the unexpressed recognition of a personal creator and ruler. Granted +that he does not affirm positively the existence of such a Being, yet +certainly he does not deny it, and his language even implies it. It has +been said, indeed, that he denies it, and we are referred in proof to +the fourth chapter:--"_Tâo_ is like the emptiness of a vessel; and the +use of it, we may say, must be free from all self-sufficiency. How deep +and mysterious it is, as if it were the author of all things! We should +make our sharpness blunt, and unravel the complications of things; we +should attemper our brightness, and assimilate ourselves to the +obscurity caused by dust. How still and clear is _Tâo_, a phantasm with +the semblance of permanence! I do not know whose son it is. It might +appear to have been before God (_Ti_)." + +The reader will not overlook the cautious and dubious manner in which +the predicates of _Tâo_ are stated in this remarkable passage. The +author does not say that it was before God, but that "it might appear" +to have been so. Nowhere else in his treatise does the nature of _Tâo_ +as a method or style of action come out more clearly. It has no positive +existence of itself; it is but like the emptiness of a vessel, and the +manifestation of it by men requires that they endeavour to free +themselves from all self-sufficiency. Whence came it? It does not shock +Lâo-tsze to suppose that it had a father, but he cannot tell whose son +it is. And, as the feeling of its mysteriousness grows on him, he +ventures to say that "it might appear to have been before God." + +There is here no denial but express recognition of the existence of God, +so far as it is implied in the name _Tî_, which is the personal name for +the concept of heaven as the ruling power, by means of which the fathers +of the Chinese people rose in prehistoric time to the idea of God. Again +and again Lâo-tsze speaks of heaven just as "we do when we mean thereby +the Deity who presides over heaven and earth." These last words are +taken from Watters (p. 81); and, though he adds, "We must not forget +that this heaven is inferior and subsequent to the mysterious _Tâo_, and +was in fact produced by it," it has been shown how rash and unwarranted +is the ascription of such a sentiment to "the Venerable Philosopher." He +makes the _Tâo_ prior to heaven and earth, which is a phrase denoting +what we often call "nature," but he does not make it prior to heaven in +the higher and immaterial usage of that name. The last sentence of his +treatise is:--"It is the _Tâo_--the way--of Heaven to benefit and not +injure; it is the _Tâo_--the way--of the sage to do and not strive." + + Since Julien laid the _Tâo Teh King_ fairly open to Western readers in + 1842, there has been a tendency to overestimate rather than to + underestimate its value as a scheme of thought and a discipline for + the individual and society. There are in it lessons of unsurpassed + value, such as the inculcation of simplicity, humility and + self-abnegation, and especially the brief enunciation of the divine + duty of returning good for ill; but there are also the regretful + representations of a primitive society when men were ignorant of the + rudiments of culture, and the longings for its return. + + When it was thought that the treatise made known the doctrine of the + Trinity, and even gave a phonetic representation of the Hebrew name + for God, it was natural, even necessary, to believe that its author + had had communication with more western parts of Asia, and there was + much speculation about visits to India and Judaea, and even to Greece. + The necessity for assuming such travels has passed away. If we can + receive Sze-mâ Ch'ien's histories as trustworthy, Lâo-tsze might have + heard, in the states of Chow and among the wild tribes adjacent to + them, views about society and government very like his own. Ch'ien + relates how an envoy came in 624 B.C.--twenty years before the date + assigned to the birth of Lâo-tsze--to the court of Duke Mû of Ch'in, + sent by the king of some rude hordes on the west. The duke told him of + the histories, poems, codes of rites, music and laws which they had + in the middle states, while yet rebellion and disorder were of + frequent occurrence, and asked how good order was secured among the + wild people, who had none of those appliances. The envoy smiled, and + replied that the troubles of China were occasioned by those very + things of which the duke vaunted, and that there had been a gradual + degeneration in the condition of its states, as their professed + civilization had increased, ever since the days of the ancient sage, + Hwang Tî, whereas in the land he came from, where there was nothing + but the primitive simplicity, their princes showed a pure virtue in + their treatment of the people, who responded to them with loyalty and + good faith. "The government of a state," said he in conclusion, "is + like a man's ruling his own single person. He rules it, and does not + know how he does so; and this was indeed the method of the sages." + Lâo-tsze did not need to go further afield to find all that he has + said about government. + + + The Tâoism of to-day + + We have confined ourselves to the Tâoism of the _Tâo Teh King_ without + touching on the religion Tâoism now existing in China, but which did + not take shape until more than five hundred years after the death of + Lâo-tsze, though he now occupies the second place in its trinity of + "The three Pure or Holy Ones." There is hardly a word in his treatise + that savours either of superstition or religion. In the works of + Lieh-tsze and Chwang-tsze, his earliest followers of note, we find + abundance of grotesque superstitions; but their beliefs (if indeed we + can say that they had beliefs) had not become embodied in any + religious institutions. When we come to the Ch'in dynasty (221-206 + B.C.), we meet with a Tâoism in the shape of a search for the fairy + islands of the eastern sea, where the herb of immortality might be + gathered. In the 1st century A.D. a magician, called Chang Tâo-ling, + comes before us as the chief professor and controller of this Tâoism, + preparing in retirement "the pill" which renewed his youth, supreme + over all spirits, and destroying millions of demons by a stroke of his + pencil. He left his books, talismans and charms, with his sword and + seal, to his descendants, and one of them, professing to be animated + by his soul, dwells on the Lung-hû mountain in Kiang-si, the + acknowledged head or pope of Tâoism. But even then the system was not + yet a religion, with temples or monasteries, liturgies and forms of + public worship. It borrowed all these from Buddhism, which first + obtained public recognition in China between A.D. 65 and 70, though at + least a couple of centuries passed before it could be said to have + free course in the country. + + Even still, with the form of a religion, Tâoism is in reality a + conglomeration of base and dangerous superstitions. Alchemy, geomancy + and spiritualism have dwelt and dwell under its shadow. Each of its + "three Holy Ones" has the title of _Thien Tsun_, "the Heavenly and + Honoured," taken from Buddhism, and also of _Shang Ti_ or God, taken + from the old religion of the country. The most popular deity, however, + is not one of them, but has the title of _Yü Wang Shang Tî_, "God, the + Perfect King." But it would take long to tell of all its "celestial + gods," "great gods," "divine rulers" and others. It has been doubted + whether Lâo-tsze acknowledged the existence of God at all, but modern + Tâoism is a system of the wildest polytheism. The science and religion + of the West meet from it a most determined opposition. The "Venerable + Philosopher" himself would not have welcomed them; but he ought not to + bear the obloquy of being the founder of the Tâoist religion. + (J. Le.) + + + + +LA PAZ, a western department of Bolivia, bounded N. by the national +territories of Caupolican and El Beni, E. by El Beni and Cochabamba, S. +by Cochabamba and Oruro and W. by Chile and Peru. Pop. (1900) 445,616, +the majority of whom are Indians. Area 53,777 sq. m. The department +belongs to the great Bolivian plateau, and its greater part to the cold, +bleak, _puna_ climatic region. The Cordillera Real crosses it N.W. to +S.E. and culminates in the snow-crowned summits of Sorata and Illimani. +The west of the department includes a part of the Titicaca basin with +about half of the lake. This elevated plateau region is partially barren +and inhospitable, its short, cold summers permitting the production of +little besides potatoes, quinoa (_Chenopodium quinoa_) and barley, with +a little Indian corn and wheat in favoured localities. Some attention is +given to the rearing of llamas, and a few cattle, sheep and mules are to +be seen south of Lake Titicaca. There is a considerable Indian +population in this region, living chiefly in small hamlets on the +products of their own industry. In the lower valleys of the eastern +slopes, where climatic conditions range from temperate to tropical, +wheat, Indian corn, oats and the fruits and vegetables of the temperate +zone are cultivated. Farther down, coffee, cacao, coca, rice, sugar +cane, tobacco, oranges, bananas and other tropical fruits are grown, and +the forests yield cinchona bark and rubber. The mineral wealth of La Paz +includes gold, silver, tin, copper and bismuth. Tin and copper are the +most important of these, the principal tin mines being in the vicinity +of the capital and known under the names of Huayna-Potosi, Milluni and +Chocoltaga. The chief copper mines are the famous Corocoro group, about +75 m. S.S.E. of Lake Titicaca by the Desaguadero river, the principal +means of transport. The output of the Corocoro mines, which also +includes gold and silver, finds its way to market by boat and rail to +Mollendo, and by pack animals to Tacna and rail to Arica. There are no +roads in La Paz worthy of the name except the 5 m. between the capital +and the "Alto," though stagecoach communication with Oruro and Chililaya +has been maintained by the national government. The railway opened in +1905 between Guaqui and La Paz (54 m.) superseded the latter of these +stage lines, and a railway is planned from Viacha to Oruro to supersede +the other. The capital of the department is the national capital La Paz. +Corocoro, near the Desaguadero river, about 75 m. S.S.E. of Lake +Titicaca and 13,353 ft. above sea-level, has an estimated population +(1906) of 15,000, chiefly Aymará Indians. + + + + +LA PAZ (officially LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO), the capital of Bolivia since +1898, the see of a bishopric created in 1605 and capital of the +department of La Paz, on the Rio de la Paz or Rio Chuquiapo, 42 m. S.E. +of Lake Titicaca (port of Chililaya) in 16° 30´ S., 68° W. Pop. (1900) +54,713, (1906, estimate) 67,235. The city is built in a deeply-eroded +valley of the Cordillera Real which is believed to have formed an outlet +of Lake Titicaca, and at this point descends sharply to the S.E., the +river making a great bend southward and then flowing northward to the +Beni. The valley is about 10 m. long and 3 m. wide, and is singularly +barren and forbidding. Its precipitous sides, deeply gullied by +torrential rains and diversely coloured by mineral ores, rise 1500 ft. +above the city to the margin of the great plateau surrounding Lake +Titicaca, and above these are the snow-capped summits of Illimani and +other giants of the Bolivian Cordillera. Below, the valley is fertile +and covered with vegetation, first of the temperate and then of the +tropical zone. The elevation of La Paz is 12,120 ft. above sea-level, +which places it within the _puna_ climatic region, in which the summers +are short and cold. The mean annual temperature is a little above the +_puna_ average, which is 54° F., the extremes ranging from 19° to 75°. +Pneumonia and bronchial complaints are common, but consumption is said +to be rare. The surface of the valley is very uneven, rising sharply +from the river on both sides, and the transverse streets of the city are +steep and irregular. At its south-eastern extremity is the Alameda, a +handsome public promenade with parallel rows of exotic trees, shrubs and +flowers, which are maintained with no small effort in so inhospitable a +climate. The trees which seem to thrive best are the willow and +eucalyptus. The streets are generally narrow and roughly paved, and +there are numerous bridges across the river and its many small +tributaries. The dwellings of the poorer classes are commonly built with +mud walls and covered with tiles, but stone and brick are used for the +better structures. The cathedral, which was begun in the 17th century +when the mines of Potosi were at the height of their productiveness, was +never finished because of the revolutions and the comparative poverty of +the city under the republic. It faces the Plaza Mayor and is +distinguished for the finely-carved stonework of its façade. Facing the +same plaza are the government offices and legislative chambers. Other +notable edifices and institutions are the old university of San Andrés, +the San Francisco church, a national college, a seminary, a good public +library and a museum rich in relics of the Inca and colonial periods. La +Paz is an important commercial centre, being connected with the Pacific +coast by the Peruvian railway from Mollendo to Puno (via Arequipa), and +a Bolivian extension from Guaqui to the Alto de La Paz (Heights of La +Paz)--the two lines being connected by a steamship service across Lake +Titicaca. An electric railway 5 m. long connects the Alto de La Paz with +the city, 1493 ft. below. This route is 496 m. long, and is expensive +because of trans-shipments and the cost of handling cargo at Mollendo. +The vicinity of La Paz abounds with mineral wealth; most important are +the tin deposits of Huayna-Potosi, Milluni and Chocoltaga. The La Paz +valley is auriferous, and since the foundation of the city gold has been +taken from the soil washed down from the mountain sides. + + La Paz was founded in 1548 by Alonzo de Mendoza on the site of an + Indian village called Chuquiapu. It was called the Pueblo Nuevo de + Nuestra Señora de la Paz in commemoration of the reconciliation + between Pizarro and Almagro, and soon became an important colony. At + the close of the war of independence (1825) it was rechristened La Paz + de Ayacucho, in honour of the last decisive battle of that protracted + struggle. It was made one of the four capitals of the republic, but + the revolution of 1898 permanently established the seat of government + here because of its accessibility, wealth, trade and political + influence. + + + + +LA PÉROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE GALAUP, COMTE DE (1741-_c._ 1788), French +navigator, was born near Albi, on the 22nd of August 1741. His family +name was Galaup, and La Pérouse or La Peyrouse was an addition adopted +by himself from a small family estate near Albi. As a lad of eighteen he +was wounded and made prisoner on board the "Formidable" when it was +captured by Admiral Hawke in 1759; and during the war with England +between 1778 and 1783 he served with distinction in various parts of the +world, more particularly on the eastern coasts of Canada and in Hudson's +Bay, where he captured Forts Prince of Wales and York (August 8th and +21st, 1782). In 1785 (August 1st) he sailed from Brest in command of the +French government expedition of two vessels ("La Boussole" under La +Pérouse himself, and "L'Astrolabe," under de Langle) for the discovery +of the North-West Passage, vainly essayed by Cook on his last voyage, +from the Pacific side. He was also charged with the further exploration +of the north-west coasts of America, and the north-east coasts of Asia, +of the China and Japan seas, the Solomon Islands and Australia; and he +was ordered to collect information as to the whale fishery in the +southern oceans and as to the fur trade in North America. He reached +Mount St Elias, on the coast of Alaska, on the 23rd of June 1786. After +six weeks, marked by various small discoveries, he was driven from these +regions by bad weather; and after visiting the Hawaiian Islands, and +discovering Necker Island (November 5th, 1786), he crossed over to Asia +(Macao, January 3rd, 1787). Thence he passed to the Philippines, and so +to the coasts of Japan, Korea and "Chinese Tartary," where his best +results were gained. Touching at Quelpart, he reached De Castries Bay, +near the modern Vladivostok, on the 28th of July 1787; and on the 2nd of +August following discovered the strait, still named after him, between +Sakhalin and the Northern Island of Japan. On the 7th of September he +put in at Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka, where he was well received by +special order of the Russian empress, Catherine II.; thence he sent home +Lesseps, overland, with the journals, notes, plans and maps recording +the work of the expedition. He left Avacha Bay on the 29th of September, +and arrived at Mauna in the Samoan group on the 8th of December; here de +Langle and ten of the crew of the "Astrolabe" were murdered. He quitted +Samoa on the 14th of December, touched at the Friendly Islands and +Norfolk Island and arrived in Botany Bay on the 26th of January 1788. +From this place, where he interchanged courtesies with some of the +English pioneers in Australia, he wrote his last letter to the French +Ministry of Marine (February 7th). After this no more was heard of him +and his squadron till in 1826 Captain Peter Dillon found the wreckage of +what must have been the "Boussole" and the "Astrolabe" on the reefs of +Vanikoro, an island to the north of the New Hebrides. In 1828 Dumont +d'Urville visited the scene of the disaster and erected a monument +(March 14th). + + See Milet Mureau, _Voyage de la Pérouse autour du monde_ (Paris, 1797) + 4 vols.; Gérard, _Vies ... des ... marins français_ (Paris, 1825), + 197-200; Peter Dillon, _Narrative ... of a Voyage in the South Seas + for the Discovery of the Fate of La Pérouse_ (London, 1829), 2 vols.; + Dumont d'Urville, _Voyage pittoresque autour du monde_; Quoy and Paul + Gaimard, _Voyage de ... l'Astrolabe_; Domeny de Rienzi, _Océanie_; Van + Tenac, _Histoire général de la marine_, iv. 258-264; _Moniteur + universel_, 13th of February 1847. + + + + +LAPIDARY, and GEM CUTTING (Lat. _lapidarius, lapis_, a stone). The +earliest examples of gem cutting and carving known (see also GEM) are +the ancient engraved seals, which are of two principal types, the +cylindrical or "rolling" seals of Babylonia and Assyria, suggested by a +joint of the bamboo or the central whorl of a conch-like shell, and the +peculiar scarabaeoid seals of Egypt. Recent researches make it appear +that both these types were in use as far back as 4500 B.C., though with +some variations. The jewels of Queen Zer, and other jewels consisting of +cut turquoise, lapis lazuli and amethyst, found by the French mission, +date from 4777 B.C. to 4515 B.C. Until about 2500 B.C., the cylinder +seals bore almost wholly animal designs; then cuneiform inscriptions +were added. In the 6th century B.C., the scarabaeoid type was introduced +from Egypt, while the rolling seals began to give place to a new form, +that of a tall cone. These, in a century or two, were gradually +shortened; the hole by which they were suspended was enlarged until it +could admit the finger, and in time they passed into the familiar form +of seal-rings. This later type, which prevailed for a long period, +usually bore Persian or Sassanian inscriptions. The scarabaeoid seals +were worn as rings in Egypt apparently from the earliest times. + +The most ancient of the cylinder seals were cut at first from shell, +then largely from opaque stones such as diorite and serpentine. After +2500 B.C., varieties of chalcedony and milky quartz were employed, +translucent and richly coloured; sometimes even rock crystal, and also +frequently a beautiful compact haematite. Amazone stone, amethyst and +fossil coral were used, but no specimen is believed to be known of ruby, +sapphire, emerald, diamond, tourmaline or spinel. + +The date of about 500 B.C. marks the beginning of a period of great +artistic taste and skill in gem carving, which extended throughout the +ancient civilized world, and lasted until the 3rd or 4th century A.D. +Prior to this period, all the work appears to have been done by hand +with a sapphire point, or else with a bow-drill; thenceforward the wheel +came to be largely employed. The Greek cutters, in their best period, +the 5th and 6th centuries B.C., knew the use of disks and drills, but +preferred the sapphire point for their finest work, and continued to use +it for two or three hundred years. Engraving by the bow-drill was +introduced in Assyrian and Babylonian work as early as perhaps 3000 +B.C., the earlier carving being all done with the sapphire point, which +was secured in a handle for convenient application. This handwork +demanded the utmost skill and delicacy of touch in the artist. The +bow-drill consisted of a similar point fastened in the end of a stick, +which could be rotated by means of a horizontal cross-bar attached at +each end to a string wound around the stick; as the cross-bar was moved +up and down, the stick was made to rotate alternately in opposite +directions. This has been a frequent device for such purposes among many +peoples, both ancient and modern, civilized and uncivilized. The point +used by hand, and the bow-drill, were afterwards variously combined in +executing such work. Another modification was the substitution for the +point, in either process, of a hollow tube or drill, probably in most +cases the joint of a hollow reed, whereby very accurate circles could be +made, as also crescent figures and the like. This process, used with +fine hard sand, has also been widely employed among many peoples. It may +perhaps have been suggested by the boring of other shells by carnivorous +molluscs of the _Murex_ type, examples of which may be picked up on any +sea-beach. It is possible that the cylinder seals were drilled in this +way out of larger pieces by means of a hollow reed or bamboo, the +cylinder being left as the core. + +The Egyptian scarabs were an early and very characteristic type of seal +cutting. The Greek gem cutters modified them by adding Greek and +Etruscan symbols and talismanic signs; many of them also worked in Egypt +and for Egyptians. Phoenician work shows a mixture of Assyrian and +Egyptian designs; and Cypriote seals, principally on the agate gems, are +known that are referred to the 9th century B.C. + +Scarabs are sometimes found that have been sliced in two, and the new +flat faces thus produced carved with later inscriptions and set in +rings. This secondary work is of many kinds. An Assyrian cylinder in the +Metropolitan Museum, New York, referred to 3000 B.C., bears such a +cutting of Mediterranean character, of the 2nd or 3rd century B.C. In +the early Christian era, also, many Greek and Roman gems were recut with +Gnostic and other peculiar and obscure devices. + +In the later Roman period, the 3rd and 4th centuries, a great decline in +the art is seen--so great that Castellani terms it "the idiotic age." +Numbers of gems of this kind have been found together, as though they +were the product of a single manufacturer, carved in the crudest manner, +both in design and execution. Yet remarkable results are sometimes +produced in these by a few touches of the drill, which under the glass +appear very crude but nevertheless yield strong effects. The same thing +may be seen now in many of the Japanese sketches and lacquer designs, +where a whole landscape is depicted, or rather suggested, by a few +simple but powerful strokes. It is now thought that some of these seals +may be of earlier origin than has been supposed, and also that they may +have been worn by the poorer classes, who could not afford the more +finished work. They must have been made by the hundred thousand. The +decline of the art went on until in the Byzantine period, especially the +6th century, it had reached a very low point. Most of the gems of this +period show drill-work of poor quality, although hand-work is +occasionally seen. + +With the Renaissance, the art of gem carving revived, and the engravers +from that time and onward have produced results that equal the best +Greek and Roman work; copies of ancient gem carvings made by some of the +18th-century masters are only distinguishable from true antiques by +experts of great proficiency. It is in fact extremely difficult to judge +positively as to the age of engraved gems. The materials of which they +are made are hard and resistant to any change through time, and there +are many ingenious devices for producing the appearances usually +believed to indicate great age, such as slightly dulled or scratched +surfaces and the like. There are also the gems with secondary carving, +already alluded to, and the ancient gems that have been partially recut +by modern engravers for the purpose of fraudulently enhancing their +price. All these elements enter into the problem and make it an almost +hopeless one for any but a person of great experience in the study of +such objects; and even he may not be able in all cases to decide. + +Until the 14th century, almost all the gems were cut _en cabochon_--that +is, smoothly rounded, as carbuncles and opals are still--or else in the +form of beads drilled from both sides for suspension or attachment, the +two perforations often meeting but imperfectly. These latter may be of +Asiatic origin, brought into Europe by commerce during the Crusades. +Some of the finest gems in the Austrian, Russian and German crowns are +stones of this perforated or bead type. An approach, or transition, to +the modern facetting is seen in a style of cutting often used for +rock-crystal in the 10th and 11th centuries: an oval cabochon was +polished flat, and the sides of the dome were also trimmed flat, with a +rounded back, and the upper side with a ridge in the centre, tapering +off to the girdle of the stone below. + +The plane facetted cutting is altogether modern; and hence the pictures +which represent the breastplate of the ancient Jewish high-priest as set +with facetted stones are wholly imaginary and probably incorrect, as we +have no exact knowledge of the forms of the gems. The Orientals polish +gems in all sorts of irregular, rounded shapes, according to the form of +the piece as found, and with the one object of preserving as much of its +original size and colour as possible. The greatest ingenuity is used to +make a speck of colour, as in a sapphire, tone up an entire gem, by +cutting it so that there is a point of high colour at the lower side of +the gem. + +In later times a few facets are sometimes cut upon a generally rounded +stone. The _cabochon_ method is still used for opaque or translucent +stones, as opal, moonstone, turquoise, carbuncle, &c.; but for +transparent gems the facetted cutting is almost always employed, on +account of its fine effect in producing brilliancy, by reflection or +refraction of light from the under side of the gem. Occasionally the +ancients used natural crystals with polished faces, or perhaps at times +polished these to some extent artificially. This use of crystals was +frequent with prisms of emerald, which were drilled and suspended as +drops. Those the French call "primes d'émeraudes." These were often +natural crystals from Zaborah, Egypt or the Tirol Mountains, drilled +through the height of the prism, and with little or no polishing. In +rare instances perfect and brilliant crystals may now be seen mounted as +gems. + +The modern method is that of numerous facets, geometrically disposed to +bring out the beauty of light and colour to the best advantage. This is +done at the sacrifice of material, often to the extent of half the stone +or even more--the opposite of the Oriental idea. There are various forms +of such cutting, but three are specially employed, known as the +brilliant, the rose and the table-cut. The last, generally made from +cleavage pieces, usually square or oblong, with a single facet or edge +on each side, and occasionally four or more facets on the lower side of +the stone, is used chiefly for emeralds, rubies and sapphires; the two +former for diamonds in particular. The brilliant is essentially a low, +double cone, its top truncated to form a large flat eight-sided face +called the table, and its basal apex also truncated by a very small face +known as the _culette_ or _cullet_. The upper and lower slopes are cut +into a series of triangular facets, 32 above the girdle, in four rows of +eight, and 24 below, in three rows, making 56 facets in all. The rose +form is used for diamonds not thick enough to cut as brilliants; it is +flat below and has 12 to 24, or sometimes 32, triangular facets above, +in three rows, meeting in a point. Stones thus cut are also known as +"roses couronnées"; others with fewer facets, twelve or even six, are +called "roses d'Anvers," and are a specialty, as their name implies, at +Antwerp. These, however, are only cut from very thin or shallow stones. +None of the rose-cut diamonds is equal in beauty to the brilliants. +There are several other forms, among which are the "briolette," +"marquise," oval and pear-shaped stones, &c., but they are of minor +importance. The pear-shaped brilliant is a facetted ball or drop, being +a brilliant in style of cutting, although the form of the gem is +elongated or drop-shaped. The "marquise" or "navette" form is an +elliptical brilliant of varying width in proportion to its length. The +"rondelle" form consists of flat, circular gems with smooth sides +pierced, like shallow beads, with facetted edges, and is sometimes used +between pearls, or gem beads, and in the coloured gems, such as rubies, +sapphires, emeralds, &c. The mitred gems fitted to a gauge are much used +and are closely set together, forming a continuous line of colour. + +Modern gem cutting and engraving are done by means of the lathe, which +can be made to revolve with extreme rapidity, carrying a point or small +disk of soft iron, with diamond-dust and oil. The disks vary in diameter +from that of a pin-head to a quarter of an inch. Better than the lathe, +also, is the S. S. White dental engine, which the present writer was the +first to suggest for this use. The flexibility and sensitiveness of this +machine enables it to respond to the touch of the artist and to impart a +personal quality to his work not possible with the mechanical action of +the lathe, and more like the hand-work with the sapphire point. The +diamond-dust and oil, thus applied, will carve any stone softer than the +diamond itself with comparative ease. + +We may now review some of the special forms of cutting and working gems +and ornamental stones that have been developed in Europe since the +period of the Renaissance. + + Garnets (q.v.) have been used and worked from remote antiquity; but in + modern times the cutting of them has been carried on chiefly in + Bohemia, in the region around Merowitz and Dlaskowitch. The stones + occur in a trap rock, and are weathered out by its decomposition and + gathered from gravels and beds of streams. They are of the rich red + variety known as pyrope (q.v.), or Bohemian garnet; it is generally + valued as a gem-stone. Such are the so-called "Cape rubies," of South + Africa, found in considerable quantity in German East Africa, and the + beautiful garnets known as the "Arizona rubies." Garnets are so + abundant in Bohemia as to constitute an important industry, employing + some five hundred miners, an equal number of cutters and as many as + three thousand dealers. Extensive garnet cutting is also done in + India, especially at Jeypore, where there are large works employing + natives who have been taught by Europeans. The Indian garnets, + however, are mostly of another variety, the almandine (q.v.); it is + equally rich in colour, though inclining more to a violet cast than + the pyrope, and can be obtained in larger pieces. The ancient garnets, + from Etruscan and Byzantine remains, some of which are flat plates set + in gold, or carved with mythological designs, were probably obtained + from India or perhaps from the remarkable locality for large masses of + garnet in German East Africa. Many are cut with the portraits of + Sassanian kings with their characteristic pearl earrings. The East + Indians carve small dishes out of a single garnet. + + The carving of elegant objects from transparent quartz, or rock + crystal, has been carried on since the 16th century, first in Italy, + by the greatest masters of the time, and afterwards in Prague, under + Rudolph II., until the Thirty Years' War, when the industry was wiped + out. Splendid examples of this work are in the important museums of + Europe. Many of these are reproduced now in Vienna, and fine examples + are included in some American museums. Among them are rock-crystal + dishes several inches across, beautifully engraved in intaglio and + mounted in silver with gems. Other varieties of quartz minerals, such + as agate, jasper, &c., and other ornamental stones of similar + hardness, are likewise wrought into all manner of art objects. + Caskets, vases, ewers, coupés and animal and other fanciful forms, are + familiar in these opaque and semi-transparent stones, either carved + out of single masses or made of separate pieces united with gold, + silver or enamel in the most artistic manner. Cellini, and other + masters in the 16th and 17th centuries, vied with each other in such + work. + + The greatest development of agate (q.v.), however, has been seen in + Germany, at Waldkirch in Breisgau, and especially at Idar and + Oberstein on the Nahe, in Oldenburg. The industry began in the 14th + century, at the neighbouring town of Freiburg, but was transferred to + Waldkirch, where it is still carried on, employing about 120 men and + women, the number of workmen having increased nearly threefold since + the middle of the 19th century. The Idar and Oberstein industry was + founded somewhat later, but is much more extensive. Mills run by + water-power line the Nahe river for over 30 m., from above Kreuznach + to below Idar, and gave employment in 1908 to some 5000 people--1625 + lapidaries, 160 drillers, 100 engravers, 2900 cutters, &c., besides + 300 jewellers and 300 dealers. The industry began here in consequence + of the abundance of agates in the amygdaloid rocks of the vicinity; + and it is probable that many of the Cinque Cento gems, and perhaps + even some of the Roman ones, were obtained in this region. By the + middle of the 18th century the best material was about exhausted, but + the industry had become so firmly established that it has been kept up + and increased by importing agates. In 1540 there were only three + mills; in 1740, twenty-five; in 1840, fifty; in 1870, one hundred and + eighty-four. Agents and prospectors are sent all over the world to + procure agates and other ornamental stones, and enormous quantities + are brought there and stored. The chief source of agate supply has + been in Uruguay, but much has been brought from other distant lands. + It was estimated that fifty thousand tons were stored at Salto in + Uruguay at one time. + + The grinding is done on large, horizontal wheels like grindstones, + some 6 ft. in diameter and one-fourth as thick, run by water-wheels. + The faces of some of these grindstones are made with grooves of + different sizes so that round objects or convex surfaces can be ground + very easily and rapidly. An agate ball or marble, for instance, is + made from a piece broken to about the right size and held in one of + these semicircular grooves until one-half of it is shaped, and then + turned over and the other half ground in the same way. The polishing + is done on wooden wheels, with tripoli found in the vicinity; any + carving or ornamentation is then put on with a wheel-edge or a drill + by skilled workmen. + + In the United States the Drake Company at Sioux Falls, South Dakota, + has done cutting and polishing in hard materials on a grand scale. It + is here, and here only, that the agatized wood from Chalcedony Park, + Arizona, has been cut and polished, large sections of tree-trunks + having been made into table-tops and columns of wonderful beauty, with + a polish like that of a mirror. + + Much of the finest lapidary work, both on a large and a small scale, + is done in Russia. Catherine II. sought to develop the precious stone + resources of the Ural region, and sent thither two Italian lapidaries. + This led to the founding of an industry which now employs at least a + thousand people. The work is done either at the great imperial + lapidary establishment at Ekaterinburg, or in the vicinity of the + mines by lapidary masters, as they are called, each of whom has his + peculiar style. The products are sold to dealers at the great Russian + fairs at Nizhniy Novgorod, Moscow and Ekaterinburg. The imperial works + at the last-named place have command of an immense water-power, and + are on such a scale that great masses of hard stones can be worked as + marble is in other countries. Much of the machinery is primitive, but + the applications are ingenious and the results unsurpassed anywhere. + The work done is of several classes, ranging from the largest and most + massive to the smallest and most delicate. There is (1) the cutting of + facetted gems, as topaz, aquamarine, amethyst, &c., from the mines of + the Ural, and of other gem-stones also; this is largely done by means + of the cadrans, a small machine held in the hand, by which the angle + of the facets can be adjusted readily when once the stone has been + set, and which produces work of great beauty and accuracy. Then there + is (2) a vast variety of ornamental objects, large and small, some + weighing 2000 lb. and over, and requiring years to complete; they are + made from the opaque minerals of the Ural and Siberia--malachite, + rhodonite, lapis-lazuli, aventurine and jasper. A peculiar type of + work is (3) the production of beautiful groups of fruit, flowers and + leaves, in stones selected to match exactly the colour of each object + represented. These are chosen with great care and skill, somewhat as + in the Florentine mosaics, not to produce a flat inlaid picture, + however, but a perfect reproduction of form, size and colour. These + groups are carved and polished from hard stones, whereas the + Florentine mosaic work includes many substances that are much softer, + as glass, shell, &c. + + Enormous masses of material are brought to these works; the supply of + rhodonite, jade, jaspers of various colours, &c., sometimes amounting + to hundreds of tons. One mass of Kalkansky jasper weighed nearly 9 + tons, and a mass of rhodonite above 50 tons; the latter required a + week of sledging, with ninety horses, to bring it from the quarry, + only 14 m. from the works. About seventy-five men are employed, at + twenty-five roubles a month (£2, 11s. 6d.), and ten boys, who earn + from two to ten roubles (4s. to £1). A training school is connected + with the works, where over fifty boys are pupils; on graduating they + may remain as government lapidaries or set up on their own account. + + There are two other great Russian imperial establishments of the same + kind. One of these, founded by Catherine II., is at Peterhof, a short + distance from the capital; it is a large building fitted up with + imperial elegance. Here are made all the designs and models for the + work done at Ekaterinburg; these are returned and strictly preserved. + In the Peterhof works are to be seen the largest and most remarkable + achievements of the lapidarian art, vases and pedestals and columns of + immense size, made from the hardest and most elegant stones, often + requiring the labour of years for their completion. The third great + establishment is at Kolyvan, in Siberia, bearing a like relation to + the minerals and gem-stones of the Altai region that the works of + Ekaterinburg do to the Ural. The three establishments are conducted at + large expense, from the private revenue of the tsar. The Russian + emperors have always taken special interest in lapidary work, and the + products of these establishments have made that country famous + throughout the world. The immense monolithic columns of the Hermitage + and of St Isaac's Cathedral, of polished granite and other hard and + elegant stones, are among the triumphs of modern architectural work; + and the Alexander column at St Petersburg is a single polished shaft, + 13 ft. in diameter and 82 ft. in height, of the red Finland granite. + + The finest lapidary work of modern France is done at Moulin la + Vacherie Saint Simon, Seine-et-Marne, where some seventy-five of the + most skilful artisans are engaged. The products are all manner of + ornamental objects of every variety of beautiful stone, all finished + with absolute perfection of detail. Columns and other ornaments of + porphyry and the like, of ancient workmanship, are brought hither from + Egypt and elsewhere, and recut into smaller objects for modern + artistic tastes. Here, too, are made spheres of transparent + quartz--"crystal balls"--up to 6 in. in diameter, the material for + which is obtained in Madagascar. + + A few words may be said, by way of comparison and contrast, about the + lapidary art of Japan and China, especially in relation to the crystal + balls, now reproduced in France and elsewhere. The tools are the + simplest, and there is no machinery; but the lack of it is made up by + time and patience, and by hereditary pride, as a Japanese artisan can + often trace back his art through many generations continuously. To + make a quartz ball, a large crystal or mass is chipped or broken into + available shape, and then the piece is trimmed into a spherical form + with a small steel hammer. The polishing is effected by grinding with + emery and garnet-powder and plenty of water, in semi-cylindrical + pieces of cast iron, of sizes varying with that of the ball to be + ground, which is kept constantly turning as it is rubbed. Small balls + are fixed in the end of a bamboo tube, which the worker continually + revolves. The final brilliant polish is given by the hand, with + rouge-powder (haematite). This process is evidently very slow, and + only the cheapness of labour prevents the cost from being too great. + + The spheres are now made quite freely but very differently in France, + Germany and the United States. They are ground in semicircular grooves + in a large horizontal wheel of hard stone, such as is used for + grinding garnets at Oberstein and Idar, or else by gradually revolving + them on a lathe and fitting them into hollow cylinders. Plenty of + water must be used, to prevent heating and cracking. The polishing is + effected on a wooden wheel with tripoli. Work of this kind is now done + in the United States, in the production of the spheres and carved + ornaments of rock-crystal, that is equal to any in the world. But most + of the material for these supposed Japanese balls now comes from + Brazil or Madagascar, and the work is done in Germany or France. + + The cutting of amber is a special branch of lapidary work developed + along the Baltic coast of Germany, where amber is chiefly obtained. + The amber traffic dates back to prehistoric times; but the cutting + industry in northern Europe cannot be definitely traced further back + than the 14th century, when gilds of amber-workers were known at + Bruges and Lübeck. Fine carving was also done at Königsberg as early + as 1399. The latter city and Danzig have become the chief seats of the + amber industry, and the business has increased immensely within a + recent period. Articles are made there, not only for all the civilized + world, but for exportation to half-civilized and even barbarous + nations, in great variety of shapes, styles and colours. + +DIAMOND CUTTING.--On account of its extreme hardness, the treatment of +the diamond in preparation for use in jewelry constitutes a separate and +special branch of the lapidary's art. Any valuable gem must first be +trimmed, cleaved or sawed into suitable shape and size, then cut into +the desired form, and finally polished upon the faces which have been +cut. The stages in diamond working are, therefore, (1) cleavage or +division; (2) cutting; (3) polishing; but in point of fact there are +four processes, as the setting of the stone for cutting is a somewhat +distinct branch, and the workers are classed in four groups--cleavers, +setters, cutters and polishers. + +1. _Cleaving or Dividing._--Diamonds are always found as crystals, +usually octahedral in form, though often irregular or distorted. The +problem involved in each case is twofold: (1) to obtain the largest +perfect stone possible, and (2) to remove any portions containing flaws +or defects. These ends are generally met by cleaving the crystal, i.e. +causing it to split along certain natural planes of structural weakness, +which are parallel with the faces of the octahedron. This process +requires the utmost judgment, care and skill on the part of the +operator, as any error would cause great loss of valuable material; +hence expert cleavers command very high wages. The stone is first +examined closely, to determine the directions of the cleavage planes, +which are recognizable only by an expert. The cleaver then cuts a narrow +notch at the place selected, with another diamond having a sharp point; +a rather dull iron or steel edge is then laid on this line, and a smart +blow struck upon it. If all has been skilfully done, the diamond divides +at once in the direction desired. De Boot in 1609 mentions knowing some +one who could part a diamond like mica or talc. In this process, each of +the diamonds is fixed in cement on the end of a stick or handle, so that +they can be held firmly while one is applied to the other. + +When the stone is large and very valuable, the cleaving is a most +critical process. Wollaston in 1790 made many favourable transactions by +buying very poor-looking flawed stones and cleaving off the good parts. +In the case of the immense Excelsior diamond of 971 carats, which was +divided at Amsterdam in 1904, and made into ten splendid stones, the +most elaborate study extending over two months was given to the work +beforehand, and many models were made of the very irregular stone and +divided in different ways to determine those most advantageous. This +process was in 1908 applied to the most remarkable piece of work of the +kind ever undertaken--the cutting of the gigantic Cullinan diamond of +3025¾ English carats. The stone was taken to Amsterdam to be treated by +the old-fashioned hand method, with innumerable precautions of every +kind at every step, and the cutting was successfully accomplished after +nine months' work (see _The Times_, Nov. 10, 1908). The two principal +stones obtained (see DIAMOND), one a pendeloque or drop brilliant, and +the other a square brilliant, were given 72 and 64 facets respectively +(exclusive of the table and cullet) instead of the normal 56. + +This process of cleavage is the old-established one, still used to a +large extent, especially at Amsterdam. But a different method has +recently been introduced, that of sawing,[1] which is now generally +employed in Antwerp. The stone is placed in a small metal receptacle +which is filled with melted aluminium; thus embedded securely, with only +the part to be cut exposed, it is pressed firmly against the edge of a +metallic disk or thin wheel, 4 or 5 in. in diameter, made of copper, +iron or phosphor bronze, which is charged with diamond dust and oil, and +made to revolve with great velocity. This machine was announced as an +American invention, but the form now principally employed at Antwerp was +invented by a Belgian diamond cutter in the United States, and is +similar to slitting wheels used by gem cutters for centuries. Two +patents were taken out, however, by different parties, with some +distinctions of method. The process is much slower than hand-cleavage, +but greatly diminishes the loss of material involved. It is claimed that +not only can flaws or defective portions be thus easily taken off, but +that any well-formed crystal of the usual octahedral shape (known in the +trade as "six-point") can be divided in half very perfectly at the +"girdle," making two stones, in each of which the sawed face can be used +with advantage to form the "table" of a brilliant. By another method the +stone is sawed at a tangent with the octahedron, and then each half into +three pieces; for this Wood method a total saving of 5% is claimed. +Occasionally the finest material is only a small spot in a large mass of +impure material, and this is taken out by most skilful cleaving. + +After the cleaving or sawing, however, the diamond is rarely yet in a +form for cutting the facets, and requires considerable shaping. This +rough "blocking-out" of the final form it is to assume, by removing +irregularities and making it symmetrical, is called "brutage." +Well-shaped and flawless crystals, indeed may not require to be cleaved, +and then the brutage is the first process. Here again, the old hand +methods are beginning to give place to mechanism. In either case two +diamonds are taken, each fixed in cement on the end of a handle or +support, and are rubbed one against the other until the irregularities +are ground away and the general shape desired is attained. The old +method was to do this by hand--an extremely tedious and laborious +process. The machine method, invented about 1885 and first used by Field +and Morse of Boston, is now used at Antwerp exclusively. In this, one +diamond is fixed at the centre of a rotating apparatus, and the other, +on an arm or handle, is placed so as to press steadily against the other +stone at the proper angle. The rotating diamond thus becomes rounded and +smoothed; the other one is then put in its place at the centre and their +mutual action reversed. + +At Amsterdam a hand-process is employed, which lies between the cleavage +and the brutage. This consists in cutting or trimming away angles and +irregularities all over the stone by means of a sharp-edged or pointed +diamond, both being mounted in cement on pear-shaped handles for firm +holding. This work is largely done by women. In all these processes the +dust and fragments are caught and carefully saved. + +2. _Cutting and Setting._--The next process is that of cutting the +facets; but an intervening step is the fixing or "setting" of the stone +for that purpose. This is done by embedding it in a fusible alloy, +melting at 440° Fahr., in a little cup-shaped depression on the end of a +handle, the whole being called a "dop." Only the portion to be ground +off is left exposed; and two such mounted diamonds are then rubbed +against each other until a face is produced. This is the work of the +cutter; it is very laborious, and requires great care and skill. The +hands must be protected with leather gloves. The powder produced is +carefully saved, as in the former processes, for use in the final +polishing. When one face has been produced, the alloy is softened by +heating, and the stone re-set for grinding another surface; and as this +process is necessary for every face cut, it must be repeated many times +for each stone. An improved dop has lately been devised in which the +diamond is held by a system of claws so that all this heating and +resetting can, it is claimed, be obviated, and the cutting completed +with only two changes. + +3. _Polishing._--The faces having thus been cut, the last stage is the +polishing. This is done upon horizontal iron wheels called "skaifs," +made to rotate up to 2500 revolutions per minute. The diamond-powder +saved in the former operations, and also made by crushing very inferior +diamonds, here comes into use as the only material for polishing. It is +applied with oil, and the stones are fixed in a "dop" in much the same +way as in the cutting process. Again, the utmost skill and watchfulness +are necessary, as the angles of the faces must be mathematically exact, +in order to yield the best effects by refraction and reflection of +light, and their sizes must be accurately regulated to preserve the +symmetry of the stone. In this process, also, the old hand method is +already replaced in part by an improved device whereby the diamond is +held by adjustable claws, on a base that can be rotated, so as to apply +it in any desired position. By this means the time and trouble of +repeated re-setting in the dop are saved, as well as the liability to +injury from the heating and cooling; the services of special "setters" +are also made needless. + +The rapid development of mechanical devices for the several stages of +diamond cutting has already greatly influenced the art. A very +interesting comparison was brought out in the thirteenth report of the +American Commissioner of Labour, as to the aspects and relations of +hand-work and machinery in this branch of industry. It appeared from the +data gathered that the advantage lay with machinery as to time and with +hand-work as to cost, in the ratios respectively of 1 to 3.38 and 1.76 +to 1. In other words, about half the gain in time is lost by increased +expense in the use of machine methods. A great many devices and +applications have been developed within the last few years, owing to the +immense increase in the production of diamonds from the South African +mines, and their consequent widespread use. + + _History of Diamond Cutting._--The East Indian diamonds, many of which + are doubtless very ancient, were polished in the usual Oriental + fashion by merely rounding off the angles. Among church jewels in + Europe are a few diamonds of unknown age and source, cut four-sided, + with a table above and a pyramid below. Several cut diamonds are + recorded among the treasures of Louis of Anjou in the third quarter of + the 14th century. But the first definite accounts of diamond polishing + are early in the century following, when one Hermann became noted for + such work in Paris. The modern method of "brilliant" cutting, however, + is generally ascribed to Louis de Berquem, of Bruges, who in 1475 cut + several celebrated diamonds sent to him by Charles the Bold, duke of + Burgundy. He taught this process to many pupils, who afterwards + settled in Antwerp and Amsterdam, which have been the chief centres of + diamond cutting ever since. Peruzzi was the artist who worked out the + theory of the well-proportioned brilliant of 58 facets. Some very fine + work was done early in London also, but most of the workmen were Jews, + who, being objectionable in England, finally betook themselves to + Amsterdam and Antwerp. Efforts have been lately made to re-establish + the art in London, where, as the great diamond mart of the world, it + should peculiarly belong. + + The same unwise policy was even more marked in Portugal. That nation + had its colonial possessions in India, following the voyages and + discoveries of Da Gama, and thus became the chief importer of diamonds + into Europe. Early in the 18th century, also, the diamond-mines were + discovered in Brazil, which was then likewise a Portuguese possession; + thus the whole diamond product of the world came to Portugal, and + there was naturally developed in Lisbon an active industry of cutting + and polishing diamonds. But in time the Jews were forced away, and + went to Holland and Belgium, where diamond cutting has been + concentrated since the middle of the 18th century. + + It is of interest to trace the recent endeavours to establish diamond + cutting in the United States. The pioneer in this movement was Henry + D. Morse of Boston, associated with James W. Yerrington of New York. + He opened a diamond-cutting establishment about 1860 and carried it on + for some years, training a number of young men and women, who became + the best cutters in the country. But the chief importance of his work + lay in its superior quality. So long had it been a monopoly of the + Dutch and Belgians that it was declining into a mere mechanical trade. + Morse studied the diamond scientifically and taught his pupils how + important mathematical exactitude in cutting was to the beauty and + value of the gem. He thus attained a perfection rarely seen before, + and gave a great stimulus to the art. Shops were opened in London as + well, in consequence of Morse's success; and many valuable diamonds + were recut in the United States after his work became known. This fact + in turn reacted upon the cutter abroad, especially in France and + Switzerland; and thus the general standard of the art was greatly + advanced. + + Diamond cutting in the United States is now a well-established + industry. From 1882 to 1885 a number of American jewelers undertook + such work, but for various reasons it was not found practicable then. + Ten years later, however, there were fifteen firms engaged in diamond + cutting, giving employment to nearly 150 men in the various processes + involved. In the year 1894 a number of European diamond workers came + over; some foreign capital became engaged; and a rapid development of + diamond cutting took place. This movement was caused by the low tariff + on uncut diamonds as compared with that on cut stones. It went so far + as to be felt seriously abroad; but in a year or two it declined, + owing partly to strikes and partly to legal questions as to the + application of some of the tariff provisions. At the close of 1895, + however, there were still some fourteen establishments in and near New + York, employing about 500 men. Since then the industry has gradually + developed. Many of the European diamond workers who came over to + America remained and carried on their art; and the movement then begun + has become permanent. New York is now recognized as one of the chief + diamond-cutting centres; there are some 500 cutters, and the quality + of work done is fully equal, if not superior, to any in the Old World. + So well is this fact established that American-cut diamonds are + exported and sold in Europe to a considerable and an increasing + extent. + + In the Brazilian diamond region of Minas Geraes an industry of cutting + has grown up since 1875. Small mills are run by water power, and the + machinery, as well as the methods, are from Holland. This Brazilian + diamond work is done both well and cheaply, and supplies the local + market. + + The leading position in diamond working still belongs to Amsterdam, + where the number of persons engaged in the industry has trebled since + about 1875, in consequence of the enormous increase in the world's + supply of diamonds. The number now amounts to 15,000, about one-third + of whom are actual cleavers, cutters, polishers, &c. The number of + cutting establishments in Amsterdam is about seventy, containing some + 7000 mills. + + Antwerp comes next with about half as many mills and a total of some + 4500 persons engaged in all departments, including about seventy + women. These are distributed among thirty-five or forty + establishments. A majority of the workers are Belgians, but there are + many Dutch, Poles and Austro-Hungarians, principally Jews. Among these + numerous employees there is much opportunity for dishonesty, and but + little surveillance, actual or possible; yet losses from this cause + are almost unknown. The wages paid are good, averaging from £2, 9s. + 6d. to £2, 17s. 6d. a week. Sorters receive from 28s. to £2; cutters + from £2, 9s. 6d to £3, 6s., and cleavers from £3, 14s. upwards. + + With the recent introduction of electricity in diamond cutting there + has been a revolution in that industry. Whereas formerly wheels were + made to revolve by steam, they are now placed in direct connexion with + electric motors, although there is not a motor to each machine. The + saws for slitting the diamond can thus be made to revolve much more + rapidly, and there is a cleanliness and a speed about the work never + before attained. (G. F. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _The Universal Magazine of Knowledge and Pleasure_ for 1749 + states that diamond dust, "well ground and diluted with water and + vinegar, is used in the sawing of diamonds, which is done with an + iron or brass wire, as fine as a hair."--Ed. + + + + +LAPILLI (pl. of Ital. _lapillo_, from Lat. _lapillus_, dim. of _lapis_, +a stone), a name applied to small fragments of lava ejected from a +volcano. They are generally subangular in shape and vesicular in +structure, varying in size from a pea to a walnut. In the Neapolitan +dialect the word becomes _rapilli_--a form sometimes used by English +writers on volcanoes. (See VOLCANOES.) + + + + +LAPIS LAZULI, or azure stone,[1] a mineral substance valued for +decorative purposes in consequence of the fine blue colour which it +usually presents. It appears to have been the sapphire of ancient +writers: thus Theophrastus describes the [Greek: sappheiros] as being +spotted with gold-dust, a description quite inappropriate to modern +sapphire, but fully applicable to lapis lazuli, for this stone +frequently contains disseminated particles of iron-pyrites of gold-like +appearance. Pliny, too, refers to the _sapphirus_ as a stone sprinkled +with specks of gold; and possibly an allusion to the same character may +be found in Job xxviii. 6. The Hebrew _sappir_, denoting a stone in the +High Priest's breastplate, was probably lapis lazuli, as acknowledged in +the Revised Version of the Bible. With the ancient Egyptians lapis +lazuli was a favourite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs; +it was also used to a limited extent by the Assyrians and Babylonians +for cylinder seals. It has been suggested that the Egyptians obtained it +from Persia in exchange for their emeralds. When the lapis lazuli +contains pyrites, the brilliant spots in the deep blue matrix invite +comparison with the stars in the firmament. The stone seems to have been +sometimes called by ancient writers [Greek: kyanos]. It was a favourite +material with the Italians of the _Cinquecento_ for vases, small busts +and other ornaments. Magnificent examples of the decorative use of lapis +lazuli are to be seen in St Petersburg, notably in the columns of St +Isaac's cathedral. The beautiful blue colour of lapis lazuli led to its +employment, when ground and levigated, as a valuable pigment known as +ultramarine (q.v.), a substance now practically displaced by a +chemical product (artificial ultramarine). + +Lapis lazuli occurs usually in compact masses, with a finely granular +structure; and occasionally, but only as a great rarity, it presents +the form of the rhombic dodecahedron. Its specific gravity is 2.38 to +2.45, and its hardness about 5.5, so that being comparatively soft it +tends, when polished, to lose its lustre rather readily. The colour is +generally a fine azure or rich Berlin blue, but some varieties exhibit +green, violet and even red tints, or may be altogether colourless. The +colour is sometimes improved by heating the stone. Under artificial +illumination the dark-blue stones may appear almost black. The mineral +is opaque, with only slight translucency at thin edges. + +Analyses of lapis lazuli show considerable variation in composition, and +this led long ago to doubt as to its homogeneity. This doubt was +confirmed by the microscopic studies of L. H. Fischer, F. Zirkel and H. +P. J. Vogelsang, who found that sections showed bluish particles in a +white matrix; but it was reserved for Professor W. C. Brögger and H. +Bäckström, of Christiania, to separate the several constituents and +subject them to analysis, thus demonstrating the true constitution of +lapis lazuli, and proving that it is a rock rather than a definite +mineral species. The essential part of most lapis lazuli is a blue +mineral allied to sodalite and crystallized in the cubic system, which +Brögger distinguishes as lazurite, but this is intimately associated +with a closely related mineral which has long been known as haüyne, or +haüynite. The lazurite, sometimes regarded as true lapis lazuli, is a +sulphur-bearing sodium and aluminium silicate, having the formula: +Na4(NaS3Al) Al2(SiO4)3. As the lazurite and the haüynite seem to occur +in molecular intermixture, various kinds of lapis lazuli are formed; and +it has been proposed to distinguish some of them as lazurite-lapis and +haüyne-lapis, according as one or the other mineral prevails. The +lazurite of lapis lazuli is to be carefully distinguished from lazulite, +an aluminium-magnesium phosphate, related to turquoise. In addition to +the blue cubic minerals in lapis lazuli, the following minerals have +also been found: a non-ferriferous diopside, an amphibole called, from +the Russian mineralogist, koksharovite, orthoclase, plagioclase, a +muscovite-like mica, apatite, titanite, zircon, calcite and pyrite. The +calcite seems to form in some cases a great part of the lapis; and the +pyrite, which may occur in patches, is often altered to limonite. + +Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline limestone, and seems to be a +product of contact metamorphism. It is recorded from Persia, Tartary, +Tibet and China, but many of the localities are vague and some doubtful. +The best known and probably the most important locality is in Badakshan. +There it occurs in limestone, in the valley of the river Kokcha, a +tributary to the Oxus, south of Firgamu. The mines were visited by Marco +Polo in 1271, by J. B. Fraser in 1825, and by Captain John Wood in +1837-1838. The rock is split by aid of fire. Three varieties of the +lapis lazuli are recognized by the miners: _nili_ of indigo-blue colour, +_asmani_ sky-blue, and _sabzi_ of green tint. Another locality for lapis +lazuli is in Siberia near the western extremity of Lake Baikal, where it +occurs in limestone at its contact with granite. Fine masses of lapis +lazuli occur in the Andes, in the vicinity of Ovalle, Chile. In Europe +lapis lazuli is found as a rarity in the peperino of Latium, near Rome, +and in the ejected blocks of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. (F. W. R.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Med. Gr. [Greek: lazourion], Med. Lat. _lazurius_ or + _lazulus_, as the names of this mineral substance, were adaptations + of the Arab. _al-lazward_, Pers. _lajward_, blue colour, lapis + lazuli. The same word appears in Med. Lat. as _azura_, whence O.F. + azur, Eng. "azure," blue, particularly used of that colour in + heraldry (q.v.) and represented conventionally in black and white by + horizontal lines. + + + + +LAPITHAE, a mythical race, whose home was in Thessaly in the valley of +the Peneus. The genealogies make them a kindred race with the Centaurs, +their king Peirithoüs being the son, and the Centaurs the grandchildren +(or sons) of Ixion. The best-known legends with which they are connected +are those of Ixion (q.v.) and the battle with the Centaurs (q.v.). A +well-known Lapith was Caeneus, said to have been originally a girl named +Caenis, the favourite of Poseidon, who changed her into a man and made +her invulnerable (Ovid, _Metam._ xii. 146 ff). In the Centaur battle, +having been crushed by rocks and trunks of trees, he was changed into a +bird; or he disappeared into the depths of the earth unharmed. According +to some, the Lapithae are representatives of the giants of fable, or +spirits of the storm; according to others, they are a semi-legendary; +semi-historical race, like the Myrmidons and other Thessalian tribes. +The Greek sculptors of the school of Pheidias conceived of the battle of +the Lapithae and Centaurs as a struggle between mankind and mischievous +monsters, and symbolical of the great conflict between the Greeks and +Persians. Sidney Colvin (_Journ. Hellen. Stud._ i. 64) explains it as a +contest of the physical powers of nature, and the mythical expression of +the terrible effects of swollen waters. + + + + +LA PLACE (Lat. _Placaeus_), JOSUÉ DE (1606?-1665), French Protestant +divine, was born in Brittany. He studied and afterwards taught +philosophy at Saumur. In 1625 he became pastor of the Reformed Church at +Nantes, and in 1632 was appointed professor of theology at Saumur, where +he had as his colleagues, appointed at the same time, Moses Amyraut and +Louis Cappell. In 1640 he published a work, _Theses theologicae de statu +hominis lapsi ante gratiam_, which was looked upon with some suspicion +as containing liberal ideas about the doctrine of original sin. The view +that the original sin of Adam was not imputed to his descendants was +condemned at the synod of Charenton (1645), without special reference +being made to La Place, whose position perhaps was not quite clear. As a +matter of fact La Place distinguished between a direct and indirect +imputation, and after his death his views, as well as those of Amyraut, +were rejected in the _Formula consensus of_ 1675. He died on the 17th of +August 1665. + + La Place's defence was published with the title _Disputationes + academicae_ (3 vols., 1649-1651; and again in 1665); his work _De + imputatione primi peccati Adami_ in 1655. A collected edition of his + works appeared at Franeker in 1699, and at Aubencit in 1702. + + + + +LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON, MARQUIS DE (1749-1827), French mathematician and +astronomer, was born at Beaumont-en-Auge in Normandy, on the 28th of +March 1749. His father was a small farmer, and he owed his education to +the interest excited by his lively parts in some persons of position. +His first distinctions are said to have been gained in theological +controversy, but at an early age he became mathematical teacher in the +military school of Beaumont, the classes of which he had attended as an +extern. He was not more than eighteen when, armed with letters of +recommendation, he approached J. B. d'Alembert, then at the height of +his fame, in the hope of finding a career in Paris. The letters remained +unnoticed, but Laplace was not crushed by the rebuff. He wrote to the +great geometer a letter on the principles of mechanics, which evoked an +immediate and enthusiastic response. "You," said d'Alembert to him, +"needed no introduction; you have recommended yourself; my support is +your due." He accordingly obtained for him an appointment as professor +of mathematics in the École Militaire of Paris, and continued zealously +to forward his interests. + +Laplace had not yet completed his twenty-fourth year when he entered +upon the course of discovery which earned him the title of "the Newton +of France." Having in his first published paper[1] shown his mastery of +analysis, he proceeded to apply its resources to the great outstanding +problems in celestial mechanics. Of these the most conspicuous was +offered by the opposite inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn, which the +emulous efforts of L. Euler and J. L. Lagrange had failed to bring +within the bounds of theory. The discordance of their results incited +Laplace to a searching examination of the whole subject of planetary +perturbations, and his maiden effort was rewarded with a discovery which +constituted, when developed and completely demonstrated by his own +further labours and those of his illustrious rival Lagrange, the most +important advance made in physical astronomy since the time of Newton. +In a paper read before the Academy of Sciences, on the 10th of February +1773 (_Mém. présentés par divers savans_, tom, vii., 1776), Laplace +announced his celebrated conclusion of the invariability of planetary +mean motions, carrying the proof as far as the cubes of the +eccentricities and inclinations. This was the first and most important +step in the establishment of the stability of the solar system. It was +followed by a series of profound investigations, in which Lagrange and +Laplace alternately surpassed and supplemented each other in assigning +limits of variation to the several elements of the planetary orbits. The +analytical tournament closed with the communication to the Academy by +Laplace, in 1787, of an entire group of remarkable discoveries. It +would be difficult, in the whole range of scientific literature, to +point to a memoir of equal brilliancy with that published (divided into +three parts) in the volumes of the Academy for 1784, 1785 and 1786. The +long-sought cause of the "great inequality" of Jupiter and Saturn was +found in the near approach to commensurability of their mean motions; it +was demonstrated in two elegant theorems, independently of any except +the most general considerations as to mass, that the mutual action of +the planets could never largely affect the eccentricities and +inclinations of their orbits; and the singular peculiarities detected by +him in the Jovian system were expressed in the so-called "laws of +Laplace." He completed the theory of these bodies in a treatise +published among the Paris _Memoirs_ for 1788 and 1789; and the striking +superiority of the tables computed by J. B. J. Delambre from the data +there supplied marked the profit derived from the investigation by +practical astronomy. The year 1787 was rendered further memorable by +Laplace's announcement on the 19th of November (_Memoirs_, 1786), of the +dependence of lunar acceleration upon the secular changes in the +eccentricity of the earth's orbit. The last apparent anomaly, and the +last threat of instability, thus disappeared from the solar system. + +With these brilliant performances the first period of Laplace's +scientific career may be said to have closed. If he ceased to make +striking discoveries in celestial mechanics, it was rather their +subject-matter than his powers that failed. The general working of the +great machine was now laid bare, and it needed a further advance of +knowledge to bring a fresh set of problems within reach of +investigation. The time had come when the results obtained in the +development and application of the law of gravitation by three +generations of illustrious mathematicians might be presented from a +single point of view. To this task the second period of Laplace's +activity was devoted. As a monument of mathematical genius applied to +the celestial revolutions, the _Mécanique céleste_ ranks second only to +the _Principia_ of Newton. + + The declared aim of the author[2] was to offer a complete solution of + the great mechanical problem presented by the solar system, and to + bring theory to coincide so closely with observation that empirical + equations should no longer find a place in astronomical tables. His + success in both respects fell little short of his lofty ideal. The + first part of the work (2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1799) contains methods for + calculating the movements of translation and rotation of the heavenly + bodies, for determining their figures, and resolving tidal problems; + the second, especially dedicated to the improvement of tables, + exhibits in the third and fourth volumes (1802 and 1805) the + application of these formulae; while a fifth volume, published in + three instalments, 1823-1825, comprises the results of Laplace's + latest researches, together with a valuable history of progress in + each separate branch of his subject. In the delicate task of + apportioning his own large share of merit, he certainly does not err + on the side of modesty; but it would perhaps be as difficult to + produce an instance of injustice, as of generosity in his estimate of + others. Far more serious blame attaches to his all but total + suppression in the body of the work--and the fault pervades the whole + of his writings--of the names of his predecessors and contemporaries. + Theorems and formulae are appropriated wholesale without + acknowledgment, and a production which may be described as the + organized result of a century of patient toil presents itself to the + world as the offspring of a single brain. The _Mécanique céleste_ is, + even to those most conversant with analytical methods, by no means + easy reading. J. B. Biot, who assisted in the correction of its proof + sheets, remarked that it would have extended, had the demonstrations + been fully developed, to eight or ten instead of five volumes; and he + saw at times the author himself obliged to devote an hour's labour to + recovering the dropped links in the chain of reasoning covered by the + recurring formula. "Il est aisé à voir."[3] + +The _Exposition du système du monde_ (Paris, 1796) has been styled by +Arago "the _Mécanique céleste_ disembarrassed of its analytical +paraphernalia." Conclusions are not merely stated in it, but the methods +pursued for their attainment are indicated. It has the strength of an +analytical treatise, the charm of a popular dissertation. The style is +lucid and masterly, and the summary of astronomical history with which +it terminates has been reckoned one of the masterpieces of the language. +To this linguistic excellence the writer owed the place accorded to him +in 1816 in the Academy, of which institution he became president in the +following year. The famous "nebular hypothesis" of Laplace made its +appearance in the _Système du monde_. Although relegated to a note +(vii.), and propounded "Avec la défiance que doit inspirer tout ce qui +n'est point un résultat de l'observation ou du calcul," it is plain, +from the complacency with which he recurred to it[4] at a later date, +that he regarded the speculation with considerable interest. That it +formed the starting-point, and largely prescribed the course of thought +on the subject of planetary origin is due to the simplicity of its +assumptions, and the clearness of the mechanical principles involved, +rather than to any cogent evidence of its truth. It is curious that +Laplace, while bestowing more attention than they deserved on the crude +conjectures of Buffon, seems to have been unaware that he had been, to +some extent, anticipated by Kant, who had put forward in 1755, in his +_Allgemeine Naturgeschichte_, a true though defective nebular cosmogony. + +The career of Laplace was one of scarcely interrupted prosperity. +Admitted to the Academy of Sciences as an associate in 1773, he became a +member in 1785, having, about a year previously, succeeded E. Bezout as +examiner to the royal artillery. During an access of revolutionary +suspicion, he was removed from the commission of weights and measures; +but the slight was quickly effaced by new honours. He was one of the +first members, and became president of the Bureau of Longitudes, took a +prominent place at the Institute (founded in 1796), professed analysis +at the École Normale, and aided in the organization of the decimal +system. The publication of the _Mécanique céleste_ gained him world-wide +celebrity, and his name appeared on the lists of the principal +scientific associations of Europe, including the Royal Society. But +scientific distinctions by no means satisfied his ambition. He aspired +to the rôle of a politician, and has left a memorable example of genius +degraded to servility for the sake of a riband and a title. The ardour +of his republican principles gave place, after the 18th Brumaire, to +devotion towards the first consul, a sentiment promptly rewarded with +the post of minister of the interior. His incapacity for affairs was, +however, so flagrant that it became necessary to supersede him at the +end of six weeks, when Lucien Bonaparte became his successor. "He +brought into the administration," said Napoleon, "the spirit of the +infinitesimals." His failure was consoled by elevation to the senate, of +which body he became chancellor in September 1803. He was at the same +time named grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and obtained in 1813 +the same rank in the new order of Reunion. The title of count he had +acquired on the creation of the empire. Nevertheless he cheerfully gave +his voice in 1814 for the dethronement of his patron, and his +"suppleness" merited a seat in the chamber of peers, and, in 1817, the +dignity of a marquisate. The memory of these tergiversations is +perpetuated in his writings. The first edition of the _Système du monde_ +was inscribed to the Council of Five Hundred; to the third volume of the +_Mécanique céleste_ (1802) was prefixed the declaration that, of all the +truths contained in the work, that most precious to the author was the +expression of his gratitude and devotion towards the "pacificator of +Europe"; upon which noteworthy protestation the suppression in the +editions of the _Théorie des probabilités_ subsequent to the +restoration, of the original dedication to the emperor formed a fitting +commentary. + +During the later years of his life, Laplace lived much at Arcueil, where +he had a country-place adjoining that of his friend C. L. Berthollet. +With his co-operation the Société d'Arcueil was formed, and he +occasionally contributed to its _Memoirs_. In this peaceful retirement +he pursued his studies with unabated ardour, and received with uniform +courtesy distinguished visitors from all parts of the world. Here, too, +he died, attended by his physician, Dr Majendie, and his mathematical +coadjutor, Alexis Bouvard, on the 5th of March 1827. His last words +were: "Ce que nous connaissons est peu de chose, ce que nous ignorons +est immense." + +Expressions occur in Laplace's private letters inconsistent with the +atheistical opinions he is commonly believed to have held. His +character, notwithstanding the egotism by which it was disfigured, had +an amiable and engaging side. Young men of science found in him an +active benefactor. His relations with these "adopted children of his +thought" possessed a singular charm of affectionate simplicity; their +intellectual progress and material interests were objects of equal +solicitude to him, and he demanded in return only diligence in the +pursuit of knowledge. Biot relates that, when he himself was beginning +his career, Laplace introduced him at the Institute for the purpose of +explaining his supposed discovery of equations of mixed differences, and +afterwards showed him, under a strict pledge of secrecy, the papers, +then yellow with age, in which he had long before obtained the same +results. This instance of abnegation is the more worthy of record that +it formed a marked exception to Laplace's usual course. Between him and +A. M. Legendre there was a feeling of "more than coldness," owing to his +appropriation, with scant acknowledgment, of the fruits of the other's +labours; and Dr Thomas Young counted himself, rightly or wrongly, +amongst the number of those similarly aggrieved by him. With Lagrange, +on the other hand, he always remained on the best of terms. Laplace left +a son, Charles Emile Pierre Joseph Laplace (1789-1874), who succeeded to +his title, and rose to the rank of general in the artillery. + +It might be said that Laplace was a great mathematician by the original +structure of his mind, and became a great discoverer through the +sentiment which animated it. The regulated enthusiasm with which he +regarded the system of nature was with him from first to last. It can be +traced in his earliest essay, and it dictated the ravings of his final +illness. By it his extraordinary analytical powers became strictly +subordinated to physical investigations. To this lofty quality of +intellect he added a rare sagacity in perceiving analogies, and in +detecting the new truths that lay concealed in his formulae, and a +tenacity of mental grip, by which problems, once seized, were held fast, +year after year, until they yielded up their solutions. In every branch +of physical astronomy, accordingly, deep traces of his work are visible. +"He would have completed the science of the skies," Baron Fourier +remarked, "had the science been capable of completion." + + It may be added that he first examined the conditions of stability of + the system formed by Saturn's rings, pointed out the necessity for + their rotation, and fixed for it a period (10^h 33^m) virtually + identical with that established by the observations of Herschel; that + he detected the existence in the solar system of an invariable plane + such that the sum of the products of the planetary masses by the + projections upon it of the areas described by their radii vectores in + a given time is a maximum; and made notable advances in the theory of + astronomical refraction (_Méc. cél._ tom. iv. p. 258), besides + constructing satisfactory formulae for the barometrical determination + of heights (_Méc. cél._ tom. iv. p. 324). His removal of the + considerable discrepancy between the actual and Newtonian velocities + of sound,[5] by taking into account the increase of elasticity due to + the heat of compression, would alone have sufficed to illustrate a + lesser name. Molecular physics also attracted his notice, and he + announced in 1824 his purpose of treating the subject in a separate + work. With A. Lavoisier he made an important series of experiments on + specific heat (1782-1784), in the course of which the "ice + calorimeter" was invented; and they contributed jointly to the + _Memoirs_ of the Academy (1781) a paper on the development of + electricity by evaporation. Laplace was, moreover, the first to offer + a complete analysis of capillary action based upon a definite + hypothesis--that of forces "sensible only at insensible distances"; + and he made strenuous but unsuccessful efforts to explain the + phenomena of light on an identical principle. It was a favourite idea + of his that chemical affinity and capillary attraction would + eventually be included under the same law, and it was perhaps because + of its recalcitrance to this cherished generalization that the + undulatory theory of light was distasteful to him. + + The investigation of the figure of equilibrium of a rotating fluid + mass engaged the persistent attention of Laplace. His first memoir was + communicated to the Academy in 1773, when he was only twenty-four, his + last in 1817, when he was sixty-eight. The results of his many papers + on this subject--characterized by him as "un des points les plus + intéressans du système du monde"--are embodied in the _Mécanique + céleste_, and furnish one of the most remarkable proofs of his + analytical genius. C. Maclaurin, Legendre and d'Alembert had furnished + partial solutions of the problem, confining their attention to the + possible figures which would satisfy the conditions of equilibrium. + Laplace treated the subject from the point of view of the gradual + aggregation and cooling of a mass of matter, and demonstrated that the + form which such a mass would ultimately assume must be an ellipsoid of + revolution whose equator was determined by the primitive plane of + maximum areas. + + The related subject of the attraction of spheroids was also signally + promoted by him. Legendre, in 1783, extended Maclaurin's theorem + concerning ellipsoids of revolution to the case of any spheroid of + revolution where the attracted point, instead of being limited to the + axis or equator, occupied any position in space; and Laplace, in his + treatise _Théorie du mouvement et de la figure elliptique des + planètes_ (published in 1784), effected a still further generalization + by proving, what had been suspected by Legendre, that the theorem was + equally true for any confocal ellipsoids. Finally, in a celebrated + memoir, _Théorie des attractions des sphéroides et de la figure des + planètes_, published in 1785 among the Paris _Memoirs_ for the year + 1782, although written after the treatise of 1784, Laplace treated + exhaustively the general problem of the attraction of any spheroid + upon a particle situated outside or upon its surface. + + These researches derive additional importance from having introduced + two powerful engines of analysis for the treatment of physical + problems, Laplace's coefficients and the potential function. By his + discovery that the attracting force in any direction of a mass upon a + particle could be obtained by the direct process of differentiating a + single function, Laplace laid the foundations of the mathematical + sciences of heat, electricity and magnetism. The expressions + designated by Dr Whewell, Laplace's coefficients (see SPHERICAL + HARMONICS) were definitely introduced in the memoir of 1785 on + attractions above referred to. In the figure of the earth, the theory + of attractions, and the sciences of electricity and magnetism this + powerful calculus occupies a prominent place. C. F. Gauss in + particular employed it in the calculation of the magnetic potential of + the earth, and it received new light from Clerk Maxwell's + interpretation of harmonics with reference to poles on the sphere. + + Laplace nowhere displayed the massiveness of his genius more + conspicuously than in the theory of probabilities. The science which + B. Pascal and P. de Fermat had initiated he brought very nearly to + perfection; but the demonstrations are so involved, and the omissions + in the chain of reasoning so frequent, that the _Théorie analytique_ + (1812) is to the best mathematicians a work requiring most arduous + study. The theory of probabilities, which Laplace described as common + sense expressed in mathematical language, engaged his attention from + its importance in physics and astronomy; and he applied his theory, + not only to the ordinary problems of chances, but also to the inquiry + into the causes of phenomena, vital statistics and future events. + + The device known as the method of least squares, for reducing numerous + equations of condition to the number of unknown quantities to be + determined, had been adopted as a practically convenient rule by Gauss + and Legendre; but Laplace first treated it as a problem in + probabilities, and proved by an intricate and difficult course of + reasoning that it was also the most advantageous, the mean of the + probabilities of error in the determination of the elements being + thereby reduced to a minimum. + + Laplace published in 1779 the method of generating functions, the + foundation of his theory of probabilities, and the first part of his + _Théorie analytique_ is devoted to the exposition of its principles, + which in their simplest form consist in treating the successive values + of any function as the coefficients in the expansion of another + function with reference to a different variable. The latter is + therefore called the generating function of the former. A _direct_ and + an _inverse_ calculus is thus created, the object of the former being + to determine the coefficients from the generating function, of the + latter to discover the generating function from the coefficients. The + one is a problem of interpolation, the other a step towards the + solution of an equation in finite differences. The method, however, is + now obsolete owing to the more extended facilities afforded by the + calculus of operations. + + The first formal proof of Lagrange's theorem for the development in a + series of an implicit function was furnished by Laplace, who gave to + it an extended generality. He also showed that every equation of an + even degree must have at least one real quadratic factor, reduced the + solution of linear differential equations to definite integrals, and + furnished an elegant method by which the linear partial differential + equation of the second order might be solved. He was also the first to + consider the difficult problems involved in equations of mixed + differences, and to prove that an equation in finite differences of + the first degree and the second order might always be converted into a + continued fraction. + + In 1842, the works of Laplace being nearly out of print, his widow was + about to sell a farm to procure funds for a new impression, when the + government of Louis Philippe took the matter in hand. A grant of + 40,000 francs having been obtained from the chamber, a national + edition was issued in seven 4to vols., bearing the title _Oeuvres de + Laplace_ (1843-1847). The _Mécanique céleste_ with its four + supplements occupies the first 5 vols., the 6th contains the _Système + du monde_, and the 7th the _Th. des probabilités_, to which the more + popular _Essai philosophique_ forms an introduction. Of the four + supplements added by the author (1816-1825) he tells us that the + problems in the last were contributed by his son. An enumeration of + Laplace's memoirs and papers (about one hundred in number) is rendered + superfluous by their embodiment in his principal works. The _Th. des + prob._ was first published in 1812, the _Essai_ in 1814; and both + works as well as the _Système du monde_ went through repeated + editions. An English version of the _Essai_ appeared in New York in + 1902. Laplace's first separate work, _Théorie du mouvement et de la + figure elliptique des planètes_ (1784), was published at the expense + of President Bochard de Saron. The _Précis de l'histoire de + l'astronomie_ (1821), formed the fifth book of the 5th edition of the + _Système du monde_. An English translation, with copious elucidatory + notes, of the first 4 vols. of the _Mécanique céleste_, by N. + Bowditch, was published at Boston, U.S. (1829-1839), in 4 vols. 4to.; + a compendium of certain portions of the same work by Mrs Somerville + appeared in 1831, and a German version of the first 2 vols. by + Burckhardt at Berlin in 1801. English translations of the _Système du + monde_ by J. Pond and H. H. Harte were published, the first in 1809, + the second in 1830. An edition entitled _Les Oeuvres complètes de + Laplace_ (1878), &c., which is to include all his memoirs as well as + his separate works, is in course of publication under the auspices of + the Academy of Sciences. The thirteenth 4to volume was issued in 1904. + Some of Laplace's results in the theory of probabilities are + simplified in S. F. Lacroix's _Traité élémentaire du calcul des + probabilités_ and De Morgan's _Essay_, published in Lardner's _Cabinet + Cyclopaedia_. For the history of the subject see _A History of the + Mathematical Theory of Probability_, by Isaac Todhunter (1865). + Laplace's treatise on specific heat was published in German in 1892 as + No. 40 of W. Ostwald's _Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_. + + AUTHORITIES.--Baron Fourier's _Éloge, Mémoires de l'institut_, x. + lxxxi. (1831); _Revue encyclopédique_, xliii. (1829); S. D. Poisson's + Funeral Oration (_Conn. des Temps_, 1830, p. 19); F. X. von Zach, + _Allg. geographische Ephemeriden_, iv. 70 (1799); F. Arago, _Annuaire + du Bureau des Long_. 1844, p. 271, translated among Arago's + Biographies of Distinguished Men (1857); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de + l'astr. moderne_, t. iii.; R. Grant, _Hist. of Phys. Astr._ p. 50, + &c.; A. Berry, _Short Hist. of Astr._ p. 306; Max Marie, _Hist. des + sciences_ t. x. pp. 69-98; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der Astronomie_; J. + Mädler, _Gesch. der Himmelskunde_, i. 17; W. Whewell, _Hist. of the + Inductive Sciences_, ii. _passim_; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog-lit. + Handwörterbuch._ (A. M. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "Recherches sur le calcul intégral," _Mélanges de la Soc. Roy. de + Turin_ (1766-1769). + + [2] "Plan de l'Ouvrage," _Oeuvres_, tom. i. p 1. + + [3] Journal des savants (1850). + + [4] _Méc. cél._, tom. v. p. 346. + + [5] _Annales de chimie et de physique_ (1816), tom. iii. p. 238. + + + + +LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND, a name used to indicate the region of northern +Europe inhabited by the Lapps, though not applied to any administrative +district. It covers in Norway the division (amter) of Finmarken and the +higher inland parts of Tromsö and Nordland; in Russian territory the +western part of the government of Archangel as far as the White Sea and +the northern part of the Finnish district of Uleåborg; and in Sweden the +inland and northern parts of the old province of Norrland, roughly +coincident with the districts (_län_) of Norbotten and Vesterbotten, and +divided into five divisions--Torne Lappmark, Lule Lappmark, Pite +Lappmark, Lycksele Lappmark and Åsele Lappmark. The Norwegian portion is +thus insignificant; of the Russian only a little lies south of the +Arctic circle, and the whole is less accessible and more sparsely +populated than the Swedish, the southern boundary of which may be taken +arbitrarily at about 64° N., though scattered families of Lapps occur +much farther south, even in the Hardanger Fjeld in Norway. + +The Scandinavian portion of Lapland presents the usual characteristics +of the mountain plateau of that peninsula--on the west side the bold +headlands and fjords, deeply-grooved valleys and glaciers of Norway, on +the east the long mountain lakes and great lake-fed rivers of Sweden. +Russian Lapland is broadly similar to the lower-lying parts of Swedish +Lapland, but the great lakes are more generally distributed, and the +valleys are less direct. The country is low and gently undulating, +broken by detached hills and ridges not exceeding in elevation 2500 ft. +In the uplands of Swedish Lapland, and to some extent in Russian +Lapland, the lakes afford the principal means of communication; it is +almost impossible to cross the forests from valley to valley without a +native guide. In Sweden the few farms of the Swedes who inhabit the +region are on the lake shores, and the traveller must be rowed from one +to another in the typical boats of the district, pointed at bow and +stern, unusually low amidships, and propelled by short sculls or +paddles. Sailing is hardly ever practised, and squalls on the lakes are +often dangerous to the rowing-boats. On a few of the lakes wood-fired +steam-launches are used in connexion with the timber trade, which is +considerable, as practically the whole region is forested. Between the +lakes all journeying is made on foot. The heads of the Swedish valleys +are connected with the Norwegian fjords by passes generally traversed +only by tracks; though from the head of the Ume a driving road crosses +to Mo on Ranen Fjord. Each principal valley has a considerable village +at or near the tail of the lake-chain, up to which a road runs along the +valley. The village consists of wooden cottages with an inn +(_gästgifvaregård_), a church, and frequently a collection of huts +without windows, closed in summer, but inhabited by the Lapps when they +come down from the mountains to the winter fairs. Sometimes there is +another church and small settlement in the upper valley, to which, once +or twice in a summer, the Lapps come from great distances to attend +service. To these, too, they sometimes bring their dead for burial, +bearing them if necessary on a journey of many days. Though Lapland +gives little scope for husbandry, a bad summer being commonly followed +by a winter famine, it is richly furnished with much that is serviceable +to man. There are copper-mines at the mountain of Sulitelma, and the +iron deposits in Norrland are among the most extensive in the world. +Their working is facilitated by the railway from Stockholm to Gellivara, +Kirunavara and Narvik on the Norwegian coast, which also connects them +with the port of Luleå on the Gulf of Bothnia. The supply of timber +(pine, fir, spruce and birch) is unlimited. Though fruit-trees will not +bear there is an abundance of edible berries; the rivers and lakes +abound with trout, perch, pike and other fish, and in the lower waters +with salmon; and the cod, herring, halibut and Greenland shark in the +northern seas attract numerous Norwegian and Russian fishermen. + +The climate is thoroughly Arctic. In the northern parts unbroken +daylight in summer and darkness in winter last from two to three months +each; and through the greater part of the country the sun does not rise +at mid-winter or set at midsummer. In December and January in the far +north there is little more daylight than a cold glimmer of dawn; by +February, however, there are some hours of daylight; in March the heat +of the sun is beginning to modify the cold, and now and in April the +birds of passage begin to appear. In April the snow is melting from the +branches; spring comes in May; spring flowers are in blossom, and grain +is sown. At the end of this month or in June the ice is breaking up on +the lakes, woods rush into leaf, and the unbroken daylight of the +northern summer soon sets in. July is quite warm; the great rivers come +down full from the melting snows in the mountains. August is a rainy +month, the time of harvest; night-frosts may begin already about the +middle of the month. All preparations for winter are made during +September and October, and full winter has set in by November. + +_The Lapps._--The Lapps (Swed. _Lappar_; Russian _Lopari_; Norw. +_Finner_) call their country _Sabme_ or _Same_, and themselves +_Samelats_--names almost identical with those employed by the Finns for +their country and race, and probably connected with a root signifying +"dark." Lapp is almost certainly a nickname imposed by foreigners, +although some of the Lapps apply it contemptuously to those of their +countrymen whom they think to be less civilized than themselves.[1] + +In Sweden and Finland the Lapps are usually divided into fisher, +mountain and forest Lapps. In Sweden the first class includes many +impoverished mountain Lapps. As described by Laestadius (1827-1832), +their condition was very miserable; but since his time matters have +improved. The principal colony has its summer quarters on the Stora-Lule +Lake, possesses good boats and nets, and, besides catching and drying +fish, makes money by the shooting of wild fowl and the gathering of +eggs. When he has acquired a little means it is not unusual for the +fisher to settle down and reclaim a bit of land. The mountain and forest +Lapps are the true representatives of the race. In the wandering life of +the mountain Lapp his autumn residence, on the borders of the forest +district, may be considered as the central point; it is there that he +erects his _njalla_, a small wooden storehouse raised high above the +ground by one or more piles. About the beginning of November he begins +to wander south or east into the forest land, and in the winter he may +visit, not only such places as Jokkmokk and Arjepluog, but even Gefle, +Upsala or Stockholm. About the beginning of May he is back at his +njalla, but as soon as the weather grows warm he pushes up to the +mountains, and there throughout the summer pastures his herds and +prepares his store of cheese. By autumn or October he is busy at his +njalla killing the surplus reindeer bulls and curing meat for the +winter. From the mountain Lapp the forest (or, as he used to be called, +the spruce-fir) Lapp is mainly distinguished by the narrower limits +within which he pursues his nomadic life. He never wanders outside of a +certain district, in which he possesses hereditary rights, and maintains +a series of camping-grounds which he visits in regular rotation. In May +or April he lets his reindeer loose, to wander as they please; but +immediately after midsummer, when the mosquitoes become troublesome, he +goes to collect them. Catching a single deer and belling it, he drives +it through the wood; the other deer, whose instinct leads them to gather +into herds for mutual protection against the mosquitoes, are attracted +by the sound. Should the summer be very cool and the mosquitoes few, the +Lapp finds it next to impossible to bring the creatures together. About +the end of August they are again let loose, but they are once more +collected in October, the forest Lapp during winter pursuing the same +course of life as the mountain Lapp. + +In Norway there are three classes--the sea Lapps, the river Lapps and +the mountain Lapps, the first two settled, the third nomadic. The +mountain Lapps have a rather ruder and harder life than the same class +in Sweden. About Christmas those of Kautokeino and Karasjok are usually +settled in the neighbourhood of the churches; in summer they visit the +coast, and in autumn they return inland. Previous to 1852, when they +were forbidden by imperial decree, they were wont in winter to move +south across the Russian frontiers. It is seldom possible for them to +remain more than three or four days in one spot. Flesh is their +favourite, in winter almost their only food, though they also use +reindeer milk, cheese and rye or barley cakes. The sea Lapps are in some +respects hardly to be distinguished from the other coast dwellers of +Finmark. Their food consists mainly of cooked fish. The river Lapps, +many of whom, however, are descendants of Finns proper, breed cattle, +attempt a little tillage and entrust their reindeer to the care of +mountain Lapps. + +In Finland there are comparatively few Laplanders, and the great bulk of +them belong to the fisher class. Many are settled in the neighbourhood +of the Enare Lake. In the spring they go down to the Norwegian coast and +take part in the sea fisheries, returning to the lake about midsummer. +Formerly they found the capture of wild reindeer a profitable +occupation, using for this purpose a palisaded avenue gradually +narrowing towards a pitfall. + +The Russian Lapps are also for the most part fishers, as is natural in a +district with such an extent of coast and such a number of lakes, not to +mention the advantage which the fisher has over the reindeer keeper in +connexion with the many fasts of the Greek Church. They maintain a half +nomadic life, very few having become settlers in the Russian villages. +It is usual to distinguish them according to the district of the coast +which they frequent, as Murman (Murmanski) and Terian (Terski) Lapps. A +separate tribe, the Filmans, i.e. Finnmans, wander about the Pazyets, +Motov and Pechenga tundras, and retain the peculiar dialect and the +Lutheran creed which they owe to a former connexion with Sweden. They +were formerly known as the "twice and thrice tributary" Lapps, because +they paid to two or even three states--Russia, Denmark and Sweden. + +The Lapps within the historical period have considerably recruited +themselves from neighbouring races. Shortness of stature[2] is their +most obvious characteristic, though in regard to this much exaggeration +has prevailed. Düben found an average of 4.9 ft. for males and a little +less for females; Mantegazza, who made a number of anthropological +observations in Norway in 1879, gives 5 ft. and 4.75 ft., respectively +(_Archivio per l'antrop._, 1880). Individuals much above or much below +the average are rare. The body is usually of fair proportions, but the +legs are rather short, and in many cases somewhat bandy. Dark, swarthy, +yellow, copper-coloured are all adjectives employed to describe their +complexion--the truth being that their habits of life do not conduce +either to the preservation or display of the natural colour of their +skin, and that some of them are really fair, and others, perhaps the +majority, really dark. The colour of the hair ranges from blonde and +reddish to a bluish or greyish black; the eyes are black, hazel, blue or +grey. The shape of the skull is the most striking peculiarity of the +Lapp. He is the most brachycephalous type of man in Europe, perhaps in +the world.[3] According to Virchow, the women in width of face are more +Mongolian in type than the men, but neither in men nor women does the +opening of the eye show any true obliquity. In children the eye is +large, open and round. The nose is always low and broad, more markedly +retroussé among the females than the males. Wrinkled and puckered by +exposure to the weather, the faces even of the younger Lapps assume an +appearance of old age. The muscular system is usually well developed, +but there is deficiency of fatty tissue, which affects the features +(particularly by giving relative prominence to the eyes) and the general +character of the skin. The thinness of the skin, indeed, can but rarely +be paralleled among other Europeans. Among the Lapps, as among other +lower races, the index is shorter than the ring finger. + +The Lapps are a quiet, inoffensive people. Crimes of violence are almost +unknown, and the only common breach of law is the killing of tame +reindeer belonging to other owners. In Russia, however, they have a bad +reputation for lying and general untrustworthiness, and drunkenness is +well-nigh a universal vice. In Scandinavia laws have been directed +against the importation of intoxicating liquors into the Lapp country +since 1723. + +Superficially at least the great bulk of the Lapps have been +Christianized--those of the Scandinavian countries being Protestants, +those of Russia members of the Greek Church. Although the first attempt +to convert the Lapps to Christianity seems to have been made in the 11th +century, the worship of heathen idols was carried on openly in Swedish +Lappmark as late as 1687, and secretly in Norway down to the first +quarter of the 18th century, while the practices of heathen rites +survived into the 19th century, if indeed they are extinct even yet. +Lapp graves, prepared in the heathen manner, have been discovered in +upper Namdal (Norway), belonging to the years 1820 and 1826. In +education the Scandinavian Lapps are far ahead of their Russian +brethren, to whom reading and writing are arts as unfamiliar as they +were to their pagan ancestors. The general manner of life is +patriarchal. The father of the family has complete authority over all +its affairs; and on his death this authority passes to the eldest son. +Parents are free to disinherit their children; and, if a son separates +from the family without his father's permission, he receives no share of +the property except a gun and his wife's dowry.[4] + +The Lapps are of necessity conservative in most of their habits, many of +which can hardly have altered since the first taming of the reindeer. +But the strong current of mercantile enterprise has carried a few +important products of southern civilization into their huts. The lines +in which James Thomson describes their simple life-- + + The reindeer form their riches: these their tents, + Their robes, their beds, and all their homely wealth + Supply; their wholesome fare and cheerful cups-- + +are still applicable in the main to the mountain Lapps; but even they +have learned to use coffee as an ordinary beverage and to wear stout +Norwegian cloth (_vadmal_). + + + Language. + + Linguistically the Lapps belong to the Finno-Ugrian group (q.v.); the + similarity of their speech to Finnish is evident though the phonetics + are different and more complicated. It is broken up into very distinct + and even mutually unintelligible dialects, the origin of several of + which is, however, easily found in the political and social + dismemberment of the people. Düben distinguishes four leading + dialects; but a much greater number are recognizable. In Russian + Lapland alone there are three, due to the influence of Norwegian, + Karelian and Russian (Lönnrot, _Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae_, vol. iv.). + "The Lapps," says Castren, "have had the misfortune to come into close + contact with foreign races while their language was yet in its + tenderest infancy, and consequently it has not only adopted an endless + number of foreign words, but in many grammatical aspects fashioned + itself after foreign models." That it began at a very early period to + enrich itself with Scandinavian words is shown by the use it still + makes of forms belonging to a linguistic stage older even than that of + Icelandic. Düben has subjected the vocabulary to a very interesting + analysis for the purpose of discovering what stage of culture the + people had reached before their contact with the Norse. Agricultural + terms, the names of the metals and the word for smith are all of + Scandinavian origin, and the words for "taming" and "milk" would + suggest that the southern strangers taught the Lapps how to turn the + reindeer to full account. The important place, however, which this + creature must always have held in their estimation is evident from the + existence of more than three hundred native words in connexion with + reindeer. + + The Lapp tongue was long ago reduced to writing by the missionaries; + but very little has been printed in it except school-books and + religious works. A number of popular tales and songs, indeed, have + been taken down from the lips of the people. The songs are similar to + those of the Finns, and a process of mutual borrowing seems to have + gone on. In one of the saga-like pieces--Pishan-Peshan's son--there + seems to be a mention of the Baikal Lake, and possibly also of the + Altai Mountains. The story of Njavvisena, daughter of the Sun, is full + of quaint folk-lore about the taming of the reindeer. Giants, as well + as a blind or one-eyed monster, are frequently introduced, and the + Aesopic fable is not without its representatives. Many of the Lapps + are able to speak one or even two of the neighbouring tongues. + + + Witchcraft. + + The reputation of the Laplanders for skill in magic and divination is + of very early date, and in Finland is not yet extinct. When Erik + Blood-axe, son of Harold Haarfager, visited Bjarmaland in 922, he + found Gunhild, daughter of Asur Tote, living among the Lapps, to whom + she had been sent by her father for the purpose of being trained in + witchcraft; and Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent for magicians from + Lapland to explain the cause of the appearance of a comet. One of the + powers with which they were formerly credited was that of raising + winds. "They tye three knottes," says old Richard Eden, "on a strynge + hangyng at a whyp. When they lose one of these they rayse tollerable + wynds. When they lose an other the wynde is more vehement; but by + losing the thyrd they rayse playne tempestes as in old tyme they were + accustomed to rayse thunder and lyghtnyng" (_Hist. of Trauayle_, + 1577). Though we are familiar in English with allusions to "Lapland + witches," it appears that the art, according to native custom, was in + the hands of the men. During his divination the wizard fell into a + state of trance or ecstasy, his soul being held to run at large to + pursue its inquiries. Great use was made of a curious divining-drum, + oval in shape and made of wood, 1 to 4 ft. in length. Over the upper + surface was stretched a white-dressed reindeer skin, and at the + corners (so to speak) hung a variety of charms--tufts of wool, bones, + teeth, claws, &c. The area was divided into several spaces, often into + three, one for the celestial gods, one for the terrestrial and one for + man. A variety of figures and conventional signs were drawn in the + several compartments: the sun, for instance, is frequently represented + by a square and a stroke from each corner, Thor by two hammers placed + crosswise; and in the more modern specimens symbols for Christ, the + Virgin, and the Holy Ghost are introduced. An _arpa_ or divining-rod + was laid on a definite spot, the drum beaten by a hammer, and + conclusions drawn from the position taken up by the arpa. Any Lapp who + had attained to manhood could in ordinary circumstances consult the + drum for himself, but in matters of unusual moment the professional + wizard (_naid_, _noide_ or _noaide_) had to be called in. + +_History._--The Lapps have a dim tradition that their ancestors lived in +a far eastern land, and they tell rude stories of conflicts with +Norsemen and Karelians. But no answer can be obtained from them in +regard to their early distribution and movements. It has been maintained +that they were formerly spread over the whole of the Scandinavian +peninsula, and they have even been considered the remnants of that +primeval race of cave-dwellers which hunted the reindeer over the +snow-fields of central and western Europe. But much of the evidence +adduced for these theories is highly questionable. The contents of the +so-called Lapps' graves found in various parts of Scandinavia are often +sufficient in themselves to show that the appellation must be a +misnomer, and the syllable Lap or Lapp found in many names of places can +often be proved to have no connexion with the Lapps.[5] They occupied +their present territory when they are first mentioned in history. +According to Düben the name first occurs in the 13th century--in the +_Fundinn Noregr_, composed about 1200, in Saxo Grammaticus, and in a +papal bull of date 1230; but the people are probably to be identified +with those Finns of Tacitus whom he describes as wild hunters with skins +for clothing and rude huts as only means of shelter, and certainly with +the Skrithiphinoi of Procopius (_Goth._ ii. 15), the Scritobini of +Paulus Warnefridus, and the Scridifinni of the geographer of Ravenna. +Some of the details given by Procopius, in regard for instance to the +treatment of infants, show that his informant was acquainted with +certain characteristic customs of the Lapps. + + In the 9th century the Norsemen from Norway began to treat their + feeble northern neighbours as a subject race. The wealth of Ottar, + "northmost of the northmen," whose narrative has been preserved by + King Alfred, consisted mainly of six hundred of those "deer they call + hrenas" and in tribute paid by the natives; and the Eigils saga tells + how Brynjulf Bjargulfson had his right to collect contributions from + the Finns (i.e. the Lapps) recognized by Harold Haarfager. So much + value was attached to this source of wealth that as early as 1050 + strangers were excluded from the fur-trade of Finmark, and a kind of + coast-guard prevented their intrusion. Meantime the Karelians were + pressing on the eastern Lapps, and in the course of the 11th century + the rulers of Novgorod began to treat them as the Norsemen had treated + their western brethren. The ground-swell of the Tatar invasion drove + the Karelians westward in the 13th century, and for many years even + Finmark was so unsettled that the Norsemen received no tribute from + the Lapps. At length in 1326 a treaty was concluded between Norway and + Russia by which the supremacy of the Norwegians over the Lapps was + recognized as far east as Voljo beyond Kandalax on the White Sea, and + the supremacy of the Russians over the Karelians as far as Lyngen and + the Målself. The relations of the Lapps to their more powerful + neighbours were complicated by the rivalry of the different + Scandinavian kingdoms. After the disruption of the Calmar Union (1523) + Sweden began to assert its rights with vigour, and in 1595 the treaty + of Teusina between Sweden and Russia decreed "that the Lapps who dwell + in the woods between eastern Bothnia and Varanger shall pay their dues + to the king of Sweden." It was in vain that Christian IV. of Denmark + visited Kola and exacted homage in 1599, and every year sent + messengers to protest against the collection of his tribute by the + Swedes (a custom which continued down to 1806). Charles of Sweden took + the title of "king of the Kajans and Lapps," and left no means untried + to establish his power over all Scandinavian Lapland. By the peace of + Knäröd (1613) Gustavus Adolphus gave up the Swedish claim to Finmark; + and in 1751 mutual renunciations brought the relations of Swedish and + Norwegian (Danish) Lapland to their present position. Meanwhile + Russian influence had been spreading westward; and in 1809, when + Alexander I. finally obtained the cession of Finland, he also added to + his dominions the whole of Finnish Lapland to the east of the Muonio + and the Köngämä. It may be interesting to mention that Lapps, armed + with bows and arrows, were attached to certain regiments of Gustavus + Adolphus in Germany during the Thirty Years' War. + + The Lapps have had the ordinary fate of a subject and defenceless + people; they have been utilized with little regard to their own + interest or inclinations. The example set by the early Norwegians was + followed by the Swedes: a peculiar class of adventurers known as the + Birkarlians (from _Bjark_ or _Birk_, "trade") began in the 13th + century to farm the Lapps, and, receiving very extensive privileges + from the kings, grew to great wealth and influence. In 1606 there were + twenty-two Birkarlians in Tornio, seventeen in Lule, sixteen in Pite, + and sixty-six in Ume Lappmark. They are regularly spoken of as having + or owning Lapps, whom they dispose of as any other piece of property. + In Russian Lapland matters followed much the same course. The very + institutions of the Solovets monastery, intended by St Tryphon for the + benefit of the poor neglected pagans, turned out the occasion of much + injustice towards them. By a charter of Ivan Vasilivitch (November + 1556), the monks are declared masters of the Lapps of the Motoff and + Petchenga districts, and they soon sought to extend their control over + those not legally assigned to them (Ephimenko). Other monasteries were + gifted with similar proprietary rights; and the supplication of the + patriarch Nikon to Alexis Mikhaelovitch, for example, shows clearly + the oppression to which the Lapps were subjected. + + It is long, however, since these abuses were abolished; and in + Scandinavia more especially the Lapps of the present day enjoy the + advantages resulting from a large amount of philanthropic legislation + on the part of their rulers. There seems to be no fear of their + becoming extinct, except it may be by gradual amalgamation with their + more powerful neighbours. In Norway the total number of Lapps was + 20,786 in 1891, and in Sweden in 1904 it was officially estimated that + there were 7000. Add to these some 3000 for Russian Lapland, and the + total Lapp population approximates to 30,000. In Sweden the Lapps are + gradually abandoning their nomadic habits and becoming merged in the + Swedish population. The majority of the Norwegian Lapps lead a + semi-nomadic existence; but the number of inveterate nomads can + scarcely reach 1500 at the present day. In Sweden there are about 3500 + nomads. + + AUTHORITIES.--G. von Düben, _Om Lappland och Lapparne_ (Stockholm, + 1873), with list of over 200 authorities; C. Rabot, "La Laponie + suédoise d'après les récentes explorations de MM. Svenonius et + Hamberg," _La Géographie_, Soc. Géog. de Paris VII. (1903); S. + Passarge, _Fahrten in Schweden, besonders in Nordschweden und + Lappland_ (Berlin, 1897); Bayard Taylor, _Northern Travel_ (London, + 1858); E. Rae, _The White Sea Peninsula_ (London, 1882), and _Land of + the North Wind_ (London, 1875); P. B. du Chaillu, _Land of the + Midnight Sun_ (London, 1881); S. Tromholt, _Under the Rays of the + Aurora Borealis_ (London, 1885); Y. Nielsen, _Det Norske geogr. + Selskabs Aarbog_ (1891); H. H. Reusch, _Folk og natur i Finmarken_ + (1895); K. B. Wicklund, _De Svenska nomadlapparnas flyttningar till + Norge i älore och nyare tid_ (Upsala, 1908); see also SWEDEN. Among + older works may be mentioned Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfurt, 1673, + English trans. Oxford, 1674); Regnard, _Voyage de Laponie_, English + version in Pinkerton's _Voyages_, vol. i.; Leem, _Beskrivelse over + Finmarkens Lapper_ (Copenhagen, 1767), in Danish and Latin; see also + Pinkerton, loc. cit.; Sir A. de C. Brooke, _A Winter in Lapland_ + (London, 1827); Laestadius, _Journal_ (1831). + + As to the language, J. A. Friis, professor of Lapp in the university + of Christiania, has published _Lappiske Sprogprover: en samling lapp. + eventyr, ordsprog, og gåder_ (Christiania, 1856), and _Lappisk + mythologi eventyr og folkesagn_ (Christiania, 1871). See also G. + Donner, _Lieder der Lappen_ (Helsingfors, 1876); Poestion, + _Lappländische Märchen_, &c. (Vienna, 1885). Grammars of the Lapp + tongue have been published by Fjellström (1738), Leem (1748), Rask + (1832), Stockfleth (1840); lexicons by Fjellström (1703), Leem + (1768-1781), Lindahl (1780), Stockfleth (1852). Among more recent + works may be mentioned a dictionary (1885), by J. A. Friis; a reader, + with German translations (1888), by J. Qvigstad; a dictionary (1890) + and two grammars (1891 and 1897) of the Luleå dialect, and a + chrestomathy of Norwegian Lappish (1894), by K. B. Wiklund; a + dictionary of Russian Lappish, or the Kola dialect (1891), by A. + Genetz; readers of different dialects (1885-1896), by J. Halász; and a + grammar of Norwegian Lappish (1882), by S. Nielsen; further, a + comparative study of Lappish and Finnish by Qvigstad in the _Acts of + the Finnish Academy of Science_, vol. xii., 1883; the same author's + _Nordische Lehnwörter im Lappischen_ (1893); Wiklund, _Entwurf einer + urlappischen Lautlehre_ (1896); see also various articles by these + writers, Paasonen and others in the _Journal de la Société + Finno-Ougrienne_ and the _Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen_; Qvigstad and + Wiklund, _Bibliographie der lappischen Literatur_ (1900). + + The older literature on the Lapps received a notable addition by the + discovery in 1896, among the letters of Linnaeus preserved in the + British Museum, of a MS. diary of a journey made in 1695 to the north + of Swedish Lappmark by Olof Rudbeck the younger. On missionary work + see Stockfleth, _Dagbog over mine missions Reiser_ (1860); E. Haller, + _Svenska Kyrkans mission i Lappmarken_ (1896). It was not until 1840 + that the New Testament was translated into Norwegian Lappish, and not + until 1895 that the entire Bible was printed in the same dialect. In + the Russian dialect of Lappish there exist only two versions of St + Matthew's gospel. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The most probable etymology is the Finnish _lappu_, and in this + case the meaning would be the "land's end folk." + + [2] Hence they have been supposed by many to be the originals of the + "little folk" of Scandinavian legend. + + [3] Bertillon found in one instance a cephalic index of 94. The + average obtained by Pruner Bey was 84.7, by Virchow 82.5. + + [4] A valuable paper by Ephimenko, on "The Legal Customs of the + Lapps, especially in Russian Lapland," appeared in vol. viii. of the + _Mem. of Russ. Geog. Soc._, Ethnog. Section, 1878. + + [5] The view that the Lapps at one time occupied the whole of the + Scandinavian peninsula, and have during the course of centuries been + driven back by the Swedes and Norwegians is disproved by the recent + investigations of Yngvar Nielsen, K. B. Wiklund and others. The fact + is, the Lapps are increasing in numbers, as well as pushing their way + farther and farther south. In the beginning of the 16th century their + southern border-line in Norway ran on the upper side of 64° N. In + 1890 they forced their way to the head of the Hardanger Fjord in 60° + N. In Sweden the presence of Lapps as far south as Jämtland (or + Jemtland) is first mentioned in 1564. In 1881 they pushed on into the + north of Dalecarlia, about 61° 45´ N. + + + + +LA PLATA, a city of Argentina and capital of the province of Buenos +Aires, 5 m. inland from the port of Ensenada, or La Plata, and about 31 +m. S.E. of the city of Buenos Aires, with which it is connected by rail. +Pop. (1895) 45,609; (1907, estimate) 84,000. La Plata was founded in +1882, two years after Buenos Aires had been constituted a federal +district and made the national capital. This necessitated the selection +of another provincial capital, which resulted in the choice of an open +plain near the former port of Ensenada de Barragán, on which a city was +laid out after the plan of Washington. The streets are so wide that they +seem out of proportion to the low brick buildings. The principal public +buildings, constructed of brick and stucco, are the government-house, +assembly building, treasury, municipal hall, cathedral, courts of +justice, police headquarters, provincial museum and railway station. The +museum, originally presented by Dr Moreno, has become one of the most +important in South America, its palaeontological and anthropological +collections being unique. There are also a university, national college, +public library, astronomical observatory, several churches, two +hospitals and two theatres. A noteworthy public park is formed by a +large plantation of eucalyptus trees, which have grown to a great height +and present an imposing appearance on the level, treeless plain. +Electricity is in general use for public and private lighting, and +tramways are laid down in the principal streets and extend eastward to +the port. The harbour of the port of La Plata consists of a large +artificial basin, 1450 yds. long by 150 yds. wide, with approaches, in +addition to the old port of Ensenada, which are capable of receiving the +largest vessels that can navigate the La Plata estuary. Up to the +opening of the new port works of Buenos Aires a large part of the +ocean-going traffic of Buenos Aires passed through the port of La Plata. +It has good railway connexions with the interior, and exports cattle and +agricultural produce. + + + + +LAPORTE, ROLAND (1675-1704), Camisard leader, better known as "Roland," +was born at Mas Soubeyran (Gard) in a cottage which has become the +property of the Société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme français, and +which contains relics of the hero. He was a nephew of Laporte, the +Camisard leader who was hunted down and shot in October 1702, and he +himself became the leader of a band of a thousand men which he formed +into a disciplined army with magazines, arsenals and hospitals. For +daring in action and rapidity of movement he was second only to +Cavalier. These two leaders in 1702 secured entrance to the town of +Sauve under the pretence of being royal officers, burnt the church and +carried off provisions and ammunition for their forces. Roland, who +called himself "general of the children of God," terrorized the country +between Nîmes and Alais, burning churches and houses, and slaying those +suspected of hostility against the Huguenots, though without personally +taking any part of the spoil. Cavalier was already in negotiation with +Marshal Villars when Roland cut to pieces a Catholic regiment at +Fontmorte in May 1704. He refused to lay down his arms without definite +assurance of the restoration of the privileges accorded by the Edict of +Nantes. Villars then sought to negotiate, offering Roland the command of +a regiment on foreign service and liberty of conscience, though not the +free exercise of their religion, for his co-religionists. This parley +had no results, but Roland was betrayed to his enemies, and on the 14th +of August 1704 was shot while defending himself against his captors. The +five officers who were with him surrendered, and were broken on the +wheel at Nîmes. Roland's death put an end to the effective resistance of +the Cévenols. + + See A. Court, _Histoire des troubles des Cévennes_ (Villefranche, + 1760); H. M. Baird, _The Huguenots and the revocation of the Edict of + Nantes_ (2 vols., London, 1895), and other literature dealing with the + Camisards. + + + + +LA PORTE, a city and the county seat of La Porte county, Indiana, +U.S.A., 12 m. S. of Lake Michigan and about 60 m. S.E. of Chicago. Pop. +(1890) 7126; (1900) 7113 (1403 foreign-born); (1910) 10,525. It is +served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, +the Père Marquette, the Chicago, South Bend & Northern Indiana +(electric), and the Chicago-New York Electric Air Line railways. La +Porte lies in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and the +shipment of farm and orchard products is one of its chief industries. +There are also numerous manufactures. La Porte's situation in the heart +of a region of beautiful lakes (including Clear, Pine and Stone lakes) +has given it a considerable reputation as a summer resort. The lakes +furnish a large supply of clear ice, which is shipped to the Chicago +markets. La Porte was settled in 1830, laid out in 1833, incorporated as +a town in 1835, and first chartered as a city in 1852. + + + + +LAPPA, an island directly opposite the inner harbour of Macao, the +distance across being from 1 to 1½ m. It is a station of the Chinese +imperial maritime customs which collects duties on vessels trading +between China and the Portuguese colony of Macao. The arrangement is +altogether abnormal, and was consented to by the Portuguese government +in 1887 to assist the Chinese authorities in the suppression of opium +smuggling. A similar arrangement prevails at the British colony of +Hong-Kong, where the Chinese customs station is Kowloon. In both cases +the customs stations levy duties on vessels entering and leaving the +foreign port in lieu of levying them, as ought to be done, on entering +or leaving a Chinese port. + + + + +LAPPARENT, ALBERT AUGUSTE COCHON DE (1839-1908), French geologist, was +born at Bourges on the 30th of December 1839. After studying at the +École Polytechnique from 1858 to 1860 he became _ingénieur au corps des +mines_, and took part in drawing up the geological map of France; and in +1875 he was appointed professor of geology and mineralogy at the +Catholic Institute, Paris. In 1879 he prepared an important memoir for +the geological survey of France on _Le Pays de Bray_, a subject on which +he had already published several memoirs, and in 1880 he served as +president of the French Geological Society. In 1881-1883 he published +his _Traité de géologie_ (5th ed., 1905), the best European text-book of +stratigraphical geology. His other works include _Cours de minéralogie_ +(1884, 3rd ed., 1899), _La Formation des combustibles minéraux_ (1886), +_Le Niveau de la mer et ses variations_ (1886), _Les Tremblements de +terre_ (1887), _La Géologie en chemin de fer_ (1888), _Précis de +minéralogie_ (1888), _Le Siècle du fer_ (1890), _Les Anciens Glaciers_ +(1893), _Leçons de géographie physique_ (1896), _Notions générales sur +l'écorce terrestre_ (1897), _Le Globe terrestre_ (1899), and _Science et +apologétique_ (1905). With Achille Delesse he was for many years editor +of the _Révue de géologie_ and contributed to the _Extraits de +géologie_, and he joined with A. Potier in the geological surveys +undertaken in connexion with the Channel Tunnel proposals. He died in +Paris on the 5th of May 1908. + + + + +LAPPENBERG, JOHANN MARTIN (1794-1865), German historian, was born on the +30th of July 1794 at Hamburg, where his father, Valentin Anton +Lappenberg (1759-1819), held an official position. He studied medicine, +and afterwards history, at Edinburgh. He continued to study history in +London, and at Berlin and Göttingen, graduating as doctor of laws at +Göttingen in 1816. In 1820 he was sent by the Hamburg senate as resident +minister to the Prussian court. In 1823 he became keeper of the Hamburg +archives; an office in which he had the fullest opportunities for the +laborious and critical research work upon which his reputation as an +historian rests. He retained this post until 1863, when a serious +affection of the eyes compelled him to resign. In 1850 he represented +Hamburg in the German parliament at Frankfort, and bis death took place +at Hamburg on the 28th of November 1865. Lappenberg's most important +work is his _Geschichte von England_, which deals with the history of +England from the earliest times to 1154, and was published in two +volumes at Hamburg in 1834-1837. It has been translated into English by +B. Thorpe as _History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings_ (London +1845, and again 1881), and _History of England under the Norman Kings_ +(Oxford, 1857), and has been continued in three additional volumes from +1154 to 1509 by R. Pauli. His other works deal mainly with the history +of Hamburg, and include _Hamburgische Chroniken in Niedersächsischer +Sprache_ (Hamburg, 1852-1861); _Geschichtsquellen des Erzstiftes und der +Stadt Bremen_ (Bremen, 1841); _Hamburgisches Urkundenbuch_ (Hamburg, +1842); _Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen Stahlhofes zu London_ +(Hamburg, 1851); _Hamburgische Rechtsalterthümer_ (Hamburg, 1845); and +_Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse_ (Hamburg, +1830), a continuation of the work of G. F. Sartorius. For the _Monumenta +Germaniae historica_ he edited the _Chronicon_ of Thietmar of Merseburg, +the _Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum_ of Adam of Bremen and +the _Chronica Slavorum_ of Helmold, with its continuation by Arnold of +Lübeck. Lappenberg, who was a member of numerous learned societies in +Europe, wrote many other historical works. + + See E. H. Meyer, _Johann Martin Lappenberg_ (Hamburg, 1867); and R. + Pauli in the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band xvii. (Leipzig, + 1883). + + + + +LAPRADE, PIERRE MARTIN VICTOR RICHARD DE (1812-1883), known as VICTOR DE +LAPRADE, French poet and critic, was born on the 13th of January 1812 at +Montbrison, in the department of the Loire. He came of a modest +provincial family. After completing his studies at Lyons, he produced in +1839 a small volume of religious verse, _Les Parfums de Madeleine_. This +was followed in 1840 by _La Colère de Jésus_, in 1841 by the religious +fantasy of _Psyché_, and in 1844 by _Odes et poèmes_. In 1845 Laprade +visited Italy on a mission of literary research, and in 1847 he was +appointed professor of French literature at Lyons. The French Academy, +by a single vote, preferred Émile Augier at the election in 1857, but in +the following year Laprade was chosen to fill the chair of Alfred de +Musset. In 1861 he was removed from his post at Lyons owing to the +publication of a political satire in verse (_Les Muses d'État_), and in +1871 took his seat in the National Assembly on the benches of the Right. +He died on the 13th of December 1883. A statue has been raised by his +fellow-townsmen at Montbrison. Besides those named above, Laprade's +poetical works include _Poèmes évangéliques_ (1852), _Idylles héroïques_ +(1858), _Les Voix de silence_ (1864), _Pernette_ (1868), _Poèmes +civiles_ (1873), _Le Livre d'un père_ (1877), _Varia_ and _Livre des +adieux_ (1878-1879). In prose he published, in 1840, _Des habitudes +intellectuelles de l'avocat_. _Questions d'art et de morale_ appeared in +1861, succeeded by _Le Sentiment de la nature, avant le Christianisme_ +in 1866, and _Chez les modernes_ in 1868, _Éducation libérale_ in 1873. +The material for these books had in some cases been printed earlier, +after delivery as a lecture. He also contributed articles to the _Revue +des deux mondes_ and the _Revue de Paris_. No writer represents more +perfectly than Laprade the admirable genius of French provincial life, +its homely simplicity, its culture, its piety and its sober patriotism. +As a poet he belongs to the school of Chateaubriand and Lamartine. +Devoted to the best classical models, inspired by a sense of the ideal, +and by worship of nature as revealing the divine--gifted, too, with a +full faculty of expression--he lacked only fire and passion in the +equipment of a romantic poet. But the want of these, and the pressure of +a certain chilly facility and of a too conscious philosophizing have +prevented him from reaching the first rank, or from even attaining the +popularity due to his high place in the second. Only in his patriotic +verse did he shake himself clear from these trammels. Speaking +generally, he possessed some of the qualities, and many of the defects, +of the English Lake School. Laprade's prose criticisms must be ranked +high. Apart from his classical and metaphysical studies, he was widely +read in the literatures of Europe, and built upon the groundwork of a +naturally correct taste. His dislike of irony and scepticism probably +led him to underrate the product of the 18th century, and there are +signs of a too fastidious dread of Philistinism. But a constant love of +the best, a joy in nature and a lofty patriotism are not less evident +than in his poetry. Few writers of any nation have fixed their minds so +steadily on whatsoever things are pure, and lovely and of good report. + + See also Edmond Biré, _Victor de Laprade, sa vie et ses oeuvres_. (C.) + + + + +LAPSE (Lat. _lapsus_, a slip or departure), in law, a term used in +several senses. (1) In ecclesiastical law, when a patron has neglected +to present to a void benefice within six months next after the +avoidance, the right of presentation is said to lapse. In such case the +patronage or right of presentation devolves from the neglectful patron +to the bishop as ordinary, to the metropolitan as superior and to the +sovereign as patron paramount. (2) The failure of a testamentary +disposition in favour of any person, by reason of the decease of its +object in the testator's lifetime, is termed a lapse. See LEGACY, WILL. + + + + +LAPWING (O.Eng. _hleápewince_ = "one who turns about in running or +flight"),[1] a bird, the _Tringa vanellus_ of Linnaeus and the _Vanellus +vulgaris_ or _V. cristatus_ of modern ornithologists. In the temperate +parts of the Old World this species is perhaps the most abundant of the +plovers, _Charadriidae_, breeding in almost every suitable place from +Ireland to Japan--the majority migrating towards winter to southern +countries, as the Punjab, Egypt and Barbary--though in the British +Islands some are always found at that season. As a straggler it has +occurred within the Arctic Circle (as on the Varanger Fjord in Norway), +as well as in Iceland and even Greenland; while it not unfrequently +appears in Madeira and the Azores. Conspicuous as the strongly +contrasted colours of its plumage and its very peculiar flight make it, +it is remarkable that it maintains its ground when so many of its allies +have been almost exterminated, for the lapwing is the object perhaps of +greater persecution than any other European bird that is not a +plunderer. Its eggs are the well-known "plovers' eggs" of commerce,[2] +and the bird, wary and wild at other times of the year, in the +breeding-season becomes easily approachable, and is shot to be sold in +the markets for "golden plover." Its growing scarcity in Great Britain +was very perceptible until the various acts for the protection of wild +birds were passed. It is now abundant and is of service both for the +market and to agriculture. What seems to be the secret of the lapwing +holding its position is the adaptability of its nature to various kinds +of localities. It will find sustenance equally on the driest of soils as +on the fattest pastures; upland and fen, arable and moorland, are alike +to it, provided only the ground be open enough. The wailing cry[3] and +the frantic gestures of the cock bird in the breeding-season will tell +any passer-by that a nest or brood is near; but, unless he knows how to +look for it, nothing save mere chance will enable him to find it. The +nest is a slight hollow in the ground, wonderfully inconspicuous even +when deepened, as is usually the case, by incubation, and the +black-spotted olive eggs (four in number) are almost invisible to the +careless or untrained eye. The young when first hatched are clothed with +mottled down, so as closely to resemble a stone, and to be overlooked as +they squat motionless on the approach of danger. At a distance the +plumage of the adult appears to be white and black in about equal +proportions, the latter predominating above; but on closer examination +nearly all the seeming black is found to be a bottle-green gleaming with +purple and copper; the tail-coverts, both above and below, are of a +bright bay colour, seldom visible in flight. The crest consists of six +or eight narrow and elongated feathers, turned slightly upwards at the +end, and is usually carried in a horizontal position, extending in the +cock beyond the middle of the back; but it is capable of being erected +so as to become nearly vertical. Frequenting parts of the open country +so very divergent in character, and as remarkable for the peculiarity of +its flight as for that of its cry, the lapwing is far more often +observed in nearly all parts of the British Islands than any other of +the group Limicolae. The peculiarity of its flight seems due to the wide +and rounded wings it possesses, the steady and ordinarily somewhat slow +flapping of which impels the body at each stroke with a manifest though +easy jerk. Yet on occasion, as when performing its migrations, or even +its almost daily transits from one feeding-ground to another, and still +more when being pursued by a falcon, the speed with which it moves +through the air is very considerable. On the ground this bird runs +nimbly, and is nearly always engaged in searching for its food, which is +wholly animal. + +Allied to the lapwing are several forms that have been placed by +ornithologists in the genera _Hoplopterus_, _Chettusia_, _Lobivanellus_, +_Defilippia_. In some of them the hind toe, which has already ceased to +have any function in the lapwing, is wholly wanting. In others the wings +are armed with a tubercle or even a sharp spur on the carpus. Few have +any occipital crest, but several have the face ornamented by the +outgrowth of a fleshy lobe or lobes. With the exception of North +America, they are found in most parts of the world, but perhaps the +greater number in Africa. Europe has three species--_Hoplopterus +spinosus_, the spur-winged plover, and _Chettusia gregaria_ and _C. +leucura_; but the first and last are only stragglers from Africa and +Asia. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Skeat, _Etym_. Dict. (1898), _s.v_. Caxton in 1481 has + "lapwynches" (_Reynard the Fox_, cap. 27). The first part of the word + is from _hleápan_, to leap; the second part is "wink" (O.H.G. + _winchan_, Ger. _wanken_, to waver). Popular etymology has given the + word its present form, as if it meant "wing-flapper," from "lap," a + fold or flap of a garment. + + [2] There is a prevalent belief that many of the eggs sold as + "plovers'" are those of rooks, but no notion can be more absurd, + since the appearance of the two is wholly unlike. Those of the + redshank, of the golden plover (to a small extent), and enormous + numbers of those of the black-headed gull, and in certain places of + some of the terns are, however, sold as lapwings', having a certain + similarity of shell to the latter, and a difference of flavour only + to be detected by a fine palate. + + [3] This sounds like _pee-weet_, with some variety of intonation. + Hence the names peewit, peaseweep and teuchit, commonly applied in + some parts of Britain to this bird--though the first is that by which + one of the smaller gulls, _Larus ridibundus_ (see GULL), is known in + the districts it frequents. In Sweden _Vipa_, in Germany _Kiebitz_, + in Holland _Kiewiet_, and in France _Dixhuit_, are names of the + lapwing, given to it from its usual cry. Other English names are + green plover and hornpie--the latter from its long hornlike crest and + pied plumage. The lapwing's conspicuous crest seems to have been the + cause of a common blunder among English writers of the middle ages, + who translated the Latin word _Upupa_, property hoopoe, by lapwing, + as being the crested bird with which they were best acquainted. In + like manner other writers of the same or an earlier period latinized + lapwing by _Egrettides_ (plural), and rendered that again into + English as egrets--the tuft of feathers misleading them also. The + word _Vanellus_ is from _vannus_, the fan used for winnowing corn, + and refers to the audible beating of the bird's wings. + + + + +LAPWORTH, CHARLES (1842- ), English geologist, was born at Faringdon in +Berkshire on the 30th of September 1842. He was educated partly in the +village of Buckland in the same county, and afterwards in the training +college at Culham, near Oxford (1862-1864). He was then appointed master +in a school connected with the Episcopal church at Galashiels, where he +remained eleven years. Geology came to absorb all his leisure time, and +he commenced to investigate the Silurian rocks of the Southern Uplands, +and to study the graptolites and other fossils which mark horizons in +the great series of Lower Palaeozoic rocks. His first paper on the Lower +Silurian rocks of Galashiels was published in 1870, and from that date +onwards he continued to enrich our knowledge of the southern uplands of +Scotland until the publication by the Geological Society of his masterly +papers on _The Moffat Series_ (1878) and _The Girvan Succession_ (1882). +Meanwhile in 1875 he became an assistant master in the Madras College, +St Andrews, and in 1881 professor of geology and mineralogy (afterwards +geology and physiography) in the Mason College, now University of +Birmingham. In 1882 he started work in the Durness-Eriboll district of +the Scottish Highlands, and made out the true succession of the rocks, +and interpreted the complicated structure which had baffled most of the +previous observers. His results were published in "The Secret of the +Highlands" (_Geol. Mag._, 1883). His subsequent work includes papers on +the Cambrian rocks of Nuneaton and the Ordovician rocks of Shropshire. +The term Ordovician was introduced by him in 1879 for the strata between +the base of the Lower Llandovery formation and that of the Lower Arenig; +and it was intended to settle the confusion arising from the use by some +writers of Lower Silurian and by others of Upper Cambrian for the same +set of rocks. The term Ordovician is now generally adopted. Professor +Lapworth was elected F.R.S. in 1888, he received a royal medal in 1891, +and was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1899. +He was president of the Geological Society, 1902-1904. His _Intermediate +Text-book of Geology_ was published in 1899. + + See article, with portrait and bibliography, in _Geol. Mag._ (July + 1901). + + + + +LAR, a city of Persia, capital of Laristan, in 27° 30´ N., 53° 58´ E., +180 m. from Shiraz and 75 from the coast at Bander Lingah. It stands at +the foot of a mountain range in an extensive plain covered with palm +trees, and was once a flourishing place, but a large portion is in +ruins, and the population which early in the 18th century numbered +50,000 is reduced to 8000. There are still some good buildings, of which +the most prominent are the old bazaar consisting of four arcades each +180 ft. long, 14 broad and 22 high, radiating from a domed centre 30 ft. +high, an old stone mosque and many cisterns. The crest of a steep +limestone hill immediately behind the town and rising 150 ft. above the +plain is crowned by the ruins of a castle formerly deemed impregnable. +Just below the castle is a well sunk 200 ft. in the rock. The +tower-flanked mud wall which surrounds the town is for the most part in +ruins. + + + + +LARA, western state of Venezuela, lying in the angle formed by the +parting of the N. and N.E. ranges of the Cordillera de Mérida and +extending N.E. with converging frontiers to the Caribbean. Pop. (1905 +estimate) 272,252. The greater part of its surface is mountainous, with +elevated fertile valleys which have a temperate climate. The Tocuyo +river rises in the S.W. angle of the state and flows N.E. to the +Caribbean with a total length of 287 m. A narrow-gauge railway, the +"South-western," owned by British capitalists, runs from the port of +Tucacas 55 m. S.W. to Barquisimeto by way of the Aroa copper-mining +district. Lara produces wheat and other cereals, coffee, sugar, tobacco, +neat cattle, sheep and various mineral ores, including silver, copper, +iron, lead, bismuth and antimony. The capital, Barquisimeto, is one of +the largest and most progressive of the inland cities of Venezuela. +Carora is also prominent as a commercial centre. Tocuyo (pop. in 1891, +15,383), 40 m. S.W. of Barquisimeto, is an important commercial and +mining town, over 2000 ft. above sea-level, in the midst of a rich +agricultural and pastoral region. Yaritagua (pop. about 12,000), 20 m. +E. of Barquisimeto, and 1026 ft. above the sea, is known for its cigar +manufactories. + + + + +LARAISH (_El Araish_), a port in northern Morocco on the Atlantic coast +in 35° 13´ N., 6° 9´ W., 43 m. by sea S. by W. of Tangier, picturesquely +situated on the left bank of the estuary of the Wad Lekkus. Pop. 6000 to +7000. The river, being fairly deep inside the bar, made this a favourite +port for the Salli rovers to winter in, but the quantity of alluvial +soil brought down threatens to close the port. The town is well situated +for defence, its walls are in fair condition, and it has ten forts, all +supplied with old-fashioned guns. Traces of the Spanish occupation from +1610-1689 are to be seen in the towers whose names are given by Tissot +as those of St Stephen, St James and that of the Jews, with the Castle +of Our Lady of Europe, now the kasbah or citadel. The most remarkable +feature of Laraish is its fine large market-place inside the town with a +low colonnade in front of very small shops. The streets, though narrow +and steep, are generally paved. Its chief exports are oranges, millet, +dra and other cereals, goat-hair and skins, sheepskins, wool and +fullers' earth. The wool goes chiefly to Marseilles. The annual value of +the trade is from £400,000 to £500,000. + +In 1780 all the Europeans in Laraish were expelled by Mohammed XVI., +although in 1786 the monopoly of its trade had been granted to Holland, +even its export of wheat. In 1787 the Moors were still building pirate +vessels here, the timber for which came from the neighbouring forest of +M'amora. Not far from the town are the remains of what is believed to be +a Phoenician city, Shammish, mentioned by Idrisi, who makes no allusion +to Laraish. It is not, however, improbable from a passage in Scylax that +the site of the present town was occupied by a Libyan settlement. +Tradition also connects Laraish with the garden of the Hesperides, +'_Arasi_ being the Arabic for "pleasure-gardens," and the "golden +apples" perhaps the familiar oranges. + + + + +LARAMIE, a city and the county-seat of Albany county, Wyoming, U.S.A., +on the Laramie river, 57 m. by rail N.W. of Cheyenne. Pop. (1900) 8207, +of whom 1280 were foreign-born; (1905) 7601; (1910) 8237. It is served +by the Union Pacific and the Laramie, Hahn's Peak & Pacific railways, +the latter extending from Laramie to Centennial (30 m.). The city is +situated on the Laramie Plains, at an elevation of 7165 ft., and is +hemmed in on three sides by picturesque mountains. It has a public +library, a United States Government building and hospitals, and is the +seat of the university of Wyoming and of a Protestant Episcopal +missionary bishopric. There is a state fish hatchery in the vicinity. +The university (part of the public school system of the state) was +founded in 1886, was opened in 1887, and embraces a College of Liberal +Arts and Graduate School, a Normal School, a College of Agriculture and +the Mechanic Arts, an Agricultural Experiment Station (established by a +Federal appropriation), a College of Engineering, a School of Music, a +Preparatory School and a Summer School. Laramie is a supply and +distributing centre for a live-stock raising and mining +region--particularly coal mining, though gold, silver, copper and iron +are also found. The Union Pacific Railroad Company has machine shops, +repair shops and rolling mills at Laramie, and, a short distance S. of +the city, ice-houses and a tie-preserving plant. The manufactures +include glass, leather, flour, plaster and pressed brick, the brick +being made from shale obtained in the vicinity. The municipality owns +and operates the water-works; the water is obtained from large springs +about 2½ m. distant. Laramie was settled in 1868, by people largely from +New England, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa, and was named in honour of +Jacques Laramie, a French fur trader. It was first chartered as a city +in 1868 by the legislature of Dakota, and was rechartered by the +legislature of Wyoming in 1873. + + + + +LARBERT, a parish and town of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop. of parish +(1901) 6500, of town, 1442. The town is situated on the Carron, 8 m. S. +by E. of Stirling by the North British and Caledonian railways, the +junction being an important station for traffic from the south by the +West Coast route. Coal-mining is the chief industry. The principal +buildings are the church, finely placed overlooking the river, the +Stirling district asylum and the Scottish National Institution for +imbecile children. In the churchyard is a monument to James Bruce, the +Abyssinian traveller, who was born and died at Kinnaird House, 2½ m. +N.E. Two m. N. by W. are the ruins of Torwood Castle and the remains of +Torwood forest, to which Sir William Wallace retired after his defeat at +Falkirk (1298). Near "Wallace's oak," in which the patriot concealed +himself, Donald Cargill (1619-1681), the Covenanter, excommunicated +Charles II. and James, duke of York, in 1680. The fragment of an old +round building is said to be the relic of one of the very few "brochs," +or round towers, found in the Lowlands. + + + + +LARCENY (an adaptation of Fr. _larcin_, O. Fr. _larrecin_, from Lat. +_latrocinium_, theft, _latio_, robber), the unlawful taking and carrying +away of things personal, with intent to deprive the rightful owner of +the same. The term _theft_, sometimes used as a synonym of larceny, is +in reality a broader term, applying to all cases of depriving another of +his property whether by removing or withholding it, and includes +larceny, robbery, cheating, embezzlement, breach of trust, &c. + +Larceny is, in modern legal systems, universally treated as a crime, but +the conception of it as a crime is not one belonging to the earliest +stage of law. To its latest period Roman law regarded larceny or theft +(_furtum_) as a delict _prima facie_ pursued by a civil remedy--the +_actio furti_ for a penalty, the _vindicatio_ or _condictio_ for the +stolen property itself or its value. In later times, a criminal remedy +to meet the graver crimes gradually grew up by the side of the civil, +and in the time of Justinian the criminal remedy, where it existed, took +precedence of the civil (_Cod._ iii. 8. 4). But to the last criminal +proceedings could only be taken in serious cases, e.g. against stealers +of cattle (_abigei_) or the clothes of bathers (_balnearii_). The +punishment was death, banishment, or labour in the mines or on public +works. In the main the Roman law coincides with the English law. The +definition as given in the _Institutes_ (iv. 1. 1) is "furtum est +contrectatio rei fraudulosa, vel ipsius rei, vel etiam ejus usus +possessionisve," to which the _Digest_ (xlvii. 2. 1, 3) adds "lucri +faciendi gratia." The earliest English definition, that of Bracton +(150b), runs thus: "furtum est secundum leges contrectatio rei alienae +fraudulenta cum animo furandi invito illo domino cujus res illa fuerit." +Bracton omits the "lucri faciendi gratia" of the Roman definition, +because in English law the motive is immaterial,[1] and the "usus ejus +possessionisve," because the definition includes an intent to deprive +the owner of his property permanently. The "animo furandi" and "invito +domino" of Bracton's definition are expansions for the sake of greater +clearness. They seem to have been implied in Roman law. _Furtum_ is on +the whole a more comprehensive term than larceny. This difference no +doubt arises from the tendency to extend the bounds of a delict and to +limit the bounds of a crime. Thus it was _furtum_ (but it would not be +theft at English common law) to use a deposit of pledge contrary to the +wishes of the owner, to retain goods found, or to steal a human being, +such as a slave or _filius familias_ (a special form of _furtum_ called +_plagium_). The latter would be in English law an abduction under +certain circumstances but not a theft. One of two married persons could +not commit _furtum_ as against the other, but larceny may be so +committed in England since the Married Women's Property Act 1882. As a +_furtum_ was merely a delict, the _obligatio ex delicto_ could be +extinguished by agreement between the parties; this cannot be done in +England. In another direction English law is more considerate of the +rights of third parties than was Roman. The thief can give a good title +to stolen goods; in Roman law he could not do so, except in the single +case of a _hereditas_ acquired by _usucapio_. The development of the law +of _furtum_ at Rome is historically interesting, for even in its latest +period is found a relic of one of the most primitive theories of law +adopted by courts of justice: "They took as their guide the measure of +vengeance likely to be exacted by an aggrieved person under the +circumstances of the case" (Maine, _Ancient Law_, ch. x.). This explains +the reason of the division of _furtum_ into _manifestum_ and _nec +manifestum_. The manifest thief was one taken red-handed--"taken with +the manner," in the language of old English law. The Twelve Tables +denounced the punishment of death against the manifest thief, for that +would be the penalty demanded by the indignant owner in whose place the +judge stood. The severity of this penalty was afterwards mitigated by +the praetor, who substituted for it the payment of quadruple the value +of the thing stolen. The same penalty was also given by the praetor in +case of theft from a fire or a wreck, or of prevention of search. The +Twelve Tables mulcted the non-manifest thief in double the value of the +thing stolen. The actions for penalties were in addition to the action +for the stolen goods themselves or their value. The quadruple and double +penalties still remain in the legislation of Justinian. The search for +stolen goods, as it existed in the time of Gaius, was a survival of a +period when the injured person was, as in the case of summons (_in jus +vocatio_), his own executive officer. Such a search, by the Twelve +Tables, might be conducted in the house of the supposed thief by the +owner in person, naked except for a cincture, and carrying a platter in +his hand, safeguards apparently against any possibility of his making a +false charge by depositing some of his own property on his neighbour's +premises. This mode of search became obsolete before the time of +Justinian. Robbery (_bona vi rapta_) was violence added to _furtum_. By +the _actio vi bonorum raptorum_ quadruple the value could be recovered +if the action were brought within a year, only the value if brought +after the expiration of a year. The quadruple value included the stolen +thing itself, so that the penalty was in effect only a triple one. It +was inclusive, and not cumulative, as in _furtum_. + +In England theft or larceny appears to have been very early regarded by +legislators as a matter calling for special attention. The pre-Conquest +compilations of laws are full of provisions on the subject. The earlier +laws appear to regard it as a delict which may be compounded for by +payment. Considerable distinctions of person are made, both in regard to +the owner and the thief. Thus, by the laws of Æthelberht, if a freeman +stole from the king he was to restore ninefold, if from a freeman or +from a dwelling, threefold. If a theow stole, he had only to make a +twofold reparation. In the laws of Alfred ordinary theft was still only +civil, but he who stole in a church was punished by the loss of his +hand. The laws of Ina named as the penalty death or redemption according +to the wer-gild of the thief. By the same laws the thief might be slain +if he fled or resisted. Gradually the severity of the punishment +increased. By the laws of Æthelstan death in a very cruel form was +inflicted. At a later date the _Leges Henrici Primi_ placed a thief in +the king's mercy, and his lands were forfeited. Putting out the eyes and +other kinds of mutilation were sometimes the punishment. The principle +of severity continued down to the 19th century, and until 1827 theft or +larceny of certain kinds remained capital. Both before and after the +Conquest local jurisdiction over thieves was a common franchise of lords +of manors, attended with some of the advantages of modern summary +jurisdiction. + + Under the common law larceny was a felony. It was affected by numerous + statutes, the main object of legislation being to bring within the law + of larceny offences which were not larcenies at common law, either + because they were thefts of things of which there could be no larceny + at common law, e.g. beasts _ferae naturae_, title deeds or choses in + action, or because the common law regarded them merely as delicts for + which the remedy was by civil action, e.g. fraudulent breaches of + trust. The earliest act in the statutes of the realm dealing with + larceny appears to be the _Carta Forestae_ of 1225, by which fine or + imprisonment was inflicted for stealing the king's deer. The next act + appears to be the statute of Westminster the First (1275), dealing + again with stealing deer. It seems as though the beginning of + legislation on the subject was for the purpose of protecting the + chases and parks of the king and the nobility. A very large number of + the old acts are named in the repealing act of 1827. An act of the + same date removed the old distinction between grand and petit + larceny.[2] The former was theft of goods above the value of twelve + pence, in the house of the owner, not from the person, or by night, + and was a capital crime. It was petit larceny where the value was + twelve pence or under, the punishment being imprisonment or whipping. + The gradual depreciation in the value of money afforded good ground + for Sir Henry Spelman's sarcasm that, while everything else became + dearer, the life of man became continually cheaper. The distinction + between grand and petit larceny first appears in statute law in the + Statute of Westminster the First, c. 15, but it was not created for + the first time by that statute. It is found in some of the + pre-Conquest codes, as that of Æthelstan, and it is recognized in the + _Leges Henrici Primi_. A distinction between simple and compound + larceny is still found in the books. The latter is larceny accompanied + by circumstances of aggravation, as that it is in a dwelling-house or + from the person. The law of larceny is now contained chiefly in the + Larceny Act 1861 (which extends to England and Ireland), a + comprehensive enactment including larceny, embezzlement, fraud by + bailees, agents, bankers, factors, and trustees, sacrilege, burglary, + housebreaking, robbery, obtaining money by threats or by false + pretences, and receiving stolen goods, and prescribing procedure, both + civil and criminal. There are, however, other acts in force dealing + with special cases of larceny, such as an act of Henry VIII. as to + stealing the goods of the king, and the Game, Post-Office and Merchant + Shipping Acts. There are separate acts providing for larceny by a + partner of partnership property, and by a husband or wife of the + property of the other (Married Women's Property Act 1882). Proceedings + against persons subject to naval or military law depend upon the Naval + Discipline Act 1866 and the Army Act 1881. There are several acts, + both before and after 1861, directing how the property is to be laid + in indictments for stealing the goods of counties, friendly societies, + trades unions, &c. The principal conditions which must exist in order + to constitute larceny are these: (1) there must be an actual taking + into the possession of the thief, though the smallest removal is + sufficient; (2) there must be an intent to deprive the owner of his + property for an indefinite period, and to assume the entire dominion + over it, an intent often described in Bracton's words as _animus + furandi_; (3) this intent must exist at the time of taking; (4) the + thing taken must be one capable of larceny either at common law or by + statute. One or two cases falling under the law of larceny are of + special interest. It was held more than once that a servant taking + corn to feed his master's horses, but without any intention of + applying it for his own benefit, was guilty of larceny. To remedy this + hardship, the Misappropriation of Servants Act 1863 was passed to + declare such an act not to be felony. The case of appropriation of + goods which have been found has led to some difficulty. It now seems + to be the law that in order to constitute a larceny of lost goods + there must be a felonious intent at the time of finding, that is, an + intent to deprive the owner of them, coupled with reasonable means at + the same time of knowing the owner. The mere retention of the goods + when the owner has become known to the finder does not make the + retention criminal. Larceny of money may be committed when the money + is paid by mistake, if the prisoner took it _animo furandi_. In two + noteworthy cases the question was argued before a very full court for + crown cases reserved, and in each case there was a striking difference + of opinion. In _R._ v. _Middleton_, 1873, L.R. 2 C.C.R., 38, the + prisoner, a depositor in a post-office savings bank, received by the + mistake of the clerk a larger sum that he was entitled to. The jury + found that he had the _animus furandi_ at the time of taking the + money, and that he knew it to be the money of the postmaster-general. + The majority of the court held it to be larceny. In a case in 1885 + (_R._ v. _Ashwell_, L.R. 16 Q.B.D. 190), where the prosecutor gave the + prisoner a sovereign believing it to be a shilling, and the prisoner + took it under that belief, but afterwards discovered its value and + retained it, the court was equally divided as to whether the prisoner + was guilty of larceny at common law, but held that he was not guilty + of larceny as a bailee. Legislation has considerably affected the + procedure in prosecutions for larceny. The inconveniences of the + common law rules of interpretation of indictments led to certain + amendments of the law, now contained in the Larceny Act, for the + purpose of avoiding the frequent failures of justice owing to the + strictness with which indictments were construed. Three larcenies of + property of the same person within six months may now be charged in + one indictment. On an indictment for larceny the prisoner may be found + guilty of embezzlement, and _vice versa_; and if the prisoner be + indicted for obtaining goods by false pretences, and the offence turn + out to be larceny, he is not entitled to be acquitted of the + misdemeanour. A count for receiving may be joined with the count for + stealing. In many cases it is unnecessary to allege or prove ownership + of the property the subject of the indictment. The act also contains + numerous provisions as to venue and the apprehension of offenders. In + another direction the powers of courts of Summary Jurisdiction (q.v.) + have been extended, in the case of charges of larceny, embezzlement + and receiving stolen goods, against children and young persons and + against adults pleading guilty or waiving their right to trial by + jury. The maximum punishment for larceny is fourteen years' penal + servitude, but this can only be inflicted in certain exceptional + cases, such as horse or cattle stealing and larceny by a servant or a + person in the service of the crown or the police. The extreme + punishment for simple larceny after a previous conviction for felony + is ten years' penal servitude. Whipping may be part of the sentence on + boys under sixteen. + +_Scotland._--A vast number of acts of the Scottish parliament dealt with +larceny. The general policy of the acts was to make larceny what was not +larceny at common law, e.g. stealing fruit, dogs, hawks or deer, and to +extend the remedies, e.g. by giving the justiciar authority throughout +the kingdom, by making the master in the case of theft by the servant +liable to give the latter up to justice, or by allowing the use of +firearms against thieves. The general result of legislation in England +and Scotland has been to assimilate the law of larceny in both kingdoms. +As a rule, what would be larceny in one would be larceny in the other. + +_United Stales._--The law depends almost entirely upon state +legislation, and is in general accordance with that of England. The only +acts of Congress bearing on the subject deal with larceny in the army +and navy, and with larceny and receiving on the high seas or in any +place under the exclusive jurisdiction of the United States, e.g. +Alaska. + + _Alaska._--Stealing any goods, chattels, government note, bank note, + or other thing in action, books of account, &c., is larceny: + punishment, imprisonment for not less than one nor more than ten years + if the property stolen is in value over $35. Larceny in any + dwelling-house, warehouse, steamship, church, &c., is punishable by + imprisonment for not less than one nor more than seven years. Larceny + of a horse, mule, ass, bull, steer, cow or reindeer is punishable by + imprisonment for not less than one nor more than fifteen years. + Wilfully altering or defacing marks or brands on such animals is + larceny (Pen. Code Alaska, § 45, 1899). + + _Arizona._--Appropriating property found without due inquiry for the + owner is larceny (Penal Code, § 442). "Dogs are property and of the + value of _one dollar each_ within the meaning of the terms 'property' + and 'value' as used in this chapter" (_id._ § 448). Property includes + a passage ticket though never issued. Persons stealing property in + another state or county, or who receive it knowing it to be stolen and + bring it into Arizona, may be convicted and punished as if the offence + was committed there (_id._ § 454). Stealing gas or water from a main + is a misdemeanour. + + _Iowa._--It is larceny to steal electricity, gas or water from wires, + meters or mains (L. 1903, ch. 132). + + _New York._--Larceny as defined by § 528 of the Penal Code includes + also embezzlement, obtaining property by false pretences, and + felonious breach of trust (_People_ v. _Dumar_, 106 N.Y. 508), but the + method of proof required to establish these offences has not been + changed. Grand larceny in the _first degree_ is (a) stealing property + of any value in the night time; (b) of $25 in value or more at night + from a dwelling house, vessel or railway car; (c) of the value of more + than $500 in any manner; in the _second degree_ (a) stealing in any + manner property of the value of over $25 and under $500; (b) taking + from the person property of any value; (c) stealing any record of a + court or other record filed with any public officer. Every other + larceny is petit larceny. "Value" of any stock, bond or security + having a market value is the amount of money due thereon or what, in + any contingency, might be collected thereon; of any passenger ticket + the price it is usually sold at. The value of anything else not fixed + by statute is its market value. Grand larceny, in the first degree, is + punishable by imprisonment not exceeding ten years; in the second + degree, not exceeding five years. Petit larceny is a misdemeanour + (Penal Code, §§ 530-535). Bringing stolen goods into the state knowing + them to be stolen is punishable as larceny within the state (_id._ § + 540). A "pay ticket" for removing a load of snow may be the subject of + larceny and its value the amount to be paid on it. (_People_ v. + _Fletcher_ [1906] 110 App. D. 231). + + _Kansas._--The owner of goods who takes them from a railroad company + with intent to defeat its lien for transportation charges is guilty of + larceny. (_Atchison Co._ v. _Hinsdell_ [1907] 90 Pac. Rep. 800). + + _Massachusetts._--Larceny includes embezzlement and obtaining money by + false pretences. (Rev. L. 1902, ch. 218, § 40.) The failing to restore + to or to notify the owner of property removed from premises on fire is + larceny (_id._ ch. 208, § 22). It is larceny to purchase property + (payment for which is to be made on or before delivery) by means of a + false pretence as to means or ability to pay, provided such pretence + is signed by the person to be charged. Indictment for stealing a will + need not contain an allegation of value (_id._ § 29). A person + convicted either as accessory or principal of three distinct larcenies + shall be adjudged "a common and notorious thief" and may be imprisoned + for not more than twenty years (_id._ 31). On second conviction for + larceny of a bicycle, the thief may be imprisoned for not more than + five years. Larceny of things annexed to realty is punishable as if it + were a larceny of personal property (_id._ §§ 33, 35). + + _Ohio._--Stealing "anything of value" is larceny (Bates Stats. § + 6856). Tapping gas pipes is punishable by fine or imprisonment for not + more than thirty days. Stealing timber having "timber dealers'" trade + mark, or removing it from a stream, is punishable by a fine of not + less than $20. + + _Utah._--It is grand larceny to alter the mark or brand on an animal + (L. 1905, ch. 38). + + _Wyoming._--For branding or altering or defacing the brand on cattle + with intent to steal, the penalty is imprisonment for not more than + five years. It is larceny for a bailee to convert with intent to steal + goods left with or found by him (Rev. Stats. §§ 4986, 4989). + + _Washington._--A horse not branded, but under Code § 6861 an "outlaw," + the owner being unknown, can be the subject of a larceny, having been + held to be property of the state. (_State_ v. _Eddy_ [1907], 90 Pac. + Rep. 641). For the third offence of such a larceny the penalty is + imprisonment for _life_ (L. 1903, ch. 86). + + See also EMBEZZLEMENT; CHEATING; FALSE PRETENCES; ROBBERY; STOLEN + GOODS. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Thus destruction of a letter by a servant, with a view of + suppressing inquiries into his or her character, makes the servant + guilty of larceny in English law. + + [2] This provision was most unnecessarily repeated in the Larceny Act + of 1861. + + + + +LARCH (from the Ger. _Lärche_, M.H.G. _Lerche_, Lat. _larix_), a name +applied to a small group of coniferous trees, of which the common larch +of Europe is taken as the type. The members of the genus _Larix_ are +distinguished from the firs, with which they were formerly placed, by +their deciduous leaves, scattered singly, as in _Abies_, on the young +shoots of the season, but on all older branchlets growing in whorl-like +tufts, each surrounding the extremity of a rudimentary or abortive +branch; they differ from cedars (_Cedrus_), which also have the +fascicles of leaves on arrested branchlets, not only in the deciduous +leaves, but in the cones, the scales of which are thinner towards the +apex, and are persistent, remaining attached long after the seeds are +discharged. The trees of the genus are closely allied in botanic +features, as well as in general appearance, so that it is sometimes +difficult to assign to them determinate specific characters, and the +limit between species and variety is not always very accurately defined. +Nearly all are natives of Europe, or the northern plains and mountain +ranges of Asia and North America, though one (_Larix Griffithii_) occurs +only on the Himalayas. + +The common larch (_L. europaea_) is, when grown in perfection, a stately +tree with tall erect trunk, gradually tapering from root to summit, and +horizontal branches springing at irregular intervals from the stem, and +in old trees often becoming more or less drooping, but rising again +towards the extremities; the branchlets or side shoots, very slender and +pendulous, are pretty thickly studded with the spurs each bearing a +fascicle of thirty or more narrow linear leaves, of a peculiar bright +light green when they first appear in the spring, but becoming of a +deeper hue when mature. The yellow stamen-bearing flowers are in +sessile, nearly spherical catkins; the fertile ones vary in colour, from +red or purple to greenish-white, in different varieties; the erect +cones, which remain long on the branches, are above an inch in length +and oblong-ovate in shape, with reddish-brown scales somewhat waved on +the edges, the lower bracts usually rather longer than the scales. The +tree flowers in April or May, and the winged seeds are shed the +following autumn. When standing in an open space, the larch grows of a +nearly conical shape, with the lower branches almost reaching the +ground, while those above gradually diminish in length towards the top +of the trunk, presenting a very symmetrical form; but in dense woods the +lower parts become bare of foliage, as with the firs under similar +circumstances. When springing up among rocks or on ledges, the stem +sometimes becomes much curved, and, with its spreading boughs and +pendent branchlets, often forms a striking and picturesque object in +alpine passes and steep ravines. In the prevalent European varieties the +bark is reddish-grey, and rather rough and scarred in old trees, which +are often much lichen-covered. The trunk attains a height of from 80 to +140 ft., with a diameter of from 3 to 5 ft. near the ground, but in +close woods is comparatively slender in proportion to its altitude. The +larch abounds on the Alps of Switzerland, on which it flourishes at an +elevation of 5000 ft., and also on those of Tirol and Savoy, on the +Carpathians, and in most of the hill regions of central Europe; it is +not wild on the Apennine chain, or the Pyrenees, and in the wild state +is unknown in the Spanish peninsula. It forms extensive woods in Russia, +but does not extend to Scandinavia, where its absence is somewhat +remarkable, as the tree grows freely in Norway and Sweden where planted, +and even multiplies itself by self-sown seed, according to F. C. +Schübeler, in the neighbourhood of Trondhjem. In the north-eastern parts +of Russia, in the country towards the Petchora river, and on the Ural, a +peculiar variety prevails, regarded by some as a distinct species (_L. +sibirica_); this form is abundant nearly throughout Siberia, extending +to the Pacific coast of Kamchatka and the hills of the Amur region. The +Siberian larch has smooth grey bark and smaller cones, approaching in +shape somewhat to those of the American hackmatack; it seems even +hardier than the Alpine tree, growing up to latitude 68°, but, as the +inclement climate of the polar shores is neared, dwindling down to a +dwarf and even trailing bush. + +[Illustration: Branchlet of Larch (_Larix europaea_).] + +The larch, from its lofty straight trunk and the high quality of its +wood, is one of the most important of coniferous trees; its growth is +extremely rapid, the stem attaining a large size in from sixty to eighty +years, while the tree yields good useful timber at forty or fifty; it +forms firm heartwood at an early age, and the sapwood is less perishable +than that of the firs, rendering it more valuable in the young state. + + The wood of large trees is compact in texture, in the best varieties + of a deep reddish colour varying to brownish-yellow, but apt to be + lighter in tint, and less hard in grain, when grown in rich soils or + in low sheltered situations. It is remarkably tough, resisting a + rending strain better than any of the fir or pine woods in common use, + though not as elastic as some; properly seasoned, it is as little + liable to shrink as to split; the boughs being small compared to the + trunk, the timber is more free from large knots, and the small knots + remain firm and undecayed. The only drawback to these good qualities + is a certain liability to warp and bend, unless very carefully + seasoned; for this purpose it is recommended to be left floating in + water for a year after felling, and then allowed some months to dry + slowly and completely before sawing up the logs; barking the trunk in + winter while the tree is standing, and leaving it in that state till + the next year, has been often advised with the larch as with other + timber, but the practical inconveniences of the plan have prevented + its adoption on any large scale. When well prepared for use, larch is + one of the most durable of coniferous woods. Its strength and + toughness render it valuable for naval purposes, to which it is + largely applied; its freedom from any tendency to split adapts it for + clinker-built boats. It is much employed for house-building; most of + the picturesque log-houses in Vaud and the adjacent cantons are built + of squared larch trunks, and derive their fine brown tint from the + hardened resin that slowly exudes from the wood after long exposure to + the summer sun; the wooden shingles, that in Switzerland supply the + place of tiles, are also frequently of larch. In Germany it is much + used by the cooper as well as the carpenter, while the form of the + trunk admirably adapts it for all purposes for which long straight + timber is needed. It answers well for fence-posts and river piles; + many of the foundations of Venice rest upon larch, the lasting + qualities of which were well known and appreciated, not only in + medieval times, but in the days of Vitruvius and Pliny. The harder and + darker varieties are used in the construction of cheap solid + furniture, being fine in grain and taking polish better than many more + costly woods. A peculiarity of larch wood is the difficulty with which + it is ignited, although so resinous; and, coated with a thin layer of + plaster, beams and pillars of larch might probably be found to justify + Caesar's epithet "igni impenetrabile lignum"; even the small branches + are not easily kept alight, and a larch fire in the open needs + considerable care. Yet the forests of larch in Siberia often suffer + from conflagration. When these fires occur while the trees are full of + sap, a curious mucilaginous matter is exuded from the half-burnt + stems; when dry it is of pale reddish colour, like some of the coarser + kinds of gum-arabic, and is soluble in water, the solution resembling + gum-water, in place of which it is sometimes used; considerable + quantities are collected and sold as "Orenburg gum"; in Siberia and + Russia it is occasionally employed as a semi-medicinal food, being + esteemed an antiscorbutic. For burning in close stoves and furnaces, + larch makes tolerably good fuel, its value being estimated by Hartig + as only one-fifth less than that of beech; the charcoal is compact, + and is in demand for iron-smelting and other metallurgic uses in some + parts of Europe. + + In the trunk of the larch, especially when growing in climates where + the sun is powerful in summer, a fine clear turpentine exists in great + abundance; in Savoy and the south of Switzerland, it is collected for + sale, though not in such quantity as formerly, when, being taken to + Venice for shipment, it was known in commerce as "Venice turpentine." + Old trees are selected, from the bark of which it is observed to ooze + in the early summer; holes are bored in the trunk, somewhat inclined + upward towards the centre of the stem, in which, between the layers of + wood, the turpentine is said to collect in small lacunae; wooden + gutters placed in these holes convey the viscous fluid into little + wooden pails hung on the end of each gutter; the secretion flows + slowly all through the summer months, and a tree in proper condition + yields from 6 to 8 lb. a year, and will continue to give an annual + supply for thirty or forty years, being, however, rendered quite + useless for timber by subjection to this process. In Tirol, a single + hole is made near the root of the tree in the spring; this is stopped + with a plug, and the turpentine is removed by a scoop in the autumn; + but each tree yields only from a few ounces to ½ lb. by this process. + Real larch turpentine is a thick tenacious fluid, of a deep yellow + colour, and nearly transparent; it does not harden by time; it + contains 15% of the essential oil of turpentine, also resin, succinic, + pinic and sylvic acids, and a bitter extractive matter. According to + Pereira, much sold under the name of Venice turpentine is a mixture of + common resin and oil of turpentine. On the French Alps a sweet + exudation is found on the small branchlets of young larches in June + and July, resembling manna in taste and laxative properties, and known + as _Manna de Briançon_ or _Manna Brigantina_; it occurs in small + whitish irregular granular masses, which are removed in the morning + before they are too much dried by the sun; this manna seems to differ + little in composition from the sap of the tree, which also contains + _mannite_; its cathartic powers are weaker than those of the manna of + the manna ash (_Fraximus ornus_), but it is employed in France for the + same purposes. + + The bark of the larch is largely used in some countries for tanning; + it is taken from the trunk only, being stripped from the trees when + felled; its value is about equal to that of birch bark; but, according + to the experience of British tanners, it is scarcely half as strong as + that of the oak. The soft inner bark is occasionally used in Siberia + as a ferment, by hunters and others, being boiled and mixed with + rye-meal, and buried in the snow for a short time, when it is employed + as a substitute for other leaven, and in making the sour liquor called + "quass." In Germany a fungus (_Polyporus Laricis_) grows on the roots + and stems of decaying larches, which was formerly in esteem as a + drastic purgative. The young shoots of the larch are sometimes given + in Switzerland as fodder to cattle. + +The larch, though mentioned by Parkinson in 1629 as "nursed up" by a few +"lovers of variety" as a rare exotic, does not seem to have been much +grown in England till early in the 18th century. In Scotland the date of +its introduction is a disputed point, but it seems to have been planted +at Dunkeld by the 2nd duke of Athole in 1727, and about thirteen or +fourteen years later considerable plantations were made at that place, +the commencement of one of the largest planting experiments on record; +it is estimated that 14 million larches were planted on the Athole +estates between that date and 1826. The cultivation of the tree rapidly +spread, and the larch has become a conspicuous feature of the scenery in +many parts of Scotland. It grows as rapidly and attains as large a size +in British habitats suited to it as in its home on the Alps, and often +produces equally good timber. The larch of Europe is essentially a +mountain tree, and requires not only free air above, but a certain +moderate amount of moisture in the soil beneath, with, at the same time, +perfect drainage, to bring the timber to perfection. Where there is +complete freedom from stagnant water in the ground, and abundant room +for the spread of its branches to light and air, the larch will flourish +in a great variety of soils, stiff clays, wet or mossy peat, and moist +alluvium being the chief exceptions; in its native localities it seems +partial to the debris of primitive and metamorphic rocks, but is +occasionally found growing luxuriantly on calcareous subsoils; in +Switzerland it attains the largest size, and forms the best timber, on +the northern declivities of the mountains; but in Scotland a southern +aspect appears most favourable. + + The best variety for culture in Britain is that with red female + flowers; the light-flowered kinds are said to produce inferior wood, + and the Siberian larch does not grow in Scotland nearly as fast as the + Alpine tree. The larch is raised from seed in immense numbers in + British nurseries; that obtained from Germany is preferred, being more + perfectly ripened than the cones of home growth usually are. The seeds + are sown in April, on rich ground, which should not be too highly + manured; the young larches are planted out when two years old, or + sometimes transferred to a nursery bed to attain a larger size; but, + like all conifers, they succeed best when planted young; on the + mountains, the seedlings are usually put into a mere slit made in the + ground by a spade with a triangular blade, the place being first + cleared of any heath, bracken, or tall herbage that might smother the + young tree; the plants should be from 3 to 4 ft. apart, or even more, + according to the growth intended before thinning, which should be + begun as soon as the boughs begin to overspread much; little or no + pruning is needed beyond the careful removal of dead branches. The + larch is said not to succeed on arable land, especially where corn has + been grown, but experience does not seem to support this view; that + against the previous occupation of the ground by Scotch fir or Norway + spruce is probably better founded, and, where timber is the object, it + should not be planted with other conifers. On the Grampians and + neighbouring hills the larch will flourish at a greater elevation than + the pine, and will grow up to an altitude of 1700 or even 1800 ft.; + but it attains its full size on lower slopes. In very dry and bleak + localities, the Scotch fir will probably be more successful up to 900 + ft. above the sea, the limit of the luxuriant growth of that hardy + conifer in Britain; and in moist valleys or on imperfectly drained + acclivities Norway spruce is more suitable. The growth of the larch + while young is exceedingly rapid; in the south of England it will + often attain a height of 25 ft. in the first ten years, while in + favourable localities it will grow upwards of 80 ft. in half a century + or less; one at Dunkeld felled sixty years after planting was 110 ft. + high; but usually the tree does not increase so rapidly after the + first thirty of forty years. Some larches in Scotland rival in size + the most gigantic specimens standing in their native woods; a tree at + Dalwick, Peeblesshire, attained 5 ft. in diameter; one at Glenarbuck, + near the Clyde, grew above 140 ft. high, with a circumference of 13 + ft. The annual increase in girth is often considerable even in large + trees; the fine larch near the abbey of Dunkeld figured by Strutt in + his _Sylva Britannica_ increased 2½ ft. between 1796 and 1825, its + measurement at the latter date being 13 ft., with a height of 97½ ft. + + In the south of England, the larch is much planted for the supply of + hop-poles, though in parts of Kent and Sussex poles formed of Spanish + chestnut are regarded as still more lasting. In plantations made with + this object, the seedlings are placed very close (from 1½ to 2 ft. + apart), and either cut down all at once, when the required height is + attained or thinned out, leaving the remainder to gain a greater + length; the land is always well trenched before planting. The best + month for larch planting, whether for poles or timber, is November; + larches are sometimes planted in the spring, but the practice cannot + be commended, as the sap flows early, and, if a dry period follows, + the growth is sure to be checked. The thinnings of the larch woods in + the Highlands are in demand for railway sleepers, scaffold poles, and + mining timber, and are applied to a variety of agricultural purposes. + The tree generally succeeds on the Welsh hills. + + The young seedlings are sometimes nibbled by the hare and rabbit; and + on parts of the highland hills both bark and shoots are eaten in the + winter by the roe-deer; larch woods should always be fenced in to keep + out the hill-cattle, which will browse upon the shoots in spring. The + "woolly aphis," "American blight," or "larch blight" (_Eriosoma + laricis_) often attacks the trees in close valleys, but rarely spreads + much unless other unhealthy conditions are present. The larch suffers + from several diseases caused by fungi; the most important is the + larch-canker caused by the parasitism of _Peziza Willkommii_. The + spores germinate on a damp surface and enter the cortex through small + cracks or wounds in the protecting layer. The fungus-mycelium will go + on growing indefinitely in the cambium layer, thus killing and + destroying a larger area year by year. The most effective method of + treatment is to cut out the diseased branch or patch as early as + possible. Another disease which is sometimes confused with that caused + by the _Peziza_ is "heart-rot"; it occasionally attacks larches only + ten years old or less, but is more common when the trees have acquired + a considerable size, sometimes spreading in a short time through a + whole plantation. The trees for a considerable period show little sign + of unhealthiness, but eventually the stem begins to swell somewhat + near the root, and the whole tree gradually goes off as the disease + advances; when cut down, the trunk is found to be decayed at the + centre, the "rot" usually commencing near the ground. Trees of good + size are thus rendered nearly worthless, often showing little sign of + unhealthiness till felled. Great difference of opinion exists among + foresters as to the cause of this destructive malady; but it is + probably the direct result of unsuitable soil, especially soil + containing insufficient nourishment. + + Considerable quantities of larch timber are imported into Britain for + use in the dockyards, in addition to the large home supply. The + quality varies much, as well as the colour and density; an Italian + sample in the museum at Kew (of a very dark red tint) weighs about 24½ + lb. to the cub. ft., while a Polish specimen, of equally deep hue, is + 44 lb. 1 oz. to the same measurement. + + For the landscape gardener, the larch is a valuable aid in the + formation of park and pleasure ground; but it is never seen to such + advantage as when hanging over some tumbling burn or rocky pass among + the mountains. A variety with very pendent boughs, known as the + "drooping" larch var. _pendula_, is occasionally met with in gardens. + + The bark of the larch has been introduced into pharmacy, being given, + generally in the form of an alcoholic tincture, in chronic bronchitic + affections and internal haemorrhages. It contains, in addition to + tannin, a peculiar principle called _larixin_, which may be obtained + in a pure state by distillation from a concentrated infusion of the + bark; it is a colourless substance in long crystals, with a bitter and + astringent taste, and a faint acid reaction; hence some term it + _larixinic acid_. + +The European larch has long been introduced into the United States, +where, in suitable localities, it flourishes as luxuriantly as in +Britain. Plantations have been made in America with an economic view, +the tree growing much faster, and producing good timber at an earlier +age than the native hackmatack (or tamarack), while the wood is less +ponderous, and therefore more generally applicable. + +The genus is represented in the eastern parts of North America by the +hackmatack (_L. americana_), of which there are several varieties, two +so well marked that they are by some botanists considered specifically +distinct. In one (_L. microcarpa_) the cones are very small, rarely +exceeding ½ in. in length, of a roundish-oblong shape; the scales are +very few in number, crimson in the young state, reddish-brown when ripe; +the tree much resembles the European larch in general appearance but is +of more slender growth; its trunk is seldom more than 2 ft. in diameter +and rarely above 80 ft. high; this form is the red larch, the _épinette +rouge_ of the French Canadians. The black larch (_L. pendula_) has +rather larger cones, of an oblong shape, about ¾ in. long, purplish or +green in the immature state, and dark brown when ripe, the scales +somewhat more numerous, the bracts all shorter than the scales. The bark +is dark bluish-grey, smoother than in the red larch, on the trunk and +lower boughs often glossy; the branches are more or less pendulous and +very slender. + + The red larch grows usually on higher and drier ground, ranging from + the Virginian mountains to the shores of Hudson Bay; the black larch + is found often on moist land, and even in swamps. The hackmatack is + one of the most valuable timber trees of America; it is in great + demand in the ports of the St Lawrence for shipbuilding. It is far + more durable than any of the oaks of that region, is heavy and + close-grained, and much stronger, as well as more lasting, than that + of the pines and firs of Canada. In many parts all the finer trees + have been cut down, but large woods of it still exist in the less + accessible districts; it abounds especially near Lake St John, Quebec, + and in Newfoundland is the prevalent tree in some of the forest + tracts; it is likewise common in Maine and Vermont. In the timber and + building yards the "red" hackmatack is the kind preferred, the + produce, probably, of _L. microcarpa_; the "grey" is less esteemed; + but the varieties from which these woods are obtained cannot always be + traced with certainty. Several fine specimens of the red larch exist + in English parks, but its growth is much slower than that of _L. + europaea_; the more pendulous forms of _L. pendula_ are elegant trees + for the garden. The hackmatacks might perhaps be grown with advantage + in places too wet for the common larch. + + In western America a larch (_L. occidentalis_) occurs more nearly + resembling _L. europaea_. The leaves are short, thicker and more rigid + than in any of the other larches; the cones are much larger than those + of the hackmatacks, egg-shaped or oval in outline; the scales are of a + fine red in the immature state, the bracts green and extending far + beyond the scales in a rigid leaf-like point. The bark of the trunk + has the same reddish tint as that of the common larch of Europe. It is + the largest of all larches and one of the most useful timber trees of + North America. Some of the trees are 250 ft. high and 6 to 8 ft. in + diameter. The wood is the hardest and strongest of all the American + conifers; it is durable and adapted for construction work or household + furniture. + + + + +LARCHER, PIERRE HENRI (1726-1812), French classical scholar and +archaeologist, was born at Dijon on the 12th of October 1726. Originally +intended for the law, he abandoned it for the classics. His (anonymous) +translation of Chariton's _Chaereas and Callirrhoë_ (1763) marked him as +an excellent Greek scholar. His attack upon Voltaire's _Philosophie de +l'historie_ (published under the name of l'Abbé Bazin) created +considerable interest at the time. His archaeological and mythological +_Mémoire sur Vénus_ (1775), which has been ranked with similar works of +Heyne and Winckelmann, gained him admission to the Académie des +Inscriptions (1778). After the imperial university was founded, he was +appointed professor of Greek literature (1809) with Boissonade as his +assistant. He died on the 22nd of December 1812. Larcher's best work was +his translation of Herodotus (1786, new ed. by L. Humbert, 1880) on the +preparation of which he had spent fifteen years. The translation itself, +though correct, is dull, but the commentary (translated into English, +London, 1829, new ed. 1844, by W. D. Cooley) dealing with historical, +geographical and chronological questions, and enriched by a wealth of +illustration from ancient and modern authors, is not without value. + + See J. F. Boissonade, _Notice sur la vie et les écrits de P. L._ + (1813); F. A. Wolf, _Literarische Analecten_, i. 205; D. A. + Wyttenbach, _Philomathia_, iii. (1817). + + + + +LARCIUS (less accurately LARTIUS), TITUS, probably surnamed FLAVUS, a +member of an Etruscan family (cf. Lars Tolumnius, Lars Porsena) early +settled in Rome. When consul in 501 B.C. he was chosen dictator (the +title and office being then introduced for the first time) to command +against the thirty Latin cities, which had sworn to reinstate Tarquin in +Rome. Other authorities put the appointment three years later, when the +plebeians refused to serve against the Latins until they had been +released from the burden of their debts. He opposed harsh measures +against the Latins, and also interested himself in the improvement of +the lot of the plebeians. His brother, Spurius, is associated with +Horatius Cocles in the defence of the Sublician bridge against the +Etruscans. + + See Livy ii. 10, 18, 21, 29; Dion. Halic. v. 50-77, vi. 37; Cicero, + _De Re Publica_, ii. 32. + + + + +LARD (Fr. _lard_, from Lat. _laridum_, bacon fat, related to Gr. [Greek: +larinos] fat, [Greek: laros] dainty or sweet), the melted and strained +fat of the common hog. Properly it is prepared from the "leaf" or fat of +the bowel and kidneys, but in commerce the term as applied to products +which include fat obtained from other parts of the animal and sometimes +containing no "leaf" at all. Lard of various grades is made in enormous +quantities by the great pork-packing houses at Chicago and elsewhere in +America. "Neutral lard" is prepared at a temperature of 40°-50° C. from +freshly killed hogs; the finest quality, used for making oleomargarine, +is got from the leaf, while the second, employed by biscuit and pastry +bakers, is obtained from the fat of the back. Steam heat is utilized in +extracting inferior qualities, such as "choice lard" and "prime steam +lard," the source of the latter being any fat portion of the animal. +Lard is a pure white fat of a butter-like consistence; its specific +gravity is about 0.93, its solidifying point about 27°-30° C., and its +melting point 35°-45° C. It contains about 60% of olein and 40% of +palmitin and stearin. Adulteration is common, the substances used +including "stearin" both of beef and of mutton, and vegetable oils such +as cotton seed oil: indeed, mixtures have been sold as lard that contain +nothing but such adulterants. In the pharmacopoeia lard figures as +_adeps_ and is employed as a basis for ointments. Benzoated lard, used +for the same purpose, is prepared by heating lard with 3% of powdered +benzoin for two hours; it keeps better than ordinary lard, but has +slightly irritant properties. + +Lard oil is the limpid, clear, colourless oil expressed by hydraulic +pressure and gentle heat from lard; it is employed for burning and for +lubrication. Of the solid residue, lard "stearine," the best qualities +are utilized for making oleomargarine, the inferior ones in the +manufacture of candles. + + See J. Lewkowitsch, _Oils, Fats and Waxes_ (London, 1909). + + + + +LARDNER, DIONYSIUS (1793-1859), Irish scientific writer, was born at +Dublin on the 3rd of April 1793. His father, a solicitor, wished his son +to follow the same calling. After some years of uncongenial desk work, +Lardner entered Trinity College, Dublin, and graduated B.A. in 1817. In +1828 he became professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at +University College, London, a position he held till 1840, when he eloped +with a married lady, and had to leave the country. After a lecturing +tour through the principal cities of the United States, which realized +£40,000, he returned to Europe in 1845. He settled at Paris, and resided +there till within a few months of his death, which took place at Naples +on the 29th of April 1859. + + Though lacking in originality or brilliancy, Lardner showed himself to + be a successful popularizer of science. He was the author of numerous + mathematical and physical treatises on such subjects as algebraic + geometry (1823), the differential and integral calculus (1825), the + steam engine (1828), besides hand-books on various departments of + natural philosophy (1854-1856); but it is as the editor of _Lardner's + Cabinet Cyclopaedia_ (1830-1844) that he is best remembered. To this + scientific library of 134 volumes many of the ablest savants of the + day contributed, Lardner himself being the author of the treatises on + arithmetic, geometry, heat, hydrostatics and pneumatics, mechanics (in + conjunction with Henry Kater) and electricity (in conjunction with C. + V. Walker). The _Cabinet Library_ (12 vols., 1830-1832) and the + _Museum of Science and Art_ (12 vols., 1854-1856) are his other chief + undertakings. A few original papers appear in the Royal Irish + Academy's _Transactions_ (1824), in the Royal Society's _Proceedings_ + (1831-1836) and in the Astronomical Society's _Monthly Notices_ + (1852-1853); and two _Reports_ to the British Association on railway + constants (1838, 1841) are from his pen. + + + + +LARDNER, NATHANIEL (1684-1768), English theologian, was born at +Hawkhurst, Kent. After studying for the Presbyterian ministry in London, +and also at Utrecht and Leiden, he took licence as a preacher in 1709, +but was not successful. In 1713 he entered the family of a lady of rank +as tutor and domestic chaplain, where he remained until 1721. In 1724 he +was appointed to deliver the Tuesday evening lecture in the Presbyterian +chapel, Old Jewry, London, and in 1729 he became assistant minister to +the Presbyterian congregation in Crutched Friars. He was given the +degree of D.D. by Marischal College, Aberdeen, in 1745. He died at +Hawkhurst on the 24th of July 1768. + + An anonymous volume of _Memoirs_ appeared in 1769; and a life by + Andrew Kippis is prefixed to the edition of the _Works_ of Lardner, + published in 11 vols., 8vo in 1788, in 4 vols. 4to in 1817, and 10 + vols. 8vo in 1827. The full title of his principal work--a work which, + though now out of date, entitles its author to be regarded as the + founder of modern critical research in the field of early Christian + literature--is _The Credibility of the Gospel History; or the + Principal Facts of the New Testament confirmed by Passages of Ancient + Authors, who were contemporary with our Saviour or his Apostles, or + lived near their time_. Part i., in 2 vols. 8vo, appeared in 1727; the + publication of part ii., in 12 vols. 8vo, began in 1733 and ended in + 1755. In 1730 there was a second edition of part i., and the + _Additions and Alterations_ were also published separately. A + _Supplement_, otherwise entitled _A History of the Apostles and + Evangelists, Writers of the New Testament_, was added in 3 vols. + (1756-1757), and reprinted in 1760. Other works by Lardner are _A + Large Collection of Ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies to the + Truth of the Christian Revelation, with Notes and Observations_ (4 + vols., 4to, 1764-1767); _The History of the Heretics of the two first + Centuries after Christ_, published posthumously in 1780 and a + considerable number of occasional sermons. + + + + +LAREDO, a city and the county-seat of Webb county, Texas, U.S.A., and a +sub-port of entry, on the Rio Grande opposite Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and +150 m. S. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) 13,429, of whom 6882 were +foreign-born (mostly Mexicans) and 82 negroes; (1910 census) 14,855. It +is served by the International & Great Northern, the National of Mexico, +the Texas Mexican and the Rio Grande & Eagle Pass railways, and is +connected by bridges with Nuevo Laredo. Among the principal buildings +are the U.S. Government Building, the City Hall and the County Court +House; and the city's institutions include the Laredo Seminary (1882) +for boys and girls, the Mercy Hospital, the National Railroad of Mexico +Hospital and an Ursuline Convent. Loma Vista Park (65 acres) is a +pleasure resort, and immediately W. of Laredo on the Rio Grande is Fort +McIntosh (formerly Camp Crawford), a United States military post. Laredo +is a jobbing centre for trade between the United States and Mexico, and +is a sub-port of entry in the Corpus Christi Customs District. It is +situated in a good farming and cattle-raising region, irrigated by water +from the Rio Grande. The principal crop is Bermuda onions; in 1909 it +was estimated that 1500 acres in the vicinity were devoted to this crop, +the average yield per acre being about 20,000 lb. There are coal mines +about 25 m. above Laredo on the Rio Grande, and natural gas was +discovered about 28 m. E. in 1908. The manufacture of bricks is an +important industry. Laredo was named from the seaport in Spain, and was +founded in 1767 as a Mexican town; it originally included what is now +Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and was long the only Mexican town on the left +bank of the river. It was captured in 1846 by a force of Texas Rangers, +and in 1847 was occupied by U.S. troops under General Lamar. In 1852 it +was chartered as a city of Texas. + + + + +LA RÉOLE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Gironde, on the right bank of the Gironde, 38 m. +S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) 3469. La Réole grew up round a +monastery founded in the 7th or 8th century, which was reformed in the +11th century and took the name of _Regula_, whence that of the town. A +church of the end of the 12th century and some of the buildings (18th +century) are left. There is also a town hall of the 12th and 14th +centuries. The town fortifications were dismantled by order of +Richelieu, but remains dating from the 12th and 14th centuries are to be +seen, as well as a ruined château built by Henry II. of England. La +Réole has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a communal +college and an agricultural school. The town is the centre of the +district in which the well-known breed of Bazadais cattle is reared. It +is an agricultural market and carries on trade in the wine of the region +together with liqueur distillery and the manufacture of casks, rope, +brooms, &c. + + + + +LARES (older form _Lases_), Roman tutelary deities. The word is +generally supposed to mean "lords," and identified with Etruscan +_larth_, _lar_; but this is by no means certain. The attempt to +harmonize the Stoic demonology with Roman religion led to the Lares +being compared with the Greek "heroes" during the period of Greco-Roman +culture, and the word is frequently translated [Greek: hêrôes]. In the +later period of the republic they are confounded with the Penates (and +other deities), though the distinction between them was probably more +sharply marked in earlier times. They were originally gods of the +cultivated fields, worshipped by each household where its allotment +joined those of others (see below). The distinction between public and +private Lares existed from early times. The latter were worshipped in +the house by the family alone, and the household Lar (_familiaris_) was +conceived of as the centre-point of the family and of the family cult. +The word itself (in the singular) came to be used in the general sense +of "home." It is certain that originally each household had only one +Lar; the plural was at first only used to include other classes of +Lares, and only gradually, after the time of Cicero, ousted the +singular. The image of the Lar, made of wood, stone or metal, sometimes +even of silver, stood in its special shrine (_lararium_), which in early +times was in the atrium, but was afterwards transferred to other parts +of the house, when the family hearth was removed from the atrium. In +some of the Pompeian houses the _lararium_ was represented by a niche +only, containing the image of the lar. It was usually a youthful figure, +dressed in a short, high-girt tunic, holding in one hand a _rhyton_ +(drinking-horn), in the other a _patera_ (cup). Under the Empire we find +usually two of these, one on each side of the central figure of the +Genius of the head of the household, sometimes of Vesta the +hearth-deity. The whole group was called indifferently Lares or Penates. +A prayer was said to the Lar every morning, and at each meal offerings +of food and drink were set before him; a portion of these was placed on +the hearth and afterwards shaken into the fire. Special sacrifices were +offered on the kalends, nones, and ides of every month, and on the +occasion of important family events. Such events were the birthday of +the head of the household; the assumption of the _toga virilis_ by a +son; the festival of the Caristia in memory of deceased members of the +household; recovery from illness; the entry of a young bride into the +house for the first time; return home after a long absence. On these +occasions the Lares were crowned with garlands, and offerings of cakes +and honey, wine and incense, but especially swine, were laid before +them. Their worship persisted throughout the pagan period, although its +character changed considerably in later times. The emperor Alexander +Severus had images of Abraham, Christ and Alexander the Great among his +household Lares. + +The public Lares belonged to the state religion. Amongst these must be +included, at least after the time of Augustus, the _Lares compitales_. +Originally two in number, mythologically the sons of Mercurius and Lara +(or Larunda), they were the presiding deities of the cross-roads +(_compita_), where they had their special chapels. It has been +maintained by some that they are the twin brothers so frequent in early +religions, the Romulus and Remus of the Roman foundation legends. Their +sphere of influence included not only the cross-roads, but the whole +neighbouring district of the town and country in which they were +situated. They had a special annual festival, called Compitalia, to +which public games were added some time during the republican period. +When the colleges of freedmen and slaves, who assisted the presidents of +the festival, were abolished by Julius Caesar, it fell into disuse. Its +importance was revived by Augustus, who added to these Lares his own +Genius, the religious personification of the empire. + +The state itself had its own Lares, called _praestites_, the protecting +patrons and guardians of the city. They had a temple and altar on the +Via Sacra, near the Palatine, and were represented on coins as young men +wearing the chlamys, carrying lances, seated, with a dog, the emblem of +watchfulness, at their feet. Mention may also be made of the _Lares +grundules_, whose worship was connected with the white sow of Alba Longa +and its thirty young (the epithet has been connected with _grunnire_, to +grunt): the _viales_, who protected travellers; the _hostilii_, who kept +off the enemies of the state; the _permarini_, connected with the sea, +to whom L. Aemilius Regillus, after a naval victory over Antiochus (190 +B.C.), vowed a temple in the Campus Martius, which was dedicated by M. +Aemilius Lepidus the censor in 179. + +The old view that the Lares were the deified ancestors of the family has +been rejected lately by Wissowa, who holds that the Lar was originally +the protecting spirit of a man's lot of arable land, with a shrine at +the _compitum_, i.e. the spot where the path bounding his arable met +that of another holding; and thence found his way into the house. + + In addition to the manuals of Marquardt and Preller-Jordan, and + Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, see A. de Marchi, _Il Culto + privato di Roma antica_ (1896-1903), p. 28 foll.; G. Wissowa, + _Religion und Kultus der Römer_ (1902), p. 148 foll.; _Archiv für + Religionswissenschaft_ (1904, p. 42 foll.) and W. Warde Fowler in the + same periodical (1906; p. 529). + + + + +LA RÉVELLIÈRE-LÉPEAUX, LOUIS MARIE DE (1753-1824), French politician, +member of the Directory, the son of J. B. de la Révellière, was born at +Montaign (Vendée), on the 24th of August 1753. The name of Lépeaux he +adopted from a small property belonging to his family, and he was known +locally as M. de Lépeaux. He studied law at Angers and Paris, being +called to the bar in 1775. A deputy to the states-general in 1789, he +returned at the close of the session to Angers, where with his +school-friends J. B. Leclerc and Urbain René Pilastre he sat on the +council of Maine-et-Loire, and had to deal with the first Vendéen +outbreaks. In 1792 he was returned by the department to the Convention, +and on the 19th of November he proposed the famous decree by which +France offered protection to foreign nations in their struggle for +liberty. Although La Révellière-Lépeaux voted for the death of Louis +XVI., he was not in general agreement with the extremists. Proscribed +with the Girondins in 1793 he was in hiding until the revolution of 9.10 +Thermidor (27th and 28th of July 1794). After serving on the commission +to prepare the initiation of the new constitution he became in July 1795 +president of the Assembly, and shortly afterwards a member of the +Committee of Public Safety. His name stood first on the list of +directors elected, and he became president of the Directory. Of his +colleagues he was in alliance with Jean François Rewbell and to a less +degree with Barras, but the greatest of his fellow-directors, Lazare +Carnot, was the object of his undying hatred. His policy was marked by a +bitter hostility to the Christian religion, which he proposed to +supplant as a civilizing agent by theophilanthropy, a new religion +invented by the English deist David Williams. The credit of the _coup +d'état_ of 18 Fructidor (4th of September 1797), by which the allied +directors made themselves supreme, La Révellière arrogated to himself in +his _Mémoires_, which in this as in other matters must be read with +caution. Compelled to resign by the revolution of 30 Prairial (18th of +June 1799) he lived in retirement in the country, and even after his +return to Paris ten years later took no part in public affairs. He died +on the 27th of March 1824. + + The _Mémoires_ of La Révellière-Lépeaux were edited by R. D. D'Angers + (Paris, 3 vols., 1895). See also E. Charavay, _La Révellière-Lépeaux + et ses mémoires_ (1895) and A. Meynier, _Un Représentant de la + bourgeoisie angevine_ (1905). + + + + +LARGENTIÈRE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Ardèche, in the narrow valley of the +Ligne, 29 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 1690. A church of the +12th, 13th and 15th centuries and the old castle of the bishops of +Viviers, lords of Largentière, now used as a hospital, are the chief +buildings. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of +first instance; and has silk-mills, and carries on silk-spinning, +wine-growing and trade in fruit and silk. It owes its name to +silver-mines worked in the vicinity in the middle ages. + + + + +LARGILLIÈRE, NICOLAS (1656-1746), French painter, was born at Paris on +the 20th of October 1656. His father, a merchant, took him to Antwerp at +the age of three, and while a lad he spent nearly two years in London. +The attempt to turn his attention to business having failed, he entered, +some time after his return to Antwerp, the studio of Goubeau, quitting +this at the age of eighteen to seek his fortune in England, where he was +befriended by Lely, who employed him for four years at Windsor. His +skill attracted the notice of Charles II., who wished to retain him in +his service, but the fury aroused against Roman Catholics by the Rye +House Plot alarmed Largillière, and he went to Paris, where he was well +received by Le Brun and Van der Meulen. In spite of his Flemish +training, his reputation, especially as a portrait-painter, was soon +established; his brilliant colour and lively touch attracted all the +celebrities of the day--actresses, public men and popular preachers +flocking to his studio. Huet, bishop of Avranches, Cardinal de Noailles, +the Duclos and President Lambert, with his beautiful wife and daughter, +are amongst his most noted subjects. It is said that James II. recalled +Largillière to England on his accession to the throne in 1685, that he +declined the office of keeper of the royal collections, but that, during +a short stay in London, he painted portraits of the king, the queen and +the prince of Wales. This last is impossible, as the birth of the prince +did not take place till 1688; the three portraits, therefore, painted by +Largillière of the prince in his youth must all have been executed in +Paris, to which city he returned some time before March 1686, when he +was received by the Academy as a member, and presented as his diploma +picture the fine portrait of Le Brun, now in the Louvre. He was received +as an historical painter; but, although he occasionally produced works +of that class ("Crucifixion," engraved by Roettiers), and also treated +subjects of still life, it was in historical portraits that he excelled. +Horace Walpole states that he left in London those of Pierre van der +Meulen and of Sybrecht. Several of his works are at Versailles. The +church of St Étienne du Mont at Paris contains the finest example of +Largillière's work when dealing with large groups of figures; it is an +_ex voto_ offered by the city to St Geneviève, painted in 1694, and +containing portraits of all the leading officers of the municipality. +Largillière passed through every post of honour in the Academy, until in +1743 he was made chancellor. He died on the 20th of March 1746. Jean +Baptiste Oudry was the most distinguished of his pupils. Largillière's +work found skilful interpreters in Van Schuppen, Edelinck, Desplaces, +Drevet, Pitou and other engravers. + + + + +LARGS, a police burgh and watering place of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1901) 3246. It is situated 43 m. W. by S. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & +South-Western railway. Its fine beach and dry, bracing climate have +attracted many wealthy residents, and the number of summer visitors is +also large. The public buildings include the Clark hospital, the +Victoria infirmary convalescent home and the Stevenson institute and +mechanics' library. Skelmorlie Aisle, the sole relic of the old parish +church of St Columba, was converted into a mausoleum in 1636. Near it a +mound covers remains, possibly those of the Norwegians who fell in the +battle (1263) between Alexander III. and Haco, king of Norway. The +harbour is used mainly by Clyde passenger steamers and yachtsmen. From +the quay a broad esplanade has been constructed northwards round the +bay, and there is an excellent golf course. Kelburne Castle, 2 m. S., a +seat of the earl of Glasgow, stands in romantic scenery. FAIRLIE, 3 m. +S., another seaside resort, with a station on the Glasgow & +South-Western railway, is the connecting-point for Millport on Great +Cumbrae. Once a fishing village, it has acquired a great reputation for +its yachts. + + + + +LARGUS, SCRIBONIUS, court physician to the emperor Claudius. About A.D. +47, at the request of Gaius Julius Callistus, the emperor's freedman, he +drew up a list of 271 prescriptions (_Compositiones_), most of them his +own, although he acknowledged his indebtedness to his tutors, to friends +and to the writings of eminent physicians. Certain old wives' remedies +are also included. The work has no pretensions to style, and contains +many colloquialisms. The greater part of it was transferred without +acknowledgment to the work of Marcellus Empiricus (c. 410), _De +Medicamentis Empiricis, Physicis, et Rationabilibus_, which is of great +value for the correction of the text of Largus. + + See the edition of the _Compositiones_ by G. Helmreich (Teubner + series, 1887). + + + + +LARINO (anc. _Larinum_) a town and episcopal see of the Molise (province +of Campobasso), Italy, 32 m. N.E. of Campobasso by rail (20 m. direct), +984 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7044. The cathedral, completed in +1319, has a good Gothic façade; the interior has to some extent been +spoilt by later restoration. The campanile rests upon a Gothic arch +erected in 1451. The Palazzo Comunale has a courtyard of the 16th +century. That the ancient town (which is close to the modern) existed +before the Roman supremacy had extended so far is proved by the coins. +It lay in the 2nd Augustan region (Apulia), but the people belonged to +the Frentani by race. Its strong position gave it importance in the +military history of Italy from the Hannibalic wars onwards. The town was +a _municipium_, situated on the main road to the S.E., which left the +coast at Histonium (Vasto) and ran from Larinum E. to Sipontum. From +Larinum a branch road ran to Bovianum Vetus. Remains of its city walls, +of its amphitheatre and also of baths, &c., exist, and it did not cease +to be inhabited until after the earthquake of 1300, when the modern city +was established. Cluentius, the client of Cicero, who delivered a speech +in his favour, was a native of Larinum, his father having been praetor +of the allied forces in the Social War. (T. As.) + + + + +LARISSA (Turk. _Yeni Shehr_, "new town"), the most important town of +Thessaly, situated in a rich agricultural district on the right bank of +the Salambria (Peneios, Peneus, Peneius), about 35 m. N.W. of Volo, with +which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1889) 13,610, (1907) 18,001. Till +1881 it was the seat of a pasha in the vilayet of Jannina; it is now the +capital of the Greek province and the seat of a nomarch. Its long +subjection to Turkey has left little trace of antiquity, and the most +striking features in the general view are the minarets of the disused +mosques (only four are now in use) and the Mahommedan burying-grounds. +It was formerly a Turkish military centre and most of the people were of +Turkish blood. In the outskirts is a village of Africans from the +Sudan--a curious remnant of the forces collected by Ali Pasha. The +manufactures include Turkish leather, cotton, silk and tobacco; trade +and industry, however, are far from prosperous, though improving owing +to the immigration of the Greek commercial element. Fevers and agues are +prevalent owing to bad drainage and the overflowing of the river; and +the death-rate is higher than the birth-rate. A considerable portion of +the Turkish population emigrated in 1881; a further exodus took place in +1898. The department of Larissa had in 1907 a population of 95,066. + + Larissa, written Larisa on ancient coins and inscriptions, is near the + site of the Homeric Argissa. It appears in early times, when Thessaly + was mainly governed by a few aristocratic families, as an important + city under the rule of the Aleuadae, whose authority extended over the + whole district of Pelasgiotis. This powerful family possessed for many + generations before 369 B.C. the privilege of furnishing the Tagus, or + generalissimo, of the combined Thessalian forces. The principal rivals + of the Aleuadae were the Scopadae of Crannon, the remains of which + (called by the Turks _Old Larissa_) are about 14 m. to the S.W. The + inhabitants sided with Athens during the Peloponnesian War, and during + the Roman invasion their city was of considerable importance. Since + the 5th century it has been the seat of an archbishop, who has now + fifteen suffragans. Larissa was the headquarters of Ali Pasha during + the Greek War of Independence, and of the crown prince Constantine + during the Greco-Turkish War; the flight of the Greek army from this + place to Pharsala took place on the 23rd of April 1897. Notices of + some ancient inscriptions found at Larissa are given by Miller in + _Mélanges philologiques_ (Paris, 1880); several sepulchral reliefs + were found in the neighbourhood in 1882. A few traces of the ancient + acropolis and theatre are still visible. + + The name Larissa was common to many "Pelasgian" towns, and apparently + signified a fortified city or _burg_, such as the citadel of Argos. + Another town of the name in Thessaly was Larissa Cremaste, surnamed + Pelasgia (Strabo ix. p. 440), situated on the slope of Mt. Othrys. + (J. D. B.) + + + + +LARISTAN, a sub-province of the province of Fars in Persia, bounded E. +and N.E. by Kerman and S. by the Persian Gulf. It lies between 26° 30´ +and 28° 25´ N. and between 52° 30´ and 55° 30´ E. and has an extreme +breadth and length of 120 and 210 m. respectively, with an area of about +20,000 sq. m. Pop. about 90,000. Laristan consists mainly of mountain +ranges in the north and east, and of arid plains varied with rocky hills +and sandy valleys stretching thence to the coast. In the highlands, +where some fertile upland tracts produce corn, dates and other fruits, +the climate is genial, but elsewhere it is extremely sultry, and on the +low-lying coast lands malarious. Good water is everywhere so scarce that +but for the rain preserved in cisterns the country would be mostly +uninhabitable. Many cisterns are infested with Guinea worm (_filaria +medinensis_, Gm.). The coast is chiefly occupied by Arab tribes who were +virtually independent, paying merely a nominal tribute to the shah's +government until 1898. They reside in small towns and mud forts +scattered along the coast. The people of the interior are mostly of the +old Iranian stock, and there are also a few nomads of the Turkish +Baharlu tribe which came to Persia in the 11th century when the province +was subdued by a Turkish chief. Laristan remained an independent state +under a Turkish ruler until 1602, when Shah Ibrahim Khan was deposed and +put to death by Shah 'Abbas the Great. The province is subdivided into +eight districts: (1) Lar, the capital and environs, with 34 villages; +(2) Bikhah Ihsham with 11; (3) Bikhah Fal with 10; (4) Jehangiriyeh with +30; (5) Shibkuh with 36; (6) Fumistan with 13; (7) Kauristan with 4; (8) +Mazayijan with 6 villages. Lingah, with its principal place Bander +Lingah and 11 villages, formerly a part of Laristan, is now included in +the "Persian Gulf Ports," a separate administrative division. Laristan +is famous for the condiment called _mahiabeh_ (fish-jelly), a compound +of pounded small sprat-like fish, salt, mustard, nutmeg, cloves and +other spices, used as a relish with nearly all foods. + + + + +LARIVEY, PIERRE (c. 1550-1612), French dramatist, of Italian origin, was +the son of one of the Giunta, the famous printers of Florence and +Venice. The family was established at Troyes and had taken the name of +Larivey or L'Arrivey, by way of translation from _giunto_. Pierre +Larivey appears to have cast horoscopes, and to have acted as clerk to +the chapter of the church of St Étienne, of which he eventually became a +canon. He has no claim to be the originator of French comedy. The +_Corrivaux_ of Jean de la Taille dates from 1562, but Larivey +naturalized the Italian comedy of intrigue in France. He adapted, rather +than translated, twelve Italian comedies into French prose. The first +volume of the _Comédies facétieuses_ appeared in 1579, and the second in +1611. Only nine in all were printed.[1] The licence of the manners +depicted in these plays is matched by the coarseness of the expression. +Larivey's merit lies in the use of popular language in dialogue, which +often rises to real excellence, and was not without influence on Molière +and Regnard. Molière's _L'Avare_ owes something to the scene in +Larivey's masterpiece, _Les Esprits_, where Séverin laments the loss of +his purse, and the opening scene of the piece seems to have suggested +Regnard's _Retour imprévu_. It is uncertain whether Larivey's plays were +represented, though they were evidently written for the stage. In any +case prose comedy gained very little ground in popular favour before the +time of Molière. Larivey was the author of many translations, varying in +subject from the _Facétieuses nuits_ (1573) of Straparola to the +_Humanité de Jésus-Christ_ (1604) from Pietro Aretino. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Le Laquais_, from the _Ragazzo_ of Ludovico Dolce; _La Veuve_, + from the _Vedova_ of Nicolo Buonaparte; _Les Esprits_, from the + _Aridosio_ of Lorenzino de Medicis; _Le Morfondu_, from the _Gelosia_ + of Antonio Grazzini; _Les Jaloux_, from the _Gelosi_ of Vincent + Gabbiani; and _Les Escolliers_, from the _Cecca_ of Girolamo Razzi, + in the first volume; and in the second, _Constance_, from the + _Costanza_ of Razzi; _Le Fidèle_, from the _Fedele_ of Luigi + Pasqualigo; and _Les Tromperies_, from the _Inganni_ of N. Secchi. + + + + +LARK (O. Eng. _láwerce_, Ger. _Lerche_, Dan. _Laerke_, Dutch +_Leeuwerik_), a bird's name used in a rather general sense, the specific +meaning being signified by a prefix, as skylark, titlark, woodlark. It +seems to be nearly conterminous with the Latin _Alauda_ as used by older +authors; and, though this was to some extent limited by Linnaeus, +several of the species included by him under the genus he so designated +have long since been referred elsewhere. By Englishmen the word lark, +used without qualification, almost invariably means the skylark, _Alauda +arvensis_, which, as the best-known and most widely spread species +throughout Europe, has been invariably considered the type of the genus. +Of all birds it holds unquestionably the foremost place in English +literature. It is one of the most favourite cage birds, as it will live +for many years in captivity, and, except in the season of moult, will +pour forth its thrilling song many times in an hour for weeks or months +together. The skylark is probably the most plentiful of the class in +western Europe. Not only does it frequent almost all unwooded districts +in that quarter of the globe, but, unlike most birds, its numbers +increase with the spread of agricultural improvement. Nesting chiefly in +the growing corn, its eggs and young are protected in a great measure +from molestation; and, as each pair of birds will rear several broods in +the season, their produce on the average may be set down as at least +quadrupling the original stock--the eggs in each nest varying from five +to three. Young larks leave their birthplace as soon as they can shift +for themselves. When the stubbles are cleared, old and young congregate +in flocks. + +In Great Britain in the autumn they give place to others coming from +more northerly districts, and then as winter succeeds in great part +vanish, leaving but a tithe of the numbers previously present. On the +approach of severe weather great flocks arrive from the continent of +Europe. On the east coast of both Scotland and England this immigration +has been noticed as occurring in a constant stream for as many as three +days in succession. Farther inland the birds are observed "in numbers +simply incalculable," and "in countless hundreds." In these migrations +enormous numbers are netted for the markets, but the rate of +reproduction is so rapid, and the conditions of life so favourable in +Europe that there is no reason to fear any serious diminution in the +numbers of the species. + +The skylark's range extends across the Old World from the Faeroe to the +Kurile Islands. In winter it occurs in North China, Nepal, the Punjab, +Persia, Palestine, Lower Egypt and Barbary. It sometimes strays to +Madeira, and has been killed in Bermuda, though its unassisted +appearance there is doubtful. It has been successfully introduced on +Long Island, in the state of New York, into Hawaii and into New +Zealand--in which latter it has become as troublesome a denizen as are +some other subjects upon which acclimatization societies have exercised +their activity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, _Alauda agrestis_; B, _Alauda arvensis_.] + +Allied to the skylark a considerable number of species have been +described, of which perhaps a dozen may be deemed valid, besides a +supposed local race, _Alauda agrestis_, the difference between which and +the normal bird is shown in the annexed woodcut (fig. 1), kindly lent to +this work by H. E. Dresser, in whose _Birds of Europe_ it is described +at length. These are found in various parts of Africa and Asia. + +The woodlark, _Lullula arborea_, is a much more local and, therefore, a +far less numerous bird than the skylark, from which it may be easily +distinguished by its finer bill, shorter tail, more spotted breast and +light superciliary stripe. Though not actually inhabiting woods, as its +common name might imply, it is seldom found far from trees. Its song +wants the variety and power of the skylark's, but has a resonant +sweetness peculiarly its own. The bird, however, requires much care in +captivity. It has by no means so wide a range as the skylark, and +perhaps the most eastern locality recorded for it is Erzerum, while its +appearance in Egypt and even in Algeria must be accounted rare. + +Not far removed from the foregoing is a group of larks characterized by +a larger crest, a stronger and more curved bill, a rufous lining to the +wings, and some other minor features. This group has been generally +termed _Galerita_, and has for its type the crested lark, the _Alauda +cristata_ of Linnaeus, a bird common enough in parts of France and some +other countries of the European continent, and one which has been +obtained several times in the British Islands. Many of the birds of this +group frequent the borders if not the interior of deserts, and such as +do so exhibit a more or less pale coloration, whereby they are +assimilated in hue to that of their haunts. The same characteristic may +be observed in several other groups--especially those known as belonging +to the genera _Calandrella_, _Ammomanes_ and _Certhilauda_, some species +of which are of a light sandy or cream colour. The genus last named is +of very peculiar appearance, presenting in some respects an +extraordinary resemblance to the hoopoes, so much so that the first +specimen described was referred to the genus _Upupa_, and named _U. +alaudipes_. The resemblance, however, is merely one of analogy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--A, Lullula arborea; B, _Certhilauda_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--A, _Melanocorypha calandra_; B, _Rhamphocorys +clot-bey_.] + +There is, however, abundant evidence of the susceptibility of the +Alaudine structure to modification from external circumstances--in other +words, of its plasticity; and perhaps no homogeneous group of _Passeres_ +could be found which better displays the working of natural selection. +Almost every character that among Passerine birds is accounted most sure +is in the larks found subject to modification. The form of the bill +varies in an extraordinary degree. In the woodlark (fig. 2, A), already +noticed, it is almost as slender as a warbler's; in _Ammomanes_ it is +short; in _Certhilauda_ (fig. 2, B) it is elongated and curved; in +_Pyrrhulauda_ and _Melanocorypha_ (fig. 3, A) it is stout and finchlike; +while in _Rhamphocorys_ (fig. 3, B) it is exaggerated to an extent that +surpasses almost any Fringilline form, exceeding in its development that +found in some members of the perplexing genus _Paradoxornis_, and even +presenting a resemblance to the same feature in the far-distant +_Anastomus_--the tomia of the maxilla not meeting those of the mandibula +along their whole length, but leaving an open space between them. The +hind claw, generally greatly elongated in larks, is in _Calandrella_ +(fig. 4) and some other genera reduced to a very moderate size. The +wings exhibit almost every modification, from the almost entire abortion +of the first primary in the skylark to its considerable development +(fig. 5), and from tertials and scapulars of ordinary length to the +extreme elongation found in the _Motacillidae_ and almost in certain +_Limicolae_. The most constant character indeed of the _Alaudidae_ would +seem to be that afforded by the _podotheca_ or covering of the tarsus, +which is scutellate behind as well as in front, but a character easily +overlooked.[1] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Calandrella brachydactyla_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--A, _Alauda arborea_; B, _Certhilauda_; C, +_Melanocorypha calandra_.] + +In the Old World larks are found in most parts of the Palaearctic, +Ethiopian and Indian regions; but only one genus, _Mirafra_, inhabits +Australia, where it is represented by, so far as is ascertained, a +single species, _M. horsfieldi_; and there is no true lark indigenous to +New Zealand. In the New World there is also only one genus, _Otocorys_, +where it is represented by many races, some of which closely approach +the Old World shore-lark, _O. alpestris_. The shore-lark is in Europe a +native of only the extreme north, but is very common near the shores of +the Varanger Fjord, and likewise breeds on mountain-tops farther +south-west, though still well within the Arctic circle. The mellow tone +of its call-note has obtained for it in Lapland a name signifying +"bell-bird," and the song of the cock is lively, though not very loud. +The bird trustfully resorts to the neighbourhood of houses, and even +enters the villages of East Finmark in search of its food. It produces +at least two broods in the season, and towards autumn migrates to lower +latitudes in large flocks. These have been observed in winter on the +east coast of Great Britain, and the species instead of being regarded, +as it once was, in the light of an accidental visitor to the United +Kingdom, must now be deemed an almost regular visitor, though in very +varying numbers. The observations on its habits made by Audubon in +Labrador have long been known, and often reprinted. Other congeners of +this bird are the _O. penicillata_ of south-eastern Europe, Palestine +and central Asia--to which are referred by H. E. Dresser (_B. Europe_, +iv. 401) several other forms originally described as distinct. All these +birds, which have been termed horned larks, from the tuft of elongated +black feathers growing on each side of the head, form a little group +easily recognized by their peculiar coloration, which calls to mind some +of the ringed plovers, _Aegialitis_. + +The name of lark is also frequently applied to many birds which do not +belong to the _Alaudidae_ as now understood. The mud-lark, rock-lark, +tit-lark and tree-lark are pipits (q.v.). The grasshopper-lark is one of +the aquatic warblers (q.v.), while the so-called meadow-lark of America +is an Icterus (q.v.). Sand-lark and sea-lark are likewise names often +given to some of the smaller members of the _Limicolae_. Of the true +larks, _Alaudidae_, there may be perhaps about one hundred species, and +it is believed to be a physiological character of the family that they +moult but once in the year, while the pipits, which in general +appearance much resemble them, undergo a double moult, as do others of +the _Motacillidae_, to which they are most nearly allied. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] By assigning far too great an importance to this superficial + character (in comparison with others), C. J. Sundevall (_Tentamen_, + pp. 53-63) was induced to array the larks, hoopoes and several other + heterogeneous groups in one "series," to which he applied the name of + _Scutelliplantares_. + + + + +LARKHALL, a mining and manufacturing town of Lanarkshire, Scotland, near +the left bank of the Clyde, 1 m. S.E. of Glasgow by the Caledonian +railway. Pop. (1901) 11,879. The highest bridge in Scotland has been +thrown across the river Avon, which flows close by. Brick-making is +carried on at several of the adjoining collieries. Other industries +include bleaching, silk-weaving, fire-clay and enamelling works, and a +sanitary appliances factory. The town has a public hall and baths. + + + + +LARKHANA, a town and district of British India, in Sind, Bombay. The +town is on a canal not far from the Indus, and has a station on the +North-Western railway, 281 m. N. by E. of Karachi. It is pleasantly +situated in a fertile locality, and is well laid out with wide streets +and spacious gardens. It is a centre of trade, with manufactures of +cotton, silk, leather, metal-ware and paper. Pop. (1901) 14,543. + +The DISTRICT OF LARKHANA, lying along the right bank of the Indus, was +formed out of portions of Sukkur and Karachi districts in 1901, and has +an area of 5091 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 656,083, showing an increase of 10% +in the decade. Its western part is mountainous, but the remainder is a +plain of alluvium watered by canals and well cultivated, being the most +fertile part of Sind. The staple grain-crops are rice, wheat and +millets, which are exported, together with wool, cotton and other +agricultural produce. Cotton cloth, carpets, salt and leather goods are +manufactured, and dyeing is an important industry. The district is +served by the North-Western railway. + + + + +LARKSPUR, in botany, the popular name for species of _Delphinium_, a +genus of hardy herbaceous plants belonging to the natural order +Ranunculaceae (q.v.). They are of erect branching habit, with the +flowers in terminal racemes, often of considerable length. Blue is the +predominating colour, but purple, pink, yellow (_D. Zalil_ or +_sulphureum_), scarlet (_D. cardinale_) and white also occur; the "spur" +is produced by the elongation of the upper sepal. The field or rocket +larkspur (_D. Ajacis_), the branching larkspur (_D. consolida_), _D. +cardiopetalum_ and their varieties, are charming annuals; height about +18 in. The spotted larkspur _(D. requienii_) and a few others are +biennials. The perennial larkspurs, however, are the most gorgeous of +the family. There are numerous species of this group, natives of the old +and new worlds, and a great number of varieties, raised chiefly from _D. +exaltatum_, _D. formosum_ and _D. grandiflorum_. Members of this group +vary from 2 ft. to 6 ft. in height. + +The larkspurs are of easy cultivation, either in beds or herbaceous +borders; the soil should be deeply dug and manured. The annual varieties +are best sown early in April, where they are intended to flower, and +suitably thinned out as growth is made. The perennial kinds are +increased by the division of existing plants in spring, or by cuttings +taken in spring or autumn and rooted in pots in cold frames. The +varieties cannot be perpetuated with certainty by seed. Seed is the most +popular means, however, of raising larkspurs in the majority of gardens, +and is suitable for all ordinary purposes; it should be sown as soon as +gathered, preferably in rows in nursery beds, and the young plants +transplanted when ready. They should be fit for the borders in the +spring of the following year, and if strong, should be planted in groups +about 3 ft. apart. Delphiniums require exposure to light and air. Given +plenty of space in a rich soil, the plants rarely require to be staked +except in windy localities. + + + + +LARNACA, LARNICA or LARNECA (anc. _Citium_, Turk. _Tuzla_), a town of +the island of Cyprus, at the head of a bay on the south coast, 23 m. +S.S.E. from Nicosia. Pop. (1901) 7964. It is the principal port of the +island, exporting barley, wheat, cotton, raisins, oranges, lemons and +gypsum. There is an iron pier 450 ft. long, but vessels anchor in the +bay in from 16 to 70 ft. of water. Larnaca occupies the site of the +ancient _Citium_, but the citadel of the ancient city was used to fill +up the ancient harbour in 1879. The modern and principal residential +part of the town is called Scala. Mycenaean tombs and other antiquities +have been found (see CYPRUS). + + + + +LA ROCHE, a small town in the Belgian Ardennes, noticeable for its +antiquity and its picturesque situation. Pop. (1904) 2065. Its name is +derived from its position on a rock commanding the river Ourthe, which +meanders round the little place, and skirts the rock on which are the +interesting ruins of the old castle of the 11th century. This is +supposed to have been the site of a hunting box of Pippin, and certainly +the counts of La Roche held it in fief from his descendants, the +Carolingian rulers. In the 12th century they sold it to the counts of +Luxemburg. In the 16th and 17th centuries the French and Imperialists +frequently fought in its neighbourhood, and at Tenneville, not far +distant, is shown the tomb of an English officer named Barnewall killed +in one of these encounters in 1692. La Roche is famous as a tourist +centre on account of its fine sylvan scenery. Among the local +curiosities is the Diable-Château, a freak of nature, being the apparent +replica of a medieval castle. La Roche is connected by steam tramway +with Melreux, a station on the main line from Marloie to Liége. + + + + +LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, the name of an old French family which is derived from +a castle[1] in the province of Angoumois (department of Charente), which +was in its possession in the 11th century. François de La Rochefoucauld +(1494-1517), godson of King Francis I., was made count in 1515. At the +time of the wars of religion the family fought for the Protestant cause. +François (1588-1650) was created duke and peer of France by Louis XIII. +in 1622. His son François was the author of the _Maxims_, and the son of +the latter acquired for his house the estates of La Roche-Guyon and +Liancourt by his marriage with Jeanne Charlotte du Plessis-Liancourt. +Alexandre, duc de La Rochefoucauld (d. 1762), left two daughters, who +married into the Roye branch of the family. Of the numerous branches of +the family the most famous are those of Roucy, Roye, Bayers, +Doudeauville, Randan and Estissac, which all furnished distinguished +statesmen and soldiers. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The castle was largely rebuilt in the reign of Francis I., and is + one of the finest specimens of the Renaissance architecture in + France. + + + + +LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS DE (1613-1680), the greatest maxim writer of +France, one of her best memoir writers, and perhaps the most complete +and accomplished representative of her ancient nobility, was born at +Paris in the Rue des Petits Champs on the 15th of September 1613. The +author of the _Maxims_, who during the lifetime of his father (see +above) and part of his own most stirring years bore the title of prince +de Marcillac, was somewhat neglected in the matter of education, at +least of the scholastic kind; but he joined the army before he was +sixteen, and almost immediately began to make a figure in public life. +He had been nominally married a year before to Andrée de Vivonne, who +seems to have been an affectionate wife, while not a breath of scandal +touches her--two points in which La Rochefoucauld was perhaps more +fortunate than he deserved. For some years Marcillac continued to take +part in the annual campaigns, where he displayed the utmost bravery, +though he never obtained credit for much military skill. Then he passed +under the spell of Madame de Chevreuse, the first of three celebrated +women who successively influenced his life. Through Madame de Chevreuse +he became attached to the queen, Anne of Austria, and in one of her +quarrels with Richelieu and her husband a wild scheme seems to have been +formed, according to which Marcillac was to carry her off to Brussels on +a pillion. These caballings against Richelieu, however, had no more +serious results (an eight days' experience of the Bastille excepted) +than occasional exiles, that is to say, orders to retire to his father's +estates. After the death of the great minister (1642), opportunity +seemed to be favourable to the vague ambition which then animated half +the nobility of France. Marcillac became one of the so-called +_importants_, and took an active part in reconciling the queen and Condé +in a league against Gaston of Orleans. But the growing credit of Mazarin +came in his way, and the _liaison_ in which about this time (1645) he +became entangled with the beautiful duchess of Longueville made him +irrevocably a Frondeur. He was a conspicuous figure in the siege of +Paris, fought desperately in the desultory engagements which were +constantly taking place, and was severely wounded at the siege of +Mardyke. In the second Fronde Marcillac followed the fortunes of Condé, +and the death of his father, which happened at the time (1650), gave +rise to a characteristic incident. The nobility of the province gathered +to the funeral, and the new duke de La Rochefoucauld took the +opportunity of persuading them to follow him in an attempt on the +royalist garrison of Saumur, which, however, was not successful. We have +no space to follow La Rochefoucauld through the tortuous cabals and +negotiations of the later Fronde; it is sufficient to say that he was +always brave and generally unlucky. His run of bad fortune reached its +climax in the battle of the Faubourg Saint Antoine (1652), where he was +shot through the head, and it was thought that he would lose the sight +of both eyes. It was nearly a year before he recovered, and then he +found himself at his country seat of Verteuil, with no result of twenty +years' fighting and intriguing except impaired health, a seriously +embarrassed fortune, and some cause for bearing a grudge against almost +every party and man of importance in the state. He spent some years in +this retirement, and he was fortunate enough (thanks chiefly to the +fidelity of Gourville, who had been in his service, and who, passing +into the service of Mazarin and of Condé, had acquired both wealth and +influence) to be able to repair in some measure the breaches in his +fortune. He did not, however, return to court life much before Mazarin's +death, when Louis XIV. was on the eve of assuming absolute power, and +the turbulent aristocratic anarchy of the Fronde was a thing utterly of +the past. + +Somewhat earlier, La Rochefoucauld had taken his place in the salon of +Madame de Sablé, a member of the old Rambouillet coterie, and the +founder of a kind of successor to it. It was known that he, like almost +all his more prominent contemporaries, had spent his solitude in writing +memoirs, while the special literary employment of the Sablé salon was +the fabrication of _Sentences_ and _Maxims_. In 1662, however, more +trouble than reputation, and not a little of both, was given to him by a +surreptitious publication of his memoirs, or what purported to be his +memoirs, by the Elzevirs. Many of his old friends were deeply wounded, +and he hastened to deny flatly the authenticity of the publication, a +denial which (as it seems, without any reason) was not very generally +accepted. Three years later (1665) he published, though without his +name, the still more famous _Maxims_, which at once established him high +among the men of letters of the time. About the same date began the +friendship with Madame de la Fayette, which lasted till the end of his +life. The glimpses which we have of him henceforward are chiefly derived +from the letters of Madame de Sévigné, and, though they show him +suffering agonies from gout, are on the whole pleasant. He had a circle +of devoted friends; he was recognized as a moralist and man of letters +of the first rank; he might have entered the Academy for the asking; and +in the altered measure of the times his son, the prince de Marcillac, to +whom some time before his death he resigned his titles and honours, +enjoyed a considerable position at court. Above all, La Rochefoucauld +was generally recognized by his contemporaries from the king downward as +a type of the older noblesse as it was before the sun of the great +monarch dimmed its brilliant qualities. This position he has retained +until the present day. He died at Paris on the 17th of March 1680, of +the disease which had so long tormented him. + +La Rochefoucauld's character, if considered without the prejudice which +a dislike to his ethical views has sometimes occasioned, is thoroughly +respectable and even amiable. Like almost all his contemporaries, he saw +in politics little more than a chessboard where the people at large were +but pawns. The weight of testimony, however, inclines to the conclusion +that he was unusually scrupulous in his conduct, and that his +comparative ill-success in the struggle arose more from this +scrupulousness than from anything else. He has been charged with +irresolution, and there is some ground for admitting the charge so far +as to pronounce him one of those the keenness of whose intellect, +together with their apprehension of both sides of a question, interferes +with their capacity as men of action. But there is no ground whatever +for the view which represents the Maxims as the mere outcome of the +spite of a disappointed intriguer, disappointed through his own want of +skill rather than of fortune. + +His importance as a social and historical figure is, however, far +inferior to his importance in literature. His work in this respect +consists of three parts--letters, _Memoirs_ and the _Maxims_. His +letters exceed one hundred in number, and are biographically valuable, +besides displaying not a few of his literary characteristics; but they +need not further detain us. The _Memoirs_, when they are read in their +proper form, yield in literary merit, in interest, and in value to no +memoirs of the time, not even to those of Retz, between whom and La +Rochefoucauld there was a strange mixture of enmity and esteem which +resulted in a couple of most characteristic "portraits." But their +history is unique in its strangeness. It has been said that a pirated +edition appeared in Holland, and this, despite the author's protest, +continued to be reprinted for some thirty years. It has been now proved +to be a mere cento of the work of half a dozen different men, scarcely a +third of which is La Rochefoucauld's, and which could only have been +possible at a time when it was the habit of persons who frequented +literary society to copy pell-mell in commonplace books the MS. +compositions of their friends and others. Some years after La +Rochefoucauld's death a new recension appeared, somewhat less incorrect +than the former, but still largely adulterated, and this held its ground +for more than a century. Only in 1817 did anything like a genuine +edition (even then by no means perfect) appear. The _Maxims_, however, +had no such fate. The author re-edited them frequently during his life, +with alterations and additions; a few were added after his death, and it +is usual now to print the whole of them, at whatever time they appeared, +together. Thus taken, they amount to about seven hundred in number, in +hardly any case exceeding half a page in length, and more frequently +confined to two or three lines. The view of conduct which they +illustrate is usually and not quite incorrectly summed up in the words +"everything is reducible to the motive of self-interest." But though not +absolutely incorrect, the phrase is misleading. The _Maxims_ are in no +respect mere deductions from or applications of any such general theory. +They are on the contrary independent judgments on different relations of +life, different affections of the human mind, and so forth, from which, +taken together, the general view may be deduced or rather composed. +Sentimental moralists have protested loudly against this view, yet it is +easier to declaim against it in general than to find a flaw in the +several parts of which it is made up. With a few exceptions La +Rochefoucauld's maxims represent the matured result of the reflection of +a man deeply versed in the business and pleasures of the world, and +possessed of an extraordinarily fine and acute intellect, on the conduct +and motives which have guided himself and his fellows. There is as +little trace in them of personal spite as of _forfanterie de vice_. But +the astonishing excellence of the literary medium in which they are +conveyed is even more remarkable than the general soundness of their +ethical import. In uniting the four qualities of brevity, clearness, +fulness of meaning and point, La Rochefoucauld has no rival. His +_Maxims_ are never mere epigrams; they are never platitudes; they are +never dark sayings. He has packed them so full of meaning that it would +be impossible to pack them closer, yet there is no undue compression; he +has sharpened their point to the utmost, yet there is no loss of +substance. The comparison which occurs most frequently, and which is +perhaps on the whole the justest, is that of a bronze medallion, and it +applies to the matter no less than to the form. Nothing is left +unfinished, yet none of the workmanship is finical. The sentiment, far +from being merely hard, as the sentimentalists pretend, has a vein of +melancholy poetry running through it which calls to mind the traditions +of La Rochefoucauld's devotion to the romances of chivalry. The maxims +are never shallow; each is the text for a whole sermon of application +and corollary which any one of thought and experience can write. Add to +all this that the language in which they are written is French, still at +almost its greatest strength, and chastened but as yet not emasculated +by the reforming influence of the 17th century, and it is not necessary +to say more. To the literary critic no less than to the man of the world +La Rochefoucauld ranks among the scanty number of pocket-books to be +read and re-read with ever new admiration, instruction and delight. + + The editions of La Rochefoucauld's _Maxims_ (as the full title runs, + _Réflexions ou sentences et maximes morales_) published in his + lifetime bear the dates 1665 (_editio princeps_), 1666, 1671, 1675, + 1678. An important edition which appeared after his death in 1693 may + rank almost with these. As long as the _Memoirs_ remained in the state + above described, no edition of them need be mentioned, and none of the + complete works was possible. The previous more or less complete + editions are all superseded by that of MM Gilbert and Gourdault + (1868-1883), in the series of "Grands Écrivains de la France," 3 vols. + There are still some puzzles as to the text; but this edition supplies + all available material in regard to them. The handsomest separate + edition of the _Maxims_ is the so-called _Édition des bibliophiles_ + (1870); but cheap and handy issues are plentiful. See the English + version by G. H. Powell (1903). Nearly all the great French critics of + the 19th century have dealt more or less with La Rochefoucauld: the + chief recent monograph on him is that of J. Bourdeau in the _Grands + écrivains français_ (1893). (G. Sa.) + + + + +LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC, DUC DE +(1747-1827), French social reformer, was born at La Roche Guyon on the +11th of January 1747, the son of François Armand de La Rochefoucauld, +duc d'Estissac, grand master of the royal wardrobe. The duc de Liancourt +became an officer of carbineers, and married at seventeen. A visit to +England seems to have suggested the establishment of a model farm at +Liancourt, where he reared cattle imported from England and Switzerland. +He also set up spinning machines on his estate, and founded a school of +arts and crafts for the sons of soldiers, which became in 1788 the École +des Enfants de la Patrie under royal protection. Elected to the +states-general of 1789 he sought in vain to support the cause of royalty +while furthering the social reforms he had at heart. On the 12th of +July, two days before the fall of the Bastille, he warned Louis XVI. of +the state of affairs in Paris, and met his exclamation that there was a +revolt with the answer, "_Non, sire, c'est une révolution._" On the 18th +of July he became president of the Assembly. Established in command of a +military division in Normandy, he offered Louis a refuge in Rouen, and, +failing in this effort, assisted him with a large sum of money. After +the events of the 10th of August 1792 he fled to England, where he was +the guest of Arthur Young, and thence passed to America. After the +assassination of his cousin, Louis-Alexandre, duc de La Rochefoucauld +d'Enville, at Gisors on the 14th of September 1792 he assumed the title +of duc de La Rochefoucauld. He returned to Paris in 1799, but received +small favour from Napoleon. At the Restoration he entered the House of +Peers, but Louis XVIII. refused to reinstate him as master of the +wardrobe, although his father had paid 400,000 francs for the honour. +Successive governments, revolutionary and otherwise, recognized the +value of his institutions at Liancourt, and he was for twenty-three +years government inspector of his school of arts and crafts, which had +been removed to Châlons. He was one of the first promoters of +vaccination in France; he established a dispensary in Paris, and he was +an active member of the central boards of administration for hospitals, +prisons and agriculture. His opposition to the government in the House +of Peers led to his removal in 1823 from the honorary positions he held, +while the vaccination committee, of which he was president, was +suppressed. The academies of science and of medicine admitted him to +their membership by way of protest. Official hostility pursued him even +after his death (27th of March 1827), for the old pupils of his school +were charged by the military at his funeral. His works, chiefly on +economic questions, include books on the English system of taxation, +poor-relief and education. + + His eldest son, François, duc de La Rochefoucauld (1765-1848), + succeeded his father in the House of Peers. The second, Alexandre, + comte de La Rochefoucauld (1767-1841), married a San Domingo heiress + allied to the Beauharnais family. Mme de La Rochefoucauld became dame + d'honneur to the empress Josephine, and their eldest daughter married + a brother-in-law of Pauline Bonaparte, Princess Borghese. La + Rochefoucauld became ambassador successively to Vienna (1805) and to + the Hague (1808-1810), where he negotiated the union of Holland with + France. During the "Hundred Days" he was made a peer of France. He + subsequently devoted himself to philanthropic work, and in 1822 became + deputy to the Chamber and sat with the constitutional royalists. He + was again raised to the peerage in 1831. + + The third son, Frédéric Gaétan, marquis de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt + (1779-1863), was a zealous philanthropist and a partisan of + constitutional monarchy. He took no part in politics after 1848. The + marquis wrote on social questions, notably on prison administration; + he edited the works of La Rochefoucauld, and the memoirs of Condorcet; + and he was the author of some vaudevilles, tragedies and poems. + + + + +LA ROCHEJACQUELEIN, DE, the name of an ancient French family of La +Vendée, celebrated for its devotion to the throne during and after the +Revolution. Its original name was Duverger, derived from a fief near +Bressuire in Poitou, and its pedigree is traceable to the 13th century. +In 1505 Gui Duverger married Renée, heiress of Jacques Lemartin, +seigneur de La Rochejacquelein, whose name he assumed. His grandson, +Louis Duverger, seigneur de La Rochejacquelein, was a devoted adherent +of Henry II., and was badly wounded at the battle of Arques; other +members of the family were also distinguished soldiers, and the +seigniory was raised to a countship and marquisate in reward for their +services. + +At the outbreak of the Revolution the chief of the family was HENRI +LOUIS AUGUSTE, marquis de La Rochejacquelein, _maréchal de camp_ in the +royal army, who had three sons named after himself--Henri, Louis and +Auguste. The marquis fled abroad with his second son Louis at the time +of the emigration of the nobles. He entered the service of Great +Britain, and died in San Domingo in 1802. + +HENRI, comte de La Rochejacquelein, born at Dubertien, near Châtillon, +sur Sèvres, on the 20th of August 1772, did not emigrate with his +father. He served in the constitutional guard of the king, and remained +in Paris till the execution of Louis XVI. He then took refuge with the +marquis de Lescure on his own estates in Poitou. When the anti-clerical +policy of the revolutionary powers provoked the rising of the peasantry +of La Vendée, he put himself at the head of the men of his +neighbourhood, and came rapidly to the front among the gentlemen whom +the peasants took for leaders. In spite of his youth and his reluctance +to assume the responsibility, he was chosen as commander-in-chief after +the defeat of the Vendéans by the republicans at Cholet. His brilliant +personal courage, his amiability and his loyalty to the cause make him a +very attractive figure, but a commander-in-chief of the Vendéans, who +came and went as they pleased, had little real power or opportunity to +display the qualities of a general. The comte de La Rochejacquelein had +in fact to obey his army, and could only display his personal valour in +action. He could not avert the mistaken policy which led to the rout at +Le Mans, and was finally shot in an obscure skirmish at Nouaillé on the +4th of March 1794. + +Louis, marquis de La Rochejacquelein, the younger brother of Henri, +accompanied his father in the emigration, served in the army of Condé, +and entered the service of England in America. He returned to France +during the Consulate, and in 1801 married the marquise de Lescure, widow +of his brother's friend, who was mortally wounded at Cholet. Marie +Louise Victoire de Donnissan, born at Versailles on the 25th of October +1772, belonged to a court family and was the god-daughter of Mme +Victoire, daughter of Louis XV. At the age of seventeen she married the +marquis de Lescure, whom she accompanied in the war of La Vendée. After +his death she went through various adventures recorded in her memoirs, +first published at Bordeaux in 1815. They are of extreme interest, and +give a remarkable picture of the war and the fortunes of the royalists. +She saved much of her own property and her first husband's, when a +conciliatory policy was adopted after the fall of the Terrorists. After +her second marriage she lived with her husband on her estates, both +refusing all offers to take service with Napoleon. In 1814 they took an +active part in the royalist movement in and about Bordeaux. In 1815 the +marquis endeavoured to bring about another Vendéan rising for the king, +and was shot in a skirmish with the Imperialist forces at the Pont des +Marthes on the 4th of June 1815. The marquis died at Orleans in 1857. + +Their eldest son, HENRI AUGUSTE GEORGES, marquis de La Rochejacquelein, +born at Château Citran in the Gironde on the 28th of September 1805, was +educated as a soldier, served in Spain in 1822, and as a volunteer in +the Russo-Turkish War of 1828. During the reign of Louis Philippe he +adhered to the legitimist policy of his family, but he became reconciled +to the government of Napoleon III. and was mainly known as a clerical +orator and philanthropist. He died on the 7th of January 1867. + +His son and successor, JULIEN MARIE GASTON, born at Chartres on the 27th +of March 1833, was an active legitimist deputy in the Assembly chosen at +the close of the German War of 1870-1871. He was a strong opponent of +Thiers, and continued to contest constituencies as a legitimist with +varying fortunes till his death in 1897. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Henri de La Rochejacquelein et la guerre de la Vendée + d'après des documents_ inédits (Niort, 1890); A. F. Nettement, _Vie de + Mme la Marquise de La Rochejacquelein_ (Paris, 1876). The _Memoirs_ of + the marquise were translated into English by Sir Walter Scott, and + issued as a volume of "Constable's Miscellany" (Edinburgh, 1827). + + + + +LA ROCHELLE, a seaport of western France, capital of the department of +Charente-Inférieure, 90 m. S. by E. of Nantes on the railway to +Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) town 24,524, commune 33,858. La Rochelle is +situated on the Atlantic coast on an inlet opening off the great bay in +which lie the islands of Ré and Oléron. Its fortifications, constructed +by Vauban, have a circuit of 3½ m. with seven gates. Towards the sea are +three towers, of which the oldest (1384) is that of St Nicholas. The +apartment in the first storey was formerly used as a chapel. The Chain +Tower, built towards the end of the 14th century, is so called from the +chain which guarded the harbour at this point; the entrance to the tidal +basin was at one time spanned by a great pointed arch between the two +towers. The lantern tower (1445-1476), seven storeys high, is surmounted +by a lofty spire and was once used as a lighthouse. Of the ancient +gateways only one has been preserved in its entirety, that of the +"Grosse Horloge," a huge square tower of the 14th or 15th century, the +corner turrets of which have been surmounted with trophies since 1746. +The cathedral of La Rochelle (St Louis or St Bartholomew) is a heavy +Grecian building (1742-1762) with a dome above the transept, erected on +the site of the old church of St Bartholomew, destroyed in the 16th +century and now represented by a solitary tower dating from the 14th +century. Externally the town-house is in the Gothic style of the latter +years of the 15th century and has the appearance of a fortress, though +its severity is much relieved by the beautiful carving of the two +entrances, of the machicolations and of the two belfries. The buildings +looking into the inner court are in the Renaissance style (16th and +early 17th centuries) and contain several fine apartments. In the old +episcopal palace (which was in turn the residence of Sully, the prince +of Condé, Louis XIII., and Anne of Austria, and the scene of the +marriage of Alphonso VI. of Portugal with a princess of Savoy) +accommodation has been provided for a library, a collection of records +and a museum of art and antiquities. Other buildings of note are an +arsenal with an artillery museum, a large hospital, a special Protestant +hospital, a military hospital and a lunatic asylum for the department. +In the botanical gardens there are museums of natural history. Medieval +and Renaissance houses give a peculiar character to certain districts: +several have French, Latin or Greek inscriptions of a moral or religious +turn and in general of Protestant origin. Of these old houses the most +interesting is one built in the middle of the 16th century and wrongly +known as that of Henry II. The parade-ground, which forms the principal +public square, occupies the site of the castle demolished in 1590. Some +of the streets have side-arcades; the public wells are fed from a large +reservoir in the Champ de Mars; and among the promenades are the Cours +des Dames with the statue of Admiral Duperré, and outside the Charruyer +Park on the west front of the ramparts, and the Mail, a beautiful piece +of greensward. In this direction are the sea-bathing establishments. + +La Rochelle is the seat of a bishopric and a prefect, and has tribunals +of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of +the Bank of France; its educational establishments include an +ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée and a training college for girls. +Ship-building, saw-milling and the manufacture of briquettes and +chemicals, sardine and tunny-preserving and petroleum-refining are among +the industries. The rearing of oysters and mussels and the exploitation +of salt marshes is carried on in the vicinity. + +The inlet of La Rochelle is protected by a stone mole constructed by +Richelieu and visible at low tide. The harbour, one of the safest on the +coast, is entered by a channel 2730 yds. long, and comprises an outer +harbour opening on the one hand into a floating basin, on the other into +a tidal basin with another floating basin adjoining it. Behind the tidal +basin is the Maubec reservoir, the waters of which, along with those of +the Marans canal, help to scour the port and navigable channel. Some 200 +sailing ships are engaged in the fisheries, and the fish market of La +Rochelle is the most important on the west coast. The harbour is, +however, inaccessible to the largest vessels, for the accommodation of +which the port of La Pallice, inaugurated in 1891, was created. Lying +about 3 m. W.S.W. of La Rochelle, this port opens into the bay opposite +the eastern extremity of the island of Ré. It was artificially excavated +and affords safe anchorage in all weathers. The outer port, protected by +two jetties, has an area of 29 acres and a depth of 16½ ft. below lowest +tide-level. At the extremity of the breakwater is a wharf where ships +may discharge without entering the basin. A lock connects with the inner +basin, which has an area of 27 acres, with 5900 ft. of quayage, a +minimum depth of 28 ft., and depths of 29½ ft. and 36 ft. at high, neap +and spring tides. Connected with the basin are two graving docks. La +Pallice has regular communication with South America by the vessels of +the Pacific Steam Navigation Company and by those of other companies +with London, America, West Africa, Egypt and the Far East. The port has +petroleum refineries and chemical manure works. + +In 1906 there entered the port of La Rochelle, including the dock of La +Pallice, 441 vessels with a tonnage of 629,038, and cleared 468 vessels +with a tonnage of 664,861 (of which 235 of 241,146 tons cleared with +ballast). These figures do not include vessels entering from, or +clearing for, other ports in France. The imports (value, £1,276,000 in +1900 as compared with £1,578,000 in 1907) include coal and patent fuel, +superphosphates, natural phosphates, nitrate of soda, pyrites, +building-timber, wines and alcohol, pitch, dried codfish, petroleum, +jute, wood-pulp. Exports (value, £1,294,000 in 1900; £1,979,000 in 1907) +include wine and brandy, fancy goods, woven goods, garments, skins, coal +and briquettes, furniture, potatoes. + + La Rochelle existed at the close of the 10th century under the name of + Rupella. It belonged to the barony of Châtelaillon, which was annexed + by the duke of Aquitaine and succeeded Châtelaillon as chief town in + Aunis. In 1199 it received a communal charter from Eleanor, duchess of + Guienne, and it was in its harbour that John Lackland disembarked when + he came to try to recover the domains seized by Philip Augustus. + Captured by Louis VIII. in 1224, it was restored to the English in + 1360 by the treaty of Brétigny, but it shook off the yoke of the + foreigner when Du Guesclin recovered Saintonge. During the 14th, 15th + and 16th centuries La Rochelle, then an almost independent commune, + was one of the great maritime cities of France. From its harbour in + 1402 Jean de Béthencourt set out for the conquest of the Canaries, and + its seamen were the first to turn to account the discovery of the new + world. The salt-tax provoked a rebellion at Rochelle which Francis I. + repressed in person; in 1568 the town secured exemption by the payment + of a large sum. At the Reformation La Rochelle early became one of the + chief centres of Calvinism, and during the religious wars it armed + privateers which preyed on Catholic vessels in the Channel and on the + high seas. In 1571 a synod of the Protestant churches of France was + held within its walls under the presidency of Beza for the purpose of + drawing up a confession of faith. After the massacre of St + Bartholomew, La Rochelle held out for six and a half months against + the Catholic army, which was ultimately obliged to raise the siege + after losing more than 20,000 men. The peace of the 24th of June 1573, + signed by the people of La Rochelle in the name of all the Protestant + party, granted the Calvinists full liberty of worship in several + places of safety. Under Henry IV. the town remained quiet, but under + Louis XIII. it put itself again at the head of the Huguenot party. Its + vessels blockaded the mouth of the Gironde and stopped the commerce of + Bordeaux, and also seized the islands of Ré and Oléron and several + vessels of the royal fleet. Richelieu then resolved to subdue the town + once for all. In spite of the assistance rendered by the English + troops under Buckingham and in spite of the fierce energy of their + mayor Guiton, the people of La Rochelle were obliged to capitulate + after a year's siege (October 1628). During this investment Richelieu + raised the celebrated mole which cut off the town from the open sea. + La Rochelle then became the principal port for the trade between + France and the colony of Canada. But the revocation of the Edict of + Nantes (1685) deprived it of some thousands of its most industrious + inhabitants, and the loss of Canada by France completed for the time + the ruin of its commerce. Its privateers, however, maintained a + vigorous struggle with the English during the republic and the empire. + + See P. Suzanne, _La Rochelle pittoresque_ (La Rochelle, 1903), and E. + Couneau, _La Rochelle disparue_ (La Rochelle, 1904). + + + + +LA ROCHE-SUR-YON, a town of western France, capital of the department of +Vendée, on an eminence on the right bank of the Yon, 48 m. S. of Nantes +on the railway to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) town 10,666, commune 13,685. The +castle of La Roche, which probably existed before the time of the +crusades, and was frequently attacked or taken in the Hundred Years' War +and in the wars of religion, was finally dismantled under Louis XIII. +When Napoleon in 1804 made this place, then of no importance, the chief +town of a department, the stones from its ruins were employed in the +erection of the administrative buildings, which, being all produced at +once after a regular plan, have a monotonous effect. The equestrian +statue of Napoleon I. in an immense square overlooking the rest of the +town; the statue of General Travot, who was engaged in the +"pacification" of La Vendée; the museum, with several paintings by P. +Baudry, a native artist, of whom there is a statue in the town, are the +only objects of interest. Napoleon-Vendée and Bourbon-Vendée, the names +borne by the town according to the dominance of either dynasty, gave +place to the original name after the revolution of 1870. The town is the +seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first +instance, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a lycée +for boys and training colleges for both sexes. It is a market for +farm-produce, horses and cattle, and has flour-mills. The dog fairs of +La Roche are well known. + + + + +LAROMIGUIÈRE, PIERRE (1756-1837), French philosopher, was born at +Livignac on the 3rd of November 1756, and died on the 12th of August +1837 in Paris. As professor of philosophy at Toulouse he was +unsuccessful and incurred the censure of the parliament by a thesis on +the rights of property in connexion with taxation. Subsequently he came +to Paris, where he was appointed professor of logic in the École Normale +and lectured in the Prytanée. In 1799 he was made a member of the +Tribunate, and in 1833 of the Academy of Moral and Political Science. In +1793 he published _Projet d'éléments de metaphysique_, a work +characterized by lucidity and excellence of style. He wrote also two +_Mémoires_, read before the Institute, _Les Paradoxes de Condillac_ +(1805) and _Leçons de philosophie_ (1815-1818). Laromiguière's +philosophy is interesting as a revolt against the extreme physiological +psychology of the natural scientists, such as Cabanis. He distinguished +between those psychological phenomena which can be traced directly to +purely physical causes, and the actions of the soul which originate from +within itself. Psychology was not for him a branch of physiology, nor on +the other hand did he give to his theory an abstruse metaphysical basis. +A pupil of Condillac and indebted for much of his ideology to Destutt de +Tracy, he attached a fuller importance to Attention as a psychic +faculty. Attention provides the facts, Comparison groups and combines +them, while Reason systematizes and explains. The soul is active in its +choice, i.e. is endowed with freewill, and is, therefore, immortal. For +natural science as a method of discovery he had no respect. He held that +its judgments are, at the best, statements of identity, and that its +so-called discoveries are merely the reiteration, in a new form, of +previous truisms. Laromiguière was not the first to develop these views; +he owed much to Condillac, Destutt de Tracy and Cabanis. But, owing to +the accuracy of his language and the purity of his style, his works had +great influence, especially over Armand Marrast, Cardaillac and Cousin. +A lecture of his in the École Normale impressed Cousin so strongly that +he at once devoted himself to the study of philosophy. Jouffroy and +Taine agree in describing him as one of the great thinkers of the 19th +century. + + See Damiron, _Essai sur la philosophie en France au XIX^e siècle_; + Biran, _Examen des leçons de philosophie_; Victor Cousin, _De Methodo + sive de Analysi_; Daunou, _Notice sur Laromiguière_; H. Taine, _Les + Philosophes classiques du XIX^e siècle_; Gatien Arnoult, _Étude sur + Laromiguière_; Compayré, _Notice sur Laromiguière_; Ferraz, + _Spiritualisme et Libéralisme_; F. Picavet, _Les Idéologues_. + + + + +LARRA, MARIANO JOSÉ DE (1809-1837), Spanish satirist, was born at Madrid +in 1809. His father served as a regimental doctor in the French army, +and was compelled to leave the Peninsula with his family in 1812. In +1817 Larra returned to Spain, knowing less Spanish than French. His +nature was disorderly, his education was imperfect, and, after futile +attempts to obtain a degree in medicine or law, he made an imprudent +marriage at the age of twenty, broke with his relatives and became a +journalist. On the 27th of April 1831 he produced his first play, _No +más mostrador_, based on two pieces by Scribe and Dieulafoy. Though +wanting in originality, it is brilliantly written, and held the stage +for many years. On the 24th of September 1834 he produced _Macias_, a +play based on his own historical novel, _El Doncel de Don Enrique el +Doliente_ (1834). The drama and novel are interesting as experiments, +but Larra was essentially a journalist, and the increased liberty of the +press after the death of Ferdinand VII. gave his caustic talent an +ampler field. He was already famous under the pseudonyms of "Juan Pérez +de Munguía" and "Figaro" which he used in _El Pobrecito Hablador_ and +_La Revista Española_ respectively. Madrid laughed at his grim humour; +ministers feared his vitriolic pen and courted him assiduously; he was +elected as deputy for Ávila, and a great career seemed to lie before +him. But the era of military _pronunciamientos_ ruined his personal +prospects and patriotic plans. His writing took on a more sombre tinge; +domestic troubles increased his pessimism, and, in consequence of a +disastrous love-affair, he committed suicide on the 13th of February +1837. Larra lived long enough to prove himself the greatest prose-writer +that Spain can boast during the 19th century. He wrote at great speed +with the constant fear of the censor before his eyes, but no sign of +haste is discernible in his work, and the dexterity with which he aims +his venomous shafts is amazing. His political instinct, his abundance of +ideas and his forcible, mordant style would have given him a foremost +position at any time and in any country; in Spain, and in his own +period, they placed him beyond all rivalry. (J. F.-K.) + + + + +LARSA (Biblical _Ellasar_, Gen. xiv. 1), an important city of ancient +Babylonia, the site of the worship of the sun-god, Shamash, represented +by the ancient ruin mound of Senkereh (Senkera). It lay 15 m. S.E. of +the ruin mounds of Warka (anc. _Erech_), near the east bank of the +Shatt-en-Nil canal. Larsa is mentioned in Babylonian inscriptions as +early as the time of Ur-Gur, 2700 or 2800 B.C., who built or restored +the _ziggurat_ (stage-tower) of E-Babbar, the temple of Shamash. +Politically it came into special prominence at the time of the Elamite +conquest, when it was made the centre of Elamite dominion in Babylonia, +perhaps as a special check upon the neighbouring Erech, which had played +a prominent part in the resistance to the Elamites. At the time of +Khammurabi's successful struggle with the Elamite conquerors it was +ruled by an Elamite king named Eriaku, the Arioch of the Bible, called +Rim-Sin by his Semitic subjects. It finally lost its independence under +Samsu-iluna, son of Khammurabi, c. 1900 B.C., and from that time until +the close of the Babylonian period it was a subject city of Babylon. +Loftus conducted excavations at this site in 1854. He describes the +ruins as consisting of a low, circular platform, about 4½ m. in +circumference, rising gradually from the level of the plain to a central +mound 70 ft. high. This represents the ancient _ziggurat_ of the temple +of Shamash, which was in part explored by Loftus. From the inscriptions +found there it appears that, besides the kings already mentioned, +Khammurabi, Burna-buriash (buryas) and the great Nebuchadrezzar restored +or rebuilt the temple of Shamash. The excavations at Senkereh were +peculiarly successful in the discovery of inscribed remains, consisting +of clay tablets, chiefly contracts, but including also an important +mathematical tablet and a number of tablets of a description almost +peculiar to Senkereh, exhibiting in bas-relief scenes of everyday life. +Loftus found also the remains of an ancient Babylonian cemetery. From +the ruins it would appear that Senkereh ceased to be inhabited at or +soon after the Persian conquest. + + See W. K. Loftus, _Chaldaea and Susiana_ (1857). (J. P. Pe.) + + + + +LARTET, EDOUARD (1801-1871), French archaeologist, was born in 1801 near +Castelnau-Barbarens, department of Gers, France, where his family had +lived for more than five hundred years. He was educated for the law at +Auch and Toulouse, but having private means elected to devote himself to +science. The then recent work of Cuvier on fossil mammalia encouraged +Lartet in excavations which led in 1834 to his first discovery of fossil +remains in the neighbourhood of Auch. Thenceforward he devoted his whole +time to a systematic examination of the French caves, his first +publication on the subject being _The Antiquity of Man in Western +Europe_ (1860), followed in 1861 by _New Researches on the Coexistence +of Man and of the Great Fossil Mammifers characteristic of the Last +Geological Period_. In this paper he made public the results of his +discoveries in the cave of Aurignac, where evidence existed of the +contemporaneous existence of man and extinct mammals. In his work in the +Périgord district Lartet had the aid of Henry Christy (q.v.). The first +account of their joint researches appeared in a paper descriptive of the +Dordogne caves and contents, published in _Revue archéologique_ (1864). +The important discoveries in the Madeleine cave and elsewhere were +published by Lartet and Christy under the title _Reliquiae Aquitanicae_, +the first part appearing in 1865. Christy died before the completion of +the work, but Lartet continued it until his breakdown in health in 1870. +The most modest and one of the most illustrious of the founders of +modern palaeontology, Lartet's work had previously been publicly +recognized by his nomination as an officer of the Legion of Honour; and +in 1848 he had had the offer of a political post. In 1857 he had been +elected a foreign member of the Geological Society of London, and a few +weeks before his death he had been made professor of palaeontology at +the museum of the Jardin des Plantes. He died at Seissan in January +1871. + + + + +LARVAL FORMS, in biology. As is explained in the article on EMBRYOLOGY +(q.v.), development and life are coextensive, and it is impossible to +point to any period in the life of an organism when the developmental +changes cease. Nevertheless it is customary to speak of development as +though it were confined to the early period of life, during which the +important changes occur by which the uninucleated zygote acquires the +form characteristic of the species. Using the word in this restricted +sense, it is pointed out in the same article that the developmental +period frequently presents two phases, the embryonic and the larval. +During the embryonic phase the development occurs under protection, +either within the egg envelopes, or within the maternal body, or in a +brood pouch. At the end of this phase the young organism becomes free +and uses, as a rule, its own mouth and digestive organs. If this happens +before it has approximately acquired the adult form, it is called a +larva (Lat. _larva_, ghost, spectre, mask), and the subsequent +development by which the adult form is acquired constitutes the larval +phase. In such forms the life-cycle is divided into three phases, the +embryonic, the larval and the adult. The transition between the first +two of these is always abrupt; whereas the second and third, except in +cases in which a metamorphosis occurs (see METAMORPHOSIS), graduate into +one another, and it is not possible to say when the larval stage ends +and the adult begins. This is only what would be expected when it is +remembered that the developmental changes never cease. It might be held +that the presence of functional reproductive organs, or the possibility +of rapidly acquiring them, marks off the adult phase of life from the +larval. But this test sometimes fails. In certain of the Ctenophora +there is a double sexual life; the larva becomes sexually mature and +lays eggs, which are fertilized and develop; it then loses its +generative organs and develops into the adult, which again develops +reproductive organs (_dissogony_; see Chun, _Die Ctenophoren des Golfes +von Neapel_, 1880). In certain Amphibia the larva may develop sexual +organs and breed (axolotl), but in this case (_neoteny_) it is doubtful +whether further development may occur in the larva. A very similar +phenomenon is found in certain insect larvae (_Cecidomyia_), but in this +case ova alone are produced and develop parthenogenetically +(paedogenesis). Again in certain Trematoda larval stages known as the +sporocyst and redia produce ova which have the power of developing +unfertilized; in this case the larva probably has not the power of +continuing its development. It is very generally held by philosophers +that the end of life is reproduction, and there is much to be said for +this view; but, granting its truth, it is difficult to see why the +capacity for reproduction should so generally be confined to the later +stages of life. We know by more than one instance that it is possible +for the larva to reproduce by sexual generation; why should not the +phenomenon be more common? It is impossible in the present state of our +knowledge to answer this question. + +The conclusion, then, that we reach is that the larval phase of life +graduates into the later phases, and that it is impossible to +characterize it with precision, as we can the embryonic phase. +Nevertheless great importance has been attached, in certain cases, to +the forms assumed by the young organism when it breaks loose from its +embryonic bonds. It has been widely held that the study of larvae is of +greater importance in determining genetic affinity than the study of +adults. What justification is there for this view? The phase of life, +chosen for the ordinary anatomical and physiological studies and +labelled as the adult phase, is merely one of the large number of stages +of structure through which the organism passes during its free life. In +animals with a well-marked larval phase, by far the greater number of +the stages of structure are included in the larval period, for the +developmental changes are more numerous and take place with greater +rapidity at the beginning of life than in its later periods. As each of +the larval stages is equal in value for the purposes of our study to the +adult phase, it clearly follows that, if there is anything in the view +that the anatomical study of organisms is of importance in determining +their mutual relations, the study of the organism in its various larval +stages must have a greater importance than the study of the single and +arbitrarily selected stage of life called the adult. + +The importance, then, of the study of larval forms is admitted, but +before proceeding to it this question may be asked: What is the meaning +of the larval phase? Obviously this is part of a larger problem: Why +does an organism, as soon as it is established at the fertilization of +the ovum, enter upon a cycle of transformations which never cease until +death puts an end to them? It is impossible to give any other answer to +this question than this, viz. that it is a property of living matter to +react in a remarkable way to external forces without undergoing +destruction. As is explained in EMBRYOLOGY, development consists of an +orderly interaction between the organism and its environment. The action +of the environment produces certain morphological changes in the +organism. These changes enable the organism to move into a new +environment, which in its turn produces further structural changes in +the organism. These in their turn enable, indeed necessitate, the +organism to move again into a new environment, and so the process +continues until the end of the life-cycle. The essential condition of +success in this process is that the organism should always shift into +the environment to which its new structure is suited, any failure in +this leading to impairment of the organism. In most cases the shifting +of the environment is a very gradual process, and the morphological +changes in connexion with each step of it are but slight. In some cases, +however, jumps are made, and whenever such jumps occur we get the +morphological phenomenon termed metamorphosis. It would be foreign to +our purpose to consider this question further here, but before leaving +it we may suggest, if we cannot answer, one further question. Has the +duration and complexity of the life-cycle expanded or contracted since +organisms first appeared on the earth? According to the current view, +the life-cycle is continually being shortened at one end by the +abbreviation of embryonic development and by the absorption of larval +stages into the embryonic period, and lengthened at the other by the +evolutionary creation of new adult phases. What was the condition of the +earliest organisms? Had they the property of reacting to external forces +to the same extent and in the same orderly manner that organisms have +to-day? + +For the purpose of obtaining light upon the genetic affinities of an +organism, a larval stage has as much importance as has the adult stage. +According to the current views of naturalists, which are largely a +product of Darwinism, it has its counterpart, as has the adult stage, in +the ancestral form from which the living organism has been derived by +descent with modification. Just as the adult phase of the living form +differs owing to evolutionary modification from the adult phase of the +ancestor, so each larval phase will differ for the same reason from the +corresponding larval phase in the ancestral life-history. Inasmuch as +the organism is variable at every stage of its existence, and is exposed +to the action of natural selection, there is no reason why it should +escape modification at any stage. But, as the characters of the ancestor +are unknown, it is impossible to ascertain what the modification has +been, and the determination of which of the characters of its descendant +(whether larval or adult) are new and which ancient must be conjectural. +It has been customary of late years to distinguish in larvae those +characters which are supposed to have been recently acquired as +_caenogenetic_, the ancient characters being termed _palingenetic_. +These terms, if they have any value, are applicable with equal force to +adults, but they are cumbrous, and the absence of any satisfactory test +which enables us to distinguish between a character which is ancestral +and one which has been recently acquired renders their utility very +doubtful. Just as the adult may be supposed, on evolution doctrine, to +be derived from an ancestral adult, so the various larval stages may be +supposed to have been derived from the corresponding larval stage of the +hypothetical ancestor. If we admit organic evolution at all, we may +perhaps go so far, but we are not in a position to go further, and to +assert that each larval stage is representative of and, so to speak, +derived from some adult stage in the remote past, when the organism +progressed no further in its life-cycle than the stage of structure +revealed by such a larval form. We may perhaps have a right to take up +this position, but it is of no advantage to us to do so, because it +leads us into the realm of pure fancy. Moreover, it assumes that an +answer can be given to the question asked above--has the life-cycle of +organisms contracted or expanded as the result of evolution? This +question has not been satisfactorily answered. Indeed we may go further +and say that naturalists have answered it in different ways according to +the class of facts they were contemplating at the moment. If we are to +consider larvae at all from the evolution point of view, we must treat +them as being representative of ancestral larvae from which they have +been derived by descent with modification; and we must leave open the +question whether and to what extent the first organisms themselves +passed through a complicated life-cycle. + +From the above considerations it is not surprising to find that the +larvae of different members of any group resemble each other to the same +kind of degree as do the adults, and that the larvae of allied groups +resemble one another more closely than do the larvae of remote groups, +and finally that a study of larvae does in some cases reveal affinities +which would not have been evident from a study of adults alone. Though +it is impossible to give here an account of the larval forms of the +animal kingdom, we may illustrate these points, which are facts of +fundamental importance in the study of larvae, by a reference to +specific cases. + +The two great groups, Annelida and Mollusca, which by their adult +structure present considerable affinity with one another, agree in +possessing a very similar larval form, known as the _trochosphere_ or +_trochophore_. + +[Illustration: After V. Drasche in _Beiträge zur Entwickelung der +Polychaeten, Entwickelung von Pomatoceros_. + +FIG. 1.--Trochosphere Larva of the Chaetopod _Pomatoceros trigueter_, L. +(Osmic acid preparation.) + + 1. The apical plate. + 2. Long cilia of preoral band (velum). + 3. Long cilia of postoral band. + 4. Mouth. + 5. Excretory organ. + 6. Mesoblastic band. + 7. Anus.] + + A typical trochosphere larva (figs. 1, 2) possesses a small, + transparent body divided into a large preoral lobe and a small + postoral region. The mouth (4) is on the ventral surface at the + junction of the preoral lobe with the hinder part of the body, and + there is an anus (7) at the hind end. Connecting the two is a curved + alimentary canal which is frequently divided into oesophagus, stomach + and intestine. There is a preoral circlet of powerful cilia, called + the "velum" (2), which encircles the body just anterior to the mouth + and marks off the preoral lobe, and there is very generally a second + ring of cilia immediately behind the mouth (3). At the anterior end of + the preoral lobe is a nervous thickening of the ectoderm called the + apical plate (1). This usually carries a tuft of long cilia or sensory + hairs, and sometimes rudimentary visual organs. Mesoblastic bands are + present, proceeding a short distance forwards from the anus on each + side of the middle ventral line (6), and at the anterior end of each + of these structures is a tube (5) which more or less branches + internally and opens on the ventral surface. The branches of this tube + end internally in peculiar cells containing a flame-shaped flagellum + and floating in the so-called body cavity, into which, however, they + do not open. These are the primitive kidneys. The body cavity, which + is a space between the ectoderm and alimentary canal, is not lined by + mesoderm and is traversed by a few muscular fibres. Such a larva is + found, almost as described, in many Chaetopods (fig. 1), in _Echiurus_ + (fig. 2), in many Gastropods (fig. 3), and Lamellibranchiates (fig. + 4). This typical structure of the larva is often departed from, and + the molluscan trochosphere can be distinguished from the annelidan by + the possession of a rudiment at least of the shell-gland and foot + (figs. 3 and 4); but in all cases in which the young leaves the egg at + an early stage of development it has a form which can be referred + without much difficulty to the trochosphere type just described. A + larva similar to the trochosphere in some features, particularly in + possessing a preoral ring of cilia and an apical plate, is found in + the Polyzoa, and in adult Rotifera, which latter, in their ciliary + ring and excretory organs, present some resemblance to the + trochosphere, and are sometimes described as permanent adult + trochospheres. But in these phases the resemblance to the typical + forms is not nearly so close as it is in the case of the larva of + Annelida and Mollusca. + + [Illustration: After Hatschek, "Echiurus" in Claus's _Arbeiten aus dem + zoolog. Institut der Wien_. + + FIG. 2.--Young Trochosphere Larva of the Gephyrean _Echiurus_, seen in + optical section. + + 1. Apical plate. + 2. Muscle-bands. + 3. Preoral band of cilia (velum). + 4. Mouth. + 5. Mesoblastic band. + 6. Anus.] + + [Illustration: After Patten, "Patella" in Claus's _Arbeiten aus dem + zoolog. Institut der Wien_. + + FIG. 3.--Larva of the Gastropod _Patella_, seen in longitudinal + vertical section. + + 1. Apical plate. + 2. Cilia of preoral circlet (velum). + 3. Mouth. + 4. Foot. + 5. Anal tuft of cilia. + 6. Shell-gland covered by shell.] + + In the Echinodermata there are two distinct larval forms which cannot + be brought into relation with one another. The one of these is found + in the Asteroids, Ophiuroids, Echinoids and Holothuroids; the other in + the Crinoids. + + [Illustration: After Hatschek on "Teredo" in Claus's Arbeiten aus dem + zoolog. Institut der Wien. + + FIG. 4.--A, Embryo, and B, Young Trochosphere Larva of the + Lamellibranch _Teredo_. + + In A the shell-gland (1) and the mouth (2) and the rudiment of the + enteron (3) are shown; (4) primitive mesoderm cells. + + In B the shell-gland has flattened out and the shell is formed. 1, + Apical plate; 2, muscles; 3, shell; 4, anal invagination; 5, + mesoblast; 6, mouth; 7, foot. + + The cilia of the preoral and postoral bands are not clearly + differentiated at this stage.] + + The first is, in its most primitive form, a small transparent + creature, with a mouth and anus and a postoral longitudinal ciliated + band (fig. 5, A). In Asteroids the band of cilia becomes divided in + such a way as to give rise to two bands, the one preoral, encircling + the preoral lobe, and the other remaining postoral (fig. 5, B). In the + other groups the band remains single and longitudinal. In all cases + the edges of the body carrying the ciliary bands become sinuous (fig. + 6) and sometimes prolonged into arms (figs. 7-9), and each of the four + groups has its own type of larva. In Asteroids, in which the band + divides, the larva is known as the bipinnaria (fig. 7); in + Holothurians it is called the auricularia (fig. 6); in Echinoids and + Ophiuroids, in which the arms are well marked, it is known as the + pluteus, the echinopluteus (fig. 9) and ophiopluteus (fig. 8) + respectively. + + All these forms were obviously distinct but as obviously modifications + of a common type and related to one another. They present certain + remarkable structural features which differentiate them from other + larval types except the tornaria larvae of the Enteropneusta. They + possess an alimentary canal with a mouth and anus as does the + trochosphere, but they differ altogether from that larva in having a + diverticulum of the alimentary canal which gives rise to the coelom + and to a considerable part of the mesoblast. Further, they are without + an apical plate with its tuft of sensory hairs. + + In Crinoids the type is different (fig. 10), and might belong to a + different phylum. The body is opaque, and encircled by five ciliary + bands, and is without either mouth, anus or arms, and there is a tuft + of cilia on the preoral lobe. A resemblance to the other Echinoderm + larvae is found in the fact that coelomic diverticula of the enteron + are present. + + [Illustration: From Balfour's _Comparative Embryology_, by permission + of Macmillan & Co., Ltd. + + FIG. 5.--Diagrams of side views of two young Echinoderm Larvae, + showing the course of the ciliary bands. A, auricularia larva of a + Holothurian; B, bipinnaria larva of an Asteroid; a, anus; l.c, in A + primitive longitudinal ciliary band, in B postoral longitudinal + ciliary band; m, mouth; pr.c, preoral ciliary band; st, stomach.] + + [Illustration: After J. Müller. + + FIG. 6.--_Auricularia stelligera_, ventral view, somewhat + diagrammatic. The larva of a Holothurian. + + 1. Frontal area. + 2. Preoral arm. + 3. Anterior transverse portion of ciliary band. + 4. Posterior transverseportion of same. + 5. Postoral arm. + 6. Anal area. + 7. Posterior lateral arm. + 8. Posterior dorsal arm. + 9. Oral depression. + 10. Middle dorsal arm. + 11. Anterior dorsal arm. + 12. Anterior lateral arm. + 13. Ventral median arm. + 14. Dorsal median arm. + 15. Unpaired posterior arm.] + + The larvae of two other groups present certain resemblances to the + typical Echinoderm larvae. The one of these is the tornaria larva of + the Enteropneusta (fig. 11), which recalls Echinoderms in the + possession of two ciliary bands, the one preoral and the other + postoral and partly longitudinal, and in the presence of gut + diverticula which give rise to the coelom; but, like the trochosphere, + it possesses an apical plate with sensory organs on the preoral lobe. + The resemblance of the tornaria to the bipinnaria is so close that, + taking into consideration certain additional resemblances in the + arrangement of the coelomic vesicles which arise from the original gut + diverticulum, it is impossible to resist the conclusion that there is + affinity between the Echinoderm and Enteropneust phyla. Here we have a + case like that of the Tunicata in which an affinity which is not + evident from a study of the adult alone is revealed by a study of the + young form. The other larva which recalls the Echinoderm type is the + Actinotrocha of _Phoronis_ (fig. 12), but the resemblance is not + nearly so close, being confined to the presence of a postoral + longitudinal band of cilia which is prolonged into arm-like processes. + +[Illustration: After J. Müller. + +FIG. 7.--_Bipinnaria elegans_, the Larva of a Star-fish. Description and +lettering as in fig. 6.] + +[Illustration: After J. Müller. + +FIG. 8.--_Ophiopluteus bimaculatus_, the Larva of an Ophiurid. +Description and lettering as in fig. 6.] + +[Illustration: After J. Müller. + +FIG. 9.--_Echinopluteus_, the Larva of a Spatangid. Description and +lettering as in fig. 6.] + +[Illustration: After Seeliger on "Antedon" in Spengel's _Zoologische +Jahrbücher_. + +FIG. 10.--A free-swimming Larva of Antedon, ventral view. It has an +apical tuft of cilia, five ciliated bands, and a depression--the +vestibular depression--on its ventral surface. v, Vestibular depression; +f, adhesive pit.] + +The following groups have larvae which cannot be related to other +larvae: the Porifera, Coelenterata, Turbellaria and Nemertea, +Brachiopoda, Myriapoda, Insecta, Crustacea, Tunicata. We may shortly +notice the larvae of the two latter. + +[Illustration: After Metschnikoff. + +FIG. 11.--Tornaria Larva of an Enteropneust, side view. + + ee, Apical plate. + aa, Preoral ciliary band. + bb, Postoral ciliary band. + dd, Mouth. + ff, Anterior coelomic vesicle and pore. + gg, Alimentary canal. + hh, Anus.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Actinotrocha Larva of _Phoronis_, side view. +(Modified after Benham.) + + 1. Apical plate. + 2. Mouth. + 3. Postoral ciliary band and arms. + 4. Perianal ciliary band.] + + In the Crustacea the larvae are highly peculiar and share, in a + striking manner, certain of the important features of specialization + presented by the adult, viz. the presence of a strong cuticle and of + articulated appendages and the absence of cilia. They are remarkable + among larvae for the number of stages which they pass through in + attaining the adult state. However numerous these may be, they almost + always have, when first set free from the egg, one of two forms, that + of the _nauplius_ (fig. 13, A) or that of the _zoaea_ (fig. 13, B). + The nauplius is found throughout the group and is the more important + of the two; the zoaea is confined to the higher members, in some of + which it merely forms a stage through which the larva, hatched as a + nauplius, passes in its gradual development. The nauplius larva is of + classic interest because its occurrence has enabled zoologists to + determine with precision the position in the animal kingdom of a + group, the Cirripedia, which was placed by the illustrious Cuvier + among the Mollusca. + + In the Tunicata the remarkable tadpole larva, the structure and + development of which was first elucidated by the great Russian + naturalist, A. Kowalevsky, possesses a similar interest to that of the + nauplius larva of Cirripeds, and of the tornaria larva of the + Enteropneusta, in that it pointed the way to the recognition of the + affinities of the Tunicata, affinities which were entirely unsuspected + till they were revealed by a study of the larvae. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--A, Nauplius of the Crustacean _Penaeus_, dorsal +view. B, Zoaea Larva of the same animal, ventral view. + + 1. 2. 3. The three pairs of appendages of the nauplius larva (the + future first and second antennae and mandibles). + 3. Mandible. + 4. First maxilla. + 5. Second maxilla. + 6. First maxilliped. + 7. Second maxilliped. + 8. Third maxilliped.] + +With regard to the occurrence of larvae, three general statements may be +made. (1) They are always associated with a small egg in which the +amount of food yolk is not sufficient to enable the animal to complete +its development in the embryonic state. (2) A free-swimming larva is +usually found in cases in which the adult is attached to foreign +objects. (3) A larval stage is, as a rule, associated with internal +parasitism of the adult. The object gained by the occurrence of a larva +in the two last cases is to enable the species to distribute itself over +as wide an area as possible. It may further be asserted that land and +fresh-water animals develop without a larval stage much more frequently +than marine forms. This is probably partly due to the fact that the +conditions of land and fresh-water life are not so favourable for the +spread of a species over a wide area by means of simply-organized larvae +as are those of marine life, and partly to the fact that, in the case of +fresh-water forms at any rate, a feebly-swimming larva would be in +danger of being swept out to sea by currents. + + 1. The association of larvae with small eggs. This is a true statement + as far as it goes, but in some cases small eggs do not give rise to + larvae, some special form of nutriment being provided by the parent, + e.g. Mammalia, in which there is a uterine nutrition by means of a + placenta; some Gastropoda (e.g. _Helix waltoni_, _Bulimus_), in which, + though the ovum is not specially large, it floats in a large quantity + of albumen at the expense of which the development is completed; some + Lamellibranchiata (_Cyclas_, &c.), Echinodermata (many _Ophiurids_, + &c.), &c., in which development takes place in a brood pouch. In the + majority of cases, however, in which there is a small amount of food + yolk and no special arrangements for parental care, a larva is formed. + No better group than the Mollusca can be taken to illustrate this + point, for in them we find every kind of development from the + completely embryonic development of the Cephalopoda, with their large + heavily-yolked eggs, to the development of most marine + Lamellibranchiata and many Gastropoda, in which the embryonic period + is short and there is a long larval development. The Mollusca are + further specially interesting for showing very clearly cases in which, + though the young are born or hatched fully developed, the larval + stages are passed through in the egg, and the larval organs (e.g. + velum) are developed but without function (e.g. _Paludina_, _Cyclas_, + _Onchidium_). As already mentioned, the larval form of the Mollusca is + the trochosphere. + + 2. Free-swimming larvae are usually formed when the adult is fixed. We + need only refer to the cases of the Cirripedia with their well-marked + nauplius and cypris larvae, to _Phoronis_ with its remarkable + _actinotrocha_, to the Crinoidea, Polyzoa, &c. There are a few + exceptions to this rule, e.g. the Molgulidae amongst the fixed + Tunicata, _Tubularia_, _Myriothela_, &c., among the Hydrozoa. + + 3. Internal parasites generally have a stage which may be called + larval, in which they are transferred either by active or passive + migration to a new host. In most Nematoda, some Cestoda, and in + Trematoda this larva leads a free life; but in some nematodes + (_Trichina_) and some cestodes the larva does not become free. + (A. Se.*) + + + + +LARYNGITIS, an inflammation of the mucus of the _larynx_. There are +three chief varieties: _acute_, _chronic_, and _oedematous_. The larynx +is also liable to attacks of inflammation in connexion with tubercle or +syphilis. + +_Acute Laryngitis_ may be produced by an independent catarrh, or by one +extending either from the nasal or the bronchial mucous membrane into +that of the larynx. The causes are various, "catching cold" being the +most common. Excessive use of the voice either in speaking or singing +sometimes gives rise to it. The inhalation of irritating particles, +vapours, &c., and swallowing very hot fluids or corrosive poisons are +well-recognized causes. It may also occur in connexion with diseases, +notably measles and influenza. As a result of the inflammation there is +a general swelling of the parts about the larynx and the epiglottis, the +result being a narrowing of the channel for the entrance of the air, and +to this the chief dangers are due. The symptoms vary with the intensity +of the attack; there is first a sense of tickling, then of heat, +dryness, and pain in the throat, with some difficulty in swallowing. +There is a dry cough, with expectoration later; phonation becomes +painful, while the voice is husky, and may be completely lost. In +children there is some dyspnoea. In favourable cases, which form the +majority, the attack tends to abate in a few days, but the inflammation +may become of the oedematous variety, and death may occur suddenly from +an asphyxial paroxysm. Many cases of acute laryngitis are so slight as +to make themselves known only by hoarseness and the character of the +cough, nevertheless in every instance the attack demands serious +attention. The diagnosis is not, in adults, a matter of much difficulty, +especially if an examination is made with the laryngoscope; in children, +however, it is more difficult, and the question of diphtheria must not +be lost sight of. The treatment is, first and foremost, rest; no talking +must be allowed. The patient should be kept in bed, in a room at an even +temperature, and the air saturated with moisture. An ice-bag round the +throat gives much relief, while internally diaphoretics may be given, +and a full dose of Dover's powder if there be much pain or cough. + +_Chronic Laryngitis_ usually occurs as a result of repeated attacks of +the acute form. It is extremely common in people who habitually over-use +the voice, and is the cause of the hoarse voice one associates with +street sellers. The constant inhalation of irritating vapours, such as +tobacco smoke, may also cause it. There is usually little or no pain, +only the unpleasant sensation of tickling in the larynx, with a constant +desire to cough. The changes in the mucous membrane are more permanent +than in the acute variety, and there nearly always accompanies this a +chronic alteration of the membrane of the pharynx (_granular +pharyngitis_). The treatment consists in stopping the cause, where +known, e.g. the smoking or shouting. Careful examination should be made +to see if there is any nasal obstruction, and the larynx should be +treated locally with suitable astringents, by means of a brush, spray or +insufflation. Overheated and ill-ventilated rooms must be avoided, as +entrance into them immediately aggravates the trouble and causes a +paroxysm of coughing. + +_Oedematous Laryngitis_ is a very fatal condition, which may occur, +though rarely, as a sequence of acute laryngitis. It is far more +commonly seen in syphilitic and tubercular conditions of the larynx, in +kidney disease, in certain fevers, and in cases of cellulitis of the +neck. The larynx is also one of the sites of _Angeioneurotic oedema_. In +this form of laryngitis there are all the symptoms of acute laryngitis, +but on a very much exaggerated scale. The dyspnoea, accompanied by +marked stridor, may arise and reach a dangerous condition within the +space of an hour, and demand the most prompt treatment. On examination +the mucous membrane round the epiglottis is seen to be enormously +swollen. The treatment is ice round the throat and internally, +scarification of the swollen parts, and should that not relieve the +asphyxial symptoms, tracheotomy must be performed immediately. + +_Tubercular Laryngitis_ is practically always associated with phthisis. +The mucous membrane is invaded by the tubercles, which first form small +masses. These later break down and ulcerate; the ulceration then spreads +up and down, causing an immense amount of destruction. The first +indication is hoarseness, or, in certain forms, pain on swallowing. The +cough is, as a rule, a late symptom. A sudden oedema may bring about a +rapid fatal termination. The general treatment is the same as that +advised for phthisis; locally, the affected parts may be removed by one +or a series of operations, generally under local anaesthesia, or they +may be treated with some destructive agent such as lactic acid. The pain +on swallowing can be best alleviated by painting with a weak solution of +cocaine. The condition is a very grave one; the prognosis depends +largely on the associated pulmonary infection--if that be extensive, a +very small amount of laryngeal mischief resists treatment, while, if the +case be the contrary, a very extensive mischief may be successfully +dealt with. + +_Syphilitic Laryngitis._--Invasion of the larynx in syphilis is very +common. It may occur in both stages of the disease and in the inherited +form. In the secondary stage the damage is superficial, and the symptoms +those of a slight acute laryngitis. The injury in the tertiary stage is +much more serious, the deeper structures are invaded with the formation +of deep ulcers, which may when they heal form strong cicatrices, which +produce a narrowing of the air-passage which may eventually require +surgical interference. Occasionally a fatal oedema may arise. The +treatment consists of administering constitutional remedies, local +treatment being of comparatively slight importance. + +_Paroxysmal Laryngitis_, or _Laryngismus stridulus_, is a nervous +affection of the larynx that occurs in infants. It appears to be +associated with adenoids. The disease consists of a reflex spasm of the +glottis, which causes a complete blocking of the air-passages. The +attacks, which are recurrent, cause acute asphyxiation. They may cease +for no obvious reason, or one may prove fatal. The whole attack is of +such short duration that the infant has either recovered or succumbed +before assistance can be called. After an attack, careful examination +should be made, and the adenoids, if present, removed by operation. + + + + +LA SABLIÈRE, MARGUERITE DE (c. 1640-1693), friend and patron of La +Fontaine, was the wife of Antoine Rambouillet, sieur de la Sablière +(1624-1679), a Protestant financier entrusted with the administration of +the royal estates, her maiden name being Marguerite Hessein. She +received an excellent education in Latin, mathematics, physics and +anatomy from the best scholars of her time, and her house became a +meeting-place for poets, scientists and men of letters, no less than for +brilliant members of the court of Louis XIV. About 1673 Mme de la +Sablière received into her house La Fontaine, whom for twenty years she +relieved of every kind of material anxiety. Another friend and inmate of +the house was the traveller and physician François Bernier, whose +abridgment of the works of Gassendi was written for Mme de la Sablière. +The abbé Chaulieu and his fellow-poet, Charles Auguste, marquis de La +Fare, were among her most intimate associates. La Fare sold his +commission in the army to be able to spend his time with her. This +liaison, which seems to have been the only serious passion of her life, +was broken in 1679. La Fare was seduced from his allegiance, according +to Mme de Sévigné by his love of play, but to this must be added a new +passion for the actress La Champmeslé. Mme de la Sablière thenceforward +gave more and more attention to good works, much of her time being spent +in the hospital for incurables. Her husband's death in the same year +increased her serious tendencies, and she was presently converted to +Roman Catholicism. She died in Paris on the 8th of January 1693. + + + + +LA SALE (or LA SALLE), ANTOINE DE (c. 1388-1462?), French writer, was +born in Provence, probably at Arles. He was a natural son of Bernard de +la Salle,[1] a famous soldier of fortune, who served many masters, among +others the Angevin dukes. In 1402 Antoine entered the court of Anjou, +probably as a page, and in 1407 he was at Messina with Duke Louis II., +who had gone there to enforce his claim to the kingdom of Sicily. The +next years he perhaps spent in Brabant, for he was present at two +tournaments given at Brussels and Ghent. With other gentlemen from +Brabant, whose names he has preserved, he took part in the expedition of +1415 against the Moors, organized by John I. of Portugal. In 1420 he +accompanied Louis III. on another expedition to Naples, making in that +year an excursion from Norcia to the Monte della Sibilla, and the +neighbouring Lake of Pilate. The story of his adventures on this +occasion, and an account, with some sceptical comments, of the local +legends regarding Pilate, and the Sibyl's grotto,[2] form the most +interesting chapter of _La Salade_, which is further adorned with a map +of the ascent from Montemonaco. La Sale probably returned with Louis +III. of Anjou, who was also comte de Provence, in 1426 to Provence, +where he was acting as _viguier_ of Aries in 1429. In 1434 René, Louis's +successor, made La Sale tutor to his son Jean d'Anjou, duc de Calabre, +to whom he dedicated, between the years 1438 and 1447, his _La Salade_, +which is a text-book of the studies necessary for a prince. The primary +intention of the title is no doubt the play on his own name, but he +explains it on the ground of the miscellaneous character of the book--a +salad is composed "of many good herbs." In 1439 he was again in Italy in +charge of the castle of Capua, with the duc de Calabre and his young +wife, Marie de Bourbon, when the place was besieged by the king of +Aragon. René abandoned Naples in 1442, and Antoine no doubt returned to +France about the same time. His advice was sought at the tournaments +which celebrated the marriage of the unfortunate Margaret of Anjou at +Nancy in 1445; and in 1446, at a similar display at Saumur, he was one +of the umpires. La Sale's pupil was now twenty years of age, and, after +forty years' service of the house of Anjou, La Sale left it to become +tutor to the sons of Louis de Luxembourg, comte de Saint Pol, who took +him to Flanders and presented him at the court of Philippe le Bon, duke +of Burgundy. For his new pupils he wrote at Châtelet-sur-Oise, in 1451, +a moral work entitled _La Salle_. + +He was nearly seventy years of age when he wrote the work that has made +him famous, _L'Hystoire et plaisante cronicque du petit Jehan de Saintré +et de la jeune dame des Belles-Cousines, Sans autre nom nommer_, +dedicated to his former pupil, Jean de Calabre. An _envoi_ in MS. 10,057 +(nouv. acq. fr.) in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, states that it +was completed at Châtelet on the 6th of March 1455 (i.e. 1456). La Sale +also announces an intention, never fulfilled, apparently, of writing a +romance of _Paris et Vienne_. The MSS. of _Petit Jehan de Saintré_ +usually contain in addition _Floridam et Elvide_, translated by Rasse de +Brunhamel from the Latin of Nicolas de Clamange, and dedicated to La +Sale; also _Addiction extraite des Cronicques de Flandres_, of which +only a few lines are original. Brunhamel says in his dedication that La +Sale had delighted to write honourable histories from the time of his +"florie jeunesse," which confirms a reasonable inference from the style +of _Petit Jehan de Saintré_ that its author was no novice in the art of +romance-writing. The _Réconfort à Madame de Neufville_, a consolatory +epistle including two stories of parental fortitude, was written at +Vendeuil-sur-Oise about 1458, and in 1459 La Sale produced his treatise +_Des anciens tournois et faictz d'armes_ and the _Journée d'Onneur et de +Prouesse_. He followed his patron to Genappe in Brabant when the Dauphin +(afterwards Louis XI.) took refuge at the Burgundian court. + +La Sale is generally accepted as the author of one of the most famous +satires in the French language, _Les Quinze Joyes de mariage_, because +his name has been disengaged from an acrostic at the end of the Rouen +MS. He is also supposed to have been the "acteur" in the collection of +licentious stories supposed to be narrated by various persons at the +court of Philippe le Bon, and entitled the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_. +One only of the stories is given in his name, but he is credited with +the compilation of the whole, for which Louis XI. was long held +responsible. A completed copy of this was presented to the Duke of +Burgundy at Dijon in 1462. If then La Sale was the author, he probably +was still living; otherwise the last mention of him is in 1461. + + _Petit Jehan de Saintré_ gives, at the point when the traditions of + chivalry were fast disappearing, an account of the education of an + ideal knight and rules for his conduct under many different + circumstances. When Petit Jehan, aged thirteen, is persuaded by the + Dame des Belles-Cousines to accept her as his lady, she gives him + systematic instruction in religion, courtesy, chivalry and the arts of + success. She materially advances his career until Saintré becomes an + accomplished knight, the fame of whose prowess spreads throughout + Europe. This section of the romance--apparently didactic in + intention--fits in with the author's other works of edification. But + in the second part this virtuous lady falls a victim to a vulgar + intrigue with Damp Abbé. One of La Sale's commentators, M. Joseph + Nève, ingeniously maintains that the last section is simply to show + how the hero, after passing through the other grades of education, + learns at last by experience to arm himself against coquetry. The book + may, however, be fairly regarded as satirizing the whole theory of + "courteous" love, by the simple method of fastening a repulsive + conclusion on an ideal case. The contention that the _fabliau_-like + ending of a romance begun in idyllic fashion was due to the corrupt + influences of the Dauphin's exiled court, is inadmissible, for the + last page was written when the prince arrived in Brabant in 1456. That + it is an anti-clerical satire seems unlikely. The profession of the + seducer is not necessarily chosen from that point of view. The + language of the book is not disfigured by coarseness of any kind, but, + if the brutal ending was the expression of the writer's real views, + there is little difficulty in accepting him as the author of the + _Quinze Joyes de mariage_ and the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles._--Both + these are masterpieces in their way and exhibit a much greater + dramatic power and grasp of dialogue than does _Petit Jehan_. Some + light is thrown on the romance by the circumstances of the duc de + Calabre, to whom it was dedicated. His wife, Marie de Bourbon, was one + of the "Belles-Cousines" who contended for the favour of Jacques or + Jacquet de Lalaing in the _Livre des faits de Jacques Lalaing_ which + forms the chief source of the early exploits of Petit Jehan. + + The incongruities of La Sale's aims appear in his method of + construction. The hero is not imaginary. Jehan de Saintré flourished + in the Hundred Years' War, was taken prisoner after Poitiers, with the + elder Boucicaut, and was employed in negotiating the treaty of + Bretigny. Froissart mentioned him as "le meilleur et le plus vaillant + chevalier de France." His exploits as related in the romance are, + however, founded on those of Jacques de Lalaing (c. 1422-1453), who + was brought up at the Burgundian court, and became such a famous + knight that he excited the rivalry of the "Belles-Cousines," Marie de + Bourbon and Marie de Clèves, duchesse d'Orléans. Lalaing's exploits + are related by more than one chronicler, but M. Gustave Raynaud thinks + that the _Livre des faits de Jacques de Lalaing_, published among the + works of Georges Chastelain, to which textual parallels may be found + in _Petit Jehan_, should also be attributed to La Sale, who in that + case undertook two accounts of the same hero, one historical and the + other fictitious. To complicate matters, he drew, for the later + exploits of Petit Jehan, on the _Livres des faits de Jean Boucicaut_, + which gives the history of the younger Boucicaut. The atmosphere of + the book is not the rough realities of the English wars in which the + real Saintré figured but that of the courts to which La Sale was + accustomed. + + The title of _Les Quinze Joyes de mariage_ is, with a profanity + characteristic of the time, borrowed from a popular litany, _Les + Quinze Joies de Notre Dame_, and each chapter terminates with a + liturgical refrain voicing the miseries of marriage. Evidence in + favour of La Sale's authorship is brought forward by M. E. Gossart + (_Bibliophile belge_, 1871, pp. 83-7), who quotes from his didactic + treatise of _La Salle_ a passage paraphrased from St Jerome's treatise + against Jovinian which contains the chief elements of the satire. + Gaston Paris (_Revue de Paris_, Dec. 1897) expressed an opinion that + to find anything like the malicious penetration by which La Sale + divines the most intimate details of married life, and the painful + exactness of the description, it is necessary to travel as far as + Balzac. The theme itself was common enough in the middle ages in + France, but the dialogue of the _Quinze Joyes_ is unusually natural + and pregnant. Each of the fifteen vignettes is perfect in its kind. + There is no redundance. The diffuseness of romance is replaced by the + methods of the writers of the _fabliaux_. + + In the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_ the Italian _novella_ is naturalized + in France. The book is modelled on the _Decameron_ of Boccaccio, and + owes something to the Latin _Facetiae_ of the contemporary scholar + Poggio; but the stories are rarely borrowed, and in cases where the + _Nouvelles_ have Italian parallels they appear to be independent + variants. In most cases the general immorality of the conception is + matched by the grossness of the details, but the ninety-eighth story + narrates what appears to be a genuine tragedy, and is of an entirely + different nature from the other _contes_. It is another version of the + story of Floridam et Elvide already mentioned. + + Not content with allowing these achievements to La Sale, some critics + have proposed to ascribe to him also the farce of _Maître Pathelin_. + + The best editions of La Sale's undoubted and reputed works + are:--_Petit Jehan de Saintré_ by J. M. Guichard (1843); _Les Cent + Nouvelles Nouvelles_ by Thomas Wright (Bibl. elzévérienne, 1858); _Les + Quinze Joyes de mariage_ by P. Jannet (Bibl. elzév., 1857). _La + Salade_ was printed more than once during the 16th century. _La Salle_ + was never printed. For its contents see E. Gossart in the _Bibliophile + belge_ (1871, pp. 77 et seq.). See also the authorities quoted above, + and Joseph Nève, _Antoine de la Salle, sa vie et ses ouvrages ... + suivi du Réconfort de Madame de Fresne ... et de fragments et + documents inédits_ (1903), who argues for the rejection of _Les Quinze + Joyes_ and the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_ from La Sale's works; Pietro + Toldo, _Contributo allo studio della novella francese del XV e XVI + secolo_ (1895), and a review of it by Gaston Paris in the _Journal des + Savants_ (May 1895); L. Stern, "Versuch über Antoine de la Salle," in + _Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen_, vol. xlvi.; and G. + Raynaud, "Un Nouveau Manuscrit du Petit Jehan de Saintré," in + _Romania_, vol. xxxi. (M. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For his career, see Paul Durrieu, _Les Gascons en Italie_ (Auch, + 1885, pp. 107-71). + + [2] For the legend of the Sibyl current in Italy at the time, given + by La Sale, and its inter-relation with the Tannhäuser story, see W. + Soederhjelm, "A. de la Salle et la légende de Tannhäuser" in + _Mémoires de la soc. néo-philologique d'Helsingfors_ (1897, vol. + ii.); and Gaston Paris, "Le Paradis de la Reine Sibylle," and "La + Légende du Tannhäuser," in the _Revue de Paris_ (Dec. 1897 and March + 1898). + + + + +LASALLE, ANTOINE CHEVALIER LOUIS COLLINET, COUNT (1775-1809), French +soldier, belonged to a noble family in Lorraine. His grandfather was +Abraham Fabert, marshal of France. Entering the French army at the age +of eleven, he had reached the rank of lieutenant when the Revolution +broke out. As an aristocrat, he lost his commission, but he enlisted in +the ranks, where his desperate bravery and innate power of command soon +distinguished him. By 1795 he had won back his grade, and was serving as +a staff-officer in the army of Italy. On one occasion, at Vicenza, he +rivalled Seydlitz's feat of leaping his horse over the parapet of a +bridge to avoid capture, and, later, in Egypt, he saved Davout's life in +action. By 1800 he had become colonel, and in one combat in that year he +had two horses killed under him, and broke seven swords. Five years +later, having attained the rank of general of brigade, he was present +with his brigade of light cavalry at Austerlitz. In the pursuit after +Jena in 1806, though he had but 600 hussars and not one piece of +artillery with him, he terrified the commandant of the strong fortress +of Stettin into surrender, a feat rarely equalled save by that of +Cromwell on Bletchingdon House. Made general of division for this +exploit, he was next in the Polish campaign, and at Heilsberg saved the +life of Murat, grand duke of Berg. When the Peninsular War began, +Lasalle was sent out with one of the cavalry divisions, and at Medina de +Rio Seco, Gamonal and Medellin broke every body of troops which he +charged. A year later, at the head of one of the cavalry divisions of +the _Grande Armée_ he took part in the Austrian war. At Wagram he was +killed at the head of his men. With the possible exception of Curély, +who was in 1809 still unknown, Napoleon never possessed a better leader +of light horse. Wild and irregular in his private life, Lasalle was far +more than a _beau sabreur_. To talent and experience he added that power +of feeling the pulse of the battle which is the true gift of a great +leader. A statue of him was erected in Lunéville in 1893. His remains +were brought from Austria to the Invalides in 1891. + + + + +LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT CAVELIER, SIEUR DE (1643-1687), French explorer in +North America, was born at Rouen on the 22nd of November 1643. He taught +for a time in a school (probably Jesuit) in France, and seems to have +forfeited his claim to his father's estate by his connexion with the +Jesuits. In 1666 he became a settler in Canada, whither his brother, a +Sulpician abbé, had preceded him. From the Seminary of St Sulpice in +Montreal La Salle received a grant on the St Lawrence about 8 m. above +Montreal, where he built a stockade and established a fur-trading post. +In 1669 he sold this post (partly to the Sulpicians who had granted it +to him) to raise funds for an expedition to China[1] by way of the +Ohio,[2] which he supposed, from the reports of the Indians, to flow +into the Pacific. He passed up the St Lawrence and through Lake Ontario +to a Seneca village on the Genesee river; thence with an Iroquois guide +he crossed the mouth of the Niagara (where he heard the noise of the +distant falls) to Ganastogue, an Iroquois colony at the head of Lake +Ontario, where he met Louis Joliet and received from him a map of parts +of the Great Lakes. La Salle's missionary comrades now gave up the quest +for China to preach among the Indians. La Salle discovered the Ohio +river, descended it at least as far as the site of Louisville, Kentucky, +and possibly, though not probably, to its junction with the Mississippi, +and in 1669-1670, abandoned by his few followers, made his way back to +Lake Erie. Apparently he passed through Lake Erie, Lake Huron and Lake +Michigan, and some way down the Illinois river. Little is known of these +explorations, for his journals are lost, and the description of his +travels rests only on the testimony of the anonymous author of a +_Histoire de M. de la Salle_. Before 1673 La Salle had returned to +Montreal. Becoming convinced, after the explorations of Marquette and +Joliet in 1673, that the Mississippi flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, he +conceived a vast project for exploring that river to its mouth and +extending the French power to the lower Mississippi Valley. He secured +the support of Count Frontenac, then governor of Canada, and in 1674 and +1677 visited France, obtaining from Louis XIV. on his first visit a +patent of nobility and a grant of lands about Fort Frontenac, on the +site of the present Kingston, Ontario, and on his second visit a patent +empowering him to explore the West at his own expense, and giving him +the buffalo-hide monopoly. Late in the year 1678, at the head of a small +party, he started from Fort Frontenac. He established a post above +Niagara Falls, where he spent the winter, and where, his vessel having +been wrecked, he built a larger ship, the "Griffon," in which he sailed +up the Great Lakes to Green Bay (Lake Michigan), where he arrived in +September 1679. Sending back the "Griffon" freighted with furs, by which +he hoped to satisfy the claims of his creditors, he proceeded to the +Illinois river, and near what is now Peoria, Illinois, built a fort, +which he called Fort Crèvecoeur. Thence he detached Father Hennepin, +with one companion, to explore the Illinois to its mouth, and, leaving +his lieutenant, Henri de Tonty (c. 1650-c. 1702),[3] with about fifteen +men, at Fort Crèvecoeur, he returned by land, afoot, to Canada to obtain +needed supplies, discovering the fate of the "Griffon" (which proved to +have been lost), thwarting the intrigues of his enemies and appeasing +his creditors. In July 1680 news reached him at Fort Frontenac that +nearly all Tonty's men had deserted, after destroying or appropriating +most of the supplies; and that twelve of them were on their way to kill +him as the surest means of escaping punishment. These he met and +captured or killed. He then returned to the Illinois, to find the +country devastated by the Iroquois, and his post abandoned. He formed a +league of the Western Indians to fight the Iroquois, then went to +Michilimackinac, where he found Tonty, proceeded again to Fort Frontenac +to obtain supplies and organize his expedition anew, and returned in +December 1681 to the Illinois. Passing down the Illinois to the +Mississippi, which he reached in February 1682, he floated down that +stream to its mouth, which he reached on the 9th of April, and, erecting +there a monument and a cross, took formal possession in the name of +Louis XIV., in whose honour he gave the name "Louisiana" to the region. +He then returned to Michilimackinac, whence, with Tonty, he went again +to the Illinois and established a fort, Fort St Louis, probably on +Starved Rock (near the present Ottawa, Illinois), around which nearly +20,000 Indians (Illinois, Miamis and others seeking protection from the +Iroquois) had been gathered. La Salle then went to Quebec, and La Barre, +who had succeeded Frontenac, being unfriendly to him, again visited +France (1684), where he succeeded in interesting the king in a scheme to +establish a fort at the mouth of the Mississippi and to seize the +Spanish posts in the vicinity. On the 24th of July 1684, with four +vessels under the command of himself and Captain Beaujeu, a naval +officer, he sailed from La Rochelle. Mistaking, it appears, the inlets +of Matagorda Bay (which La Salle called St Louis's Bay) in the present +state of Texas, for the mouth of an arm of the Mississippi, he landed +there, and Beaujeu, soon afterwards returned to France. The expedition +had met with various misfortunes; one vessel had been captured by the +Spaniards and another had been wrecked; and throughout La Salle and +Beaujeu had failed to work in harmony. Soon finding that he was not at +the mouth of the Mississippi, La Salle established a settlement and +built a fort, Fort St Louis, on the Lavaca (he called it La Vache) +river, and leaving there the greater part of his force, from October +1685 to March 1686 he vainly sought for the Mississippi. He also made +two attempts to reach the Illinois country and Canada, and during the +second, after two months of fruitless wanderings, he was assassinated, +on the 19th of March 1687, by several of his followers, near the Trinity +river in the present Texas. + +His colony on the Lavaca, after suffering terribly from privation and +disease and being attacked by the Indians, was finally broken up, and a +force of Spaniards sent against it in 1689 found nothing but dead bodies +and a dismantled fort; the few survivors having become domesticated in +the Indian villages near by. Some writers, notably J. G. Shea, maintain +that La Salle never intended to fortify the mouth of the Mississippi, +but was instructed to establish an advanced post near the Spanish +possessions, where he was to await a powerful expedition under a +renegade Spaniard, Peñalosa, with whom he was to co-operate in expelling +the Spaniards from this part of the continent.[4] + +La Salle was one of the greatest of the explorers in North America. +Besides discovering the Ohio and probably the Illinois, he was the first +to follow the Mississippi from its upper course to its mouth and thus to +establish the connexion between the discoveries of Radisson, Joliet and +Marquette in the north with those of De Soto in the south. He was stern, +indomitable and full of resource. + + The best accounts of La Salle's explorations may be found in Francis + Parkman's _La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West_ (Boston, + 1879; later revised editions), in Justin Winsor's _Cartier to + Frontenac_ (Boston, 1894), and in J. G. Shea's _Discovery and + Exploration of the Mississippi Valley_ (New York, 1852); see also P. + Chesnel, _Histoire de Cavelier de La Salle, explorations et conquête + du bassin du Mississippi_ (Paris, 1901). Of the early narratives see + Louis Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (1683); Joutel, _Journal + historique du dernier voyage que feu M. de la Salle fit dans le Golfe + de Mexique, &c._ (Paris, 1713); and Henri de Tonty, _Derniers + Découvertes dans l'Amérique septentrionale de M. de La Salle_ (Paris, + 1697). Original narratives may be found, translated into English, in + _The Journeys of René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, as related + by his Faithful Lieutenant, Henri de Tonty, &c._ (2 vols., New York, + 1905), edited by I. J. Cox; in Benjamin E. French's _Historical + Collections of Louisiana_ (6 series, New York, 1846-1853), and in + Shea's _Early Voyages Up and Down the Mississippi_ (Albany, 1861); and + an immense collection of documents relating to La Salle may be found + in Pierre Margry's _Découvertes et établissements des Français dans + l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Amérique septentrionale, 1614-1754; + Mémoires et documents originaux recueillis et publiés_ (6 vols., + Paris, 1875-1886), especially in vol. ii. (C. C. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The name La Chine was sarcastically applied to La Salle's + settlement on the St Lawrence. + + [2] The Iroquois seem to have used the name Ohio for the Mississippi, + or at least for its lower part; and this circumstance makes the story + of La Salle's exploration peculiarly difficult to disentangle. + + [3] Tonty (or Tonti), an Italian, born at Gaeta, was La Salle's + principal lieutenant, and was the equal of his chief in intrepidity. + Before his association with La Salle he had engaged in military + service in Europe, during which he had lost a hand. He accompanied La + Salle to the mouth of the Mississippi, and was in command of Fort St + Louis from the time of its erection until 1702, except during his + journeys down the Mississippi in search of his chief. In 1702 he + joined d'Iberville in lower Louisiana, and soon after was despatched + on a mission to the Chickasaw Indians. This is the last authentic + trace of him. + + [4] Although La Salle and Don Diego de Peñalosa (1624-1687) presented + to the French government independent plans for an expedition against + the Spaniards and Peñalosa afterwards proposed their co-operation, + there is no substantial evidence that this project was adopted. + Parkman is of the opinion that La Salle proposed his expedition + against the Spaniards in the hope that the conclusion of peace + between France and Spain would prevent its execution and that he + might then use the aid he had thus received in establishing a + fortified commercial colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. See E. + T. Miller, "The Connection of Peñalosa with the La Salle Expedition," + in the _Quarterly_ of the Texas State Historical Association, vol. v. + (Austin, Tex., 1902). + + + + +LA SALLE, ST JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1651-1719), founder of the order of +Christian Brothers, was born at Reims. The son of a rich lawyer, his +father's influence early secured him a canonry in the cathedral; there +he established a school, where free elementary instruction was given to +poor children. The enterprise soon broadened in scope; a band of +enthusiastic assistants gathered round him; he resolved to resign his +canonry, and devote himself entirely to education. His assistants were +organized into a community, which gradually rooted itself all over +France; and a training-school for teachers, the Collège de Saint-Yon, +was set up at Rouen. In 1725, six years after the founder's death, the +society was recognized by the pope, under the official title of +"Brothers of the Christian Schools"; its members took the usual monastic +vows, but did not aspire to the priesthood. During the first hundred +years of its existence its activities were mainly confined to France; +during the 19th century it spread to most of the countries of western +Europe, and has been markedly successful in the United States. When La +Salle was canonized in 1900, the total number of brothers was estimated +at 15,000. Although the order has been chiefly concerned with elementary +schools, it undertakes most branches of secondary and technical +education; and it has served as a model for other societies, in Ireland +and elsewhere, slightly differing in character from the original +institute. + + + + +LA SALLE, a city of La Salle county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Illinois +river, near the head of navigation, 99 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) +10,446, of whom 3471 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,537. The city +is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island +& Pacific, and the Illinois Central railways, and by the Illinois & +Michigan Canal, of which La Salle is the western terminus. The city has +a public library. The principal industries are the smelting of zinc and +the manufacture of cement, rolled zinc, bricks, sulphuric acid and +clocks; in 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $3,158,173. +In the vicinity large quantities of coal are mined, for which the city +is an important shipping point. The municipality owns and operates the +waterworks and the electric lighting plant. The first settlement was +made here in 1830; and the place which was named in honour of the +explorer, René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was chartered as a +city in 1852 and rechartered in 1876. + + + + +LASAULX, ARNOLD CONSTANTIN PETER FRANZ VON (1839-1886), German +mineralogist and petrographer, was born at Castellaun near Coblenz on +the 14th of June 1839. He was educated at Berlin, where he took his Ph. +D. in 1868. In 1875 he became professor of mineralogy at Breslau, and in +1880 professor of mineralogy and geology at Bonn. He was distinguished +for his researches on minerals and on crystallography, and he was one of +the earlier workers on microscopic petrography. He described in 1878 the +eruptive rocks of the district of Saar and Moselle. In 1880 he edited +_Der Aetna_ from the MSS. of Dr W. Sartorius von Waltershausen, the +results of observations made between the years 1834-1869. He was author +of _Elemente der Petrographie_ (1875), _Einführung in die Gesteinslehre_ +(1885), and _Précis de pétrographie_ (1887). He died at Bonn on the 25th +of January 1886. + + + + +LASCAR, the name in common use for all oriental, and especially Indian, +sailors, which has been adopted in England into the Merchant Shipping +Acts, though without any definition. It is derived from the Persian +_lashkar_ = army, or camp, in which sense it is still used in India, +e.g. Lashkar, originally the camp, now the permanent capital, of Sindhia +at Gwalior. It would seem to have been applied by the Portuguese, first +to an inferior class of men in military service (cf. "gun-lascars"), and +then to sailors as early as the 17th century. The form _askari_ on the +east coast of Africa, equivalent to "sepoy," comes from the Arabic +'_askar_ = army, which is believed to be itself taken from the Persian. + + + + +LASCARIS, CONSTANTINE (d. 1493 or 1500), Greek scholar and grammarian, +one of the promoters of the revival of Greek learning in Italy, was born +at Constantinople. He was a member of the noble Bithynian family, which +had furnished three emperors of Nicaea during the 13th century. After +the fall of Constantinople in 1453, he took refuge first in Corfu and +then in Italy, where Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, appointed him +Greek tutor to his daughter. Here was published his _Grammatica Graeca, +sive compendium octo orationis partium_, remarkable as being the first +book entirely in Greek issued from the printing press. After leaving +Milan, Lascaris taught in Rome under the patronage of Cardinal +Bessarion, and in Naples, whither he had been summoned by Ferdinand I. +to deliver a course of lectures on Greece. Ultimately, on the invitation +of the inhabitants, he settled in Messina, Sicily, where he continued to +teach publicly until his death. Among his numerous pupils here was +Pietro Bembo. Lascaris bequeathed his library of valuable MSS. to the +senate of Messina; the collection was afterwards carried to Spain and +lodged in the Escurial. + + The _Grammatica_, which has often been reprinted, is the only work of + value produced by Lascaris. Some of his letters are given by J. + Iriarte in the _Regiae Bibliothecae Matritensis codices Graeci + manuscripti_, i. (Madrid, 1769). His name is known to modern readers + in the romance of A. F. Villemain, _Lascaris, ou les Grecs du + quinzième siècle_ (1825). See also J. E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. + Schol._, ed. 2, vol. ii. (1908), pp. 76 foll. + + + + +LASCARIS, JOANNES [JOHN], or JANUS (c. 1445-1535), Greek scholar, +probably the younger brother of Constantine Lascaris, surnamed +Rhyndacenus from the river Rhyndacus in Bithynia, his native province. +After the fall of Constantinople he was taken to the Peloponnese, thence +to Crete, and ultimately found refuge in Florence at the court of +Lorenzo de' Medici, whose intermediary he was with the sultan Bayezid +II. in the purchase of Greek MSS. for the Medicean library. On the +expulsion of the Medici from Florence, at the invitation of Charles +VIII. of France, Lascaris removed to Paris (1495), where he gave public +instruction in Greek. By Louis XII. he was several times employed on +public missions, amongst others to Venice (1503-1508), and in 1515 he +appears to have accepted the invitation of Leo X. to take charge of the +Greek college he had founded at Rome. We afterwards (1518) find Lascaris +employed along with Budaeus (Budé) by Francis I. in the formation of the +royal library at Fontainebleau, and also again sent in the service of +the French crown to Venice. He died at Rome, whither he had been +summoned by Pope Paul III., in 1535. Among his pupils was Musurus. + + Amongst other works, Lascaris edited or wrote: _Anthologia + epigrammatum Graecorum_ (1494), in which he ascribed the collection of + the Anthology to Agathias, not to Planudes; _Didymi Alexandrini + scholia in Iliadem_ (1517); Porphyrius of Tyre's _Homericarum + quaestionum liber_ (1518); _De veris Graecarum litterarum formis ac + causis apud antiquos_ (Paris, 1556). See H. Hody, _De Graecis + illustribus_ (London, 1742); W. Roscoe, _Life of Leo X._ ii. (1846); + C. F. Börner, _De doctis hominibus Graecis_ (Leipzig, 1750); A. + Horawitz in Ersch & Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopädie_; J. E. Sandys, + _Hist. Class. Schol._, ed. 2, vols. ii. (1908), p. 78. + + + + +LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE (1474-1566), for some time bishop of Chiapa in +Mexico, and known to posterity as "The Apostle of the Indies," was a +native of Seville. His father, one of the companions of Columbus in the +voyage which resulted in the discovery of the New World, sent him to +Salamanca, where he graduated. In 1498 he accompanied his father in an +expedition under Columbus to the West Indies, and in 1502 he went with +Nicolás de Ovando, the governor, to Hayti, where in 1510 he was admitted +to holy orders, being the first priest ordained in the American +colonies. In 1511 he passed over to Cuba to take part in the work of +"population and pacification," and in 1513 or 1514 he witnessed and +vainly endeavoured to check the massacre of Indians at Caonao. Soon +afterwards there was assigned to him and his friend Renteria a large +village in the neighbourhood of Zagua, with a number of Indians attached +to it in what was known as _repartimiento_ (allotment); like the rest of +his countrymen he made the most of this opportunity for growing rich, +but occasionally celebrated mass and preached. Soon, however, having +become convinced of the injustice connected with the _repartimiento_ +system, he began to preach against it, at the same time giving up his +own slaves. With the consent of his partner he resolved to go to Spain +on behalf of the oppressed natives, and the result of his +representations was that in 1516 Cardinal Jimenes caused a commission to +be sent out for the reform of abuses, Las Casas himself, with the title +of "protector of the Indians," being appointed to advise and report on +them. This commission had not been long at San Domingo before Las Casas +perceived the indifference of his coadjutors to the cause which he +himself had at heart, and July 1517 found him again in Spain, where he +developed his scheme for the complete liberation of the Indians--a +scheme which not only included facilities for emigration from Spain, but +was intended to give to each Spanish resident in the colonies the right +of importing twelve negro slaves. The emigration movement proved a +failure, and Las Casas lived long enough to express his shame for having +been so slow to see that Africans were as much entitled to freedom as +were the natives of the New World. Overwhelmed with disappointment, he +retired to the Dominican monastery in Haiti; he joined the order in 1522 +and devoted eight years to study. About 1530 he appears to have +revisited the Spanish court, but on what precise errand is not known; +the confusion concerning this period of his life extends to the time +when, after visits to Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru and Guatemala, he +undertook an expedition in 1537 into Tuzulutlan, the inhabitants of +which were, chiefly through his tact, peaceably converted to +Christianity, mass being celebrated for the first time amongst them in +the newly founded town of Rabinal in 1538. In 1539 Las Casas was sent to +Spain to obtain Dominican recruits, and through Loaysa, general of the +order, and confessor of Charles V., he was successful in obtaining royal +orders and letters favouring his enterprise. During this stay in Europe, +which lasted more than four years, he visited Germany to see the +emperor; he also (1542) wrote his _Veynte Razones_, in defence of the +liberties of the Indians and the _Brevisima Relacion de la Destruycion +des las Indias occidentales_, the latter of which was published some +twelve years later. In 1543 he refused the Mexican bishopric of Cuzco, +but was prevailed upon to accept that of Chiapa, for which he sailed in +1544. Thwarted at every point by the officials, and outraged by his +countrymen in his attempt to carry out the new laws which his humanity +had procured, he returned to Spain and resigned his dignity (1547). In +1550 he met Sepúlveda in public debate on the theses drawn from the +recently published _Apologia pro libro de justis belli causis_, in which +the latter had maintained the lawfulness of waging unprovoked war upon +the natives of the New World. The course of the discussion may be traced +in the account of the _Disputa_ contained in the _Obras_ (1552). In 1565 +Las Casas successfully remonstrated with Philip II. against the +financial project for selling the reversion of the _encomiendas_--a +project which would have involved the Indians in hopeless bondage. In +July of the following year he died at Madrid, whither he had gone to +urge (and with success) the necessity of restoring a court of justice +which had been suppressed in Guatemala. His _Historia de las Indias_ was +not published till 1875-1876. + + Sir Arthur Helps' _Life of Las Casas_ (London, 1868) has not been + superseded; but see also F. A. MacNutt, _Bartholomew de Las Casas_ + (1909). + + + + +LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN DIEUDONNÉ MARIN JOSEPH, MARQUIS +(1766-1842), French official, was born at the castle of Las Cases near +Revel in Languedoc. He was educated at the military schools of Vendôme +and Paris; he entered the navy and took part in various engagements of +the years 1781-1782. The outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 caused him +to "emigrate," and he spent some years in Germany and England, sharing +in the disastrous Quiberon expedition (1795). He was one of the few +survivors and returned to London, where he lived in poverty. He returned +to France during the Consulate with other royalists who rallied to the +side of Napoleon, and stated afterwards to the emperor that he was +"conquered by his glory." Not until 1810 did he receive much notice from +Napoleon, who then made him a chamberlain and created him a count of the +empire (he was marquis by hereditary right). After the first abdication +of the emperor (11th of April 1814), Las Cases retired to England, but +returned to serve Napoleon during the Hundred Days. The second +abdication opened up for Las Cases the most noteworthy part of his +career. He withdrew with the ex-emperor and a few other trusty followers +to Rochefort; and it was Las Cases who first proposed and strongly urged +the emperor to throw himself on the generosity of the British nation. +Las Cases made the first overtures to Captain Maitland of H.M.S. +"Bellerophon" and received a guarded reply, the nature of which he +afterwards misrepresented. Las Cases accompanied the ex-emperor to St +Helena and acted informally but very assiduously as his secretary, +taking down numerous notes of his conversations which thereafter took +form in the famous _Mémorial de Ste Hélène_. The limits of this article +preclude an attempt at assessing the value of this work. It should be +read with great caution, as the compiler did not scruple to insert his +own thoughts and to colour the expressions of his master. In some cases +he misstated facts and even fabricated documents. It is far less +trustworthy than the record penned by Gourgaud in his _Journal_. +Disliked by Montholon and Gourgaud, Las Cases seems to have sought an +opportunity to leave the island when he had accumulated sufficient +literary material. However that may be, he infringed the British +regulations in such a way as to lead to his expulsion by the governor, +Sir Hudson Lowe (November, 1816). He was sent first to the Cape of Good +Hope and thence to Europe, but was not at first allowed by the +government of Louis XVIII. to enter France. He resided at Brussels; but, +gaining permission to come to Paris after the death of Napoleon, he took +up his residence there, published the _Mémorial_, and soon gained an +enormous sum from it. He died in 1842 at Passy. + + See _Mémoires de E. A. D., comte de Las Cases_ (Brussels, 1818); + _Mémorial de Ste Hélène_ (4 vols., London and Paris, 1823; often + republished and translated); _Suite au mémorial de Ste Hélène, ou + observations critiques_, &c. (2 vols., Paris, 1824), anonymous, but + known to be by Grille and Musset-Pathay. See too GOURGAUD, MONTHOLON, + and LOWE, SIR HUDSON. (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +LASHIO, the headquarters of the superintendent, northern Shan States, +Burma, situated in 22° 56´ N. and 97° 45´ E. at an altitude of 3100 ft., +on a low spur overlooking the valley of the Nam Yao. It is the present +terminus of the Mandalay-Kun Long railway and of the government cart +road from Mandalay, from which it is 178 m. distant. It consists of the +European station, with court house and quarters for the civil officers; +the military police post, the headquarters of the Lashio battalion of +military police; the native station, in which the various nationalities, +Shans, Burmans, Hindus and Mahommedans, are divided into separate +quarters, with reserves for government servants and for the temporary +residences of the five sawbwas of the northern Shan States; and a +bazaar. Under Burmese rule Lashio was also the centre of authority for +the northern Shan States, but the Burmese post in the valley was close +to the Nam Yao, in an old Chinese fortified camp. The Lashio valley was +formerly very populous; but a rebellion, started by the sawbwa of +Hsenwi, about ten years before the British occupation, ruined it, and it +is only slowly approaching the prosperity it formerly enjoyed; pop. +(1901) 2565. The annual rainfall averages 54 in. The average maximum +temperature is 80.5° and the average minimum 55.5°. + + + + +LASKER, EDUARD (1829-1884), German publicist, was born on the 14th of +October 1829, at Jarotschin, a village in Posen, being the son of a +Jewish tradesman. He attended the gymnasium, and afterwards the +university of Breslau. In 1848, after the outbreak of the revolution, he +went to Vienna and entered the students' legion which took so prominent +a part in the disturbances; he fought against the imperial troops during +the siege of the city in October. He then continued his legal studies at +Breslau and Berlin, and after a visit of three years to England, then +the model state for German liberals, entered the Prussian judicial +service. In 1870 he left the government service, and in 1873 was +appointed to an administrative post in the service of the city of +Berlin. He had been brought to the notice of the political world by some +articles he wrote from 1861 to 1864, which were afterwards published +under the title _Zur Verfassungsgeschichte Preussens_ (Leipzig, 1874), +and in 1865 he was elected member for one of the divisions of Berlin in +the Prussian parliament. He joined the radical or _Fortschritts_ party, +and in 1867 was also elected to the German parliament, but he helped to +form the national liberal party, and in consequence lost his seat in +Berlin, which remained faithful to the radicals; after this he +represented Magdeburg and Frankfort-on-Main in the Prussian, and +Meiningen in the German, parliament. He threw himself with great energy +into his parliamentary duties, and quickly became one of its most +popular and most influential members. An optimist and idealist, he +joined to a fervent belief in liberty an equal enthusiasm for German +unity and the idea of the German state. His motion that Baden should be +included in the North German Confederation in January 1870 caused much +embarrassment to Bismarck, but was not without effect in hastening the +crisis of 1870. His great work, however, was the share he took in the +judicial reform during the ten years 1867-1877. To him more than to any +other single individual is due the great codification of the law. While +he again and again was able to compel the government to withdraw or +amend proposals which seemed dangerous to liberty, he opposed those +liberals who, unable to obtain all the concessions which they called +for, refused to vote for the new laws as a whole. A speech made by +Lasker on the 7th of February 1873, in which he attacked the management +of the Pomeranian railway, caused a great sensation, and his exposure of +the financial mismanagement brought about the fall of Hermann Wagener, +one of Bismarck's most trusted assistants. By this action he caused, +however, some embarrassment to his party. This is generally regarded as +the beginning of the reaction against economic liberalism by which he +and his party were to be deprived of their influence. He refused to +follow Bismarck in his financial and economic policy after 1878; always +unsympathetic to the chancellor, he was now selected for his most bitter +attacks. Between the radicals and socialists on the one side and the +government on the other, like many of his friends, he was unable to +maintain himself. In 1879 he lost his seat in the Prussian parliament; +he joined the _Sezession_, but was ill at ease in his new position. +Broken in health and spirits by the incessant labours of the time when +he did "half the work of the Reichstag," he went in 1883 for a tour in +America, and died suddenly in New York on the 5th of January 1884. + + Lasker's death was the occasion of a curious episode, which caused + much discussion at the time. The American House of Representatives + adopted a motion of regret, and added to it these words: "That his + loss is not alone to be mourned by the people of his native land, + where his firm and constant exposition of, and devotion to, free and + liberal ideas have materially advanced the social, political and + economic conditions of these people, but by the lovers of liberty + throughout the world." This motion was sent through the American + minister at Berlin to the German foreign office, with a request that + it might be communicated to the president of the Reichstag. It was to + ask Bismarck officially to communicate a resolution in which a foreign + parliament expressed an opinion in German affairs exactly opposed to + that which the emperor at his advice had always followed. Bismarck + therefore refused to communicate the resolution, and returned it + through the German minister at Washington. + + Among Lasker's writings may be mentioned: _Zur Geschichte der + parlamentarischen Entwickelung Preussens_ (Leipzig, 1873), _Die + Zukunft des Deutschen Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1877) and _Wege und Ziele der_ + _Kulturentwickelung_ (Leipzig, 1881). After his death his _Fünfzehn + Jahre parlamentarischer Geschichte 1866-1880_ appeared edited by W. + Cahn (Berlin, 1902). See also L. Bamberger, _Eduard Lasker, + Gedenkrede_ (Leipzig, 1884); A. Wolff, _Zur Erinnerung an Eduard + Lasker_ (Berlin, 1884); Freund, _Einiges über Eduard Lasker_ (Leipzig, + 1885); and _Eduard Lasker, seine Biographie und letzte öffentliche + Rede_, by various writers (Stuttgart, 1884). (J. W. He.) + + + + +LASKI, the name of a noble and powerful Polish family, is taken from the +town of Lask, the seat of their lordship. + +JAN LASKI, the elder (1456-1531), Polish statesman and ecclesiastic, +appears to have been largely self-taught and to have owed everything to +the remarkable mental alertness which was hereditary in the Laski +family. He took orders betimes, and in 1495 was secretary to the Polish +chancellor Zawisza Kurozwecki, in which position he acquired both +influence and experience. The aged chancellor entrusted the sharp-witted +young ecclesiastic with the conduct of several important missions. +Twice, in 1495 and again in 1500, he was sent to Rome, and once on a +special embassy to Flanders, of which he has left an account. On these +occasions he had the opportunity of displaying diplomatic talent of a +high order. On the accession to the Polish throne in 1501 of the +indolent Alexander, who had little knowledge of Polish affairs and +chiefly resided in Lithuania, Laski was appointed by the senate the +king's secretary, in which capacity he successfully opposed the growing +separatist tendencies of the grand-duchy and maintained the influence of +Catholicism, now seriously threatened there by the Muscovite propaganda. +So struck was the king by his ability that on the death of the Polish +chancellor in 1503 he passed over the vice-chancellor Macics Dzewicki +and confided the great seal to Laski. As chancellor Laski supported the +_szlachta_, or country-gentlemen, against the lower orders, going so far +as to pass an edict excluding henceforth all plebeians from the higher +benefices of the church. Nevertheless he approved himself such an +excellent public servant that the new king, Sigismund I., made him one +of his chief counsellors. In 1511 the chancellor, who ecclesiastically +was still only a canon of Cracow, obtained the coveted dignity of +archbishop of Gnesen which carried with it the primacy of the Polish +church. In the long negotiations with the restive and semi-rebellious +Teutonic Order, Laski rendered Sigismund most important political +services, proposing as a solution of the question that Sigismund should +be elected grand master, while he, Laski, should surrender the primacy +to the new candidate of the knights, Albert of Brandenburg, a solution +which would have been far more profitable to Poland than the ultimate +settlement of 1525. In 1513 Laski was sent to the Lateran council, +convened by Pope Julius II., to plead the cause of Poland against the +knights, where both as an orator and as a diplomatist he brilliantly +distinguished himself. This mission was equally profitable to his +country and himself, and he succeeded in obtaining from the pope for the +archbishops of Gnesen the title of _legati nati_. In his old age Laski's +partiality for his nephew, Hieronymus, led him to support the +candidature of John Zapolya, the protégé of the Turks, for the Hungarian +crown so vehemently against the Habsburgs that Clement VII. +excommunicated him, and the shock of this disgrace was the cause of his +sudden death in 1531. Of his numerous works the most noteworthy are his +collection of Polish statutes entitled: _Statuta provinciae gnesnensis +antiqua, &c._ (Cracow, 1525-1528) and _De Ruthenorum nationibus eorumque +erroribus_, printed at Nuremberg. + + See Heinrich R. von Zeissberg, _Joh. Laski, Erzbischof in Gnesen_ + (Vienna, 1874); and Jan Korytkowski, _Jan Laski, Archbishop of Gnesen_ + (Gnesen, 1880). + +HIERONYMUS JAROSLAW LASKI (1496-1542), Polish diplomatist, nephew of +Archbishop Laski, was successively palatine of Inowroclaw and of +Sieradia. His first important mission was to Paris in 1524, ostensibly +to contract an anti-Turkish league with the French king, but really to +bring about a matrimonial alliance between the dauphin, afterwards Henry +II., and the daughter of King Sigismund I., a project which failed +through no fault of Laski's. The collapse of the Hungarian monarchy at +Mohacs (1526) first opened up a wider career to Laski's adventurous +activity. Contrary to the wishes of his own sovereign, Sigismund I., +whose pro-Austrian policy he detested, Laski entered the service of John +Zapolya, the Magyar competitor for the Hungarian throne, thereby +seriously compromising Poland both with the emperor and the pope. +Zapolya despatched him on an embassy to Paris, Copenhagen and Munich for +help, but on his return he found his patron a refugee in Transylvania, +whither he had retired after his defeat by the German king Ferdinand I. +at Tokay in 1527. In his extremity Zapolya placed himself under the +protection of the sultan, Laski being sent to Constantinople as his +intermediary. On his way thither he was attacked and robbed of +everything, including his credentials and the rich presents without +which no negotiations were deemed possible at the Porte. But Laski was +nothing if not audacious. Proceeding on his way to the Turkish capital +empty-handed, he nevertheless succeeded in gaining the confidence of +Gritti, the favourite of the grand vizier, and ultimately persuaded the +sultan to befriend Zapolya and to proclaim him king of Hungary. He went +still further, and without the slightest authority for his action +concluded a ten years' truce between his old master King Sigismund of +Poland and the Porte. He then returned to Hungary at the head of 10,000 +men, with whose aid he enabled Zapolya to re-establish his position and +defeat Ferdinand at Saros-Patak. He was rewarded with the countship of +Zips and the governor-generalship of Transylvania. But his influence +excited the jealousy of the Magyars, and Zapolya was persuaded to +imprison him. On being released by the interposition of the Polish grand +hetman, Tarnowski, he became the most violent opponent of Zapolya. +Shortly after his return to Poland, Laski died suddenly at Cracow, +probably poisoned by one of his innumerable enemies. + + See Alexander Hirschberg, _Hieronymus Laski_ (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1888). + +JAN LASKI, the younger (1499-1560), also known as _Johannes a Lasco_, +Polish reformer, son of Jaroslaw (d. 1523), voivode of Sieradia and +nephew of the famous Archbishop Laski. During his academical course +abroad he made the acquaintance of Zwingli and Erasmus and returned to +Poland in 1526 saturated with the new doctrines. Nevertheless he took +orders, and owing to the influence of his uncle obtained the bishopric +of Veszprem in Hungary from King John Zapolya, besides holding a canonry +of Cracow and the office of royal secretary. In 1531 he resigned all his +benefices rather than give up a woman whom he had secretly married, and +having incurred general reprobation and the lasting displeasure of his +uncle the archbishop, he fled to Germany, where ultimately (1543) he +adopted the Augsburg Confession. For the next thirteen years Laski was a +wandering apostle of the new doctrines. He was successively +superintendent at Emden and in Friesland, passed from thence to London +where he became a member of the so-called _ecclesia peregrinorum_, a +congregation of foreign Protestants exiled in consequence of the +Augsburg Interim of 1548 and, on being expelled by Queen Mary, took +refuge first in Denmark and subsequently at Frankfort-on-Main, where he +was greatly esteemed. From Frankfort he addressed three letters (printed +at Basel) to King Sigismund, Augustus, and the Polish gentry and people, +urging the conversion of Poland to Protestantism. In 1556, during the +brief triumph of the anti-catholics, he returned to his native land, +took part in the synod of Brzesc, and published a number of polemical +works, the most noteworthy of which were _Forma ac ratio tota +ecclesiastici ministerii in peregrinorum Ecclesiae instituta_ (Pinczow, +1560), and in Polish, _History of the Cruel Persecution of the Church of +God in 1567_, republished in his _Opera_, edited by A. Kuyper at +Amsterdam in 1866. He died at Pinczow in January 1560 and was buried +with great pomp by the Polish Protestants, who also struck a medal in +his honour. Twice married, he left two sons and two daughters. His +nephew (?) Albert Laski, who visited England in 1583, wasted a fortune +in aid of Dr Dee's craze for the "philosopher's stone." Laski's writings +are important for the organization of the _ecclesia peregrinorum_, and +he was concerned in the Polish version of the Bible, not published till +1563. + + See H. Dalton, _Johannes a Lasco_ (1881), English version of the + earlier portion by J. Evans (1886); Bartels, _Johannes a Lasco_ + (1860); Harboe, _Schicksale des Johannes a Lasco_ (1758); R. Wallace, + _Antitrinitarian Biography_ (1850); Bonet-Maury, _Early Sources of + Eng. Unit. Christianity_ (1884); W. A. J. Archbold in _Dict. Nat. + Biog._ (1892) under "Laski," George Pascal, _Jean de Lasco_ (Paris, + 1894); _Life_ in Polish by Antoni Walewski (Warsaw, 1872); and Julian + Bukowski, _History of the Reformation in Poland_ (Pol.) (Cracow, + 1883). (R. N. B.) + + + + +LAS PALMAS, the capital of the Spanish island of Grand Canary, in the +Canary archipelago, and of an administrative district which also +comprises the islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura; on the east coast, +in 28° 7´ N. and 5° 24´ W. Pop. (1900) 44,517. Las Palmas is the largest +city in the Canary Islands, of which it was the capital until 1833. It +is the seat of a court of appeal, of a brigadier, who commands the +military forces in the district, of a civil lieutenant-governor, who is +independent of the governor-general except in connexion with elections +and municipal administration, and of a bishop, who is subordinate to the +archbishop of Seville. The palms from which the city derives its name +are still characteristic of the fertile valley which it occupies. Las +Palmas is built on both banks of a small river, and although parts of it +date from the 16th century, it is on the whole a clean and modern city, +well drained, and supplied with pure water, conveyed by an aqueduct from +the highlands of the interior. Its principal buildings include a +handsome cathedral, founded in the 16th century but only completed in +the 19th, a theatre, a museum, an academy of art, and several hospitals +and good schools. The modern development of Las Palmas is largely due to +the foreign merchants, and especially to the British who control the +greater portion of the local commerce. La Luz, the port, is connected +with Las Palmas by a railway 4 m. long; it is a free port and harbour of +refuge, officially considered the third in importance of Spanish ports, +but actually the first in the matter of tonnage. It is strongly +fortified. The harbour, protected by the promontory of La Isleta, which +is connected with the mainland by a narrow bar of sand, can accommodate +the largest ships, and affords secure anchorage in all weathers. Ships +can discharge at the breakwater (1257 yds. long) or at the Santa +Catalina mole, constructed in 1883-1902. The minimum depth of water +alongside the quays is 4½ ft. There are floating water-tanks, numerous +lighters, titan and other cranes, repairing workshops, and very large +supplies of coal afloat and ashore. La Luz is one of the principal +Atlantic coaling stations, and the coal-trade is entirely in British +hands. Other important industries are shipbuilding, fishing, and the +manufacture of glass, leather and hats. The chief exports are fruit, +vegetables, sugar, wine and cochineal; coal, iron, cement, timber, +petroleum, manure, textiles and provisions are the chief imports. (See +also CANARY ISLANDS.) + + + + +LASSALLE, FERDINAND (1825-1864), German socialist, was born at Breslau +on the 11th of April 1825, of Jewish extraction. His father, a +prosperous merchant in Breslau, intended Ferdinand for a business +career, and sent him to the commercial school at Leipzig; but the boy +got himself transferred to the university, first at Breslau, and +afterwards at Berlin. His favourite studies were philology and +philosophy; he became an ardent Hegelian. Having completed his +university studies in 1845, he began to write a work on Heraclitus from +the Hegelian point of view; but it was soon interrupted by more stirring +interests, and did not see the light for many years. It was in Berlin, +towards the end of 1845, that he met the lady with whom his life was to +be associated in so remarkable a way, the Countess Hatzfeldt. She had +been separated from her husband for many years, and was at feud with him +on questions of property and the custody of their children. Lassalle +attached himself to the cause of the countess, whom he believed to have +been outrageously wronged, made special study of law, and, after +bringing the case before thirty-six tribunals, reduced the powerful +count to a compromise on terms most favourable to his client. The +process, which lasted ten years, gave rise to not a little scandal, +especially that of the _Cassettengeschichte_ which pursued Lassalle all +the rest of his life. This "affair of the casket" arose out of an +attempt by the countess's friends to get possession of a bond for a +large life annuity settled by the count on his mistress, a Baroness +Meyendorf, to the prejudice of the countess and her children. Two of +Lassalle's comrades succeeded in carrying off the casket, which +contained the lady's jewels, from the baroness's room at an hotel in +Cologne. They were prosecuted for theft, one of them being condemned to +six months' imprisonment. Lassalle, accused of moral complicity, was +acquitted on appeal. He was not so fortunate in 1849, when he underwent +a year's durance for resistance to the authorities of Düsseldorf during +the troubles of that stormy period. But going to prison was a familiar +experience in Lassalle's life. Till 1859 Lassalle resided mostly in the +Rhine country, prosecuting the suit of the countess, finishing the work +on Heraclitus, which was not published till 1858, taking little part in +political agitation, but ever a helpful friend of the working men. He +was not allowed to live in Berlin because of his connexion with the +disturbances of '48. In 1859, however, he entered the city disguised as +a carter, and, through the influence of Humboldt with the king, got +permission to stay there. The same year he published a remarkable +pamphlet on the _Italian War and the Mission of Prussia_, in which he +warned his countrymen against going to the rescue of Austria in her war +with France. He pointed out that if France drove Austria out of Italy +she might annex Savoy, but could not prevent the restoration of Italian +unity under Victor Emmanuel. France was doing the work of Germany by +weakening Austria; Prussia should form an alliance with France to drive +out Austria and make herself supreme in Germany. After their realization +by Bismarck these ideas have become sufficiently commonplace; but they +were nowise obvious when thus published by Lassalle. In 1861 he +published a great work in two volumes, _System der erworbenen Rechte_ +(_System of Acquired Rights_). + +Now began the short-lived activity which was to give him an historical +significance. It was early in 1862, when the struggle of Bismarck with +the Prussian liberals was already begun. Lassalle, a democrat of the +most advanced type, saw that an opportunity had come for asserting a +third great cause--that of the working men--which would outflank the +liberalism of the middle classes, and might even command the sympathy of +the government. His political programme was, however, entirely +subordinate to the social, that of bettering the condition of the +working classes, for which he believed the schemes of Schulze-Delitzsch +were utterly inadequate. Lassalle flung himself into the career of +agitator with his accustomed vigour. His worst difficulties were with +the working men themselves, among whom he met the most discouraging +apathy. His mission as organizer and emancipator of the working class +lasted only two years and a half. In that period he issued about twenty +separate publications, most of them speeches and pamphlets, but one of +them, that against Schulze-Delitzsch, a considerable treatise, and all +full of keen and vigorous thought. He founded the "Allgemeiner Deutscher +Arbeiterverein," was its president and almost single-handed champion, +conducted its affairs, and carried on a vast correspondence, not to +mention about a dozen state prosecutions in which he was during that +period involved. Berlin, Leipzig, Frankfort and the industrial centres +on the Rhine were the chief scenes of his activity. His greatest success +was on the Rhine, where in the summers of 1863 and 1864 his travels as +missionary of the new gospel resembled a triumphal procession. The +agitation was growing rapidly, but he had achieved little substantial +success when a most unworthy death closed his career. + +While posing as the messiah of the poor, Lassalle was a man of decidedly +fashionable and luxurious habits. His suppers were well known as among +the most exquisite in Berlin. It was the most piquant feature of his +life that he, one of the gilded youth, a connoisseur in wines, and a +learned man to boot, had become agitator and the champion of the working +man. In one of the literary and fashionable circles of Berlin he had met +a Fräulein von Dönniges, for whom he at once felt a passion, which was +ardently reciprocated. In the summer of 1864 he met her again on the +Rigi, when they resolved to marry. She was a young lady of twenty, +decidedly unconventional and original in character, but the daughter of +a Bavarian diplomatist then resident at Geneva, who would have nothing +to do with Lassalle. The lady was imprisoned in her own room, and soon, +apparently under the influence of very questionable pressure, renounced +Lassalle in favour of another admirer, a Wallachian, Count von +Racowitza. Lassalle sent a challenge both to the lady's father and her +betrothed, which was accepted by the latter. At the Carouge, a suburb of +Geneva, the meeting took place on the morning of August 28, 1864, when +Lassalle was mortally wounded, and he died on the 31st of August. In +spite of such a foolish ending, his funeral was that of a martyr, and by +many of his adherents he has been regarded since with feelings almost of +religious devotion. + + Lassalle did not lay claim to any special originality as a socialistic + thinker, nor did he publish any systematic statement of his views. Yet + his leading ideas are sufficiently clear and simple. Like a true + Hegelian he saw three stages in the development of labour: the ancient + and feudal period, which, through the subjection of the labourer, + sought solidarity without freedom; the reign of capital and the middle + classes, established in 1789, which sought freedom by destroying + solidarity; and the new era, beginning in 1848, which would reconcile + solidarity with freedom by introducing the principle of association. + It was the basis and starting-point of his opinions that, under the + empire of capital and so long as the working man was merely a receiver + of wages, no improvement in his condition could be expected. This + position he founded on the law of wages formulated by Ricardo, and + accepted by all the leading economists, that wages are controlled by + the ordinary relations of supply and demand, that a rise in wages + leads to an increase in the labouring population, which, by increasing + the supply of labour, is followed by a corresponding fall of wages. + Thus population increases or decreases in fixed relation to the rise + or fall of wages. The condition of the working man will never + permanently rise above the mere standard of living required for his + subsistence, and the continued supply of his kind. Lassalle held that + the co-operative schemes of Schulze-Delitzsch on the principle of + "self-help" were utterly inadequate, for the obvious reason that the + working classes were destitute of capital. The struggle of the working + man helping himself with his empty pockets against the capitalists he + compared to a battle with teeth and nails against modern artillery. In + short, Lassalle accepted the orthodox political economy to show that + the inevitable operation of its laws left no hope for the working + classes, and that no remedy could be found but by abolishing the + conditions in which these laws had their validity--in other words, by + abolishing the present relations of labour and capital altogether. And + this could only be done by the productive association of the working + men with money provided by the state. And he held that such + association should be the voluntary act of the working men, the + government merely reserving the right to examine the books of the + various societies. All the arrangements should be carried out + according to the rules of business usually followed in such + transactions. But how move the government to grant such a loan? Simply + by introducing (direct) universal suffrage. The working men were an + overwhelming majority; they were the state, and should control the + government. The aim of Lassalle, then, was to organize the working + classes into a great political power, which in the way thus indicated, + by peaceful resolute agitation, without violence or insurrection, + might attain the goal of productive association. In this way the + fourth estate would be emancipated from the despotism of the + capitalist, and a great step taken in the solution of the great + "social question." + + It will be seen that the net result of Lassalle's life was to produce + a European scandal, and to originate a socialistic movement in + Germany, which, at the election of 1903, returned to the Reichstag + eighty-one members and polled 3,010,771 votes, and at the election of + 1907 returned forty-three members and polled 3,258,968 votes. (The + diminution in the number of members returned in 1907 was due mostly to + combination among the different political groups.) This result, great + as it was, would hardly have been commensurate with his ambition, + which was boundless. In the heyday of his passion for Fräulein von + Dönniges, his dream was to be enthroned as the president of the German + republic with her seated at his side. With his energy, ability and + gift of dominating and organizing, he might indeed have done a great + deal. Bismarck coquetted with him as the representative of a force + that might help him to combat the Prussian liberals; in 1878, in a + speech before the Reichstag, he spoke of him with deep respect, as a + man of the greatest amiability and ability from whom much could be + learned. Even Bishop Ketteler of Mainz had declared his sympathy for + the cause he advocated. + + Lassalle's _Die Philosophie Herakleitos des Dunklen von Ephesos_ + (Berlin, 1858), and the _System der erworbenen Rechte_ (Leipzig, 1861) + are both marked by great learning and intellectual power. But of far + more historical interest are the speeches and pamphlets connected with + his socialistic agitation, of which the most important are--_Ueber + Verfassungswesen_; _Arbeiterprogramm_; _Offenes Antwortschreiben_; + _Zur Arbeiterfrage_; _Arbeiterlesebuch_; _Herr Bastiat-Schulze von + Delitzsch, oder Kapital und Arbeit_. His drama, _Franz von Sickingen_, + published in 1859, is a work of no poetic value. His _Collected Works_ + were issued at Leipzig in 1899-1901. + + The best biography of Lassalle is H. Oncken's _Lassalle_ (Stuttgart, + 1904); another excellent work on his life and writings is George + Brandes's Danish work, _Ferdinand Lassalle_ (German translation, 4th + ed., Leipzig, 1900). See also A. Aaberg, _Ferdinand Lassalle_ + (Leipzig, 1883); C. v. Plener, _Lassalle_ (Leipzig, 1884); G. Meyer, + _Lassalle als Sozialökonom_ (Berlin, 1894); Brandt, _F. Lassalles + sozialökonomische Anschauungen und praktische Vorschläge_ (Jena, + 1895); Seillière, _Études sur Ferdinand Lassalle_ (Paris, 1897); E. + Bernstein, _Ferd. Lassalle und seine Bedeutung für die Arbeiterklasse_ + (Berlin, 1904). There is a considerable literature on his love affair + and death; the most notable books are: _Meine Beziehungen zu F. + Lassalle_, by Helene von Racowitza, a very strange book; _Enthüllungen + über das tragische Lebensende F. Lassalle's_ by B. Becker; _Im + Anschluss an die Memoiren der H. von Racowitza_, by A. Kutschbach, and + George Meredith's _Tragic Comedians_ (1880). (T. K.) + + + + +LASSEN, CHRISTIAN (1800-1876), German orientalist, was born on the 22nd +of October 1800, at Bergen in Norway. Having received his earliest +university education at Christiania, he went to Germany, and continued +his studies at Heidelberg and Bonn. In the latter university Lassen +acquired a sound knowledge of Sanskrit. He next spent three years in +Paris and London, engaged in copying and collating MSS., and collecting +materials for future research, especially in reference to the Hindu +drama and philosophy. During this period he published, jointly with E. +Burnouf, his first work, _Essai sur le Pâli_ (Paris, 1826). On his +return to Bonn he studied Arabic, and took the degree of Ph.D., his +dissertation discussing the Arabic notices of the geography of the +Punjab (_Commentatio geographica atque historica de Pentapotamia +Indica_, Bonn, 1827). Soon after he was admitted _Privatdozent_, and in +1830 was appointed extraordinary and in 1840 ordinary professor of Old +Indian language and literature. In spite of a tempting offer from +Copenhagen, in 1841, Lassen remained faithful to the university of his +adoption to the end of his life. He died at Bonn on the 8th of May 1876, +having been affected with almost total blindness for many years. As +early as 1864 he was relieved of the duty of lecturing. + + In 1829-1831 he brought out, in conjunction with August W. von + Schlegel, a critical annotated edition of the _Hitopadesa_. The + appearance of this edition marks the starting-point of the critical + study of Sanskrit literature. At the same time Lassen assisted von + Schlegel in editing and translating the first two cantos of the epic + _Ramayana_ (1829-1838). In 1832 he brought out the text of the first + act of Bhavabhuti's drama, _Malatimadhava_, and a complete edition, + with a Latin translation, of the _Sankhya-karika_. In 1837 followed + his edition and translation of Jayadeva's charming lyrical drama, + _Gitagovinda_ and his _Institutiones linguae Pracriticae_. His + _Anthologia Sanscritica_, which came out the following year (new ed. + by Johann Gildemeister, 1868), contained several hitherto unpublished + texts, and did much to stimulate the study of Sanskrit in German + universities. In 1846 Lassen brought out an improved edition of + Schlegel's text and translation of the "Bhagavadgita." He did not + confine himself to the study of Indian languages, but acted likewise + as a scientific pioneer in other fields of philological inquiry. In + his _Beiträge zur Deutung der Eugubinischen Tafeln_ (1833) he prepared + the way for the correct interpretation of the Umbrian inscriptions; + and the _Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes_ (7 vols., + 1837-1850), started and largely conducted by him, contains, among + other valuable papers from his pen, grammatical sketches of the + Beluchi and Brahui languages, and an essay on the Lycian inscriptions. + + Soon after the appearance of Burnouf's _Commentaire sur le Yaçna_ + (1833), Lassen also directed his attention to the Zend, and to Iranian + studies generally; and in _Die altpersischen Keilinschriften von + Persepolis_ (1836) he first made known the true character of the Old + Persian cuneiform inscriptions, thereby anticipating, by one month, + Burnouf's _Mémoire_ on the same subject, while Sir Henry Rawlinson's + famous memoir on the Behistun inscription, though drawn up in Persia, + independently of contemporaneous European research, at about the same + time, did not reach the Royal Asiatic Society until three years later. + Subsequently Lassen published, in the sixth volume of his journal + (1845), a collection of all the Old Persian cuneiform inscriptions + known up to that date. He also was the first scholar in Europe who + took up, with signal success, the decipherment of the newly-discovered + Bactrian coins, which furnished him the materials for _Zur Geschichte + der griechischen und indo-skythischen Könige in Bakterien, Kabul, und + Indien_ (1838). He contemplated bringing out a critical edition of the + _Vendidad_; but, after publishing the first five fargards (1852), he + felt that his whole energies were required for the successful + accomplishment of the great undertaking of his life--his _Indische + Altertumskunde_. In this work--completed in four volumes, published + respectively in 1847 (2nd ed., 1867), 1849 (2nd ed., 1874), 1858 and + 1861--which forms one of the greatest monuments of untiring industry + and critical scholarship, everything that could be gathered from + native and foreign sources, relative to the political, social and + intellectual development of India, from the earliest times down to the + Mahommedan invasion, was worked up by him into a connected historical + account. + + + + +LASSEN, EDUARD (1830-1904), Belgian musical composer, was born in +Copenhagen, but was taken as a child to Brussels and educated at the +Brussels Conservatoire. He won the _prix de Rome_ in 1851, and went for +a long tour in Germany and Italy. He settled at Weimar, where in 1861 he +succeeded Liszt as conductor of the opera, and he died there on the 15th +of January 1904. Besides many well-known songs, he wrote +operas--_Landgraf Ludwig's Brautfahrt_ (1857), _Frauenlob_ (1861), _Le +Captif_ (1868)--instrumental music to dramas, notably to Goethe's +_Faust_ (1876), two symphonies and various choral works. + + + + +LASSO (LASSUS), ORLANDO (c. 1530-1594), Belgian musical composer, whose +real name was probably Roland Delattre, was born at Mons, in Hainault, +probably not much earlier than 1532, the date given by the epitaph +printed at the end of the volumes of the _Magnum opus musicum_; though +already in the 16th century the opinions of his biographers were divided +between the years 1520 and 1530. Much is reported, but very little +known, of his connexions and his early career. The discrepancy as to the +date of his birth appears also in connexion with his appointment at the +church of St John Lateran in Rome. If he was born in 1530 or 1532 he +could not have obtained that appointment in 1541. What is certain is +that his first book of madrigals was published in Venice in 1555, and +that in the same year he speaks of himself in the preface of Italian and +French songs and Latin motets as if he had recently come from Rome. He +seems to have visited England in 1554 and to have been introduced to +Cardinal Pole, to whom an adulatory motet appears in 1556. (This is not, +as might hastily be supposed, a confusion resulting from the fact that +the ambassador from Ferdinand, king of the Romans, Don Pedro de Lasso, +attended the marriage of Philip and Mary in England in the same year.) +His first book of motets appeared at Antwerp in 1556, containing the +motet in honour of Cardinal Pole. The style of Orlando had already begun +to purify itself from the speculative and chaotic elements that led +Burney, who seems to have known only his earlier works, to call him "a +dwarf on stilts" as compared with Palestrina. But where he is orthodox +he is as yet stiff, and his secular compositions are, so far, better +than his more serious efforts. + +In 1557, if not before, he was invited by Albrecht IV., duke of Bavaria, +to go to Munich. The duke was a most intelligent patron of all the fine +arts, a notable athlete, and a man of strict principles. Munich from +henceforth never ceased to be Orlando's home; though he sometimes paid +long visits to Italy and France, whether in response to royal +invitations or with projects of his own. In 1558 he made a very happy +marriage by which he had four sons and two daughters. The four sons all +became good musicians, and we owe an inestimable debt to the pious +industry of the two eldest sons, who (under the patronage of Duke +Maximilian I., the second successor of Orlando's master) published the +enormous collection of Orlando's Latin motets known as the _Magnum opus +musicum_. + +Probably no composer has ever had more ideal circumstances for artistic +inspiration and expression than had Orlando. His duty was to make music +all day and every day, and to make it according to his own taste. +Nothing was too good, too severe or too new for the duke. Church music +was not more in demand than secular. Instrumental music, which in the +16th century had hardly any independent existence, accompanied the meals +of the court; and Orlando would rise from dessert to sing trios and +quartets with picked voices. The daily prayers included a full mass with +polyphonic music. This amazing state of things becomes more intelligible +and less alarming when we consider that 16th-century music was no sooner +written than it could be performed. With such material as Orlando had at +his disposal, musical performance was as unattended by expense and +tedious preliminaries as a game of billiards in a good billiard room. +Not even Haydn's position at Esterhaz can have enabled him, as has been +said, to "ring the bell" for musicians to come and try a new orchestral +effect with such ease as that with which Orlando could produce his work +at Munich. His fame soon became world-wide, and every contemporary +authority is full of the acclamation with which Orlando was greeted +wherever his travels took him. + +Very soon, with this rapid means of acquiring experience, Orlando's +style became as pure as Palestrina's; while he always retained his +originality and versatility. His relations to the literary culture of +the time are intimate and fascinating; and during his stay at the court +of France in 1571 he became a friend of the poet Ronsard. In 1579 Duke +Albrecht died. Orlando's salary had already been guaranteed to him for +life, so that his outward circumstances did not change, and the new duke +was very kind to him. But the loss of his master was a great grief and +seems to have checked his activity for some time. In 1589, after the +publication of six Masses, ending with a beautiful _Missa pro +defunctis_, his strength began to fail; and a sudden serious illness +left him alarmingly depressed and inactive until his death on the 14th +of June 1594. + +If Palestrina represents the supreme height attained by 16th-century +music, Orlando represents the whole century. It is impossible to +exaggerate the range and variety of his style, so long as we recognise +the limits of 16th-century musical language. Even critics to whom this +language is unfamiliar cannot fail to notice the glaring differences +between Orlando's numerous types of art, though such critics may believe +all those types to be equally crude and archaic. The swiftness of +Orlando's intellectual and artistic development is astonishing. His +first four volumes of madrigals show a very intermittent sense of +beauty. Many a number in them is one compact mass of the fashionable +harsh play upon the "false relation" between twin major and minor +chords, which is usually believed to be the unenviable distinction of +the English madrigal style from that of the Italians. It must be +confessed that in the Italian madrigal (as distinguished from the +_villanella_ and other light forms), Orlando never attained complete +certainty of touch, though some of his later madrigals are indeed +glorious. But in his French chansons, many of which are settings of the +poems of his friend Ronsard, his wit and lightness of touch are +unfailing. In setting other French poems he is sometimes unfortunately +most witty where the words are most gross, for he is as free from modern +scruples as any of his Elizabethan contemporaries. In 1562, when the +Council of Trent was censuring the abuses of Flemish church music, +Orlando had already purified his ecclesiastical style; though he did not +go so far as to Italianize it in order to oblige those modern critics +who are unwilling to believe that anything appreciably unlike Palestrina +can be legitimate. At the same time Orlando's Masses are not among his +greatest works. This is possibly partly due to the fact that the +proportions of a musical Mass are at the mercy of the local practice of +the liturgy; and that perhaps the uses of the court at Munich were not +quite so favourable to broadly designed proportion (not length) as the +uses of Rome. Differences which might cramp the 16th-century composer +need not amount to anything that would draw down the censure of +ecclesiastical authorities. Be this as it may, Orlando's other church +music is always markedly different from Palestrina's, and often fully as +sublime. It is also in many ways far more modern in resource. We +frequently come upon things like the _Justorum animae_ [Magnum Opus, No. +260 (301)] which in their way are as overpoweringly touching as, for +example, the Benedictus of Beethoven's _Mass in D_ or the soprano solo +in Brahms's _Deutsches Requiem_. + +No one has approached Orlando in the ingenuity, quaintness and humour of +his tone-painting. He sometimes descends to extremely elaborate musical +puns, carrying farther than any other composer since the dark ages the +absurd device of setting syllables that happened to coincide with the +_sol-fa_ system to the corresponding _sol-fa_ notes. But in the most +absurd of such cases he evidently enjoys twisting these notes into a +theme of pregnant musical meaning. The quaintest instance is the motet +_Quid estis pusillanimes_ [Magnum Opus, No. 92 (69)] where extra +_sol-fa_ syllables are introduced into the text to make a good theme in +combination with the syllables already there by accident! (_An nescitis +Justitiae Ut Sol [Fa Mi] Re Laxatas_ _habenas possit denuo cohibere?_). +The significance of these euphuistic jokes is that they always make good +music in Orlando's hands. There is musical fun even in his voluminous +parody of the stammering style of word-setting in the burlesque motet +_S.U.Su. PER. per. super F.L.U._, which gets through one verse of a +psalm in fifteen minutes. + +When it was a question of purely musical high spirits Orlando was +unrivalled; and his setting of Walter de Mape's _Fertur in conviviis_ +(given in the _Magnum opus_ with a stupid moral derangement of the +text), and most of his French chansons, are among the most deeply +humorous music in the world. + +But it is in the tests of the sublime that Orlando shows himself one of +the greatest minds that ever found expression in art. Nothing sublime +was too unfamiliar to frighten him into repressing his quaint fancy, +though he early repressed all that thwarted his musical nature. His +_Penitential Psalms_ stand with Josquin's _Miserere_ and Palestrina's +first book of _Lamentations_ as artistic monuments of 16th-century +penitential religion, just as Bach's _Matthew Passion_ stands alone +among such monuments in later art. Yet the passage (quoted by Sir Hubert +Parry in vol. 3 of the _Oxford History of Music_) "Nolite fieri sicut +mulus" is one among many traits which are ingeniously and grotesquely +descriptive without losing harmony with the austere profundity of the +huge works in which they occur. It is impossible to read any large +quantity of Orlando's mature music without feeling that a mind like his +would in modern times have covered a wider field of mature art than any +one classical or modern composer known to us. Yet we cannot say that +anything has been lost by his belonging to the 16th century. His music, +if only from its peculiar technique of crossing parts and unexpected +intervals, is exceptionally difficult to read; and hence intelligent +conducting and performance of it is rare. But its impressiveness is +beyond dispute; and there are many things which, like the _Justorum +animae_ cannot even be read, much less heard, without emotion. + + Orlando's works as shown by the plan of Messrs Breitkopf & Härtel's + complete critical edition (begun in 1894) comprise: (1) the _Magnum + opus musicum_, a posthumous collection containing Latin pieces for + from two to twelve voices, 516 in number (or, counting by single + movements, over 700). Not all of these are to the original texts. The + _Magnum opus_ fills eleven volumes. (2) Five volumes of madrigals, + containing six books, and a large number of single madrigals, and + about half a volume of lighter Italian songs (villanellas, &c.). (3) + Three volumes (not four as in the prospectus) of French _chansons_. + (4) Two volumes of German four-part and five-part _Lieder_. (5) Serial + church music: three volumes, containing _Lessons from the Book of Job_ + (two settings). _Passion according to St Matthew_ (i.e. like the + Passions of Victoria and Soriano, a setting of the words of the crowds + and of the disciples); _Lamentations_ of Jeremiah; _Morning Lessons_; + the _Officia_ printed in the third volume of the _Patroncinium_ (a + publication suggested and supported by Orlando's patrons and + containing eight entire volumes of his works); the Seven Penitential + Psalms; German Psalms and _Prophetiae Sibyllarum_, (6) one hundred + _Magnificats_ (_Jubilus B. M. Virginis_) 3 vols., (7) eight volumes of + Masses, (8) two volumes of Latin songs not in the _Magnum opus_, (9) + five volumes of unpublished works. (D. F. T.) + + + + +LASSO (Span. _lazo_, snare, ultimately from Lat. _laqueus_, cf. "lace"), +a rope 60 to 100 ft. in length with a slip-noose at one end, used in the +Spanish and Portuguese parts of America and in the western United States +for catching wild horses and cattle. It is now less employed in South +America than in the vast grazing country west of the Mississippi river, +where the herders, called locally cow-boys or cow-punchers, are provided +with it. When not in use, the lasso, called _rope_ in the West, is +coiled at the right of the saddle in front of the rider. When an animal +is to be caught the herder, galloping after it, swings the coiled lasso +round his head and casts it straight forward in such a manner that the +noose settles over the head or round the legs of the quarry, when it is +speedily brought into submission. A shorter rope called _lariat_ (Span. +_la reata_) is used to picket horses. + + + + +LAST. 1. (A syncopated form of "latest," the superlative of O.E. _laét_, +late), an adjective applied to the conclusion of anything, all that +remains after everything else has gone, or that which has just occurred. +In theology the "four last things" denote the final scenes of Death, +Judgment, Heaven and Hell; the "last day" means the Day of Judgment (see +ESCHATOLOGY). + +2. (O.E. _lást_, footstep; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, +meaning foot, footstep, track, &c.; it is usually referred to a Teutonic +root _lais_, cognate with Lat. _lira_, a furrow; from this root, used +figuratively, came "learn" and "lore"), originally a footstep, trace or +track, now only used of the model of a foot in wood on which a shoemaker +makes boots and shoes; hence the proverb "let the cobbler stick to his +last," "_ne sutor ultra crepidam_." + +3. (O.E. _hlaest_; the work is connected with the root seen in "lade," +and is used in German and Dutch of a weight; it is also seen in +"ballast"), a commercial weight or measure of quantity, varying +according to the commodity and locality; originally applied to the load +of goods carried by the boat or wagon used in carrying any particular +commodity in any particular locality, it is now chiefly used as a weight +for fish, a "last" of herrings being equal to from 10,000 to 12,000 +fish. The German _Last_ = 4000 lb, and this is frequently taken as the +nominal weight of an English "last." A "last" of wool = 12 sacks, and of +beer = 12 barrels. + + + + +LASUS, Greek lyric poet, of Hermione in Argolis, flourished about 510 +B.C. A member of the literary and artistic circle of the Peisistratidae, +he was the instructor of Pindar in music and poetry and the rival of +Simonides. The dithyramb (of which he was sometimes considered the +actual inventor) was developed by him, by the aid of various changes in +music and rhythm, into an artistically constructed choral song, with an +accompaniment of several flutes. It became more artificial and mimetic +in character, and its range of subjects was no longer confined to the +adventures of Dionysus. Lasus further increased its popularity by +introducing prize contests for the best poem of the kind. His +over-refinement is shown by his avoidance of the letter _sigma_ (on +account of its hissing sound) in several of his poems, of one of which +(a hymn to Demeter of Hermione) a few lines have been preserved in +Athenaeus (xiv. 624 E). Lasus was also the author of the first +theoretical treatise on music. + + See Suïdas s.v.; Aristophanes, _Wasps_, 1410, _Birds_, 1403 and + schol.; Plutarch, _De Musica_, xxix.; Müller and Donaldson, _Hist. of + Greek Literature_, i. 284; G. H. Bode, _Geschichte der hellenischen + Dichtkunst_, ii. pt. 2, p. 111; F. W. Schneidewin, _De Laso + Hermionensi Comment_. (Göttingen, 1842); Fragm. in Bergk, _Poet. Lyr._ + + + + +LAS VEGAS, a city and the county-seat of San Miguel county, New Mexico, +U.S.A., in the north central part of New Mexico, on the Gallinas river, +and 83 m. by rail E. of Santa Fé. Though usually designated as a single +municipality, Las Vegas consists of two distinct corporations, the old +town on the W. bank of the river and the city proper on the E. bank. +Pop. of the city (1890) 2385; (1900) 3552 (340 being foreign-born and +116 negroes); (1910) 3755. According to local estimates, the combined +population of the city and the old town in 1908 was 10,000. Las Vegas is +served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railway, and is its division +headquarters in New Mexico. The city lies in a valley at the foot of the +main range of the Rocky Mountains, and is about 6400 ft. above the sea. +There are high peaks to the W. and within a short distance of the city +much beautiful mountain scenery, especially along the "Scenic Route," a +highway from Las Vegas to Santa Fé, traversing the Las Vegas canyon and +the Pecos Valley forest reserve. The country E. of the city consists of +level plains. The small amount of rainfall, the great elevation and the +southern latitude give the region a dry and rarified air, and Las Vegas +is a noted health resort. Six miles distant, and connected with the city +by rail, are the Las Vegas Hot Springs. The old town on the W. bank of +the Gallinas river retains many features of a Mexican village, with low +adobe houses facing narrow and crooked streets. Its inhabitants are +largely of Spanish-American descent. The part on the E. bank or city +proper is thoroughly modern, with well-graded streets, many of them +bordered with trees. The most important public institutions are the New +Mexico insane asylum, the New Mexico normal university (chartered 1893, +opened 1898), the county court house (in the old town), the academy of +the Immaculate Conception, conducted by the Sisters of Loretto, Saint +Anthony's sanatorium, maintained by the Sisters of Charity, La Salle +institute, conducted by the Christian Brothers, a Presbyterian mission +school and a Methodist manual training and commercial school. There are +railway machine-shops, and various manufactories. Las Vegas lies in the +centre of an extensive grazing region, has large stockyards and annually +ships great quantities of wool. Three of the local newspapers are +published in Spanish. Las Vegas was founded in 1835, under the +government of the Mexican Republic. On the 15th of August 1846, during +the war between Mexico and the United States, Gen. Stephen W. Kearny +entered the town, and its alcalde took the oath of allegiance to the +United States. There was but little progress or development until the +arrival of the railway in 1879. In 1888 the part east of the river was +incorporated as a town under the name of East Las Vegas, and in 1896 it +was chartered as the city of Las Vegas. The old Las Vegas, west of the +river, was incorporated as a town in 1903. + + + + +LASWARI, one of the decisive battles of India. It was fought on the 1st +of November 1803 between the British under General Lake, and the +Mahratta troops of Sindia, consisting of the remnant of Perron's +battalions. Laswari is a village in the state of Alwar some 80 m. S. of +Delhi, and here Lake overtook the enemy and attacked them with his +cavalry before the infantry arrived. The result was indecisive, but when +the infantry came up there ensued one of the most evenly contested +battles ever fought between the British and the natives of India, which +ended in a complete victory for the British. + + + + +LATACUNGA (LLACTACUNGA, or, in local parlance, TACUNGA), a plateau town +of Ecuador, capital of the province of Léon, 46 m. S. of Quito, near the +confluence of the Alagues and Cutuchi to form the Patate, the headstream +of the Pastaza. Pop. (1900, estimate) 12,000, largely Indian. Latacunga +stands on the old road between Guayaquil and Quito and has a station on +the railway between those cities. It is 9141 ft. above sea-level; and +its climate is cold and unpleasant, owing to the winds from the +neighbouring snowclad heights, and the barren, pumice-covered table-land +on which it stands. Cotopaxi is only 25 m. distant, and the town has +suffered repeatedly from eruptions. Founded in 1534, it was four times +destroyed by earthquakes between 1698 and 1798. The neighbouring ruins +of an older native town are said to date from the Incas. + + + + +LA TAILLE, JEAN DE (c. 1540-1608), French poet and dramatist, was born +at Bondaroy. He studied the humanities in Paris under Muret, and law at +Orleans under Anne de Bourg. He began his career as a Huguenot, but +afterwards adopted a mild Catholicism. He was wounded at the battle of +Arnay-le Duc in 1570, and retired to his estate at Bondaroy, where he +wrote a political pamphlet entitled _Histoire abrégée des singeries de +la ligue_, often published with the _Satire Ménippée_. His chief poem is +a satire on the follies of court life, _Le Courtisan retiré_; he also +wrote a political poem, _Le Prince nécessaire_. But his fame rests on +his achievements in drama. In 1572 appeared the tragedy of _Saül le +furieux_, with a preface on _L' Art de la tragédie_. Like Jodelle, +Grévin, La Péruse and their followers, he wrote, not for the general +public to which the mysteries and farces had addressed themselves, but +for the limited audience of a lettered aristocracy. He therefore +depreciated the native drama and insisted on the Senecan model. In his +preface La Taille enunciates the unities of place, time and action; he +maintains that each act should have a unity of its own and that the +scenes composing it should be continuous; he objects to deaths on the +stage on the ground that the representation is unconvincing, and he +requires as subject of the tragedy an incident really terrible, +developed, if possible, by elaborate intrigue. He criticizes e.g. the +subject of the sacrifice of Abraham, chosen by Théodore de Bèze for his +tragedy (1551), as unsuitable because "pity and terror" are evoked from +the spectators without real cause. If in _Saül le furieux_ he did not +completely carry out his own convictions he developed his principal +character with great ability. A second tragedy, _La Famine ou les +Gabéonites_ (1573), is inferior in construction, but is redeemed by the +character of Rizpah. He was also the author of two comedies, _Le +Négromant_ and _Les Corrivaux_, both written apparently by 1562 but not +published until 1573. _Les Corrivaux_ is remarkable for its colloquial +prose dialogue, which foreshadows the excellence of later French comedy. + +His brother, JACQUES DE LA TAILLE (1542-1562), composed a number of +tragedies, of which _La Mort de Daire_ and _La Mort d'Alexandre_ (both +published in 1573) are the chief. He is best known by his _Manière de +faire des vers en français comme en grec et en latin_, an attempt to +regulate French verse by quantity. He died of plague at the age of 20. +His _Poésies diverses_ were published in 1572. + + The works of Jean de la Taille were edited by René de Maulde (4 vols., + 1878-1882). See also É. Faguet, _La Tragédie française au XVI^e + siècle_ (1883). + + + + +LATAKIA (anc. _Laodicea_), the chief town of a sanjak in the Beirut +vilayet of Syria, situated on the coast, opposite the island of Cyprus. +The oldest name of the town, according to Philo Herennius, was [Greek: +Ramitha] or [Greek: Leukè aktê] it received that of Laodicea (_ad mare_) +from Seleucus Nicator, who refounded it in honour of his mother as one +of the four "sister" cities of the Syrian Tetrapolis (Antioch, Seleucia, +Apamea, Laodicea). In the Roman period it was favoured by Caesar, and +took the name of Julia; and, though it suffered severely when the +fugitive Dolabella stood his last siege within its walls (43 B.C.), +Strabo describes it as a flourishing port, which supplied, from the +vineyards on the mountains, the greater part of the wine imported to +Alexandria. The town received the privileges of an Italian colony from +Severus, for taking his part against Antioch in the struggle with Niger. +Laodicea was the seat of an ancient bishopric, and even had some claim +to metropolitan rights. At the time of the crusades, "Liche," as Jacques +de Vitry says it was popularly called, was a wealthy city. It fell to +Tancred with Antioch in 1102, and was recovered by Saladin in 1188. A +Christian settlement was afterwards permitted to establish itself in the +town, and to protect itself by fortifications; but it was expelled by +Sultan Kala'un and the defences destroyed. By the 16th century Laodicea +had sunk very low; the revival in the beginning of the 17th was due to +the new trade in tobacco. The town has several times been almost +destroyed by earthquakes--in 1170, 1287 and 1822. + +The people are chiefly employed in tobacco cultivation, silk and oil +culture, poultry rearing and the sponge fishery. There is a large export +of eggs to Alexandria; but the wealth of the place depends most on the +famous "Latakia" tobacco, grown in the plain behind the town and on the +Ansarieh hills. There are three main varieties, of which the worst is +dark in colour and strong in flavour; the best, grown in the districts +of Diryus and Amamareh, is light and aromatic, and is exported mainly to +Alexandria; but much goes also to Constantinople, Cyprus and direct to +Europe. After the construction of a road through Jebel Ansarieh to +Hamah, Latakia drew a good deal of traffic from upper Syria; but the +Hamah-Homs railway has now diverted much of this again. The products of +the surrounding district, however, cause the town to increase steadily, +and it is a regular port of call for the main Levantine lines of +steamers. The only notable object of antiquity is a triumphal arch, +probably of the early 3rd century, in the S.E. quarter of the modern +town. Latakia and its neighbourhood formerly produced a very beautiful +type of rug, examples of which are highly prized. (D. G. H.) + + + + +LATEEN (the Anglicized form of Fr. _latine_, i.e. _voile latine_, Latin +sail, so-called as the chief form of rig in the Mediterranean), a +certain kind of triangular sail, having a long yard by which it is +suspended to the mast. A "lateener" is a vessel rigged with a lateen +sail and yard. This rig was formerly much used, and is still the typical +sail of the _felucca_ of the Mediterranean, and _dhow_ of the Arabian +Sea. + + + + +LA TÈNE (Lat. _tenuis_, shallow), the site of a lake-dwelling at the +north end of Lake Neuchâtel, between Marin and Préfargier. According to +some, it was originally a Helvetic _oppidum_; according to others, a +Gallic commercial settlement. R. Forrer distinguishes an older +semi-military, and a younger civilian settlement, the former a Gallic +customs station, the latter, which may be compared to the _canabae_ of +the Roman camps, containing the booths and taverns used by soldiers and +sailors. He also considers the older station to have been, not as +usually supposed, Helvetic, but pre- or proto-Helvetic, the character of +which changed with the advance of the Helvetii into Switzerland (c. +110-100 B.C.). La Tène has given its name to a period of culture (c. 500 +B.C.-A.D. 100), the phase of the Iron age succeeding the Hallstatt +phase, not as being its starting-point, but because the finds are the +best known of their kind. The latter are divided into early (c. 500-250 +B.C.), middle (250-100 B.C.) and late (100 B.C.-A.D. 100), and chiefly +belong to the middle period. They are mostly of iron, and consist of +swords, spear-heads, axes, scythes and knives, which exhibit a +remarkable agreement with the description of the weapons of the southern +Celts given by Diodorus Siculus. There are also brooches, bronze +kettles, torques, small bronze ear-rings with little glass pearls of +various colours, belt-hooks and pins for fastening articles of clothing. +The La Tène culture made its way through France across to England, where +it has received the name of "late Celtic"; a remarkable find has been +made at Aylesford in Kent. + + See F. Keller, _Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_, vi. (Eng. trans., + 1878); V. Gross, _La Tène un_ oppidum _helvète_ (1886); E. Vouga, _Les + Helvètes à La Tène_ (1886); P. Reinecke, _Zur Kenntnis der la Tène + Denkmäler der Zone nordwärts der Alpen_ (Mainzer Festschrift, 1902); + R. Forrer, _Reallexikon der prähistorischen ... Altertümer_ (1907), + where many illustrations are given. + + + + +LATERAN COUNCILS, the ecclesiastical councils or synods held at Rome in +the Lateran basilica which was dedicated to Christ under the title of +Salvator, and further called the basilica of Constantine or the church +of John the Baptist. Ranking as a papal cathedral, this became a +much-favoured place of assembly for ecclesiastical councils both in +antiquity (313, 487) and more especially during the middle ages. Among +these numerous synods the most prominent are those which the tradition +of the Roman Catholic church has classed as ecumenical councils. + +1. The first Lateran council (the ninth ecumenical) was opened by Pope +Calixtus II. on the 18th of March 1123; its primary object being to +confirm the concordat of Worms, and so close the conflict on the +question of investiture (q.v.). In addition to this, canons were enacted +against simony and the marriage of priests; while resolutions were +passed in favour of the crusaders, of pilgrims to Rome and in the +interests of the truce of God. More than three hundred bishops are +reported to have been present. + + For the resolutions see _Monumenta Germaniae_, Leges, iv., i. 574-576 + (1893); Mansi, _Collectio Conciliorum_, xxi. p. 281 sq.; Hefele, + _Conciliengeschichte_, v. 378-384 (ed. 2, 1886). + +2. The second Lateran, and tenth ecumenical, council was held by Pope +Innocent II. in April 1139, and was attended by close on a thousand +clerics. Its immediate task was to neutralize the after-effects of the +schism, which had only been terminated in the previous year by the death +of Anacletus II. (d. 25th January 1138). All consecrations received at +his hands were declared invalid, his adherents were deposed, and King +Roger of Sicily was excommunicated. Arnold of Brescia, too, was removed +from office and banished from Italy. + + Resolutions, ap. Mansi, op. cit. xxi., 525 sq.; Hefele, + _Conciliengeschichte_, v. 438-445 (ed. 2). + +3. At the third Lateran council (eleventh ecumenical), which met in +March 1179 under Pope Alexander III., the clergy present again numbered +about one thousand. The council formed a sequel to the peace of Venice +(1177), which marked the close of the struggle between the papacy and +the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa; its main object being to repair the +direct or indirect injuries which the schism had inflicted on the life +of the church and to display to Christendom the power of the see of +Rome. Among the enactments of the council, the most important concerned +the appointment to the papal throne (Canon 1), the electoral law of 1059 +being supplemented by a further provision declaring a two-thirds +majority to be requisite for the validity of the cardinals' choice. Of +the participation of the Roman clergy and populace, or of the imperial +ratification, there was no longer any question. Another resolution, of +importance for the history of the treatment of heresy, was the canon +which decreed that armed force should be employed against the Cathari in +southern France, that their goods were liable to confiscation and their +persons to enslavement by the princes, and that all who took up weapons +against them should receive a two years' remission of their penance and +be placed--like the crusaders--under the direct protection of the +church. + + Resolutions, _ap._ Mansi, _op. cit._ xxii. 212 sq.; Hefele, + _Conciliengeschichte_, v. 710-719 (ed. 2). + +4. The fourth Lateran council (twelfth ecumenical), convened by Pope +Innocent III. in 1215, was the most brilliant and the most numerously +attended of all, and marks the culminating point of a pontificate which +itself represents the zenith attained by the medieval papacy. Prelates +assembled from every country in Christendom, and with them the deputies +of numerous princes. The total included 412 bishops, with 800 priors and +abbots, besides the representatives of absent prelates and a number of +inferior clerics. The seventy decrees of the council begin with a +confession of faith directed against the Cathari and Waldenses, which is +significant if only for the mention of a transubstantiation of the +elements in the Lord's Supper. A series of resolutions provided in +detail for the organized suppression of heresy and for the institution +of the episcopal inquisition (Canon 3). On every Christian, of either +sex, arrived at years of discretion, the duty was imposed of confessing +at least once annually and of receiving the Eucharist at least at Easter +(Canon 21). Enactments were also passed touching procedure in the +ecclesiastical courts, the creation of new monastic orders, appointments +to offices in the church, marriage-law, conventual discipline, the +veneration of relics, pilgrimages and intercourse with Jews and +Saracens. Finally, a great crusade was resolved upon, to defray the +expenses of which it was determined that the clergy should lay aside +one-twentieth--the pope and the cardinals one-tenth--of their revenues +for the next three years; while the crusaders were to be held free of +all burdens during the period of their absence. + + Resolutions, _ap._ Mansi, _op. cit._ xxii. 953 sq.; Hefele, + _Conciliengeschichte_, v. 872-905 (ed. 2). See also INNOCENT III. + +5. The fifth Lateran council (eighteenth ecumenical) was convened by +Pope Julius II. and continued by Leo X. It met from the 3rd of May 1512 +to the 16th of March 1517, and was the last great council anterior to +the Reformation. The change in the government of the church, the rival +council of Pisa, the ecclesiastical and political dissensions within and +without the council, and the lack of disinterestedness on the part of +its members, all combined to frustrate the hopes which its convocation +had awakened. Its resolutions comprised the rejection of the pragmatic +sanction, the proclamation of the pope's superiority over the council, +and the renewal of the bull _Unam sanctam_ of Boniface VIII. The theory +that it is possible for a thing to be theologically true and +philosophically false, and the doctrine of the mortality of the human +soul, were both repudiated; while a three years' tithe on all church +property was set apart to provide funds for a war against the Turks. + + See Hardouin, _Coll. Conc._ ix. 1570 sq.; Hefele-Hergenröther, + _Conciliengeschichte_, viii. 454 sq.; (1887). Cf. bibliography under + LEO X. (C. M.) + + + + +LATERITE (Lat. _later_, a brick), in petrology, a red or brown +superficial deposit of clay or earth which gathers on the surface of +rocks and has been produced by their decomposition; it is very common in +tropical regions. In consistency it is generally soft and friable, but +hard masses, nodules and bands often occur in it. These are usually rich +in iron. The superficial layers of laterite deposits are often indurated +and smooth black or dark-brown crusts occur where the clays have long +been exposed to a dry atmosphere; in other cases the soft clays are full +of hard nodules, and in general the laterite is perforated by tubules, +sometimes with veins of different composition and appearance from the +main mass. The depth of the laterite beds varies up to 30 or 40 ft., the +deeper layers often being soft when the surface is hard or stony; the +transition to fresh, sound rock below may be very sudden. That laterite +is merely rotted crystalline rock is proved by its often preserving the +structures, veins and even the outlines of the minerals of the parent +mass below; the felspars and other components of granite gneiss having +evidently been converted _in situ_ into a soft argillaceous material. + +Laterite occurs in practically every tropical region of the earth, and +is very abundant in Ceylon, India, Burma, Central and West Africa, +Central America, &c. It is especially well developed where the +underlying rock is crystalline and felspathic (as granite gneiss, +syenite and diorite), but occurs also on basalts in the Deccan and in +other places, and is found even on mica schist, sandstone and quartzite, +though in such cases it tends to be more sandy than argillaceous. Many +varieties have been recognized. In India a calcareous laterite with +large concretionary blocks of carbonate of lime is called kankar +(kunkar), and has been much used in building bridges, &c., because it +serves as a hydraulic cement. In some districts (e.g. W. Indies) similar +types of laterite have been called "puzzuolana" and are also used as +mortar and cement. Kankar is also known and worked in British East +Africa. The clay called cabook in Ceylon is essentially a variety of +laterite. Common laterite contains very little lime, and it seems that +in districts which have an excessive rainfall that component may be +dissolved out by percolating water, while kankar, or calcareous +laterite, is formed in districts which have a smaller rainfall. In India +also a distinction is made between "high-level" and "low-level" +laterites. The former are found at all elevations up to 5000 ft. and +more, and are the products of the decomposition of rock _in situ_; they +are often fine-grained and sometimes have a very well-marked +concretionary structure. These laterites are subject to removal by +running water, and are thus carried to lower grounds forming transported +or "low-level" laterites. The finer particles tend to be carried away +into the rivers, while the sand is left behind and with it much of the +heavy iron oxides. In such situations the laterites are sandy and +ferruginous, with a smaller proportion of clay, and are not intimately +connected with the rocks on which they lie. On steep slopes laterite +also may creep or slip when soaked with rain, and if exposed in sections +on roadsides or river banks has a bedded appearance, the stratification +being parallel to the surface of the ground. + +Chemical and microscopical investigations show that laterite is not a +clay like those which are so familiar in temperate regions; it does not +consist of hydrous silicate of alumina, but is a mechanical mixture of +fine grains of quartz with minute scales of hydrates of alumina. The +latter are easily soluble in acid while clay is not, and after treating +laterite with acids the alumina and iron leave the silica as a residue +in the form of quartz. The alumina seems to be combined with variable +proportions of water, probably as the minerals hydrargillite, diaspore +and gibbsite, while the iron occurs as goethite, turgite, limonite, +haematite. As already remarked, there is a tendency for the superficial +layers to become hard, probably by a loss of the water contained in +these aluminous minerals. These chemical changes may be the cause of the +frequent concretionary structure and veining in the laterite. The great +abundance of alumina in some varieties of laterite is a consequence of +the removal of the fine particles of gibbsite, &c., from the quartz by +the action of gentle currents of water. We may also point out the +essential chemical similarity between laterite and the seams of bauxite +which occur, for example, in the north of Ireland as reddish clays +between flows of Tertiary basalt. The bauxite is rich in alumina +combined with water, and is used as an ore of aluminium. It is often +very ferruginous. Similar deposits occur at Vogelsberg in Germany, and +we may infer that the bauxite beds are layers of laterite produced by +sub-aerial decomposition in the same manner as the thick laterite +deposits which are now in course of formation in the plateau basalts of +the Deccan in India. + + The conditions under which laterite are formed include, first, a high + seasonal temperature, for it occurs only in tropical districts and in + plains or mountains up to about 5000 ft. in height; secondly, a heavy + rainfall, with well-marked alternation of wet and dry seasons (in arid + countries laterite is seldom seen, and where the rainfall is moderate + the laterite is often calcareous); third, the presence of rocks + containing aluminous minerals such as felspar, augite, hornblende and + mica. On pure limestones such as coral rocks and on quartzites + laterite deposits do not originate except where the material has been + transported. + + Many hypotheses have been advanced to account for the essential + difference between lateritization and the weathering processes + exhibited by rocks in temperate and arctic climates. In the tropics + the rank growth of vegetation produces large amounts of humus and + carbonic acid which greatly promote rock decomposition; igneous and + crystalline rocks of all kinds are deeply covered under rich dark + soils, so that in tropical forests the underlying rocks are rarely to + be seen. In the warm soil nitrification proceeds rapidly and bacteria + of many kinds flourish. It has also been argued that the frequent + thunderstorms produce much nitric acid in the atmosphere and that this + may be a cause of lateritization, but it is certainly not a necessary + factor, as beds of laterite occur in oceanic islands lying in regions + of the ocean where lightning is rarely seen. Sir Thomas Holland has + brought forward the suggestion that the development of laterite may + depend on the presence in the soil of bacteria which are able to + decompose silicate of alumina into quartz and hydrates of alumina. The + restricted distribution of laterite deposits might then be due to the + inhibiting effect of low temperatures on the reproduction of these + organisms. This very ingenious hypothesis has not yet received the + experimental confirmation which seems necessary before it can be + regarded as established. Malcolm Maclaren, rejecting the bacterial + theory, directs special attention to the alternate saturation of the + soil with rain water in the wet season and desiccation in the + subsequent drought. The laterite beds are porous, in fact they are + traversed by innumerable tubules which are often lined with deposits + of iron oxide and aluminous minerals. We may be certain that, as in + all soils during dry weather, there is an ascent of water by capillary + action towards the surface, where it is gradually dissipated by + evaporation. The soil water brings with it mineral matter in solution, + which is deposited in the upper part of the beds. If the alumina be at + one time in a soluble condition it will be drawn upwards and + concentrated near the surface. This process explains many + peculiarities of laterites, such as their porous and slaggy structure, + which is often so marked that they have been mistaken for slaggy + volcanic rocks. The concretionary structure is undoubtedly due to + chemical rearrangements, among which the escape of water is probably + one of the most important; and many writers have recognized that the + hard ferruginous crust, like the induration which many soft laterites + undergo when dug up and exposed to the air, is the result of + desiccation and exposure to the hot sun of tropical countries. The + brecciated structure which many laterites show may be produced by + great expansion of the mass consequent on absorption of water after + heavy rains, followed by contraction during the subsequent dry season. + + Laterites are not of much economic use. They usually form a poor soil, + full of hard concretionary lumps and very unfertile because the potash + and phosphates have been removed in solution, while only alumina, iron + and silica are left behind. They are used as clays for puddling, for + making tiles, and as a mortar in rough work. Kankar has filled an + important part as a cement in many large engineering works in India. + Where the iron concretions have been washed out by rains or by + artificial treatment (often in the form of small shot-like pellets) + they serve as an iron ore in parts of India and Africa. Attempts are + being made to utilize laterite as an ore of aluminium, a purpose for + which some varieties seem well adapted. There are also deposits of + manganese associated with some laterites in India which may ultimately + be valuable as mineral ores. (J. S. F.) + + + + +LATH (O. Eng. _laett_, Mid. Eng. _lappe_, a form possibly due to the +Welsh _llath_; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch +_lat_, Ger. _Latte_, and has passed into Romanic, cf. Ital. _latta_, Fr. +_latte_), a thin flat strip of wood or other material used in building +to form a base or groundwork for plaster, or for tiles, slates or other +covering for roofs. Such strips of wood are employed to form +lattice-work, or for the bars of venetian blinds or shutters. A +"lattice" (O. Fr. _lattis_) is an interlaced structure of laths fastened +together so as to form a screen with diamond-shaped or square +interstices. Such a screen was used, as it still is in the East, as a +shutter for a window admitting air rather than light; it was hence used +of the window closed by such a screen. In modern usage the term is +applied to a window with diamond-shaped panes set in lead-work. A window +with a lattice painted red was formerly a common inn-sign (cf. +Shakespeare, _2 Hen. IV._ ii. 2. 86); frequently the window was +dispensed with, and the sign remained painted on a board. + + + + +LATHE. (1) A mechanical appliance in which material is held and rotated +against a tool for cutting, scraping, polishing or other purpose (see +TOOLS). This word is of obscure origin. It may be a modified form of +"lath," for in an early form of lathe the rotation is given by a treadle +or spring lath attached to the ceiling. The _New English Dictionary_ +points out a possible source of the word in Dan. _lad_, meaning +apparently a supporting framework, found in the name of the +turning-lathe, _drejelad_, and also in _savelad_, saw-bench, +_vaeverlad_, loom, &c. (2) One of five, formerly six, districts +containing three or more hundreds, into which the county of Kent was +divided. Though the division survives, it no longer serves any +administrative purpose. It was formerly a judicial division, the court +of the lathe being superior to that of the hundred. In this it differs +from the rape (q.v.) of Sussex, which was a geographical rather than an +administrative division. In O. Eng. the word was _laéð_, the origin of +which is doubtful. The _New English Dictionary_ considers it almost +certainly identical with O. Norse _lad_, landed possessions, territory, +with a possible association in meaning with such words as _leið_, court, +_mótlaeaða_, attendance at a meeting or moot, or with Mod. Dan. _laegd_, +a division of the country for military purposes. + + + + +LATHROP, FRANCIS (1849-1909), American artist, was born at sea, near the +Hawaiian Islands, on the 22nd of June 1849, being the great-grandson of +Samuel Holden Parsons, and the son of George Alfred Lathrop (1819-1877), +who for some time was United States consul at Honolulu. He was a pupil +of T. C. Farrar (1838-1891) in New York, and studied at the Royal +academy of Dresden. In 1870-1873 he was in England, studying under Ford +Madox Brown and Burne-Jones, and working in the school of William +Morris, where he devoted particular attention to stained glass. +Returning to America in 1873, he became known as an illustrator, painted +portraits, designed stained glass, and subsequently confined himself to +decorative work. He designed the chancel of Trinity church, Boston, and +decorated the interior of Bowdoin college chapel, at Brunswick, Maine, +and several churches in New York. The Marquand memorial window, +Princeton chapel, is an example of his work in stained glass. His latest +work was a series of medallions for the building of the +Hispanic-American society in New York. He was one of the charter members +of the Society of American Artists, and became an associate of the +National Academy of Design, New York, of which also William L. Lathrop +(b. 1859) an artist who is to be distinguished from him, became a member +in 1907. He died at Woodcliff, New Jersey, on the 18th of October 1909. + +His younger brother, GEORGE PARSONA LATHROP (1851-1898), born near +Honolulu on the 25th of August 1851, took up literature as a profession. +He was an assistant editor of the _Atlantic Monthly_ in 1875-1877, and +editor of the Boston _Courier_ in 1877-1879. He was one of the founders +(1883) of the American copyright league, was prominent in the movement +for Roman Catholic summer schools, and wrote several novels, some verse +and critical essays. He was the author of _A Study of Nathaniel +Hawthorne_ (1876), and edited the standard edition (Boston, 1883) of +Hawthorne's works. In 1871 he married in London the second daughter of +Nathaniel Hawthorne--Rose Hawthorne Lathrop (b. 1851). After his death +Mrs Lathrop devoted herself entirely to charity. She was instrumental in +establishing (1896) and subsequently conducted St Rose's free home for +cancer in New York City. In 1900 she joined the Dominican order, taking +the name of Mother Mary Alphonsa and becoming superioress of the +Dominican community of the third order; and she established in 1901 and +subsequently conducted this order's Rosary Hill home (for cancerous +patients) at Hawthorne, N.Y. She published a volume of poems (1888); +_Memories of Hawthorne_ (1897); and, with her husband, _A Story of +Courage: Annals of the Georgetown Convent of the Visitation of the +Blessed Virgin Mary_ (1894). + + + + +LATIMER, HUGH (c. 1490-1555), English bishop, and one of the chief +promoters of the Reformation in England, was born at Thurcaston, +Leicestershire. He was the son of a yeoman, who rented a farm "of three +or four pounds by year at the uttermost." Of this farm he "tilled as +much as kept half a dozen men," retaining also grass for a hundred sheep +and thirty cattle. The year of Latimer's birth is not definitely known. +In the _Life_ by Gilpin it is given as 1470, a palpable error, and +possibly a misprint for 1490.[1] Foxe states that at "the age of +fourteen years he was sent to the university of Cambridge," and as he +was elected fellow of Clare in 1509, his year of entrance was in all +likelihood 1505. Latimer himself also, in mentioning his conversion from +Romanism about 1523, says that it took place after he was thirty years +of age. According to Foxe, Latimer went to school "at the age of four or +thereabout." The purpose of his parents was to train him up "in the +knowledge of all good literature," but his father "was as diligent to +teach him to shoot as any other thing." As the yeomen of England were +then in comparatively easy circumstances, the practice of sending their +sons to the universities was quite usual; indeed Latimer mentions that +in the reign of Edward VI., on account of the increase of rents, the +universities had begun wonderfully to decay. He graduated B.A. in 1510 +and M.A. in 1514. Before the latter date he had taken holy orders. While +a student he was not unaccustomed "to make good cheer and be merry," but +at the same time he was a punctilious observer of the minutest rites of +his faith and "as obstinate a Papist as any in England." So keen was his +opposition to the new learning that his oration on the occasion of +taking his degree of bachelor of divinity was devoted to an attack on +the opinions of Melanchthon. It was this sermon that determined his +friend Thomas Bilney to go to Latimer's study, and ask him "for God's +sake to hear his confession," the result being that "from that time +forward he began to smell the word of God, and forsook the school +doctors and such fooleries." Soon his discourses exercised a potent +influence on learned and unlearned alike; and, although he restricted +himself, as indeed was principally his custom through life, to the +inculcation of practical righteousness, and the censure of clamant +abuses, a rumour of his heretical tendencies reached the bishop of Ely, +who resolved to become unexpectedly one of his audience. Latimer, on +seeing him enter the church, boldly changed his theme to a portrayal of +Christ as the pattern priest and bishop. The points of comparison were, +of course, deeply distasteful to the prelate, who, though he professed +his "obligations for the good admonition he had received," informed the +preacher that he "smelt somewhat of the pan." Latimer was prohibited +from preaching in the university or in any pulpits of the diocese, and +on his occupying the pulpit of the Augustinian monastery, which enjoyed +immunity from episcopal control, he was summoned to answer for his +opinions before Wolsey, who, however, was so sensible of the value of +such discourses that he gave him special licence to preach throughout +England. + +At this time Protestant opinions were being disseminated in England +chiefly by the surreptitious circulation of the works of Wycliffe, and +especially of his translations of the New Testament. The new leaven had +begun to communicate its subtle influence to the universities, but was +working chiefly in secret and even to a great extent unconsciously to +those affected by it, for many were in profound ignorance of the +ultimate tendency of their own opinions. This was perhaps, as regards +England, the most critical conjuncture in the history of the +Reformation, both on this account and on account of the position in +which Henry VIII. then stood related to it. In no small degree its +ultimate fate seemed also to be placed in the hands of Latimer. In 1526 +the imprudent zeal of Robert Barnes had resulted in an ignominious +recantation, and in 1527 Bilney, Latimer's most trusted coadjutor, +incurred the displeasure of Wolsey, and did humiliating penance for his +offences. Latimer, however, besides possessing sagacity, quick insight +into character, and a ready and formidable wit which thoroughly +disconcerted and confused his opponents, had naturally a distaste for +mere theological discussion, and the truths he was in the habit of +inculcating could scarcely be controverted, although, as he stated them, +they were diametrically contradictory of prevailing errors both in +doctrine and practice. In December 1529 he preached his two "sermons on +the cards," which awakened a turbulent controversy in the university, +and his opponents, finding that they were unable to cope with the +dexterity and keenness of his satire, would undoubtedly have succeeded +in getting him silenced by force, had it not been reported to the king +that Latimer "favoured his cause," that is, the cause of the divorce. +While, therefore, both parties were imperatively commanded to refrain +from further dispute, Latimer was invited to preach before Henry in the +Lent of 1530. The king was so pleased with the sermon that after it "he +did most familiarly talk with him in a gallery." Of the special regard +which Henry seemed to have conceived for him Latimer took advantage to +pen the famous letter on the free circulation of the Bible, an address +remarkable, not only for what Froude justly calls "its almost unexampled +grandeur," but for its striking repudiation of the aid of temporal +weapons to defend the faith, "for God," he says, "will not have it +defended by man or man's power, but by His Word only, by which He hath +evermore defended it, and that by a way far above man's power and +reason." Though the appeal was without effect on the immediate policy of +Henry, he could not have been displeased with its tone, for shortly +afterwards he appointed Latimer one of the royal chaplains. In times so +"out of joint" Latimer soon became "weary of the court," and it was with +a sense of relief that he accepted the living of West Kington, or West +Kineton, Wiltshire, conferred on him by the king in 1531. Harassed by +severe bodily ailments, encompassed by a raging tumult of religious +conflict and persecution, and aware that the faint hopes of better times +which seemed to gild the horizon of the future might be utterly darkened +by a failure either in the constancy of his courage or in his +discernment and discretion, he exerted his eloquence with unabating +energy in the furtherance of the cause he had at heart. At last a sermon +he was persuaded to preach in London exasperated John Stokesley, bishop +of the diocese, and seemed to furnish that fervent persecutor with an +opportunity to overthrow the most dangerous champion of the new +opinions. Bilney, of whom Latimer wrote, "if such as he shall die evil, +what shall become of me?" perished at the stake in the autumn of 1531, +and in January following Latimer was summoned to answer before the +bishops in the consistory. After a tedious and captious examination, he +was in March brought before convocation, and, on refusing to subscribe +certain articles, was excommunicated and imprisoned; but through the +interference of the king he was finally released after he had +voluntarily signified his acceptance of all the articles except two, and +confessed that he had erred not only "in discretion but in doctrine." If +in this confession he to some extent tampered with his conscience, there +is every reason to believe that his culpable timidity was occasioned, +not by personal fear, but by anxiety lest by his death he should hinder +instead of promoting the cause of truth. After the consecration of +Cranmer to the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1533 Latimer's position +was completely altered. A commission appointed to inquire into the +disturbances caused by his preaching in Bristol severely censured the +conduct of his opponents; and, when the bishop prohibited him from +preaching in his diocese, he obtained from Cranmer a special licence to +preach throughout the province of Canterbury. In 1534 Henry formally +repudiated the authority of the pope, and from this time Latimer was the +chief co-operator with Cranmer and Cromwell in advising the king +regarding the series of legislative measures which rendered that +repudiation complete and irrevocable. + +It was, however, the preaching of Latimer more than the edicts of Henry +that established the principles of the Reformation in the minds and +hearts of the people; and from his preaching the movement received its +chief colour and complexion. The sermons of Latimer possess a +combination of qualities which constitute them unique examples of that +species of literature. It is possible to learn from them more regarding +the social and political condition of the period than perhaps from any +other source, for they abound, not only in exposures of religious +abuses, and of the prevailing corruptions of society, but in references +to many varieties of social injustice and unwise customs, in racy +sketches of character, and in vivid pictures of special features of the +time, occasionally illustrated by interesting incidents in his own life. +The homely terseness of his style, his abounding humour--rough, cheery +and playful, but irresistible in its simplicity, and occasionally +displaying sudden and dangerous barbs of satire--his avoidance of +dogmatic subtleties, his noble advocacy of practical righteousness, his +bold and open denunciation of the oppression practised by the powerful, +his scathing diatribes against ecclesiastical hypocrisy, the transparent +honesty of his fervent zeal, tempered by sagacious moderation--these are +the qualities which not only rendered his influence so paramount in his +lifetime, but have transmitted his memory to posterity as perhaps that +of the one among his contemporaries most worthy of our interest and +admiration. + +In September 1535 Latimer was consecrated bishop of Worcester. While +holding this office he was selected to officiate as preacher when the +friar, John Forest, whom he vainly endeavoured to move to submission, +was burned at the stake for denying the royal supremacy. In 1539, being +opposed to the "act of the six articles," Latimer resigned his +bishopric, learning from Cromwell that this was the wish of the king. It +would appear that on this point he was deceived, but as he now declined +to accept the articles he was confined within the precincts of the +palace of the bishop of Chichester. After the attainder of Cromwell +little is known of Latimer until 1546, when, on account of his connexion +with the preacher Edward Crome, he was summoned before the council at +Greenwich, and committed to the Tower of London. Henry died before his +final trial could take place, and the general pardon at the accession of +Edward VI. procured him his liberty. He declined to resume his see, +notwithstanding the special request of the Commons, but in January 1548 +again began to preach, and with more effectiveness than ever, crowds +thronging to listen to him both in London and in the country. Shortly +after the accession of Mary in 1553 a summons was sent to Latimer to +appear before the council at Westminster. Though he might have escaped +by flight, and though he knew, as he quaintly remarked, that "Smithfield +already groaned for him," he at once joyfully obeyed. The pursuivant, he +said, was "a welcome messenger." The hardships of his imprisonment, and +the long disputations at Oxford, told severely on his health, but he +endured all with unbroken cheerfulness. On the 16th of October 1555 he +and Ridley were led to the stake at Oxford. Never was man more free than +Latimer from the taint of fanaticism or less dominated by "vainglory," +but the motives which now inspired his courage not only placed him +beyond the influence of fear, but enabled him to taste in dying an +ineffable thrill of victorious achievement. Ridley he greeted with the +words, "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall +this day light such a candle by God's grace in England as (I trust) +shall never be put out." He "received the flame as it were embracing it. +After he had stroked his face with his hands, and (as it were) bathed +them a little in the fire, he soon died (as it appeared) with very +little pain or none." + + Two volumes of Latimer's sermons were published in 1549. A complete + edition of his works, edited by G. E. Corrie for the Parker Society, + appeared in two volumes (1844-1845). His _Sermon on the Ploughers_ and + _Seven Sermons preached before Edward VI._ were reprinted by E. Arber + (1869). The chief contemporary authorities for his life are his own + _Sermons_, John Stow's _Chronicle_ and Foxe's _Book of Martyrs_. In + addition to memoirs prefixed to editions of his sermons, there are + lives of Latimer by R. Demaus (1869, new and revised ed. 1881), and by + R. M. and A. J. Carlyle (1899). (T. F. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The only reasons for assigning an earlier date are that he was + commonly known as "old Hugh Latimer," and that Bernher, his Swiss + servant, states incidentally that he was "above threescore and seven + years" in the reign of Edward VI. Bad health and anxieties probably + made him look older than his years, but under Edward VI. his powers + as an orator were in full vigour, and he was at his book winter and + summer at two o'clock in the morning. + + + + +LATINA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading S.E. from Rome. It +was probably one of the oldest of Roman roads, leading to the pass of +Algidus, so important in the early military history of Rome; and it must +have preceded the Via Appia as a route to Campania, inasmuch as the +Latin colony at Cales was founded in 334 B.C. and must have been +accessible from Rome by road, whereas the Via Appia was only made +twenty-two years later. It follows, too, a far more natural line of +communication, without the engineering difficulties which the Via Appia +had to encounter. As a through route it no doubt preceded the Via +Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA), though the latter may have been preferred +in later times. After their junction, the Via Latina continued to follow +the valley of the Trerus (Sacco), following the line taken by the modern +railway to Naples, and passing below the Hernican hill-towns, Anagnia, +Ferentinum, Frusino, &c. At Fregellae it crossed the Liris, and then +passed through Aquinum and Casinum, both of them comparatively low-lying +towns. It then entered the interval between the Apennines and the +volcanic group of Rocca Monfina, and the original road, instead of +traversing it, turned abruptly N.E. over the mountains to Venafrum, thus +giving a direct communication with the interior of Samnium by roads to +Aesernia and Telesia. In later times, however, there was in all +probability a short cut by Rufrae along the line taken by the modern +highroad and railway. The two lines rejoined near the present railway +station of Caianello and the road ran to Teanum and Cales, and so to +Casilinum, where was the crossing of the Volturnus and the junction with +the Via Appia. The distance from Rome to Casilinum was 129 m. by the Via +Appia, 135 m. by the old Via Latina through Venafrum, 126 m. by the +short cut by Rufrae. Considerable remains of the road exist in the +neighbourhood of Rome; for the first 40 m., as far as Compitum +Anagninum, it is not followed by any modern road; while farther on in +its course it is in the main identical with the modern highroad. + + See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_ iv. 1 sq., v. 1 + sq. (T. As.) + + + + +LATINI, BRUNETTO (c. 1210-c. 1294), Italian philosopher and scholar, was +born in Florence, and belonged to the Guelph party. After the disaster +of Montaperti he took refuge for some years (1261-1268) in France, but +in 1269 returned to Tuscany and for some twenty years held successive +high offices. Giovanni Villani says that "he was a great philosopher and +a consummate master of rhetoric, not only in knowing how to speak well, +but how to write well.... He both began and directed the growth of the +Florentines, both in making them ready in speaking well and in knowing +how to guide and direct our republic according to the rules of +politics." He was the author of various works in prose and verse. While +in France he wrote in French his prose _Trésor_, a summary of the +encyclopaedic knowledge of the day (translated into Italian as _Tesoro_ +by Bono Giamboni in the 13th century), and in Italian his poem +_Tesoretto_, rhymed couplets in heptasyllabic metre, a sort of +abridgment put in allegorical form, the earliest Italian didactic verse. +He is famous as the friend and counsellor of Dante (see _Inferno_, xv. +82-87). + + For the _Trésor_ see P. Chabville's edition (1863); for the _Tesoro_, + Gaiter's edition (1878); for the _Tesoretto_, B. Wiese's study in + _Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie_, vii. See also the + biographical and critical accounts of Brunetto Latini by Thoe Sundby + (1884), and Marchesini (1887 and 1890). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 16, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41773 *** |