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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 10:26:47 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 10:26:47 -0800 |
| commit | 36377087722e665d71e3a10d4a11df6fda3f7cc3 (patch) | |
| tree | 51e27930f34828da7c3e908acbdbda0f9fdd64ed /41773-h | |
| parent | ced8662d99503534d1a286ca2cd87e39db358794 (diff) | |
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diff --git a/41773-h/41773-h.htm b/41773-h/41773-h.htm index 455e80b..b18fb13 100644 --- a/41773-h/41773-h.htm +++ b/41773-h/41773-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVI Slice II - Lamennais, Robert de to Latini, Brunetto. @@ -147,46 +147,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 2, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 2 - "Lamennais, Robert de" to "Latini, Brunetto" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: January 4, 2013 [EBook #41773] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41773 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -224,32 +185,32 @@ Lamennais, Robert de to Latini, Brunetto</h3> <p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> <table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">LAMENNAIS, HUGUES FÉLICITÉ ROBERT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">LAMENNAIS, HUGUES FÉLICITÉ ROBERT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">LAMENTATIONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">LANTERN</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THÉODORE VICTOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">LANTERN-FLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THÉODORE VICTOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">LANTERN-FLY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">LAMETTRIE, JULIEN OFFRAY DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">LANTERNS OF THE DEAD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">LAMIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">LANTHANUM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">LAMMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">LANUVIUM</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">LÄMMERGEYER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">LÄMMERGEYER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">LAMOIGNON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">LANZAROTE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">LAMONT, JOHANN VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">LANZI, LUIGI</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9a">LAMORICIÈRE, CHRISTOPHE LÉON LOUIS JUCHAULT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">LAOAG</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">LAOCOON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9a">LAMORICIÈRE, CHRISTOPHE LÉON LOUIS JUCHAULT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">LAOAG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">LAOCOON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">LA MOTTE, ANTOINE HOUDAR DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">LAODICEA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">LAMOUREUX, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">LAODICEA, SYNOD OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">LAMP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">LAOMEDON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">LAMP-BLACK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">LAON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">LAMPEDUSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">LAOS</a> (territory)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">LAMPERTHEIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">LAOS</a> (Thai race)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">LAMPETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">LÂO-TSZE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">LAMPETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">LÂO-TSZE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">LAMPOON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">LA PAZ</a> (department of Bolivia)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LAMPREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">LA PAZ</a> (capital of Bolivia)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LAMPROPHYRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">LA PÉROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE GALAUP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LAMPROPHYRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">LA PÉROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE GALAUP</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">LAMPSACUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">LAPIDARY, and GEM CUTTING</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">LAMPSTAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">LAPILLI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">LANARK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">LAPIS LAZULI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">LANARKSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">LAPITHAE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">LANCASHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">LA PLACE, JOSUÉ DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">LANCASHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">LA PLACE, JOSUÉ DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">LANCASTER, HOUSE OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">LANCASTER, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">LAPLAND</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">LANCASTER, SIR JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">LA PLATA</a></td></tr> @@ -275,11 +236,11 @@ Lamennais, Robert de to Latini, Brunetto</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LANDES</a> (department in France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">LARDNER, DIONYSIUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LANDES</a> (region of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">LARDNER, NATHANIEL</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LANDESHUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">LAREDO</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LANDGRAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">LA RÉOLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LANDGRAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">LA RÉOLE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">LANDLORD AND TENANT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">LARES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LANDON, CHARLES PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">LA RÉVELLIÈRE-LÉPEAUX, LOUIS MARIE DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">LARGENTIÈRE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">LARGILLIÈRE, NICOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LANDON, CHARLES PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">LA RÉVELLIÈRE-LÉPEAUX, LOUIS MARIE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">LARGENTIÈRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">LARGILLIÈRE, NICOLAS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">LANDOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">LARGS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">LAND REGISTRATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">LARGUS, SCRIBONIUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">LANDSBERG AM LECH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">LARINO</a></td></tr> @@ -293,29 +254,29 @@ Lamennais, Robert de to Latini, Brunetto</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">LANDSTURM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">LARNACA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">LANDWEHR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">LA ROCHE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">LANE, GEORGE MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">LANE, JAMES HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">LANE, GEORGE MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">LANE, JAMES HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">LA ROCHEJACQUELEIN, DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">LANFRANC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">LA ROCHELLE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">LANFREY, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">LA ROCHE-SUR-YON</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">LANG, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">LAROMIGUIÈRE, PIERRE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">LANG, KARL HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">LARRA, MARIANO JOSÉ DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">LANG, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">LAROMIGUIÈRE, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">LANG, KARL HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">LARRA, MARIANO JOSÉ DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">LANGDELL, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">LARSA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">LANGDON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">LARTET, EDOUARD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">LANGE, ANNE FRANÇOISE ELIZABETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">LARVAL FORMS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">LANGE, ANNE FRANÇOISE ELIZABETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">LARVAL FORMS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">LARYNGITIS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">LA SABLIÈRE, MARGUERITE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">LA SABLIÈRE, MARGUERITE DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">LANGE, JOHANN PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">LA SALE, ANTOINE DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">LANGEAIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">LASALLE, ANTOINE CHEVALIER LOUIS COLLINET</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">LANGEN, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT CAVELIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">LANGEN, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT CAVELIER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">LANGENBECK, BERNHARD RUDOLF KONRAD VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">LA SALLE, ST JEAN BAPTISTE DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">LANGENSALZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">LA SALLE</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">LANGHAM, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">LASAULX, ARNOLD CONSTANTIN PETER FRANZ VON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">LANGHOLM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">LASCAR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">LANGHORNE, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">LASCARIS, CONSTANTINE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">LANGIEWICZ, MARYAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">LASCARIS, JOANNES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">LANGLAND, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN DIEUDONNÉ MARIN JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">LANGLAND, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN DIEUDONNÉ MARIN JOSEPH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">LASHIO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">LANGPORT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">LASKER, EDUARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">LANGREO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">LASKI</a></td></tr> @@ -329,15 +290,15 @@ Lamennais, Robert de to Latini, Brunetto</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">LANGUEDOC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">LASUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">LANGUET, HUBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">LAS VEGAS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">LANGUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">LASWARI</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">LATACUNGA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">LATACUNGA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">LANIER, SIDNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">LA TAILLE, JEAN DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">LANJUINAIS, JEAN DENIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">LATAKIA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">LATEEN</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">LANNES, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">LA TÈNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">LANNES, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">LA TÈNE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">LANNION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">LATERAN COUNCILS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">LANNOY, GUILLEBERT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">LATERITE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">LANOLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">LATH</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">LATHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">LATHE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM PETTY FITZMAURICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">LATHROP, FRANCIS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">LANSDOWNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">LATIMER, HUGH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">LANSING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">LATINA, VIA</a></td></tr> @@ -347,7 +308,7 @@ Lamennais, Robert de to Latini, Brunetto</h3> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span></p> -<p><span class="bold">LAMENNAIS, HUGUES FÉLICITÉ ROBERT DE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1782-1854), +<p><span class="bold">LAMENNAIS, HUGUES FÉLICITÉ ROBERT DE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1782-1854), French priest, and philosophical and political writer, was born at Saint Malo, in Brittany, on the 19th of June 1782. He was the son of a shipowner of Saint Malo ennobled by Louis XVI. @@ -365,7 +326,7 @@ brother Jean Marie (1775-1861), partly as a result of his philosophical and historical studies, he felt belief to be indispensable to action and saw in religion the most powerful leaven of the community. He gave utterance to these convictions in the -<i>Réflexions sur l’état de l’église en France pendant le 18<span class="sp">ième</span> siècle +<i>Réflexions sur l’état de l’église en France pendant le 18<span class="sp">ième</span> siècle et sur sa situation actuelle</i>, published anonymously in Paris in 1808. Napoleon’s police seized the book as dangerously ideological, with its eager recommendation of religious revival and @@ -381,7 +342,7 @@ the tonsure and shortly afterwards became professor of mathematics in an ecclesiastical college founded by his brother at Saint Malo. Soon after Napoleon had concluded the Concordat with Pius VII. he published, in conjunction with his brother, <i>De la -tradition de l’église sur l’institution des évêques</i> (1814), a writing +tradition de l’église sur l’institution des évêques</i> (1814), a writing occasioned by the emperor’s nomination of Cardinal Maury to the archbishopric of Paris, in which he strongly condemned the Gallican principle which allowed bishops to be created @@ -390,7 +351,7 @@ Bourbon restoration in 1814, which he hailed with satisfaction, less as a monarchist than as a strenuous apostle of religious regeneration. Dreading the <i>Cent Jours</i>, he escaped to London, where he obtained a meagre livelihood by giving French lessons -in a school founded by the abbé Jules Carron for French émigrés; +in a school founded by the abbé Jules Carron for French émigrés; <span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span> he also became tutor at the house of Lady Jerningham, whose first impression of him as an imbecile changed into friendship. @@ -399,8 +360,8 @@ and in the following year, with many misgivings as to his calling, he yielded to his brother’s and Carron’s advice, and was ordained priest by the bishop of Rennes.</p> -<p>The first volume of his great work, <i>Essai sur l’indifférence -en matière de religion</i>, appeared in 1817 (Eng. trans. by Lord +<p>The first volume of his great work, <i>Essai sur l’indifférence +en matière de religion</i>, appeared in 1817 (Eng. trans. by Lord Stanley of Alderley, London, 1898), and affected Europe like a spell, investing, in the words of Lacordaire, a humble priest with all the authority once enjoyed by Bossuet. Lamennais @@ -421,26 +382,26 @@ formal approval of Leo XII. Lamennais visited Rome at the pope’s request, and was offered a place in the Sacred College, which he refused. On his return to France he took a prominent part in political work, and together with Chateaubriand, the -vicomte de Villèle, was a regular contributor to the <i>Conservateur</i>, -but when Villèle became the chief of the supporters of absolute +vicomte de Villèle, was a regular contributor to the <i>Conservateur</i>, +but when Villèle became the chief of the supporters of absolute monarchy, Lamennais withdrew his support and started two -rival organs, <i>Le Drapeau blanc</i> and <i>Le Mémorial catholique</i>. -Various other minor works, together with <i>De la religion considérée +rival organs, <i>Le Drapeau blanc</i> and <i>Le Mémorial catholique</i>. +Various other minor works, together with <i>De la religion considérée dans ses rapports avec l’ordre civil et politique</i> (2 vols., 1825-1826), kept his name before the public.</p> -<p>He retired to La Chênaie and gathered round him a host of +<p>He retired to La Chênaie and gathered round him a host of brilliant disciples, including C. de Montalembert, Lacordaire -and Maurice de Guérin, his object being to form an organized +and Maurice de Guérin, his object being to form an organized body of opinion to persuade the French clergy and laity to throw off the yoke of the state connexion. With Rome at his back, as he thought, he adopted a frank and bold attitude in denouncing the liberties of the Gallican church. His health broke down and he went to the Pyrenees to recruit. On his return to La -Chênaie in 1827 he had another dangerous illness, which powerfully +Chênaie in 1827 he had another dangerous illness, which powerfully impressed him with the thought that he had only been dragged back to life to be the instrument of Providence. <i>Les -Progrès de la révolution et de la guerre contre l’église</i> (1828) marked +Progrès de la révolution et de la guerre contre l’église</i> (1828) marked Lamennais’s complete renunciation of royalist principles, and henceforward he dreamt of the advent of a theocratic democracy. To give effect to these views he founded <i>L’Avenir</i>, the first number @@ -451,8 +412,8 @@ enlarged suffrage, universal freedom of conscience, freedom of instruction, of meeting, and of the press. Methods of worship were to be criticized, improved or abolished in absolute submission to the spiritual, not to the temporal authority. With -the help of Montalembert, he founded the <i>Agence générale pour -la défense de la liberté religieuse</i>, which became a far-reaching +the help of Montalembert, he founded the <i>Agence générale pour +la défense de la liberté religieuse</i>, which became a far-reaching organization, it had agents all over the land who noted any violations of religious freedom and reported them to headquarters. As a result, <i>L’Avenir’s</i> career was stormy, and the @@ -477,7 +438,7 @@ in 1832, he received the encyclical <i>Mirari vos</i>, condemning his policy; as a result <i>L’Avenir</i> ceased and the <i>Agence</i> was dissolved.</p> <p>Lamennais, with his two lieutenants, submitted, and deeply -wounded, retired to La Chênaie. His genius and prophetic +wounded, retired to La Chênaie. His genius and prophetic insight had turned the entire Catholic church against him, and those for whom he had fought so long were the fiercest of his opponents. The famous <i>Paroles d’un croyant</i>, published in 1834 @@ -493,10 +454,10 @@ as a whole, but the beautiful appeals to love and human brotherhood are still reprinted in every hand-book of French literature.</p> <p>Henceforth Lamennais was the apostle of the people alone. -<i>Les Affaires de Rome, des maux de l’église et de la société</i> (1837) +<i>Les Affaires de Rome, des maux de l’église et de la société</i> (1837) came from old habit of religious discussions rather than from his real mind of 1837, or at most it was but a last word. <i>Le Livre -du peuple</i> (1837), <i>De l’esclavage moderne</i> (1839), <i>Politique à +du peuple</i> (1837), <i>De l’esclavage moderne</i> (1839), <i>Politique à l’usage du peuple</i> (1839), three volumes of articles from the journal of the extreme democracy, <i>Le Monde</i>, are titles of works which show that he had arrived among the missionaries of @@ -506,21 +467,21 @@ year’s imprisonment. He struggled through difficulties of lost friendships, limited means and personal illnesses, faithful to the last to his hardly won dogma of the sovereignty of the people, and, to judge by his contribution to Louis Blanc’s <i>Revue du -progrès</i> was ready for something like communism. He was -named president of the “Société de la solidarité républicaine,” +progrès</i> was ready for something like communism. He was +named president of the “Société de la solidarité républicaine,” which counted half a million adherents in fifteen days. The Revolution of 1848 had his sympathies, and he started <i>Le Peuple constituant</i>; however, he was compelled to stop it on the 10th of July, complaining that silence was for the poor, -but again he was at the head of <i>La Révolution démocratique +but again he was at the head of <i>La Révolution démocratique et sociale</i>, which also succumbed. In the constituent assembly -he sat on the left till the <i>coupe d’état</i> of Napoleon III. in 1851 +he sat on the left till the <i>coupe d’état</i> of Napoleon III. in 1851 put an end to all hopes of popular freedom. While deputy he drew up a constitution, but it was rejected as too radical. Thereafter a translation of Dante chiefly occupied him till his death, which took place in Paris on the 27th of February 1854. He refused to be reconciled to the church, and was buried according -to his own directions at Père La Chaise without funeral rites, +to his own directions at Père La Chaise without funeral rites, being mourned by a countless concourse of democratic and literary admirers.</p> @@ -536,13 +497,13 @@ temple, stands pre-eminent, and remains the best evidence of his thinking power and brilliant style.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>There are two so-called <i>Œuvres complètes de Lamennais</i>, the first in +<p>There are two so-called <i>Œuvres complètes de Lamennais</i>, the first in 10 volumes (Paris, 1836-1837), and the other in 10 volumes (Paris, 1844); both these are very incomplete and only contain the works mentioned above. The most noteworthy of his writings subsequently published are: <i>Amschaspands et Darvands</i> (1843), <i>Le Deuil -de la Pologne</i> (1846), <i>Mélanges philosophiques et politiques</i> (1856), -<i>Les Évangiles</i> (1846) and <i>La Divine Comédie</i>, these latter being translations +de la Pologne</i> (1846), <i>Mélanges philosophiques et politiques</i> (1856), +<i>Les Évangiles</i> (1846) and <i>La Divine Comédie</i>, these latter being translations of the Gospels and of Dante.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span></p> @@ -550,30 +511,30 @@ of the Gospels and of Dante.</p> <p>Part of his voluminous correspondence has also appeared. The most interesting volumes are the following: <i>Correspondance de F. de Lamennais</i>, edited by E. D. Forgues (2 vols., 1855-1858); <i>Œuvres -inédites de F. Lamennais</i>, edited by Ange Blaize (2 vols., 1866); -<i>Correspondance inédite entre Lamennais et le baron de Vitrolles</i>, edited +inédites de F. Lamennais</i>, edited by Ange Blaize (2 vols., 1866); +<i>Correspondance inédite entre Lamennais et le baron de Vitrolles</i>, edited by E. D. Forgues (1819-1853); <i>Confidences de Lamennais, lettres -inédites de 1821 à 1848</i>, edited by A. du Bois de la Villerabel (1886); -<i>Lamennais d’après des documents inédits</i>, by Alfred Roussel (Rennes, -2 vols., 1892); <i>Lamennais intime, d’après une correspondance inédite</i>, +inédites de 1821 à 1848</i>, edited by A. du Bois de la Villerabel (1886); +<i>Lamennais d’après des documents inédits</i>, by Alfred Roussel (Rennes, +2 vols., 1892); <i>Lamennais intime, d’après une correspondance inédite</i>, by A. Roussel (Rennes, 1897); <i>Un Lamennais inconnu</i>, edited by A. -Laveille (1898); <i>Lettres de Lamennais à Montalembert</i>, edited by +Laveille (1898); <i>Lettres de Lamennais à Montalembert</i>, edited by E. D. Forgues (1898); and many other letters published in the <i>Revue bleue</i>, <i>Revue britannique</i>, &c.</p> <p>A list of lives or studies on Lamennais would fill several columns. The following may be mentioned. A Blaize, <i>Essai biographique sur M. de Lamennais</i> (1858); E. D. Forgues, <i>Notes et souvenirs</i> (1859); -F. Brunetière, <i>Nouveaux essais sur la littérature contemporaine</i> (1893); +F. Brunetière, <i>Nouveaux essais sur la littérature contemporaine</i> (1893); E. Faguet, <i>Politiques et moralistes</i>, ii. (1898); P. Janet, <i>La Philosophie -de Lamennais</i> (1890); P. Mercier, S.J., <i>Lamennais d’après sa -correspondance et les travaux les plus récents</i> (1893); A. Mollien et -F. Duine, <i>Lamennais, sa vie et ses idées</i>; <i>Pages choisies</i> (Lyons, -1898); The Hon. W. Gibson, <i>The Abbé de Lammenais and the Liberal +de Lamennais</i> (1890); P. Mercier, S.J., <i>Lamennais d’après sa +correspondance et les travaux les plus récents</i> (1893); A. Mollien et +F. Duine, <i>Lamennais, sa vie et ses idées</i>; <i>Pages choisies</i> (Lyons, +1898); The Hon. W. Gibson, <i>The Abbé de Lammenais and the Liberal Catholic Movement in France</i> (London, 1896); E. Renan <i>Essais de -morale et de critique</i> (1857); E. Schérer, <i>Mélanges de critique religieuse</i> -(1859); G. E. Spuller, <i>Lamennais, étude d’histoire et de politique -religieuse</i> (1892); Mgr. Ricard, <i>L’école menaisienne</i> (1882), and +morale et de critique</i> (1857); E. Schérer, <i>Mélanges de critique religieuse</i> +(1859); G. E. Spuller, <i>Lamennais, étude d’histoire et de politique +religieuse</i> (1892); Mgr. Ricard, <i>L’école menaisienne</i> (1882), and Sainte-Beuve, <i>Portraits contemporains</i>, tome i. (1832), and <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i>, tome i. p. 22; tome xi. p. 347.</p> </div> @@ -585,7 +546,7 @@ Old Testament. In Hebrew MSS. and editions this little collection of liturgical poems is entitled <span title="eiha">איכה</span> <i>Ah how!</i>, the first word of ch. i. (and chs. ii., iv.); cf. the books of the Pentateuch, and the Babylonian Epic of Creation (a far older example). -In the Septuagint it is called <span class="grk" title="Thrênoi">Θρῆνοι</span>, “Funeral-songs” or +In the Septuagint it is called <span class="grk" title="Thrênoi">Θρῆνοι</span>, “Funeral-songs” or “Dirges,” the usual rendering of Heb. <span title="kinot">קינות</span> (Am. v. 1; Jer. vii. 29; 2 Sam. i. 17), which is, in fact, the name in the Talmud (<i>Baba Bathra</i> 15<i>a</i>) and other Jewish writings; and it was known @@ -614,10 +575,10 @@ a peculiar metre, the so-called “limping verse,” of which Am. v. 2 is a good instance:</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“She is fállen, to ríse no móre—</p> - <p class="i3">Maid Iśraël!</p> -<p class="i05">Left lórn upón her lánd—</p> - <p class="i3">none raísing hér!”</p> +<p>“She is fállen, to rÃse no móre—</p> + <p class="i3">Maid Iśraël!</p> +<p class="i05">Left lórn upón her lánd—</p> + <p class="i3">none raÃsing hér!”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">A longer line, with three accented syllables, is followed by a @@ -633,21 +594,21 @@ of the same class, or a diphthongal pronunciation of others, or contraction or silence of certain suffixes as in Syriac. The oldest elegiac utterances are not couched in this metre; <i>e.g.</i> David’s (2 Sam. iii. 33 f. Abner; <i>ib.</i> i. 19-27 Saul and Jonathan). Yet the -refrain of the latter, ’<i>Eik náf ’lu gíbborím</i>, “Ah how are heroes +refrain of the latter, ’<i>Eik náf ’lu gÃbborÃm</i>, “Ah how are heroes fallen!” agrees with our longer line. The remote ancestor of this Hebrew metre may be recognized in the Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh, written at least a thousand years earlier:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p class="i3"><i>Ea-báni íbri kuṭáni</i> | <i>Nímru sha çéri</i></p> +<p class="i3"><i>Ea-báni Ãbri kuṭáni</i> | <i>NÃmru sha çéri</i></p> <p>“Eabani, my friend, my little brother! | Leopard of the Wild!”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">and again:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p class="i3"><i>Kíki lúskut</i> | <i>Kíki luqúl-ma</i></p> -<p class="i3"><i>Íbri shá arámmu</i> | <i>Itémi ṭiṭṭish</i></p> +<p class="i3"><i>KÃki lúskut</i> | <i>KÃki luqúl-ma</i></p> +<p class="i3"><i>Ãbri shá arámmu</i> | <i>Itémi ṭiṭṭish</i></p> <p>“How shall I be dumb? | How shall I bewail?</p> <p class="i05">The friend whom I love | Is turned to clay!”</p> @@ -764,11 +725,11 @@ is urged to cry to the Lord in protest against His pitiless work <div class="condensed"> <p>Here too emendation is necessary. Verse 4a: <span title="hetziv hatzev">הציב הצו</span>, “He -fixed His arrow,” sc. on the string (Septuagint, <span class="grk" title="estereôsen">ἐστερέωσεν</span>); +fixed His arrow,” sc. on the string (Septuagint, <span class="grk" title="estereôsen">ἐστερέωσεν</span>); cf. Psalm xi. 2. Add at the end <span title="kila (et) apo">כלה (את) אפו</span>, “He spent His anger:” see iv. 11; Ezek. vii. 8, xx. 8, 21. Verse 6: <span title="vaiparetz gader mishkano">ויפרץ גדר משכנו</span>, “And He broke down the wall of His dwelling-place” -(Septuagint <span class="grk" title="tho skênôma autou">τὸ σκήνωμα αὐτοῦ</span>; cf. Psalm lxxxiv. 7f., where +(Septuagint <span class="grk" title="tho skênôma autou">τὸ σκήνωμα αὐτοῦ</span>; cf. Psalm lxxxiv. 7f., where <span title="moed">מועד</span> follows, as here). Is. v. 5; Psalms lxxx. 13, lxxxix. 41. Perhaps <span title="vaiehares">ויהרס</span>, verses 2, 17. But Septuagint <span class="grk" title="kahi diepetasen">καὶ διεπέτασεν</span> = <span title="vaifros">ויפרש</span> (i. 13, 17) = <span title="vaifros">ויפרס</span> (iv. 4) or even <span title="vaifrotz">ויפרץ</span>. Verse 9, perhaps: @@ -846,7 +807,7 @@ inf. pi. c. suff. obj.; cf. verse 36. Verse 61<i>b</i> repeated by mistake from 60<i>b</i>. Perhaps: “Wherewith they dogged my steps:” <span title="shihrefu ekvotai">שחרפו עקבתי</span>: Psalm lxxxix. 51 f. Verse 63, rd. <span title="komem">קומם</span>, as usual, and <span title="neginatam">נגינתם</span>, as in verse 14 and Job xxx. 9. Verse 65: -“Thou wilt give them madness” (cf. Arab. <i>gunûn</i>; <i>magnûn</i>, mad) +“Thou wilt give them madness” (cf. Arab. <i>gunûn</i>; <i>magnûn</i>, mad) “of heart; Thou wilt curse and consume them!” (<span title="tohar tohlam">תאר תכלם</span>).</p> <p>Chapter iv.</p> @@ -932,7 +893,7 @@ that this artificial reckoning according to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet was ever much more than a fanciful suggestion. Even in the Septuagint the existing order may not be original. It appears likely that Lamentations was not -translated by the same hand as Jeremiah (Nöldeke). Unlike +translated by the same hand as Jeremiah (Nöldeke). Unlike the latter, the Septuagint Lamentations sticks closely to the Massoretic text. The two books can hardly have been united from the first. On the strength of 2 Chron. xxxv. 25, some @@ -978,7 +939,7 @@ and particularly of its prophets and priests.</p> and the following considerations militate strongly against the tradition. (i.) The language and style of Lamentations are in general very unlike those of Jeremiah (see the details in -Nägelsbach and Löhr); whatever allowance may be made for +Nägelsbach and Löhr); whatever allowance may be made for conventional differences in the phraseology of elegiac poetry and prophetic prose, even of a more or less lyrical cast. (ii.) Lamentations i.-iv. show a knowledge of Ezekiel (cf. Lamentations @@ -1100,48 +1061,48 @@ popular reminiscences of the last days of Jerusalem would supply an ample foundation for all that we find in these poems.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—The older literature is fully given by Nägelsbach in +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—The older literature is fully given by Nägelsbach in Lange’s <i>Bibelwerk A.T.</i> xv. (1868, Eng. trans., 1871, p. 17). Among commentaries may be noticed those of Kalkar (in Latin) (1836); O. Thenius in <i>Kurzgefasstes Exeg. Handbuch</i> (1855), who ascribes chapters ii. and iv. to Jeremiah (comp. K. Budde in <i>Z.A.T.W.</i>, 1882, p. 45); Vaihinger (1857); Neumann (1858); H. Ewald in his -<i>Dichter</i>, vol. i. pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1866); Engelhardt (1867); Nägelsbach, +<i>Dichter</i>, vol. i. pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1866); Engelhardt (1867); Nägelsbach, <i>op. cit.</i> (1868); E. Gerlach, <i>Die Klagelied. Jer.</i> (1868); A. Kamphausen in Bunsen’s <i>Bibelwerk</i> iii. (1868); C. F. Keil (1872) (Eng. trans., 1874); Payne Smith in <i>The Speaker’s Commentary</i>; Reuss, -<i>La Bible: poésie lyrique</i> (1879); T. K. Cheyne, at end of “Jeremiah,” +<i>La Bible: poésie lyrique</i> (1879); T. K. Cheyne, at end of “Jeremiah,” <i>Pulpit Commentary</i> (1883-1885); E. H. Plumptre, in Ellicott’s -<i>O.T. for English Readers</i> (1884); S. Oettli in Strack-Zöckler’s -<i>Kurzgef. Komm. A.T.</i> vii. (1889); M. Löhr (1891) and again <i>Handkommentar +<i>O.T. for English Readers</i> (1884); S. Oettli in Strack-Zöckler’s +<i>Kurzgef. Komm. A.T.</i> vii. (1889); M. Löhr (1891) and again <i>Handkommentar zum A.T.</i> (1893); F. Baethgen <i>ap.</i> Kautzsch, <i>Die Heilige Schrift d. A.T.</i> (1894); W. F. Adeney, <i>Expositor’s Bible</i> (1895); S. Minocchi, <i>Le Lamentazioni di Geremia</i> (Rome, 1897); and -K. Budde, “Fünf Megillot,” in <i>Kurzer Hd.-Comm. zum A. T.</i> (1898).</p> +K. Budde, “Fünf Megillot,” in <i>Kurzer Hd.-Comm. zum A. T.</i> (1898).</p> <p>For textual and literary criticism see also Houbigant, <i>Notae Criticae</i>, ii. 477-483 (1777); E. H. Rodhe, <i>Num Jeremias Threnos -scripserit quaestiones</i> (Lundae, 1871); F. Montet, <i>Étude sur le livre +scripserit quaestiones</i> (Lundae, 1871); F. Montet, <i>Étude sur le livre des Lamentations</i> (Geneva, 1875); G. Bickell, <i>Carmina V. T. metrice</i>, -112-120 (1882), and <i>Wiener Zeitschrift für Kunde des Morgenlandes</i>, -viii. 101 ff. (1894) (Cf. also his <i>Dichtungen der Hebräer</i>, i. 87-108, -1882); Merkel, <i>Über das A.T. Buch der Klagelieder</i> (Halle, 1889); +112-120 (1882), and <i>Wiener Zeitschrift für Kunde des Morgenlandes</i>, +viii. 101 ff. (1894) (Cf. also his <i>Dichtungen der Hebräer</i>, i. 87-108, +1882); Merkel, <i>Ãœber das A.T. Buch der Klagelieder</i> (Halle, 1889); J. Dyserinck, <i>Theologisch Tijdschrift</i>, xxvi. 359 ff. (1892); S. A. Fries, -“Parallele zwischen Thr. iv., v. und der Makkabäerzeit,”<i>Z.A.T.W.</i>, +“Parallele zwischen Thr. iv., v. und der Makkabäerzeit,”<i>Z.A.T.W.</i>, xiii. 110 ff. (1893) (chaps. iv. v. Maccabean; i.-iii. Jeremiah’s); and -on the other side Löhr, <i>Z.A.T.W.</i> xiv. 51 ff. (1894); <i>id. ib.</i>, p. 31 ff., -<i>Der Sprachgebrauch des Buches der Klagelieder</i>; and Löhr, “Threni iii. +on the other side Löhr, <i>Z.A.T.W.</i> xiv. 51 ff. (1894); <i>id. ib.</i>, p. 31 ff., +<i>Der Sprachgebrauch des Buches der Klagelieder</i>; and Löhr, “Threni iii. und die jeremianische Autorschaft des Buches der Klagelieder,” <i>Z.A.T.W.</i>, xxiv. 1 ff. (1904).</p> <p>On the prosody, see (besides the works of Bickell and Dyserinck) -K. Budde, “Das hebräische Klagelied,” <i>Z.A.T.W.</i>, ii. 1 ff. (1882), iii. +K. Budde, “Das hebräische Klagelied,” <i>Z.A.T.W.</i>, ii. 1 ff. (1882), iii. 299 ff. (1883), xi. 234 ff. (1891), xii. 31 ff. 261 ff. (1892); <i>Preussische -Jahrbücher</i>, lxxiii. 461 ff. (1893); and C. J. Ball, “The Metrical +Jahrbücher</i>, lxxiii. 461 ff. (1893); and C. J. Ball, “The Metrical Structure of Qinoth,” <i>P.S.B.A.</i> (March 1887). (The writer was then unacquainted with Budde’s previous labours.)</p> -<p>The following may also be consulted, Nöldeke, <i>Die A.T. Literatur</i>, +<p>The following may also be consulted, Nöldeke, <i>Die A.T. Literatur</i>, pp. 142-148 (1868); Seinecke, <i>Gesch. des Volkes Israel</i>, ii. 29 ff. (1884); Stade, <i>Gesch.</i> p. 701, n. 1 (1887); Smend in <i>Z.A.T.W.</i> (1888), p. 62 f.; Steinthal, “Die Klagelieder Jer.” in <i>Bibel und Rel.-philosophie</i>, @@ -1152,12 +1113,12 @@ Cheyne’s article “Lamentations (Book),” in <i>Enc. Bibl.</i> i <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THÉODORE VICTOR,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> +<p><span class="bold">LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THÉODORE VICTOR,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1760-1829), French soldier and politician, was born in Paris on the 20th of October 1760. He served in the American War of Independence under Rochambeau, and in 1789 was sent as deputy to the States General by the nobles of the <i>bailliage</i> of -Péronne. In the Constituent Assembly he formed with Barnave +Péronne. In the Constituent Assembly he formed with Barnave and Adrien Duport a sort of association called the “Triumvirate,” which controlled a group of about forty deputies forming the advanced left of the Assembly. He presented a famous report @@ -1167,7 +1128,7 @@ February 1791, at the Jacobin Club, against Mirabeau, whose relations with the court were beginning to be suspected, and who was a personal enemy of Lameth. However, after the flight of the king to Varennes, Lameth became reconciled with the court. -He served in the army as <i>maréchal-de-camp</i> under Luckner and +He served in the army as <i>maréchal-de-camp</i> under Luckner and Lafayette, but was accused of treason on the 15th of August 1792, fled the country, and was imprisoned by the Austrians. After his release he engaged in commerce at Hamburg with his @@ -1176,24 +1137,24 @@ France until the Consulate. Under the Empire he was made prefect successively in several departments, and in 1810 was created a baron. In 1814 he attached himself to the Bourbons, and under the Restoration was appointed prefect of Somme, -deputy for Seine-Inférieure and finally deputy for Seine-et-Oise, +deputy for Seine-Inférieure and finally deputy for Seine-et-Oise, in which capacity he was a leader of the Liberal opposition. He died in Paris on the 18th of March 1829. He was the author of an important <i>History of the Constituent Assembly</i> (Paris, 2 vols., 1828-1829).</p> -<p>Of his two brothers, <span class="sc">Théodore Lameth</span> (1756-1854) served +<p>Of his two brothers, <span class="sc">Théodore Lameth</span> (1756-1854) served in the American war, sat in the Legislative Assembly as deputy -from the department of Jura, and became <i>maréchal-de-camp</i>; -and <span class="sc">Charles Malo François Lameth</span> (1757-1832), who also +from the department of Jura, and became <i>maréchal-de-camp</i>; +and <span class="sc">Charles Malo François Lameth</span> (1757-1832), who also served in America, was deputy to the States General of 1789, but emigrated early in the Revolution, returned to France -under the Consulate, and was appointed governor of Würzburg +under the Consulate, and was appointed governor of Würzburg under the Empire. Like Alexandre, Charles joined the Bourbons, succeeding Alexandre as deputy in 1829.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de l’Assemblée Constituante</i> (Paris, +<p>See F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de l’Assemblée Constituante</i> (Paris, 1905); also M. Tourneux, <i>Bibliog. de l’histoire de Paris</i> (vol. iv., 1906, <i>s.v.</i> “Lameth”).</p> </div> @@ -1213,22 +1174,22 @@ action of quickened circulation upon thought, which led him to the conclusion that psychical phenomena were to be accounted for as the effects of organic changes in the brain and nervous system. This conclusion he worked out in his earliest philosophical -work, the <i>Histoire naturelle de l’âme</i>, which appeared +work, the <i>Histoire naturelle de l’âme</i>, which appeared about 1745. So great was the outcry caused by its publication that Lamettrie was forced to take refuge in Leiden, where he developed his doctrines still more boldly and completely, and with great originality, in <i>L’Homme machine</i> (Eng. trans., -London, 1750; ed. with introd. and notes, J. Assézat, 1865), +London, 1750; ed. with introd. and notes, J. Assézat, 1865), and <i>L’Homme plante</i>, treatises based upon principles of the most consistently materialistic character. The ethics of these principles were worked out in <i>Discours sur le bonheur</i>, <i>La -Volupté</i>, and <i>L’Art de jouir</i>, in which the end of life is found in +Volupté</i>, and <i>L’Art de jouir</i>, in which the end of life is found in the pleasures of the senses, and virtue is reduced to self-love. Atheism is the only means of ensuring the happiness of the world, which has been rendered impossible by the wars brought about by theologians. The soul is only the thinking part of the body, and with the body it passes away. When death comes, the farce -is over (<i>la farce est jouée</i>), therefore let us take our pleasure +is over (<i>la farce est jouée</i>), therefore let us take our pleasure while we can. Lamettrie has been called “the Aristippus of modern materialism.” So strong was the feeling against him <span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span> @@ -1240,14 +1201,14 @@ appeared after his death in several editions, published in London, Berlin and Amsterdam respectively.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The chief authority for his life is the <i>Éloge</i> written by Frederick the -Great (printed in Assézat’s ed. of <i>Homme machine</i>). In modern times +<p>The chief authority for his life is the <i>Éloge</i> written by Frederick the +Great (printed in Assézat’s ed. of <i>Homme machine</i>). In modern times Lamettrie has been judged less severely; see F. A. Lange, <i>Geschichte -des Materialismus</i> (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas, ii. 1880); Nérée -Quépat (<i>i.e.</i> René Paquet), <i>La Mettrie, sa vie et ses œuvres</i> (1873, with +des Materialismus</i> (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas, ii. 1880); Nérée +Quépat (<i>i.e.</i> René Paquet), <i>La Mettrie, sa vie et ses œuvres</i> (1873, with complete history of his works); J. E. Poritzky, <i>J. O. de Lamettrie, Sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (1900); F. Picavet, “La Mettrie et la -critique allemande,” in <i>Compte rendu des séances de l’Acad. des +critique allemande,” in <i>Compte rendu des séances de l’Acad. des Sciences morales et politiques</i>, xxxii. (1889), a reply to German rehabilitations of Lamettrie.</p> </div> @@ -1314,7 +1275,7 @@ England</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LÄMMERGEYER<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Lämmergeier</i>, <i>Lamm</i>, lamb, and <i>Geier</i>, +<p><span class="bold">LÄMMERGEYER<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Lämmergeier</i>, <i>Lamm</i>, lamb, and <i>Geier</i>, vulture), or bearded vulture, the <i>Falco barbatus</i> of Linnaeus and the <i>Gypaetus barbatus</i> of modern ornithologists, one of the grandest birds-of-prey of the Palaearctic region—inhabiting @@ -1332,12 +1293,12 @@ and the Punjab, and is the “golden eagle” of most Anglo-Indians. It is found also in Persia, Palestine, Crete and Greece, the Italian Alps, Sicily, Sardinia and Mauritania.</p> -<p>In some external characters the lämmergeyer is intermediate +<p>In some external characters the lämmergeyer is intermediate between the families <i>Vulturidae</i> and <i>Falconidae</i>, and the opinion of systematists has from time to time varied as to its proper position. It is now generally agreed, however, that it is more closely allied with the eagles than with the vultures, and the -sub-family <i>Gypaëtinae</i> of the <i>Falconidae</i> has been formed to +sub-family <i>Gypaëtinae</i> of the <i>Falconidae</i> has been formed to contain it.</p> <p>The whole length of the bird is from 43 to 46 in., of which, @@ -1370,25 +1331,25 @@ throat are clothed in dull black, and most of the feathers of the mantle and wing-coverts are broadly tipped and mesially streaked with tawny or lightish-grey.</p> -<p>The lämmergeyer breeds early in the year. The nest is of +<p>The lämmergeyer breeds early in the year. The nest is of large size, built of sticks, lined with soft material and placed on a ledge of rock—a spot being chosen, and often occupied for many years, which is nearly always difficult of access. Here in the month of February a single egg is usually laid. This is -more than 3 in. in length by nearly 2½ in breadth, of a pale +more than 3 in. in length by nearly 2½ in breadth, of a pale but lively brownish-orange. The young when in the nest are clad in down of a dirty white, varied with grey on the head and neck, and with ochraceous in the iliac region.</p> <p>There is much discrepancy as to the ordinary food of the -lämmergeyer, some observers maintaining that it lives almost +lämmergeyer, some observers maintaining that it lives almost entirely on carrion, offal and even ordure; but there is no question of its frequently taking living prey, and it is reasonable to suppose that this bird, like so many others, is not everywhere uniform in its habits. Its name shows it to be the reputed enemy of shepherds, and it is in some measure owing to their hostility that it has been exterminated in so many parts of its -European range. But the lämmergeyer has also a great partiality +European range. But the lämmergeyer has also a great partiality for bones, which when small enough it swallows. When they are too large, it is said to soar with them to a great height and drop them on a rock or stone that they may be broken into pieces @@ -1398,14 +1359,14 @@ Hebrew <i>Peres</i> is rightly translated in the Authorized Version of the Bible (Lev. xi. 13; Deut. xiv. 12)—a word corrupted into osprey, and applied to a bird which has no habit of the kind.</p> -<p>The lämmergeyer of north-eastern and south Africa is specifically +<p>The lämmergeyer of north-eastern and south Africa is specifically distinct, and is known as <i>Gypaetus meridionalis</i> or <i>G. nudipes</i>. In habits it resembles the northern bird, from which it differs in little more than wanting the black stripe below the eye and having the lower part of the tarsus bare of feathers. It is the “golden eagle” of Bruce’s <i>Travels</i>, and has been -beautifully figured by Joseph Wolf in E. Rüppell’s <i>Syst. Übers. -der Vögel Nord-Ost-Afrika’s</i> (Taf. 1).</p> +beautifully figured by Joseph Wolf in E. Rüppell’s <i>Syst. Ãœbers. +der Vögel Nord-Ost-Afrika’s</i> (Taf. 1).</p> <div class="author">(A. N.)</div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> @@ -1419,7 +1380,7 @@ poet Aeschylus, by dropping a tortoise on his bald head! In the Atlas range the food of this bird is said to consist chiefly of the <i>Testudo mauritanica</i>, which “it carries to some height in the air, and lets fall on a stone to break the shell” (<i>Ibis</i>, 1859, p. 177). It was -the <span class="grk" title="harpê">ἄρπη</span> and <span class="grk" title="phênê">φήνη</span> of Greek classical writers.</p> +the <span class="grk" title="harpê">ἄρπη</span> and <span class="grk" title="phênê">φήνη</span> of Greek classical writers.</p> </div> @@ -1449,15 +1410,15 @@ and other Protestants, but in other directions his work in the south of France was more beneficent, as, following the example of Colbert, he encouraged agriculture and industry generally and did something towards improving the means of communication. -He wrote a <i>Mémoire</i>, which contains much interesting +He wrote a <i>Mémoire</i>, which contains much interesting information about his public work. This was published at Amsterdam in 1724. Lamoignon, who is called by Saint Simon, “the king and tyrant of Languedoc,” died in Paris on the 17th -of May 1724. <span class="sc">Chrétien François de Lamoignon</span> (1735-1789) +of May 1724. <span class="sc">Chrétien François de Lamoignon</span> (1735-1789) entered public life at an early age and was an actor in the troubles which heralded the Revolution. First on the side of the parlement and later on that of the king he was one of the assistants of -Loménie de Brienne, whose unpopularity and fall he shared. +Loménie de Brienne, whose unpopularity and fall he shared. He committed suicide on the 15th of May 1789.</p> @@ -1491,7 +1452,7 @@ in 1862. His <i>Handbuch des Erdmagnetismus</i> (Berlin, 1849) is a standard work on the subject.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie</i> (S. Günther); V. J. Schrift, +<p>See <i>Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie</i> (S. Günther); V. J. Schrift, <i>Astr. Gesellschaft</i>, xv. 60; <i>Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society</i>, xl. 203; <i>Nature</i>, xx. 425; <i>Quart. Journal Meteor. Society</i>, vi. 72; <i>Proceedings Roy. Society of Edinburgh</i>, x. 358; <i>The Times</i> (12 Aug., 1879); @@ -1501,22 +1462,22 @@ pp. 281-283; <i>Royal Society’s Cat. of Scientific Papers</i>, vols. iii. <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAMORICIÈRE, CHRISTOPHE LÉON LOUIS JUCHAULT DE<a name="ar9a" id="ar9a"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">LAMORICIÈRE, CHRISTOPHE LÉON LOUIS JUCHAULT DE<a name="ar9a" id="ar9a"></a></span> (1806-1865), French general, was born at Nantes on the 11th of September 1806, and entered the Engineers in 1828. He served in the Algerian campaigns from 1830 onwards, and -by 1840 he had risen to the grade of <i>maréchal-de-camp</i> (major-general). +by 1840 he had risen to the grade of <i>maréchal-de-camp</i> (major-general). Three years later he was made a general of division. He was one of the most distinguished and efficient of Bugeaud’s generals, rendered special service at Isly (August 14, 1844), acted temporarily as governor-general of Algeria, and finally -effected the capture of Abd el-Kader in 1847. Lamoricière +effected the capture of Abd el-Kader in 1847. Lamoricière took some part in the political events of 1848, both as a member of the Chamber of Deputies and as a military commander. -Under the régime of General Cavaignac he was for a time -minister of war. From 1848 to 1851 Lamoricière was one of +Under the régime of General Cavaignac he was for a time +minister of war. From 1848 to 1851 Lamoricière was one of the most conspicuous opponents of the policy of Louis Napoleon, -and at the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 2nd of December 1851 he was +and at the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 2nd of December 1851 he was arrested and exiled. He refused to give in his allegiance to the emperor Napoleon III., and in 1860 accepted the command of the papal army, which he led in the Italian campaign of 1860. @@ -1527,27 +1488,27 @@ in 1857), and he died at Prouzel (Somme) on the 11th of September 1865.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. Keller, <i>Le Général de Lamoricière</i> (Paris, 1873).</p> +<p>See E. Keller, <i>Le Général de Lamoricière</i> (Paris, 1873).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1588-1672), French +<p><span class="bold">LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1588-1672), French writer, was born in Paris of a noble family of Maine. His father was an <i>avocat</i> at the parlement of Paris and author of a curious treatise on the functions of ambassadors, entitled <i>Legatus, seu De legatorum privilegiis, officio et munere libellus</i> -(1579) and illustrated mainly from ancient history. François +(1579) and illustrated mainly from ancient history. François succeeded his father at the parlement, but gave up his post about 1647 and devoted himself to travel and <i>belles lettres</i>. -His <i>Considérations sur l’éloquence française</i> (1638) procured him +His <i>Considérations sur l’éloquence française</i> (1638) procured him admission to the Academy, and his <i>De l’instruction de Mgr. le Dauphin</i> (1640) attracted the attention of Richelieu. In 1649 Anne of Austria entrusted him with the education of her second son and subsequently with the completion of Louis XIV.’s education, which had been very much neglected. The outcome of his pedagogic labours was a series of books comprising the -<i>Géographie</i>, <i>Rhétorique</i>, <i>Morale</i>, <i>Économique</i>, <i>Politique</i>, <i>Logique</i>, +<i>Géographie</i>, <i>Rhétorique</i>, <i>Morale</i>, <i>Économique</i>, <i>Politique</i>, <i>Logique</i>, and <i>Physique du prince</i> (1651-1658). The king rewarded his tutor by appointing him historiographer of France and councillor of state. La Mothe Le Vayer died in Paris. Modest, sceptical, @@ -1563,7 +1524,7 @@ of Orosius Tubero. An incomplete edition of his works was published at Dresden in 1756-1759.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Bayle, <i>Dictionnaire critique</i>, article “Vayer”; L. Étienne, +<p>See Bayle, <i>Dictionnaire critique</i>, article “Vayer”; L. Étienne, <i>Essai sur La Mothe Le Vayer</i> (Paris, 1849).</p> </div> @@ -1576,16 +1537,16 @@ so depressed the author that he contemplated joining the Trappists, but four years later he again began writing operas and ballets, <i>e.g.</i> <i>L’Europe galante</i> (1697), and tragedies, one of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span> -which, <i>Inès de Castro</i> (1723), was produced with immense -success at the Théâtre Français. He was a champion of the +which, <i>Inès de Castro</i> (1723), was produced with immense +success at the Théâtre Français. He was a champion of the moderns in the revived controversy of the ancients and moderns. Madame Dacier had published (1699) a translation of the <i>Iliad</i>, and La Motte, who knew no Greek, made a translation (1714) in verse founded on her work. The nature of his work may be judged from his own expression: “I have taken the liberty to change what I thought disagreeable in it.” He defended the -moderns in the <i>Discours sur Homère</i> prefixed to his translation, -and in his <i>Réflexions sur la critique</i> (1716). Apart from the +moderns in the <i>Discours sur Homère</i> prefixed to his translation, +and in his <i>Réflexions sur la critique</i> (1716). Apart from the merits of the controversy, it was conducted on La Motte’s side with a wit and politeness which compared very favourably with his opponent’s methods. He was elected to the Academy @@ -1597,7 +1558,7 @@ in which his views are expressed that his reputation rests. He died in Paris on the 26th of December 1731.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His <i>Œuvres du théâtre</i> (2 vols.) appeared in 1730, and his <i>Œuvres</i> +<p>His <i>Œuvres du théâtre</i> (2 vols.) appeared in 1730, and his <i>Œuvres</i> (10 vols.) in 1754. See A. H. Rigault, <i>Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des modernes</i> (1859).</p> </div> @@ -1607,17 +1568,17 @@ anciens et des modernes</i> (1859).</p> <p><span class="bold">LAMOUREUX, CHARLES<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1834-1899), French conductor and violinist, was born at Bordeaux on the 28th of September 1834. He studied at the Pau Conservatoire, was engaged as -violinist at the Opéra, and in 1864 organized a series of concerts +violinist at the Opéra, and in 1864 organized a series of concerts devoted to chamber music. Having journeyed to England and assisted at a Handel festival, he thought he would attempt something similar in Paris. At his own expense he founded -the “Société de l’Harmonie Sacrée,” and in 1873 conducted +the “Société de l’Harmonie Sacrée,” and in 1873 conducted the first performance in Paris of Handel’s <i>Messiah</i>. He also gave performances of Bach’s <i>St Matthew Passion</i>, Handel’s <i>Judas Maccabaeus</i>, Gounod’s <i>Gallia</i>, and Massenet’s <i>Eve</i>. In 1875 he conducted the festival given at Rouen to celebrate the -centenary of Boïeldieu. The following year he became <i>chef -d’orchestre</i> at the Opéra Comique. In 1881 he founded the +centenary of Boïeldieu. The following year he became <i>chef +d’orchestre</i> at the Opéra Comique. In 1881 he founded the famous concerts associated with his name, which contributed so much to popularize Wagner’s music in Paris. The performances of detached pieces taken from the German master’s works @@ -1628,10 +1589,10 @@ Paris. For this purpose he took the Eden Theatre, and on the opera in the French capital. Owing to the opposition of the Chauvinists, the performance was not repeated; but it doubtless prepared the way for the production of the same masterpiece -at the Paris Opéra a few years later. Lamoureux was successively +at the Paris Opéra a few years later. Lamoureux was successively second <i>chef d’orchestre</i> at the Conservatoire, first <i>chef d’orchestre</i> -at the Opéra Comique, and twice first <i>chef d’orchestre</i> at the -Opéra. He visited London on several occasions, and gave +at the Opéra Comique, and twice first <i>chef d’orchestre</i> at the +Opéra. He visited London on several occasions, and gave successful concerts at the Queen’s Hall. Lamoureux died at Paris on the 21st of December 1899. <i>Tristan und Isolde</i> had been at last heard in Paris, owing to his initiative and under @@ -1682,13 +1643,13 @@ in room of the torch of Homeric times. Herodotus (ii. 62) sees nothing strange in the “festival of lamps,” Lychnokaie, which was held at Sais in Egypt, except in the vast number of them. Each was filled with oil so as to burn the whole night. -Again he speaks of evening as the time of lamps (<span class="grk" title="peri lychnôn">περὶ λύχνων</span>, +Again he speaks of evening as the time of lamps (<span class="grk" title="peri lychnôn">περὶ λύχνων</span>, vii. 215). Still, the scarcity of lamps in a style anything like that of an early period, compared with the immense number of them from the late Greek and Roman age, seems to justify the remark of Athenaeus. The commonest sort of domestic lamps were of terra-cotta and of the shape seen in figs. 1 and 2 -with a spout or nozzle (<span class="grk" title="myktêr">μυκτήρ</span>) in which the wick (<span class="grk" title="thryallis">θρυαλλίς</span>) +with a spout or nozzle (<span class="grk" title="myktêr">μυκτήρ</span>) in which the wick (<span class="grk" title="thryallis">θρυαλλίς</span>) burned, a round hole on the top to pour in oil by, and a handle to carry the lamp with. A lamp with two or more spouts was <span class="grk" title="dimyxos">δίμυξος</span>, <span class="grk" title="trimyxos">τρίμυξος</span>, &c., but these terms would not apply @@ -1940,14 +1901,14 @@ district.</p> idea of injustice and unscrupulousness seems to be essential to its definition. Although in its use the word is properly and almost exclusively English, the derivation appears to be French. -Littré derives it from a term of Parisian argot, <i>lamper</i>, to drink, +Littré derives it from a term of Parisian argot, <i>lamper</i>, to drink, greedily, in great mouthfuls. This word appears to have begun -to be prevalent in the middle of the 17th century, and Furetière +to be prevalent in the middle of the 17th century, and Furetière has preserved a fragment from a popular song, which says:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>Jacques fuyant de Dublin</p> -<p>Dit à Lauzun, son cousin,</p> +<p>Dit à Lauzun, son cousin,</p> <p>“Prenez soin de ma couronne,</p> <p>J’aurai soin de ma personne,</p> <p class="i2">Lampons! lampons!”</p> @@ -1956,7 +1917,7 @@ has preserved a fragment from a popular song, which says:—</p> <p class="noind">—that is to say, let us drink heavily, and begone dull care. Scarron speaks of a wild troop, singing <i>leridas</i> and <i>lampons</i>. There is, also, a rare French verb, <i>lamponner</i>, to attack with -ridicule, used earlier in the 17th century by Brantôme. In its +ridicule, used earlier in the 17th century by Brantôme. In its English form, lampoon, the word is used by Evelyn in 1645, “Here they still paste up their drolling lampoons and scurrilous papers,” and soon after it is a verb,—“suppose we lampooned @@ -2001,7 +1962,7 @@ See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pasquinade</a></span>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAMPREY,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a fish belonging to the family <i>Petromyzontidae</i> -(from <span class="grk" title="petros">πέτρος</span> and <span class="grk" title="myzô">μύζω</span>, literally, stone-suckers), which with the +(from <span class="grk" title="petros">πέτρος</span> and <span class="grk" title="myzô">μύζω</span>, literally, stone-suckers), which with the hag-fishes or <i>Myxinidae</i> forms a distinct subclass of fishes, the <i>Cyclostomata</i>, distinguished by the low organization of their skeleton, which is cartilaginous, without vertebral segmentation, @@ -2043,8 +2004,8 @@ formerly the Thames alone supplied from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 lamperns annually, but their number has so much fallen off that, for instance, in 1876 only 40,000 were sold to the cod-fishers. That year, however, was an unusually bad year; the -lamperns, from their scarcity, fetched £8, 10s. a thousand, -whilst in ordinary years £5 is considered a fair price. The season +lamperns, from their scarcity, fetched £8, 10s. a thousand, +whilst in ordinary years £5 is considered a fair price. The season for catching lamperns closes in the Thames about the middle of March. The origin of the name lamprey is obscure; it is an adaptation of Fr. <i>lamproie</i>, Med. Lat. <i>lampreda</i>; this has been @@ -2052,7 +2013,7 @@ taken as a variant of another Med. Lat. form <i>Lampetra</i>, which occurs in ichthyological works of the middle ages; the derivation from <i>lambere petras</i>, to lick stones, is a specimen of etymological ingenuity. The development of lampreys has received much -attention on the part of naturalists, since Aug. Müller discovered +attention on the part of naturalists, since Aug. Müller discovered that they undergo a metamorphosis, and that the minute worm-like lamperns previously known under the name of <i>Ammocoetes</i>, and abundant in the sand and mud of many streams, @@ -2193,7 +2154,7 @@ nepheline or leucite syenites and similar rocks rich in alkalies. This indicates a genetic affinity like that which exists between the granites and the minettes, &c., and further proof of this connexion is furnished <span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> -by the occasional occurrence in those lamprophyres of leucite, haüyne +by the occasional occurrence in those lamprophyres of leucite, haüyne and other felspathoid minerals.</p> <p>The camptonites (called after Campton, New Hampshire) are dark @@ -2218,13 +2179,13 @@ is colourless and is believed by some petrographers to be primary crystalline analcite. They would define the monchiquites as rocks consisting of olivine, augite and analcite; others regard the analcite as secondary, and consider the base as essentially glassy. Some -monchiquites contain haüyne; while in others small leucites are +monchiquites contain haüyne; while in others small leucites are found. Ocellar structure is occasionally present, though less marked than in the camptonites. A special group of monchiquites rich in deep brown biotite has been called fourchites (after the Fourche Mountains, Arkansas).</p> -<p>The alnoites (called after the island of Alnö in Norway) are rare +<p>The alnoites (called after the island of Alnö in Norway) are rare rocks found in Norway, Montreal and other parts of North America and in the north of Scotland. They contain olivine, augite, brown biotite and melilite. They are free from felspar, and contain very @@ -2255,7 +2216,7 @@ of water (combined and hygroscopic), CO<span class="su">2</span>, S, MnO, P<span <p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> I. Minette (Weiler, Alsace). II. Kersantite (Neubrunn, Thuringia). III. Vogesite (Castle Mountain, Montana). IV. Spessartite (Waldmichael, Spessart). V. Camptonite (Campton Falls). -VI. Monchiquite (Ria do Ouro, Serra de Tingua). VII. Alnöite (Alnö, +VI. Monchiquite (Ria do Ouro, Serra de Tingua). VII. Alnöite (Alnö, Sweden).</p> </div> @@ -2280,7 +2241,7 @@ village of Lapsaki, but the Greek town possibly lay at Chardak immediately opposite Gallipoli.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. L. Castellan, <i>Lettres sur la Morée, l’Hellespont, &c.</i> (Paris, +<p>See A. L. Castellan, <i>Lettres sur la Morée, l’Hellespont, &c.</i> (Paris, 1820); Choiseul Gouffier, <i>Voyage pittoresque dans l’empire ottoman</i> (1842).</p> </div> @@ -2288,7 +2249,7 @@ immediately opposite Gallipoli.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAMPSTAND,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a pillar, tripod or figure extending to the -floor for supporting or holding a lamp. The lampstand (<i>lampadère</i>) +floor for supporting or holding a lamp. The lampstand (<i>lampadère</i>) is probably of French origin; it appears to have been in use in France before the end of the 17th century.</p> @@ -2445,8 +2406,8 @@ above the present sea-level are to be observed.</p> <p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—The rainfall averages 42 in. annually, being higher in the hill country and lower towards the north. The -temperature for the year averages 48° F., for January 38° and for -July 59°. The area under grain has shown a downward tendency +temperature for the year averages 48° F., for January 38° and for +July 59°. The area under grain has shown a downward tendency since 1880. Oats is the principal crop, but barley and wheat are also grown. Potatoes and turnips are raised on a large scale. In the Lower Ward market-gardening has increased considerably, and @@ -2916,7 +2877,7 @@ and Liverpool diocesan) for schoolmistresses.</p> <p><i>History.</i>—The district afterwards known as Lancashire was after the departure of the Romans for many years apparently -little better than a waste. It was not until the victory of Æthelfrith, +little better than a waste. It was not until the victory of Æthelfrith, king of Deira, near Chester in 613 cut off the Britons of Wales from those of Lancashire and Cumberland that even Lancashire south of the Ribble was conquered. The part north @@ -3100,9 +3061,9 @@ the Wars of the Roses on the county must also have been heavy, although none of the battles was fought within its borders; Lord Stanley’s force of 5000 raised in Lancashire and Cheshire virtually decided the battle of Bosworth Field. The poverty -of the county is shown by the fact that out of £40,000 granted +of the county is shown by the fact that out of £40,000 granted in 1504 by parliament to the king, Lancashire’s share was only -£318. At the battle of Flodden (1513) the Lancashire archers +£318. At the battle of Flodden (1513) the Lancashire archers led by Sir Edward Stanley almost totally destroyed the Highlanders on the right Scottish wing and greatly contributed to the victory. Under the Tudors the county prospered; the @@ -3127,9 +3088,9 @@ important case of witchcraft in Lancashire.</p> </div> <p>In the assessment of ship money in 1636 the county was put -down for £1000, towards which Wigan was to raise £50, Preston -£40, Lancaster £30, and Liverpool £25, and these figures compared -with the assessments of £140 on Hull and £200 on Leeds +down for £1000, towards which Wigan was to raise £50, Preston +£40, Lancaster £30, and Liverpool £25, and these figures compared +with the assessments of £140 on Hull and £200 on Leeds show the comparative unimportance of the Lancashire boroughs. On the eve of the Great Rebellion in 1641 parliament resolved to take command of the militia, and Lord Strange, Lord Derby’s @@ -3169,7 +3130,7 @@ Alexander Rigby, Thurland castle surrendered and was demolished. In February 1644 the Parliamentarians, under Colonel Rigby, Colonel Ashton and Colonel Moore, besieged Lathom house, the one refuge left to the Royalists, which was bravely -defended by Lord Derby’s heroic wife, Charlotte de la Trémoille. +defended by Lord Derby’s heroic wife, Charlotte de la Trémoille. The siege lasted nearly four months and was raised on the approach of Prince Rupert, who marched to Bolton and was joined on his arrival outside the town by Lord Derby. Bolton @@ -3621,7 +3582,7 @@ the king’s service he led a force into Prussia and he was often employed on diplomatic business. In 1354 he was at Avignon negotiating with Pope Innocent VI., who wished to make peace between England and France, and one of his last acts was to -assist in arranging the details of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360. +assist in arranging the details of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360. In 1337 he was made earl of Derby; in 1345 he succeeded to his father’s earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester; in 1349 he was created earl of Lincoln, and in 1351 he was made duke of @@ -3670,7 +3631,7 @@ directors of the East India Company till his death in May 1618; most of the voyages of the early Stuart time both to India and in search of the North-West passage were undertaken under his advice and direction; Lancaster Sound, on the north-west of -Baffin’s Bay (in 74° 20′ N.), was named by William Baffin after +Baffin’s Bay (in 74° 20′ N.), was named by William Baffin after Sir James (July 1616).</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -3895,7 +3856,7 @@ gave several courses of lectures which were well attended, and wrote to friends at home letters full of enthusiasm. But his fame was short-lived. The miseries of debt and disappointment were aggravated by sickness, and he settled for a time in the -warmer climate of Carácas. He afterwards visited St Thomas +warmer climate of Carácas. He afterwards visited St Thomas and Santa Cruz, and at length returned to New York, the corporation of which city made him a public grant of 500 dollars in pity for the misfortunes which had by this time reduced @@ -4339,7 +4300,7 @@ lance is 11 ft. 9 in., that of the Cossacks 8 ft. 8 in., and the French lance 11 ft. The British lance is 9 ft. long. The weight of a lance varies but slightly. The steel-staved -lance weighs 4 ℔, the bamboo 4½.</td></tr></table> +lance weighs 4 ℔, the bamboo 4½.</td></tr></table> <p class="pt2">As to the question of the relative efficiency of the lance and the sword as the principal arm for cavalry, it is alleged that the former @@ -4349,7 +4310,7 @@ the like; that, when unslung ready for the charge, it is awkward to handle, and may be positively dangerous if a horse becomes restive and the rider has to use both hands on the reins; that unless the thrust be delivered at full speed, it is easily parried; and, lastly, -that in the <i>mêlée</i>, when the trooper has not room to use his lance, +that in the <i>mêlée</i>, when the trooper has not room to use his lance, he will be helpless until he either throws it away or slings it, and can draw his sword. While admitting the last-mentioned objection, those who favour the lance contend that success in the first shock @@ -4359,7 +4320,7 @@ to his long reach enabling him to deliver a blow before the swordsman can retaliate, while, -when the <i>mêlée</i> commences, +when the <i>mêlée</i> commences, the rear rank will come to the assistance of the front rank. @@ -4487,7 +4448,7 @@ his senior, his birth taking place some time after her marriage to Arthur. This infatuation colours all his later career. He frees her from imprisonment in the castle of Meleagant, who has carried her off against her will—(a similar adventure is -related in <i>Lanzelet</i>, where the abductor is Valerîn, and Lanzelet +related in <i>Lanzelet</i>, where the abductor is Valerîn, and Lanzelet is not the rescuer)—and, although he recovers his kingdom from Claudas, he prefers to remain a simple knight of Arthur’s court, bestowing the lands on his cousins and half-brother Hector. @@ -4523,31 +4484,31 @@ to follow, nor do other works of the cycle explain the transformation. In the pseudo-chronicles, the <i>Historia</i> of Geoffrey and the translations by Wace and Layamon, Lancelot does not appear at all; the queen’s lover, whose guilty passion is fully -returned, is Mordred. Chrétien de Troyes’ treatment of him is +returned, is Mordred. Chrétien de Troyes’ treatment of him is contradictory; in the <i>Erec</i>, his earliest extant poem, Lancelot’s name appears as third on the list of the knights of Arthur’s court. (It is well, however, to bear in mind the possibility of -later addition or alteration in such lists.) In <i>Cligés</i> he again +later addition or alteration in such lists.) In <i>Cligés</i> he again ranks as third, being overthrown by the hero of the poem. In -<i>Le Chevalier de la Charrette</i>, however, which followed <i>Cligés</i>, we +<i>Le Chevalier de la Charrette</i>, however, which followed <i>Cligés</i>, we find Lancelot alike as leading knight of the court and lover of the queen, in fact, precisely in the position he occupies in the prose romance, where, indeed, the section dealing with this adventure is, as Gaston Paris clearly proved, an almost literal -adaptation of Chrétien’s poem. The subject of the poem is the +adaptation of Chrétien’s poem. The subject of the poem is the rescue of the queen from her abductor Meleagant; and what -makes the matter more perplexing is that Chrétien handles +makes the matter more perplexing is that Chrétien handles the situation as one with which his hearers are already familiar; it is Lancelot, and not Arthur or another, to whom the office of rescuer naturally belongs. After this it is surprising to find that in his next poem, <i>Le Chevalier au Lion</i>, Lancelot is once, and only once, casually referred to, and that in a passing reference -to his rescue of the queen. In the <i>Perceval</i>, Chrétien’s +to his rescue of the queen. In the <i>Perceval</i>, Chrétien’s last work, he does not appear at all, and yet much of the action passes at Arthur’s court.</p> -<p>In the continuations added at various times to Chrétien’s -unfinished work the rôle assigned to Lancelot is equally modest. +<p>In the continuations added at various times to Chrétien’s +unfinished work the rôle assigned to Lancelot is equally modest. Among the fifteen knights selected by Arthur to accompany him to Chastel Orguellous he only ranks ninth. In the version of the <i>Luite Tristran</i> inserted by Gerbert in his <i>Perceval</i>, he is @@ -4575,14 +4536,14 @@ collected alike by M. Cosquin in his <i>Contes Lorrains</i>, and by Mr J. F. Campbell in his <i>Tales of the West Highlands</i>.</p> <p>The story of the loves of Lancelot and Guenevere, as related -by Chrétien, has about it nothing spontaneous and genuine; in +by Chrétien, has about it nothing spontaneous and genuine; in no way can it be compared with the story of Tristan and Iseult. It is the exposition of a relation governed by artificial and arbitrary rules, to which the principal actors in the drama -must perforce conform. Chrétien states that he composed the +must perforce conform. Chrétien states that he composed the poem (which he left to be completed by Godefroi de Leigni) at the request of the countess Marie of Champagne, who provided -him with <i>matière et san</i>. Marie was the daughter of Louis VII. +him with <i>matière et san</i>. Marie was the daughter of Louis VII. of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine, subsequently wife of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span> Henry II. of Anjou and England. It is a matter of history that @@ -4595,7 +4556,7 @@ was impossible. The logical conclusion appears to be that the special conditions, in response to a special demand. The story of <i>Tristan and Iseult</i>, immensely popular as it was, was too genuine—(shall we say too crude?)—to satisfy the taste of the -court for which Chrétien was writing. Moreover, the Arthurian +court for which Chrétien was writing. Moreover, the Arthurian story was the popular story of the day, and Tristan did not belong to the magic circle, though he was ultimately introduced, somewhat clumsily, it must be admitted, within its bounds. @@ -4606,14 +4567,14 @@ Lancelot, already popular hero of a tale in which an adventure parallel to that of the <i>Charrette</i> figured prominently, was pressed into the service, Modred, Guenevere’s earlier lover, being too unsympathetic a character; moreover, Modred was required for -the final rôle of traitor.</p> +the final rôle of traitor.</p> <p>But to whom is the story to be assigned? Here we must distinguish between the <i>Lancelot</i> proper and the <i>Lancelot-Guenevere</i> versions; so far as the latter are concerned, we cannot -get behind the version of Chrétien,—nowhere, prior to the +get behind the version of Chrétien,—nowhere, prior to the composition of the <i>Chevalier de la Charrette</i> is there any evidence -of the existence of such a story. Yet Chrétien does not claim to +of the existence of such a story. Yet Chrétien does not claim to have invented the situation. Did it spring from the fertile brain of some court lady, Marie, or another? The authorship of the <i>Lancelot</i> proper, on the other hand, is invariably ascribed @@ -4676,12 +4637,12 @@ result that the sections dealing with <i>Lancelot</i> and <i>Queste</i> urgently require revision.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>Lanzelet</i> (ed. Hahn, 1845, out of print and -extremely difficult to obtain). Chrétien’s poem has been published by +extremely difficult to obtain). Chrétien’s poem has been published by Professor Wendelin Foerster, in his edition of the works of that poet, <i>Der Karrenritter</i> (1899). A Dutch version of a short episodic poem, <i>Lancelot et le cerf au pied blanc</i> will be found in M. Jonckbloet’s volume, and a discussion of this and other <i>Lancelot</i> poems, by -Gaston Paris, is contained in vol. xxx. of <i>Histoire littéraire de la +Gaston Paris, is contained in vol. xxx. of <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>. For critical studies on the subject cf. Gaston Paris’s articles in <i>Romania</i>, vols. x. and xii.; Wechssler, <i>Die verschiedenen Redaktionen des Graal-Lancelot <span class="correction" title="amended from Cycklus">Cyklus</span></i>; J. L. Weston, <i>The Legend of Sir @@ -4744,7 +4705,7 @@ dating perhaps from the Roman period (though the inscription attributing the work to Diocletian is a forgery), that span the gorge of the Feltrino, and is dedicated to S. Maria del Ponte, Our Lady of the Bridge. The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore -dates from 1227 and has a fine façade, with a portal of 1317 +dates from 1227 and has a fine façade, with a portal of 1317 by a local sculptor. The processional cross by the silversmith Nicola di Guardiagrele (1422) is very beautiful. In S. Nicola is a fine reliquary of 1445 by Nicola di Francavilla. The church @@ -4794,7 +4755,7 @@ in 1735; in 1741 he married a grandchild of Boursault, author of <i>Aesop at Court</i>. He died on the 14th of September 1743.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See d’Argenville, <i>Vies des peintres</i>; and Ballot de Sovot, <i>Éloge +<p>See d’Argenville, <i>Vies des peintres</i>; and Ballot de Sovot, <i>Éloge de M. Lancret</i> (1743, new ed. 1874).</p> </div> @@ -4827,10 +4788,10 @@ the earth’s surface, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geography</a cultivation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Soil</a></span>, also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reclamation of Land</a></span>. For the history of the holding or tenure of land see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Village Communities</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>; a particular form of land tenure is -dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Métayage</a></span>. The article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrarian Laws</a></span> deals +dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Métayage</a></span>. The article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrarian Laws</a></span> deals with the disposal of the public land (<i>Ager publicus</i>) in Ancient Rome, and further information with regard to the part played by the land -question in Roman history will be found under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: § <i>History</i>. +question in Roman history will be found under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: § <i>History</i>. The legal side of the private ownership of land is treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Real Property</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyancing</a></span> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Land Registration</a></span>).</p> @@ -4841,7 +4802,7 @@ Tenant</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Land Registration</a <p><span class="bold">LANDAU,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a town in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the Queich, lying under the eastern slope of the Hardt Mountains, 32 m. by rail S.W. from Mannheim, at the junction of lines to Neustadt -an der Hardt, Weissenburg and Saarbrücken. Pop. (1905) +an der Hardt, Weissenburg and Saarbrücken. Pop. (1905) 17,165. Among its buildings are the Gothic Evangelical church, dating from 1285; the chapel of St Catherine built in 1344; the church of the former Augustinian monastery, dating from @@ -4873,7 +4834,7 @@ Landow, who introduced this form of equipage.</p> <p>See E. Heuser, <i>Die Belagerungen von Landau in den Jahren 1702 und 1703</i> (Landau, 1894); Lehmann, <i>Geschichte der ehemaligen freien Reichsstadt Landau</i> (1851); and Jost, <i>Interessante Daten aus -der 600 jährigen Geschichte der Stadt Landau</i> (Landau, 1879).</p> +der 600 jährigen Geschichte der Stadt Landau</i> (Landau, 1879).</p> </div> @@ -4887,10 +4848,10 @@ baths, which have been known since the 13th century. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castle of Karpenstein.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Langner, <i>Bad Landeck</i> (Glatz, 1872); Schütze, <i>Die Thermen +<p>See Langner, <i>Bad Landeck</i> (Glatz, 1872); Schütze, <i>Die Thermen von Landeck</i> (Berlin, 1895); Wehse, <i>Bad Landeck</i> (Breslau, 1886); Joseph, <i>Die Thermen von Landeck</i> (Berlin, 1887), and Patschovsky, -<i>Führer durch Bad Landeck und Umgebung</i> (Schweidnitz, 1902).</p> +<i>Führer durch Bad Landeck und Umgebung</i> (Schweidnitz, 1902).</p> </div> @@ -4940,8 +4901,8 @@ Memoirs</i> (1780, 1789).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span></p> -<p><span class="bold">LANDEN,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a town in the province of Liége, Belgium, an important -junction for lines of railway from Limburg, Liége and +<p><span class="bold">LANDEN,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a town in the province of Liége, Belgium, an important +junction for lines of railway from Limburg, Liége and Louvain. Pop. (1904) 2874. It is the birthplace of the first Pippin, distinguished as Pippin of Landen from his grandson Pippin of Herstal. In 1693 the French under Marshal Luxemburg @@ -5028,8 +4989,8 @@ R. A. K. Oldfield.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANDES,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a department in the south-west of France, formed in 1790 of portions of the ancient provinces of Guyenne (Landes, -Condomios Chalosse), Gascony and Béarn, and bounded N. by -Gironde, E. by Lot-et-Garonne and Gers, S. by Basses Pyrenées, +Condomios Chalosse), Gascony and Béarn, and bounded N. by +Gironde, E. by Lot-et-Garonne and Gers, S. by Basses Pyrenées, and W. (for 68 m.) by the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1906) 293,397. Its area, 3615 sq. m., is second only to that of the department of Gironde. The department takes its name from the <i>Landes</i>, @@ -5044,8 +5005,8 @@ Midouze, formed by the junction of the Douze and the Midou. The climate of Landes is the Girondine, which prevails from the Loire to the Pyrenees. Snow is almost unknown, the spring is rainy, the summer warm and stormy. The prevailing wind is the -south-west, and the mean temperature of the year is 53° F., the -thermometer hardly ever rising above 82° or falling below 14°. +south-west, and the mean temperature of the year is 53° F., the +thermometer hardly ever rising above 82° or falling below 14°. The annual rainfall in the south of the department in the neighbourhood of the sea reaches 55 in., but diminishes by more than half towards the north-east.</p> @@ -5066,7 +5027,7 @@ and lubricants. Tar, and an excellent charcoal for smelting purposes, are also obtained from the pine-wood. The department has several mineral springs, the most important being those of Dax, which were frequented in the time of the Romans, and -of Eugénie-les-Bains and Préchacq. The cultivation of the cork +of Eugénie-les-Bains and Préchacq. The cultivation of the cork tree is also important. There are salt-workings and stone quarries. There are several iron-works in the department; those at Le Boucau, at the mouth of the Adour, are the most @@ -5083,7 +5044,7 @@ includes three arrondissements (Mont-de-Marsan, Dax and St Sever), 28 cantons and 334 communes.</p> <p>Mont-de-Marsan is the capital of the department, which comes -within the circumscription of the appeal court of Pau, the académie +within the circumscription of the appeal court of Pau, the académie (educational division) of Bordeaux and the archbishopric of Auch, and forms part of the region of the 18th army corps. It is served by the Southern railway; there is some navigation on the @@ -5104,10 +5065,10 @@ Landes, half of that of Gironde, and some 175,000 acres of Lot-et-Garonne. The Landes, formerly a vast tract of moorland and marsh, now consist chiefly of fields and forests of pines. They form a plateau, shaped like a triangle, the base of which is the -Atlantic coast while the apex is situated slightly west of Nérac +Atlantic coast while the apex is situated slightly west of Nérac (Lot-et-Garonne). Its limits are, on the S. the river Adour; on the E. the hills of Armagnac, Eauzan, Condomois, Agenais -and Bazadais; and on the N.E. the Garonne, the hills of Médoc +and Bazadais; and on the N.E. the Garonne, the hills of Médoc and the Gironde. The height of the plateau ranges in general from 130 to 260 ft.; the highest altitude (498 ft.) is found in the east near Baudignan (department of Landes), from which point @@ -5118,7 +5079,7 @@ of the year, consequently, the waters, settling on the almost level surface and unable to filter through, used to transform the country into unwholesome swamps, which the Landesats could only traverse on stilts. About the middle of the 18th -century an engineer, François Chambrelent, instituted a scheme +century an engineer, François Chambrelent, instituted a scheme of draining and planting to remedy these evils. As a result about 1600 m. of ditches have been dug which carry off superficial water either to streams or to the lakes which fringe the landes on @@ -5129,7 +5090,7 @@ dunes, in ranges parallel to the shore, and from 100 to 300 ft. in height. Driven by the west wind, which is most frequent in these parts, the dunes were slowly advancing year by year towards the east, burying the cultivated lands and even the -houses. Nicolas Thomas Brémontier, towards the end of the +houses. Nicolas Thomas Brémontier, towards the end of the 18th century, devised the plan of arresting this scourge by planting the dunes with maritime pines. Upwards of 210,000 acres have been thus treated. In the south-west, cork trees take the @@ -5138,7 +5099,7 @@ place of the pines. To prevent the formation of fresh dunes, a This barrier, from 20 to 30 ft. high, presents an obstacle which the sand cannot cross. On the eastern side of the dunes is a series of lakes (Hourtin et Carcans, Lacanau, Cazau or Sanguinet, -Biscarrosse, Aureilhan, St Julien, Léon and Soustons) separated +Biscarrosse, Aureilhan, St Julien, Léon and Soustons) separated from the sea by the heaping up of the sand. The salt water has escaped by defiltration, and they are now quite fresh. The Basin of Arcachon, which lies midway between the lakes of @@ -5172,7 +5133,7 @@ count of more than usual power or dignity, and in some cases implied sovereignty. The title is now rare; it is borne by the former sovereign of Hesse-Homburg, now incorporated in Prussia, the heads of the various branches of the house of Hesse, and by a -branch of the family of Fürstenberg. In other cases the title of +branch of the family of Fürstenberg. In other cases the title of landgrave is borne by German sovereigns as a subsidiary title; <i>e.g.</i> the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar is landgrave of Thuringia.</p> @@ -5803,7 +5764,7 @@ The Crofters’ Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1886, 1887 and 1888, confer on “crofters” special rights. A crofter is defined as “a tenant of a holding”—being arable or pasture land, or partly arable and partly pasture land—“from year to year who resides on his holding, the -annual rent of which does not exceed £30 in money, and which is +annual rent of which does not exceed £30 in money, and which is situated in a ‘crofting parish.’” Nearly all the parishes in Argyll, Inverness, Ross, Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness and Orkney and Shetland answer to this description. The crofter enjoys a perpetual @@ -5891,8 +5852,8 @@ of the subject agreed to be let.</p> systems of land tenure in force in other countries. Only the question of the legal relations between landlord and tenant can be touched upon. In France, the Code Civil recognizes two -such relationships, the letting to hire of houses (<i>bail à loyer</i>) -and the letting to farm of rural properties (<i>bail à ferme</i>). To a +such relationships, the letting to hire of houses (<i>bail à loyer</i>) +and the letting to farm of rural properties (<i>bail à ferme</i>). To a certain extent, both forms of tenancy are governed by the same rules. The letting may be either written or verbal. But a verbal lease presents this disadvantage that, if it is unperformed @@ -5919,16 +5880,16 @@ diminution of the price, or the cancellation of the lease. In neither case is there ground for damages (Art. 1722). The lessor cannot, during the lease, change the form of the thing hired (Art. 1723). The lessee is bound, on his side (i.) to use -the thing hired like a good head of a household (<i>bon père de +the thing hired like a good head of a household (<i>bon père de famille</i>), in accordance with the express or presumed purpose of the hiring; (ii.) to pay the price of the hiring at the times agreed (Art. 1728). On breach of the former obligation, the lease may be judicially cancelled (Art. 1729). As to the consequences of breach of the latter, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>. If a statement of -the condition of the property (<i>état des lieux</i>) has been prepared, +the condition of the property (<i>état des lieux</i>) has been prepared, the lessee must give it up such as he received it according to the statement, except what has perished or decayed by age or by -means of <i>force majeure</i> (Art. 1730). In the absence of an <i>état +means of <i>force majeure</i> (Art. 1730). In the absence of an <i>état des lieux</i>, the lessee is presumed to have received the thing hired in a good state of tenantable repair, and must so yield it up, saving proof to the contrary (Art. 1731). He is liable for injuries @@ -5966,7 +5927,7 @@ by preceding harvests; (<i>b</i>) in the case of a lease for a year only, may secure a proportional abatement of the current rent. No refund is payable if the produce was severed before the accident, unless the lessor was entitled to a portion of it, when he must -bear his share of the loss, provided the lessee was not <i>in morâ</i> +bear his share of the loss, provided the lessee was not <i>in morâ</i> as regards the delivery of the lessor’s portion. The lessee has no right to a refund when the cause of damage was existing and known at the date of the lease (Arts. 1769-1771). Liability @@ -5990,13 +5951,13 @@ tenant must leave the straw and manure of the year, if he received them at the beginning of his lease, and even where he has not so received them, the owner may retain them according to valuation (Art. 1778). A word must be added as to letting by -cheptel (<i>bail à cheptel</i>)—a contract by which one of the parties +cheptel (<i>bail à cheptel</i>)—a contract by which one of the parties gives to the other a stock of cattle to keep under conditions agreed on between them (Art. 1800). There are several varieties of the contract, (i.) simple cheptel (<i>cheptel simple</i>) in which the whole stock is supplied by the lessor—the lessee taking half the profit and bearing half the loss (Art. 1804); (ii.) cheptel -by moiety (<i>cheptel à moietié</i>)—here each of the contracting +by moiety (<i>cheptel à moietié</i>)—here each of the contracting parties furnishes half of the stock, which remains common for profit or loss (Art. 1818); (iii.) cheptel given to a farmer (<i>fermier</i>) or participating cultivator (<i>colon partiaire</i>)—in the cheptel @@ -6016,8 +5977,8 @@ to some extent in Italy (Civil Code, Arts. 1568 et seq.), Spain 1298 et seq., 1595 et seq.). In all these countries there are varieties of emphyteutic tenure; and in Italy the mezzadria or metayer system (see Civil Code, Arts. 1647 et seq.) exists. -The German Civil Code adopts the distinction between <i>bail à loyer</i> -(Miehl, Arts. 535 et seq.) and <i>bail à ferme</i> (Pacht, Arts. 581 +The German Civil Code adopts the distinction between <i>bail à loyer</i> +(Miehl, Arts. 535 et seq.) and <i>bail à ferme</i> (Pacht, Arts. 581 et seq.). Dutch law also (Civil Code, Arts. 1583 et seq.) is similar to the French.</p> @@ -6039,7 +6000,7 @@ been passed.</p> <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—English Law: Wolstenholme, Brinton and Cherry, <i>Conveyancing and Settled Land Acts</i> (London, 9th ed., 1905); Hood and Challis, <i>Conveyancing and Settled Land Acts</i> (London, 7th ed., -1909); Foà, on <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (London, 4th ed., 1907); +1909); Foà , on <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (London, 4th ed., 1907); Woodfall, on <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (London, 18th ed., 1907); Fawcett, <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (London, 3rd ed., 1905). Scots Law: Hunter, on <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (Edinburgh, 4th ed., 1876); Rankine, on @@ -6074,7 +6035,7 @@ hundred volumes, form his chief title to be remembered. In spite of a complete want of critical accuracy, an extreme carelessness in the biographical details, and the feebleness of the line engravings by which they are illustrated, Landon’s <i>Annales -du Musée</i>, in 33 vols., form a vast repertory of compositions by +du Musée</i>, in 33 vols., form a vast repertory of compositions by masters of every age and school of permanent value. Landon also published <i>Lives of Celebrated Painters</i>, in 22 vols.; <i>An Historical Description of Paris</i>, 2 vols.; a <i>Description of London</i>, @@ -6138,7 +6099,7 @@ offence, he refused to return. The affair led to a quarrel with his father in which Landor expressed his intention of leaving home for ever. He was, however, reconciled with his family through the efforts of his friend Dorothea Lyttelton. He entered -no profession, but his father allowed him £150 a year, and he +no profession, but his father allowed him £150 a year, and he was free to live at home or not as he pleased.]</p> <p>In 1795 appeared in a small volume, divided into three books, @@ -6414,7 +6375,7 @@ than in the case of goods. Before the rightful owner can recover <span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span> misappropriated goods, he has to find out where they are. This is usually a matter of considerable difficulty. By the time they -have reached the hands of a <i>bonâ fide</i> purchaser all chance of +have reached the hands of a <i>bonâ fide</i> purchaser all chance of their recovery by the true owner is practically at an end. But with land the case is far otherwise. A dispossessed rightful owner never has any difficulty in tracing his property, for it @@ -6758,11 +6719,11 @@ land granted by government, after the passing of the several acts, is placed on the register compulsorily. But voluntary applications are also made in very large numbers. It is said ordinary purchasers will not buy land unless the vendor first registers the title. The fees -are very low—£1 to £3 is a usual maximum—though in some states, +are very low—£1 to £3 is a usual maximum—though in some states, <i>e.g.</i> Victoria, the fees rise indefinitely, <i>ad valorem</i>, at a rate of about -10s. per £1000. Insurance funds are established to provide compensation +10s. per £1000. Insurance funds are established to provide compensation for errors. At a recent date they amounted to over -£400,000, while only £14,600 odd had been paid in claims. All the +£400,000, while only £14,600 odd had been paid in claims. All the registries pay their own expenses. Bankers and men of business generally are warm in their appreciation of the acts, which are popularly called Torrens Acts, after their originator, who, though @@ -6804,19 +6765,19 @@ of deed registration, which materially facilitated its introduction. In some cases, Prussia, for instance, the former registers were kept in such a way as to amount in themselves to little short of a registry of title. Very low scales of fees suffice to pay all official expenses. -In Prussia the fees for registering sales begin at 5d. for a value of £1; -at £20 the fee is 2s 7d.; at £100 it is 7s. 3d.; at £1000 it is £1, 10s.; -at £5000, £4, 5s., and so on. In case of error, the officials are personally +In Prussia the fees for registering sales begin at 5d. for a value of £1; +at £20 the fee is 2s 7d.; at £100 it is 7s. 3d.; at £1000 it is £1, 10s.; +at £5000, £4, 5s., and so on. In case of error, the officials are personally liable; failing these, the state. Other states are very similar. In 1894, 1,159,995 transactions were registered in Prussia. In 1893, 938,708 were registered in Austria. Some idea of the extent to which small holdings prevail in these countries may be gathered from the fact that 36% of the sales and mortgages in Austria were for -under £8, 6s. 8d. value—74% were for under £50. Owing to the +under £8, 6s. 8d. value—74% were for under £50. Owing to the ease and simplicity of the registers, it is not always necessary to employ professional help. When such help is required, the fees are -low. In Vienna £1 is a very usual fee for the purchaser’s lawyer. -£10 is seldom reached. In Germany the register is private. In +low. In Vienna £1 is a very usual fee for the purchaser’s lawyer. +£10 is seldom reached. In Germany the register is private. In Austria it is open to public inspection. In these registers may be found examples of large estates in the country with numerous charges and encumbrances and dealings therewith; peasants’ @@ -6827,7 +6788,7 @@ family settlements, and dealings of all sorts—inheritances and wills, partitions, bankruptcies, mortgages, and a great variety of dealings therewith. The Continental systems are usually administered locally in districts, about 20 to 30 m. across, attached to the local law courts. -In Baden and Württemberg every parish (commune) has its own +In Baden and Württemberg every parish (commune) has its own registry. All ordinary dealings are transacted with the greatest expedition. Security is absolute.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> @@ -6846,13 +6807,13 @@ York for splitting the indexes into “blocks,” which is believed to have given much relief. The average time and cost of an examination of title, as estimated by a committee of the Bar Association of New York in 1887, was about thirty days and 150 dollars (about -£30). A later State Commission in Illinois estimates the law costs of -a sale there at about 25 dollars (£5); the time may run into many +£30). A later State Commission in Illinois estimates the law costs of +a sale there at about 25 dollars (£5); the time may run into many months. Allusion has already been made to the insurance of title companies. The rates of insurance are substantial, <i>e.g.</i> 65 dollars -(£13) on the first 3000 dollars (£600), and 5 dollars (£1) on each -additional 1000 dollars (£200). This would amount to £20 on £2000 -value, £110 on £20,000, £510 on £100,000. The guarantee given is +(£13) on the first 3000 dollars (£600), and 5 dollars (£1) on each +additional 1000 dollars (£200). This would amount to £20 on £2000 +value, £110 on £20,000, £510 on £100,000. The guarantee given is very ample, and may be renewed to subsequent owners at one-third of the fee. Registration of title has lately been introduced, on a voluntary basis, into the states of California, Oregon, Illinois, @@ -6866,7 +6827,7 @@ rent may lose priority if not registered. Wills need not be registered. Mortgages must be re-registered every ten years. Purchase deeds are registered by filing full copies. Registries are established in all the considerable towns. The duty on sales amounts to the high -figure of about 6½% on the value. Part of this is allocated to +figure of about 6½% on the value. Part of this is allocated to registration, in addition to which a fixed fee of one franc, and stationers’ charges averaging 6 francs are also chargeable. The title can usually be fully investigated from the documents in the registry. @@ -6878,9 +6839,9 @@ established by a law of 1790 after the abolition of seigniorial institutions in 1789. This was modified by the Code Napoleon, and further perfected by a law of 1855. The average value of transactions in France is very small. Probably at the present time four-fifths of the -properties are of under £25 value. The costs of a sale for 200 francs -(£8) would be about as follows: Duty, 13 fr.; Notary (1%), 2 fr.; -expenses, 12 fr.—total 27 fr. A sale for 1000 fr. (£40) would cost +properties are of under £25 value. The costs of a sale for 200 francs +(£8) would be about as follows: Duty, 13 fr.; Notary (1%), 2 fr.; +expenses, 12 fr.—total 27 fr. A sale for 1000 fr. (£40) would cost about 110 fr. Taking all values, the cost of conveyance and duty reaches the high figure of 10% in the general run of transactions. The vendor as a rule has no costs. <i>Indefeasible</i> title is not obtainable, @@ -6922,8 +6883,8 @@ Australian Torrens System</i>; Hogg, <i>The Transfer of Land Act 1890</i> (Berlin). Austria—<i>Das allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz</i>, &c. (Vienna); Bartsch, <i>Das Oesterreichische allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz in seiner practischen Anwendung</i> (Vienna). Saxony—Siegmann, -<i>Sächsische Hypothekenrecht</i> (Leipzig). Statistics—<i>Oesterreichische -Statistik</i> (<i>Grundbuchs-ämter</i>) (Vienna, annually).</p> +<i>Sächsische Hypothekenrecht</i> (Leipzig). Statistics—<i>Oesterreichische +Statistik</i> (<i>Grundbuchs-ämter</i>) (Vienna, annually).</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. F.-Br.)</div> @@ -7036,7 +6997,7 @@ little besides facility of technical expression, a greater zest for humour and a larger style. The work of this stage ended with the production of the painting called “The Cat’s Paw,” which was sent to the British Institution in 1824, and made an enormous -sensation. The price obtained for this picture, £100, enabled +sensation. The price obtained for this picture, £100, enabled Landseer to set up for himself in the house No. 1 St John’s Wood Road, where he lived nearly fifty years and in which he died. During this period Landseer’s principal pictures were “The Cat @@ -7109,8 +7070,8 @@ finest work, others prefer “The Old Shepherd’s Chief Mourner” (1837). The over-praised and unfortunate “Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time,” a group of portraits in character, was also shown in 1834, and was the first picture for which the painter -received £400. A few years later he sold “Peace” and “War” -for £1500, and for the copyrights alone obtained £6000. In +received £400. A few years later he sold “Peace” and “War” +for £1500, and for the copyrights alone obtained £6000. In 1881 “Man proposes, God Disposes” (1864) was resold for 6300 guineas, and a cartoon of “The Chase” (1866) fetched 5000 guineas. “A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society,” @@ -7130,7 +7091,7 @@ Shot,” a dead kid lying in the snow, came forth in 1848. In 1850 Landseer received a national commission to paint in the Houses of Parliament three subjects connected with the chase. Although they would have been worth three times as much -money, the House of Commons refused to grant £1500 for these +money, the House of Commons refused to grant £1500 for these pictures, and the matter fell through, more to the artist’s profit than the nation’s gain. The famous “Monarch of the Glen” (1851) was one of these subjects. “Night” and “Morning,” @@ -7206,8 +7167,8 @@ Australia.</p> most point of England. It is a fine headland of granite, pierced by a natural arch, on a coast renowned for its cliff scenery. Dangerous reefs lie off the point, and one group a mile from the -mainland is marked by the Longships Lighthouse, in 50° 4′ N. -5° 43′ W. The Land’s End is the westernmost of the granite +mainland is marked by the Longships Lighthouse, in 50° 4′ N. +5° 43′ W. The Land’s End is the westernmost of the granite masses which rise at intervals through Cornwall from Dartmoor. The phenomenon of a raised beach may be seen here, but indications of a submerged forest have also been discovered in the @@ -7257,8 +7218,8 @@ is sometimes called “Dreihelm Stadt.”</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Staudenraus, <i>Chronik der Stadt Landshut</i>, (Landshut 1832); Wiesend, <i>Topographische Geschichte von Landshut</i> (Landshut, 1858); -Rosenthal, <i>Zur Rechtsgeschichte der Städte Landshut und Straubing</i> -(Würzberg, 1883); Kalcher, <i>Führer durch Landshut</i> (Landshut, +Rosenthal, <i>Zur Rechtsgeschichte der Städte Landshut und Straubing</i> +(Würzberg, 1883); Kalcher, <i>Führer durch Landshut</i> (Landshut, 1887); Haack, <i>Die gotische Architektur und Plastik der Stadt Landshut</i> (Munich, 1894); and <i>Geschichte der Stadt Landshut</i> (Landshut, 1835).</p> @@ -7291,9 +7252,9 @@ came into use.</p> the emperor issued recruiting commissions corresponding to the English “indents”; they were organized in regiments made up of a colonel, lieut.-colonel and regimental staff, with a varying -number of companies, “colours” (<i>Fähnlein</i>), commanded by +number of companies, “colours” (<i>Fähnlein</i>), commanded by captains (<i>Hauptmann</i>); subaltern officers were lieutenants -and ensigns (<i>Fähnrich</i>). In thus defining the titles and duties +and ensigns (<i>Fähnrich</i>). In thus defining the titles and duties of each rank, and in almost every detail of regimental customs and organization, discipline and interior economy, the landsknechts may be considered as the founders of the modern @@ -7310,7 +7271,7 @@ being tanning and sugar manufacture and refining from beetroot. On the little island of Hven, immediately opposite the town, Tycho Brahe built his famous subterranean observatory of Uranienborg in the second half of the 16th century. Landskrona, -originally called Landora or Landör, owed its first importance +originally called Landora or Landör, owed its first importance to King Erik XIII., who introduced a body of Carmelite monks from Germany in 1410, and bestowed on the place the privileges of a town. During the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries it @@ -7320,7 +7281,7 @@ in which the Swedes defeated the Danes.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LANDSTURM<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span>, the German equivalent of the <i>levée en masse</i>, +<p><span class="bold">LANDSTURM<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span>, the German equivalent of the <i>levée en masse</i>, or general levy of all men capable of bearing arms and not included in the other regularly organized forces, standing army or its second line formations, of Continental nations.</p> @@ -7443,7 +7404,7 @@ part vi. of the <i>Lexicon</i>. It was published separately in 1877.</p> was born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of December 1823. He graduated in 1846 at Harvard, and in 1847-1851 studied at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg and -Göttingen. In 1851 he received his doctor’s degree at Göttingen +Göttingen. In 1851 he received his doctor’s degree at Göttingen for his dissertation <i>Smyrnaeorum Res Gestae et Antiquitates</i>, and on his return to America he was appointed University Professor of Latin in Harvard College. From 1869 until 1894, @@ -7540,7 +7501,7 @@ Institute from 1882 until his death.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1843-  ), -French statesman and naturalist, was born at Sainte-André de +French statesman and naturalist, was born at Sainte-André de Cubzac (Gironde) on the 13th of July 1843. He entered the navy in 1862, serving on the East African and Cochin-China stations in the medical department until the Franco-German @@ -7558,21 +7519,21 @@ connexion with the approaching Paris exhibition, gave him the opportunity of studying colonial questions, on which, after his return, he published three works: <i>La Tunisie</i> (Paris, 1887); <i>L’Expansion coloniale de la France</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1888), <i>L’Indo-Chine -française</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1889). In 1891 he was made civil and military +française</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1889). In 1891 he was made civil and military governor of French Indo-China, where his administration, which involved him in open rupture with Admiral Fournier, was severely criticized. Nevertheless he consolidated French influence in Annam and Cambodia, and secured a large accession of territory on the Mekong river from the kingdom of Siam. He was recalled in 1894, and published an apology for his -administration (<i>La Colonisation française en Indo-Chine</i>) in the +administration (<i>La Colonisation française en Indo-Chine</i>) in the following year. In the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet of 1899 to 1902 he was minister of marine, and in 1901 he secured the passage of a naval programme intended to raise the French navy during the next six years to a level befitting the place of France among the great powers. At the general election of 1906 he was not re-elected. He was political director of the -<i>Siècle</i>, and president of the French Colonization Society, and +<i>Siècle</i>, and president of the French Colonization Society, and wrote, besides the books already mentioned, various works on political and biological questions.</p> @@ -7738,9 +7699,9 @@ sources, and of Lanfranc’s writings, is that of L. d’Achery, <i>Beat Lanfranci opera omnia</i> (Paris, 1648). Another edition, slightly enlarged, is that of J. A. Giles, <i>Lanfranci opera</i> (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). The correspondence between Lanfranc and Gregory VII. is -given in the <i>Monumenta Gregoriana</i> (ed. P. Jaffé, Berlin, 1865). Of +given in the <i>Monumenta Gregoriana</i> (ed. P. Jaffé, Berlin, 1865). Of modern works A. Charma’s <i>Lanfranc</i> (Paris, 1849), H. Boehmer’s <i>Die -Fälschungen Erzbischof Lanfranks von Canterbury</i> (Leipzig, 1902), +Fälschungen Erzbischof Lanfranks von Canterbury</i> (Leipzig, 1902), and the same author’s <i>Kirche und Staat in England und in der Normandie</i> (Leipzig, 1899) are useful. See also the authorities cited in the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William I.</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II.</a></span></p> @@ -7750,17 +7711,17 @@ in the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William I.</a></span> an <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANFREY, PIERRE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1828-1877), French historian and -politician, was born at Chambéry (Savoie) on the 26th of October +politician, was born at Chambéry (Savoie) on the 26th of October <span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span> 1828. His father had been one of Napoleon’s officers. The son studied philosophy and history in Paris and wrote historical works of an anti-clerical and rationalizing tendency. These -included <i>L’Église et les philosophes au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1855; new -edition, with a notice of the author by E. de Pressensé, 1879); -<i>Essai sur la révolution française</i> (1858); <i>Histoire politique des -papes</i> (1860); <i>Lettres d Evérard</i> (1860), a novel in the form of -letters; <i>Le Rétablissement de la Pologne</i> (1863). His <i>magnum opus</i> -was his <i>Histoire de Napoléon I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (5 vols., 1867-1875 and 1886; +included <i>L’Église et les philosophes au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1855; new +edition, with a notice of the author by E. de Pressensé, 1879); +<i>Essai sur la révolution française</i> (1858); <i>Histoire politique des +papes</i> (1860); <i>Lettres d Evérard</i> (1860), a novel in the form of +letters; <i>Le Rétablissement de la Pologne</i> (1863). His <i>magnum opus</i> +was his <i>Histoire de Napoléon I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (5 vols., 1867-1875 and 1886; Eng. trans., 4 vols., 1871-1879), which ceased unfortunately at the end of 1811 with the preparations for the Russian campaign of 1812. This book, based on the emperor’s correspondence @@ -7775,7 +7736,7 @@ became ambassador at Bern (1871-1873), and life senator in 1875. He died at Pau on the 15th of November 1877.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> were published in 12 vols. (1879 seq.), and +<p>His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> were published in 12 vols. (1879 seq.), and his <i>Correspondance</i> in 2 vols. (1885).</p> </div> @@ -7793,8 +7754,8 @@ publication was a volume of metrical experiments, <i>The Ballads and Lyrics of Old France</i> (1872), and this was followed at intervals by other volumes of dainty verse, <i>xxii.</i> <i>Ballades in Blue China</i> (1880, enlarged edition, 1888), <i>Ballads and Verses Vain</i> (1884), -selected by Mr Austin Dobson; <i>Rhymes à la Mode</i> (1884), <i>Grass -of Parnassus</i> (1888), <i>Ban and Arrière Ban</i> (1894), <i>New Collected +selected by Mr Austin Dobson; <i>Rhymes à la Mode</i> (1884), <i>Grass +of Parnassus</i> (1888), <i>Ban and Arrière Ban</i> (1894), <i>New Collected Rhymes</i> (1905). He collaborated with S. H. Butcher in a prose translation (1879) of the <i>Odyssey</i>, and with E. Myers and Walter Leaf in a prose version (1883) of the <i>Iliad</i>, both of them remarkable @@ -7862,7 +7823,7 @@ Diaries</i> (1890) of Sir Stafford Northcote, first earl of Iddesleigh.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANG, KARL HEINRICH<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Ritter von</span> (1764-1835), German historian, was born on the 7th of June 1764 at Balgheim, near -Nördlingen. From the first he was greatly attracted towards +Nördlingen. From the first he was greatly attracted towards historical studies, and this was shown when he began to attend the gymnasium of Oettingen, and in 1782, when he went to the university of Altdorf, near Nuremberg. At the same time he @@ -7873,13 +7834,13 @@ official. He was of a restless, changeable character, which constantly involved him in personal quarrels, though he was equally quick to retire from them. In 1788 he obtained a position as private tutor in Hungary, and in 1789 became private -secretary to Baron von Bühler, the envoy of Württemberg at +secretary to Baron von Bühler, the envoy of Württemberg at Vienna. This led to further travels and to his entering the service of the prince of Oettingen-Wallerstein. In 1792 Lang -again betook himself to a university, this time to Göttingen. +again betook himself to a university, this time to Göttingen. Here he came under the influence of the historian, Ludwig Timotheus Spittler, from whom, as also from Johannes von -Müller and Friedrich Schlegel, his historical studies received a +Müller and Friedrich Schlegel, his historical studies received a fresh impulse. At intervals from 1793 to 1801 Lang was closely connected with the Prussian statesman Hardenberg, who employed him as his private secretary and archivist, and in @@ -7922,14 +7883,14 @@ names of families which he disliked.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Of his very numerous literary productions the following may be -mentioned: <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis der natürlichen und politischen -Verfassung des oettingischen Vaterlandes</i> (1786); <i>Ein Votum über den +mentioned: <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis der natürlichen und politischen +Verfassung des oettingischen Vaterlandes</i> (1786); <i>Ein Votum über den Wucher von einem Manne sine voto</i> (1791); <i>Historische Entwicklung -der deutschen Steuerverfassungen</i> (1793); <i>Historische Prüfung des -vermeintlichen Alters der deutschen Landstände</i> (1796); <i>Neuere -Geschichte des Fürstentums Bayreuth</i> (1486-1603) (1798-1811); -<i>Tabellen über Flächeninhalt &c. und bevorstehende Verluste der -deutschen Reichsstände</i>. (On the occasion of the congress of Rastadt, +der deutschen Steuerverfassungen</i> (1793); <i>Historische Prüfung des +vermeintlichen Alters der deutschen Landstände</i> (1796); <i>Neuere +Geschichte des Fürstentums Bayreuth</i> (1486-1603) (1798-1811); +<i>Tabellen über Flächeninhalt &c. und bevorstehende Verluste der +deutschen Reichsstände</i>. (On the occasion of the congress of Rastadt, 1798); <i>Der Minister Graf von Montgelas</i> (1814); <i>Geschichte der Jesuiten in Bayern</i> (1819); and <i>Bayerns Gauen</i> (Nuremberg, 1830).</p> @@ -8032,15 +7993,15 @@ Charles R. Corning in the <i>New England Magazine</i>, vol. xxii. (Boston, <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LANGE, ANNE FRANÇOISE ELIZABETH<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1772-1816), +<p><span class="bold">LANGE, ANNE FRANÇOISE ELIZABETH<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1772-1816), French actress, was born in Genoa on the 17th of September -1772, the daughter of a musician and an actress at the Comédie +1772, the daughter of a musician and an actress at the Comédie Italienne. She made her first appearance on the stage at Tours -in 1787 and a successful début at the Comédie Française in 1788 -in <i>L’Écossaise</i> and <i>L’Oracle</i>. She followed Talma and the others +in 1787 and a successful début at the Comédie Française in 1788 +in <i>L’Écossaise</i> and <i>L’Oracle</i>. She followed Talma and the others in 1791 to the Rue Richelieu, but returned after a few months -to the Comédie Française. Here her talent and beauty gave -her an enormous success in François de Neuchâteau’s <i>Pamela</i>, +to the Comédie Française. Here her talent and beauty gave +her an enormous success in François de Neuchâteau’s <i>Pamela</i>, the performance of which brought upon the theatre the vials of wrath of the Committee of Safety. With the author and the other members of the caste, she was arrested and imprisoned. @@ -8059,7 +8020,7 @@ medicine at Berlin (1835-1840), and on taking his degree, in 1840, entered the Prussian army as surgeon. In this capacity he saw service in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign of 1849. He settled at Bielefeld as medical practitioner and here issued -his first novel, <i>Der Inselkönig</i> (1852, 3rd ed., 1858), which enjoyed +his first novel, <i>Der Inselkönig</i> (1852, 3rd ed., 1858), which enjoyed considerable popularity. In Bielefeld he continued to work at his profession and to write, until his retirement, with the rank of <i>Oberstabsarzt</i> (surgeon-general) to Potsdam in 1878; there @@ -8083,7 +8044,7 @@ considerable attention.</p> <p><span class="bold">LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1828-1875), German philosopher and sociologist, was born on the 28th of September 1828, at Wald, near Solingen, the son of the theologian, J. P. -Lange (<i>q.v.</i>). He was educated at Duisburg, Zürich and Bonn, +Lange (<i>q.v.</i>). He was educated at Duisburg, Zürich and Bonn, where he distinguished himself by gymnastics as much as by study. In 1852 he became schoolmaster at Cologne; in 1855 <i>privatdozent</i> in philosophy at Bonn; in 1858 schoolmaster @@ -8093,14 +8054,14 @@ to take part in political agitation. Lange then entered on a career of militant journalism in the cause of political and social reform. He was also prominent in the affairs of his town, yet found leisure to write most of his best-known books, <i>Die -Leibesübungen</i> (1863), <i>Die Arbeiterfrage</i> (1865, 5th ed. 1894), +Leibesübungen</i> (1863), <i>Die Arbeiterfrage</i> (1865, 5th ed. 1894), <i>Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der Gegenwart</i> (1866; 7th ed. with biographical sketch by H. Cohen, 1902; Eng. trans., E. C. Thomas, 1877), and <i>J. S. -Mill’s Ansichten über die sociale Frage</i> (1866). In 1866, discouraged +Mill’s Ansichten über die sociale Frage</i> (1866). In 1866, discouraged by affairs in Germany, he moved to Winterthur, -near Zürich, to become connected with the democratic newspaper, -<i>Winterthurer Landbote</i>. In 1869 he was <i>Privatdozent at Zürich</i>, +near Zürich, to become connected with the democratic newspaper, +<i>Winterthurer Landbote</i>. In 1869 he was <i>Privatdozent at Zürich</i>, and next year professor. The strong French sympathies of the Swiss in the Franco-German War led to his speedy resignation. Thenceforward he gave up politics. In 1872 he accepted a @@ -8131,9 +8092,9 @@ Darwinian principle of struggle for existence.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See O. A. Ellissen, <i>F. A. Lange</i> (Leipzig, 1891), and in <i>Monatsch. d. Comeniusgesell</i>. iii., 1894, 210 ff.; H. Cohen in <i>Preuss</i>. <i>Jahrb.</i> xxvii., -1876, 353 ff.; Vaihinger, <i>Hartmann, Dühring und Lange</i> (Iserlohn, -1876); J. M. Bösch, <i>F. A. Lange und sein Standpunkt d. Ideals</i> -(Frauenfeld, 1890); H. Braun, <i>F. A. Lange, als Socialökonom</i> (Halle, +1876, 353 ff.; Vaihinger, <i>Hartmann, Dühring und Lange</i> (Iserlohn, +1876); J. M. Bösch, <i>F. A. Lange und sein Standpunkt d. Ideals</i> +(Frauenfeld, 1890); H. Braun, <i>F. A. Lange, als Socialökonom</i> (Halle, 1881).</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. St.)</div> @@ -8143,7 +8104,7 @@ Comeniusgesell</i>. iii., 1894, 210 ff.; H. Cohen in <i>Preuss</i>. <i>Jahrb.</i <p><span class="bold">LANGE, JOHANN PETER<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1802-1884), German Protestant theologian, was of peasant origin and was born at Sonneborn near Elberfeld on the 10th of April 1802. He studied theology -at Bonn (from 1822) under K. I. Nitzsch and G. C. F. Lücke, +at Bonn (from 1822) under K. I. Nitzsch and G. C. F. Lücke, held several pastorates, and eventually (1854) settled at Bonn as professor of theology in succession to Isaac A. Dorner, becoming also in 1860 counsellor to the consistory. He died on @@ -8162,7 +8123,7 @@ that they did not produce any lasting effect” (Otto Pfleiderer).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>His other works include <i>Das Leben Jesu</i> (3 vols., 1844-1847), <i>Das apostolische Zeitalter</i> (2 vols., 1853-1854). <i>Grundriss der theologischen -Enzyklopädie</i> (1877). <i>Grundriss der christlichen Ethik</i> (1878), and +Enzyklopädie</i> (1877). <i>Grundriss der christlichen Ethik</i> (1878), and <i>Grundriss der Bibelkunde</i> (1881). In 1857 he undertook with other scholars a <i>Theologisch-homiletisches Bibelwerk</i>, to which he contributed commentaries on the first four books of the Pentateuch, Haggai, @@ -8177,8 +8138,8 @@ editorship of Dr Philip Schaff.</p> of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Loire, 16 m. W.S.W. of Tours by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 1755; commune, 3550. Langeais has a church of the 11th, 12th and 15th centuries but -is chiefly interesting for the possession of a large château built -soon after the middle of the 15th century by Jean Bourré, +is chiefly interesting for the possession of a large château built +soon after the middle of the 15th century by Jean Bourré, minister of Louis XI. Here the marriage of Charles VIII. and Anne of Brittany took place in 1491. In the park are the ruins of a keep of late 10th-century architecture, built by Fulk Nerra, @@ -8192,8 +8153,8 @@ ordained priest in 1859, was nominated professor extraordinary at the university of Bonn in 1864, and a professor in ordinary of the exegesis of the New Testament in 1867—an office which he held till his death. He was one of the able band of professors -who in 1870 supported Döllinger in his resistance to the Vatican -decrees, and was excommunicated with Ignaz v. Döllinger, +who in 1870 supported Döllinger in his resistance to the Vatican +decrees, and was excommunicated with Ignaz v. Döllinger, Johann Huber, Johann Friedrich, Franz Heinrich Reusch, Joseph Hubert Reinkens and others, for refusing to accept them. In 1878, in consequence of the permission given to priests to @@ -8232,10 +8193,10 @@ hastened his death, which occurred in July 1901.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANGENBECK, BERNHARD RUDOLF KONRAD VON<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1810-1887), German surgeon, was born at Horneburg on the 9th of -November 1810, and received his medical education at Göttingen, +November 1810, and received his medical education at Göttingen, where he took his doctor’s degree in 1835 with a thesis on the structure of the retina. After a visit to France and England, he -returned to Göttingen as <i>Privatdozent</i>, and in 1842 became +returned to Göttingen as <i>Privatdozent</i>, and in 1842 became professor of surgery and director of the Friedrichs Hospital at Kiel. Six years later he succeeded J. F. Dieffenbach (1794-1847) as director of the Clinical Institute for Surgery and Ophthalmology @@ -8253,7 +8214,7 @@ had been taken by the Prussians, and was unwearied in his attentions, whether as operator or consultant, to wounded men with whom every public building was packed. He also utilized the opportunities for instruction that thus arose, and the -“Militär-Aerztliche Gesellschaft,” which met twice a week for +“Militär-Aerztliche Gesellschaft,” which met twice a week for some months, and in the discussions of which every surgeon <span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span> in the city was invited to take part, irrespective of nationality, @@ -8284,8 +8245,8 @@ to lay down their arms on the arrival of overwhelming Prussian reinforcements.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Göschel, <i>Chronik der Stadt Langensalza</i> (Langensalza, 1818-1842); -G. and H. Schütz, <i>Chronik der Stadt Langensalza</i> (Langensalza, +<p>See Göschel, <i>Chronik der Stadt Langensalza</i> (Langensalza, 1818-1842); +G. and H. Schütz, <i>Chronik der Stadt Langensalza</i> (Langensalza, 1901); and Gutbier, <i>Schwefelbad Langensalza</i> (Langensalza, 1900).</p> </div> @@ -8669,7 +8630,7 @@ the Redeless</i>; Warton, <i>Hist. of Eng. Poetry</i>; Rev. H. H. Milman, <i>Hist. of Latin Christianity</i>; G. P. Marsh, <i>Lectures on English</i>; H. Morley, <i>English Writers</i>; B. ten Brink, <i>Early English Literature</i>; J. J. Jusserand, <i>Observations sur la vision de P. P.</i> (Paris, 1879); -<i>Les Anglais au moyen âge: L’Épopée mystique de William Langland</i> +<i>Les Anglais au moyen âge: L’Épopée mystique de William Langland</i> (1893, Eng. trans. <i>Piers Plowman</i>, revised and enlarged by another 1894); J. M. Manly in <i>Cambridge Hist. of English Lit.</i>, vol. ii. and bibliography. A long and careful summary of the whole poem is @@ -8750,7 +8711,7 @@ Various other delays and mishaps followed, but ultimately, on the 6th of May 1896, a successful flight was made. On that day an aerodrome, weighing about 30 ℔ and about 16 ft. in length, with wings measuring between 12 and 13 ft. from tip -to tip, twice sustained itself in the air for 1½ minutes (the full +to tip, twice sustained itself in the air for 1½ minutes (the full time for which it was supplied with fuel and water), and traversed on each occasion a distance of over half a mile, falling gently into the water when the engines stopped. Later in the same @@ -8766,12 +8727,12 @@ February 1906.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1839-  ), French general, was -born at Besançon in 1839, and, after passing through the École +born at Besançon in 1839, and, after passing through the École Polytechnique, was appointed to the artillery as sub-lieutenant in 1858, attaining the rank of captain in 1866. He served in the army of Metz in the war of 1870. Eight years later he became major, in 1887 lieutenant-colonel and in 1888 colonel. At this -time he was appointed professor of artillery at the École de Guerre, +time he was appointed professor of artillery at the École de Guerre, and in this post he devoted himself to working out the tactical principles of the employment of field artillery under the new conditions of armament of which he foresaw the advent. The @@ -8779,25 +8740,25 @@ public result of his work was the great treatise <i>L’Artillerie de campagne</i> (1891-1892), which may still be regarded as the classic of the arm. In 1894 he became general of brigade, and in 1898 general of division. For two years after this he was the commandant -of the École de Guerre at the time that the modern +of the École de Guerre at the time that the modern French strategical and tactical “doctrine” was being developed and taught. He was, however, regarded as a leader as well as a theorist, and in 1901 he was selected to command the XX. Army Corps on the German frontier, popularly called the “iron” -corps. In 1902 he became a member of the Conseil supérieur de +corps. In 1902 he became a member of the Conseil supérieur de la Guerre, consisting of senior generals marked out for the higher commands in war. He retired from the active list in 1904 on reaching the age limit, and devoted himself with the greatest energy to critical military literature. In 1907 he began the publication of a monthly journal of military art and history, -the <i>Revue militaire générale</i>. The most important of his other -works are <i>Enseignements de deux guerres recentes</i> and <i>Conséquences -tactiques du progrès de l’armement</i>.</p> +the <i>Revue militaire générale</i>. The most important of his other +works are <i>Enseignements de deux guerres recentes</i> and <i>Conséquences +tactiques du progrès de l’armement</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANGPORT<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span>, a market town in the eastern parliamentary -division of Somersetshire, England, 13½ m. E. of Taunton by +division of Somersetshire, England, 13½ m. E. of Taunton by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 890. It lies on the right (east) bank of the river Parret, near the point where that river debouches from the hills on to the plain through which it @@ -8854,8 +8815,8 @@ plateau de Langres, and overlooks eastward and westward respectively the valleys of the Marne and its tributary the Bonnelle. From the cathedral tower and the ramparts which surround the town there is an extensive view over the valley -of the Marne, the Vosges and the Côte d’Or, and in clear weather -Mt Blanc (160 m. distant) is visible. The cathedral of St Mammès, +of the Marne, the Vosges and the Côte d’Or, and in clear weather +Mt Blanc (160 m. distant) is visible. The cathedral of St Mammès, for the most part in the Transitional style of the 12th century, has a west front in the Graeco-Roman style of the 18th century and a fine Renaissance chapel. The church of St Martin (13th, @@ -8891,17 +8852,17 @@ of wars of positions and passive defence. The modern fortifications of Langres, which serves as a second line fortress, consist of (<i>a</i>) Fort St Menge or Ligniville on high ground above the confluence of the Marne and the Neuilly brook, about 5 m. N. by W. of the town; -(<i>b</i>) the west front, comprising Humes battery (2¼ m. N.W. of +(<i>b</i>) the west front, comprising Humes battery (2¼ m. N.W. of Langres), Fort de la Pointe de Diamant, and the redoubts of Perrancey, Le Fays and Noidant (the last 4 m. S.W. of the town), overlooking the deep valley of the Mouche brook (this front was attacked in the mock siege of August 1907); (<i>c</i>) the south front, -comprising Fort de la Bonnelle or Décrès (2 m. S.S.W. of the town), a +comprising Fort de la Bonnelle or Décrès (2 m. S.S.W. of the town), a small work commanding the Chalon-Langres road, Le Mont and Le Pailly batteries, Fort Vercingetorix, the last, 5 m. S.W. of the place, standing on a steep and narrow spur of the main plateau, and in second line the old fort de la Marnotte, and the large bastioned -citadel (the town enceinte is “déclassée”); (<i>d</i>) the east front, marked +citadel (the town enceinte is “déclassée”); (<i>d</i>) the east front, marked by Forts Montlandon and Plesnoy at the north and south ends respectively of a long steep ridge, 6 m. E. of Langres, the bridges over the Marne leading to these works being commanded by Fort Peigney, @@ -8933,8 +8894,8 @@ about 1330. It has been edited for the Rolls Series by T. Wright <div class="condensed"> <p>See Wright’s preface, and also O. Preussner, <i>Robert Mannyng of -Brunne’s Übersetzung von Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle und ihr -Verhältniss zum Originale</i> (Breslau, 1891).</p> +Brunne’s Ãœbersetzung von Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle und ihr +Verhältniss zum Originale</i> (Breslau, 1891).</p> </div> @@ -9159,8 +9120,8 @@ France, the <i>langue d’oil</i> (the <i>oui</i> of to-day). Territorially Languedoc varied considerably in extent, but in general from 1360 until the French Revolution it included the territory of the following departments of modern France: part of Tarn -et Garonne, Tarn, most of Haute-Garonne, Ariège, Aude, -Pyrénées-Orientales, Hérault, Gard, Lozère, part of Ardèche +et Garonne, Tarn, most of Haute-Garonne, Ariège, Aude, +Pyrénées-Orientales, Hérault, Gard, Lozère, part of Ardèche and Haute-Loire. The country had no natural geographical unity. Stretching over the Cevennes into the valleys of the upper Loire on the north and into that of the upper Garonne @@ -9169,7 +9130,7 @@ hills along the Rhone on the east. Its unity was entirely a political creation, but none the less real, as it was the great state of the Midi, the representative of its culture and, to some degree, the defence of its peculiar civilization. Its climate, especially -in Hérault (Montpellier), is especially delightful in spring and +in Hérault (Montpellier), is especially delightful in spring and early summer, and the scenery still holds enough ruined remains of Roman and feudal times to recall the romance and the tragedy of its history.</p> @@ -9187,8 +9148,8 @@ exactly to no administrative division of the Roman empire, it was approximately the territory included in <i>Gallia Narbonensis</i>, one of the seventeen provinces into which the empire was divided at the death of Augustus. It was rich and flourishing, crowded -with great and densely populated towns, Nîmes, Narbonne, -Béziers, Toulouse; with schools of rhetoric and poetry still +with great and densely populated towns, Nîmes, Narbonne, +Béziers, Toulouse; with schools of rhetoric and poetry still vigorous in the 5th century; theatres, amphitheatres and splendid temples. In the 5th century this high culture was an open prize for the barbarians; and after the passing of the @@ -9196,8 +9157,8 @@ Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths into Spain, the Visigoths returned under Wallia, who made his capital at Toulouse in 419. This was the foundation of the Visigothic kingdom which Clovis dismembered in 507, leaving the Visigoths only Septimania—the -country of seven cities, Narbonne, Carcassonne, Elne, Béziers, -Maguelonne, Lodève and Agde—that is, very nearly the area +country of seven cities, Narbonne, Carcassonne, Elne, Béziers, +Maguelonne, Lodève and Agde—that is, very nearly the area occupied later by the province of Languedoc. At the council of Narbonne in 589 five races are mentioned as living in the province, Visigoths, Romans, Jews—of whom there were a @@ -9211,13 +9172,13 @@ became a separate duchy in 817.</p> history of Languedoc, the great houses of Toulouse and Carcassonne and the swarm of warlike counts and barons practically ignoring the distant king of France, and maintaining a chronic -state of civil war. The feudal régime did not become at all +state of civil war. The feudal régime did not become at all universal in the district, as it tended to become in the north of France. Allodial tenures survived in sufficient numbers to constitute a considerable class of non-vassal subjects of the king, with whose authority they were little troubled. By the end of the 11th century the house of the counts of Toulouse -began to play the predominant rôle; but their court had been +began to play the predominant rôle; but their court had been famous almost a century before for its love of art and literature and its extravagance in dress and fashions, all of which denoted its wealth. Constance, wife of King Robert II. and daughter @@ -9234,7 +9195,7 @@ according to the chroniclers, followed him—away on the first crusade, left a troubled heritage to his sons Bertrand and Alphonse Jourdain. The latter successfully beat off William IX., duke of Aquitaine, and won from the count of Barcelona that part of -Provence between the Drôme and the Durance. The reign of +Provence between the Drôme and the Durance. The reign of Alphonse lasted from 1109 to 1148. By the opening of the 13th century the sovereignty of the counts of Toulouse was recognized through about half of Provence, and they held the @@ -9265,7 +9226,7 @@ taught contempt for the clergy. Saint Bernard himself was able to make but temporary headway against this rebellion from a sacramental and institutionalized Christianity. In the first decade of the 13th century came the inevitable conflict. The -whole county of Toulouse, with its fiefs of Narbonne, Béziers, +whole county of Toulouse, with its fiefs of Narbonne, Béziers, Foix, Montpellier and Quercy, was in open and scornful secession from the Catholic Church, and the suppression of this Manichaean or Cathar religion was the end of the brilliant culture of @@ -9301,20 +9262,20 @@ division of Languedoc in 1229 Louis IX. was given all the country from Carcassonne to the Rhone. This royal Languedoc was at first subject to much trickery on the part of northern speculators and government officials. In 1248 Louis IX. sent -royal <i>enquêteurs</i>, much like Charlemagne’s <i>missi dominici</i>, to +royal <i>enquêteurs</i>, much like Charlemagne’s <i>missi dominici</i>, to correct all abuses, especially to inquire concerning peculation by royal agents. On the basis of their investigations the king issued royal edicts in 1254 and 1259 which organized the administration -of the province. Two <i>sénéchaussées</i> were created—one -at Nîmes, the other at Carcassonne—each with its lesser +of the province. Two <i>sénéchaussées</i> were created—one +at Nîmes, the other at Carcassonne—each with its lesser divisions of <i>vigueries</i> and <i>bailliages</i>. During the reign of Philip -III. the <i>enquêteurs</i> were busily employed securing justice for +III. the <i>enquêteurs</i> were busily employed securing justice for the conquered, preventing the seizure of lands, and in 1279 a supreme court of justice was established at Toulouse. In 1302 Philip IV. convoked the estates of Languedoc, but in the century which followed they were less an instrument for self-government than one for securing money, thus aiding the -<i>enquêteurs</i>, who during the Hundred Years’ War became mere +<i>enquêteurs</i>, who during the Hundred Years’ War became mere revenue hunters for the king. In 1355 the Black Prince led a savage plundering raid across the country to Narbonne. After the battle of Poitiers, Languedoc supported the count @@ -9403,13 +9364,13 @@ Montfort and Richelieu.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The one monumental history of Languedoc is that of the Benedictines, -Dom Claude Devic and Dom J. J. Vaissete, <i>Histoire générale +Dom Claude Devic and Dom J. J. Vaissete, <i>Histoire générale de la province de Languedoc</i> (5 vols., Paris, 1730-1745). This has been re-edited, and continued and increased by the addition of important monographs, to 15 volumes (Toulouse, 1872-1892). It is the great library of sources, critical apparatus and bibliographies concerning Languedoc, and carries the history up to 1790. The fine article -“Languedoc” in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i> is by A. Molinier, perhaps +“Languedoc” in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i> is by A. Molinier, perhaps the greatest modern authority on Languedoc.</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. T. S.*)</div> @@ -9487,7 +9448,7 @@ a life of Languet by Treitschke. A French translation appeared in doctrine of resistance, but affirms that resistance must come from properly constituted authorities and objects to anything which savours of anabaptism or other extreme views. The <i>Apologie ou -défence du très illustre Prince Guillaume contre le ban et l’édit du roi +défence du très illustre Prince Guillaume contre le ban et l’édit du roi d’Espagne</i> (Leiden, 1581) is sometimes attributed to Languet. There seems little doubt, however, that it was really the work of the prince himself, with the help either of Languet (Groen van Prinsterer, @@ -9497,10 +9458,10 @@ and Blok, <i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i>).</p> <p>See Ph. de la Mare, <i>Vie d’Hubert Languet</i> (Halle, 1700); E. and E. Haag, <i>La France protestante</i>; H. Chevreul, <i>Hubert Languet</i> (Paris, 1852); J. Blasel, <i>Hubert Languet</i> (Breslau, 1872); O. Scholz, <i>Hubert -Languet als kursächsischer Berichterstatter u. Gesandter in Frankreich -während 1560-1572</i> (Halle, 1875); G. Touchard, <i>De politica Huberti +Languet als kursächsischer Berichterstatter u. Gesandter in Frankreich +während 1560-1572</i> (Halle, 1875); G. Touchard, <i>De politica Huberti Langueti</i> (Paris, 1898). There is a good article on Languet by P. -Tschackert in Hauck’s <i>Real-Encyklopädie</i>, 3rd ed., xi. 274-280.</p> +Tschackert in Hauck’s <i>Real-Encyklopädie</i>, 3rd ed., xi. 274-280.</p> </div> @@ -9526,11 +9487,11 @@ stomachs. They feed on leaves and young shoots.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1469-1540), +<p><span class="bold">LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1469-1540), German statesman and ecclesiastic, was the son of a burgher of Augsburg. He afterwards assumed the name of Wellenburg from a castle that came into his possession. After studying at -Ingolstadt, Vienna and Tübingen he entered the service of the +Ingolstadt, Vienna and Tübingen he entered the service of the emperor Frederick III. and quickly made his way to the front. He was also one of the most trusted advisers of Frederick’s son and successor Maximilian I., and his services were rewarded in @@ -9663,10 +9624,10 @@ Inscriptions in 1808. After the Bourbon restoration Lanjuinais consistently defended the principles of constitutional monarchy, but most of his time was given to religious and political subjects. Besides many contributions to periodical literature he wrote, -among other works, <i>Constitutions de la nation française</i> (1819); -<i>Appréciation du projet de loi relatif aux trois concordats</i> (1806, -6th ed. 1827), in defence of Gallicanism; and <i>Études biographiques -et littéraires sur Antoine Arnauld, P. Nicole et Jacques +among other works, <i>Constitutions de la nation française</i> (1819); +<i>Appréciation du projet de loi relatif aux trois concordats</i> (1806, +6th ed. 1827), in defence of Gallicanism; and <i>Études biographiques +et littéraires sur Antoine Arnauld, P. Nicole et Jacques Necker</i> (1823). He died in Paris on the 13th of January 1827.</p> <p>His son, <span class="sc">Victor Ambroise, Vicomte de Lanjuinais</span> (1802-1869), @@ -9680,9 +9641,9 @@ father’s <i>Œuvres</i> (4 vols., 1832).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>For the life of the comte de Lanjuinais see also A. Robert and G. Cougny, <i>Dictionnaire des parlementaires</i>, vol. ii. (1890); and F. A. -Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i> (Paris, 1885-1886). -For a bibliography of his works see J. M. Quérard, <i>La France -littéraire</i>, vol. iii. (1829).</p> +Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i> (Paris, 1885-1886). +For a bibliography of his works see J. M. Quérard, <i>La France +littéraire</i>, vol. iii. (1829).</p> </div> @@ -9705,7 +9666,7 @@ and in 1889-1890 president of the American Philological Association, and in 1884-1894 he was corresponding secretary of the American Oriental Society, in 1897-1907 vice-president, and in 1907-1908 president. In the <i>Harvard Oriental Series</i> he translated -(vol. iv.) into English Rājaçekhara’s Karpūra-Mañjarī +(vol. iv.) into English Rājaçekhara’s Karpūra-Mañjarī (1900), a Prākrit drama, and (vols. vii. and viii.) revised and edited Whitney’s translation of, and notes on, the <i>Atharva-Veda Samhitā</i> (2 vols., 1905); he published <i>A Sanskrit Reader, with Vocabulary @@ -9733,7 +9694,7 @@ fought his way up to high rank, being eventually made a general of brigade by Bonaparte. He was distinguished in every battle, and was wounded at Arcola. He was chosen by Bonaparte to accompany him to Egypt as commander of one of -Kléber’s brigades, in which capacity he greatly distinguished +Kléber’s brigades, in which capacity he greatly distinguished himself, especially on the retreat from Syria. He went with Bonaparte to France, assisted at the 18th Brumaire, and was appointed general of division, and commandant of the consular @@ -9754,15 +9715,15 @@ and the battle of Jena. His leadership of the advanced guard at Friedland was even more conspicuous. He was now to be tried as a commander-in-chief, for Napoleon took him to Spain in 1808, and gave him a detached wing of the army, with which -he won a victory over Castaños at Tudela on November 22. +he won a victory over Castaños at Tudela on November 22. In January 1809 he was sent to attempt the capture of Saragossa, and by February 21, after one of the most stubborn defences in history, was in possession of the place. Napoleon then created him duc de Montebello, and in 1809, for the last time, gave him command of the advanced guard. He took part in the engagements -around Eckmühl and the advance on Vienna. With his +around Eckmühl and the advance on Vienna. With his corps he led the French army across the Danube, and bore the -brunt, with Masséna, of the terrible battle of Aspern-Essling +brunt, with Masséna, of the terrible battle of Aspern-Essling (<i>q.v.</i>). On the 22nd of May he had to retreat. During the retreat Lannes exposed himself as usual to the hottest fire, and received a mortal wound, to which he succumbed at Vienna on the 31st @@ -9777,14 +9738,14 @@ a passionate burst of grief, even in the midst of the battle. His eldest son was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Lannes ranks with Davout and Masséna as the ablest of all +<p>Lannes ranks with Davout and Masséna as the ablest of all Napoleon’s marshals, and consciously or unconsciously was the best exponent of the emperor’s method of making war. Hence his constant employment in tasks requiring the utmost resolution and daring, and more especially when the emperor’s combinations depended upon the vigour and self-sacrifice of a detachment or fraction of the army. It was thus with Lannes at Friedland and at Aspern -as it was with Davout at Austerlitz and Auerstädt, and Napoleon’s +as it was with Davout at Austerlitz and Auerstädt, and Napoleon’s estimate of his subordinates’ capacities can almost exactly be judged by the frequency with which he used them to prepare the way for his own shattering blow. Routine generals with the usual military @@ -9796,28 +9757,28 @@ only to men of extraordinary courage and high capacity for command. In his own words, he found Lannes a pigmy, and lost him a giant. Lannes’s place in his affections was never filled.</p> -<p>See R. Périn, <i>Vie militaire de Jean Lannes</i> (Paris, 1809).</p> +<p>See R. Périn, <i>Vie militaire de Jean Lannes</i> (Paris, 1809).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANNION,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an -arrondissement in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the right -bank of the Léguer, 45 m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. +arrondissement in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the right +bank of the Léguer, 45 m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5336. Lannion is 5 m. in direct line from the mouth of -the Léguer; its port does a small trade (exports of agricultural +the Léguer; its port does a small trade (exports of agricultural produce, imports of wine, salt, timber, &c.), and there is an active fishing industry. The town contains many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries and other old buildings, the chief of which is the church of St Jean-du-Baly (16th and 17th centuries). On an eminence close to Lannion is the church of -Brélevenez of the 12th century, restored in the 15th or 16th +Brélevenez of the 12th century, restored in the 15th or 16th century; it has an interesting 16th-century Holy Sepulchre.</p> <p>Some 6 m. S.E. of the town are the imposing ruins of the -château of Tonquédec (<i>c.</i> 1400) styled the “Pierrefonds of +château of Tonquédec (<i>c.</i> 1400) styled the “Pierrefonds of Brittany,” and there are other buildings of antiquarian interest -in the vicinity. The coast north of Lannion at Trégastel and +in the vicinity. The coast north of Lannion at Trégastel and Ploumanac presents curious rock formations.</p> <p>Lannion is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of @@ -9836,7 +9797,7 @@ several diplomatic missions in France, England, Prussia, Poland and Lithuania, and was one of the negotiators of the treaty of Troyes (1420). In 1421 he was sent by Henry V. of England to Palestine to inquire into the possibility of reviving the kingdom -of Jerusalem, and wrote an account of his travels, <i>Les Pèlerinages +of Jerusalem, and wrote an account of his travels, <i>Les Pèlerinages de Surye et de Egipte</i>, which was published in 1826 and again in 1842.</p> @@ -9847,7 +9808,7 @@ name of the preparation styled <i>adeps lanae hydrosus</i> in the British Pharmacopoeia, and which consists of 7 oz. of neutral wool-fat (<i>adeps lanae</i>) mixed with 3 fluid oz. of water. The wool-fat is obtained by purification of the “brown grease,” “recovered -grease” or dégras extracted from raw sheep’s wool in the process +grease” or dégras extracted from raw sheep’s wool in the process of preparing it for the spinner. It is a translucent unctuous substance which has the property of taking up large quantities of water and forming emulsions which are very slow to separate @@ -9859,7 +9820,7 @@ slightly antiseptic and does not become rancid.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1531-1591), called Bras-de-Fer, +<p><span class="bold">LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1531-1591), called Bras-de-Fer, one of the Huguenot captains of the 16th century, was born near Nantes in 1531, of an ancient Breton family. He served in Italy under Marshal Brissac, and in the first Huguenot war, @@ -9910,13 +9871,13 @@ received a wound of which he died at Moncontour on the 4th of August 1591.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>He wrote, besides the Discourses, <i>Déclaration pour prise d’armes et -la défense de Sedan et Jamets</i> (1588); <i>Observations sur l’histoire de +<p>He wrote, besides the Discourses, <i>Déclaration pour prise d’armes et +la défense de Sedan et Jamets</i> (1588); <i>Observations sur l’histoire de Guicciardini</i> (2 vols., 1592); and notes on <i>Plutarch’s Lives</i>. His -<i>Correspondance</i> was published in 1854. See <i>La Vie de François, -seigneur de La Noue</i>, by Moyse Amirault (Leiden, 1661); Brantôme’s -<i>Vies des Capitaines français</i>; C. <span class="correction" title="amended from Vincen's">Vincens’</span> <i>Les Héros de la -Réforme. Fr. de La Noue</i> (1875); and Hauser, <i>François de La Noue</i> +<i>Correspondance</i> was published in 1854. See <i>La Vie de François, +seigneur de La Noue</i>, by Moyse Amirault (Leiden, 1661); Brantôme’s +<i>Vies des Capitaines français</i>; C. <span class="correction" title="amended from Vincen's">Vincens’</span> <i>Les Héros de la +Réforme. Fr. de La Noue</i> (1875); and Hauser, <i>François de La Noue</i> (Paris, 1892).</p> </div> @@ -10097,7 +10058,7 @@ W.N.W. of Detroit and about 64 m. E.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 16,485, of whom 2397 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 31,229. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the -Père Marquette railways, and by interurban electric lines. The +Père Marquette railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Grand river on its way through the city makes a horse-shoe bend round a moderately elevated plateau; this is the commercial centre of the city, and here, in a square covering 10 acres, is the @@ -10152,15 +10113,15 @@ It is also the name of a card game said to have been introduced into France by the <i>Landsknechte</i>. The pack of 52 cards is cut by the player at the dealer’s right. The dealer lays the two first cards face upwards on the table to his left; the third he places -in front of him and the fourth, or <i>réjouissance</i> card, in the middle +in front of him and the fourth, or <i>réjouissance</i> card, in the middle of the table. The players, usually called (except in the case of the dealer) <i>punters</i>, stake any sum within the agreed limit upon -this réjouissance card; the dealer, who is also the banker, +this réjouissance card; the dealer, who is also the banker, covers the bets and then turns up the next card. If this fails to match any of the cards already exposed, it is laid beside the -réjouissance card and then punters may stake upon it. Other +réjouissance card and then punters may stake upon it. Other cards not matching are treated in the same manner. When a -card is turned which matches the réjouissance card, the banker +card is turned which matches the réjouissance card, the banker wins everything staked on it, and in like manner he wins what is staked on any card (save his own) that is matched by the card turned. The banker pays all stakes, and the deal is over @@ -10203,7 +10164,7 @@ success.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LANTERN<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (an adaptation of the Fr. <i>lanterne</i> from Lat. -<i>lanterna</i> or <i>laterna</i>, supposed to be from Gr. <span class="grk" title="lamptêr">λαμπτήρ</span>, a torch or +<i>lanterna</i> or <i>laterna</i>, supposed to be from Gr. <span class="grk" title="lamptêr">λαμπτήρ</span>, a torch or lamp, <span class="grk" title="lampein">λάμπειν</span>, to shine, cf. “lamp”; the 16th- and 17th-century form “lanthorn” is due to a mistaken derivation from “horn,” as a material frequently used in the making of lanterns), a metal @@ -10349,9 +10310,9 @@ the rays are transmitted through a lens termed the “condenser,” then through the object, and finally through another lens termed the “objective.” In the horizontally projecting types the light, after passing through the condenser, is reflected vertically by a plane -mirror inclined at 45° to the direction of the light; it then traverses +mirror inclined at 45° to the direction of the light; it then traverses another lens, then the object, then the objective, and is finally -projected horizontally by a plane mirror inclined at 45°, or by a +projected horizontally by a plane mirror inclined at 45°, or by a right angled glass prism, the hypothenuse face of which is silvered. In episcopic projection, the light, having traversed the condenser, is reflected on to the object, placed horizontally, by an inclined @@ -10443,7 +10404,7 @@ to approach or recede from the slide so as to focus the picture on the screen in any position of the lantern. In this way a very small picture appears gradually to grow to enormous dimensions.</p> -<p>See L. Wright, <i>Optical Projection</i> (1891); E. Trutat, <i>Traité des +<p>See L. Wright, <i>Optical Projection</i> (1891); E. Trutat, <i>Traité des Projections</i> (Paris, 1897 and 1901); P. E. Liesegang, <i>Die Projektions-Kunst</i> (Leipzig, 1909).</p> </div> @@ -10458,7 +10419,7 @@ and varied coloration. Characteristic of the group is the presence on the front of the head of a hollow process, simulating a snout, which is sometimes inflated and as large as the rest of the insect, sometimes elongated, narrow and apically upturned. It was -believed, mainly on the authority of Marie Sibylle de Mérian, +believed, mainly on the authority of Marie Sibylle de Mérian, that this process, the so-called “lantern,” was luminous at night. Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and made use of a number of specific names, such as <i>lanternaria</i>, @@ -10505,7 +10466,7 @@ Winkler (<i>Ber.</i>, 1890, 23, p. 78) prepared it by heating the oxide with a mixture of magnesium and magnesia. Muthmann and Weiss (<i>Ann.</i>, 1904, 331, p. 1) obtained it by electrolysing the anhydrous chloride. It may be readily hammered, but cannot -be drawn. Its specific gravity is 6.1545, and it melts at 810°. +be drawn. Its specific gravity is 6.1545, and it melts at 810°. It decomposes cold water slowly, but hot water violently. It burns in air, and also in chlorine and bromine, and is readily oxidized by nitric acid.</p> @@ -10526,24 +10487,24 @@ the residue obtained by evaporating the oxide with hydrochloric acid. It forms a deliquescent crystalline mass. By evaporation of a solution of lanthanum oxide in hydrochloric acid to the consistency of a syrup, and allowing the solution to stand, large colourless -crystals of a hydrated chloride of the composition 2LaCl<span class="su">3</span>·15H<span class="su">2</span>O are +crystals of a hydrated chloride of the composition 2LaCl<span class="su">3</span>·15H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained. <i>Lanthanum sulphide</i>, La<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, is a yellow powder, obtained when the oxide is heated in the vapour of carbon bisulphide. It is decomposed by water, with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. -<i>Lanthanum sulphate</i>, La<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O, forms six-sided prisms, +<i>Lanthanum sulphate</i>, La<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O, forms six-sided prisms, isomorphous with those of the corresponding cerium salt. By careful <span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> heating it may be made to yield the anhydrous salt. <i>Lanthanum -nitrate</i>, La(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained by dissolving the oxide in nitric +nitrate</i>, La(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained by dissolving the oxide in nitric acid. It crystallizes in plates, and is soluble in water and alcohol. <i>Lanthanum carbide</i>, LaC<span class="su">2</span>, is prepared by heating the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace (H. Moissan, <i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1896, 123, p. 148). It is decomposed by water with the formation of acetylene, -methane, ethylene, &c. <i>Lanthanum carbonate</i>, La<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span>·8H<span class="su">2</span>O, occurs +methane, ethylene, &c. <i>Lanthanum carbonate</i>, La<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span>·8H<span class="su">2</span>O, occurs as the rare mineral lanthanite, forming greyish-white, pink or yellowish rhombic prisms. The atomic weight of lanthanum has been determined by B. Brauner (<i>Proc. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1901, 17, p. 63) -by ignition of lanthanum sulphate at 500° C., the value obtained +by ignition of lanthanum sulphate at 500° C., the value obtained being 139 (O = 16).</p> </div> @@ -10562,8 +10523,8 @@ magistrate and municipal council kept the titles of <i>dictator</i> and <i>senatus</i> respectively. It was especially famous for its rich and much venerated temple of Juno Sospes, from which Octavian borrowed money in 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the possessions of -which extended as far as the sea-coast (T. Ashby in <i>Mélanges -de l’école française</i>, 1905, 203). It possessed many other temples, +which extended as far as the sea-coast (T. Ashby in <i>Mélanges +de l’école française</i>, 1905, 203). It possessed many other temples, repaired by Antoninus Pius, who was born close by, as was also Commodus. Remains of the ancient theatre and of the city walls exist in the modern village, and above it is an area surrounded @@ -10621,7 +10582,7 @@ of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1900) 17,546; area, 326 sq. m. Lanzarote, the most easterly of the Canaries, has a length of 31 m. and a breadth varying from 5 to 10 m. It is naked and mountainous, bearing everywhere -marks of its volcanic origin. Montaña Blanca, the highest +marks of its volcanic origin. Montaña Blanca, the highest point (2000 ft.), is cultivated to the summit. In 1730 the appearance of half the island was altered by a volcanic outburst. A violent earthquake preceded the catastrophe, by which nine @@ -10689,7 +10650,7 @@ of Michelangelo.</p> province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Laoag river, about 5 m. from its mouth, and in the N.W. part of the island. Pop. (1903) 34,454; in 1903, after the census -had been taken, the municipality of San Nicolás (pop. 1903, +had been taken, the municipality of San Nicolás (pop. 1903, 10,880) was added to Laoag. Laoag is on an extensive coast plain, behind which is a picturesque range of hills; it is well built and is noted for its fine climate, the name “Laoag” signifying @@ -10736,7 +10697,7 @@ of the legend given by Virgil, with such differences as were necessary from the different limits of representation imposed on the arts of sculpture and of poetry. These limits required a new definition, and this he undertook in his still famous work, -<i>Laokoon</i> (see the edition of Hugo Blümner, Berlin, 1876, in +<i>Laokoon</i> (see the edition of Hugo Blümner, Berlin, 1876, in which the subsequent criticism is collected). The date of the Laocoon being now fixed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agesander</a></span>) to 40-20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, there can be no question of copying Virgil. The group represents @@ -10803,7 +10764,7 @@ the temple of Men Karou, with a great medical school; while Laodicea itself produced some famous Sceptic philosophers, and gave origin to the royal family of Polemon and Zenon, whose curious history has been illustrated in recent times (W. H. Waddington, -<i>Mélanges de Numism.</i> ser. ii.; Th. Mommsen, <i>Ephem. Epigraph.</i> i. +<i>Mélanges de Numism.</i> ser. ii.; Th. Mommsen, <i>Ephem. Epigraph.</i> i. and ii.; M. G. Rayet, <i>Milet et le Golfe Latmique</i>, chap. v.). The city fell finally into decay in the frontier wars with the Turkish invaders. Its ruins are of wide extent, but not of great beauty or interest; @@ -10907,7 +10868,7 @@ creations of the art of the 12th and 13th centuries. It took the place of the old cathedral, burned at the beginning of the communal struggles mentioned below. The building is cruciform, and the choir terminates in a straight wall instead of in an apse. -Of the six towers flanking the façades, only four are complete +Of the six towers flanking the façades, only four are complete to the height of the base of the spires, two at the west front with <span class="correction" title="amended from hugh">huge</span> figures of oxen beneath the arcades of their upper portion, and one at each end of the transept. A square central @@ -10929,16 +10890,16 @@ is a chapel of the Templars belonging to the 12th century. The church of the suburb of Vaux near the railway station dates from the 11th and 12th centuries. Numerous cellars of two or three storeys have taken the place of the old quarries in the hill-side. -Laon forms with La Fère and Reims a triangle of important +Laon forms with La Fère and Reims a triangle of important fortresses. Its fortifications consist of an inner line of works on the eminence of Laon itself, and two groups of detached forts, -one some 2½ m. S.E. about the village of Bruyères, the other +one some 2½ m. S.E. about the village of Bruyères, the other about 3 m. W.S.W., near Laniscourt. To the S.S.W. forts -Malmaison and Condé connect Laon with the Aisne and with +Malmaison and Condé connect Laon with the Aisne and with Reims.</p> <p>Laon is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and possesses -a tribunal of first instance, a lycée for boys, a college for girls, +a tribunal of first instance, a lycée for boys, a college for girls, a school of agriculture and training colleges. Sugar-making and metal-founding are carried on, but neither industry nor trade, which is in grain and wine, are of much importance.</p> @@ -10980,7 +10941,7 @@ Burgundians, who gave it up to the English, to be retaken by the French after the consecration of Charles VII. Under the League Laon took the part of the Leaguers, and was taken by Henry IV. During the campaign of 1814 Napoleon tried in vain to dislodge -Blücher from it. In 1870 an engineer blew up the powder magazine of +Blücher from it. In 1870 an engineer blew up the powder magazine of the citadel at the moment when the German troops were entering the town. Many lives were lost; and the cathedral and the old episcopal palace were damaged. At the Revolution Laon permanently @@ -11022,11 +10983,11 @@ Burma, &c.</p> corresponding to the S.W. monsoon and a dry season coinciding with the N.E. monsoon and lasting from November to May. Both in northern and southern Laos the heat during April and -May is excessive, the thermometer reaching 104° F. and averaging -95° F. With the beginning of the rains the heat becomes more +May is excessive, the thermometer reaching 104° F. and averaging +95° F. With the beginning of the rains the heat becomes more tolerable. December, January and February are cool months, -the temperature in south Laos (south of 19°) averaging 77°, in -north Laos from 50° to 53°. The plateau of Tran-Ninh and, in +the temperature in south Laos (south of 19°) averaging 77°, in +north Laos from 50° to 53°. The plateau of Tran-Ninh and, in the south, that of the Bolovens are distinguished by the wholesomeness of their climate.</p> @@ -11069,17 +11030,17 @@ amongst the members of an hereditary nobility. At the head of the administration there is a resident-superior stationed at Savannaket. Up till 1896 Laos had no special budget, but was administered by Cochin-China, Annam and Tongking. The -budget for 1899 showed receipts £78,988 and expenditure -£77,417. For 1904 the budget figures were, receipts £82,942, -expenditure £76,344. The chief sources of revenue are the direct -taxes (£15,606 in 1904), especially the poll-tax, and the contribution -from the general budget of Indo-China (£54,090 in 1904). +budget for 1899 showed receipts £78,988 and expenditure +£77,417. For 1904 the budget figures were, receipts £82,942, +expenditure £76,344. The chief sources of revenue are the direct +taxes (£15,606 in 1904), especially the poll-tax, and the contribution +from the general budget of Indo-China (£54,090 in 1904). The chief items of expenditure in 1904 were Government house, -&c., £22,558, transport, £19,191, native guard, £17,327.</p> +&c., £22,558, transport, £19,191, native guard, £17,327.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See M. J. F. Garnier, <i>Voyage d’exploration en Indo-Chine</i> (Paris, -1873); C. Gosselin, <i>Le Laos et le protectorat français</i> (Paris, 1900); +1873); C. Gosselin, <i>Le Laos et le protectorat français</i> (Paris, 1900); L. de Reinach, <i>Le Laos</i> (Paris, 1902) and <i>Notes sur le Laos</i> (Paris, 1906); and bibliography under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-China, French</a></span>.</p> </div> @@ -11087,8 +11048,8 @@ L. de Reinach, <i>Le Laos</i> (Paris, 1902) and <i>Notes sur le Laos</i> (Paris, <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAOS<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Laotions</span>, an important division of the widespread -Thai or Shan race found throughout Indo-China from 28° N. -and the sources of the Irrawaddy as far as Cambodia and 7° N. +Thai or Shan race found throughout Indo-China from 28° N. +and the sources of the Irrawaddy as far as Cambodia and 7° N. in the Malay Peninsula. This Thai family includes the Shans proper, and the Siamese. The name Lao, which appears to mean simply “man,” is the collective Siamese term for all the @@ -11111,7 +11072,7 @@ Lao Pong Kao (“White Paunch Laos”) who do not tattoo. Lao tattooing is of a most elaborate kind. The Lao Pong Dam now form the western branch of the Lao family, inhabiting the Siamese Lao states of Chieng Mai Lapaun, ‘Tern Pre and Nan, -and reaching as far south as 17° N. Various influences have +and reaching as far south as 17° N. Various influences have contributed to making the Lao the pleasant, easy-going, idle fellow that he is. The result is that practically all the trade of these states is in the hands of Bangkok Chinese firms, of a certain @@ -11134,7 +11095,7 @@ was the most powerful of the Lao principalities, and was feared and respected throughout Indo-China. It was destroyed by the Siamese in 1828. The inhabitants, in accordance with the Indo-Chinese custom of the day, were transported to Lower Siam. The -Lao Pong Kao below 18° N. are a less merry and less vivacious +Lao Pong Kao below 18° N. are a less merry and less vivacious people, and are for the most part shorter and more thick-set than those of Luang Prabang and the north. If possible, they are as a race lazier than the western Lao, as they are certainly @@ -11147,7 +11108,7 @@ by mandarins directly nominated by the Bangkok authorities. The khiao were invested by a gold dish, betel-box, spittoon and teapot, which were sent from Bangkok and returned at their death or deposition. Of all the khiao the most powerful was the -prince of Ubon (15° N., 105° E.), whose jurisdiction extended +prince of Ubon (15° N., 105° E.), whose jurisdiction extended nearly from Bassac on the Mekong northwards to the great southern bend of that river. Nearly all the Laos country is now divided between France and Siam, and only a few tribes retain @@ -11194,9 +11155,9 @@ contentment.</p> A. H. Mouhot, <i>Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos</i> (1864); Holt S. Hallett, <i>A Thousand Miles on an Elephant in the Shan States</i> (1890); A. R. Colquhoun, <i>Amongst the -Shâns</i> (1885); Lord Lamington, <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i> vol. xiii. No. 12; +Shâns</i> (1885); Lord Lamington, <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i> vol. xiii. No. 12; Archer, <i>Report on a Journey in the Mekong Valley</i>; Prince Henri -d’Orléans, <i>Around Tonkin and Siam</i> (1894); M‘Carthy, <i>Report on a +d’Orléans, <i>Around Tonkin and Siam</i> (1894); M‘Carthy, <i>Report on a Survey in Siam</i> (1894); Bulletins, Paris Geographical Society: H. Warington Smyth, <i>Notes of a Journey on the Upper Mekong</i> (1895); <i>Five Years in Siam</i> (1898); Harmand, <i>Le Laos et les populations @@ -11206,9 +11167,9 @@ preceding article.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LÂO-TSZE<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Laou-Tsze</span>, the designation of the Chinese -author of the celebrated treatise called <i>Tâo Teh King</i>, and the -reputed founder of the religion called <i>Tâoism</i>. The Chinese +<p><span class="bold">LÂO-TSZE<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Laou-Tsze</span>, the designation of the Chinese +author of the celebrated treatise called <i>Tâo Teh King</i>, and the +reputed founder of the religion called <i>Tâoism</i>. The Chinese <span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> characters composing the designation may mean either “the Old Son,” which commonly assumes with foreigners the form of @@ -11216,8 +11177,8 @@ Old Son,” which commonly assumes with foreigners the form of is attached to them by Dr Chalmers in his translation of the treatise published in 1868 under the title of <i>The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity and Morality of “the Old Philosopher,” -Lâo-tsze</i>. The former is derived from a fabulous account of -Lâo-tsze in the <i>Shăn Hsien Chwan</i>; “The Account of Spirits +Lâo-tsze</i>. The former is derived from a fabulous account of +Lâo-tsze in the <i>Shăn Hsien Chwan</i>; “The Account of Spirits and Immortals,” of Ko Hung in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> According to this, his mother, after a supernatural conception, carried him in her womb sixty-two years (or seventy-two, or eighty-one—ten @@ -11225,19 +11186,19 @@ years more or fewer are of little importance in such a case), so that, when he was born at last, his hair was white as with age, and people might well call him “the old boy.” The other meaning of the designation rests on better authority. We -find it in the <i>Kiâ Yü</i>, or “Narratives of the Confucian School,” +find it in the <i>Kiâ Yü</i>, or “Narratives of the Confucian School,” compiled in the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> from documents said to have been preserved among the descendants of Confucius, and also in -the brief history of Lâo-tsze given in the historical records of +the brief history of Lâo-tsze given in the historical records of Sze-ma Ch’ien (about 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the latter instance the designation is used by Confucius, and possibly it originated with him. It should be regarded more as an epithet of respect than of years, and is equivalent to “the Venerable Philosopher.”</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>All that Ch’ien tells us about Lâo-tsze goes into small compass. -His surname was Lî, and his name Urh. He was a native of the state -of Ch’û, and was born in a hamlet not far from the present prefectural +<p>All that Ch’ien tells us about Lâo-tsze goes into small compass. +His surname was Lî, and his name Urh. He was a native of the state +of Ch’û, and was born in a hamlet not far from the present prefectural city of Kwei-te in Ho-nan province. He was one of the recorders or historiographers at the court of Chow, his special department being the charge of the whole or a portion of the royal library. He must @@ -11247,58 +11208,58 @@ often said, though on what Chinese authority does not appear, to have taken place in the third year of King Phing, corresponding to 604 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> That date cannot be far from the truth. That he was contemporary with Confucius is established by the concurrent -testimony of the <i>Lî Kî</i> and the <i>Kiâ Yü</i> on the Confucian side, and of -Chwang-tsze and Sze-ma Ch’ien on the Tâoist. The two men whose +testimony of the <i>Lî Kî</i> and the <i>Kiâ Yü</i> on the Confucian side, and of +Chwang-tsze and Sze-ma Ch’ien on the Tâoist. The two men whose influence has been so great on all the subsequent generations of the -Chinese people—Kung-tsze (Confucius) and Lâo-tsze—had at least +Chinese people—Kung-tsze (Confucius) and Lâo-tsze—had at least one interview, in 517 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the former was in his thirty-fifth -year. The conversation between them was interesting. Lâo was in +year. The conversation between them was interesting. Lâo was in a mocking mood; Kung appears to the greater advantage. If it be -true that Confucius, when he was fifty-one years old, visited Lâo-tsze +true that Confucius, when he was fifty-one years old, visited Lâo-tsze as Chwang-tsze says (in the <i>Thien Yun</i>, the fourteenth of his treatises), -to ask about the <i>Tâo</i>, they must have had more than one interview. +to ask about the <i>Tâo</i>, they must have had more than one interview. Dr Chalmers, however, has pointed out that both Chwang-tsze and -Lieh-tsze (a still earlier Tâoist writer) produce Confucius in their +Lieh-tsze (a still earlier Tâoist writer) produce Confucius in their writings, as the lords of the Philistines did the captive Samson on their festive occasions, “to make sport for them.” Their testimony is valueless as to any matter of fact. There may have been several meetings between the two in 517 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but we have no evidence that they were together in the same place after that time. Ch’ien -adds:—“Lâo-tsze cultivated the <i>Tâo</i> and virtue, his chief aim in his studies +adds:—“Lâo-tsze cultivated the <i>Tâo</i> and virtue, his chief aim in his studies being how to keep himself concealed and unknown. He resided at (the capital of) Chow; but after a long time, seeing the decay of the dynasty, he left it, and went away to the Gate (leading from the royal domain into the regions beyond—at the entrance of the pass -of Han-kû, in the north-west of Ho-nan). Yin Hsî, the warden of +of Han-kû, in the north-west of Ho-nan). Yin Hsî, the warden of the Gate, said to him, ‘You are about to withdraw yourself out of sight; I pray you to compose for me a book (before you go).’ On -this Lâo-tsze made a writing, setting forth his views on the <i>tâo</i> +this Lâo-tsze made a writing, setting forth his views on the <i>tâo</i> and virtue, in two sections, containing more than 5000 characters. He then went away, and it is not known where he died.” The historian then mentions the names of two other men whom some -regarded as the true Lâo-tsze. One of them was a Lâo Lâi, a contemporary +regarded as the true Lâo-tsze. One of them was a Lâo Lâi, a contemporary of Confucius, who wrote fifteen treatises (or sections) on -the practices of the school of <i>Tâo</i>. Subjoined to the notice of him is -the remark that Lâo-tsze was more than one hundred and sixty +the practices of the school of <i>Tâo</i>. Subjoined to the notice of him is +the remark that Lâo-tsze was more than one hundred and sixty years old, or, as some say, more than two hundred, because by the -cultivation of the <i>Tâo</i> he nourished his longevity. The other was “a +cultivation of the <i>Tâo</i> he nourished his longevity. The other was “a grand historiographer” of Chow, called Tan, one hundred and twenty-nine (? one hundred and nineteen) years after the death of Confucius. The introduction of these disjointed notices detracts from the verisimilitude of the whole narrative in which they occur.</p> -<p>Finally, Ch’ien states that “Lâo-tsze was a superior man, who liked +<p>Finally, Ch’ien states that “Lâo-tsze was a superior man, who liked to keep in obscurity,” traces the line of his posterity down to the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and concludes with this important statement:—“Those -who attach themselves to the doctrine of Lâo-tsze condemn -that of the literati, and the literati on their part condemn Lâo-tsze, +who attach themselves to the doctrine of Lâo-tsze condemn +that of the literati, and the literati on their part condemn Lâo-tsze, thus verifying the saying, ‘Parties whose principles are different -cannot take counsel together.’ Lî Urh taught that transformation +cannot take counsel together.’ Lî Urh taught that transformation follows, as a matter of course, the doing nothing (to bring it about), and rectification ensues in the same way from being pure and still.”</p> </div> -<p>Accepting the <i>Tâo Teh King</i> as the veritable work of Lâo-tsze, +<p>Accepting the <i>Tâo Teh King</i> as the veritable work of Lâo-tsze, we may now examine its contents. Consisting of not more than between five and six thousand characters, it is but a short treatise—not half the size of the Gospel of St Mark. The nature @@ -11318,9 +11279,9 @@ ventured to say in 1808: “Many things about a Triune God are so clearly expressed that no one who has read this book can doubt that the mystery of the Holy Trinity was revealed to the Chinese five centuries -before the coming of Jesus Christ.” Even Rémusat, the first +before the coming of Jesus Christ.” Even Rémusat, the first occupant of a Chinese chair in Europe, published at Paris in -1823 his <i>Mémoire sur la vie et les opinions de Lâo-tsze</i>, to +1823 his <i>Mémoire sur la vie et les opinions de Lâo-tsze</i>, to vindicate the view that the Hebrew name Yahweh was phonetically represented in the fourteenth chapter by Chinese characters. These fancies were exploded by Stanislas Julien, when he issued @@ -11328,9 +11289,9 @@ in 1842 his translation of the whole treatise as <i>Le Livre de la voie et de la vertu</i>.</p> <p>The most important thing is to determine what we are to -understand by the <i>Tâo</i>, for <i>Teh</i> is merely its outcome, especially +understand by the <i>Tâo</i>, for <i>Teh</i> is merely its outcome, especially in man, and is rightly translated by “virtue.” Julien translated -<i>Tâo</i> by “la voie.” Chalmers leaves it untranslated. “No +<i>Tâo</i> by “la voie.” Chalmers leaves it untranslated. “No English word,” he says (p. xi.), “is its exact equivalent. Three terms suggest themselves—the way, reason and the word; but they are all liable to objection. Were we guided by etymology, @@ -11338,31 +11299,31 @@ but they are all liable to objection. Were we guided by etymology, or two passages the idea of a way seems to be in the term; but this is too materialistic to serve the purpose of a translation. ‘Reason,’ again, seems to be more like a quality or attribute of -some conscious being than <i>Tâo</i> is. I would translate it by +some conscious being than <i>Tâo</i> is. I would translate it by ‘the Word,’ in the sense of the Logos, but this would be like settling the question which I wish to leave open, viz. what resemblance there is between the Logos of the New Testament -and this Chinese Tâo.” Later Sinologues in China have employed +and this Chinese Tâo.” Later Sinologues in China have employed “nature” as our best analogue of the term. Thus Watters -(<i>Lâo-tsze, A Study in Chinese Philosophy</i>, p. 45) says:—“In -the <i>Tâo Teh King</i> the originator of the universe is referred to -under the names Non-Existence, Existence, Nature (<i>Tâo</i>) and +(<i>Lâo-tsze, A Study in Chinese Philosophy</i>, p. 45) says:—“In +the <i>Tâo Teh King</i> the originator of the universe is referred to +under the names Non-Existence, Existence, Nature (<i>Tâo</i>) and various designations—all which, however, represent one idea -in various manifestations. It is in all cases Nature (<i>Tâo</i>) which +in various manifestations. It is in all cases Nature (<i>Tâo</i>) which is meant.” This view has been skilfully worked out; but it only hides the scope of “the Venerable Philosopher.” “Nature” -cannot be accepted as a <i>translation</i> of <i>Tâo</i>. That character was, +cannot be accepted as a <i>translation</i> of <i>Tâo</i>. That character was, primarily, the symbol of a way, road or path; and then, figuratively, it was used, as we also use <i>way</i>, in the senses of means and method—the <i>course</i> that we pursue in passing from one thing or concept to another as its end or result. It is the name of a quality. Sir Robert Douglas has well said (<i>Confucianism and -Tâoism</i>, p. 189): “If we were compelled to adopt a single -word to represent the <i>Tâo</i> of Lâo-tsze, we should prefer the sense +Tâoism</i>, p. 189): “If we were compelled to adopt a single +word to represent the <i>Tâo</i> of Lâo-tsze, we should prefer the sense in which it is used by Confucius, ‘the way,’ that is, <span class="grk" title="methodos">μέθοδος</span>.”</p> -<p>What, then, was the quality which Lâo-tsze had in view, and -which he thought of as the <i>Tâo</i>—there in the library of Chow, +<p>What, then, was the quality which Lâo-tsze had in view, and +which he thought of as the <i>Tâo</i>—there in the library of Chow, at the pass of the valley of Han, and where he met the end of his life beyond the limits of the civilized <span class="sidenote">The doctrine of “the way.”</span> @@ -11391,8 +11352,8 @@ have corresponding results. “His constant virtue will be complete, and he will return to the primitive simplicity” (chap. xxviii.).</p> -<p>Such is the subject matter of the <i>Tâo Teh King</i>—the operation -of this method or <i>Tâo</i>, “without striving or crying,” in nature, +<p>Such is the subject matter of the <i>Tâo Teh King</i>—the operation +of this method or <i>Tâo</i>, “without striving or crying,” in nature, in society and in the individual. Much that is very beautiful and practical is inculcated in connexion with its working in the individual character. The writer seems to feel that he cannot @@ -11400,23 +11361,23 @@ say enough on the virtue of humility (chap. viii., &c.). There were three things which he prized and held fast—gentle compassion, economy and the not presuming to take precedence in the world (chap. lxvii.). His teaching rises to its highest -point in chap. lxiii.:—“It is the way of <i>Tâo</i> not to act from +point in chap. lxiii.:—“It is the way of <i>Tâo</i> not to act from any personal motive, to conduct affairs without feeling the trouble of them, to taste without being aware of the flavour, to account the great as small and the small as great, to recompense injury with kindness.” This last and noblest characteristic -of the <i>Tâo</i>, the requiting “good for evil,” is not touched on again +of the <i>Tâo</i>, the requiting “good for evil,” is not touched on again in the treatise; but we know that it excited general attention at the time, and was the subject of conversation between Confucius and his disciples (<i>Confucian Analects</i>, xiv. 36).</p> -<p>What is said in the <i>Tâo</i> on government is not, all of it, so +<p>What is said in the <i>Tâo</i> on government is not, all of it, so satisfactory. The writer shows, indeed, the benevolence of his heart. He seems to condemn the infliction of capital punishment (chaps. lxxiii. and lxxiv.), and he deplores the practice of war (chap. lxix.); but he had no sympathy with the progress of society or with the culture and arts of life. He says (chap. -lxv.):—“Those who anciently were skilful in practising the <i>Tâo</i> +lxv.):—“Those who anciently were skilful in practising the <i>Tâo</i> did not use it to enlighten the people; their object rather was to keep them simple. The difficulty in governing the people arises from their having too much knowledge, and therefore he @@ -11439,79 +11400,79 @@ and dogs should be heard from it to us without interruption, but I would make the people to old age, even to death, have no intercourse with it.”</p> -<p>On reading these sentiments, we must judge of Lâo-tsze +<p>On reading these sentiments, we must judge of Lâo-tsze that, with all his power of thought, he was only a dreamer. But thus far there is no difficulty arising from his language -in regard to the <i>Tâo</i>. It is simply a quality, descriptive of the +in regard to the <i>Tâo</i>. It is simply a quality, descriptive of the style of character and action, which the individual should seek to attain in himself, and the ruler to impress on his administration. -The language about the <i>Tâo</i> in nature is by no means so clear. +The language about the <i>Tâo</i> in nature is by no means so clear. While Sir Robert Douglas says that “the way” would be the -best translation of <i>Tâo</i>, he immediately adds:—“But <i>Tâo</i> is +best translation of <i>Tâo</i>, he immediately adds:—“But <i>Tâo</i> is more than the way. It is the way and the way-goer. It is an eternal road; along it all beings and things walk; but no being made it, for it is being itself; it is everything, and nothing -and the cause and effect of all. All things originate from <i>Tâo</i>, -conform to <i>Tâo</i> and to <i>Tâo</i> at last they return.”</p> +and the cause and effect of all. All things originate from <i>Tâo</i>, +conform to <i>Tâo</i> and to <i>Tâo</i> at last they return.”</p> <p>Some of these representations require modification; but no thoughtful reader of the treatise can fail to be often puzzled by what is said on the point in hand. Julien, indeed, says with truth (p. xiii.) that “it is impossible to take -<span class="sidenote">The Tâo and the Deity.</span> -<i>Tâo</i> for the primordial Reason, for the sublime Intelligence, +<span class="sidenote">The Tâo and the Deity.</span> +<i>Tâo</i> for the primordial Reason, for the sublime Intelligence, which has created and governs the world”; -but many of Lâo-tsze’s statements are unthinkable if there -be not behind the <i>Tâo</i> the unexpressed recognition of a personal +but many of Lâo-tsze’s statements are unthinkable if there +be not behind the <i>Tâo</i> the unexpressed recognition of a personal creator and ruler. Granted that he does not affirm positively the existence of such a Being, yet certainly he does not deny it, and his language even implies it. It has been said, indeed, that he denies it, and we are referred in proof to the fourth -chapter:—“<i>Tâo</i> is like the emptiness of a vessel; and the use +chapter:—“<i>Tâo</i> is like the emptiness of a vessel; and the use of it, we may say, must be free from all self-sufficiency. How deep and mysterious it is, as if it were the author of all things! We should make our sharpness blunt, and unravel the complications of things; we should attemper our brightness, and assimilate ourselves to the obscurity caused by dust. How still -and clear is <i>Tâo</i>, a phantasm with the semblance of permanence! +and clear is <i>Tâo</i>, a phantasm with the semblance of permanence! I do not know whose son it is. It might appear to have been before God (<i>Ti</i>).”</p> <p>The reader will not overlook the cautious and dubious manner -in which the predicates of <i>Tâo</i> are stated in this remarkable +in which the predicates of <i>Tâo</i> are stated in this remarkable passage. The author does not say that it was before God, but that “it might appear” to have been so. Nowhere else -in his treatise does the nature of <i>Tâo</i> as a method or style of +in his treatise does the nature of <i>Tâo</i> as a method or style of action come out more clearly. It has no positive existence of itself; it is but like the emptiness of a vessel, and the manifestation of it by men requires that they endeavour to free themselves from all self-sufficiency. Whence came it? It does not shock -Lâo-tsze to suppose that it had a father, but he cannot tell +Lâo-tsze to suppose that it had a father, but he cannot tell whose son it is. And, as the feeling of its mysteriousness grows on him, he ventures to say that “it might appear to have been before God.”</p> <p>There is here no denial but express recognition of the existence -of God, so far as it is implied in the name <i>Tî</i>, which is the personal +of God, so far as it is implied in the name <i>Tî</i>, which is the personal name for the concept of heaven as the ruling power, by means of which the fathers of the Chinese people rose in prehistoric -time to the idea of God. Again and again Lâo-tsze speaks of +time to the idea of God. Again and again Lâo-tsze speaks of heaven just as “we do when we mean thereby the Deity who presides over heaven and earth.” These last words are taken from Watters (p. 81); and, though he adds, “We must not forget that this heaven is inferior and subsequent to the mysterious -<i>Tâo</i>, and was in fact produced by it,” it has been shown how +<i>Tâo</i>, and was in fact produced by it,” it has been shown how rash and unwarranted is the ascription of such a sentiment to -“the Venerable Philosopher.” He makes the <i>Tâo</i> prior to heaven +“the Venerable Philosopher.” He makes the <i>Tâo</i> prior to heaven and earth, which is a phrase denoting what we often call “nature,” but he does not make it prior to heaven in the higher and immaterial usage of that name. The last sentence of his treatise -is:—“It is the <i>Tâo</i>—the way—of Heaven to benefit and not -injure; it is the <i>Tâo</i>—the way—of the sage to do and not +is:—“It is the <i>Tâo</i>—the way—of Heaven to benefit and not +injure; it is the <i>Tâo</i>—the way—of the sage to do and not strive.”</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Since Julien laid the <i>Tâo Teh King</i> fairly open to Western readers +<p>Since Julien laid the <i>Tâo Teh King</i> fairly open to Western readers in 1842, there has been a tendency to overestimate rather than to underestimate its value as a scheme of thought and a discipline for the individual and society. There are in it lessons of unsurpassed @@ -11527,12 +11488,12 @@ Hebrew name for God, it was natural, even necessary, to believe that its author had had communication with more western parts of Asia, and there was much speculation about visits to India and Judaea, and even to Greece. The necessity for assuming such -travels has passed away. If we can receive Sze-mâ Ch’ien’s histories -as trustworthy, Lâo-tsze might have heard, in the states of Chow +travels has passed away. If we can receive Sze-mâ Ch’ien’s histories +as trustworthy, Lâo-tsze might have heard, in the states of Chow and among the wild tribes adjacent to them, views about society and government very like his own. Ch’ien relates how an envoy came in 624 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—twenty years before the date assigned to the birth -of Lâo-tsze—to the court of Duke Mû of Ch’in, sent by the king of +of Lâo-tsze—to the court of Duke Mû of Ch’in, sent by the king of some rude hordes on the west. The duke told him of the histories, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span> poems, codes of rites, music and laws which they had in the middle @@ -11542,21 +11503,21 @@ had none of those appliances. The envoy smiled, and replied that the troubles of China were occasioned by those very things of which the duke vaunted, and that there had been a gradual degeneration in the condition of its states, as their professed civilization had -increased, ever since the days of the ancient sage, Hwang Tî, whereas +increased, ever since the days of the ancient sage, Hwang Tî, whereas in the land he came from, where there was nothing but the primitive simplicity, their princes showed a pure virtue in their treatment of the people, who responded to them with loyalty and good faith. “The government of a state,” said he in conclusion, “is like a man’s ruling his own single person. He rules it, and does not know how -he does so; and this was indeed the method of the sages.” Lâo-tsze +he does so; and this was indeed the method of the sages.” Lâo-tsze did not need to go further afield to find all that he has said about government.</p> -<p>We have confined ourselves to the Tâoism of the <i>Tâo Teh King</i> -without touching on the religion Tâoism now existing in China, but +<p>We have confined ourselves to the Tâoism of the <i>Tâo Teh King</i> +without touching on the religion Tâoism now existing in China, but which did not take shape until more than five hundred -years after the death of Lâo-tsze, though he now occupies -<span class="sidenote">The Tâoism of to-da.</span> +years after the death of Lâo-tsze, though he now occupies +<span class="sidenote">The Tâoism of to-da.</span> the second place in its trinity of “The three Pure or Holy Ones.” There is hardly a word in his treatise that savours either of superstition or religion. In the works of Lieh-tsze and @@ -11564,37 +11525,37 @@ Chwang-tsze, his earliest followers of note, we find abundance of grotesque superstitions; but their beliefs (if indeed we can say that they had beliefs) had not become embodied in any religious institutions. When we come to the Ch’in dynasty (221-206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), we meet -with a Tâoism in the shape of a search for the fairy islands of the +with a Tâoism in the shape of a search for the fairy islands of the eastern sea, where the herb of immortality might be gathered. In -the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> a magician, called Chang Tâo-ling, comes before -us as the chief professor and controller of this Tâoism, preparing in +the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> a magician, called Chang Tâo-ling, comes before +us as the chief professor and controller of this Tâoism, preparing in retirement “the pill” which renewed his youth, supreme over all spirits, and destroying millions of demons by a stroke of his pencil. He left his books, talismans and charms, with his sword and seal, to his descendants, and one of them, professing to be animated by his -soul, dwells on the Lung-hû mountain in Kiang-si, the acknowledged -head or pope of Tâoism. But even then the system was not yet a +soul, dwells on the Lung-hû mountain in Kiang-si, the acknowledged +head or pope of Tâoism. But even then the system was not yet a religion, with temples or monasteries, liturgies and forms of public worship. It borrowed all these from Buddhism, which first obtained public recognition in China between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 65 and 70, though at least a couple of centuries passed before it could be said to have free course in the country.</p> -<p>Even still, with the form of a religion, Tâoism is in reality a +<p>Even still, with the form of a religion, Tâoism is in reality a conglomeration of base and dangerous superstitions. Alchemy, geomancy and spiritualism have dwelt and dwell under its shadow. Each of its “three Holy Ones” has the title of <i>Thien Tsun</i>, “the Heavenly and Honoured,” taken from Buddhism, and also of <i>Shang Ti</i> or God, taken from the old religion of the country. The most -popular deity, however, is not one of them, but has the title of <i>Yü -Wang Shang Tî</i>, “God, the Perfect King.” But it would take long +popular deity, however, is not one of them, but has the title of <i>Yü +Wang Shang Tî</i>, “God, the Perfect King.” But it would take long to tell of all its “celestial gods,” “great gods,” “divine rulers” and -others. It has been doubted whether Lâo-tsze acknowledged the -existence of God at all, but modern Tâoism is a system of the +others. It has been doubted whether Lâo-tsze acknowledged the +existence of God at all, but modern Tâoism is a system of the wildest polytheism. The science and religion of the West meet from it a most determined opposition. The “Venerable Philosopher” himself would not have welcomed them; but he ought not to bear -the obloquy of being the founder of the Tâoist religion.</p> +the obloquy of being the founder of the Tâoist religion.</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. Le.)</div> @@ -11643,7 +11604,7 @@ Oruro to supersede the other. The capital of the department is the national capital La Paz. Corocoro, near the Desaguadero river, about 75 m. S.S.E. of Lake Titicaca and 13,353 ft. above sea-level, has an estimated population (1906) of 15,000, chiefly -Aymará Indians.</p> +Aymará Indians.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -11651,7 +11612,7 @@ Aymará Indians.</p> Bolivia since 1898, the see of a bishopric created in 1605 and capital of the department of La Paz, on the Rio de la Paz or Rio Chuquiapo, 42 m. S.E. of Lake Titicaca (port of Chililaya) -in 16° 30′ S., 68° W. Pop. (1900) 54,713, (1906, estimate) +in 16° 30′ S., 68° W. Pop. (1900) 54,713, (1906, estimate) 67,235. The city is built in a deeply-eroded valley of the Cordillera Real which is believed to have formed an outlet of Lake Titicaca, and at this point descends sharply to the S.E., @@ -11667,8 +11628,8 @@ with vegetation, first of the temperate and then of the tropical zone. The elevation of La Paz is 12,120 ft. above sea-level, which places it within the <i>puna</i> climatic region, in which the summers are short and cold. The mean annual temperature -is a little above the <i>puna</i> average, which is 54° F., the extremes -ranging from 19° to 75°. Pneumonia and bronchial complaints +is a little above the <i>puna</i> average, which is 54° F., the extremes +ranging from 19° to 75°. Pneumonia and bronchial complaints are common, but consumption is said to be rare. The surface of the valley is very uneven, rising sharply from the river on both sides, and the transverse streets of the city are steep and @@ -11686,9 +11647,9 @@ mines of Potosi were at the height of their productiveness, was never finished because of the revolutions and the comparative poverty of the city under the republic. It faces the Plaza Mayor and is distinguished for the finely-carved stonework of -its façade. Facing the same plaza are the government offices +its façade. Facing the same plaza are the government offices and legislative chambers. Other notable edifices and institutions -are the old university of San Andrés, the San Francisco church, +are the old university of San Andrés, the San Francisco church, a national college, a seminary, a good public library and a museum rich in relics of the Inca and colonial periods. La Paz is an important commercial centre, being connected with @@ -11709,7 +11670,7 @@ down from the mountain sides.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>La Paz was founded in 1548 by Alonzo de Mendoza on the site of an Indian village called Chuquiapu. It was called the Pueblo -Nuevo de Nuestra Señora de la Paz in commemoration of the reconciliation +Nuevo de Nuestra Señora de la Paz in commemoration of the reconciliation between Pizarro and Almagro, and soon became an important colony. At the close of the war of independence (1825) it was rechristened La Paz de Ayacucho, in honour of the last decisive @@ -11721,10 +11682,10 @@ wealth, trade and political influence.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA PÉROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE GALAUP<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Comte de</span> +<p><span class="bold">LA PÉROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE GALAUP<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1741-<i>c.</i> 1788), French navigator, was born near Albi, on the 22nd of August 1741. His family name was Galaup, and La -Pérouse or La Peyrouse was an addition adopted by himself +Pérouse or La Peyrouse was an addition adopted by himself from a small family estate near Albi. As a lad of eighteen he was wounded and made prisoner on board the “Formidable” when it was captured by Admiral Hawke in 1759; and during the @@ -11734,7 +11695,7 @@ eastern coasts of Canada and in Hudson’s Bay, where he captured Forts Prince of Wales and York (August 8th and 21st, 1782). In 1785 (August 1st) he sailed from Brest in command of the French government expedition of two vessels (“La Boussole” -under La Pérouse himself, and “L’Astrolabe,” under de Langle) +under La Pérouse himself, and “L’Astrolabe,” under de Langle) for the discovery of the North-West Passage, vainly essayed by Cook on his last voyage, from the Pacific side. He was also charged with the further exploration of the north-west coasts of @@ -11774,13 +11735,13 @@ d’Urville visited the scene of the disaster and erected a monument (March 14th).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Milet Mureau, <i>Voyage de la Pérouse autour du monde</i> (Paris, -1797) 4 vols.; Gérard, <i>Vies ... des ... marins français</i> (Paris, +<p>See Milet Mureau, <i>Voyage de la Pérouse autour du monde</i> (Paris, +1797) 4 vols.; Gérard, <i>Vies ... des ... marins français</i> (Paris, 1825), 197-200; Peter Dillon, <i>Narrative ... of a Voyage in the -South Seas for the Discovery of the Fate of La Pérouse</i> (London, 1829), +South Seas for the Discovery of the Fate of La Pérouse</i> (London, 1829), 2 vols.; Dumont d’Urville, <i>Voyage pittoresque autour du monde</i>; Quoy and Paul Gaimard, <i>Voyage de ... l’Astrolabe</i>; Domeny de -Rienzi, <i>Océanie</i>; Van Tenac, <i>Histoire général de la marine</i>, iv. +Rienzi, <i>Océanie</i>; Van Tenac, <i>Histoire général de la marine</i>, iv. 258-264; <i>Moniteur universel</i>, 13th of February 1847.</p> </div> @@ -11944,7 +11905,7 @@ side of the gem. Occasionally the ancients used natural crystals with polished faces, or perhaps at times polished these to some extent artificially. This use of crystals was frequent with prisms of emerald, which were drilled and suspended as drops. Those -the French call “primes d’émeraudes.” These were often +the French call “primes d’émeraudes.” These were often natural crystals from Zaborah, Egypt or the Tirol Mountains, drilled through the height of the prism, and with little or no polishing. In rare instances perfect and brilliant crystals may @@ -11970,7 +11931,7 @@ rows, making 56 facets in all. The rose form is used for diamonds not thick enough to cut as brilliants; it is flat below and has 12 to 24, or sometimes 32, triangular facets above, in three rows, meeting in a point. Stones thus cut are also known as “roses -couronnées”; others with fewer facets, twelve or even six, +couronnées”; others with fewer facets, twelve or even six, are called “roses d’Anvers,” and are a specialty, as their name implies, at Antwerp. These, however, are only cut from very thin or shallow stones. None of the rose-cut diamonds is equal @@ -12044,7 +12005,7 @@ them are rock-crystal dishes several inches across, beautifully engraved in intaglio and mounted in silver with gems. Other varieties of quartz minerals, such as agate, jasper, &c., and other ornamental stones of similar hardness, are likewise wrought into all manner of -art objects. Caskets, vases, ewers, coupés and animal and other +art objects. Caskets, vases, ewers, coupés and animal and other fanciful forms, are familiar in these opaque and semi-transparent stones, either carved out of single masses or made of separate pieces united with gold, silver or enamel in the most artistic manner. @@ -12137,8 +12098,8 @@ amounting to hundreds of tons. One mass of Kalkansky jasper weighed nearly 9 tons, and a mass of rhodonite above 50 tons; the latter required a week of sledging, with ninety horses, to bring it from the quarry, only 14 m. from the works. About seventy-five -men are employed, at twenty-five roubles a month (£2, 11s. 6d.), -and ten boys, who earn from two to ten roubles (4s. to £1). A +men are employed, at twenty-five roubles a month (£2, 11s. 6d.), +and ten boys, who earn from two to ten roubles (4s. to £1). A training school is connected with the works, where over fifty boys are pupils; on graduating they may remain as government lapidaries or set up on their own account.</p> @@ -12212,7 +12173,7 @@ along the Baltic coast of Germany, where amber is chiefly obtained. The amber traffic dates back to prehistoric times; but the cutting industry in northern Europe cannot be definitely traced further back than the 14th century, when gilds of amber-workers were known at -Bruges and Lübeck. Fine carving was also done at Königsberg as +Bruges and Lübeck. Fine carving was also done at Königsberg as early as 1399. The latter city and Danzig have become the chief seats of the amber industry, and the business has increased immensely <span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> @@ -12266,7 +12227,7 @@ and many models were made of the very irregular stone and divided in different ways to determine those most advantageous. This process was in 1908 applied to the most remarkable piece of work of the kind ever undertaken—the cutting -of the gigantic Cullinan diamond of 3025¾ English carats. The +of the gigantic Cullinan diamond of 3025¾ English carats. The stone was taken to Amsterdam to be treated by the old-fashioned hand method, with innumerable precautions of every kind at every step, and the cutting was successfully accomplished after @@ -12336,7 +12297,7 @@ fragments are caught and carefully saved.</p> <p>2. <i>Cutting and Setting.</i>—The next process is that of cutting the facets; but an intervening step is the fixing or “setting” of the stone for that purpose. This is done by embedding it in -a fusible alloy, melting at 440° Fahr., in a little cup-shaped +a fusible alloy, melting at 440° Fahr., in a little cup-shaped depression on the end of a handle, the whole being called a “dop.” Only the portion to be ground off is left exposed; and two such mounted diamonds are then rubbed against each @@ -12487,9 +12448,9 @@ are many Dutch, Poles and Austro-Hungarians, principally Jews. Among these numerous employees there is much opportunity for dishonesty, and but little surveillance, actual or possible; yet losses from this cause are almost unknown. The wages paid are good, -averaging from £2, 9s. 6d. to £2, 17s. 6d. a week. Sorters receive -from 28s. to £2; cutters from £2, 9s. 6d to £3, 6s., and cleavers from -£3, 14s. upwards.</p> +averaging from £2, 9s. 6d. to £2, 17s. 6d. a week. Sorters receive +from 28s. to £2; cutters from £2, 9s. 6d to £3, 6s., and cleavers from +£3, 14s. upwards.</p> <p>With the recent introduction of electricity in diamond cutting there has been a revolution in that industry. Whereas formerly @@ -12567,20 +12528,20 @@ and this led long ago to doubt as to its homogeneity. This doubt was confirmed by the microscopic studies of L. H. Fischer, F. Zirkel and H. P. J. Vogelsang, who found that sections showed bluish particles in a white matrix; but it was reserved -for Professor W. C. Brögger and H. Bäckström, of Christiania, +for Professor W. C. Brögger and H. Bäckström, of Christiania, to separate the several constituents and subject them to analysis, thus demonstrating the true constitution of lapis lazuli, and proving that it is a rock rather than a definite mineral species. The essential part of most lapis lazuli is a blue mineral allied to -sodalite and crystallized in the cubic system, which Brögger +sodalite and crystallized in the cubic system, which Brögger distinguishes as lazurite, but this is intimately associated with -a closely related mineral which has long been known as haüyne, -or haüynite. The lazurite, sometimes regarded as true lapis +a closely related mineral which has long been known as haüyne, +or haüynite. The lazurite, sometimes regarded as true lapis lazuli, is a sulphur-bearing sodium and aluminium silicate, having the formula: Na<span class="su">4</span>(NaS<span class="su">3</span>Al) Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>. As the lazurite -and the haüynite seem to occur in molecular intermixture, +and the haüynite seem to occur in molecular intermixture, various kinds of lapis lazuli are formed; and it has been proposed -to distinguish some of them as lazurite-lapis and haüyne-lapis, +to distinguish some of them as lazurite-lapis and haüyne-lapis, according as one or the other mineral prevails. The lazurite of lapis lazuli is to be carefully distinguished from lazulite, an aluminium-magnesium phosphate, related to turquoise. In @@ -12625,7 +12586,7 @@ conventionally in black and white by horizontal lines.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAPITHAE,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a mythical race, whose home was in Thessaly in the valley of the Peneus. The genealogies make them a -kindred race with the Centaurs, their king Peirithoüs being the +kindred race with the Centaurs, their king Peirithoüs being the son, and the Centaurs the grandchildren (or sons) of Ixion. The best-known legends with which they are connected are those of Ixion (<i>q.v.</i>) and the battle with the Centaurs (<i>q.v.</i>). A well-known @@ -12648,7 +12609,7 @@ effects of swollen waters.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA PLACE<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Placaeus</i>), <span class="bold">JOSUÉ DE</span> (1606?-1665), French +<p><span class="bold">LA PLACE<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Placaeus</i>), <span class="bold">JOSUÉ DE</span> (1606?-1665), French Protestant divine, was born in Brittany. He studied and afterwards taught philosophy at Saumur. In 1625 he became pastor of the Reformed Church at Nantes, and in 1632 was appointed @@ -12692,7 +12653,7 @@ principles of mechanics, which evoked an immediate and enthusiastic response. “You,” said d’Alembert to him, “needed no introduction; you have recommended yourself; my support is your due.” He accordingly obtained for him an appointment -as professor of mathematics in the École Militaire of Paris, and +as professor of mathematics in the École Militaire of Paris, and continued zealously to forward his interests.</p> <p>Laplace had not yet completed his twenty-fourth year when @@ -12711,7 +12672,7 @@ demonstrated by his own further labours and those of his illustrious rival Lagrange, the most important advance made in physical astronomy since the time of Newton. In a paper read before the Academy of Sciences, on the 10th of February -1773 (<i>Mém. présentés par divers savans</i>, tom, vii., 1776), Laplace +1773 (<i>Mém. présentés par divers savans</i>, tom, vii., 1776), Laplace announced his celebrated conclusion of the invariability of planetary mean motions, carrying the proof as far as the cubes of the eccentricities and inclinations. This was the first and @@ -12757,7 +12718,7 @@ of gravitation by three generations of illustrious mathematicians might be presented from a single point of view. To this task the second period of Laplace’s activity was devoted. As a monument of mathematical genius applied to the celestial -revolutions, the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> ranks second only to the +revolutions, the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> ranks second only to the <i>Principia</i> of Newton.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -12784,18 +12745,18 @@ writings—of the names of his predecessors and contemporaries. Theorems and formulae are appropriated wholesale without acknowledgment, and a production which may be described as the organized result of a century of patient toil presents itself to the world as the -offspring of a single brain. The <i>Mécanique céleste</i> is, even to those +offspring of a single brain. The <i>Mécanique céleste</i> is, even to those most conversant with analytical methods, by no means easy reading. J. B. Biot, who assisted in the correction of its proof sheets, remarked that it would have extended, had the demonstrations been fully developed, to eight or ten instead of five volumes; and he saw at times the author himself obliged to devote an hour’s labour to recovering the dropped links in the chain of reasoning covered by the -recurring formula. “Il est aisé à voir.”<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> +recurring formula. “Il est aisé à voir.”<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> </div> -<p>The <i>Exposition du système du monde</i> (Paris, 1796) has been -styled by Arago “the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> disembarrassed of its +<p>The <i>Exposition du système du monde</i> (Paris, 1796) has been +styled by Arago “the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> disembarrassed of its analytical paraphernalia.” Conclusions are not merely stated in it, but the methods pursued for their attainment are indicated. It has the strength of an analytical treatise, the charm of a @@ -12805,9 +12766,9 @@ been reckoned one of the masterpieces of the language. To this linguistic excellence the writer owed the place accorded to him in 1816 in the Academy, of which institution he became president in the following year. The famous “nebular hypothesis” of -Laplace made its appearance in the <i>Système du monde</i>. Although -relegated to a note (vii.), and propounded “Avec la défiance que -doit inspirer tout ce qui n’est point un résultat de l’observation +Laplace made its appearance in the <i>Système du monde</i>. Although +relegated to a note (vii.), and propounded “Avec la défiance que +doit inspirer tout ce qui n’est point un résultat de l’observation ou du calcul,” it is plain, from the complacency with which he recurred to it<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> at a later date, that he regarded the speculation with considerable interest. That it formed the starting-point, @@ -12830,12 +12791,12 @@ removed from the commission of weights and measures; but the slight was quickly effaced by new honours. He was one of the first members, and became president of the Bureau of Longitudes, took a prominent place at the Institute (founded in -1796), professed analysis at the École Normale, and aided in the +1796), professed analysis at the École Normale, and aided in the organization of the decimal system. The publication of the -<i>Mécanique céleste</i> gained him world-wide celebrity, and his name +<i>Mécanique céleste</i> gained him world-wide celebrity, and his name appeared on the lists of the principal scientific associations of Europe, including the Royal Society. But scientific distinctions -by no means satisfied his ambition. He aspired to the rôle of +by no means satisfied his ambition. He aspired to the rôle of a politician, and has left a memorable example of genius degraded to servility for the sake of a riband and a title. The ardour of his republican principles gave place, after the 18th Brumaire, to @@ -12854,19 +12815,19 @@ gave his voice in 1814 for the dethronement of his patron, and his “suppleness” merited a seat in the chamber of peers, and, in 1817, the dignity of a marquisate. The memory of these tergiversations is perpetuated in his writings. The first edition -of the <i>Système du monde</i> was inscribed to the Council of Five -Hundred; to the third volume of the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> (1802) +of the <i>Système du monde</i> was inscribed to the Council of Five +Hundred; to the third volume of the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> (1802) was prefixed the declaration that, of all the truths contained in the work, that most precious to the author was the expression of his gratitude and devotion towards the “pacificator of Europe”; upon which noteworthy protestation the suppression -in the editions of the <i>Théorie des probabilités</i> subsequent to the +in the editions of the <i>Théorie des probabilités</i> subsequent to the restoration, of the original dedication to the emperor formed a fitting commentary.</p> <p>During the later years of his life, Laplace lived much at Arcueil, where he had a country-place adjoining that of his -friend C. L. Berthollet. With his co-operation the Société +friend C. L. Berthollet. With his co-operation the Société d’Arcueil was formed, and he occasionally contributed to its <i>Memoirs</i>. In this peaceful retirement he pursued his studies with unabated ardour, and received with uniform courtesy @@ -12929,9 +12890,9 @@ detected the existence in the solar system of an invariable plane such that the sum of the products of the planetary masses by the projections upon it of the areas described by their radii vectores in a given time is a maximum; and made notable advances in the theory of -astronomical refraction (<i>Méc. cél.</i> tom. iv. p. 258), besides constructing +astronomical refraction (<i>Méc. cél.</i> tom. iv. p. 258), besides constructing satisfactory formulae for the barometrical determination of -heights (<i>Méc. cél.</i> tom. iv. p. 324). His removal of the considerable +heights (<i>Méc. cél.</i> tom. iv. p. 324). His removal of the considerable discrepancy between the actual and Newtonian velocities of sound,<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> by taking into account the increase of elasticity due to the heat of compression, would alone have sufficed to illustrate a lesser name. @@ -12956,8 +12917,8 @@ mass engaged the persistent attention of Laplace. His first memoir was communicated to the Academy in 1773, when he was only twenty-four, his last in 1817, when he was sixty-eight. The results of his many papers on this subject—characterized by him as “un des points -les plus intéressans du système du monde”—are embodied in the -<i>Mécanique céleste</i>, and furnish one of the most remarkable proofs +les plus intéressans du système du monde”—are embodied in the +<i>Mécanique céleste</i>, and furnish one of the most remarkable proofs of his analytical genius. C. Maclaurin, Legendre and d’Alembert had furnished partial solutions of the problem, confining their attention to the possible figures which would satisfy the conditions of @@ -12972,11 +12933,11 @@ promoted by him. Legendre, in 1783, extended Maclaurin’s theorem concerning ellipsoids of revolution to the case of any spheroid of revolution where the attracted point, instead of being limited to the axis or equator, occupied any position in space; and Laplace, in his -treatise <i>Théorie du mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planètes</i> +treatise <i>Théorie du mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planètes</i> (published in 1784), effected a still further generalization by proving, what had been suspected by Legendre, that the theorem was equally true for any confocal ellipsoids. Finally, in a celebrated memoir, -<i>Théorie des attractions des sphéroides et de la figure des planètes</i>, +<i>Théorie des attractions des sphéroides et de la figure des planètes</i>, published in 1785 among the Paris <i>Memoirs</i> for the year 1782, although written after the treatise of 1784, Laplace treated exhaustively the general problem of the attraction of any spheroid upon @@ -13002,7 +12963,7 @@ of harmonics with reference to poles on the sphere.</p> conspicuously than in the theory of probabilities. The science which B. Pascal and P. de Fermat had initiated he brought very nearly to perfection; but the demonstrations are so involved, and the -omissions in the chain of reasoning so frequent, that the <i>Théorie +omissions in the chain of reasoning so frequent, that the <i>Théorie analytique</i> (1812) is to the best mathematicians a work requiring most arduous study. The theory of probabilities, which Laplace described as common sense expressed in mathematical language, @@ -13022,7 +12983,7 @@ thereby reduced to a minimum.</p> <p>Laplace published in 1779 the method of generating functions, the foundation of his theory of probabilities, and the first part of his -<i>Théorie analytique</i> is devoted to the exposition of its principles, +<i>Théorie analytique</i> is devoted to the exposition of its principles, which in their simplest form consist in treating the successive values of any function as the coefficients in the expansion of another function with reference to a different variable. The latter is therefore @@ -13052,9 +13013,9 @@ was about to sell a farm to procure funds for a new impression, when the government of Louis Philippe took the matter in hand. A grant of 40,000 francs having been obtained from the chamber, a national edition was issued in seven 4to vols., bearing the title <i>Œuvres de -Laplace</i> (1843-1847). The <i>Mécanique céleste</i> with its four supplements -occupies the first 5 vols., the 6th contains the <i>Système du -monde</i>, and the 7th the <i>Th. des probabilités</i>, to which the more popular +Laplace</i> (1843-1847). The <i>Mécanique céleste</i> with its four supplements +occupies the first 5 vols., the 6th contains the <i>Système du +monde</i>, and the 7th the <i>Th. des probabilités</i>, to which the more popular <i>Essai philosophique</i> forms an introduction. Of the four supplements added by the author (1816-1825) he tells us that the problems in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> @@ -13062,55 +13023,55 @@ last were contributed by his son. An enumeration of Laplace’s memoirs and papers (about one hundred in number) is rendered superfluous by their embodiment in his principal works. The <i>Th. des prob.</i> was first published in 1812, the <i>Essai</i> in 1814; and both -works as well as the <i>Système du monde</i> went through repeated +works as well as the <i>Système du monde</i> went through repeated editions. An English version of the <i>Essai</i> appeared in New York in -1902. Laplace’s first separate work, <i>Théorie du mouvement et de la -figure elliptique des planètes</i> (1784), was published at the expense -of President Bochard de Saron. The <i>Précis de l’histoire de l’astronomie</i> -(1821), formed the fifth book of the 5th edition of the <i>Système +1902. Laplace’s first separate work, <i>Théorie du mouvement et de la +figure elliptique des planètes</i> (1784), was published at the expense +of President Bochard de Saron. The <i>Précis de l’histoire de l’astronomie</i> +(1821), formed the fifth book of the 5th edition of the <i>Système du monde</i>. An English translation, with copious elucidatory notes, -of the first 4 vols. of the <i>Mécanique céleste</i>, by N. Bowditch, was +of the first 4 vols. of the <i>Mécanique céleste</i>, by N. Bowditch, was published at Boston, U.S. (1829-1839), in 4 vols. 4to.; a compendium of certain portions of the same work by Mrs Somerville appeared in 1831, and a German version of the first 2 vols. by Burckhardt at -Berlin in 1801. English translations of the <i>Système du monde</i> by +Berlin in 1801. English translations of the <i>Système du monde</i> by J. Pond and H. H. Harte were published, the first in 1809, the -second in 1830. An edition entitled <i>Les Œuvres complètes de Laplace</i> +second in 1830. An edition entitled <i>Les Œuvres complètes de Laplace</i> (1878), &c., which is to include all his memoirs as well as his separate works, is in course of publication under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences. The thirteenth 4to volume was issued in 1904. Some of Laplace’s results in the theory of probabilities are simplified in -S. F. Lacroix’s <i>Traité élémentaire du calcul des probabilités</i> and De +S. F. Lacroix’s <i>Traité élémentaire du calcul des probabilités</i> and De Morgan’s <i>Essay</i>, published in Lardner’s <i>Cabinet Cyclopaedia</i>. For the history of the subject see <i>A History of the Mathematical Theory of Probability</i>, by Isaac Todhunter (1865). Laplace’s treatise on specific heat was published in German in 1892 as No. 40 of W. Ostwald’s <i>Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften</i>.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Baron Fourier’s <i>Éloge, Mémoires de l’institut</i>, x. -lxxxi. (1831); <i>Revue encyclopédique</i>, xliii. (1829); S. D. Poisson’s +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Baron Fourier’s <i>Éloge, Mémoires de l’institut</i>, x. +lxxxi. (1831); <i>Revue encyclopédique</i>, xliii. (1829); S. D. Poisson’s Funeral Oration (<i>Conn. des Temps</i>, 1830, p. 19); F. X. von Zach, <i>Allg. geographische Ephemeriden</i>, iv. 70 (1799); F. Arago, <i>Annuaire du Bureau des Long</i>. 1844, p. 271, translated among Arago’s Biographies of Distinguished Men (1857); J. S. Bailly, <i>Hist. de l’astr. moderne</i>, t. iii.; R. Grant, <i>Hist. of Phys. Astr.</i> p. 50, &c.; A. Berry, <i>Short Hist. of Astr.</i> p. 306; Max Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences</i> t. x. pp. -69-98; R. Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>; J. Mädler, <i>Gesch. der +69-98; R. Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>; J. Mädler, <i>Gesch. der Himmelskunde</i>, i. 17; W. Whewell, <i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, ii. -<i>passim</i>; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog-lit. Handwörterbuch.</i></p> +<i>passim</i>; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog-lit. Handwörterbuch.</i></p> </div> <div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Recherches sur le calcul intégral,” <i>Mélanges de la Soc. Roy. de +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Recherches sur le calcul intégral,” <i>Mélanges de la Soc. Roy. de Turin</i> (1766-1769).</p> <p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> “Plan de l’Ouvrage,” <i>Œuvres</i>, tom. i. p 1.</p> <p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Journal des savants (1850).</p> -<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Méc. cél.</i>, tom. v. p. 346.</p> +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Méc. cél.</i>, tom. v. p. 346.</p> <p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Annales de chimie et de physique</i> (1816), tom. iii. p. 238.</p> </div> @@ -13120,19 +13081,19 @@ Turin</i> (1766-1769).</p> <p><span class="bold">LAPLAND<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Lappland</span>, a name used to indicate the region of northern Europe inhabited by the Lapps, though not applied to any administrative district. It covers in Norway the division -(amter) of Finmarken and the higher inland parts of Tromsö and +(amter) of Finmarken and the higher inland parts of Tromsö and Nordland; in Russian territory the western part of the government of Archangel as far as the White Sea and the northern -part of the Finnish district of Uleåborg; and in Sweden the +part of the Finnish district of UleÃ¥borg; and in Sweden the inland and northern parts of the old province of Norrland, -roughly coincident with the districts (<i>län</i>) of Norbotten and +roughly coincident with the districts (<i>län</i>) of Norbotten and Vesterbotten, and divided into five divisions—Torne Lappmark, Lule Lappmark, Pite Lappmark, Lycksele Lappmark and -Åsele Lappmark. The Norwegian portion is thus insignificant; +Ã…sele Lappmark. The Norwegian portion is thus insignificant; of the Russian only a little lies south of the Arctic circle, and the whole is less accessible and more sparsely populated than the Swedish, the southern boundary of which may be taken arbitrarily -at about 64° N., though scattered families of Lapps occur +at about 64° N., though scattered families of Lapps occur much farther south, even in the Hardanger Fjeld in Norway.</p> <p>The Scandinavian portion of Lapland presents the usual @@ -13163,7 +13124,7 @@ the head of the Ume a driving road crosses to Mo on Ranen Fjord. Each principal valley has a considerable village at or near the tail of the lake-chain, up to which a road runs along the valley. The village consists of wooden cottages with an inn -(<i>gästgifvaregård</i>), a church, and frequently a collection of huts +(<i>gästgifvaregÃ¥rd</i>), a church, and frequently a collection of huts without windows, closed in summer, but inhabited by the Lapps when they come down from the mountains to the winter fairs. Sometimes there is another church and small settlement in the @@ -13177,7 +13138,7 @@ to man. There are copper-mines at the mountain of Sulitelma, and the iron deposits in Norrland are among the most extensive in the world. Their working is facilitated by the railway from Stockholm to Gellivara, Kirunavara and Narvik on the Norwegian -coast, which also connects them with the port of Luleå +coast, which also connects them with the port of LuleÃ¥ on the Gulf of Bothnia. The supply of timber (pine, fir, spruce and birch) is unlimited. Though fruit-trees will not bear there is an abundance of edible berries; the rivers and lakes abound @@ -13302,7 +13263,7 @@ to two or even three states—Russia, Denmark and Sweden.</p> <p>The Lapps within the historical period have considerably recruited themselves from neighbouring races. Shortness of stature<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> is their most obvious characteristic, though in regard -to this much exaggeration has prevailed. Düben found an +to this much exaggeration has prevailed. Düben found an average of 4.9 ft. for males and a little less for females; Mantegazza, who made a number of anthropological observations in Norway in 1879, gives 5 ft. and 4.75 ft., respectively (<i>Archivio @@ -13323,7 +13284,7 @@ women in width of face are more Mongolian in type than the men, but neither in men nor women does the opening of the eye show any true obliquity. In children the eye is large, open and round. The nose is always low and broad, more -markedly retroussé among the females than the males. Wrinkled +markedly retroussé among the females than the males. Wrinkled and puckered by exposure to the weather, the faces even of the younger Lapps assume an appearance of old age. The muscular system is usually well developed, but there is deficiency @@ -13386,10 +13347,10 @@ and to wear stout Norwegian cloth (<i>vadmal</i>).</p> the phonetics are different and more complicated. It is broken up into very distinct and even mutually unintelligible dialects, the origin of several of which is, however, easily found in the political -and social dismemberment of the people. Düben distinguishes +and social dismemberment of the people. Düben distinguishes four leading dialects; but a much greater number are recognizable. In Russian Lapland alone there are three, due to the influence of -Norwegian, Karelian and Russian (Lönnrot, <i>Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae</i>, +Norwegian, Karelian and Russian (Lönnrot, <i>Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae</i>, vol. iv.). “The Lapps,” says Castren, “have had the misfortune to come into close contact with foreign races while their language was yet in its tenderest infancy, and consequently it has not only @@ -13398,7 +13359,7 @@ aspects fashioned itself after foreign models.” That it began at a very early period to enrich itself with Scandinavian words is shown by the use it still makes of forms belonging to a <span class="sidenote">Language.</span> -linguistic stage older even than that of Icelandic. Düben +linguistic stage older even than that of Icelandic. Düben has subjected the vocabulary to a very interesting analysis for the purpose of discovering what stage of culture the people had reached before their contact with the Norse. Agricultural terms, @@ -13477,7 +13438,7 @@ sufficient in themselves to show that the appellation must be a misnomer, and the syllable Lap or Lapp found in many names of places can often be proved to have no connexion with the Lapps.<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> They occupied their present territory when they are -first mentioned in history. According to Düben the name first +first mentioned in history. According to Düben the name first occurs in the 13th century—in the <i>Fundinn Noregr</i>, composed about 1200, in Saxo Grammaticus, and in a papal bull of date 1230; but the people are probably to be identified with those @@ -13510,7 +13471,7 @@ At length in 1326 a treaty was concluded between Norway and Russia by which the supremacy of the Norwegians over the Lapps was recognized as far east as Voljo beyond Kandalax on the White Sea, and the supremacy of the Russians over the Karelians as far -as Lyngen and the Målself. The relations of the Lapps to their +as Lyngen and the MÃ¥lself. The relations of the Lapps to their more powerful neighbours were complicated by the rivalry of the different Scandinavian kingdoms. After the disruption of the Calmar Union (1523) Sweden began to assert its rights with vigour, @@ -13522,14 +13483,14 @@ exacted homage in 1599, and every year sent messengers to protest against the collection of his tribute by the Swedes (a custom which continued down to 1806). Charles of Sweden took the title of “king of the Kajans and Lapps,” and left no means untried to establish -his power over all Scandinavian Lapland. By the peace of Knäröd +his power over all Scandinavian Lapland. By the peace of Knäröd (1613) Gustavus Adolphus gave up the Swedish claim to Finmark; and in 1751 mutual renunciations brought the relations of Swedish and Norwegian (Danish) Lapland to their present position. Meanwhile Russian influence had been spreading westward; and in 1809, when Alexander I. finally obtained the cession of Finland, he also added to his dominions the whole of Finnish Lapland to the -east of the Muonio and the Köngämä. It may be interesting to +east of the Muonio and the Köngämä. It may be interesting to mention that Lapps, armed with bows and arrows, were attached to certain regiments of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany during the Thirty Years’ War.</p> @@ -13572,10 +13533,10 @@ majority of the Norwegian Lapps lead a semi-nomadic existence; but the number of inveterate nomads can scarcely reach 1500 at the present day. In Sweden there are about 3500 nomads.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—G. von Düben, <i>Om Lappland och Lapparne</i> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—G. von Düben, <i>Om Lappland och Lapparne</i> (Stockholm, 1873), with list of over 200 authorities; C. Rabot, -“La Laponie suédoise d’après les récentes explorations de MM. -Svenonius et Hamberg,” <i>La Géographie</i>, Soc. Géog. de Paris VII. +“La Laponie suédoise d’après les récentes explorations de MM. +Svenonius et Hamberg,” <i>La Géographie</i>, Soc. Géog. de Paris VII. (1903); S. Passarge, <i>Fahrten in Schweden, besonders in Nordschweden und Lappland</i> (Berlin, 1897); Bayard Taylor, <i>Northern Travel</i> (London, 1858); E. Rae, <i>The White Sea Peninsula</i> (London, 1882), @@ -13584,7 +13545,7 @@ and <i>Land of the North Wind</i> (London, 1875); P. B. du Chaillu, the Rays of the Aurora Borealis</i> (London, 1885); Y. Nielsen, <i>Det Norske geogr. Selskabs Aarbog</i> (1891); H. H. Reusch, <i>Folk og natur i Finmarken</i> (1895); K. B. Wicklund, <i>De Svenska nomadlapparnas -flyttningar till Norge i älore och nyare tid</i> (Upsala, 1908); see also +flyttningar till Norge i älore och nyare tid</i> (Upsala, 1908); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>. Among older works may be mentioned Scheffer, <i>Lapponia</i> (Frankfurt, 1673, English trans. Oxford, 1674); Regnard, <i>Voyage de Laponie</i>, English version in Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages</i>, vol. i.; Leem, @@ -13594,26 +13555,26 @@ Winter in Lapland</i> (London, 1827); Laestadius, <i>Journal</i> (1831).</p> <p>As to the language, J. A. Friis, professor of Lapp in the university of Christiania, has published <i>Lappiske Sprogprover: en samling -lapp. eventyr, ordsprog, og gåder</i> (Christiania, 1856), and <i>Lappisk +lapp. eventyr, ordsprog, og gÃ¥der</i> (Christiania, 1856), and <i>Lappisk mythologi eventyr og folkesagn</i> (Christiania, 1871). See also G. -Donner, <i>Lieder der Lappen</i> (Helsingfors, 1876); Poestion, <i>Lappländische -Märchen</i>, &c. (Vienna, 1885). Grammars of the Lapp -tongue have been published by Fjellström (1738), Leem (1748), Rask -(1832), Stockfleth (1840); lexicons by Fjellström (1703), Leem +Donner, <i>Lieder der Lappen</i> (Helsingfors, 1876); Poestion, <i>Lappländische +Märchen</i>, &c. (Vienna, 1885). Grammars of the Lapp +tongue have been published by Fjellström (1738), Leem (1748), Rask +(1832), Stockfleth (1840); lexicons by Fjellström (1703), Leem (1768-1781), Lindahl (1780), Stockfleth (1852). Among more recent works may be mentioned a dictionary (1885), by J. A. Friis; a reader, with German translations (1888), by J. Qvigstad; a -dictionary (1890) and two grammars (1891 and 1897) of the Luleå +dictionary (1890) and two grammars (1891 and 1897) of the LuleÃ¥ dialect, and a chrestomathy of Norwegian Lappish (1894), by K. B. Wiklund; a dictionary of Russian Lappish, or the Kola dialect (1891), by A. Genetz; readers of different dialects (1885-1896), by -J. Halász; and a grammar of Norwegian Lappish (1882), by S. +J. Halász; and a grammar of Norwegian Lappish (1882), by S. Nielsen; further, a comparative study of Lappish and Finnish by Qvigstad in the <i>Acts of the Finnish Academy of Science</i>, vol. xii., -1883; the same author’s <i>Nordische Lehnwörter im Lappischen</i> +1883; the same author’s <i>Nordische Lehnwörter im Lappischen</i> (1893); Wiklund, <i>Entwurf einer urlappischen Lautlehre</i> (1896); see also various articles by these writers, Paasonen and others in the -<i>Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne</i> and the <i>Finnisch-Ugrische +<i>Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne</i> and the <i>Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen</i>; Qvigstad and Wiklund, <i>Bibliographie der lappischen Literatur</i> (1900).</p> @@ -13651,10 +13612,10 @@ the recent investigations of Yngvar Nielsen, K. B. Wiklund and others. The fact is, the Lapps are increasing in numbers, as well as pushing their way farther and farther south. In the beginning of the 16th century their southern border-line in Norway ran on the -upper side of 64° N. In 1890 they forced their way to the head of the -Hardanger Fjord in 60° N. In Sweden the presence of Lapps as far -south as Jämtland (or Jemtland) is first mentioned in 1564. In -1881 they pushed on into the north of Dalecarlia, about 61° 45′ N.</p> +upper side of 64° N. In 1890 they forced their way to the head of the +Hardanger Fjord in 60° N. In Sweden the presence of Lapps as far +south as Jämtland (or Jemtland) is first mentioned in 1564. In +1881 they pushed on into the north of Dalecarlia, about 61° 45′ N.</p> </div> @@ -13667,7 +13628,7 @@ estimate) 84,000. La Plata was founded in 1882, two years after Buenos Aires had been constituted a federal district and made the national capital. This necessitated the selection of another provincial capital, which resulted in the choice of an -open plain near the former port of Ensenada de Barragán, on +open plain near the former port of Ensenada de Barragán, on which a city was laid out after the plan of Washington. The streets are so wide that they seem out of proportion to the low brick buildings. The principal public buildings, constructed of @@ -13698,8 +13659,8 @@ produce.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAPORTE, ROLAND<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1675-1704), Camisard leader, better known as “Roland,” was born at Mas Soubeyran (Gard) in -a cottage which has become the property of the Société de -l’Histoire du Protestantisme français, and which contains relics +a cottage which has become the property of the Société de +l’Histoire du Protestantisme français, and which contains relics of the hero. He was a nephew of Laporte, the Camisard leader who was hunted down and shot in October 1702, and he himself became the leader of a band of a thousand men which he formed @@ -13709,7 +13670,7 @@ only to Cavalier. These two leaders in 1702 secured entrance to the town of Sauve under the pretence of being royal officers, burnt the church and carried off provisions and ammunition for their forces. Roland, who called himself “general of the children -of God,” terrorized the country between Nîmes and Alais, burning +of God,” terrorized the country between Nîmes and Alais, burning churches and houses, and slaying those suspected of hostility against the Huguenots, though without personally taking any part of the spoil. Cavalier was already in negotiation with @@ -13723,11 +13684,11 @@ of their religion, for his co-religionists. This parley had no results, but Roland was betrayed to his enemies, and on the 14th of August 1704 was shot while defending himself against his captors. The five officers who were with him surrendered, -and were broken on the wheel at Nîmes. Roland’s death put -an end to the effective resistance of the Cévenols.</p> +and were broken on the wheel at Nîmes. Roland’s death put +an end to the effective resistance of the Cévenols.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. Court, <i>Histoire des troubles des Cévennes</i> (Villefranche, +<p>See A. Court, <i>Histoire des troubles des Cévennes</i> (Villefranche, 1760); H. M. Baird, <i>The Huguenots and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes</i> (2 vols., London, 1895), and other literature dealing with the Camisards.</p> @@ -13739,7 +13700,7 @@ Camisards.</p> Indiana, U.S.A., 12 m. S. of Lake Michigan and about 60 m. S.E. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 7126; (1900) 7113 (1403 foreign-born); (1910) 10,525. It is served by the Lake Erie & -Western, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Père +Western, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Père Marquette, the Chicago, South Bend & Northern Indiana (electric), and the Chicago-New York Electric Air Line railways. La Porte lies in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and the @@ -13755,7 +13716,7 @@ first chartered as a city in 1852.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAPPA,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> an island directly opposite the inner harbour of -Macao, the distance across being from 1 to 1½ m. It is a station +Macao, the distance across being from 1 to 1½ m. It is a station of the Chinese imperial maritime customs which collects duties on vessels trading between China and the Portuguese colony <span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> @@ -13772,25 +13733,25 @@ done, on entering or leaving a Chinese port.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAPPARENT, ALBERT AUGUSTE COCHON DE<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1839-1908), French geologist, was born at Bourges on the 30th of December -1839. After studying at the École Polytechnique from 1858 to -1860 he became <i>ingénieur au corps des mines</i>, and took part in +1839. After studying at the École Polytechnique from 1858 to +1860 he became <i>ingénieur au corps des mines</i>, and took part in drawing up the geological map of France; and in 1875 he was appointed professor of geology and mineralogy at the Catholic Institute, Paris. In 1879 he prepared an important memoir for the geological survey of France on <i>Le Pays de Bray</i>, a subject on which he had already published several memoirs, and in 1880 he served as president of the French Geological Society. In -1881-1883 he published his <i>Traité de géologie</i> (5th ed., 1905), +1881-1883 he published his <i>Traité de géologie</i> (5th ed., 1905), the best European text-book of stratigraphical geology. His -other works include <i>Cours de minéralogie</i> (1884, 3rd ed., 1899), -<i>La Formation des combustibles minéraux</i> (1886), <i>Le Niveau de la +other works include <i>Cours de minéralogie</i> (1884, 3rd ed., 1899), +<i>La Formation des combustibles minéraux</i> (1886), <i>Le Niveau de la mer et ses variations</i> (1886), <i>Les Tremblements de terre</i> (1887), -<i>La Géologie en chemin de fer</i> (1888), <i>Précis de minéralogie</i> (1888), -<i>Le Siècle du fer</i> (1890), <i>Les Anciens Glaciers</i> (1893), <i>Leçons de -géographie physique</i> (1896), <i>Notions générales sur l’écorce terrestre</i> -(1897), <i>Le Globe terrestre</i> (1899), and <i>Science et apologétique</i> (1905). -With Achille Delesse he was for many years editor of the <i>Révue -de géologie</i> and contributed to the <i>Extraits de géologie</i>, and he +<i>La Géologie en chemin de fer</i> (1888), <i>Précis de minéralogie</i> (1888), +<i>Le Siècle du fer</i> (1890), <i>Les Anciens Glaciers</i> (1893), <i>Leçons de +géographie physique</i> (1896), <i>Notions générales sur l’écorce terrestre</i> +(1897), <i>Le Globe terrestre</i> (1899), and <i>Science et apologétique</i> (1905). +With Achille Delesse he was for many years editor of the <i>Révue +de géologie</i> and contributed to the <i>Extraits de géologie</i>, and he joined with A. Potier in the geological surveys undertaken in connexion with the Channel Tunnel proposals. He died in Paris on the 5th of May 1908.</p> @@ -13802,7 +13763,7 @@ historian, was born on the 30th of July 1794 at Hamburg, where his father, Valentin Anton Lappenberg (1759-1819), held an official position. He studied medicine, and afterwards history, at Edinburgh. He continued to study history in London, and at -Berlin and Göttingen, graduating as doctor of laws at Göttingen +Berlin and Göttingen, graduating as doctor of laws at Göttingen in 1816. In 1820 he was sent by the Hamburg senate as resident minister to the Prussian court. In 1823 he became keeper of the Hamburg archives; an office in which he had the fullest @@ -13820,18 +13781,18 @@ Anglo-Saxon Kings</i> (London 1845, and again 1881), and <i>History of England under the Norman Kings</i> (Oxford, 1857), and has been continued in three additional volumes from 1154 to 1509 by R. Pauli. His other works deal mainly with the history of -Hamburg, and include <i>Hamburgische Chroniken in Niedersächsischer +Hamburg, and include <i>Hamburgische Chroniken in Niedersächsischer Sprache</i> (Hamburg, 1852-1861); <i>Geschichtsquellen des Erzstiftes und der Stadt Bremen</i> (Bremen, 1841); <i>Hamburgisches Urkundenbuch</i> (Hamburg, 1842); <i>Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen Stahlhofes zu London</i> (Hamburg, 1851); <i>Hamburgische -Rechtsalterthümer</i> (Hamburg, 1845); and <i>Urkundliche +Rechtsalterthümer</i> (Hamburg, 1845); and <i>Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse</i> (Hamburg, 1830), a continuation of the work of G. F. Sartorius. For the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i> he edited the <i>Chronicon</i> of Thietmar of Merseburg, the <i>Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum</i> of Adam of Bremen and the <i>Chronica Slavorum</i> of Helmold, -with its continuation by Arnold of Lübeck. Lappenberg, who +with its continuation by Arnold of Lübeck. Lappenberg, who was a member of numerous learned societies in Europe, wrote many other historical works.</p> @@ -13849,26 +13810,26 @@ was born on the 13th of January 1812 at Montbrison, in the department of the Loire. He came of a modest provincial family. After completing his studies at Lyons, he produced in 1839 a small volume of religious verse, <i>Les Parfums de Madeleine</i>. -This was followed in 1840 by <i>La Colère de Jésus</i>, in 1841 by the -religious fantasy of <i>Psyché</i>, and in 1844 by <i>Odes et poèmes</i>. +This was followed in 1840 by <i>La Colère de Jésus</i>, in 1841 by the +religious fantasy of <i>Psyché</i>, and in 1844 by <i>Odes et poèmes</i>. In 1845 Laprade visited Italy on a mission of literary research, and in 1847 he was appointed professor of French literature at Lyons. The French Academy, by a single vote, preferred -Émile Augier at the election in 1857, but in the following year +Émile Augier at the election in 1857, but in the following year Laprade was chosen to fill the chair of Alfred de Musset. In 1861 he was removed from his post at Lyons owing to the -publication of a political satire in verse (<i>Les Muses d’État</i>), and +publication of a political satire in verse (<i>Les Muses d’État</i>), and in 1871 took his seat in the National Assembly on the benches of the Right. He died on the 13th of December 1883. A statue has been raised by his fellow-townsmen at Montbrison. Besides those named above, Laprade’s poetical works include -<i>Poèmes évangéliques</i> (1852), <i>Idylles héroïques</i> (1858), <i>Les Voix de -silence</i> (1864), <i>Pernette</i> (1868), <i>Poèmes civiles</i> (1873), <i>Le Livre -d’un père</i> (1877), <i>Varia</i> and <i>Livre des adieux</i> (1878-1879). In +<i>Poèmes évangéliques</i> (1852), <i>Idylles héroïques</i> (1858), <i>Les Voix de +silence</i> (1864), <i>Pernette</i> (1868), <i>Poèmes civiles</i> (1873), <i>Le Livre +d’un père</i> (1877), <i>Varia</i> and <i>Livre des adieux</i> (1878-1879). In prose he published, in 1840, <i>Des habitudes intellectuelles de l’avocat</i>. <i>Questions d’art et de morale</i> appeared in 1861, succeeded by <i>Le Sentiment de la nature, avant le Christianisme</i> in 1866, and -<i>Chez les modernes</i> in 1868, <i>Éducation libérale</i> in 1873. The +<i>Chez les modernes</i> in 1868, <i>Éducation libérale</i> in 1873. The material for these books had in some cases been printed earlier, after delivery as a lecture. He also contributed articles to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> and the <i>Revue de Paris</i>. No writer @@ -13898,7 +13859,7 @@ fixed their minds so steadily on whatsoever things are pure, and lovely and of good report.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See also Edmond Biré, <i>Victor de Laprade, sa vie et ses œuvres</i>.</p> +<p>See also Edmond Biré, <i>Victor de Laprade, sa vie et ses œuvres</i>.</p> </div> <div class="author">(C.)</div> @@ -13917,7 +13878,7 @@ testator’s lifetime, is termed a lapse. See <span class="sc"><a href="#art <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAPWING<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (O.Eng. <i>hleápewince</i> = “one who turns about in +<p><span class="bold">LAPWING<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (O.Eng. <i>hleápewince</i> = “one who turns about in running or flight”),<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a bird, the <i>Tringa vanellus</i> of Linnaeus and the <i>Vanellus vulgaris</i> or <i>V. cristatus</i> of modern ornithologists. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> @@ -14000,7 +13961,7 @@ and Asia.</p> <p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Skeat, <i>Etym</i>. Dict. (1898), <i>s.v</i>. Caxton in 1481 has “lapwynches” (<i>Reynard the Fox</i>, cap. 27). The first part of the word is from -<i>hleápan</i>, to leap; the second part is “wink” (O.H.G. <i>winchan</i>, Ger. +<i>hleápan</i>, to leap; the second part is “wink” (O.H.G. <i>winchan</i>, Ger. <i>wanken</i>, to waver). Popular etymology has given the word its present form, as if it meant “wing-flapper,” from “lap,” a fold or flap of a garment.</p> @@ -14079,7 +14040,7 @@ Text-book of Geology</i> was published in 1899.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAR,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> a city of Persia, capital of Laristan, in 27° 30′ N., 53° 58′ +<p><span class="bold">LAR,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> a city of Persia, capital of Laristan, in 27° 30′ N., 53° 58′ E., 180 m. from Shiraz and 75 from the coast at Bander Lingah. It stands at the foot of a mountain range in an extensive plain covered with palm trees, and was once a flourishing place, but @@ -14100,7 +14061,7 @@ is for the most part in ruins.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LARA,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> western state of Venezuela, lying in the angle formed by the parting of the N. and N.E. ranges of the Cordillera de -Mérida and extending N.E. with converging frontiers to the +Mérida and extending N.E. with converging frontiers to the Caribbean. Pop. (1905 estimate) 272,252. The greater part of its surface is mountainous, with elevated fertile valleys which have a temperate climate. The Tocuyo river rises in the S.W. @@ -14122,7 +14083,7 @@ and 1026 ft. above the sea, is known for its cigar manufactories.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LARAISH<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (<i>El Araish</i>), a port in northern Morocco on the -Atlantic coast in 35° 13′ N., 6° 9′ W., 43 m. by sea S. by W. of +Atlantic coast in 35° 13′ N., 6° 9′ W., 43 m. by sea S. by W. of Tangier, picturesquely situated on the left bank of the estuary of the Wad Lekkus. Pop. 6000 to 7000. The river, being fairly deep inside the bar, made this a favourite port for the Salli @@ -14139,7 +14100,7 @@ in front of very small shops. The streets, though narrow and steep, are generally paved. Its chief exports are oranges, millet, dra and other cereals, goat-hair and skins, sheepskins, wool and fullers’ earth. The wool goes chiefly to Marseilles. The annual -value of the trade is from £400,000 to £500,000.</p> +value of the trade is from £400,000 to £500,000.</p> <p>In 1780 all the Europeans in Laraish were expelled by Mohammed XVI., although in 1786 the monopoly of its trade @@ -14184,7 +14145,7 @@ and a tie-preserving plant. The manufactures include glass, leather, flour, plaster and pressed brick, the brick being made from shale obtained in the vicinity. The municipality owns and operates the water-works; the water is obtained from large -springs about 2½ m. distant. Laramie was settled in 1868, +springs about 2½ m. distant. Laramie was settled in 1868, by people largely from New England, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa, and was named in honour of Jacques Laramie, a French fur trader. It was first chartered as a city in 1868 by the legislature @@ -14203,7 +14164,7 @@ the church, finely placed overlooking the river, the Stirling district asylum and the Scottish National Institution for imbecile children. In the churchyard is a monument to James Bruce, the Abyssinian traveller, who was born and died at Kinnaird -House, 2½ m. N.E. Two m. N. by W. are the ruins of Torwood +House, 2½ m. N.E. Two m. N. by W. are the ruins of Torwood Castle and the remains of Torwood forest, to which Sir William Wallace retired after his defeat at Falkirk (1298). Near “Wallace’s oak,” in which the patriot concealed himself, Donald @@ -14311,7 +14272,7 @@ The pre-Conquest compilations of laws are full of provisions on the subject. The earlier laws appear to regard it as a delict which may be compounded for by payment. Considerable distinctions of person are made, both in regard to the owner -and the thief. Thus, by the laws of Æthelberht, if a freeman +and the thief. Thus, by the laws of Æthelberht, if a freeman stole from the king he was to restore ninefold, if from a freeman or from a dwelling, threefold. If a theow stole, he had only to make a twofold reparation. In the laws of Alfred ordinary @@ -14320,7 +14281,7 @@ punished by the loss of his hand. The laws of Ina named as the penalty death or redemption according to the wer-gild of the thief. By the same laws the thief might be slain if he fled or resisted. Gradually the severity of the punishment increased. -By the laws of Æthelstan death in a very cruel form was inflicted. +By the laws of Æthelstan death in a very cruel form was inflicted. At a later date the <i>Leges Henrici Primi</i> placed a thief in the king’s mercy, and his lands were forfeited. Putting out the eyes and other kinds of mutilation were sometimes the punishment. @@ -14359,7 +14320,7 @@ continually cheaper. The distinction between grand and petit larceny first appears in statute law in the Statute of Westminster the First, c. 15, but it was not created for the first time by that statute. It is found in some of the pre-Conquest codes, as that of -Æthelstan, and it is recognized in the <i>Leges Henrici Primi</i>. A +Æthelstan, and it is recognized in the <i>Leges Henrici Primi</i>. A distinction between simple and compound larceny is still found in the books. The latter is larceny accompanied by circumstances of aggravation, as that it is in a dwelling-house or from the person. @@ -14474,22 +14435,22 @@ by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than seven years. Larceny of a horse, mule, ass, bull, steer, cow or reindeer is punishable by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than fifteen years. Wilfully altering or defacing marks or brands on such animals -is larceny (Pen. Code Alaska, § 45, 1899).</p> +is larceny (Pen. Code Alaska, § 45, 1899).</p> <p><i>Arizona.</i>—Appropriating property found without due inquiry -for the owner is larceny (Penal Code, § 442). “Dogs are property +for the owner is larceny (Penal Code, § 442). “Dogs are property and of the value of <i>one dollar each</i> within the meaning of the terms -‘property’ and ‘value’ as used in this chapter” (<i>id.</i> § 448). Property +‘property’ and ‘value’ as used in this chapter” (<i>id.</i> § 448). Property includes a passage ticket though never issued. Persons stealing property in another state or county, or who receive it knowing it to be stolen and bring it into Arizona, may be convicted and punished -as if the offence was committed there (<i>id.</i> § 454). Stealing gas or +as if the offence was committed there (<i>id.</i> § 454). Stealing gas or water from a main is a misdemeanour.</p> <p><i>Iowa.</i>—It is larceny to steal electricity, gas or water from wires, meters or mains (L. 1903, ch. 132).</p> -<p><i>New York.</i>—Larceny as defined by § 528 of the Penal Code includes +<p><i>New York.</i>—Larceny as defined by § 528 of the Penal Code includes also embezzlement, obtaining property by false pretences, and felonious breach of trust (<i>People</i> v. <i>Dumar</i>, 106 N.Y. 508), but the method of proof required to establish these offences has not been @@ -14507,9 +14468,9 @@ passenger ticket the price it is usually sold at. The value of anything else not fixed by statute is its market value. Grand larceny, in the first degree, is punishable by imprisonment not exceeding ten years; in the second degree, not exceeding five years. Petit larceny -is a misdemeanour (Penal Code, §§ 530-535). Bringing stolen goods +is a misdemeanour (Penal Code, §§ 530-535). Bringing stolen goods into the state knowing them to be stolen is punishable as larceny -within the state (<i>id.</i> § 540). A “pay ticket” for removing a load +within the state (<i>id.</i> § 540). A “pay ticket” for removing a load of snow may be the subject of larceny and its value the amount to be paid on it. (<i>People</i> v. <i>Fletcher</i> [1906] 110 App. D. 231).</p> @@ -14518,23 +14479,23 @@ company with intent to defeat its lien for transportation charges is guilty of larceny. (<i>Atchison Co.</i> v. <i>Hinsdell</i> [1907] 90 Pac. Rep. 800).</p> <p><i>Massachusetts.</i>—Larceny includes embezzlement and obtaining -money by false pretences. (Rev. L. 1902, ch. 218, § 40.) The failing +money by false pretences. (Rev. L. 1902, ch. 218, § 40.) The failing to restore to or to notify the owner of property removed from -premises on fire is larceny (<i>id.</i> ch. 208, § 22). It is larceny to purchase +premises on fire is larceny (<i>id.</i> ch. 208, § 22). It is larceny to purchase property (payment for which is to be made on or before delivery) by means of a false pretence as to means or ability to pay, provided such pretence is signed by the person to be charged. Indictment for -stealing a will need not contain an allegation of value (<i>id.</i> § 29). +stealing a will need not contain an allegation of value (<i>id.</i> § 29). A person convicted either as accessory or principal of three distinct larcenies shall be adjudged “a common and notorious thief” and may be imprisoned for not more than twenty years (<i>id.</i> 31). On second conviction for larceny of a bicycle, the thief may be imprisoned for not more than five years. Larceny of things annexed to realty is punishable as if it were a larceny of personal property -(<i>id.</i> §§ 33, 35).</p> +(<i>id.</i> §§ 33, 35).</p> <p><i>Ohio.</i>—Stealing “anything of value” is larceny (Bates Stats. -§ 6856). Tapping gas pipes is punishable by fine or imprisonment +§ 6856). Tapping gas pipes is punishable by fine or imprisonment for not more than thirty days. Stealing timber having “timber dealers’” trade mark, or removing it from a stream, is punishable by a fine of not less than $20.</p> @@ -14545,10 +14506,10 @@ animal (L. 1905, ch. 38).</p> <p><i>Wyoming.</i>—For branding or altering or defacing the brand on cattle with intent to steal, the penalty is imprisonment for not more than five years. It is larceny for a bailee to convert with -intent to steal goods left with or found by him (Rev. Stats. §§ 4986, +intent to steal goods left with or found by him (Rev. Stats. §§ 4986, 4989).</p> -<p><i>Washington.</i>—A horse not branded, but under Code § 6861 an +<p><i>Washington.</i>—A horse not branded, but under Code § 6861 an “outlaw,” the owner being unknown, can be the subject of a larceny, having been held to be property of the state. (<i>State</i> v. <i>Eddy</i> [1907], 90 Pac. Rep. 641). For the third offence of such a larceny the penalty @@ -14570,7 +14531,7 @@ Act of 1861.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LARCH<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (from the Ger. <i>Lärche</i>, M.H.G. <i>Lerche</i>, Lat. <i>larix</i>), +<p><span class="bold">LARCH<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (from the Ger. <i>Lärche</i>, M.H.G. <i>Lerche</i>, Lat. <i>larix</i>), a name applied to a small group of coniferous trees, of which the common larch of Europe is taken as the type. The members of the genus <i>Larix</i> are distinguished from the firs, @@ -14631,7 +14592,7 @@ Spanish peninsula. It forms extensive woods in Russia, but does not extend to Scandinavia, where its absence is somewhat remarkable, as the tree grows freely in Norway and Sweden where planted, and even multiplies itself by self-sown seed, -according to F. C. Schübeler, in the neighbourhood of Trondhjem. +according to F. C. Schübeler, in the neighbourhood of Trondhjem. In the north-eastern parts of Russia, in the country towards the Petchora river, and on the Ural, a peculiar variety prevails, regarded by some as a distinct species (<i>L. sibirica</i>); this form is @@ -14640,7 +14601,7 @@ coast of Kamchatka and the hills of the Amur region. The Siberian larch has smooth grey bark and smaller cones, approaching in shape somewhat to those of the American hackmatack; it seems even hardier than the Alpine tree, growing up to latitude -68°, but, as the inclement climate of the polar shores is neared, +68°, but, as the inclement climate of the polar shores is neared, dwindling down to a dwarf and even trailing bush.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -14728,7 +14689,7 @@ being, however, rendered quite useless for timber by subjection to this process. In Tirol, a single hole is made near the root of the tree in the spring; this is stopped with a plug, and the turpentine is removed by a scoop in the autumn; but each tree yields only -from a few ounces to ½ ℔ by this process. Real larch turpentine is +from a few ounces to ½ ℔ by this process. Real larch turpentine is a thick tenacious fluid, of a deep yellow colour, and nearly transparent; it does not harden by time; it contains 15% of the essential oil of turpentine, also resin, succinic, pinic and sylvic acids, and a @@ -14737,7 +14698,7 @@ the name of Venice turpentine is a mixture of common resin and oil of turpentine. On the French Alps a sweet exudation is found on the small branchlets of young larches in June and July, resembling manna in taste and laxative properties, and known as <i>Manna de -Briançon</i> or <i>Manna Brigantina</i>; it occurs in small whitish irregular +Briançon</i> or <i>Manna Brigantina</i>; it occurs in small whitish irregular granular masses, which are removed in the morning before they are too much dried by the sun; this manna seems to differ little in composition from the sap of the tree, which also contains <i>mannite</i>; @@ -14831,13 +14792,13 @@ Peeblesshire, attained 5 ft. in diameter; one at Glenarbuck, near the Clyde, grew above 140 ft. high, with a circumference of 13 ft. The annual increase in girth is often considerable even in large trees; the fine larch near the abbey of Dunkeld figured by Strutt in his -<i>Sylva Britannica</i> increased 2½ ft. between 1796 and 1825, its measurement -at the latter date being 13 ft., with a height of 97½ ft.</p> +<i>Sylva Britannica</i> increased 2½ ft. between 1796 and 1825, its measurement +at the latter date being 13 ft., with a height of 97½ ft.</p> <p>In the south of England, the larch is much planted for the supply of hop-poles, though in parts of Kent and Sussex poles formed of Spanish chestnut are regarded as still more lasting. In plantations -made with this object, the seedlings are placed very close (from 1½ +made with this object, the seedlings are placed very close (from 1½ to 2 ft. apart), and either cut down all at once, when the required height is attained or thinned out, leaving the remainder to gain a greater length; the land is always well trenched before planting. @@ -14883,7 +14844,7 @@ unsuitable soil, especially soil containing insufficient nourishment.</p> for use in the dockyards, in addition to the large home supply. The quality varies much, as well as the colour and density; an Italian sample in the museum at Kew (of a very dark red tint) weighs -about 24½ ℔ to the cub. ft., while a Polish specimen, of equally deep +about 24½ ℔ to the cub. ft., while a Polish specimen, of equally deep hue, is 44 ℔ 1 oz. to the same measurement.</p> <p>For the landscape gardener, the larch is a valuable aid in the @@ -14915,14 +14876,14 @@ more generally applicable.</p> by the hackmatack (<i>L. americana</i>), of which there are several varieties, two so well marked that they are by some botanists considered specifically distinct. In one (<i>L. microcarpa</i>) the cones -are very small, rarely exceeding ½ in. in length, of a roundish-oblong +are very small, rarely exceeding ½ in. in length, of a roundish-oblong shape; the scales are very few in number, crimson in the young state, reddish-brown when ripe; the tree much resembles the European larch in general appearance but is of more slender growth; its trunk is seldom more than 2 ft. in diameter and rarely above 80 ft. high; this form is the red larch, the -<i>épinette rouge</i> of the French Canadians. The black larch (<i>L. -pendula</i>) has rather larger cones, of an oblong shape, about ¾ in. +<i>épinette rouge</i> of the French Canadians. The black larch (<i>L. +pendula</i>) has rather larger cones, of an oblong shape, about ¾ in. long, purplish or green in the immature state, and dark brown when ripe, the scales somewhat more numerous, the bracts all shorter than the scales. The bark is dark bluish-grey, smoother @@ -14974,13 +14935,13 @@ or household furniture.</p> scholar and archaeologist, was born at Dijon on the 12th of October 1726. Originally intended for the law, he abandoned it for the classics. His (anonymous) translation of Chariton’s -<i>Chaereas and Callirrhoë</i> (1763) marked him as an excellent +<i>Chaereas and Callirrhoë</i> (1763) marked him as an excellent Greek scholar. His attack upon Voltaire’s <i>Philosophie de -l’historie</i> (published under the name of l’Abbé Bazin) created +l’historie</i> (published under the name of l’Abbé Bazin) created considerable interest at the time. His archaeological and mythological -<i>Mémoire sur Vénus</i> (1775), which has been ranked +<i>Mémoire sur Vénus</i> (1775), which has been ranked with similar works of Heyne and Winckelmann, gained him -admission to the Académie des Inscriptions (1778). After the +admission to the Académie des Inscriptions (1778). After the imperial university was founded, he was appointed professor of Greek literature (1809) with Boissonade as his assistant. He died on the 22nd of December 1812. Larcher’s best work @@ -14993,7 +14954,7 @@ and chronological questions, and enriched by a wealth of illustration from ancient and modern authors, is not without value.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. F. Boissonade, <i>Notice sur la vie et les écrits de P. L.</i> (1813); +<p>See J. F. Boissonade, <i>Notice sur la vie et les écrits de P. L.</i> (1813); F. A. Wolf, <i>Literarische Analecten</i>, i. 205; D. A. Wyttenbach, <i>Philomathia</i>, iii. (1817).</p> </div> @@ -15030,15 +14991,15 @@ parts of the animal and sometimes containing no “leaf” at all. Lard of various grades is made in enormous quantities by the great pork-packing houses at Chicago and elsewhere in America. “Neutral lard” is prepared at a temperature of -40°-50° C. from freshly killed hogs; the finest quality, used +40°-50° C. from freshly killed hogs; the finest quality, used for making oleomargarine, is got from the leaf, while the second, employed by biscuit and pastry bakers, is obtained from the fat of the back. Steam heat is utilized in extracting inferior qualities, such as “choice lard” and “prime steam lard,” the source of the latter being any fat portion of the animal. Lard is a pure white fat of a butter-like consistence; its specific -gravity is about 0.93, its solidifying point about 27°-30° C., -and its melting point 35°-45° C. It contains about 60% of +gravity is about 0.93, its solidifying point about 27°-30° C., +and its melting point 35°-45° C. It contains about 60% of olein and 40% of palmitin and stearin. Adulteration is common, the substances used including “stearin” both of beef and of mutton, and vegetable oils such as cotton seed oil: indeed, @@ -15070,7 +15031,7 @@ became professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at University College, London, a position he held till 1840, when he eloped with a married lady, and had to leave the country. After a lecturing tour through the principal cities of the United -States, which realized £40,000, he returned to Europe in 1845. +States, which realized £40,000, he returned to Europe in 1845. He settled at Paris, and resided there till within a few months of his death, which took place at Naples on the 29th of April 1859.</p> @@ -15172,18 +15133,18 @@ It was captured in 1846 by a force of Texas Rangers, and in <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA RÉOLE,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an +<p><span class="bold">LA RÉOLE,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on the right bank of the Gironde, 38 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) -3469. La Réole grew up round a monastery founded in the +3469. La Réole grew up round a monastery founded in the 7th or 8th century, which was reformed in the 11th century and took the name of <i>Regula</i>, whence that of the town. A church of the end of the 12th century and some of the buildings (18th century) are left. There is also a town hall of the 12th and 14th centuries. The town fortifications were dismantled by order of Richelieu, but remains dating from the 12th and 14th -centuries are to be seen, as well as a ruined château built by -Henry II. of England. La Réole has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal +centuries are to be seen, as well as a ruined château built by +Henry II. of England. La Réole has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a communal college and an agricultural school. The town is the centre of the district in which the well-known breed of Bazadais cattle is reared. It is an agricultural market @@ -15198,7 +15159,7 @@ with Etruscan <i>larth</i>, <i>lar</i>; but this is by no means certain. The attempt to harmonize the Stoic demonology with Roman religion led to the Lares being compared with the Greek “heroes” during the period of Greco-Roman culture, and the word is -frequently translated <span class="grk" title="hêrôes">ἥρωες</span>. In the later period of the republic +frequently translated <span class="grk" title="hêrôes">ἥρωες</span>. In the later period of the republic they are confounded with the Penates (and other deities), though the distinction between them was probably more sharply marked in earlier times. They were originally gods of the cultivated @@ -15288,28 +15249,28 @@ found his way into the house.</p> <p>In addition to the manuals of Marquardt and Preller-Jordan, and Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, see A. de Marchi, <i>Il Culto privato di Roma antica</i> (1896-1903), p. 28 foll.; G. Wissowa, <i>Religion -und Kultus der Römer</i> (1902), p. 148 foll.; <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i> +und Kultus der Römer</i> (1902), p. 148 foll.; <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i> (1904, p. 42 foll.) and W. Warde Fowler in the same periodical (1906; p. 529).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA RÉVELLIÈRE-LÉPEAUX, LOUIS MARIE DE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1753-1824), +<p><span class="bold">LA RÉVELLIÈRE-LÉPEAUX, LOUIS MARIE DE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1753-1824), French politician, member of the Directory, the son of -J. B. de la Révellière, was born at Montaign (Vendée), on the -24th of August 1753. The name of Lépeaux he adopted from a +J. B. de la Révellière, was born at Montaign (Vendée), on the +24th of August 1753. The name of Lépeaux he adopted from a small property belonging to his family, and he was known locally -as M. de Lépeaux. He studied law at Angers and Paris, being +as M. de Lépeaux. He studied law at Angers and Paris, being called to the bar in 1775. A deputy to the states-general in 1789, he returned at the close of the session to Angers, where with -his school-friends J. B. Leclerc and Urbain René Pilastre he +his school-friends J. B. Leclerc and Urbain René Pilastre he sat on the council of Maine-et-Loire, and had to deal with the -first Vendéen outbreaks. In 1792 he was returned by the +first Vendéen outbreaks. In 1792 he was returned by the department to the Convention, and on the 19th of November he proposed the famous decree by which France offered protection to foreign nations in their struggle for liberty. Although La -Révellière-Lépeaux voted for the death of Louis XVI., he was +Révellière-Lépeaux voted for the death of Louis XVI., he was not in general agreement with the extremists. Proscribed with the Girondins in 1793 he was in hiding until the revolution of 9.10 Thermidor (27th and 28th of July 1794). After serving on @@ -15318,34 +15279,34 @@ he became in July 1795 president of the Assembly, and shortly afterwards a member of the Committee of Public Safety. His name stood first on the list of directors elected, and he became president of the Directory. Of his colleagues he was in alliance -with Jean François Rewbell and to a less degree with Barras, +with Jean François Rewbell and to a less degree with Barras, but the greatest of his fellow-directors, Lazare Carnot, was the object of his undying hatred. His policy was marked by a bitter hostility to the Christian religion, which he proposed to supplant as a civilizing agent by theophilanthropy, a new religion invented by the English deist David Williams. The credit of the <i>coup -d’état</i> of 18 Fructidor (4th of September 1797), by which the -allied directors made themselves supreme, La Révellière arrogated -to himself in his <i>Mémoires</i>, which in this as in other matters +d’état</i> of 18 Fructidor (4th of September 1797), by which the +allied directors made themselves supreme, La Révellière arrogated +to himself in his <i>Mémoires</i>, which in this as in other matters must be read with caution. Compelled to resign by the revolution of 30 Prairial (18th of June 1799) he lived in retirement in the country, and even after his return to Paris ten years later took no part in public affairs. He died on the 27th of March 1824.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The <i>Mémoires</i> of La Révellière-Lépeaux were edited by R. D. -D’Angers (Paris, 3 vols., 1895). See also E. Charavay, <i>La Révellière-Lépeaux -et ses mémoires</i> (1895) and A. Meynier, <i>Un Représentant +<p>The <i>Mémoires</i> of La Révellière-Lépeaux were edited by R. D. +D’Angers (Paris, 3 vols., 1895). See also E. Charavay, <i>La Révellière-Lépeaux +et ses mémoires</i> (1895) and A. Meynier, <i>Un Représentant de la bourgeoisie angevine</i> (1905).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LARGENTIÈRE,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, capital of an -arrondissement in the department of Ardèche, in the narrow +<p><span class="bold">LARGENTIÈRE,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Ardèche, in the narrow valley of the Ligne, 29 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 1690. A church of the 12th, 13th and 15th centuries and the -old castle of the bishops of Viviers, lords of Largentière, now +old castle of the bishops of Viviers, lords of Largentière, now used as a hospital, are the chief buildings. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance; and has silk-mills, and carries on silk-spinning, wine-growing and trade @@ -15354,7 +15315,7 @@ the vicinity in the middle ages.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LARGILLIÈRE, NICOLAS<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1656-1746), French painter, was +<p><span class="bold">LARGILLIÈRE, NICOLAS<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1656-1746), French painter, was born at Paris on the 20th of October 1656. His father, a merchant, took him to Antwerp at the age of three, and while a lad he spent nearly two years in London. The attempt to turn his @@ -15364,7 +15325,7 @@ the age of eighteen to seek his fortune in England, where he was befriended by Lely, who employed him for four years at Windsor. His skill attracted the notice of Charles II., who wished to retain him in his service, but the fury aroused against Roman Catholics -by the Rye House Plot alarmed Largillière, and he went to Paris, +by the Rye House Plot alarmed Largillière, and he went to Paris, where he was well received by Le Brun and Van der Meulen. In spite of his Flemish training, his reputation, especially as a portrait-painter, was soon established; his brilliant colour and @@ -15373,12 +15334,12 @@ public men and popular preachers flocking to his studio. Huet, bishop of Avranches, Cardinal de Noailles, the Duclos and President Lambert, with his beautiful wife and daughter, are amongst his most noted subjects. It is said that James II. -recalled Largillière to England on his accession to the throne in +recalled Largillière to England on his accession to the throne in 1685, that he declined the office of keeper of the royal collections, but that, during a short stay in London, he painted portraits of the king, the queen and the prince of Wales. This last is impossible, as the birth of the prince did not take place till 1688; the three -portraits, therefore, painted by Largillière of the prince in his +portraits, therefore, painted by Largillière of the prince in his youth must all have been executed in Paris, to which city he returned some time before March 1686, when he was received by the Academy as a member, and presented as his diploma picture @@ -15388,15 +15349,15 @@ works of that class (“Crucifixion,” engraved by Roettiers), and also treated subjects of still life, it was in historical portraits that he excelled. Horace Walpole states that he left in London those of Pierre van der Meulen and of Sybrecht. Several of his -works are at Versailles. The church of St Étienne du Mont at -Paris contains the finest example of Largillière’s work when +works are at Versailles. The church of St Étienne du Mont at +Paris contains the finest example of Largillière’s work when dealing with large groups of figures; it is an <i>ex voto</i> offered by -the city to St Geneviève, painted in 1694, and containing portraits -of all the leading officers of the municipality. Largillière +the city to St Geneviève, painted in 1694, and containing portraits +of all the leading officers of the municipality. Largillière passed through every post of honour in the Academy, until in 1743 he was made chancellor. He died on the 20th of March 1746. Jean Baptiste Oudry was the most distinguished of his -pupils. Largillière’s work found skilful interpreters in Van +pupils. Largillière’s work found skilful interpreters in Van Schuppen, Edelinck, Desplaces, Drevet, Pitou and other engravers.</p> @@ -15447,7 +15408,7 @@ series, 1887).</p> <p><span class="bold">LARINO<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (anc. <i>Larinum</i>) a town and episcopal see of the Molise (province of Campobasso), Italy, 32 m. N.E. of Campobasso by rail (20 m. direct), 984 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7044. -The cathedral, completed in 1319, has a good Gothic façade; the +The cathedral, completed in 1319, has a good Gothic façade; the interior has to some extent been spoilt by later restoration. The campanile rests upon a Gothic arch erected in 1451. The Palazzo Comunale has a courtyard of the 16th century. That @@ -15512,7 +15473,7 @@ was the headquarters of Ali Pasha during the Greek War of Independence, and of the crown prince Constantine during the Greco-Turkish War; the flight of the Greek army from this place to Pharsala took place on the 23rd of April 1897. Notices of some ancient inscriptions -found at Larissa are given by Miller in <i>Mélanges philologiques</i> (Paris, +found at Larissa are given by Miller in <i>Mélanges philologiques</i> (Paris, 1880); several sepulchral reliefs were found in the neighbourhood in 1882. A few traces of the ancient acropolis and theatre are still visible.</p> @@ -15529,8 +15490,8 @@ Othrys.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LĀRISTĀN,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> a sub-province of the province of Fars in Persia, bounded E. and N.E. by Kerman and S. by the Persian Gulf. -It lies between 26° 30′ and 28° 25′ N. and between 52° 30′ and -55° 30′ E. and has an extreme breadth and length of 120 and +It lies between 26° 30′ and 28° 25′ N. and between 52° 30′ and +55° 30′ E. and has an extreme breadth and length of 120 and 210 m. respectively, with an area of about 20,000 sq. m. Pop. about 90,000. Laristan consists mainly of mountain ranges in the north and east, and of arid plains varied with rocky hills and @@ -15570,27 +15531,27 @@ printers of Florence and Venice. The family was established at Troyes and had taken the name of Larivey or L’Arrivey, by way of translation from <i>giunto</i>. Pierre Larivey appears to have cast horoscopes, and to have acted as clerk to the chapter -of the church of St Étienne, of which he eventually became +of the church of St Étienne, of which he eventually became a canon. He has no claim to be the originator of French comedy. The <i>Corrivaux</i> of Jean de la Taille dates from 1562, but Larivey naturalized the Italian comedy of intrigue in France. He adapted, rather than translated, twelve Italian comedies into -French prose. The first volume of the <i>Comédies facétieuses</i> +French prose. The first volume of the <i>Comédies facétieuses</i> appeared in 1579, and the second in 1611. Only nine in all were printed.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The licence of the manners depicted in these plays is matched by the coarseness of the expression. Larivey’s merit lies in the use of popular language in dialogue, which often -rises to real excellence, and was not without influence on Molière -and Regnard. Molière’s <i>L’Avare</i> owes something to the scene -in Larivey’s masterpiece, <i>Les Esprits</i>, where Séverin laments +rises to real excellence, and was not without influence on Molière +and Regnard. Molière’s <i>L’Avare</i> owes something to the scene +in Larivey’s masterpiece, <i>Les Esprits</i>, where Séverin laments the loss of his purse, and the opening scene of the piece seems -to have suggested Regnard’s <i>Retour imprévu</i>. It is uncertain +to have suggested Regnard’s <i>Retour imprévu</i>. It is uncertain whether Larivey’s plays were represented, though they were evidently written for the stage. In any case prose comedy gained very little ground in popular favour before the time of -Molière. Larivey was the author of many translations, varying -in subject from the <i>Facétieuses nuits</i> (1573) of Straparola to the -<i>Humanité de Jésus-Christ</i> (1604) from Pietro Aretino.</p> +Molière. Larivey was the author of many translations, varying +in subject from the <i>Facétieuses nuits</i> (1573) of Straparola to the +<i>Humanité de Jésus-Christ</i> (1604) from Pietro Aretino.</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> @@ -15600,13 +15561,13 @@ from the <i>Vedova</i> of Nicolo Buonaparte; <i>Les Esprits</i>, from the Antonio Grazzini; <i>Les Jaloux</i>, from the <i>Gelosi</i> of Vincent Gabbiani; and <i>Les Escolliers</i>, from the <i>Cecca</i> of Girolamo Razzi, in the first volume; and in the second, <i>Constance</i>, from the <i>Costanza</i> of Razzi; -<i>Le Fidèle</i>, from the <i>Fedele</i> of Luigi Pasqualigo; and <i>Les Tromperies</i>, +<i>Le Fidèle</i>, from the <i>Fedele</i> of Luigi Pasqualigo; and <i>Les Tromperies</i>, from the <i>Inganni</i> of N. Secchi.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LARK<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>láwerce</i>, Ger. <i>Lerche</i>, Dan. <i>Laerke</i>, Dutch <i>Leeuwerik</i>), +<p><span class="bold">LARK<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>láwerce</i>, Ger. <i>Lerche</i>, Dan. <i>Laerke</i>, Dutch <i>Leeuwerik</i>), a bird’s name used in a rather general sense, the specific meaning being signified by a prefix, as skylark, titlark, woodlark. It seems to be nearly conterminous with the Latin <i>Alauda</i> as @@ -15922,22 +15883,22 @@ frequently fought in its neighbourhood, and at Tenneville, not far distant, is shown the tomb of an English officer named Barnewall killed in one of these encounters in 1692. La Roche is famous as a tourist centre on account of its fine sylvan scenery. -Among the local curiosities is the Diable-Château, a freak of +Among the local curiosities is the Diable-Château, a freak of nature, being the apparent replica of a medieval castle. La <span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span> Roche is connected by steam tramway with Melreux, a station -on the main line from Marloie to Liége.</p> +on the main line from Marloie to Liége.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> the name of an old French family which is derived from a castle<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in the province of Angoumois (department of Charente), which was in its possession in the -11th century. François de La Rochefoucauld (1494-1517), +11th century. François de La Rochefoucauld (1494-1517), godson of King Francis I., was made count in 1515. At the time of the wars of religion the family fought for the Protestant -cause. François (1588-1650) was created duke and peer of France -by Louis XIII. in 1622. His son François was the author of +cause. François (1588-1650) was created duke and peer of France +by Louis XIII. in 1622. His son François was the author of the <i>Maxims</i>, and the son of the latter acquired for his house the estates of La Roche-Guyon and Liancourt by his marriage with Jeanne Charlotte du Plessis-Liancourt. Alexandre, duc de @@ -15955,7 +15916,7 @@ one of the finest specimens of the Renaissance architecture in France.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1613-1680), the +<p><span class="bold">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1613-1680), the greatest maxim writer of France, one of her best memoir writers, and perhaps the most complete and accomplished representative of her ancient nobility, was born at Paris in the Rue des Petits @@ -15966,7 +15927,7 @@ Marcillac, was somewhat neglected in the matter of education, at least of the scholastic kind; but he joined the army before he was sixteen, and almost immediately began to make a figure in public life. He had been nominally married a year before -to Andrée de Vivonne, who seems to have been an affectionate +to Andrée de Vivonne, who seems to have been an affectionate wife, while not a breath of scandal touches her—two points in which La Rochefoucauld was perhaps more fortunate than he deserved. For some years Marcillac continued to take part in @@ -15985,7 +15946,7 @@ to his father’s estates. After the death of the great minister (1642), opportunity seemed to be favourable to the vague ambition which then animated half the nobility of France. Marcillac became one of the so-called <i>importants</i>, and took an -active part in reconciling the queen and Condé in a league against +active part in reconciling the queen and Condé in a league against Gaston of Orleans. But the growing credit of Mazarin came in his way, and the <i>liaison</i> in which about this time (1645) he became entangled with the beautiful duchess of Longueville @@ -15993,7 +15954,7 @@ made him irrevocably a Frondeur. He was a conspicuous figure in the siege of Paris, fought desperately in the desultory engagements which were constantly taking place, and was severely wounded at the siege of Mardyke. In the second Fronde Marcillac -followed the fortunes of Condé, and the death of his father, +followed the fortunes of Condé, and the death of his father, which happened at the time (1650), gave rise to a characteristic incident. The nobility of the province gathered to the funeral, and the new duke de La Rochefoucauld took the opportunity of @@ -16013,7 +15974,7 @@ against almost every party and man of importance in the state. He spent some years in this retirement, and he was fortunate enough (thanks chiefly to the fidelity of Gourville, who had been in his service, and who, passing into the service of Mazarin and -of Condé, had acquired both wealth and influence) to be able +of Condé, had acquired both wealth and influence) to be able to repair in some measure the breaches in his fortune. He did not, however, return to court life much before Mazarin’s death, when Louis XIV. was on the eve of assuming absolute power, @@ -16021,11 +15982,11 @@ and the turbulent aristocratic anarchy of the Fronde was a thing utterly of the past.</p> <p>Somewhat earlier, La Rochefoucauld had taken his place -in the salon of Madame de Sablé, a member of the old Rambouillet +in the salon of Madame de Sablé, a member of the old Rambouillet coterie, and the founder of a kind of successor to it. It was known that he, like almost all his more prominent contemporaries, had spent his solitude in writing memoirs, while the special -literary employment of the Sablé salon was the fabrication of +literary employment of the Sablé salon was the fabrication of <i>Sentences</i> and <i>Maxims</i>. In 1662, however, more trouble than reputation, and not a little of both, was given to him by a surreptitious publication of his memoirs, or what purported @@ -16038,7 +15999,7 @@ famous <i>Maxims</i>, which at once established him high among the men of letters of the time. About the same date began the friendship with Madame de la Fayette, which lasted till the end of his life. The glimpses which we have of him henceforward -are chiefly derived from the letters of Madame de Sévigné, and, +are chiefly derived from the letters of Madame de Sévigné, and, though they show him suffering agonies from gout, are on the whole pleasant. He had a circle of devoted friends; he was recognized as a moralist and man of letters of the first rank; @@ -16149,45 +16110,45 @@ instruction and delight.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The editions of La Rochefoucauld’s <i>Maxims</i> (as the full title runs, -<i>Réflexions ou sentences et maximes morales</i>) published in his lifetime +<i>Réflexions ou sentences et maximes morales</i>) published in his lifetime bear the dates 1665 (<i>editio princeps</i>), 1666, 1671, 1675, 1678. An important edition which appeared after his death in 1693 may rank almost with these. As long as the <i>Memoirs</i> remained in the state above described, no edition of them need be mentioned, and none of the complete works was possible. The previous more or less complete editions are all superseded by that of MM Gilbert and Gourdault -(1868-1883), in the series of “Grands Écrivains de la France,” 3 vols. +(1868-1883), in the series of “Grands Écrivains de la France,” 3 vols. There are still some puzzles as to the text; but this edition supplies all available material in regard to them. The handsomest separate -edition of the <i>Maxims</i> is the so-called <i>Édition des bibliophiles</i> (1870); +edition of the <i>Maxims</i> is the so-called <i>Édition des bibliophiles</i> (1870); but cheap and handy issues are plentiful. See the English version by G. H. Powell (1903). Nearly all the great French critics of the 19th century have dealt more or less with La Rochefoucauld: the chief recent monograph on him is that of J. Bourdeau in the <i>Grands -écrivains français</i> (1893).</p> +écrivains français</i> (1893).</p> </div> <div class="author">(G. Sa.)</div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc de</span> (1747-1827), French social reformer, was born at La Roche Guyon on the 11th of January -1747, the son of François Armand de La Rochefoucauld, duc +1747, the son of François Armand de La Rochefoucauld, duc d’Estissac, grand master of the royal wardrobe. The duc de Liancourt became an officer of carbineers, and married at seventeen. A visit to England seems to have suggested the establishment of a model farm at Liancourt, where he reared cattle imported from England and Switzerland. He also set up spinning machines on his estate, and founded a school of arts -and crafts for the sons of soldiers, which became in 1788 the École +and crafts for the sons of soldiers, which became in 1788 the École des Enfants de la Patrie under royal protection. Elected to the states-general of 1789 he sought in vain to support the cause of royalty while furthering the social reforms he had at heart. On the 12th of July, two days before the fall of the Bastille, he warned Louis XVI. of the state of affairs in Paris, and met his exclamation that there was a revolt with the answer, “<i>Non, -sire, c’est une révolution.</i>” On the 18th of July he became +sire, c’est une révolution.</i>” On the 18th of July he became president of the Assembly. Established in command of a military division in Normandy, he offered Louis a refuge in Rouen, and, failing in this effort, assisted him with a large sum of money. @@ -16203,7 +16164,7 @@ wardrobe, although his father had paid 400,000 francs for the honour. Successive governments, revolutionary and otherwise, recognized the value of his institutions at Liancourt, and he was for twenty-three years government inspector of his -school of arts and crafts, which had been removed to Châlons. +school of arts and crafts, which had been removed to Châlons. He was one of the first promoters of vaccination in France; he established a dispensary in Paris, and he was an active member of the central boards of administration for hospitals, @@ -16219,7 +16180,7 @@ questions, include books on the English system of taxation, poor-relief and education.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His eldest son, François, duc de La Rochefoucauld (1765-1848), +<p>His eldest son, François, duc de La Rochefoucauld (1765-1848), succeeded his father in the House of Peers. The second, Alexandre, comte de La Rochefoucauld (1767-1841), married a San Domingo heiress allied to the Beauharnais family. Mme de La Rochefoucauld @@ -16233,7 +16194,7 @@ philanthropic work, and in 1822 became deputy to the Chamber and sat with the constitutional royalists. He was again raised to the peerage in 1831.</p> -<p>The third son, Frédéric Gaétan, marquis de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt +<p>The third son, Frédéric Gaétan, marquis de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt (1779-1863), was a zealous philanthropist and a partisan of constitutional monarchy. He took no part in politics after 1848. The marquis wrote on social questions, notably on prison administration; @@ -16245,12 +16206,12 @@ and poems.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA ROCHEJACQUELEIN, DE,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> the name of an ancient French -family of La Vendée, celebrated for its devotion to the throne +family of La Vendée, celebrated for its devotion to the throne during and after the Revolution. Its original name was Duverger, derived from a fief near Bressuire in Poitou, and its pedigree <span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span> is traceable to the 13th century. In 1505 Gui Duverger -married Renée, heiress of Jacques Lemartin, seigneur de La +married Renée, heiress of Jacques Lemartin, seigneur de La Rochejacquelein, whose name he assumed. His grandson, Louis Duverger, seigneur de La Rochejacquelein, was a devoted adherent of Henry II., and was badly wounded at the battle of @@ -16260,37 +16221,37 @@ in reward for their services.</p> <p>At the outbreak of the Revolution the chief of the family was <span class="sc">Henri Louis Auguste</span>, marquis de La Rochejacquelein, -<i>maréchal de camp</i> in the royal army, who had three sons named +<i>maréchal de camp</i> in the royal army, who had three sons named after himself—Henri, Louis and Auguste. The marquis fled abroad with his second son Louis at the time of the emigration of the nobles. He entered the service of Great Britain, and died in San Domingo in 1802.</p> <p><span class="sc">Henri</span>, comte de La Rochejacquelein, born at Dubertien, -near Châtillon, sur Sèvres, on the 20th of August 1772, did not +near Châtillon, sur Sèvres, on the 20th of August 1772, did not emigrate with his father. He served in the constitutional guard of the king, and remained in Paris till the execution of Louis XVI. He then took refuge with the marquis de Lescure on his own estates in Poitou. When the anti-clerical policy of the revolutionary powers provoked the rising of the peasantry -of La Vendée, he put himself at the head of the men of his +of La Vendée, he put himself at the head of the men of his neighbourhood, and came rapidly to the front among the gentlemen whom the peasants took for leaders. In spite of his youth and his reluctance to assume the responsibility, he was chosen -as commander-in-chief after the defeat of the Vendéans by the +as commander-in-chief after the defeat of the Vendéans by the republicans at Cholet. His brilliant personal courage, his amiability and his loyalty to the cause make him a very attractive -figure, but a commander-in-chief of the Vendéans, who came +figure, but a commander-in-chief of the Vendéans, who came and went as they pleased, had little real power or opportunity to display the qualities of a general. The comte de La Rochejacquelein had in fact to obey his army, and could only display his personal valour in action. He could not avert the mistaken policy which led to the rout at Le Mans, and was finally shot -in an obscure skirmish at Nouaillé on the 4th of March 1794.</p> +in an obscure skirmish at Nouaillé on the 4th of March 1794.</p> <p>Louis, marquis de La Rochejacquelein, the younger brother of Henri, accompanied his father in the emigration, served in -the army of Condé, and entered the service of England in America. +the army of Condé, and entered the service of England in America. He returned to France during the Consulate, and in 1801 married the marquise de Lescure, widow of his brother’s friend, who was mortally wounded at Cholet. Marie Louise Victoire de @@ -16298,7 +16259,7 @@ Donnissan, born at Versailles on the 25th of October 1772, belonged to a court family and was the god-daughter of Mme Victoire, daughter of Louis XV. At the age of seventeen she married the marquis de Lescure, whom she accompanied in the -war of La Vendée. After his death she went through various +war of La Vendée. After his death she went through various adventures recorded in her memoirs, first published at Bordeaux in 1815. They are of extreme interest, and give a remarkable picture of the war and the fortunes of the royalists. She saved @@ -16308,13 +16269,13 @@ After her second marriage she lived with her husband on her estates, both refusing all offers to take service with Napoleon. In 1814 they took an active part in the royalist movement in and about Bordeaux. In 1815 the marquis endeavoured to -bring about another Vendéan rising for the king, and was +bring about another Vendéan rising for the king, and was shot in a skirmish with the Imperialist forces at the Pont des Marthes on the 4th of June 1815. The marquis died at Orleans in 1857.</p> <p>Their eldest son, <span class="sc">Henri Auguste Georges</span>, marquis de La -Rochejacquelein, born at Château Citran in the Gironde on +Rochejacquelein, born at Château Citran in the Gironde on the 28th of September 1805, was educated as a soldier, served in Spain in 1822, and as a volunteer in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828. During the reign of Louis Philippe he adhered to the @@ -16332,7 +16293,7 @@ till his death in 1897.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Henri de La Rochejacquelein et la guerre de la -Vendée d’après des documents</i> inédits (Niort, 1890); A. F. Nettement, +Vendée d’après des documents</i> inédits (Niort, 1890); A. F. Nettement, <i>Vie de Mme la Marquise de La Rochejacquelein</i> (Paris, 1876). The <i>Memoirs</i> of the marquise were translated into English by Sir Walter Scott, and issued as a volume of “Constable’s Miscellany” @@ -16342,12 +16303,12 @@ Walter Scott, and issued as a volume of “Constable’s Miscellany&rdqu <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA ROCHELLE,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a seaport of western France, capital of the -department of Charente-Inférieure, 90 m. S. by E. of Nantes +department of Charente-Inférieure, 90 m. S. by E. of Nantes on the railway to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) town 24,524, commune 33,858. La Rochelle is situated on the Atlantic coast on an -inlet opening off the great bay in which lie the islands of Ré -and Oléron. Its fortifications, constructed by Vauban, have a -circuit of 3½ m. with seven gates. Towards the sea are three +inlet opening off the great bay in which lie the islands of Ré +and Oléron. Its fortifications, constructed by Vauban, have a +circuit of 3½ m. with seven gates. Towards the sea are three towers, of which the oldest (1384) is that of St Nicholas. The apartment in the first storey was formerly used as a chapel. The Chain Tower, built towards the end of the 14th century, @@ -16371,7 +16332,7 @@ carving of the two entrances, of the machicolations and of the two belfries. The buildings looking into the inner court are in the Renaissance style (16th and early 17th centuries) and contain several fine apartments. In the old episcopal palace -(which was in turn the residence of Sully, the prince of Condé, +(which was in turn the residence of Sully, the prince of Condé, Louis XIII., and Anne of Austria, and the scene of the marriage of Alphonso VI. of Portugal with a princess of Savoy) accommodation has been provided for a library, a collection of records and @@ -16389,7 +16350,7 @@ which forms the principal public square, occupies the site of the castle demolished in 1590. Some of the streets have side-arcades; the public wells are fed from a large reservoir in the Champ de Mars; and among the promenades are the Cours des Dames -with the statue of Admiral Duperré, and outside the Charruyer +with the statue of Admiral Duperré, and outside the Charruyer Park on the west front of the ramparts, and the Mail, a beautiful piece of greensward. In this direction are the sea-bathing establishments.</p> @@ -16397,7 +16358,7 @@ establishments.</p> <p>La Rochelle is the seat of a bishopric and a prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France; its educational -establishments include an ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée and +establishments include an ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée and a training college for girls. Ship-building, saw-milling and the manufacture of briquettes and chemicals, sardine and tunny-preserving and petroleum-refining are among the industries. @@ -16418,14 +16379,14 @@ the most important on the west coast. The harbour is, however, inaccessible to the largest vessels, for the accommodation of which the port of La Pallice, inaugurated in 1891, was created. Lying about 3 m. W.S.W. of La Rochelle, this port opens into -the bay opposite the eastern extremity of the island of Ré. +the bay opposite the eastern extremity of the island of Ré. It was artificially excavated and affords safe anchorage in all weathers. The outer port, protected by two jetties, has an area -of 29 acres and a depth of 16½ ft. below lowest tide-level. At +of 29 acres and a depth of 16½ ft. below lowest tide-level. At the extremity of the breakwater is a wharf where ships may discharge without entering the basin. A lock connects with the inner basin, which has an area of 27 acres, with 5900 ft. of -quayage, a minimum depth of 28 ft., and depths of 29½ ft. and +quayage, a minimum depth of 28 ft., and depths of 29½ ft. and 36 ft. at high, neap and spring tides. Connected with the basin are two graving docks. La Pallice has regular communication with South America by the vessels of the Pacific Steam Navigation @@ -16438,27 +16399,27 @@ dock of La Pallice, 441 vessels with a tonnage of 629,038, and cleared 468 vessels with a tonnage of 664,861 (of which 235 of 241,146 tons cleared with ballast). These figures do not include vessels entering from, or clearing for, other ports in France. -The imports (value, £1,276,000 in 1900 as compared with -£1,578,000 in 1907) include coal and patent fuel, superphosphates, +The imports (value, £1,276,000 in 1900 as compared with +£1,578,000 in 1907) include coal and patent fuel, superphosphates, natural phosphates, nitrate of soda, pyrites, building-timber, wines and alcohol, pitch, dried codfish, petroleum, jute, wood-pulp. -Exports (value, £1,294,000 in 1900; £1,979,000 in 1907) +Exports (value, £1,294,000 in 1900; £1,979,000 in 1907) include wine and brandy, fancy goods, woven goods, garments, skins, coal and briquettes, furniture, potatoes.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>La Rochelle existed at the close of the 10th century under the name -of Rupella. It belonged to the barony of Châtelaillon, which was -annexed by the duke of Aquitaine and succeeded Châtelaillon as +of Rupella. It belonged to the barony of Châtelaillon, which was +annexed by the duke of Aquitaine and succeeded Châtelaillon as chief town in Aunis. In 1199 it received a communal charter from Eleanor, duchess of Guienne, and it was in its harbour that John Lackland disembarked when he came to try to recover the domains seized by Philip Augustus. Captured by Louis VIII. in 1224, it -was restored to the English in 1360 by the treaty of Brétigny, but +was restored to the English in 1360 by the treaty of Brétigny, but it shook off the yoke of the foreigner when Du Guesclin recovered Saintonge. During the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries La Rochelle, then an almost independent commune, was one of the great maritime -cities of France. From its harbour in 1402 Jean de Béthencourt +cities of France. From its harbour in 1402 Jean de Béthencourt set out for the conquest of the Canaries, and its seamen were the first to turn to account the discovery of the new world. The salt-tax provoked a rebellion at Rochelle which Francis I. repressed @@ -16477,8 +16438,8 @@ Protestant party, granted the Calvinists full liberty of worship in several places of safety. Under Henry IV. the town remained quiet, but under Louis XIII. it put itself again at the head of the Huguenot party. Its vessels blockaded the mouth of the Gironde and stopped -the commerce of Bordeaux, and also seized the islands of Ré and -Oléron and several vessels of the royal fleet. Richelieu then resolved +the commerce of Bordeaux, and also seized the islands of Ré and +Oléron and several vessels of the royal fleet. Richelieu then resolved to subdue the town once for all. In spite of the assistance rendered by the English troops under Buckingham and in spite of the fierce energy of their mayor Guiton, the people of La Rochelle @@ -16499,7 +16460,7 @@ E. Couneau, <i>La Rochelle disparue</i> (La Rochelle, 1904).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA ROCHE-SUR-YON,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> a town of western France, capital of -the department of Vendée, on an eminence on the right bank +the department of Vendée, on an eminence on the right bank of the Yon, 48 m. S. of Nantes on the railway to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) town 10,666, commune 13,685. The castle of La Roche, which probably existed before the time of the crusades, @@ -16512,34 +16473,34 @@ buildings, which, being all produced at once after a regular plan, have a monotonous effect. The equestrian statue of Napoleon I. in an immense square overlooking the rest of the town; the statue of General Travot, who was engaged in the “pacification” -of La Vendée; the museum, with several paintings by P. Baudry, +of La Vendée; the museum, with several paintings by P. Baudry, a native artist, of whom there is a statue in the town, are the only -objects of interest. Napoleon-Vendée and Bourbon-Vendée, the +objects of interest. Napoleon-Vendée and Bourbon-Vendée, the names borne by the town according to the dominance of either dynasty, gave place to the original name after the revolution of 1870. The town is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce, a -branch of the Bank of France, a lycée for boys and training +branch of the Bank of France, a lycée for boys and training colleges for both sexes. It is a market for farm-produce, horses and cattle, and has flour-mills. The dog fairs of La Roche are well known.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAROMIGUIÈRE, PIERRE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1756-1837), French philosopher, +<p><span class="bold">LAROMIGUIÈRE, PIERRE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1756-1837), French philosopher, was born at Livignac on the 3rd of November 1756, and died on the 12th of August 1837 in Paris. As professor of philosophy at Toulouse he was unsuccessful and incurred the censure of the parliament by a thesis on the rights of property in connexion with taxation. Subsequently he came to Paris, where he was -appointed professor of logic in the École Normale and lectured -in the Prytanée. In 1799 he was made a member of the Tribunate, +appointed professor of logic in the École Normale and lectured +in the Prytanée. In 1799 he was made a member of the Tribunate, and in 1833 of the Academy of Moral and Political -Science. In 1793 he published <i>Projet d’éléments de metaphysique</i>, +Science. In 1793 he published <i>Projet d’éléments de metaphysique</i>, a work characterized by lucidity and excellence of style. He -wrote also two <i>Mémoires</i>, read before the Institute, <i>Les Paradoxes -de Condillac</i> (1805) and <i>Leçons de philosophie</i> (1815-1818). -Laromiguière’s philosophy is interesting as a revolt against +wrote also two <i>Mémoires</i>, read before the Institute, <i>Les Paradoxes +de Condillac</i> (1805) and <i>Leçons de philosophie</i> (1815-1818). +Laromiguière’s philosophy is interesting as a revolt against the extreme physiological psychology of the natural scientists, such as Cabanis. He distinguished between those psychological phenomena which can be traced directly to purely physical causes, @@ -16555,27 +16516,27 @@ and is, therefore, immortal. For natural science as a method of discovery he had no respect. He held that its judgments are, at the best, statements of identity, and that its so-called discoveries are merely the reiteration, in a new form, of previous -truisms. Laromiguière was not the first to develop these views; +truisms. Laromiguière was not the first to develop these views; he owed much to Condillac, Destutt de Tracy and Cabanis. But, owing to the accuracy of his language and the purity of his style, his works had great influence, especially over Armand Marrast, -Cardaillac and Cousin. A lecture of his in the École Normale +Cardaillac and Cousin. A lecture of his in the École Normale impressed Cousin so strongly that he at once devoted himself to the study of philosophy. Jouffroy and Taine agree in describing him as one of the great thinkers of the 19th century.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Damiron, <i>Essai sur la philosophie en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>; -Biran, <i>Examen des leçons de philosophie</i>; Victor Cousin, <i>De Methodo -sive de Analysi</i>; Daunou, <i>Notice sur Laromiguière</i>; H. Taine, <i>Les -Philosophes classiques du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>; Gatien Arnoult, <i>Étude sur -Laromiguière</i>; Compayré, <i>Notice sur Laromiguière</i>; Ferraz, <i>Spiritualisme -et Libéralisme</i>; F. Picavet, <i>Les Idéologues</i>.</p> +<p>See Damiron, <i>Essai sur la philosophie en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>; +Biran, <i>Examen des leçons de philosophie</i>; Victor Cousin, <i>De Methodo +sive de Analysi</i>; Daunou, <i>Notice sur Laromiguière</i>; H. Taine, <i>Les +Philosophes classiques du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>; Gatien Arnoult, <i>Étude sur +Laromiguière</i>; Compayré, <i>Notice sur Laromiguière</i>; Ferraz, <i>Spiritualisme +et Libéralisme</i>; F. Picavet, <i>Les Idéologues</i>.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LARRA, MARIANO JOSÉ DE<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (1809-1837), Spanish satirist, +<p><span class="bold">LARRA, MARIANO JOSÉ DE<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (1809-1837), Spanish satirist, was born at Madrid in 1809. His father served as a regimental doctor in the French army, and was compelled to leave the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span> @@ -16585,7 +16546,7 @@ disorderly, his education was imperfect, and, after futile attempts to obtain a degree in medicine or law, he made an imprudent marriage at the age of twenty, broke with his relatives and became a journalist. On the 27th of April 1831 he produced his -first play, <i>No más mostrador</i>, based on two pieces by Scribe and +first play, <i>No más mostrador</i>, based on two pieces by Scribe and Dieulafoy. Though wanting in originality, it is brilliantly written, and held the stage for many years. On the 24th of September 1834 he produced <i>Macias</i>, a play based on his own @@ -16594,11 +16555,11 @@ The drama and novel are interesting as experiments, but Larra was essentially a journalist, and the increased liberty of the press after the death of Ferdinand VII. gave his caustic talent an ampler field. He was already famous under the pseudonyms of -“Juan Pérez de Munguía” and “Figaro” which he used in -<i>El Pobrecito Hablador</i> and <i>La Revista Española</i> respectively. +“Juan Pérez de MunguÃa” and “Figaro” which he used in +<i>El Pobrecito Hablador</i> and <i>La Revista Española</i> respectively. Madrid laughed at his grim humour; ministers feared his vitriolic pen and courted him assiduously; he was elected as -deputy for Ávila, and a great career seemed to lie before him. +deputy for Ãvila, and a great career seemed to lie before him. But the era of military <i>pronunciamientos</i> ruined his personal prospects and patriotic plans. His writing took on a more sombre tinge; domestic troubles increased his pessimism, and, @@ -16636,7 +16597,7 @@ under Samsu-iluna, son of Khammurabi, <i>c.</i> 1900 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and from that time until the close of the Babylonian period it was a subject city of Babylon. Loftus conducted excavations at this site in 1854. He describes the ruins as -consisting of a low, circular platform, about 4½ m. in circumference, +consisting of a low, circular platform, about 4½ m. in circumference, rising gradually from the level of the plain to a central mound 70 ft. high. This represents the ancient <i>ziggurat</i> of the temple of Shamash, which was in part explored by Loftus. @@ -16676,10 +16637,10 @@ of Man and of the Great Fossil Mammifers characteristic of the Last Geological Period</i>. In this paper he made public the results of his discoveries in the cave of Aurignac, where evidence existed of the contemporaneous existence of man and extinct mammals. -In his work in the Périgord district Lartet had the aid of Henry +In his work in the Périgord district Lartet had the aid of Henry Christy (<i>q.v.</i>). The first account of their joint researches appeared in a paper descriptive of the Dordogne caves and contents, -published in <i>Revue archéologique</i> (1864). The important discoveries +published in <i>Revue archéologique</i> (1864). The important discoveries in the Madeleine cave and elsewhere were published by Lartet and Christy under the title <i>Reliquiae Aquitanicae</i>, the first part appearing in 1865. Christy died before the completion @@ -16881,7 +16842,7 @@ agree in possessing a very similar larval form, known as the <table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:339px; height:385px" src="images/img226a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After V. Drasche in <i>Beiträge zur Entwickelung der +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After V. Drasche in <i>Beiträge zur Entwickelung der Polychaeten, Entwickelung von Pomatoceros</i>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Trochosphere Larva of the Chaetopod <i>Pomatoceros trigueter</i>, L. (Osmic @@ -17088,7 +17049,7 @@ enteron are present.</p> <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:281px; height:225px" src="images/img226f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80"> From Balfour’s <i>Comparative Embryology</i>, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.</td> -<td class="tcl f80">After J. Müller.</td></tr> +<td class="tcl f80">After J. Müller.</td></tr> <tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;" rowspan="2"> <span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Diagrams of side views @@ -17149,8 +17110,8 @@ longitudinal band of cilia which is prolonged into arm-like processes.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:231px" src="images/img227a.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:260px; height:181px" src="images/img227b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc f80" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">After J. Müller.</td> -<td class="tcc f80" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">After J. Müller.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc f80" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">After J. Müller.</td> +<td class="tcc f80" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">After J. Müller.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> <span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—<i>Bipinnaria elegans</i>, the Larva of a Star-fish. @@ -17164,10 +17125,10 @@ and lettering as in fig. 6.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:232px; height:236px" src="images/img227c.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:144px; height:264px" src="images/img227d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc f80" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">After J. Müller.</td> +<tr><td class="tcc f80" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">After J. Müller.</td> <td class="tcl f80" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> After Seeliger on “Antedon” in Spengel’s -<i>Zoologische Jahrbücher</i>.</td></tr> +<i>Zoologische Jahrbücher</i>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> <span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—<i>Echinopluteus</i>, the @@ -17470,29 +17431,29 @@ and the adenoids, if present, removed by operation.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA SABLIÈRE, MARGUERITE DE<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1640-1693), friend and +<p><span class="bold">LA SABLIÈRE, MARGUERITE DE<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1640-1693), friend and patron of La Fontaine, was the wife of Antoine Rambouillet, -sieur de la Sablière (1624-1679), a Protestant financier entrusted +sieur de la Sablière (1624-1679), a Protestant financier entrusted with the administration of the royal estates, her maiden name being Marguerite Hessein. She received an excellent education in Latin, mathematics, physics and anatomy from the best scholars of her time, and her house became a meeting-place for poets, scientists and men of letters, no less than for brilliant members of the court of Louis XIV. About 1673 Mme de la -Sablière received into her house La Fontaine, whom for twenty +Sablière received into her house La Fontaine, whom for twenty years she relieved of every kind of material anxiety. Another friend and inmate of the house was the traveller and physician -François Bernier, whose abridgment of the works of Gassendi -was written for Mme de la Sablière. The abbé Chaulieu and +François Bernier, whose abridgment of the works of Gassendi +was written for Mme de la Sablière. The abbé Chaulieu and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span> his fellow-poet, Charles Auguste, marquis de La Fare, were among her most intimate associates. La Fare sold his commission in the army to be able to spend his time with her. This liaison, which seems to have been the only serious passion of her life, was broken in 1679. La Fare was seduced from his allegiance, according to -Mme de Sévigné by his love of play, but to this must be added -a new passion for the actress La Champmeslé. Mme de la -Sablière thenceforward gave more and more attention to good +Mme de Sévigné by his love of play, but to this must be added +a new passion for the actress La Champmeslé. Mme de la +Sablière thenceforward gave more and more attention to good works, much of her time being spent in the hospital for incurables. Her husband’s death in the same year increased her serious tendencies, and she was presently converted to Roman @@ -17521,7 +17482,7 @@ chapter of <i>La Salade</i>, which is further adorned with a map of the ascent from Montemonaco. La Sale probably returned with Louis III. of Anjou, who was also comte de Provence, in 1426 to Provence, where he was acting as <i>viguier</i> of Aries in 1429. In -1434 René, Louis’s successor, made La Sale tutor to his son +1434 René, Louis’s successor, made La Sale tutor to his son Jean d’Anjou, duc de Calabre, to whom he dedicated, between the years 1438 and 1447, his <i>La Salade</i>, which is a text-book of the studies necessary for a prince. The primary intention @@ -17530,7 +17491,7 @@ it on the ground of the miscellaneous character of the book—a salad is composed “of many good herbs.” In 1439 he was again in Italy in charge of the castle of Capua, with the duc de Calabre and his young wife, Marie de Bourbon, when the -place was besieged by the king of Aragon. René abandoned +place was besieged by the king of Aragon. René abandoned Naples in 1442, and Antoine no doubt returned to France about the same time. His advice was sought at the tournaments which celebrated the marriage of the unfortunate Margaret of Anjou @@ -17540,30 +17501,30 @@ of age, and, after forty years’ service of the house of Anjou, La Sale left it to become tutor to the sons of Louis de Luxembourg, comte de Saint Pol, who took him to Flanders and presented him at the court of Philippe le Bon, duke of Burgundy. -For his new pupils he wrote at Châtelet-sur-Oise, in 1451, a +For his new pupils he wrote at Châtelet-sur-Oise, in 1451, a moral work entitled <i>La Salle</i>.</p> <p>He was nearly seventy years of age when he wrote the work that has made him famous, <i>L’Hystoire et plaisante cronicque -du petit Jehan de Saintré et de la jeune dame des Belles-Cousines, +du petit Jehan de Saintré et de la jeune dame des Belles-Cousines, Sans autre nom nommer</i>, dedicated to his former pupil, Jean de Calabre. An <i>envoi</i> in MS. 10,057 (nouv. acq. fr.) in the -Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, states that it was completed at -Châtelet on the 6th of March 1455 (<i>i.e.</i> 1456). La Sale also +Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, states that it was completed at +Châtelet on the 6th of March 1455 (<i>i.e.</i> 1456). La Sale also announces an intention, never fulfilled, apparently, of writing a romance of <i>Paris et Vienne</i>. The MSS. of <i>Petit Jehan de -Saintré</i> usually contain in addition <i>Floridam et Elvide</i>, translated +Saintré</i> usually contain in addition <i>Floridam et Elvide</i>, translated by Rasse de Brunhamel from the Latin of Nicolas de Clamange, and dedicated to La Sale; also <i>Addiction extraite des Cronicques de Flandres</i>, of which only a few lines are original. Brunhamel says in his dedication that La Sale had delighted to write honourable histories from the time of his “florie jeunesse,” which confirms a reasonable inference from the style of <i>Petit Jehan -de Saintré</i> that its author was no novice in the art of romance-writing. -The <i>Réconfort à Madame de Neufville</i>, a consolatory +de Saintré</i> that its author was no novice in the art of romance-writing. +The <i>Réconfort à Madame de Neufville</i>, a consolatory epistle including two stories of parental fortitude, was written at Vendeuil-sur-Oise about 1458, and in 1459 La Sale produced -his treatise <i>Des anciens tournois et faictz d’armes</i> and the <i>Journée +his treatise <i>Des anciens tournois et faictz d’armes</i> and the <i>Journée d’Onneur et de Prouesse</i>. He followed his patron to Genappe in Brabant when the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.) took refuge at the Burgundian court.</p> @@ -17582,18 +17543,18 @@ at Dijon in 1462. If then La Sale was the author, he probably was still living; otherwise the last mention of him is in 1461.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><i>Petit Jehan de Saintré</i> gives, at the point when the traditions of +<p><i>Petit Jehan de Saintré</i> gives, at the point when the traditions of chivalry were fast disappearing, an account of the education of an ideal knight and rules for his conduct under many different circumstances. When Petit Jehan, aged thirteen, is persuaded by the Dame des Belles-Cousines to accept her as his lady, she gives him systematic instruction in religion, courtesy, chivalry and the arts of -success. She materially advances his career until Saintré becomes +success. She materially advances his career until Saintré becomes an accomplished knight, the fame of whose prowess spreads throughout Europe. This section of the romance—apparently didactic in intention—fits in with the author’s other works of edification. But in the second part this virtuous lady falls a victim to a vulgar intrigue -with Damp Abbé. One of La Sale’s commentators, M. Joseph Nève, +with Damp Abbé. One of La Sale’s commentators, M. Joseph Nève, ingeniously maintains that the last section is simply to show how the hero, after passing through the other grades of education, learns at last by experience to arm himself against coquetry. The book may, @@ -17618,7 +17579,7 @@ Jacquet de Lalaing in the <i>Livre des faits de Jacques Lalaing</i> which forms the chief source of the early exploits of Petit Jehan.</p> <p>The incongruities of La Sale’s aims appear in his method of construction. -The hero is not imaginary. Jehan de Saintré flourished +The hero is not imaginary. Jehan de Saintré flourished in the Hundred Years’ War, was taken prisoner after Poitiers, with the elder Boucicaut, and was employed in negotiating the treaty of Bretigny. Froissart mentioned him as “le meilleur et le plus vaillant @@ -17626,7 +17587,7 @@ chevalier de France.” His exploits as related in the romance are, however, founded on those of Jacques de Lalaing (<i>c.</i> 1422-1453), who was brought up at the Burgundian court, and became such a famous knight that he excited the rivalry of the “Belles-Cousines,” -Marie de Bourbon and Marie de Clèves, duchesse d’Orléans. Lalaing’s +Marie de Bourbon and Marie de Clèves, duchesse d’Orléans. Lalaing’s exploits are related by more than one chronicler, but M. Gustave Raynaud thinks that the <i>Livre des faits de Jacques de Lalaing</i>, published among the works of Georges Chastelain, to which textual @@ -17636,7 +17597,7 @@ one historical and the other fictitious. To complicate matters, he drew, for the later exploits of Petit Jehan, on the <i>Livres des faits de Jean Boucicaut</i>, which gives the history of the younger Boucicaut. The atmosphere of the book is not the rough realities of the English -wars in which the real Saintré figured but that of the courts to which +wars in which the real Saintré figured but that of the courts to which La Sale was accustomed.</p> <p>The title of <i>Les Quinze Joyes de mariage</i> is, with a profanity characteristic @@ -17670,25 +17631,25 @@ different nature from the other <i>contes</i>. It is another version of the story of Floridam et Elvide already mentioned.</p> <p>Not content with allowing these achievements to La Sale, some -critics have proposed to ascribe to him also the farce of <i>Maître +critics have proposed to ascribe to him also the farce of <i>Maître Pathelin</i>.</p> <p>The best editions of La Sale’s undoubted and reputed works are:—<i>Petit -Jehan de Saintré</i> by J. M. Guichard (1843); <i>Les Cent Nouvelles -Nouvelles</i> by Thomas Wright (Bibl. elzévérienne, 1858); <i>Les Quinze -Joyes de mariage</i> by P. Jannet (Bibl. elzév., 1857). <i>La Salade</i> was +Jehan de Saintré</i> by J. M. Guichard (1843); <i>Les Cent Nouvelles +Nouvelles</i> by Thomas Wright (Bibl. elzévérienne, 1858); <i>Les Quinze +Joyes de mariage</i> by P. Jannet (Bibl. elzév., 1857). <i>La Salade</i> was printed more than once during the 16th century. <i>La Salle</i> was never printed. For its contents see E. Gossart in the <i>Bibliophile belge</i> (1871, pp. 77 et seq.). See also the authorities quoted above, and -Joseph Nève, <i>Antoine de la Salle, sa vie et ses ouvrages ... suivi du -Réconfort de Madame de Fresne ... et de fragments et documents -inédits</i> (1903), who argues for the rejection of <i>Les Quinze Joyes</i> and the +Joseph Nève, <i>Antoine de la Salle, sa vie et ses ouvrages ... suivi du +Réconfort de Madame de Fresne ... et de fragments et documents +inédits</i> (1903), who argues for the rejection of <i>Les Quinze Joyes</i> and the <i>Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles</i> from La Sale’s works; Pietro Toldo, <i>Contributo allo studio della novella francese del XV e XVI secolo</i> (1895), and a review of it by Gaston Paris in the <i>Journal des Savants</i> -(May 1895); L. Stern, “Versuch über Antoine de la Salle,” in -<i>Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen</i>, vol. xlvi.; and G. -Raynaud, “Un Nouveau Manuscrit du Petit Jehan de Saintré,” in +(May 1895); L. Stern, “Versuch über Antoine de la Salle,” in +<i>Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen</i>, vol. xlvi.; and G. +Raynaud, “Un Nouveau Manuscrit du Petit Jehan de Saintré,” in <i>Romania</i>, vol. xxxi.</p> </div> <div class="author">(M. Br.)</div> @@ -17699,11 +17660,11 @@ Raynaud, “Un Nouveau Manuscrit du Petit Jehan de Saintré,” in 1885, pp. 107-71).</p> <p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For the legend of the Sibyl current in Italy at the time, given by -La Sale, and its inter-relation with the Tannhäuser story, see W. -Soederhjelm, “A. de la Salle et la légende de Tannhäuser” in -<i>Mémoires de la soc. néo-philologique d’Helsingfors</i> (1897, vol. ii.); +La Sale, and its inter-relation with the Tannhäuser story, see W. +Soederhjelm, “A. de la Salle et la légende de Tannhäuser” in +<i>Mémoires de la soc. néo-philologique d’Helsingfors</i> (1897, vol. ii.); and Gaston Paris, “Le Paradis de la Reine Sibylle,” and “La -Légende du Tannhäuser,” in the <i>Revue de Paris</i> (Dec. 1897 and +Légende du Tannhäuser,” in the <i>Revue de Paris</i> (Dec. 1897 and March 1898).</p> </div> @@ -17735,26 +17696,26 @@ duke of Berg. When the Peninsular War began, Lasalle was sent out with one of the cavalry divisions, and at Medina de Rio Seco, Gamonal and Medellin broke every body of troops which he charged. A year later, at the head of one of the cavalry -divisions of the <i>Grande Armée</i> he took part in the Austrian war. +divisions of the <i>Grande Armée</i> he took part in the Austrian war. At Wagram he was killed at the head of his men. With the -possible exception of Curély, who was in 1809 still unknown, +possible exception of Curély, who was in 1809 still unknown, Napoleon never possessed a better leader of light horse. Wild and irregular in his private life, Lasalle was far more than a <i>beau sabreur</i>. To talent and experience he added that power of feeling the pulse of the battle which is the true gift -of a great leader. A statue of him was erected in Lunéville in +of a great leader. A statue of him was erected in Lunéville in 1893. His remains were brought from Austria to the Invalides in 1891.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT CAVELIER,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de</span> (1643-1687), +<p><span class="bold">LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT CAVELIER,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de</span> (1643-1687), French explorer in North America, was born at Rouen on the 22nd of November 1643. He taught for a time in a school (probably Jesuit) in France, and seems to have forfeited his claim to his father’s estate by his connexion with the Jesuits. In 1666 he became a settler in Canada, whither his brother, a -Sulpician abbé, had preceded him. From the Seminary of St +Sulpician abbé, had preceded him. From the Seminary of St Sulpice in Montreal La Salle received a grant on the St Lawrence about 8 m. above Montreal, where he built a stockade and established a fur-trading post. In 1669 he sold this post (partly @@ -17797,10 +17758,10 @@ his vessel having been wrecked, he built a larger ship, the back the “Griffon” freighted with furs, by which he hoped to satisfy the claims of his creditors, he proceeded to the Illinois river, and near what is now Peoria, Illinois, built a fort, which -he called Fort Crèvecœur. Thence he detached Father Hennepin, +he called Fort Crèvecœur. Thence he detached Father Hennepin, with one companion, to explore the Illinois to its mouth, and, leaving his lieutenant, Henri de Tonty (<i>c.</i> 1650-<i>c.</i> 1702),<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a> with -about fifteen men, at Fort Crèvecœur, he returned by land, +about fifteen men, at Fort Crèvecœur, he returned by land, afoot, to Canada to obtain needed supplies, discovering the fate of the “Griffon” (which proved to have been lost), thwarting the intrigues of his enemies and appeasing his creditors. In @@ -17859,7 +17820,7 @@ near by. Some writers, notably J. G. Shea, maintain that La Salle never intended to fortify the mouth of the Mississippi, but was instructed to establish an advanced post near the Spanish possessions, where he was to await a powerful expedition -under a renegade Spaniard, Peñalosa, with whom he was +under a renegade Spaniard, Peñalosa, with whom he was to co-operate in expelling the Spaniards from this part of the continent.<a name="fa4q" id="fa4q" href="#ft4q"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> @@ -17877,22 +17838,22 @@ Francis Parkman’s <i>La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West</i> (Boston, 1879; later revised editions), in Justin Winsor’s <i>Cartier to Frontenac</i> (Boston, 1894), and in J. G. Shea’s <i>Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley</i> (New York, 1852); see also P. Chesnel, -<i>Histoire de Cavelier de La Salle, explorations et conquête du bassin +<i>Histoire de Cavelier de La Salle, explorations et conquête du bassin du Mississippi</i> (Paris, 1901). Of the early narratives see Louis Hennepin, <i>Description de la Louisiane</i> (1683); Joutel, <i>Journal historique du dernier voyage que feu M. de la Salle fit dans le Golfe de -Mexique, &c.</i> (Paris, 1713); and Henri de Tonty, <i>Derniers Découvertes -dans l’Amérique septentrionale de M. de La Salle</i> (Paris, +Mexique, &c.</i> (Paris, 1713); and Henri de Tonty, <i>Derniers Découvertes +dans l’Amérique septentrionale de M. de La Salle</i> (Paris, 1697). Original narratives may be found, translated into English, in -<i>The Journeys of René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, as related by his +<i>The Journeys of René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, as related by his Faithful Lieutenant, Henri de Tonty, &c.</i> (2 vols., New York, 1905), edited by I. J. Cox; in Benjamin E. French’s <i>Historical Collections of Louisiana</i> (6 series, New York, 1846-1853), and in Shea’s <i>Early Voyages Up and Down the Mississippi</i> (Albany, 1861); and an immense collection of documents relating to La Salle may be found -in Pierre Margry’s <i>Découvertes et établissements des Français dans -l’ouest et dans le sud de l’Amérique septentrionale, 1614-1754; -Mémoires et documents originaux recueillis et publiés</i> (6 vols., Paris, +in Pierre Margry’s <i>Découvertes et établissements des Français dans +l’ouest et dans le sud de l’Amérique septentrionale, 1614-1754; +Mémoires et documents originaux recueillis et publiés</i> (6 vols., Paris, 1875-1886), especially in vol. ii.</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. C. W.)</div> @@ -17917,16 +17878,16 @@ joined d’Iberville in lower Louisiana, and soon after was despatched on a mission to the Chickasaw Indians. This is the last authentic trace of him.</p> -<p><a name="ft4q" id="ft4q" href="#fa4q"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Although La Salle and Don Diego de Peñalosa (1624-1687) +<p><a name="ft4q" id="ft4q" href="#fa4q"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Although La Salle and Don Diego de Peñalosa (1624-1687) presented to the French government independent plans for an -expedition against the Spaniards and Peñalosa afterwards proposed +expedition against the Spaniards and Peñalosa afterwards proposed their co-operation, there is no substantial evidence that this project was adopted. Parkman is of the opinion that La Salle proposed his expedition against the Spaniards in the hope that the conclusion of peace between France and Spain would prevent its execution and that he might then use the aid he had thus received in establishing a fortified commercial colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. See -E. T. Miller, “The Connection of Peñalosa with the La Salle Expedition,” +E. T. Miller, “The Connection of Peñalosa with the La Salle Expedition,” in the <i>Quarterly</i> of the Texas State Historical Association, vol. v. (Austin, Tex., 1902).</p> </div> @@ -17942,7 +17903,7 @@ The enterprise soon broadened in scope; a band of enthusiastic assistants gathered round him; he resolved to resign his canonry, and devote himself entirely to education. His assistants were organized into a community, which gradually rooted itself all -over France; and a training-school for teachers, the Collège +over France; and a training-school for teachers, the Collège de Saint-Yon, was set up at Rouen. In 1725, six years after the founder’s death, the society was recognized by the pope, under the official title of “Brothers of the Christian Schools”; @@ -17974,7 +17935,7 @@ at $3,158,173. In the vicinity large quantities of coal are mined, for which the city is an important shipping point. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and the electric lighting plant. The first settlement was made here in 1830; and the -place which was named in honour of the explorer, René Robert +place which was named in honour of the explorer, René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was chartered as a city in 1852 and rechartered in 1876.</p> @@ -17992,8 +17953,8 @@ He described in 1878 the eruptive rocks of the district of Saar and Moselle. In 1880 he edited <i>Der Aetna</i> from the MSS. of Dr W. Sartorius von Waltershausen, the results of observations made between the years 1834-1869. He was author of <i>Elemente -der Petrographie</i> (1875), <i>Einführung in die Gesteinslehre</i> (1885), -and <i>Précis de pétrographie</i> (1887). He died at Bonn on the +der Petrographie</i> (1875), <i>Einführung in die Gesteinslehre</i> (1885), +and <i>Précis de pétrographie</i> (1887). He died at Bonn on the 25th of January 1886.</p> @@ -18040,8 +18001,8 @@ Escurial.</p> of value produced by Lascaris. Some of his letters are given by J. Iriarte in the <i>Regiae Bibliothecae Matritensis codices Graeci manuscripti</i>, i. (Madrid, 1769). His name is known to modern readers in -the romance of A. F. Villemain, <i>Lascaris, ou les Grecs du quinzième -siècle</i> (1825). See also J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i>, ed. 2, vol. ii. +the romance of A. F. Villemain, <i>Lascaris, ou les Grecs du quinzième +siècle</i> (1825). See also J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i>, ed. 2, vol. ii. (1908), pp. 76 foll.</p> </div> @@ -18062,7 +18023,7 @@ he was several times employed on public missions, amongst others to Venice (1503-1508), and in 1515 he appears to have accepted the invitation of Leo X. to take charge of the Greek college he had founded at Rome. We afterwards (1518) find -Lascaris employed along with Budaeus (Budé) by Francis I. +Lascaris employed along with Budaeus (Budé) by Francis I. in the formation of the royal library at Fontainebleau, and also again sent in the service of the French crown to Venice. He died at Rome, whither he had been summoned by Pope Paul @@ -18076,21 +18037,21 @@ scholia in Iliadem</i> (1517); Porphyrius of Tyre’s <i>Homericarum quaestionum liber</i> (1518); <i>De veris Graecarum litterarum formis ac causis apud antiquos</i> (Paris, 1556). See H. Hody, <i>De Graecis illustribus</i> (London, 1742); W. Roscoe, <i>Life of Leo X.</i> ii. (1846); C. F. -Börner, <i>De doctis hominibus Graecis</i> (Leipzig, 1750); A. Horawitz -in Ersch & Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>; J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. +Börner, <i>De doctis hominibus Graecis</i> (Leipzig, 1750); A. Horawitz +in Ersch & Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>; J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i>, ed. 2, vols. ii. (1908), p. 78.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1474-1566), for some time +<p><span class="bold">LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1474-1566), for some time bishop of Chiapa in Mexico, and known to posterity as “The Apostle of the Indies,” was a native of Seville. His father, one of the companions of Columbus in the voyage which resulted in the discovery of the New World, sent him to Salamanca, where he graduated. In 1498 he accompanied his father in an expedition under Columbus to the West Indies, and in 1502 -he went with Nicolás de Ovando, the governor, to Hayti, where +he went with Nicolás de Ovando, the governor, to Hayti, where in 1510 he was admitted to holy orders, being the first priest ordained in the American colonies. In 1511 he passed over to Cuba to take part in the work of “population and pacification,” @@ -18144,7 +18105,7 @@ but was prevailed upon to accept that of Chiapa, for which he sailed in 1544. Thwarted at every point by the officials, and outraged by his countrymen in his attempt to carry out the new laws which his humanity had procured, he returned to -Spain and resigned his dignity (1547). In 1550 he met Sepúlveda +Spain and resigned his dignity (1547). In 1550 he met Sepúlveda in public debate on the theses drawn from the recently published <i>Apologia pro libro de justis belli causis</i>, in which the latter had maintained the lawfulness of waging unprovoked @@ -18168,10 +18129,10 @@ superseded; but see also F. A. MacNutt, <i>Bartholomew de Las Casas</i> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span></p> -<p><span class="bold">LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN DIEUDONNÉ MARIN JOSEPH,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN DIEUDONNÉ MARIN JOSEPH,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis</span> (1766-1842), French official, was born at the castle of Las Cases near Revel in Languedoc. He was educated -at the military schools of Vendôme and Paris; he entered the +at the military schools of Vendôme and Paris; he entered the navy and took part in various engagements of the years 1781-1782. The outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 caused him to “emigrate,” and he spent some years in Germany and England, @@ -18195,8 +18156,8 @@ and received a guarded reply, the nature of which he afterwards misrepresented. Las Cases accompanied the ex-emperor to St Helena and acted informally but very assiduously as his secretary, taking down numerous notes of his conversations -which thereafter took form in the famous <i>Mémorial de Ste -Hélène</i>. The limits of this article preclude an attempt at assessing +which thereafter took form in the famous <i>Mémorial de Ste +Hélène</i>. The limits of this article preclude an attempt at assessing the value of this work. It should be read with great caution, as the compiler did not scruple to insert his own thoughts and to colour the expressions of his master. In some cases he @@ -18211,13 +18172,13 @@ He was sent first to the Cape of Good Hope and thence to Europe, but was not at first allowed by the government of Louis XVIII. to enter France. He resided at Brussels; but, gaining permission to come to Paris after the death of Napoleon, he took -up his residence there, published the <i>Mémorial</i>, and soon gained +up his residence there, published the <i>Mémorial</i>, and soon gained an enormous sum from it. He died in 1842 at Passy.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Mémoires de E. A. D., comte de Las Cases</i> (Brussels, 1818); -<i>Mémorial de Ste Hélène</i> (4 vols., London and Paris, 1823; often -republished and translated); <i>Suite au mémorial de Ste Hélène, ou +<p>See <i>Mémoires de E. A. D., comte de Las Cases</i> (Brussels, 1818); +<i>Mémorial de Ste Hélène</i> (4 vols., London and Paris, 1823; often +republished and translated); <i>Suite au mémorial de Ste Hélène, ou observations critiques</i>, &c. (2 vols., Paris, 1824), anonymous, but known to be by Grille and Musset-Pathay. See too <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gourgaud</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montholon</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lowe, Sir Hudson</a></span>.</p> @@ -18227,7 +18188,7 @@ known to be by Grille and Musset-Pathay. See too <span class="sc"><a href="#artl <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LASHIO,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> the headquarters of the superintendent, northern -Shan States, Burma, situated in 22° 56′ N. and 97° 45′ E. at an +Shan States, Burma, situated in 22° 56′ N. and 97° 45′ E. at an altitude of 3100 ft., on a low spur overlooking the valley of the Nam Yao. It is the present terminus of the Mandalay-Kun Long railway and of the government cart road from Mandalay, @@ -18246,8 +18207,8 @@ was formerly very populous; but a rebellion, started by the sawbwa of Hsenwi, about ten years before the British occupation, ruined it, and it is only slowly approaching the prosperity it formerly enjoyed; pop. (1901) 2565. The annual rainfall -averages 54 in. The average maximum temperature is 80.5° -and the average minimum 55.5°.</p> +averages 54 in. The average maximum temperature is 80.5° +and the average minimum 55.5°.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -18330,12 +18291,12 @@ it through the German minister at Washington.</p> parlamentarischen Entwickelung Preussens</i> (Leipzig, 1873), <i>Die Zukunft des Deutschen Reichs</i> (Leipzig, 1877) and <i>Wege und Ziele der</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> -<i>Kulturentwickelung</i> (Leipzig, 1881). After his death his <i>Fünfzehn +<i>Kulturentwickelung</i> (Leipzig, 1881). After his death his <i>Fünfzehn Jahre parlamentarischer Geschichte 1866-1880</i> appeared edited by W. Cahn (Berlin, 1902). See also L. Bamberger, <i>Eduard Lasker, Gedenkrede</i> (Leipzig, 1884); A. Wolff, <i>Zur Erinnerung an Eduard -Lasker</i> (Berlin, 1884); Freund, <i>Einiges über Eduard Lasker</i> (Leipzig, -1885); and <i>Eduard Lasker, seine Biographie und letzte öffentliche +Lasker</i> (Berlin, 1884); Freund, <i>Einiges über Eduard Lasker</i> (Leipzig, +1885); and <i>Eduard Lasker, seine Biographie und letzte öffentliche Rede</i>, by various writers (Stuttgart, 1884).</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div> @@ -18388,7 +18349,7 @@ he brilliantly distinguished himself. This mission was equally profitable to his country and himself, and he succeeded in obtaining from the pope for the archbishops of Gnesen the title of <i>legati nati</i>. In his old age Laski’s partiality for his nephew, Hieronymus, -led him to support the candidature of John Zapolya, the protégé +led him to support the candidature of John Zapolya, the protégé of the Turks, for the Hungarian crown so vehemently against the Habsburgs that Clement VII. excommunicated him, and the shock of this disgrace was the cause of his sudden death in 1531. @@ -18508,7 +18469,7 @@ Julian Bukowski, <i>History of the Reformation in Poland</i> (Pol.) (Cracow, <p><span class="bold">LAS PALMAS,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> the capital of the Spanish island of Grand Canary, in the Canary archipelago, and of an administrative district which also comprises the islands of Lanzarote and -Fuerteventura; on the east coast, in 28° 7′ N. and 5° 24′ W. +Fuerteventura; on the east coast, in 28° 7′ N. and 5° 24′ W. Pop. (1900) 44,517. Las Palmas is the largest city in the Canary Islands, of which it was the capital until 1833. It is the seat of a court of appeal, of a brigadier, who commands the military forces @@ -18536,7 +18497,7 @@ with the mainland by a narrow bar of sand, can accommodate the largest ships, and affords secure anchorage in all weathers. Ships can discharge at the breakwater (1257 yds. long) or at the Santa Catalina mole, constructed in 1883-1902. The minimum -depth of water alongside the quays is 4½ ft. There are floating +depth of water alongside the quays is 4½ ft. There are floating water-tanks, numerous lighters, titan and other cranes, repairing workshops, and very large supplies of coal afloat and ashore. La Luz is one of the principal Atlantic coaling stations, and the coal-trade @@ -18582,7 +18543,7 @@ were prosecuted for theft, one of them being condemned to six months’ imprisonment. Lassalle, accused of moral complicity, was acquitted on appeal. He was not so fortunate in 1849, when he underwent a year’s durance for resistance -to the authorities of Düsseldorf during the troubles of that +to the authorities of Düsseldorf during the troubles of that stormy period. But going to prison was a familiar experience in Lassalle’s life. Till 1859 Lassalle resided mostly in the Rhine country, prosecuting the suit of the countess, finishing the @@ -18644,7 +18605,7 @@ was the most piquant feature of his life that he, one of the gilded youth, a connoisseur in wines, and a learned man to boot, had become agitator and the champion of the working man. In one of the literary and fashionable circles of Berlin he had -met a Fräulein von Dönniges, for whom he at once felt a passion, +met a Fräulein von Dönniges, for whom he at once felt a passion, which was ardently reciprocated. In the summer of 1864 he met her again on the Rigi, when they resolved to marry. She was a young lady of twenty, decidedly unconventional @@ -18721,7 +18682,7 @@ of 1907 returned forty-three members and polled 3,258,968 votes. mostly to combination among the different political groups.) This result, great as it was, would hardly have been commensurate with his ambition, which was boundless. In the heyday of his passion for -Fräulein von Dönniges, his dream was to be enthroned as the +Fräulein von Dönniges, his dream was to be enthroned as the president of the German republic with her seated at his side. With his energy, ability and gift of dominating and organizing, he might indeed have done a great deal. Bismarck coquetted with him as the @@ -18747,14 +18708,14 @@ von Sickingen</i>, published in 1859, is a work of no poetic value. His Brandes’s Danish work, <i>Ferdinand Lassalle</i> (German translation, 4th ed., Leipzig, 1900). See also A. Aaberg, <i>Ferdinand Lassalle</i> (Leipzig, 1883); C. v. Plener, <i>Lassalle</i> (Leipzig, 1884); G. Meyer, -<i>Lassalle als Sozialökonom</i> (Berlin, 1894); Brandt, <i>F. Lassalles -sozialökonomische Anschauungen und praktische Vorschläge</i> (Jena, -1895); Seillière, <i>Études sur Ferdinand Lassalle</i> (Paris, 1897); E. -Bernstein, <i>Ferd. Lassalle und seine Bedeutung für die Arbeiterklasse</i> +<i>Lassalle als Sozialökonom</i> (Berlin, 1894); Brandt, <i>F. Lassalles +sozialökonomische Anschauungen und praktische Vorschläge</i> (Jena, +1895); Seillière, <i>Études sur Ferdinand Lassalle</i> (Paris, 1897); E. +Bernstein, <i>Ferd. Lassalle und seine Bedeutung für die Arbeiterklasse</i> (Berlin, 1904). There is a considerable literature on his love affair and death; the most notable books are: <i>Meine Beziehungen zu -F. Lassalle</i>, by Helene von Racowitza, a very strange book; <i>Enthüllungen -über das tragische Lebensende F. Lassalle’s</i> by B. Becker; +F. Lassalle</i>, by Helene von Racowitza, a very strange book; <i>Enthüllungen +über das tragische Lebensende F. Lassalle’s</i> by B. Becker; <i>Im Anschluss an die Memoiren der H. von Racowitza</i>, by A. Kutschbach, and George Meredith’s <i>Tragic Comedians</i> (1880).</p> </div> @@ -18771,7 +18732,7 @@ Sanskrit. He next spent three years in Paris and London, engaged in copying and collating MSS., and collecting materials for future research, especially in reference to the Hindu drama and philosophy. During this period he published, jointly with -E. Burnouf, his first work, <i>Essai sur le Pâli</i> (Paris, 1826). On his +E. Burnouf, his first work, <i>Essai sur le Pâli</i> (Paris, 1826). On his return to Bonn he studied Arabic, and took the degree of Ph.D., his dissertation discussing the Arabic notices of the geography of the Punjab (<i>Commentatio geographica atque historica de @@ -18802,19 +18763,19 @@ In 1846 Lassen brought out an improved edition of Schlegel’s text and translation of the “Bhagavadgītā.” He did not confine himself to the study of Indian languages, but acted likewise as a scientific pioneer in other fields of philological inquiry. In his -<i>Beiträge zur Deutung der Eugubinischen Tafeln</i> (1833) he prepared +<i>Beiträge zur Deutung der Eugubinischen Tafeln</i> (1833) he prepared the way for the correct interpretation of the Umbrian inscriptions; -and the <i>Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes</i> (7 vols., 1837-1850), +and the <i>Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes</i> (7 vols., 1837-1850), started and largely conducted by him, contains, among other valuable papers from his pen, grammatical sketches of the Beluchi and Brahui languages, and an essay on the Lycian inscriptions.</p> -<p>Soon after the appearance of Burnouf’s <i>Commentaire sur le Yaçna</i> +<p>Soon after the appearance of Burnouf’s <i>Commentaire sur le Yaçna</i> (1833), Lassen also directed his attention to the Zend, and to Iranian studies generally; and in <i>Die altpersischen Keilinschriften von Persepolis</i> (1836) he first made known the true character of the Old Persian cuneiform inscriptions, thereby anticipating, by one month, -Burnouf’s <i>Mémoire</i> on the same subject, while Sir Henry Rawlinson’s +Burnouf’s <i>Mémoire</i> on the same subject, while Sir Henry Rawlinson’s famous memoir on the Behistun inscription, though drawn up in Persia, independently of contemporaneous European research, at about the same time, did not reach the Royal Asiatic Society until @@ -18824,7 +18785,7 @@ inscriptions known up to that date. He also was the first scholar in Europe who took up, with signal success, the decipherment of the newly-discovered Bactrian coins, which furnished him the materials for <i>Zur Geschichte der griechischen und indo-skythischen -Könige in Bakterien, Kabul, und Indien</i> (1838). He contemplated +Könige in Bakterien, Kabul, und Indien</i> (1838). He contemplated bringing out a critical edition of the <i>Vendidad</i>; but, after publishing the first five fargards (1852), he felt that his whole energies were required for the successful accomplishment of the great undertaking of @@ -19032,7 +18993,7 @@ emotion.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Orlando’s works as shown by the plan of Messrs Breitkopf & -Härtel’s complete critical edition (begun in 1894) comprise: (1) the +Härtel’s complete critical edition (begun in 1894) comprise: (1) the <i>Magnum opus musicum</i>, a posthumous collection containing Latin pieces for from two to twelve voices, 516 in number (or, counting by single movements, over 700). Not all of these are to the original @@ -19075,14 +19036,14 @@ shorter rope called <i>lariat</i> (Span. <i>la reata</i>) is used to picket hors <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAST.<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> 1. (A syncopated form of “latest,” the superlative -of O.E. <i>laét</i>, late), an adjective applied to the conclusion of +of O.E. <i>laét</i>, late), an adjective applied to the conclusion of anything, all that remains after everything else has gone, or that which has just occurred. In theology the “four last things” denote the final scenes of Death, Judgment, Heaven and Hell; the “last day” means the Day of Judgment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eschatology</a></span>).</p> -<p>2. (O.E. <i>lást</i>, footstep; the word appears in many Teutonic +<p>2. (O.E. <i>lást</i>, footstep; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, meaning foot, footstep, track, &c.; it is usually referred to a Teutonic root <i>lais</i>, cognate with Lat. <i>lira</i>, a furrow; from this root, used figuratively, came “learn” and “lore”), @@ -19123,31 +19084,31 @@ have been preserved in Athenaeus (xiv. 624 E). Lasus was also the author of the first theoretical treatise on music.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Suïdas s.v.; Aristophanes, <i>Wasps</i>, 1410, <i>Birds</i>, 1403 and -schol.; Plutarch, <i>De Musica</i>, xxix.; Müller and Donaldson, <i>Hist. +<p>See Suïdas s.v.; Aristophanes, <i>Wasps</i>, 1410, <i>Birds</i>, 1403 and +schol.; Plutarch, <i>De Musica</i>, xxix.; Müller and Donaldson, <i>Hist. of Greek Literature</i>, i. 284; G. H. Bode, <i>Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst</i>, ii. pt. 2, p. 111; F. W. Schneidewin, <i>De Laso Hermionensi -Comment</i>. (Göttingen, 1842); Fragm. in Bergk, <i>Poet. Lyr.</i></p> +Comment</i>. (Göttingen, 1842); Fragm. in Bergk, <i>Poet. Lyr.</i></p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAS VEGAS,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of San Miguel county, New Mexico, U.S.A., in the north central part of New Mexico, -on the Gallinas river, and 83 m. by rail E. of Santa Fé. Though +on the Gallinas river, and 83 m. by rail E. of Santa Fé. Though usually designated as a single municipality, Las Vegas consists of two distinct corporations, the old town on the W. bank of the river and the city proper on the E. bank. Pop. of the city (1890) 2385; (1900) 3552 (340 being foreign-born and 116 negroes); (1910) 3755. According to local estimates, the combined population of the city and the old town in 1908 was 10,000. Las -Vegas is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railway, +Vegas is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railway, and is its division headquarters in New Mexico. The city lies in a valley at the foot of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, and is about 6400 ft. above the sea. There are high peaks to the W. and within a short distance of the city much beautiful mountain scenery, especially along the “Scenic Route,” a -highway from Las Vegas to Santa Fé, traversing the Las Vegas +highway from Las Vegas to Santa Fé, traversing the Las Vegas canyon and the Pecos Valley forest reserve. The country E. of the city consists of level plains. The small amount of rainfall, the great elevation and the southern latitude give the region a dry @@ -19198,7 +19159,7 @@ in a complete victory for the British.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LATACUNGA<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Llactacunga</span>, or, in local parlance, <span class="sc">Tacunga</span>), -a plateau town of Ecuador, capital of the province of Léon, +a plateau town of Ecuador, capital of the province of Léon, 46 m. S. of Quito, near the confluence of the Alagues and Cutuchi to form the Patate, the headstream of the Pastaza. Pop. (1900, estimate) 12,000, largely Indian. Latacunga stands on the old @@ -19220,13 +19181,13 @@ in Paris under Muret, and law at Orleans under Anne de Bourg. He began his career as a Huguenot, but afterwards adopted a mild Catholicism. He was wounded at the battle of Arnay-le Duc in 1570, and retired to his estate at Bondaroy, where he -wrote a political pamphlet entitled <i>Histoire abrégée des singeries -de la ligue</i>, often published with the <i>Satire Ménippée</i>. His +wrote a political pamphlet entitled <i>Histoire abrégée des singeries +de la ligue</i>, often published with the <i>Satire Ménippée</i>. His chief poem is a satire on the follies of court life, <i>Le Courtisan -retiré</i>; he also wrote a political poem, <i>Le Prince nécessaire</i>. +retiré</i>; he also wrote a political poem, <i>Le Prince nécessaire</i>. But his fame rests on his achievements in drama. In 1572 -appeared the tragedy of <i>Saül le furieux</i>, with a preface on <i>L’ Art de -la tragédie</i>. Like Jodelle, Grévin, La Péruse and their followers, +appeared the tragedy of <i>Saül le furieux</i>, with a preface on <i>L’ Art de +la tragédie</i>. Like Jodelle, Grévin, La Péruse and their followers, he wrote, not for the general public to which the mysteries and farces had addressed themselves, but for the limited audience of a lettered aristocracy. He therefore depreciated the native @@ -19238,13 +19199,13 @@ deaths on the stage on the ground that the representation is unconvincing, and he requires as subject of the tragedy an incident really terrible, developed, if possible, by elaborate intrigue. He criticizes <i>e.g.</i> the subject of the sacrifice of Abraham, chosen by -Théodore de Bèze for his tragedy (1551), as unsuitable because +Théodore de Bèze for his tragedy (1551), as unsuitable because “pity and terror” are evoked from the spectators without real -cause. If in <i>Saül le furieux</i> he did not completely carry out his +cause. If in <i>Saül le furieux</i> he did not completely carry out his own convictions he developed his principal character with great -ability. A second tragedy, <i>La Famine ou les Gabéonites</i> (1573), +ability. A second tragedy, <i>La Famine ou les Gabéonites</i> (1573), is inferior in construction, but is redeemed by the character of -Rizpah. He was also the author of two comedies, <i>Le Négromant</i> +Rizpah. He was also the author of two comedies, <i>Le Négromant</i> and <i>Les Corrivaux</i>, both written apparently by 1562 but not published until 1573. <i>Les Corrivaux</i> is remarkable for its colloquial prose dialogue, which foreshadows the excellence of later @@ -19253,15 +19214,15 @@ French comedy.</p> <p>His brother, <span class="sc">Jacques de la Taille</span> (1542-1562), composed a number of tragedies, of which <i>La Mort de Daire</i> and <i>La Mort d’Alexandre</i> (both published in 1573) are the chief. He is best -known by his <i>Manière de faire des vers en français comme en grec +known by his <i>Manière de faire des vers en français comme en grec et en latin</i>, an attempt to regulate French verse by quantity. -He died of plague at the age of 20. His <i>Poésies diverses</i> were +He died of plague at the age of 20. His <i>Poésies diverses</i> were published in 1572.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The works of Jean de la Taille were edited by René de Maulde -(4 vols., 1878-1882). See also É. Faguet, <i>La Tragédie française au -XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1883).</p> +<p>The works of Jean de la Taille were edited by René de Maulde +(4 vols., 1878-1882). See also É. Faguet, <i>La Tragédie française au +XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1883).</p> </div> @@ -19269,7 +19230,7 @@ XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1883).</p> <p><span class="bold">LATAKIA<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (anc. <i>Laodicea</i>), the chief town of a sanjak in the Beirut vilayet of Syria, situated on the coast, opposite the island of Cyprus. The oldest name of the town, according -to Philo Herennius, was <span class="grk" title="Ramitha">Ράμιθα</span> or <span class="grk" title="Leukè aktê">Λευκὴ ἀκτή</span> it received +to Philo Herennius, was <span class="grk" title="Ramitha">Ράμιθα</span> or <span class="grk" title="Leukè aktê">Λευκὴ ἀκτή</span> it received that of Laodicea (<i>ad mare</i>) from Seleucus Nicator, who refounded it in honour of his mother as one of the four “sister” cities of the Syrian Tetrapolis (Antioch, Seleucia, Apamea, @@ -19327,8 +19288,8 @@ and <i>dhow</i> of the Arabian Sea.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA TÈNE<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (Lat. <i>tenuis</i>, shallow), the site of a lake-dwelling -at the north end of Lake Neuchâtel, between Marin and Préfargier. +<p><span class="bold">LA TÈNE<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (Lat. <i>tenuis</i>, shallow), the site of a lake-dwelling +at the north end of Lake Neuchâtel, between Marin and Préfargier. According to some, it was originally a Helvetic <i>oppidum</i>; according to others, a Gallic commercial settlement. R. Forrer distinguishes an older semi-military, and a younger @@ -19339,7 +19300,7 @@ camps, containing the booths and taverns used by soldiers and sailors. He also considers the older station to have been, not as usually supposed, Helvetic, but pre- or proto-Helvetic, the character of which changed with the advance of the Helvetii -into Switzerland (<i>c.</i> 110-100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). La Tène has given its name +into Switzerland (<i>c.</i> 110-100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). La Tène has given its name to a period of culture (<i>c.</i> 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100), the phase of the Iron age succeeding the Hallstatt phase, not as being its starting-point, but because the finds are the best known of their kind. @@ -19351,17 +19312,17 @@ agreement with the description of the weapons of the southern Celts given by Diodorus Siculus. There are also brooches, bronze kettles, torques, small bronze ear-rings with little glass pearls of various colours, belt-hooks and pins for -fastening articles of clothing. The La Tène culture made its +fastening articles of clothing. The La Tène culture made its way through France across to England, where it has received the name of “late Celtic”; a remarkable find has been made at Aylesford in Kent.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See F. Keller, <i>Lake Dwellings of Switzerland</i>, vi. (Eng. trans., 1878); -V. Gross, <i>La Tène un</i> oppidum <i>helvète</i> (1886); E. Vouga, <i>Les Helvètes -à La Tène</i> (1886); P. Reinecke, <i>Zur Kenntnis der la Tène Denkmäler -der Zone nordwärts der Alpen</i> (Mainzer Festschrift, 1902); R. Forrer, -<i>Reallexikon der prähistorischen ... Altertümer</i> (1907), where many +V. Gross, <i>La Tène un</i> oppidum <i>helvète</i> (1886); E. Vouga, <i>Les Helvètes +à La Tène</i> (1886); P. Reinecke, <i>Zur Kenntnis der la Tène Denkmäler +der Zone nordwärts der Alpen</i> (Mainzer Festschrift, 1902); R. Forrer, +<i>Reallexikon der prähistorischen ... Altertümer</i> (1907), where many illustrations are given.</p> </div> @@ -19488,7 +19449,7 @@ a three years’ tithe on all church property was set apart to provide funds for a war against the Turks.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Hardouin, <i>Coll. Conc.</i> ix. 1570 sq.; Hefele-Hergenröther, +<p>See Hardouin, <i>Coll. Conc.</i> ix. 1570 sq.; Hefele-Hergenröther, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, viii. 454 sq.; (1887). Cf. bibliography under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leo X.</a></span></p> </div> @@ -19693,11 +19654,11 @@ survives, it no longer serves any administrative purpose. It was formerly a judicial division, the court of the lathe being superior to that of the hundred. In this it differs from the rape (<i>q.v.</i>) of Sussex, which was a geographical rather than an -administrative division. In O. Eng. the word was <i>laéð</i>, the +administrative division. In O. Eng. the word was <i>laéð</i>, the origin of which is doubtful. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> considers it almost certainly identical with O. Norse <i>lad</i>, landed possessions, territory, with a possible association in meaning -with such words as <i>leið</i>, court, <i>mótlaeaða</i>, attendance at a meeting +with such words as <i>leið</i>, court, <i>mótlaeaða</i>, attendance at a meeting or moot, or with Mod. Dan. <i>laegd</i>, a division of the country for military purposes.</p> @@ -20042,7 +20003,7 @@ of the Florentines, both in making them ready in speaking well and in knowing how to guide and direct our republic according to the rules of politics.” He was the author of various works in prose and verse. While in France he wrote in French his -prose <i>Trésor</i>, a summary of the encyclopaedic knowledge of the +prose <i>Trésor</i>, a summary of the encyclopaedic knowledge of the day (translated into Italian as <i>Tesoro</i> by Bono Giamboni in the 13th century), and in Italian his poem <i>Tesoretto</i>, rhymed couplets in heptasyllabic metre, a sort of abridgment put in allegorical @@ -20050,393 +20011,16 @@ form, the earliest Italian didactic verse. He is famous as the friend and counsellor of Dante (see <i>Inferno</i>, xv. 82-87).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>For the <i>Trésor</i> see P. Chabville’s edition (1863); for the <i>Tesoro</i>, +<p>For the <i>Trésor</i> see P. Chabville’s edition (1863); for the <i>Tesoro</i>, Gaiter’s edition (1878); for the <i>Tesoretto</i>, B. Wiese’s study in -<i>Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie</i>, vii. See also the biographical +<i>Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie</i>, vii. See also the biographical and critical accounts of Brunetto Latini by Thoe Sundby (1884), and Marchesini (1887 and 1890).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 2, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41773-h.htm or 41773-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/7/7/41773/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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