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diff --git a/41685-0.txt b/41685-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..611620b --- /dev/null +++ b/41685-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19949 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41685 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE LATIN LANGUAGE: "... this is the most convenient place in + which to state briefly the very little that can be said as yet to + have been ascertained as to the general relations of Italic to its + sister groups." 'that' amended from 'than'. + + ARTICLE LATIN LANGUAGE: "... (which had been gradually noted, see + e.g. F. Skutsch in Kroll's Altertumswissenschaft im letzten + Vierteljahrhundert, 1905) their actual effect on the language." + 'im' amended from 'in'. + + ARTICLE LATIN LITERATURE: "... from the name of its greatest + literary representative, whose activity as a speaker and writer was + unremitting during nearly the whole period." 'speaker' amended from + 'peaker'. + + ARTICLE LATIUM: "See G. A. Colini in Bullettino di paletnologia + Italiana, xxxi. (1905)." 'paletnologia' amended from + 'palentologia'. + + ARTICLE LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, THÉOPHILE MALO: "In 1784 he was + promoted captain, and in 1791 he received the cross of St Louis." + '1784' amended from '1748'. + + ARTICLE LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT: "... his collaborators in the + reformed system of chemical terminology set forth in 1787 in the + Méthode de nomenclature chimique, were among the earliest French + converts ..." 'nomenclature' amended from 'momenclature'. + + ARTICLE LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT: "Under the head of 'oxidable or + acidifiable' substances, the combination of which with oxygen + yielded acids, were placed sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, and the + muriatic, fluoric and boracic radicals." 'radicals' amended from + 'radicles'. + + ARTICLE LEATHER: "... and thickly split, the poorer hides being + utilized for chamois; they are now re-split at the fatty strata so + that all fat may be easily removed, and while the grains are + dressed as skivers ..." 'utilized' amended from 'ultilized'. + + ARTICLE LEAVENWORTH: "The fort, from which the city took its name, + was built in 1827, in the Indian country, by Colonel Henry + Leavenworth (1783-1834) of the 3rd Infantry, for the protection of + traders plying between the Missouri river and Santa Fé." 'Santa' + amended from 'Sante'. + + ARTICLE LECTOURE: "In 1473 Cardinal Jean de Jouffroy besieged the + town on behalf of Louis XI. and after its fall put the whole + population to the sword." 'population' amended from 'pupulation'. + + ARTICLE LEEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN: "... and a selection from them + was translated by S. Hoole and published in English (London, + 1781-1798)." '1781-1798' amended from '1798-1781'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVI, SLICE III + + Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + LATIN LANGUAGE LAZARITES + LATIN LITERATURE LAZARUS (New Testament) + LATINUS LAZARUS, EMMA + LATITUDE LAZARUS, HENRY + LATIUM LAZARUS, MORITZ + LATONA LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF + LATOUCHE, HYACINTHE JOSEPH DE LEA, HENRY CHARLES + LA TOUR, MAURICE QUENTIN DE LEAD (South Dakota, U.S.A.) + LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, MALO LEAD (chemical element) + LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRÉ LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS + LA TRÉMOILLE LEADHILLITE + LATROBE, CHARLES JOSEPH LEADHILLS + LATTEN LEAD POISONING + LATTICE LEAF PLANT LEADVILLE + LATUDE, JEAN HENRI LEAF + LATUKA LEAF-INSECT + LAUBAN LEAGUE + LAUBE, HEINRICH LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN + L'AUBESPINE LEAMINGTON + LAUCHSTÄDT LÉANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN + LAUD, WILLIAM LEAP-YEAR + LAUD LEAR, EDWARD + LAUDANUM LEASE + LAUDER, SIR THOMAS DICK LEATHER + LAUDER, WILLIAM LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL + LAUDER (burgh of Scotland) LEATHERHEAD + LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND LEATHES, STANLEY + LAUENBURG LEAVEN + LAUFF, JOSEF LEAVENWORTH + LAUGHTER LEBANON (middle east) + LAUMONT, FRANÇOIS GILLET DE LEBANON (Illinois, U.S.A.) + LAUNCESTON (Cornwall, England) LEBANON (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + LAUNCESTON (Tasmania) LE BARGY, CHARLES GUSTAVE AUGUSTE + LAUNCH LE BEAU, CHARLES + LAUNDRY LEBEAU, JOSEPH + LA UNION (Salvador) LEBEL, JEAN + LA UNION (Spain) LEBER, JEAN MICHEL CONSTANT + LAURAHÜTTE LEBEUF, JEAN + LAUREATE LE BLANC, NICOLAS + LAUREL LE BLANC + LAURENS, HENRY LEBOEUF, EDMOND + LAURENT, FRANÇOIS LE BON, JOSEPH + LAURENTINA, VIA LEBRIJA + LAURENTIUS, PAUL LE BRUN, CHARLES + LAURIA ROGER DE LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANÇOIS + LAURIA (Italy) LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE + LAURIER, SIR WILFRID LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ÉCOUCHARD + LAURISTON, JACQUES BERNARD LAW LE CARON, HENRI + LAURIUM (Greece) LE CATEAU + LAURIUM (Michigan, U.S.A.) LECCE + LAURUSTINUS LECCO + LAURVIK LECH + LAUSANNE LE CHAMBON + LAUTREC, ODET DE FOIX LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENÉ GUY + LAUZUN, ANTONIN NOMPAR DE CAUMONT LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR + LAVA LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE + LAVABO LE CLERC, JEAN + LAVAGNA LECOCQ, ALEXANDRE CHARLES + LAVAL, ANDRÉ DE, DE LOHÉAC LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU + LAVAL (France) LE CONTE, JOSEPH + LA VALLIÈRE, LOUISE FRANÇOISE DE LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE RENÉ + LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR LE COQ, ROBERT + LAVAUR LECOUVREUR, ADRIENNE + LAVEDAN, HENRI LÉON ÉMILE LE CREUSOT + LAVELEYE, ÉMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE LECTERN + LAVENDER LECTION, LECTIONARY + LAVERDY, CLÉMENT FRANÇOIS DE LECTISTERNIUM + LAVERNA LECTOR + LAVERY, JOHN LECTOURE + LAVIGERIE, CHARLES ALLEMAND LEDA + LA VILLEMARQUÉ, CLAUDE HENRI LE DAIM, OLIVIER + LAVINIUM LEDBURY + LAVISSE, ERNEST LEDGER + LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECISLAUS JOHANN + LA VOISIN LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE + LAW, JOHN LEDYARD, JOHN + LAW, WILLIAM LEE, ANN + LAW LEE, ARTHUR + LAWES, HENRY LEE, FITZHUGH + LAWES, SIR JOHN BENNET LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER + LAW MERCHANT LEE, HENRY + LAWN LEE, JAMES PRINCE + LAWN-TENNIS LEE, NATHANIEL + LAWRENCE, ST LEE, RICHARD HENRY + LAWRENCE, AMOS (American merchant) LEE, ROBERT EDWARD + LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (junior) LEE ROWLAND + LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED LEE, SIDNEY + LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY LEE, SOPHIA + LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD LAWRENCE LEE, STEPHEN DILL + LAWRENCE, STRINGER LEE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) + LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS LEE (shelter or sediment) + LAWRENCE (Kansas, U.S.A.) LEECH, JOHN + LAWRENCE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) LEECH (Chaetopod worms) + LAWRENCEBURG LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE + LAWSON, CECIL GORDON LEEDS (England) + LAWSON, SIR JOHN LEEK (English town) + LAWSON, SIR WILFRID LEEK (plant) + LAY LEER + LAYA, JEAN LOUIS LEEUWARDEN + LAYAMON LEEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN + LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY LEEWARD ISLANDS + LAYMEN, HOUSES OF LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN + LAYNEZ, DIEGO LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH + LAZAR + + + + +LATIN LANGUAGE. 1. _Earliest Records of its Area._--Latin was the +language spoken in Rome and in the plain of Latium in the 6th or 7th +century B.C.--the earliest period from which we have any contemporary +record of its existence. But it is as yet impossible to determine +either, on the one hand, whether the archaic inscription of Praeneste +(see below), which is assigned with great probability to that epoch, +represents exactly the language then spoken in Rome; or, on the other, +over how much larger an area of the Italian peninsula, or even of the +lands to the north and west, the same language may at that date have +extended. In the 5th century B.C. we find its limits within the +peninsula fixed on the north-west and south-west by Etruscan (see +ETRURIA: _Language_); on the east, south-east, and probably north and +north-east, by Safine (Sabine) dialects (of the Marsi, Paeligni, +Samnites, Sabini and Picenum, qq.v.); but on the north we have no direct +record of Sabine speech, nor of any non-Latinian tongue nearer than +Tuder and Asculum or earlier than the 4th century B.C. (see UMBRIA, +IGUVIUM, PICENUM). We know however, both from tradition and from the +archaeological data, that the Safine tribes were in the 5th century B.C. +migrating, or at least sending off swarms of their younger folk, farther +and farther southward into the peninsula. Of the languages they were +then displacing we have no explicit record save in the case of Etruscan +in Campania, but it may be reasonably inferred from the evidence of +place-names and tribal names, combined with that of the Faliscan +inscriptions, that before the Safine invasion some idiom, not remote +from Latin, was spoken by the pre-Etruscan tribes down the length of the +west coast (see FALISCI; VOLSCI; also ROME: _History_; LIGURIA; SICULI). + +2. _Earliest Roman Inscriptions._--At Rome, at all events, it is clear +from the unwavering voice of tradition that Latin was spoken from the +beginning of the city. Of the earliest Latin inscriptions found in Rome +which were known in 1909, the oldest, the so-called "Forum inscription," +can hardly be referred with confidence to an earlier century than the +5th; the later, the well-known _Duenos_ (= later Latin _bonus_) +inscription, certainly belongs to the 4th; both of these are briefly +described below (§§ 40, 41). At this date we have probably the period of +the narrowest extension of Latin; non-Latin idioms were spoken in +Etruria, Umbria, Picenum and in the Marsian and Volscian hills. But +almost directly the area begins to expand again, and after the war with +Pyrrhus the Roman arms had planted the language of Rome in her military +colonies throughout the peninsula. When we come to the 3rd century B.C. +the Latin inscriptions begin to be more numerous, and in them (e.g. the +oldest epitaphs of the Scipio family) the language is very little +removed from what it was in the time of Plautus. + +3. _The Italic Group of Languages._--For the characteristics and +affinities of the dialects that have just been mentioned, see the +article ITALY: _Ancient Languages and Peoples_, and to the separate +articles on the tribes. Here it is well to point out that the only one +of these languages which is not akin to Latin is Etruscan; on the other +hand, the only one very closely resembling Latin is Faliscan, which with +it forms what we may call the Latinian dialect of the Italic group of +the Indo-European family of languages. Since, however, we have a far +more complete knowledge of Latin than of any other member of the Italic +group, this is the most convenient place in which to state briefly the +very little that can be said as yet to have been ascertained as to the +general relations of Italic to its sister groups. Here, as in many +kindred questions, the work of Paul Kretschmer of Vienna (_Einleitung in +die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, Göttingen, 1896) marked an +important epoch in the historical aspects of linguistic study, as the +first scientific attempt to interpret critically the different kinds of +evidence which the Indo-European languages give us, not in vocabulary +merely, but in phonology, morphology, and especially in their mutual +borrowings, and to combine it with the non-linguistic data of tradition +and archaeology. A certain number of the results so obtained have met +with general acceptance and may be briefly treated here. It is, however, +extremely dangerous to draw merely from linguistic kinship deductions as +to racial identity, or even as to an original contiguity of habitation. +Close resemblances in any two languages, especially those in their inner +structure (morphology), may be due to identity of race, or to long +neighbourhood in the earliest period of their development; but they may +also be caused by temporary neighbourhood (for a longer or shorter +period), brought about by migrations at a later epoch (or epochs). A +particular change in sound or usage may spread over a whole chain of +dialects and be in the end exhibited alike by them all, although the +time at which it first began was long after their special and +distinctive characteristics had become clearly marked. For example, the +limitation of the word-accent to the last three syllables of a word in +Latin and Oscan (see below)--a phenomenon which has left deep marks on +all the Romance languages--demonstrably grew up between the 5th and 2nd +centuries B.C.; and it is a permissible conjecture that it started from +the influence of the Greek colonies in Italy (especially Cumae and +Naples), in whose language the same limitation (although with an accent +whose actual character was probably more largely musical) had been +established some centuries sooner. + +4. _Position of the Italic Group._--The Italic group, then, when +compared with the other seven main "families" of Indo-European speech, +in respect of their most significant differences, ranges itself thus: + + (i.) _Back-palatal and Velar Sounds._--In point of its treatment of + the Indo-European back-palatal and velar sounds, it belongs to the + western or _centum_ group, the name of which is, of course, taken from + Latin; that is to say, like German, Celtic and Greek, it did not + sibilate original _k_ and _g_, which in Indo-Iranian, Armenian, + Slavonic and Albanian have been converted into various types of + sibilants (Ind.-Eur.* _kmtom_ = Lat. _centum_, Gr. _[Greek: + (he)-katon]_, Welsh _cant_, Eng. _hund_-(_red_), but Sans. _satam_, + Zend _sat[schwa]m_); but, on the other hand, in company with just the + same three western groups, and in contrast to the eastern, the Italic + languages labialized the original velars (Ind.-Eur. * _qod_ = Lat. + _quod_, Osc. _pod_, Gr. _[Greek: pod-(apos)]_, Welsh _pwy_, Eng. + _what_, but Sans. _kás_, "who?"). + + (ii.) _Indo-European Aspirates._--Like Greek and Sanskrit, but in + contrast to all the other groups (even to Zend and Armenian), the + Italic group largely preserves a distinction between the Indo-European + _mediae aspiratae_ and _mediae_ (e.g. between Ind.-Eur. _dh_ and _d_, + the former when initial becoming initially regularly Lat. _f_ as in + Lat. _fec-i_ [cf. Umb. _feia_, "_faciat_"], beside Gr. [Greek: + he-thêk-a] [cf. Sans. _da-dha-ti_, "he places"], the latter simply _d_ + as in _domus_, Gr. [Greek: domos]). But the _aspiratae_, even where + thus distinctly treated in Italic, became fricatives, not pure + aspirates, a character which they only retained in Greek and Sanskrit. + + (iii.) _Indo-European o._--With Greek and Celtic, Latin preserved the + Indo-European _o_, which in the more northerly groups (Germanic, + Balto-Slavonic), and also in Indo-Iranian, and, curiously, in + Messapian, was confused with _a_. The name for olive-oil, which spread + with the use of this commodity from Greek ([Greek: elaiwon]) to Italic + speakers and thence to the north, becoming by regular changes (see + below) in Latin first *_ólaivom_, then *_óleivom_, and then taken into + Gothic and becoming _alev_, leaving its parent form to change further + (not later than 100 B.C.) in Latin to _oleum_, is a particularly + important example, because (a) of the chronological limits which are + implied, however roughly, in the process just described, and (b) of + the close association in time of the change of _o_ to _a_ with the + earlier stages of the "sound-shifting" (of the Indo-European plosives + and aspirates) in German; see Kretschmer, _Einleit_. p. 116, and the + authorities he cites. + + (iv.) _Accentuation._--One marked innovation common to the western + groups as compared with what Greek and Sanskrit show to have been an + earlier feature of the Indo-European parent speech was the development + of a strong expiratory (sometimes called stress) accent upon the first + syllable of all words. This appears early in the history of Italic, + Celtic, Lettish (probably, and at a still later period) in Germanic, + though at a period later than the beginning of the "sound-shifting." + This extinguished the complex system of Indo-European accentuation, + which is directly reflected in Sanskrit, and was itself replaced in + Latin and Oscan by another system already mentioned, but not in Latin + till it had produced marked effects upon the language (e.g. the + degradation of the vowels in compounds as in _conficio_ from + _cón-facio_, _includo_ from _ín-claudo_). This curious wave of + accentual change (first pointed out by Dieterich, _Kuhn's + Zeitschrift_, i., and later by Thurneysen, _Revue celtique_, vi. 312, + _Rheinisches Museum_, xliii. 349) needs and deserves to be more + closely investigated from a chronological standpoint. At present it is + not clear how far it was a really connected process in all the + languages. (See further Kretschmer, _op. cit._ p. 115, K. Brugmann, + _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (1902-1904), p. 57, and their + citations, especially Meyer-Lübke, _Die Betonung im Gallischen_ + (1901).) + +To these larger affinities may be added some important points in which +the Italic group shows marked resemblances to other groups. + +5. _Italic and Celtic._--It is now universally admitted that the Celtic +languages stand in a much closer relation than any other group to the +Italic. It may even be doubted whether there was any real frontier-line +at all between the two groups before the Etruscan invasion of Italy (see +ETRURIA: _Language_; LIGURIA). The number of morphological innovations +on the Indo-European system which the two groups share, and which are +almost if not wholly peculiar to them, is particularly striking. Of +these the chief are the following. + + (i.) Extension of the abstract-noun stems in -_ti_- (like Greek + [Greek: phatis] with Attic [Greek: basis], &c.) by an -_n_- suffix, as + in Lat. _mentio_ (stem _mention_-) = Ir. (_er_-)_mitiu_ (stem + _miti-n_-), contrasted with the same word without the _n_-suffix in + Sans. _mati_-, Lat. _mens_, Ind.-Eur. *_mn-ti_-. A similar extension + (shared also by Gothic) appears in Lat. _iuventu-t_-, O. Ir. _óitiu_ + (stem _oiliut_-) beside the simple -_tu_- in nouns like _senatus_. + + (ii.) Superlative formation in -_is-mmo_- as in Lat. _aegerrimus_ for + *_aegr-ismmos_, Gallic [Greek: Ouxisamê] the name of a town meaning + "the highest." + + (iii.) Genitive singular of the _o_-stems (second declension) in -_i_ + Lat. _agri_, O. Ir. (Ogam inscriptions) _magi_, "of a son." + + (iv.) Passive and deponent formation in -_r_, Lat. _sequitur_ = Ir. + _sechedar_, "he follows." The originally active meaning of this + curious -_r_ suffix was first pointed out by Zimmer (_Kuhn's + Zeitschrift_, 1888, xxx. 224), who thus explained the use of the + accusative pronouns with these "passive" forms in Celtic; Ir. + -_m-berar_, "I am carried," literally "folk carry me"; Umb. _pir + ferar_, literally _ignem feratur_, though as _pir_ is a neuter word (= + Gr. [Greek: pyr]) this example was not so convincing. But within a + twelvemonth of the appearance of Zimmer's article, an Oscan + inscription (Conway, _Camb. Philol. Society's Proceedings_, 1890, p. + 16, and _Italic Dialects_, p. 113) was discovered containing the + phrase _ultiumam_ (_iuvilam_) _sakrafir_, "ultimam (imaginem) + consecraverint" (or "ultima consecretur") which demonstrated the + nature of the suffix in Italic also. This originally active meaning of + the -_r_ form (in the third person singular passive) is the cause of + the remarkable fondness for the "impersonal" use of the passive in + Latin (e.g., _itur in antiquam silvam_, instead of _eunt_), which was + naturally extended to all tenses of the passive (_ventum est_, &c.), + so soon as its origin was forgotten. Fuller details of the development + will be found in Conway, _op. cit._ p. 561, and the authorities there + cited (very little is added by K. Brugmann, _Kurze vergl. Gramm._ + 1904, p. 596). + + (v.) Formation of the perfect passive from the -_to_- past participle, + Lat. _monitus_ (_est_), &c., Ir. _léic-the_, "he was left," + _ro-léiced_, "he has been left." In Latin the participle maintains its + distinct adjectival character; in Irish (J. Strachan, _Old Irish + Paradigms_, 1905, p. 50) it has sunk into a purely verbal form, just + as the perfect participles in -_us_ in Umbrian have been absorbed into + the future perfect in -_ust_ (_entelust_, "intenderit"; _benust_, + "venerit") with its impersonal passive or third plural active + -_us_(_s_)_so_ (probably standing for -_ussor_) as in _benuso_, + "ventum erit" (or "venerint"). + + To these must be further added some striking peculiarities in + phonology. + + (vi.) Assimilation of _p_ to a _q^u_ in a following syllable as in + Lat. _quinque_ = Ir. _cóic_, compared with Sans. _pánca_, Gr. [Greek: + pente], Eng. _five_, Ind.-Eur. *_penqe_. + + (vii.) Finally--and perhaps this parallelism is the most important of + all from the historical standpoint--both Italic and Celtic are divided + into two sub-families which differ, and differ in the same way, in + their treatment of the Ind.-Eur. velar tenuis _q_. In both halves of + each group it was labialized to some extent; in one half of each group + it was labialized so far as to become _p_. This is the great line of + cleavage (i.) between Latinian (Lat. _quod_, _quando_, _quinque_; + Falisc. _cuando_) and Osco-Umbrian, better called Safine (Osc. _pod_, + Umb. _panu_- [for *_pando_], Osc.-Umb. _pompe_-, "five," in Osc. + _pumperias_ "nonae," Umb. _pumpedia_-, "fifth day of the month"); and + (ii.) between Goidelic (Gaelic) (O. Ir. _cóic_, "five," _maq_, "son"; + modern Irish and Scotch _Mac_ as in _MacPherson_) and Brythonic + (Britannic) (Welsh _pump_, "five," _Ap_ for map, as in _Powel_ for _Ap + Howel_). + + The same distinction appears elsewhere; Germanic belongs, broadly + described, to the _q_-group, and Greek, broadly described, to the + _p_-group. The ethnological bearing of the distinction within Italy is + considered in the articles SABINI and VOLSCI; but the wider questions + which the facts suggest have as yet been only scantily discussed; see + the references for the "Sequanian" dialect of Gallic (in the + inscription of Coligny, whose language preserves _q_) in the article + CELTS: _Language_. + + From these primitive affinities we must clearly distinguish the + numerous words taken into Latin from the Celts of north Italy within + the historic period; for these see especially an interesting study by + J. Zwicker, _De vocabulis et rebus Gallicis sive Transpadanis apud + Vergilium_ (Leipzig dissertation, 1905). + +6. _Greek and Italic._--We have seen above (§ 4, i., ii., iii.) certain +broad characteristics which the Greek and the Italic groups of language +have in common. The old question of the degree of their affinity may be +briefly noticed. There are deep-seated differences in morphology, +phonology and vocabulary between the two languages--such as (a) the loss +of the forms of the ablative in Greek and of the middle voice in Latin; +(b) the decay of the fricatives (_s_, _v_, _^i_) in Greek and the +cavalier treatment of the aspirates in Latin; and (c) the almost total +discrepancy of the vocabularies of law and religion in the two +languages--which altogether forbid the assumption that the two groups +can ever have been completely identical after their first dialectic +separation from the parent language. On the other hand, in the first +early periods of that dialectic development in the Indo-European family, +the precursors of Greek and Italic cannot have been separated by any +very wide boundary. To this primitive neighbourhood may be referred such +peculiarities as (a) the genitive plural feminine ending in -_asom_ (Gr. +[Greek: -aôn], later in various dialects [Greek: -eôn, -ôn, -an]; cf. +Osc. _egmazum_ "rerum"; Lat. _mensarum_, with -_r_- from -_s_-), (b) the +feminine gender of many nouns of the -_o_- declension, cf. Gr. [Greek: +hê hodos], Lat. _haec fagus_; and some important and ancient +syntactical features, especially in the uses of the cases (e.g. (c) the +genitive of price) of the (d) infinitive and of the (e) participles +passive (though in each case the forms differ widely in the two +groups), and perhaps (f) of the dependent moods (though here again the +forms have been vigorously reshaped in Italic). These syntactic +parallels, which are hardly noticed by Kretschmer in his otherwise +careful discussion (_Einleit._ p. 155 seq.), serve to confirm his +general conclusion which has been here adopted; because syntactic +peculiarities have a long life and may survive not merely complete +revolutions in morphology, but even a complete change in the speaker's +language, e.g. such Celticisms in Irish-English as "What are you after +doing?" for "What have you done?" or in Welsh-English as "whatever" for +"anyhow." A few isolated correspondences in vocabulary, as in _remus_ +from *_ret-s-mo_-, with [Greek: eretmos] and in a few plant-names (e.g. +[Greek: prason] and _porrum_), cannot disturb the general conclusion, +though no doubt they have some historical significance, if it could be +determined. + +7. _Indo-Iranian and Italo-Celtic._--Only a brief reference can here be +made to the striking list of resemblances between the Indo-Iranian and +Italo-Celtic groups, especially in vocabulary, which Kretschmer has +collected (ibid. pp. 126-144). The most striking of these are _rex_, O. +Ir. _rig_-, Sans. _raj_-, and the political meaning of the same root in +the corresponding verb in both languages (contrast _regere_ with the +merely physical meaning of Gr. [Greek: oregnymi]); Lat. _flamen_ (for +*_flag-men_) exactly = Sans. _brahman_- (neuter), meaning probably +"sacrificing," "worshipping," and then "priesthood," "priest," from the +Ind.-Eur. root *_bhelgh_-, "blaze," "make to blaze"; _res_, _rem_ +exactly = Sans. _ras_, _ram_ in declension and especially in meaning; +and _Ario_-, "noble," in Gallic _Ariomanus_, &c., = Sans. _arya_-, +"noble" (whence "Aryan"). So _argentum_ exactly = Sans. _rajata_-, Zend +_erezata_-; contrast the different (though morphologically kindred) +suffix in Gr. [Greek: argyros]. Some forty-two other Latin or Celtic +words (among them _credere_, _caesaries_, _probus_, _castus_ (cf. Osc. +_kasit_, Lat. _caret_, Sans. _sista_-), _Volcanus_, _Neptunus_, _ensis_, +_erus_, _pruina_, _rus_, _novacula_) have precise Sanskrit or Iranian +equivalents, and none so near in any other of the eight groups of +languages. Finally the use of an -_r_ suffix in the third plural is +common to both Italo-Celtic (see above) and Indo-Iranian. These things +clearly point to a fairly close, and probably in part political, +intercourse between the two communities of speakers at some early epoch. +A shorter, but interesting, list of correspondences in vocabulary with +Balto-Slavonic (e.g. the words _mentiri_, _ros_, _ignis_ have close +equivalents in Balto-Slavonic) suggests that at the same period the +precursor of this dialect too was a not remote neighbour. + +8. _Date of the Separation of the Italic Group._--The date at which the +Italic group of languages began to have (so far as it had at all) a +separate development of its own is at present only a matter of +conjecture. But the combination of archaeological and linguistic +research which has already begun can have no more interesting object +than the approximate determination of this date (or group of dates); for +it will give us a point of cardinal importance in the early history of +Europe. The only consideration which can here be offered as a +starting-point for the inquiry is the chronological relation of the +Etruscan invasion, which is probably referable to the 12th century B.C. +(see ETRURIA), to the two strata of Indo-European population--the -CO- +folk (_Falisci_, _Marruci_, _Volsci_, _Hernici_ and others), to whom the +Tuscan invaders owe the names _Etrusci_ and _Tusci_, and the -NO- folk, +who, on the West coast, in the centre and south of Italy, appear at a +distinctly later epoch, in some places (as in the Bruttian peninsula, +see BRUTTII) only at the beginning of our historical record. If the view +of Latin as mainly the tongue of the -CO- folk prove to be correct (see +ROME: _History_; ITALY: _Ancient Languages and Peoples_; SABINI; VOLSCI) +we must regard it (a) as the southern or earlier half of the Italic +group, firmly rooted in Italy in the 12th century B.C., but (b) by no +means yet isolated from contact with the northern or later half; such is +at least the suggestion of the striking peculiarities in morphology +which it shares with not merely Oscan and Umbrian, but also, as we have +seen, with Celtic. The progress in time of this isolation ought before +long to be traced with some approach to certainty. + + +THE HISTORY OF LATIN + +9. We may now proceed to notice the chief changes that arose in Latin +after the (more or less) complete separation of the Italic group +whenever it came about. The contrasted features of Oscan and Umbrian, to +some of which, for special reasons, occasional reference will be here +made, are fully described under OSCA LINGUA and IGUVIUM respectively. + +It is rarely possible to fix with any precision the date at which a +particular change began or was completed, and the most serviceable form +for this conspectus of the development will be to present, under the +heads of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax, the chief characteristics of +Ciceronian Latin which we know to have been developed after Latin became +a separate language. Which of these changes, if any, can be assigned to +a particular period will be seen as we proceed. But it should be +remembered that an enormous increase of exact knowledge has accrued from +the scientific methods of research introduced by A. Leskien and K. +Brugmann in 1879, and finally established by Brugmann's great +_Grundriss_ in 1886, and that only a brief enumeration can be here +attempted. For adequate study reference must be made to the fuller +treatises quoted, and especially to the sections bearing on Latin in K. +Brugmann's _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (1902). + + +I. PHONOLOGY + + 10. _The Latin Accent._--It will be convenient to begin with some + account of the most important discovery made since the application of + scientific method to the study of Latin, for, though it is not + strictly a part of phonology, it is wrapped up with much of the + development both of the sounds and, by consequence, of the inflexions. + It has long been observed (as we have seen § 4, iv. above) that the + restriction of the word-accent in Latin to the last three syllables of + the word, and its attachment to a long syllable in the penult, were + certainly not its earliest traceable condition; between this, the + classical system, and the comparative freedom with which the + word-accent was placed in pro-ethnic Indo-European, there had + intervened a period of first-syllable accentuation to which were due + many of the characteristic contractions of Oscan and Umbrian, and in + Latin the degradation of the vowels in such forms as _accentus_ from + _ad_ + _cantus_ or _praecipitem_ from _prae_ + _caput_- (§ 19 below). + R. von Planta (_Osk.-Umbr. Grammatik_, 1893, i. p. 594) pointed out + that in Oscan also, by the 3rd century B.C., this + first-syllable-accent had probably given way to a system which limited + the word-accent in some such way as in classical Latin. But it + remained for C. Exon, in a brilliant article (_Hermathena_ (1906), + xiv. 117, seq.), to deduce from the more precise stages of the change + (which had been gradually noted, see e.g. F. Skutsch in Kroll's + _Altertumswissenschaft im letzten Vierteljahrhundert_, 1905) their + actual effect on the language. + + 11. _Accent in Time of Plautus._--The rules which have been + established for the position of the accent in the time of Plautus are + these: + + (i.) The quantity of the final syllable had no effect on accent. + + (ii.) If the penult was long, it bore the accent (_amabamus_). + + (iii.) If the penult was short, then + + (a) if the ante-penult was long, it bore the accent (_amabimus_); + + (b) if the ante-penult was short, then + + (i.) if the ante-ante-penult was long, the accent was on the + ante-penult (_amicítia_); but + + (ii.) if the ante-ante-penult was also short, it bore the accent + (_cólumine, puéritia_). + + _Exon's Laws of Syncope._--With these facts are now linked what may be + called Exon's Laws, viz:-- + + _In pre-Plautine Latin_ in all words or word-groups of four or more + syllables whose chief accent is on one long syllable, a short + unaccented medial vowel was syncopated; thus *_quínquedecem_ became + *_quínqdecem_ and thence _quíndecim_ (for the -_im_ see § 19), + *_súps-emere_ became *_súpsmere_ and that _sumere_ (on -_psm- v. + inf._) *_súrregere_, *_surregémus_, and the like became _surgere_, + _surgémus_, and the rest of the paradigm followed; so probably _validé + bonus_ became _valdé bonus_, _exterá viam_ became _extrá viam_; so + *_supo-téndo_ became _subtendo_ (pronounced _sup-tendo_), *_aridére_, + *_avidére_ (from _aridus_, _avidus_) became _ardére_, _audére_. But + the influence of cognate forms often interfered; _posterí-die_ became + _postrídie_, but in _posterórum_, _posterárum_ the short syllable was + restored by the influence of the trisyllabic cases, _pósterus_, + _pósteri_, &c., to which the law did not apply. Conversely, the nom. + *_áridor_ (more correctly at this period *_aridos_), which would not + have been contracted, followed the form of _ardórem_ (from + *_aridórem_), _ardére_, &c. + + The same change produced the monosyllabic forms _nec_, _ac_, _neu_, + _seu_, from _neque_, &c., before consonants, since they had no accent + of their own, but were always pronounced in one breath with the + following word, _neque tántum_ becoming _nec tantum_, and the like. So + in Plautus (and probably always in spoken Latin) the words _nemp(e)_, + _ind(e)_, _quipp(e)_, _ill(e)_, are regularly monosyllables. + + 12. _Syncope of Final Syllables._--It is possible that the frequent + but far from universal syncope of final syllables in Latin (especially + before -_s_, as in _mens_, which represents both Gr. [Greek: menos] + and Sans. matís = Ind.-Eur. _mntís_, Eng. _mind_) is due also to this + law operating on such combinations as _bona mens_ and the like, but + this has not yet been clearly shown. In any case the effects of any + such phonetic change have been very greatly modified by analogical + changes. The Oscan and Umbrian syncope of short vowels before final + _s_ seems to be an independent change, at all events in its detailed + working. The outbreak of the unconscious affection of slurring final + syllables may have been contemporaneous. + + 13. _In post-Plautine Latin_ words accented on the ante-antepenult:-- + + (i.) suffered syncope in the short syllable following the accented + syllable (_bálineae_ became _bálneae_, _puéritia_ became _puértia_ + (Horace), _cólumine_, _tégimine_, &c., became _cúlmine_, _tégmine_, + &c., beside the trisyllabic _cólumen_, _tégimen_) unless + + (ii.) that short vowel was _e_ or _i_, followed by another vowel (as + in _párietem_, _múlierem_, _Púteoli_), when, instead of contraction, + the accent shifted to the penult, which at a later stage of the + language became lengthened, _pariétem_ giving Ital. _paréete_, Fr. + _paroi_, _Puteóli_ giving Ital. _Pozzuoli_. + + The restriction of the accent to the last three syllables was + completed by these changes, which did away with all the cases in which + it had stood on the fourth syllable. + + 14. _The Law of the Brevis Brevians._--Next must be mentioned another + great phonetic change, also dependent upon accent, which had come + about before the time of Plautus, the law long known to students as + the _Brevis Brevians_, which may be stated as follows (Exon, + _Hermathena_ (1903), xii. 491, following Skutsch in, e.g., + Vollmöller's _Jahresbericht für romanische Sprachwissenschaft_, i. + 33): a syllable long by nature or position, and preceded by a short + syllable, was itself shortened if the word-accent fell immediately + before or immediately after it--that is, on the preceding short + syllable or on the next following syllable. The sequence of syllables + need not be in the same word, but must be as closely connected in + utterance as if it were. Thus _modo_ became _módo_, _voluptatem_ + became _volu(p)tatem_, _quid est?_ became _quid est?_ either the _s_ + or the _t_ or both being but faintly pronounced. + + It is clear that a great number of flexional syllables so shortened + would have their quantity immediately restored by the analogy of the + same inflexion occurring in words not of this particular shape; thus, + for instance, the long vowel of _ama_ and the like is due to that in + other verbs (_pulsa_, _agita_) not of iambic shape. So ablatives like + _modö_, _sono_ get back their -_o_, while in particles like _modo_, + "only," _quomodo_, "how," the shortened form remains. Conversely, the + shortening of the final -_a_ in the nom. sing. fem. of the + _a_-declension (contrast _luna_ with Gr. [Greek: chôrã]) was probably + partly due to the influence of common forms like _ea_, _bona_, _mala_, + which had come under the law. + + 15. _Effect on Verb Inflexion._--These processes had far-reaching + effects on Latin inflexion. The chief of these was the creation of the + type of conjugation known as the _capio_-class. All these verbs were + originally inflected like _audio_, but the accident of their short + root-syllable, (in such early forms as *_fúgis_, *_fugiturus_, + *_fugisetis_, &c., becoming later _fúgis_, _fugiturus_, _fugeretis_) + brought great parts of their paradigm under this law, and the rest + followed suit; but true forms like _fugire_, _cupire_, _moriri_, never + altogether died out of the spoken language. St Augustine, for + instance, confessed in 387 A.D. (_Epist._ iii. 5, quoted by Exon, + _Hermathena_ (1901), xi. 383,) that he does not know whether _cupi_ or + _cupiri_ is the pass. inf. of _cupio_. Hence we have Ital. _fuggire_, + _morire_, Fr. _fuir_, _mourir_. (See further on this conjugation, C. + Exon, _l.c._, and F. Skutsch, _Archiv für lat. Lexicographie_, xii. + 210, two papers which were written independently.) + + 16. The question has been raised how far the true phonetic shortening + appears in Plautus, produced not by word-accent but by metrical + ictus--e.g. whether the reading is to be trusted in such lines as + _Amph._ 761, which gives us _dedisse_ as the first foot (tribrach) of + a trochaic line "because the metrical ictus fell on the syllable + _ded_-"--but this remarkable theory cannot be discussed here. See the + articles cited and also F. Skutsch, _Forschungen zu Latein. Grammatik + und Metrik_, i. (1892); C. Exon, _Hermathena_ (1903) xii. p. 492, W. + M. Lindsay, _Captivi_ (1900), appendix. + + In the history of the vowels and diphthongs in Latin we must + distinguish the changes which came about independently of accent and + those produced by the preponderance of accent in another syllable. + + 17. _Vowel Changes independent of Accent._--In the former category the + following are those of chief importance:-- + + (i.) _i_ became _e_ (a) when final, as in _ant-e_ beside Gr. [Greek: + anti], _triste_ besides _tristi-s_, contrasted with e.g., the Greek + neuter [Greek: idri] (the final -_e_ of the infinitive--_regere_, + &c.--is the -_i_ of the locative, just as in the so-called ablatives + _genere_, &c.); (b) before -_r_- which has arisen from -_s_-, as in + _cineris_ beside _cinis_, _cinisculus_; _sero_ beside Gr. [Greek: + i(s)êmi] (Ind.-Eur. *_si-semi_, a reduplicated non-thematic present). + + (ii.) Final _o_ became _e_; imperative _sequere_ = Gr. [Greek: + epe(s)o]; Lat. _ille_ may contain the old pronoun *_so_, "he," Gr. + [Greek: ho], Sans. _sa_ (otherwise Skutsch, _Glotta_, i. Hefte 2-3). + + (iii.) _el_ became _ol_ when followed by any sound save _e_, _i_ or + _l_, as in _volo_, _volt_ beside _velle_; _colo_ beside Gr. [Greek: + tellomai, polein], Att. [Greek: telos]; _colonus_ for *_quelonus_, + beside _inquilinus_ for *_en-quelenus_. + + (iv.) _e_ became _i_ (i.) before a nasal followed by a palatal or + velar consonant (_tingo_, Gr. [Greek: teggô]; _in-cipio_ from + *_en-capio_); (ii.) under certain conditions not yet precisely + defined, one of which was _i_ in a following syllable (_nihil_, + _nisi_, _initium_). From these forms _in_- spread and banished _en_-, + the earlier form. + + (v.) The "neutral vowel" ("schwa Indo-Germanicum") which arose in + pro-ethnic Indo-European from the reduction of long _a_, _e_ or _o_ in + unaccented syllables (as in the -_tós_ participles of such roots as + _sta_-, _dhe_-, _do_-, *_st[schwa]tós_, *_dh[schwa]tós_, + *_d[schwa]tós_) became _a_ in Latin (_status con-ditus_ [from + *_con-dhatos_], _datus_), and it is the same sound which is + represented by _a_ in most of the forms of _do_ (_damus_, _dabo_, + &c.). + + (vi.) When a long vowel came to stand before another vowel in the same + word through loss of _^i_ or _^u_, it was always shortened; thus the + -_eo_ of intransitive verbs like _candeo_, _caleo_ is for -_e^io_ + (where the _e_ is identical with the [eta] in Gr. [Greek: ephanên, + emanên]) and was thus confused with the causative -_eio_ (as in + _moneo_, "I make to think," &c.), where the short _e_ is original. So + _audiui_ became _audii_ and thence _audii_ (the form audivi would have + disappeared altogether but for being restored from _audiveram_, &c.; + conversely _audieram_ is formed from _audii_). In certain cases the + vowels contracted, as in _tres_, _partes_, &c. with -_es_ from + _e^ies_, *_amo_ from _ama(^i)o_. + + 18. _Of the Diphthongs._ + + + Changes of the diphthongs independent of accent. + + (vii.) _eu_ became _ou_ in pro-ethnic Italic, Lat. _novus_: Gr. + [Greek: neos], Lat. _novem_, Umb. _nuviper_ (i.e. _noviper_), "usque + ad noviens": Gr. [Greek: (en-)nea]; in unaccented syllables this + -_ov_- sank to -_u(v)_- as in _denuo_ from _de novo_, _suus_ (which is + rarely anything but an enclitic word), Old Lat. _sovos_: Gr. [Greek: + he(w)os]. + + (viii.) _ou_, whether original or from _eu_, when in one syllable + became -_u_-, probably about 200 B.C., as in _duco_, Old Lat. _douco_, + Goth, _tiuhan_, Eng. _tow_, Ind.-Eur. *_de^uco_. + + (ix.) _ei_ became _i_ (as in _dico_, Old Lat. _deico_: Gr. [Greek: + deik-nymi], _fido_: Gr. [Greek: peithomai], Ind.-Eur. *_bheidho_) just + before the time of Lucilius, who prescribes the spellings _puerei_ + (nom. plur.) but _pueri_ (gen. sing.), which indicates that the two + forms were pronounced alike in his time, but that the traditional + distinction in spelling had been more or less preserved. But after his + time, since the sound of _ei_ was merely that of _i_, _ei_ is + continually used merely to denote a long _i_, even where, as in + _faxeis_ for faxis, there never had been any diphthongal sound at all. + + (x.) In rustic Latin (Volscian and Sabine) _au_ became _o_ as in the + vulgar terms _explodere_, _plostrum_. Hence arose interesting doublets + of meaning;--_lautus_ (the Roman form), "elegant," but _lotus_, + "washed"; _haustus_, "draught," but _hostus_ (Cato), "the season's + yield of fruit." + + (xi.) _oi_ became _oe_ and thence _u_ some time after Plautus, as in + _unus_, Old Lat. _oenus_: Gr. [Greek: oinê] "ace." In Plautus the + forms have nearly all been modernized, save in special cases, e.g. in + _Trin._ i. 1, 2, _immoene facinus_, "a thankless task," has not been + changed to _immune_ because that meaning had died out of the adjective + so that _immune facinus_ would have made nonsense; but at the end of + the same line _utile_ has replaced _oetile_. Similarly in a small + group of words the old form was preserved through their frequent use + in legal or religious documents where tradition was strictly + preserved--_poena_, _foedus_ (neut.), _foedus_ (adj.), "ill-omened." + So the archaic and poetical _moenia_, "ramparts," beside the true + classical form _munia_, "duties"; the historic _Poeni_ beside the + living and frequently used _Punicum_ (_bellum_)--an example which + demonstrates conclusively (_pace_ Sommer) that the variation between + _u_ and _oe_ is not due to any difference in the surrounding sounds. + + (xii.) _ai_ became _ae_ and this in rustic and later Latin (2nd or 3rd + century A.D.) simple _e_, though of an open quality--Gr. [Greek: + aithos, aithô], Lat. _aedes_ (originally "the place for the fire"); + the country forms of _haedus_, _praetor_ were _edus_, _pretor_ (Varro, + _Ling. Lat._ v. 97, Lindsay, _Lat. Lang._ p. 44). + + 19. _Vowels and Diphthongs in unaccented Syllables._--The changes of + the short vowels and of the diphthongs in unaccented syllables are too + numerous and complex to be set forth here. Some took place under the + first-syllable system of accent, some later (§§ 9, 10). Typical + examples are _pep_E_rci_ from *_péparcai_ and _ónustus_ from + *_ónostos_ (before two consonants); _concIno_ from *_cóncano_ and + _hosp_I_t_I_s_ from *_hóstipotes_, _legImus_ beside Gr. [Greek: + legomen] (before one consonant); _Sic_U_li_ from *_Siceloi_ (before a + thick _l_, see § 17, 3); _dil_I_g_I_t_ from *_dísleget_ (contrast, + however, the preservation of the second _e_ in _negl_E_g_I_t_); + _occ_U_pat_ from *_opcapat_ (contrast _accipit_ with _i_ in the + following syllable); the varying spelling in _monumentum_ and + _monimentum_, _maxumus_ and _maximus_, points to an intermediate sound + (_ü_) between _u_ and _i_ (cf. Quint. i. 4. 8, reading _optumum_ and + _optimum_ [not _opimum_] with W. M. Lindsay, _Latin Language_ §§ 14, + 16, seq.), which could not be correctly represented in spelling; this + difference may, however, be due merely to the effect of differences in + the neighbouring sounds, an effect greatly obscured by analogical + influences. + + Inscriptions of the 4th or 3rd century, B.C. which show original -_es_ + and -_os_ in final syllables (e.g. _Veneres_, gen. sing., _navebos_ + abl. pl.) compared with the usual forms in -_is_, -_us_ a century + later, give us roughly the date of these changes. But final -_os_, + -_om_, remained after -_u_- (and _v_) down to 50 B.C. as in _servos_. + + 20. Special mention should be made of the change of -_ri_- and -_ro_- + to -_er_- (_incertus_ from *_encritos_; _ager_, _acer_ from *_agros_, + *_acris_; the feminine _acris_ was restored in Latin (though not in + North Oscan) by the analogy of other adjectives, like _tristis_, while + the masculine _acer_ was protected by the parallel masculine forms of + the -_o_- declension, like _tener_, _niger_ [from *_teneros_, + *_nigros_]). + + 21. Long vowels generally remained unchanged, as in _compago_, + _condono_. + + 22. Of the diphthongs, _ai_ and _oi_ both sank to _ei_, and with + original _ei_ further to _i_, in unaccented syllables, as in _Achivi_ + from Gr. [Greek: Achaiwoi], _oliivom_, earlier *_oleivom_ (borrowed + into Gothic and there becoming _alev_) from Gr. [Greek: elaiwon]. This + gives us interesting chronological data, since the _el_- must have + changed to _ol_- (§ 16. 3) before the change of -_ai_- to -_ei_-, and + that before the change of the accent from the first syllable to the + penultimate (§ 9); and the borrowing took place after -_ai_- had + become -_ei_-, but before -_eivom_ had become -_eum_, as it regularly + did before the time of Plautus. + + But cases of _ai_, _ae_, which arose later than the change to _ei_, + _i_, were unaffected by it; thus the nom. plur. of the first + declension originally ended in -_as_ (as in Oscan), but was changed at + some period before Plautus to -_ae_ by the influence of the pronominal + nom. plur. ending -_ae_ in _quae?_ _hae_, &c., which was accented in + these monosyllables and had therefore been preserved. The history of + the -_ae_ of the dative, genitive and locative is hardly yet clear + (see Exon, _Hermathena_ (1905), xiii. 555; K. Brugmann, _Grundriss_, + 1st ed. ii. 571, 601). + + The diphthongs _au_, _ou_ in unaccented syllables sank to -_u_-, as in + _includo_ beside _claudo_; the form _cludo_, taken from the compounds, + superseded _claudo_ altogether after Cicero's time. So _cudo_, taken + from _incudo_, _excudo_, banished the older *_caudo_, "I cut, strike," + with which is probably connected _cauda_, "the striking member, tail," + and from which comes _caussa_, "a cutting, decision, legal case," + whose -_ss_- shows that it is derived from a root ending in a dental + (see §25 (b) below and Conway, _Verner's Law in Italy_, p. 72). + + _Consonants._--Passing now to the chief changes of the consonants we + may notice the following points:-- + + 23. Consonant _i_ (wrongly written _j_; there is no _g_-sound in the + letter), conveniently written _^i_ by phoneticians, + + (i.) was lost between vowels, as in _tres_ for *_tre^ies_, &c. (§ 17. + 6); + + (ii.) in combination: -_m^i_- became -_ni_-, as in _veniö_, from + Ind.-Eur. *[g]^u _m^io_, "I come," Sans. _gam_-, Eng. _come_; -_n^i_- + probably (under certain conditions at least) became -_nd_-, as in + _tendo_ beside Gr. [Greek: teinô], _fendo_ = Gr. [Greek: theinô], and + in the gerundive stem -_endus_, -_undus_, probably for -_en^ios_, + -_on^ios_; cf. the Sanskrit gerundive in -_an-iya-s_; -_g^i_-, -_d^i_- + became -_^i_- as in _maior_ from *_mag-ior_, _peior_ from *_ped-ior_; + + (iii.) otherwise -_^i_- after a consonant became generally syllabic + (-_i^i_-), as in _capio_ (trisyllabic) beside Goth. _hafya_. + + 24. Consonant _u_ (formerly represented by English _v_), conveniently + written _^u_, + + (i.) was lost between similar vowels when the first was accented, as + in _audiui_, which became _audii_ (§ 17 [6]), but not in _amaui_, nor + in _avarus_. + + (ii.) in combination: _d^u_ became _b_, as in _bonus_, _bellum_, O. + Lat. _d^uonus_, *_d^uellum_ (though the poets finding this written + form in old literary sources treated it as trisyllabic); _p^u_-, + _f^u_-, _b^u_-, lost the _^u_, as in _ap-erio_, _op-erio_ beside Lith. + -_veriu_, "I open," Osc. _veru_, "gate," and in the verbal endings + -_bam_, -_bo_, from -_bh^u-am_, -_bh^uo_ (with the root of Lat. + _fui_), and _fio_, _du-bius_, _super-bus_, _vasta-bundus_, &c., from + the same; -_s^u_- between vowels (at least when the second was + accented) disappeared (see below § 25 (a), iv.), as in _pruina_ for + _prusuina_, cf. Eng. _fros-t_, Sans, _prusva_, "hoar-frost." Contrast + _Minérva_ from an earlier *_menes-^ua_, _s^ue_-, _s^uo_-, both became + so-, as in _soroor_(_em_) beside Sans. _svasar-am_, Ger. + _schwes-t-er_, Eng. _sister_, _sordes_, beside O. Ger. _swart-s_, mod. + _schwarz_. -_^uo_- in final syllables became -_u_-, as in _cum_ from + _quom_, _parum_ from _par^uom_; but in the declensional forms -_^uu_- + was commonly restored by the analogy of the other cases, thus (a) + _ser^uos_, _ser^uom_, _ser^ui_ became (b) *_serus_, *_serum_, + *_ser^ui_, but finally (c) _ser^uus_, _ser^uum_, _ser^ui_. + + (iii.) In the 2nd century A.D., Lat. _v_ (i.e. _^u_) had become a + voiced labio-dental fricative, like Eng. _v_; and the voiced labial + plosive _b_ had broken down (at least in certain positions) into the + same sound; hence they are frequently confused as in spellings like + _vene_ for _bene_, _Bictorinus_ for _Victorinus_. + + 25. (a) Latin _s_ + + (i.) became _r_ between vowels between 450 and 350 B.C. (for the date + see R. S. Conway, _Verner's Law in Italy_, pp. 61-64), as _ara_, + beside O. Lat. _asa_, _generis_ from *_geneses_, Gr. [Greek: geneos]; + _eram_, _ero_ for *_esam_, *_eso_, and so in the verbal endings + -_eram_, -_ero_, -_erim_. But a considerable number of words came into + Latin, partly from neighbouring dialects, with -_s_- between vowels, + after 350 B.C., when the change ceased, and so show -_s_-, as _rosa_ + (probably from S. Oscan for *_rod^ia_ "rose-bush" cf. Gr. [Greek: + rhodon]), _caseus_, "cheese," _miser_, a term of abuse, beside Gr. + [Greek: mysaros] (probably also borrowed from south Italy), and many + more, especially the participles in -_sus_ (_fusus_), where the -_s_- + was -_ss_- at the time of the change of -_s_- to -_r_- (so in _causa_, + see above). All attempts to explain the retention of the -_s_- + otherwise must be said to have failed (e.g. the theory of accentual + difference in _Verner's Law in Italy_, or that of dissimilation, given + by Brugmann, _Kurze vergl. Gram._ p. 242). + + (ii.) _sr_ became _þr_ (= Eng. _thr_ in _throw_) in pro-ethnic Italic, + and this became initially _fr_- as in _frigus_, Gr. [Greek: rhigos] + (Ind.-Eur. *_srigos_), but medially -_br_-, as in _funebris_, from + _funus_, stem _funes_-. + + (iii.) -_rs_-, _ls_- became -_rr_-, -_ll_-, as in _ferre_, _velle_, + for *_fer-se_, *_vel-se_ (cf. _es-se_). + + (iv.) Before _m_, _n_, _l_, and _v_, -_s_- vanished, having previously + caused the loss of any preceding plosive or -_n_-, and the preceding + vowel, if short, was lengthened as in + + _primus_ from *_prismos_, Paelig. _prismu_, "prima," beside + _pris-cus_. + + _iumentum_ from O. Lat. _iouxmentum_, older *_ieugsmentom_; cf. Gr. + [Greek: zeugma, zygon], Lat. _iugum_, _iungo_. + + _luna_ from *_leucsna_-, Praenest, _losna_, Zend _rao[chi]sna_-; cf. + Gr. [Greek: leukos], "white-ness" neut. e.g. [Greek: leukos], + "white," Lat. _luceo_. + + _telum_ from *_tens-lom_ or *_tends-lom_, _tranare_ from + *_trans-nare_. + + _seviri_ from *_sex-viri_, _eveho_ from *_ex-veho_, and so + _e-mitto_, _e-lido_, _e-numero_, and from these forms arose the + proposition _e_ instead of _ex_. + + (v.) Similarly -_sd_- became -_d_-, as in _idem_ from _is-dem_. + + (vi.) Before _n_-, _m_-, _l_-, initially _s_- disappeared, as in + _nubo_ beside Old Church Slavonic _snubiti_, "to love, pay court to"; + _miror_ beside Sans, _smáyate_, "laughs," Eng. _smi-le_; _lubricus_ + beside Goth, _sliupan_, Eng. _slip_. + + (b) Latin -_ss_- arose from an original -_t_ + _t_-, -_d_ + _t_-, + -_dh_ + _t_- (except before -_r_), as in _missus_, earlier *_mit-tos_; + _tonsus_, earlier *_tond-tos_, but _tonstrix_ from *_tond-trix_. After + long vowels this -_ss_- became a single -_s_- some time before Cicero + (who wrote _caussa_ [see above], _divissio_, &c., but probably only + pronounced them with -_s_-, since the -_ss_- came to be written single + directly after his time). + + 26. Of the Indo-European velars the breathed _q_ was usually preserved + in Latin with a labial addition of -_u_- (as in _sequor_, Gr. [Greek: + epomai], Goth, _saihvan_, Eng. _see_; _quod_, Gr. [Greek: pod-(apos)], + Eng. _what_); but the voiced [g]^u remained (as -_gu_-) only after + -_n_- (_unguo_ beside Ir. _imb_, "butter") and (as _g_) before _r_, + _l_, and _u_ (as in _gravis_, Gr. [Greek: barys]; _glans_, Gr. [Greek: + balanos]; _legumen_, Gr. [Greek: lobos, lebinthos]). Elsewhere it + became _v_, as in _venio_ (see § 23, ii.), _nudus_ from *_novedos_, + Eng. _naked_. Hence _bos_ (Sans. _gaus_, Eng. _cow_) must be regarded + as a farmer's word borrowed from one of the country dialects (e.g. + Sabine); the pure Latin would be *_vos_, and its oblique cases, e.g. + acc. *_vovem_, would be inconveniently close in sound to the word for + sheep _ovem_. + + 27. The treatment of the Indo-European voiced aspirates (_bh_, _dh_, + _gh_, _[g]h_) in Latin is one of the most marked characteristics of the + language, which separates it from all the other Italic dialects, since + the fricative sounds, which represented the Indo-European aspirates in + pro-ethnic Italic, remained fricatives medially if they remained at + all in that position in Oscan and Umbrian, whereas in Latin they were + nearly always changed into voiced explosives. Thus-- + + Ind.-Eur. _bh_: initially Lat. _f_- (_fero_; Gr. [Greek: pherô]). + + medially Lat. -_b_- (_tibi_; Umb. _tefe_; Sans, _tubhy_-(_am_), "to + thee"; the same suffix in Gr. [Greek: biê-phi], &c.). + + Ind.-Eur. _dh_: initially Lat. _f_- (_fa-c-ere_, _fe-c-i_; Gr. [Greek: + thetos] (instead of *[Greek: thatos]), [Greek: ethê-ka]). + + medially -_d_- (_medius_; Osc. _mefio_-; Gr. [Greek: messos, mesos] + from *[Greek: methios); except after _u_ (_iubere_ beside _iussus_ + for *_iudh-tos_; Sans. _yodhati_, "rouses to battle"); before _l_ + (_stabulum_, but Umb. _staflo_-, with the suffix of Gr. [Greek: + otergêthron], &c.); before or after _r_ (_verbum_: Umb. _verfale_: + Eng. _word_. Lat. _glaber_ [v. inf].: Ger. _glatt_: Eng. _glad_). + + Ind.-Eur. _gh_: initially _h_- (_humi_: Gr. [Greek: chamai]); except + before -_u_- (_fundo_: Gr. [Greek: che(w)ô, chutra]). + + medially -_h_- (_veho_: Gr. [Greek: echô, öchos]; cf. Eng. _wagon_); + except after -_n_- (_fingere_: Osc. _feiho_-, "wall": Gr. [Greek: + thinganô]: Ind.-Eur. _dhei^gh_-, _dhin^gh_-); and before _l_ + (_fig(u)lus_, from the same root). + + Ind.-Eur _guh_: initially _f_- (_formus_ and _furnus_, "oven", Gr. + [Greek: thermos, thermê], cf. Ligurian _Bormio_, "a place with hot + springs," _Bormanus_, "a god of hot springs"; _fendo_: Gr. [Greek: + theino, phonos, pros-phatos]). + + medially _v_, -_gu_- or -_g_- just as Ind.-Eur. [g]u (_ninguere_, + _nivem_ beside Gr. [Greek: nipha, neiphei]; _fragrare_ beside Gr. + [Greek: osphpainomai os]- for _ods_-, cf. Lat. _odor_], a + reduplicated verb from a root _[g]uhra_-). + + For the "non-labializing velars" (H_ostis_, _con_G_ius_, G_laber_) + reference must be made to the fuller accounts in the handbooks. + + 28. AUTHORITIES.--This summary account of the chief points in Latin + phonology may serve as an introduction to its principles, and give + some insight into the phonetic character of the language. For + systematic study reference must be made to the standard books, Karl + Brugmann, _Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der + Indo-Germanischen Sprachen_ (vol. i., _Lautlehre_, 2nd ed. Strassburg, + 1897; Eng. trans. of ed. 1 by Joseph Wright, Strassburg, 1888) and his + _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (Strassburg, 1902); these contain + still by far the best accounts of Latin; Max Niederman, _Précis de + phonétique du Latin_ (Paris, 1906), a very convenient handbook, + excellently planned; F. Sommer, _Lateinische Laut- und Flexionslehre_ + (Heidelberg, 1902), containing many new conjectures; W. M. Lindsay, + _The Latin Language_ (Oxford, 1894), translated into German (with + corrections) by Nohl (Leipzig, 1897), a most valuable collection of + material, especially from the ancient grammarians, but not always + accurate in phonology; F. Stolz, vol. i. of a joint _Historische + Grammatik d. lat. Sprache_ by Blase, Landgraf, Stolz and others + (Leipzig, 1894); Neue-Wagener, _Formenlehre d. lat. Sprache_ (3 vols., + 3rd ed. Leipzig, 1888, foll.); H. J. Roby's _Latin Grammar_ (from + Plautus to Suetonius; London, 7th ed., 1896) contains a masterly + collection of material, especially in morphology, which is still of + great value. W. G. Hale and C. D. Buck's _Latin Grammar_ (Boston, + 1903), though on a smaller scale, is of very great importance, as it + contains the fruit of much independent research on the part of both + authors; in the difficult questions of orthography it was, as late as + 1907, the only safe guide. + + + II. MORPHOLOGY + + In morphology the following are the most characteristic Latin + innovations:-- + + 29. _In nouns._ + + (i.) The complete loss of the dual number, save for a survival in the + dialect of Praeneste (_C.I.L._ xiv. 2891, = Conway, _Ital. Dial._ p. + 285, where _Q. k. Cestio Q. f._ seems to be nom. dual); so _C.I.L._ + xi. 6706_5, T. C. Vomanio, see W. Schulze, _Lat. Eigennamen_, p. 117. + + (ii.) The introduction of new forms in the gen. sing, of the -_o_- + stems (_domini_), of the -_a_- stems (_mensae_) and in the nom. plural + of the same two declensions; innovations mostly derived from the + pronominal declension. + + (iii.) The development of an adverbial formation out of what was + either an instrumental or a locative of the -_o_- stems, as in + _longe_. And here may be added the other adverbial developments, in + -_m_ (_palam_, _sensim_) probably accusative, and -_iter_, which is + simply the accusative of _iter_, "way," crystallized, as is shown + especially by the fact that though in the end it attached itself + particularly to adjectives of the third declension (_molliter_), it + appears also from adjectives of the second declension whose meaning + made their combination with _iter_ especially natural, such as + _longiter_, _firmiter_, _largiter_ (cf. English _straightway_, + _longways_). The only objections to this derivation which had any real + weight (see F. Skutsch, _De nominibus no- suffixi ope formatis_, 1890, + pp. 4-7) have been removed by Exon's Law (§ 11), which supplies a + clear reason why the contracted type _constanter_ arose in and was + felt to be proper to Participial adverbs, while _firmiter_ and the + like set the type for those formed from adjectives. + + (iv.) The development of the so-called fifth declension by a + re-adjustment of the declension of the nouns formed with the suffix + -_ie_-: _ia_- (which appears, for instance, in all the Greek feminine + participles, and in a more abstract sense in words like _materies_) to + match the inflexion of two old root-nouns _res_ and _dies_, the stems + of which were originally _rei_- (Sans. _ras_, _rayas_, cf. Lat. + _reor_) and _dieu_-. + + (v.) The disuse of the -_ti_- suffix in an abstract sense. The great + number of nouns which Latin inherited formed with this suffix were + either (1) marked as abstract by the addition of the further suffix + -_on_- (as in _natio_ beside the Gr. [Greek: gnêsi-os], &c.) or else + (2) confined to a concrete sense; thus _vectis_, properly "a carrying, + lifting," came to mean "pole, lever"; _ratis_, properly a "reckoning, + devising," came to mean "an (improvised) raft" (contrast _ratio_); + _postis_, a "placing," came to mean "post." + + (vi.) The confusion of the consonantal stems with stems ending in + -_i_-. This was probably due very largely to the forms assumed through + phonetic changes by the gen. sing. and the nom. and acc. plural. Thus + at say 300 B.C. the inflexions probably were: + + conson. stem -_i_- stem + Nom. plur. *_reg-es_ _host-es_ + Acc. plur. _reg-es_ _host-is_ + + The confusing difference of signification of the long -_es_ ending led + to a levelling of these and other forms in the two paradigms. + + (vii.) The disuse of the _u_ declension (Gr. [Greek: hêdys, stachys]) + in adjectives; this group in Latin, thanks to its feminine form (Sans. + fem. _svadvi_, "sweet"), was transferred to the _i_ declension + (_suavis_, _gravis_, _levis_, _dulcis_). + + 30. _In verbs._ + + (i.) The disuse of the distinction between the personal endings of + primary and secondary tenses, the -_t_ and -_nt_, for instance, being + used for the third person singular and plural respectively in all + tenses and moods of the active. This change was completed after the + archaic period, since we find in the oldest inscriptions -_d_ + regularly used in the third person singular of past tenses, e.g. + _deded_, _feced_ in place of the later _dedit_, _fecit_; and since in + Oscan the distinction was preserved to the end, both in singular and + plural, e.g. _faamat_ (perhaps meaning "auctionatur"), but _deded_ + ("dedit"). It is commonly assumed from the evidence of Greek and + Sanskrit (Gr. [Greek: hesti], Sans. _asti_ beside Lat. est) that the + primary endings in Latin have lost a final -_i_, partly or wholly by + some phonetic change. + + (ii.) The non-thematic conjugation is almost wholly lost, surviving + only in a few forms of very common use, _est_, "is"; _est_, "eats"; + _volt_, "wills," &c. + + (iii.) The complete fusion of the aorist and perfect forms, and in the + same tense the fusion of active and middle endings; thus _tutudi_, + earlier *_tutudai_, is a true middle perfect; _dixi_ is an _s_ aorist + with the same ending attached; _dixit_ is an aorist active; + _tutudisti_ is a conflation of perfect and aorist with a middle + personal ending. + + (iv.) The development of perfects in -_ui_ and -_vi_, derived partly + from true perfects of roots ending in _v_ or _u_, e.g. _movi rui_. + For the origin of _monui_ see Exon, _Hermathena_ (1901), xi. 396 sq. + + (v.) The complete fusion of conjunctive and optative into a single + mood, the subjunctive; _regam_, &c., are conjunctive forms, whereas + _rexerim_, _rexissem_ are certainly and _regerem_ most probably + optative; the origin of _amem_ and the like is still doubtful. + Notice, however, that true conjunctive forms were often used as + futures, _reges_, _reget_, &c., and also the simple thematic + conjunctive in forms like _ero_, _rexero_, &c. + + (vi.) The development of the future in -_bo_ and imperfect in -_bam_ + by compounding some form of the verb, possibly the Present Participle + with forms from the root of _fui_, *_amans-fuo_ becoming _amabo_, + *_amans-fuam_ becoming _amabam_ at a very early period of Latin; see + F. Skutsch, _Atti d. Congresso Storico Intern._ (1903), vol. ii. p. + 191. + + (vii.) We have already noticed the rise of the passive in -_r_ (§ 5 + (d)). Observe, however, that several middle forms have been pressed + into the service, partly because the -_r_- in them which had come from + -_s_- seemed to give them a passive colour (_legere_ = Gr. [Greek: + lege(s)o], Attic [Greek: legou]). The interesting forms in -_mini_ are + a confusion of two distinct inflexions, namely, an old infinitive in + -_menai_, used for the imperative, and the participial -_menoi_, + masculine, -_menai_, feminine, used with the verb "to be" in place of + the ordinary inflexions. Since these forms had all come to have the + same shape, through phonetic change, their meanings were fused; the + imperative forms being restricted to the plural, and the participial + forms being restricted to the second person. + + 31. _Past Participle Passive._--Next should be mentioned the great + development in the use of the participle in -_tos_ (_factus_, _fusus_, + &c.). This participle was taken with _sum_ to form the perfect tenses + of the passive, in which, thanks partly to the fusion of perfect and + aorist active, a past aorist sense was also evolved. This reacted on + the participle itself giving it a prevailingly past colour, but its + originally timeless use survives in many places, e.g. in the + participle _ratus_, which has as a rule no past sense, and more + definitely still in such passages as Vergil, _Georg._ i. 206 + (_vectis_), _Aen._ vi. 22 (_ductis_), both of which passages demand a + present sense. It is to be noticed also that in the earliest Latin, as + in Greek and Sanskrit, the _passive_ meaning, though the commonest, is + not universal. Many traces of this survive in classical Latin, of + which the chief are + + 1. The active meaning of deponent participles, in spite of the fact + that some of them (e.g. _adeptus_, _emensus_, _expertus_) have also + a passive sense, and + + 2. The familiar use of these participles by the Augustan poets with + an accusative attached (_galeam indutus_, _traiectus lora_). Here no + doubt the use of the Greek middle influenced the Latin poets, but no + doubt they thought also that they were reviving an old Latin idiom. + + 32. _Future Participle._--Finally may be mentioned together (a) the + development of the future participle active (in -_urus_, never so + freely used as the other participles, being rare in the ablative + absolute even in Tacitus) from an old infinitive in -_urum_ ("scio + inimicos meos hoc dicturum," C. Gracchus (and others) _apud_ Gell. 1. + 7, and Priscian ix. 864 (p. 475 Keil), which arose from combining the + dative or locative of the verbal noun in -_tu_ with an old infinitive + _esom_ "esse" which survives in Oscan, *_dictu esom_ becoming + _dicturum_. This was discovered by J. P. Postgate (_Class. Review_, v. + 301, and _Idg. Forschungen_ iv. 252). (b) From the same infinitival + accusative with the post-position -_do_, meaning "to," "for," "in" + (cf. _quando_ for *_quam-do_, and Eng. _to_, Germ, _zu_) was formed + the so-called gerund _agen-do_, "for doing," "in doing," which was + taken for a Case, and so gave rise to the accusative and genitive in + -_dum_ and -_di_. The form in -do still lives in Italian as an + indeclinable present participle. The modal and purposive meanings of + -_do_ appear in the uses of the gerund. + + The authorities giving a fuller account of Latin morphology are the + same as those cited in § 28 above, save that the reader must consult + the second volume of Brugmann's _Grundriss_, which in the English + translation (by Conway and Rouse, Strassburg, 1890-1896) is divided + into volumes ii, iii. and iv.; and that Niedermann does not deal with + morphology. + + + III. SYNTAX + + The chief innovations of syntax developed in Latin may now be briefly + noted. + + 33. _In nouns._ + + (i.) Latin restricted the various Cases to more sharply defined uses + than either Greek or Sanskrit; the free use of the internal accusative + in Greek (e.g. [Greek: habron bainein tuphlos ta ôta]) is strange to + Latin, save in poetical imitations of Greek; and so is the freedom of + the Sanskrit instrumental, which often covers meanings expressed in + Latin by _cum_, _ab_, _inter_. + + (ii.) The syncretism of the so-called ablative case, which combines + the uses of (a) the true ablative which ended in -_d_ (O. Lat. + _praidad_); (b) the instrumental sociative (plural forms like + _dominis_, the ending being that of Sans. _çivais_); and (c) the + locative (_noct-e_, "at night"; _itiner-e_, "on the road," with the + ending of Greek [Greek: elpid-i]). The so-called absolute construction + is mainly derived from the second of these, since it is regularly + attached fairly closely to the subject of the clause in which it + stands, and when accompanied by a passive participle most commonly + denotes an action performed by that subject. But the other two sources + cannot be altogether excluded (_orto sole_, "starting from sunrise"; + _campo patente_, "on, in sight of, the open plain"). + + 34. _In verbs._ + + (i.) The rich development and fine discrimination of the uses of the + subjunctive mood, especially (a) in indirect questions (based on + direct deliberative questions and not fully developed by the time of + Plautus, who constantly writes such phrases as _dic quis es_ for the + Ciceronian _dic quis sis_); (b) after the relative of essential + definition (_non is sum qui negem_) and the circumstantial _cum_ ("at + such a time as that"). The two uses (a) and (b) with (c) the common + Purpose and Consequence-clauses spring from the "prospective" or + "anticipatory" meaning of the mood. (d) Observe further its use in + subordinate oblique clauses (_irascitur quod abierim_, "he is angry + because, _as he asserts_, I went away"). This and all the uses of the + mood in oratio obliqua are derived partly from (a) and (b) and partly + from the (e) Unreal Jussive of past time (_Non illi argentum redderem? + Non redderes_, "Ought I not to have returned the money to him?" "You + certainly ought not to have," or, more literally, "You were not to"). + + On this interesting chapter of Latin syntax see W. G. Hale's + "Cum-constructions" (_Cornell University Studies in Classical + Philology_, No. 1, 1887-1889), and _The Anticipatory Subjunctive_ + (Chicago, 1894). + + (ii.) The complex system of oratio obliqua with the sequence of tenses + (on the growth of the latter see Conway, _Livy II._, Appendix ii., + Cambridge, 1901). + + (iii.) The curious construction of the gerundive (_ad capiendam + urbem_), originally a present (and future?) passive participle, but + restricted in its use by being linked with the so-called gerund (see § + 32, b). The use, but probably not the restriction, appears in Oscan + and Umbrian. + + (iv.) The favourite use of the impersonal passive has already been + mentioned (§ 5, iv.). + + 35. The chief authorities for the study of Latin syntax are: + Brugmann's _Kurze vergl. Grammatik_, vol. ii. (see § 28); Landgraf's + _Historische lat. Syntax_ (vol. ii. of the joint _Hist. Gram._, see § + 28); Hale and Buck's _Latin Grammar_ (see § 28); Draeger's + _Historische lat. Syntax_, 2 vols. (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1878-1881), + useful but not always trustworthy; the Latin sections in Delbrück's + _Vergleichende Syntax_, being the third volume of Brugmann's + _Grundriss_ (§ 28). + + +IV. IMPORTATION OF GREEK WORDS + +36. It is convenient, before proceeding to describe the development of +the language in its various epochs, to notice briefly the debt of its +vocabulary to Greek, since it affords an indication of the steadily +increasing influence of Greek life and literature upon the growth of the +younger idiom. Corssen (_Lat. Aussprache_, ii. 814) pointed out four +different stages in the process, and though they are by no means sharply +divided in time, they do correspond to different degrees and kinds of +intercourse. + + (a) The first represents the period of the early intercourse of Rome + with the Greek states, especially with the colonies in the south of + Italy and Sicily. To this stage belong many names of nations, + countries and towns, as _Siculi_, _Tarentum_, _Graeci_, _Achivi_, + _Poenus_; and also names of weights and measures, articles of industry + and terms connected with navigation, as _mina_, _talentum_, _purpura_, + _patina_, _ancora_, _aplustre_, _nausea_. Words like _amurca_, + _scutula_, _pessulus_, _balineum_, _tarpessita_ represent familiarity + with Greek customs and bear equally the mark of naturalization. To + these may be added names of gods or heroes, like _Apollo_, _Pollux_ + and perhaps _Hercules_. These all became naturalized Latin words and + were modified by the phonetic changes which took place in the Latin + language after they had come into it (cf. §§ 9-27 _supra_). (b) The + second stage was probably the result of the closer intercourse + resulting from the conquest of southern Italy, and the wars in Sicily, + and of the contemporary introduction of imitations of Greek literature + into Rome, with its numerous references to Greek life and culture. It + is marked by the free use of hybrid forms, whether made by the + addition of Latin suffixes to Greek stems as _ballistarius_, + _hepatarius_, _subbasilicanus_, _sycophantiosus_, _comissari_ or of + Greek suffixes to Latin stems as _plagipatidas_, _pernonides_; or by + derivation, as _thermopotare_, _supparasitari_; or by composition as + _ineuscheme_, _thyrsigerae_, _flagritribae_, _scrophipasci_. The + character of many of these words shows that the comic poets who coined + them must have been able to calculate upon a fair knowledge of + colloquial Greek on the part of a considerable portion of their + audience. The most remarkable instance of this is supplied by the + burlesque lines in Plautus (_Pers._ 702 seq.), where Sagaristio + describes himself as + + Vaniloquidorus, Virginisvendonides, + Nugipiloquides, Argentumexterebronides, + Tedigniloquides, Nummosexpalponides, + Quodsemelarripides, Nunquameripides. + + During this period Greek words are still generally inflected according + to the Latin usage. + + (c) But with Accius (see below) begins a third stage, in which the + Greek inflexion is frequently preserved, e.g. _Hectora_, _Oresten_, + _Cithaeron_; and from this time forward the practice wavers. Cicero + generally prefers the Latin case-endings, defending, e.g., _Piraeeum_ + as against _Piraeea_ (_ad Att._ vii. 3, 7), but not without some + fluctuation, while Varro takes the opposite side, and prefers + _poëmasin_ to the Ciceronian _poëmatis_. By this time also _y_ and _z_ + were introduced, and the representation of the Greek aspirates by + _th_, _ph_, _ch_, so that words newly borrowed from the Greek could be + more faithfully reproduced. This is equally true whatever was the + precise nature of the sound which at that period the Greek aspirates + had reached in their secular process of change from pure aspirates (as + in Eng. _ant-hill_, &c.) to fricatives (like Eng. _th_ in _thin_). + (See Arnold and Conway, _The Restored Pronunciation of Greek and + Latin_, 4th ed., Cambridge, 1908, p. 21.) + + (d) A fourth stage is marked by the practice of the Augustan poets, + who, especially when writing in imitation of Greek originals, freely + use the Greek inflexions, such as _Arcades_, _Tethy_, _Aegida_, + _Echus_, &c. Horace probably always used the Latin form in his + _Satires_ and _Epistles_, the Greek in his Odes. Later prose writers + for the most part followed the example of his _Odes_. It must be + added, however, in regard to these literary borrowings that it is not + quite clear whether in this fourth class, and even in the unmodified + forms in the preceding class, the words had really any living use in + spoken Latin. + + + V. PRONUNCIATION + + This appears the proper place for a rapid survey of the + pronunciation[1] of the Latin language, as spoken in its best days. + + 37. CONSONANTS.--(i.) _Back palatal._ Breathed plosive _c_, pronounced + always as _k_ (except that in some early inscriptions--probably none + much later, if at all later, than 300 B.C.--the character is used also + for _g_) until about the 7th century after Christ. _K_ went out of use + at an early period, except in a few old abbreviations for words in + which it had stood before _a_, e.g., _kal._ for _kalendae_. _Q_, + always followed by the consonantal _u_, except in a few old + inscriptions, in which it is used for _c_ before the vowel _u_, e.g. + _pequnia_. _X_, an abbreviation for _cs_; _xs_ is, however, sometimes + found. Voiced plosive _g_, pronounced as in English _gone_, but never + as in English _gem_ before about the 6th century after Christ. + Aspirate _h_, the rough breathing as in English. + + (ii.) _Palatal._--The consonantal _i_, like the English _y_; it is + only in late inscriptions that we find, in spellings like _Zanuario_, + _Giove_, any definite indication of a pronunciation like the English + _j_. The precise date of the change is difficult to determine (see + Lindsay's _Latin Lang._ p. 49), especially as we may, in isolated + cases, have before us merely a dialectic variation; see PAELIGNI. + + (iii.) _Lingual._--_r_ as in English, but probably produced more with + the point of the tongue. _l_ similarly more dental than in English. + _s_ always breathed (as Eng. _ce_ in _ice_). _z_, which is only found + in the transcription of Greek words in and after the time of Cicero, + as _dz_ or _zz_. + + (iv.) _Dental._--Breathed, _t_ as in English. Voiced, _d_ as in + English; but by the end of the 4th century _di_ before a vowel was + pronounced like our j (cf. _diurnal_ and _journal_). Nasal, _n_ as in + English; but also (like the English _n_) a guttural nasal (_ng_) + before a guttural. Apparently it was very lightly pronounced, and + easily fell away before _s_. + + (v.) _Labial._--Breathed, _p_ as in English. Voiced, _b_ as in + English; but occasionally in inscriptions of the later empire _v_ is + written for _b_, showing that in some cases _b_ had already acquired + the fricative sound of the contemporary [beta] (see § 24, iii.). _b_ + before a sharp _s_ was pronounced _p_, e.g. in _urbs_. Nasal, _m_ as + in English, but very slightly pronounced at the end of a word. + Spirant, _v_ like the _ou_ in French _oui_, but later approximating to + the _w_ heard in some parts of Germany, Ed. Sievers, _Grundzüge d. + Phonetik_, ed. 4, p. 117, i.e. a labial _v_, not (like the English + _v_) a labio-dental _v_. + + (vi.) _Labio-dental._--Breathed fricative, _f_ as in English. + + 38. VOWELS.--_a_, _u_, _i_, as the English _ah_, oo, _ee_; _o_, a + sound coming nearer to Eng. _aw_ than to Eng. _o_; _e_ a close Italian + _e_, nearly as the _a_ of Eng. _mate_, _ée_ of Fr. _passée_. The short + sound of the vowels was not always identical in quality with the long + sound. _a_ was pronounced as in the French _chatte_, _u_ nearly as in + Eng. _pull_, _i_ nearly as in _pit_, _o_ as in _dot_, _e_ nearly as in + _pet_. The diphthongs were produced by pronouncing in rapid succession + the vowels of which they were composed, according to the above scheme. + This gives, _au_ somewhat broader than _ou_ in house; _eu_ like _ow_ + in the "Yankee" pronunciation of _town_; _ae_ like the vowel in _hat_ + lengthened, with perhaps somewhat more approximation to the _i_ in + _wine_; _oe_, a diphthongal sound approximating to Eng. _oi_; _ui_, as + the French _oui_. + + To this it should be added that the Classical Association, acting on + the advice of a committee of Latin scholars, has recommended for the + diphthongs _ae_ and _oe_ the pronunciation of English _i_ (really + _ai_) in _wine_ and _oi_ in _boil_, sounds which they undoubtedly had + in the time of Plautus and probably much later, and which for + practical use in teaching have been proved far the best. + + +VI. THE LANGUAGE AS RECORDED + +39. Passing now to a survey of the condition of the language at various +epochs and in the different authors, we find the earliest monument of it +yet discovered in a donative inscription on a fibula or brooch found in +a tomb of the 7th century B.C. at Praeneste. It runs "Manios med +fhefhaked Numasioi," i.e. "Manios made me for Numasios." The use of _f_ +(_fh_) to denote the sound of Latin _f_ supplied the explanation of the +change of the symbol _f_ from its Greek value (= Eng. _w_) to its Latin +value _f_, and shows the Chalcidian Greek alphabet in process of +adaptation to the needs of Latin (see WRITING). The reduplicated +perfect, its 3rd sing. ending -_ed_, the dative masculine in -_oi_ (this +is one of the only two recorded examples in Latin), the -_s_- between +vowels (§ 25, 1), and the -_a_- in what was then (see §§ 9, 10) +certainly an unaccented syllable and the accusative _med_, are all +interesting marks of antiquity.[2] + +40. The next oldest fragment of continuous Latin is furnished by a +vessel dug up in the valley between the Quirinal and the Viminal early +in 1880. The vessel is of a dark brown clay, and consists of three small +round pots, the sides of which are connected together. All round this +vessel runs an inscription, in three clauses, two nearly continuous, the +third written below; the writing is from right to left, and is still +clearly legible; the characters include one sign not belonging to the +later Latin alphabet, namely [symbol] for R, while the M has five +strokes and the Q has the form of a Koppa. + +The inscription is as follows:-- + + "iovesat deivos qoi med mitat, nei ted endo cosmis virco sied, asted + noisi opetoitesiai pacari vois. + + dvenos med feced en manom einom duenoi ne med malo statod." + +The general style of the writing and the phonetic peculiarities make it +fairly certain that this work must have been produced not later than 300 +B.C. Some points in its interpretation are still open to doubt,[3] but +the probable interpretation is-- + + "Deos iurat ille (_or_ iurant illi) qui me mittat (_or_ mittant) ne in + te Virgo (i.e. Proserpina) comis sit, nisi quidem optimo (?) Theseae + (?) pacari vis. Duenos me fecit contra Manum, Dueno autem ne per me + malum stato (= imputetur, imponatur)." + +"He (or they) who dispatch me binds the gods (by his offering) that +Proserpine shall not be kind to thee unless thou wilt make terms with +(or "for") Opetos Thesias (?). Duenos made me against Manus, but let no +evil fall to Duenos on my account." + +41. Between these two inscriptions lies in point of date the famous +stele discovered in the Forum in 1899 (G. Boni, _Notiz. d. scavi_, May +1899). The upper half had been cut off in order to make way for a new +pavement or black stone blocks (known to archaeologists as the _niger +lapis_) on the site of the comitium, just to the north-east of the Forum +in front of the Senate House. The inscription was written lengthwise +along the (pyramidal) stele from foot to apex, but with the alternate +lines in reverse directions, and one line not on the full face of any +one of the four sides, but up a roughly-flattened fifth side made by +slightly broadening one of the angles. No single sentence is complete +and the mutilated fragments have given rise to a whole literature of +conjectural "restorations." + + R. S. Conway examined it _in situ_ in company with F. Skutsch in 1903 + (cf. his article in Vollmöller's _Jahresbericht_, vi. 453), and the + only words that can be regarded as reasonably certain are _regei_ + (_regi_) on face 2, _kalatorem_ and _iouxmenta_ on face 3, and + _iouestod_ (_iusto_) on face 4.[3] The date may be said to be fixed by + the variation of the sign for _m_ between [symbol] and [symbol] (with + [symbol] for _r_) and other alphabetic indications which suggest the + 5th century B.C. It has been suggested also that the reason for the + destruction of the stele and the repavement may have been either (1) + the pollution of the comitium by the Gallic invasion of 390 B.C., all + traces of which, on their departure, could be best removed by a + repaving; or (2) perhaps more probably, the Augustan restorations + (Studniczka, _Jahresheft d. Österr. Institut_, 1903, vi. 129 ff.). + (R. S. C.) + + 42. Of the earlier long inscriptions the most important would be the + _Columna Rostrata_, or column of Gaius Duilius (q.v.), erected to + commemorate his victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C., but for + the extent to which it has suffered from the hands of restorers. The + shape of the letters plainly shows that the inscription, as we have + it, was cut in the time of the empire. Hence Ritschl and Mommsen + pointed out that the language was modified at the same time, and that, + although many archaisms have been retained, some were falsely + introduced, and others replaced by more modern forms. The most + noteworthy features in it are--C always written for G (CESET = + _gessit_), single for double consonants (_clases-classes_), _d_ + retained in the ablative (e.g., _in altod marid_), _o_ for _u_ in + inflexions (_primos_, _exfociont_ = _exfugiunt_), _e_ for _i_ + (_navebos_ = _navibus_, _exemet_ = _exemit_); of these the first is + probably an affected archaism, G having been introduced some time + before the assumed date of the inscription. On the other hand, we have + _praeda_ where we should have expected _praida_; no final consonants + are dropped; and the forms -_es_, -_eis_ and -_is_ for the accusative + plural are interchanged capriciously. The doubts hence arising + preclude the possibility of using it with confidence as evidence for + the state of the language in the 3rd century B.C. + + 43. Of unquestionable genuineness and the greatest value are the + _Scipionum Elogia_, inscribed on stone coffins, found in the monument + of the Scipios outside the Capene gate (_C.I.L._[1] i. 32). The + earliest of the family whose epitaph has been preserved is L. + Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (consul 298 B.C.), the latest C. Cornelius + Scipio Hispanus (praetor in 139 B.C.); but there are good reasons for + believing with Ritschl that the epitaph of the first was not + contemporary, but was somewhat later than that of his son (consul 259 + B.C.). This last may therefore be taken as the earliest specimen of + any length of Latin and it was written at Rome; it runs as follows:-- + + honcoino . ploirume . cosentiont . r[_omai_] + duonoro . optumo . fuise . uiro [_virorum_] + luciom . scipione . filios . barbati + _co_]nsol . censor . aidilis . hic . fuet a [_pud vos_] + _he_]c . cepit . corsica . aleriaque . urbe[_m_] + _de_]det . tempestatebus . aide . mereto[_d votam_]. + + The archaisms in this inscription are--(1) the retention of _o_ for + _u_ in the inflexion of both nouns and verbs; (2) the diphthongs _oi_ + (= later _u_) and _ai_ (= later _ae_); (3) -_et_ for -_it_, _hec_ for + _hic_, and -_ebus_ for -_ibus_; (4) _duon_- for _bon_; and (5) the + dropping of a final _m_ in every case except in _Luciom_, a variation + which is a marked characteristic of the language of this period. + + 44. The oldest specimen of the Latin language preserved to us in any + literary source is to be found in two fragments of the Carmina + Saliaria (Varro, _De ling. Lat._ vii. 26, 27), and one in Terentianus + Scaurus, but they are unfortunately so corrupt as to give us little + real information (see B. Maurenbrecher, _Carminum Saliarium + reliquiae_, Leipzig, 1894; G. Hempl, _American Philol. Assoc. + Transactions_, xxxi., 1900, 184). Rather better evidence is supplied + in the _Carmen Fratrum Arvalium_, which was found in 1778 engraved on + one of the numerous tablets recording the transactions of the college + of the Arval brothers, dug up on the site of their grove by the Tiber, + 5 m. from the city of Rome; but this also has been so corrupted in its + oral tradition that even its general meaning is by no means clear + (_C.I.L._^1 i. 28; Jordan, _Krit. Beiträge_, pp. 203-211). + +45. The text of the Twelve Tables (451-450 B.C.), if preserved in its +integrity, would have been invaluable as a record of antique Latin; but +it is known to us only in quotations. R. Schoell, whose edition and +commentary (Leipzig, 1866) is the most complete, notes the following +traces, among others, of an archaic syntax: (1) both the subject and the +object of the verb are often left to be understood from the context, +e.g. _ni it antestamino, igitur, em capito_; (2) the imperative is used +even for permissions, "si volet, plus dato," "if he choose, he may give +him more"; (3) the subjunctive is apparently never used in conditional, +only in final sentences, but the future perfect is common; (4) the +connexion between sentences is of the simplest kind, and conjunctions +are rare. There are, of course, numerous isolated archaisms of form and +meaning, such as _calvitur_, _pacunt_, _endo_, _escit_. Later and less +elaborate editions are contained in _Fontes Iuris Romani_, by +Bruns-Mommsen-Gradenwitz (1892); and P. Girard, _Textes de droit romain_ +(1895). + +46. Turning now to the language of literature we may group the Latin +authors as follows:--[5] + +I. _Ante-Classical_ (240-80 B.C.).--Naevius (? 269-204), Plautus +(254-184), Ennius (239-169), Cato the Elder (234-149), Terentius (? +195-159), Pacuvius (220-132), Accius (170-94), Lucilius (? 168-103). + +II. _Classical--Golden Age_ (80 B.C.-A.D. 14).--Varro (116-28), Cicero +(106-44), Lucretius (99-55), Caesar (102-44), Catullus (87-? 47), +Sallust (86-34), Virgil (70-19), Horace (65-8), Propertius (? 50- ?), +Tibullus (? 54-? 18), Ovid (43 B.C.-A.D. 18), Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 18). + +III. _Classical--Silver Age_ (A.D. 14-180).--Velleius (? 19 B.C.-? A.D. +31), M. Seneca (d. c. A.D. 30), Persius (34-62), Petronius (d. 66), +Lucan (39-65), L. Seneca (d. A.D. 65), Plinius major (23-A.D. 79), +Martial (40-101), Quintilian (42-118), Pliny the Younger (61-? 113), +Tacitus (? 60-? 118), Juvenal (? 47-? 138), Suetonius (75-160), Fronto +(c. 90-170). + +47. _Naevius and Plautus._--In Naevius we find archaisms proportionally +much more numerous than in Plautus, especially in the retention of the +original length of vowels, and early forms of inflexion, such as the +genitive in -_as_ and the ablative in -_d_. The number of archaic words +preserved is perhaps due to the fact that so large a proportion of his +fragments have been preserved only by the grammarians, who cited them +for the express purpose of explaining these. + +Of the language of Plautus important features have already been +mentioned (§§ 10-16); for its more general characteristics see PLAUTUS. + +48. _Ennius._--The language of Ennius deserves especial study because of +the immense influence which he exerted in fixing the literary style. He +first established the rule that in hexameter verse all vowels followed +by two consonants (except in the case of a mute and a liquid), or a +double consonant, must be treated as lengthened by position. The number +of varying quantities is also much diminished, and the elision of final +-_m_ becomes the rule, though not without exceptions. On the other hand +he very commonly retains the original length of verbal terminations +(_esset_, _faciet_) and of nominatives in _or_ and _a_, and elides final +_s_ before an initial consonant. In declension he never uses -_ae_ as +the genitive, but -_ai_ or -_as_; the older and shorter form of the gen. +plur. is -_um_ in common; obsolete forms of pronouns are used, as _mis_, +_olli_, _sum_ (= eum), _sas_, _sos_, _sapsa_; and in verbal inflexion +there are old forms like _morimur_ (§ 15), _fuimus_ (§ 17, vi.), +_potestur_ (cf. § 5, iv.). Some experiments in the way of tmesis (_saxo_ +cere _comminuit_-brum) and apocope (_divum domus altisonum_ cael, +_replet te laetificum_ gau) were happily regarded as failures, and never +came into real use. His syntax is simple and straightforward, with the +occasional pleonasms of a rude style, and conjunctions are comparatively +rare. From this time forward the literary language of Rome parted +company with the popular dialect. Even to the classical writers Latin +was in a certain sense a dead language. Its vocabulary was not identical +with that of ordinary life. Now and again a writer would lend new vigour +to his style by phrases and constructions drawn from homely speech. But +on the whole, and in ever-increasing measure, the language of literature +was the language of the schools, adapted to foreign models. The genuine +current of Italian speech is almost lost to view with Plautus and +Terence, and reappears clearly only in the semi-barbarous products of +the early Romance literature. + +49. _Pacuvius, Accius and Lucilius._--Pacuvius is noteworthy especially +for his attempt to introduce a free use of compounds after the fashion +of the Greek, which were felt in the classical times to be unsuited to +the genius of the Latin language, Quintilian censures severely his +line-- + + Nerei repandirostrum incurvicervicum pecus. + +Accius, though probably the greatest of the Roman tragedians, is only +preserved in comparatively unimportant fragments. We know that he paid +much attention to grammar and orthography; and his language is much more +finished than that of Ennius. It shows no marked archaisms of form, +unless the infinitive in -_ier_ is to be accounted as such. + +Lucilius furnishes a specimen of the language of the period, free from +the restraints of tragic diction and the imitation of Greek originals. +Unfortunately the greater part of his fragments are preserved only by a +grammarian whose text is exceptionally corrupt; but they leave no doubt +as to the justice of the criticism passed by Horace on his careless and +"muddy" diction. The _urbanitas_ which is with one accord conceded to +him by ancient critics seems to indicate that his style was free from +the taint of provincial Latinity, and it may be regarded as reproducing +the language of educated circles in ordinary life; the numerous +Graecisms and Greek quotations with which it abounds show the +familiarity of his readers with the Greek language and literature. Varro +ascribes to him the _gracile genus dicendi_, the distinguishing features +of which were _venustas_ and _subtilitas_. Hence it appears that his +numerous archaisms were regarded as in no way inconsistent with grace +and precision of diction. But it may be remembered that Varro was +himself something of an archaizer, and also that the grammarians' +quotations may bring this aspect too much into prominence. Lucilius +shares with the comic poets the use of many plebeian expressions, the +love for diminutives, abstract terms and words of abuse; but +occasionally he borrows from the more elevated style of Ennius forms +like _simitu_ (= simul), _noenu_ (= non), _facul_ (= facile), and the +genitive in -_ai_, and he ridicules the contemporary tragedians for +their _zetematia_, their high-flown diction and _sesquipedalia verba_, +which make the characters talk "not like men but like portents, flying +winged snakes." In his ninth book he discusses questions of grammar, and +gives some interesting facts as to the tendencies of the language. For +instance, when he ridicules a _praetor urbanus_ for calling himself +_pretor_, we see already the intrusion of the rustic degradation of _ae_ +into _e_, which afterwards became universal. He shows a great command of +technical language, and (partly owing to the nature of the fragments) +[Greek: hapax legomena] are very numerous. + +50. _Cato._--The treatise of Cato the elder, _De re rustica_, would have +afforded invaluable material, but it has unfortunately come down to us +in a text greatly modernized, which is more of interest from the point +of view of literature than of language. We find in it, however, +instances of the accusative with _uti_, of the old imperative +_praefamino_ and of the fut. sub. _servassis_, _prohibessis_ and such +interesting subjunctive constructions as _dato bubus bibant omnibus_, +"give all the oxen (water) to drink." + +51. _Growth of Latin Prose._--It is unfortunately impossible to trace +the growth of Latin prose diction through its several stages with the +same clearness as in the case of poetry. The fragments of the earlier +Latin prose writers are too scanty for us to be able to say with +certainty when and how a formed prose style was created. But the impulse +to it was undoubtedly given in the habitual practice of oratory. The +earliest orators, like Cato, were distinguished for strong common sense, +biting wit and vigorous language, rather than for any graces of style; +and probably personal _auctoritas_ was of far more account than rhetoric +both in the law courts and in the assemblies of the people. The first +public speaker, according to Cicero, who aimed at a polished style and +elaborate periods was M. Aemilius Lepidus Porcina, in the middle of the +2nd century B.C.[6] On his model the Gracchi and Carbo fashioned +themselves, and, if we may judge from the fragments of the orations of +C. Gracchus which are preserved, there were few traces of archaism +remaining. A more perfect example of the _urbanitas_ at which good +speakers aimed was supplied by a famous speech of C. Fannius against C. +Gracchus, which Cicero considered the best oration of the time. No +small part of the _urbanitas_ consisted in a correct urban +pronunciation; and the standard of this was found in the language of the +women of the upper classes, such as Laelia and Cornelia. + +In the earliest continuous prose work which remains to us the four books +_De Rhetorica ad Herennium_, we find the language already almost +indistinguishable from that of Cicero. There has been much discussion as +to the authorship of this work, now commonly, without very convincing +reasons, ascribed to Q. Cornificius; but, among the numerous arguments +which prove that it cannot have been the work of Cicero, none has been +adduced of any importance drawn from the character of the language. It +is worth while noticing that not only is the style in itself perfectly +finished, but the treatment of the subject of style, _elocutio_ (iv. 12. +17), shows the pains which had already been given to the question. The +writer lays down three chief requisites--(1) _elegantia_, (2) +_compositio_ and (3) _dignitas_. Under the first come _Latinitas_, a due +avoidance of solecisms and barbarisms, and _explanatio_, clearness, the +employment of familiar and appropriate expressions. The second demands a +proper arrangement; hiatus, alliteration, rhyme, the repetition or +displacement of words, and too long sentences are all to be eschewed. +Dignity depends upon the selection of language and of sentiments. + +52. _Characteristics of Latin Prose._--Hence we see that by the time of +Cicero Latin prose was fully developed. We may, therefore, pause here to +notice the characteristic qualities of the language at its most perfect +stage. The Latin critics were themselves fully conscious of the broad +distinction in character between their own language and the Greek. +Seneca dwells upon the stately and dignified movement of the Latin +period, and uses for Cicero the happy epithet of _gradarius_. He allows +to the Greeks _gratia_, but claims _potentia_ for his own countrymen. +Quintilian (xii. 10. 27 seq.) concedes to Greek more euphony and variety +both of vocalization and of accent; he admits that Latin words are +harsher in sound, and often less happily adapted to the expression of +varying shades of meaning. But he too claims "power" as the +distinguishing mark of his own language. Feeble thought may be carried +off by the exquisite harmony and subtleness of Greek diction; his +countrymen must aim at fulness and weight of ideas if they are not to be +beaten off the field. The Greek authors are like lightly moving skiffs; +the Romans spread wider sails and are wafted by stronger breezes; hence +the deeper waters suit them. It is not that the Latin language fails to +respond to the calls made upon it. Lucretius and Cicero concur, it is +true, in complaints of the poverty of their native language; but this +was only because they had had no predecessors in the task of adapting it +to philosophic utterance; and the long life of Latin technical terms +like _qualitas_, _species_, _genus_, _ratio_, shows how well the need +was met when it arose. H. A. J. Munro has said admirably of this very +period:-- + + "The living Latin for all the higher forms of composition, both prose + and verse, was a far nobler language than the living Greek. During the + long period of Grecian pre-eminence and literary glory, from Homer to + Demosthenes, all the manifold forms of poetry and prose which were + invented one after the other were brought to such exquisite perfection + that their beauty of form and grace of language were never afterwards + rivalled by Latin or any other people. But hardly had Demosthenes and + Aristotle ceased to live when that Attic which had been gradually + formed into such a noble instrument of thought in the hands of + Aristophanes, Euripides, Plato and the orators, and had superseded for + general use all the other dialects, became at the same time the + language of the civilized world and was stricken with a mortal + decay.... Epicurus, who was born in the same year as Menander, writes + a harsh jargon that does not deserve to be called a style; and others + of whose writings anything is left entire or in fragments, historians + and philosophers alike, Polybius, Chrysippus, Philodemus, are little + if any better. When Cicero deigns to translate any of their sentences, + see what grace and life he instils into their clumsily expressed + thoughts, how satisfying to the ear and taste are the periods of Livy + when he is putting into Latin the heavy and uncouth clauses of + Polybius! This may explain what Cicero means when at one time he gives + to Greek the preference over Latin, at another to Latin over Greek; in + reading Sophocles or Plato he could acknowledge their unrivalled + excellence; in translating Panaetius or Philodemus he would feel his + own immeasurable superiority." + +The greater number of long syllables, combined with the paucity of +diphthongs and the consequent monotony of vocalization, and the +uniformity of the accent, lent a weight and dignity of movement to the +language which well suited the national _gravitas_. The precision of +grammatical rules and the entire absence of dialectic forms from the +written literature contributed to maintain the character of unity which +marked the Roman republic as compared with the multiplicity of Greek +states. It was remarked by Francis Bacon that artistic and imaginative +nations indulge freely in verbal compounds, practical nations in simple +concrete terms. In this respect, too, Latin contrasts with Greek. The +attempts made by some of the earlier poets to indulge in novel compounds +was felt to be out of harmony with the genius of the language. +Composition, though necessarily employed, was kept within narrow limits, +and the words thus produced have a sharply defined meaning, wholly +unlike the poetical vagueness of some of the Greek compounds. The +vocabulary of the language, though receiving accessions from time to +time in accordance with practical needs, was rarely enriched by the +products of a spontaneous creativeness. In literature the taste of the +educated town circles gave the law; and these, trained in the study of +the Greek masters of style, required something which should reproduce +for them the harmony of the Greek period. Happily the orators who gave +form to Latin prose were able to meet the demand without departing from +the spirit of their own language.[7] + +53. _Cicero and Caesar._--To Cicero especially the Romans owed the +realization of what was possible to their language in the way of +artistic finish of style. He represents a protest at one and the same +time against the inroads of the _plebeius sermo_, vulgarized by the +constant influx of non-Italian provincials into Rome, and the "jargon of +spurious and partial culture" in vogue among the Roman pupils of the +Asiatic rhetoricians. His essential service was to have caught the tone +and style of the true Roman _urbanitas_, and to have fixed it in +extensive and widely read speeches and treatises as the final model of +classical prose. The influence of Caesar was wholly in the same +direction. His cardinal principle was that every new-fangled and +affected expression, from whatever quarter it might come, should be +avoided by the writer, as rocks by the mariner. His own style for +straightforward simplicity and purity has never been surpassed; and it +is not without full reason that Cicero and Caesar are regarded as the +models of classical prose. But, while they fixed the type of the best +Latin, they did not and could not alter its essential character. In +subtlety, in suggestiveness, in many-sided grace and versatility, it +remained far inferior to the Greek. But for dignity and force, for +cadence and rhythm, for clearness and precision, the best Latin prose +remains unrivalled. + +It is needless to dwell upon the grammar or vocabulary of Cicero. His +language is universally taken as the normal type of Latin; and, as +hitherto the history of the language has been traced by marking +differences from his usage, so the same method may be followed for what +remains. + +54. _Varro_, "the most learned of the ancients," a friend and +contemporary of Cicero, seems to have rejected the periodic rhythmical +style of Cicero, and to have fallen back upon a more archaic structure. +Mommsen says of one passage "the clauses of the sentence are arranged on +the thread of the relative like dead thrushes on a string." But, in +spite (some would say, because) of his old-fashioned tendencies, his +language shows great vigour and spirit. In his Menippean satires he +intentionally made free use of plebeian expressions, while rising at +times to a real grace and showing often fresh humour. His treatise _De +Re Rustica_, in the form of a dialogue, is the most agreeable of his +works, and where the nature of his subject allows it there is much +vivacity and dramatic picturesqueness, although the precepts are +necessarily given in a terse and abrupt form. His sentences are as a +rule co-ordinated, with but few connecting links; his diction contains +many antiquated or unique words. + +55. _Sallust._--In Sallust, a younger contemporary of Cicero, we have +the earliest complete specimen of historical narrative. It is probably +due to his subject-matter, at least in part, that his style is marked by +frequent archaisms; but something must be ascribed to intentional +imitation of the earlier chroniclers, which led him to be called +_priscorum Catonisque verborum ineruditissimus fur_. His archaisms +consist partly of words and phrases used in a sense for which we have +only early authorities, e.g. _cum animo habere_, &c., _animos tollere_, +_bene factum_, _consultor_, _prosapia_, _dolus_, _venenum_, _obsequela_, +_inquies_, _sallere_, _occipere_, _collibeo_, and the like, where we may +notice especially the fondness for frequentatives, which he shares with +the early comedy; partly in inflections which were growing obsolete, +such as _senati_, _solui_, _comperior_ (dep.), _neglegisset_, _vis_ +(acc. pl.) _nequitur_. In syntax his constructions are for the most part +those of the contemporary writers. + +56. _Lucretius_ is largely archaic in his style. We find _im_ for _eum_, +_endo_ for _in_, _illae_, _ullae_, _unae_ and _aliae_ as genitives, +_alid_ for _aliud_, _rabies_ as a genitive by the side of genitives in +-_ai_, ablatives in -_i_ like _colli_, _orbi_, _parti_, nominatives in +_s_ for _r_, like _colos_, _vapos_, _humos_. In verbs there are +_scatit_, _fulgit_, _quaesit_, _confluxet_ = _confluxisset_, _recesse_ = +_recessisse_, _induiacere_ for _inicere_; simple forms like _fligere_, +_lacere_, _cedere_, _stinguere_ for the more usual compounds, the +infinitive passive in -_ier_, and archaic forms from _esse_ like _siet_, +_escit_, _fuat_. Sometimes he indulges in tmesis which reminds us of +Ennius: _inque pediri_, _disque supata_, _ordia prima_. But this archaic +tinge is adopted only for poetical purposes, and as a proof of his +devotion to the earlier masters of his art; it does not affect the +general substance of his style, which is of the freshest and most +vigorous stamp. But the purity of his idiom is not gained by any slavish +adherence to a recognized vocabulary: he coins words freely; Munro has +noted more than a hundred [Greek: hapax legomena], or words which he +alone among good writers uses. Many of these are formed on familiar +models, such as compounds and frequentatives; others are directly +borrowed from the Greek apparently with a view to sweetness of rhythm +(ii. 412, v. 334, 505); others again (forty or more in number) are +compounds of a kind which the classical language refused to adopt, such +as _silvifragus_, _terriloquus_, _perterricrepus_. He represents not so +much a stage in the history of the language as a protest against the +tendencies fashionable in his own time. But his influence was deep upon +Virgil, and through him upon all subsequent Latin literature. + +57. _Catullus_ gives us the type of the language of the cultivated +circles, lifted into poetry by the simple directness with which it is +used to express emotion. In his heroic and elegiac poems he did not +escape the influence of the Alexandrian school, and his genius is ill +suited for long-continued flights; but in his lyrical poems his language +is altogether perfect. As Macaulay says: "No Latin writer is so Greek. +The simplicity, the pathos, the perfect grace, which I find in the great +Athenian models are all in Catullus, and in him alone of the Romans." +The language of these poems comes nearest perhaps to that of Cicero's +more intimate letters. It is full of colloquial idioms and familiar +language, of the diminutives of affection or of playfulness. Greek words +are rare, especially in the lyrics, and those which are employed are +only such as had come to be current coin. Archaisms are but sparingly +introduced; but for metrical reasons he has four instances of the inf. +pass., in -_ier_, and several contracted forms; we find also _alis_ and +_alid_, _uni_ (gen.), and the antiquated _tetuli_ and _recepso_. There +are traces of the popular language in the shortened imperatives _cave_ +and _mane_, in the analytic perfect _paratam habes_, and in the use of +_unus_ approaching that of the indefinite article. + +58. _Horace._--The poets of the Augustan age mark the opening of a new +chapter in the history of the Latin language. The influence of Horace +was less than that of his friend and contemporary Virgil; for Horace +worked in a field of his own, and, although Statius imitated his +lyrics, and Persius and Juvenal, especially the former, his satires, on +the whole there are few traces of any deep marks left by him on the +language of later writers. In his _Satires_ and _Epistles_ the diction +is that of the contemporary _urbanitas_, differing hardly at all from +that of Cicero in his epistles and dialogues. The occasional archaisms, +such as the syncope in _erepsemus_, _evasse_, _surrexe_, the infinitives +in -ier, and the genitives _deum_, _divum_, may be explained as still +conversationally allowable, though ceasing to be current in literature; +and a similar explanation may account for plebeian terms, e.g. +_balatro_, _blatero_, _giarrio_, _mutto_, _vappa_, _caldus_, _soldus_, +_surpite_, for the numerous diminutives, and for such pronouns, adverbs, +conjunctions and turns of expression as were common in prose, but not +found, or found but rarely, in elevated poetry. Greek words are used +sparingly, not with the licence which he censures in Lucilius, and in +his hexameters are framed according to Latin rules. In the _Odes_, on +the other hand, the language is much more precisely limited. There are +practically no archaisms (_spargier_ in Carm. iv. 11. 8 is a doubtful +exception), or plebeian expressions; Greek inflections are employed, but +not with the licence of Catullus; there are no datives in _i_ or _sin_ +like _Tethyi_ or _Dryasin_; Greek constructions are fairly numerous, +e.g. the genitive with verbs like _regnare_, _abstinere_, _desinere_, +and with adjectives, as _integer vitae_, the so-called Greek accusative, +the dative with verbs of contest, like _luctari_, _decertare_, the +transitive use of many intransitive verbs in the past participle, as +_regnatus_, _triumphatus_; and finally there is a "prolative" use of the +infinitive after verbs and adjectives, where prose would have employed +other constructions, which, though not limited to Horace, is more common +with him than with other poets. Compounds are very sparingly employed, +and apparently only when sanctioned by authority. His own innovations in +vocabulary are not numerous. About eighty [Greek: hapax legomena] have +been noted. Like Virgil, he shows his exquisite skill in the use of +language rather in the selection from already existing stores, than in +the creation of new resources: _tantum series iuncturaque pollet_. But +both his diction and his syntax left much less marked traces upon +succeeding writers than did those of either Virgil or Ovid. + +59. _Virgil._--In Virgil the Latin language reached its full maturity. +What Cicero was to the period, Virgil was to the hexameter; indeed the +changes that he wrought were still more marked, inasmuch as the language +of verse admits of greater subtlety and finish than even the most +artistic prose. For the straightforward idiomatic simplicity of +Lucretius and Catullus he substituted a most exact and felicitous +diction, rich with the suggestion of the most varied sources of +inspiration. Sometimes it is a phrase of Homer's "conveyed" literally +with happy boldness, sometimes it is a line of Ennius, or again some +artistic Sophoclean combination. Virgil was equally familiar with the +great Greek models of style and with the earlier Latin poets. This +learning, guided by an unerring sense of fitness and harmony, enabled +him to give to his diction a music which recalls at once the fullest +tones of the Greek lyre and the lofty strains of the most genuinely +national song. His love of antiquarianism in language has often been +noticed, but it never passes into pedantry. His vocabulary and +constructions are often such as would have conveyed to his +contemporaries a grateful flavour of the past, but they would never have +been unintelligible. Forms like _iusso_, _olle_ or _admittier_ can have +delayed no one. + +In the details of syntax it is difficult to notice any peculiarly +Virgilian points, for the reason that his language, like that of Cicero, +became the canon, departures from which were accounted irregularities. +But we may notice as favourite constructions a free use of oblique cases +in the place of the more definite construction with prepositions usual +in prose, e.g. _it clamor caelo_, _flet noctem_, _rivis currentia vina_, +_bacchatam iugis Naxon_, and many similar phrases; the employment of +some substantives as adjectives, like _venator canis_, and vice versa, +as _plurimus volitans_; a proleptic use of adjectives, as _tristia +torquebit_; idioms involving _ille_, _atque_, _deinde_, _haud_, _quin_, +_vix_, and the frequent occurrence of passive verbs in their earlier +reflexive sense, as _induor_, _velor_, _pascor_. + +60. _Livy._--In the singularly varied and beautiful style of Livy we +find Latin prose in rich maturity. To a training in the rhetorical +schools, and perhaps professional experience as a teacher of rhetoric, +he added a thorough familiarity with contemporary poetry and with the +Greek language; and these attainments have all deeply coloured his +language. It is probable that the variety of style naturally suggested +by the wide range of his subject matter was increased by a +half-unconscious adoption of the phrases and constructions of the +different authorities whom he followed in different parts of his work; +and the industry of German critics has gone far to demonstrate a +conclusion likely enough in itself. Hence perhaps comes the fairly long +list of archaisms, especially in formulae (cf. Kühnast, _Liv. Synt._ pp. +14-18). These are, however, purely isolated phenomena, which do not +affect the general tone. It is different with the poetical constructions +and Graecisms, which appear on every page. Of the latter we find +numerous instances in the use of the cases, e.g. in genitives like _via +praedae omissae_, _oppidum Antiochiae_, _aequum campi_; in datives like +_quibusdam volentibus erat_; in accusatives like _iurare calumniam_, +_certare multam_; an especially frequent use of transitive verbs +absolutely; and the constant omission of the reflexive pronoun as the +subject of an infinitive in reported speech. To the same source must be +assigned the very frequent pregnant construction with prepositions, an +attraction of relatives, and the great extension of the employment of +relative adverbs of place instead of relative pronouns, e.g. _quo_ = _in +quem_. Among his poetical characteristics we may place the extensive +list of words which are found for the first time in his works and in +those of Virgil or Ovid, and perhaps his common use of concrete words +for collective, e.g. _eques_ for _equitatus_, of abstract terms such as +_remigium_, _servitia_, _robora_, and of frequentative verbs, to say +nothing of poetical phrases like _haec ubi dicta dedit, adversum +montium_, &c. Indications of the extended use of the subjunctive, which +he shares with contemporary writers, especially poets, are found in the +construction of _ante quam_, _post quam_ with this mood, even when there +is no underlying notion of anticipation, of _donec_, and of _cum_ +meaning "whenever." On the other hand, _forsitan_ and _quamvis_, as in +the poets, are used with the indicative in forgetfulness of their +original force. Among his individual peculiarities may be noticed the +large number of verbal nouns in -_tus_ (for which Cicero prefers forms +in -_tio_) and in -_tor_, and the extensive use of the past passive +participle to replace an abstract substantive, e.g. _ex dictatorio +imperio concusso_. In the arrangement of words Livy is much more free +than any previous prose writer, aiming, like the poets, at the most +effective order. His periods are constructed with less regularity than +those of Cicero, but they gain at least as much in variety and energy as +they lose in uniformity of rhythm and artistic finish. His style cannot +be more fitly described than in the language of Quintilian, who speaks +of his _mira iucunditas_ and _lactea ubertas_. + +61. _Propertius._--The language of Propertius is too distinctly his own +to call for detailed examination here. It cannot be taken as a specimen +of the great current of the Latin language; it is rather a tributary +springing from a source apart, tinging to some slight extent the stream +into which it pours itself, but soon ceasing to affect it in any +perceptible fashion. "His obscurity, his indirectness and his +incoherence" (to adopt the words of J. P. Postgate) were too much out of +harmony with the Latin taste for him to be regarded as in any sense +representative; sometimes he seems to be hardly writing Latin at all. +Partly from his own strikingly independent genius, partly from his +profound and not always judicious study of the Alexandrian writers, his +poems abound in phrases and constructions which are without a parallel +in Latin poetry. His archaisms and Graecisms, both in diction and in +syntax, are very numerous; but frequently there is a freedom in the use +of cases and prepositions which can only be due to bold and independent +innovations. His style well deserves a careful study for its own sake +(cf. J. P. Postgate's _Introduction_, pp. lvii.-cxxv.); but it is of +comparatively little significance in the history of the language. + +62. _Ovid._--The brief and few poems of Tibullus supply only what is +given much more fully in the works of Ovid. In these we have the +language recognized as that best fitted for poetry by the fashionable +circles in the later years of Augustus. The style of Ovid bears many +traces of the imitation of Virgil, Horace and Propertius, but it is not +less deeply affected by the rhetoric of the schools. His never-failing +fertility of fancy and command of diction often lead him into a +diffuseness which mars the effect of his best works; according to +Quintilian it was only in his (lost) tragedy of _Medea_ that he showed +what real excellence he might have reached if he had chosen to control +his natural powers. His influence on later poets was largely for evil; +if he taught them smoothness of versification and polish of language, he +also co-operated powerfully with the practice of recitation to lead them +to aim at rhetorical point and striking turns of expression, instead of +a firm grasp of a subject as a whole, and due subordination of the +several parts to the general impression. Ovid's own influence on +language was not great; he took the diction of poetry as he found it, +formed by the labours of his predecessors; the conflict between the +archaistic and the Graecizing schools was already settled in favour of +the latter; and all that he did was to accept the generally accepted +models as supplying the material in moulding which his luxuriant fancy +could have free play. He has no deviations from classical syntax but +those which were coming into fashion in his time (e.g. _forsitan_ and +_quamvis_ with the indic., the dative of the agent with passive verbs, +the ablative for the accusative of time, the infinitive after adjectives +like _certus_, _aptus_, &c.), and but few peculiarities in his +vocabulary. It is only in the letters from the Pontus that laxities of +construction are detected, which show that the purity of his Latin was +impaired by his residence away from Rome, and perhaps by increasing +carelessness of composition. + +63. _The Latin of Daily Life._--While the leading writers of the +Ciceronian and Augustan eras enable us to trace the gradual development +of the Latin language to its utmost finish as an instrument of literary +expression, there are some less important authors who supply valuable +evidence of the character of the _sermo plebeius_. Among them may be +placed the authors of the _Bellum Africanum_ and the _Bellum +Hispaniense_ appended to Caesar's Commentaries. These are not only far +inferior to the exquisite _urbanitas_ of Caesar's own writings; they are +much rougher in style even than the less polished _Bellum Alexandrinum_ +and _De Bello Gallico Liber VIII._, which are now with justice ascribed +to Hirtius. There is sufficient difference between the two to justify us +in assuming two different authors; but both freely employ words and +constructions which are at once antiquated and vulgar. The writer of the +_Bellum Alexandrinum_ uses a larger number of diminutives within his +short treatise than Caesar in nearly ten times the space; _postquam_ and +_ubi_ are used with the pluperfect subjunctive; there are numerous forms +unknown to the best Latin, like _tristimonia_, _exporrigere_, +_cruciabiliter_ and _convulnero_; _potior_ is followed by the +accusative, a simple relative by the subjunctive. There is also a very +common use of the pluperfect for the imperfect, which seems a mark of +this _plebeius sermo_ (Nipperdey, _Quaest. Caes._ pp. 13-30). + + Another example of what we may call the Latin of business life is + supplied by Vitruvius. Besides the obscurity of many of his technical + expressions, there is a roughness and looseness in his language, far + removed from a literary style; he shares the incorrect use of the + pluperfect, and uses plebeian forms like _calefaciuntur_, _faciliter_, + _expertiones_ and such careless phrases as _rogavit Archimedem uti in + se sumeret sibi de eo cogitationem_. At a somewhat later stage we + have, not merely plebeian, but also provincial Latin represented in + the Satyricon of Petronius. The narrative and the poems which are + introduced into it are written in a style distinguished only by the + ordinary peculiarities of silver Latinity; but in the numerous + conversations the distinctions of language appropriate to the various + speakers are accurately preserved; and we have in the talk of the + slaves and provincials a perfect storehouse of words and constructions + of the greatest linguistic value. Among the unclassical forms and + constructions may be noticed masculines like _fatus_, _vinus_, + _balneus_, _fericulus_ and _lactem_ (for _lac_), _striga_ for _strix_, + _gaudimonium_ and _tristimonium_, _sanguen_, _manducare_, _nutricare_, + _molestare_, _nesapius_ (_sapius_ = Fr. _sage_), _rostrum_ (= _os_), + _ipsimus_ (= master), _scordalias_, _baro_, and numerous diminutives + like _camella_, _audaculus_, _potiuncula_, _savunculum_, _offla_, + _peduclus_, _corcillum_, with constructions such as _maledicere_ and + _persuadere_ with the accusative, and _adiutare_ with the dative, and + the deponent forms _pudeatur_ and _ridetur_. Of especial interest for + the Romance languages are _astrum_ (_désastre_), _berbex_ (_brébis_), + _botellus_ (_boyau_), _improperare_, _muttus_, _naufragare_. + + Suetonius (_Aug._ c. 87) gives an interesting selection of plebeian + words employed in conversation by Augustus, who for the rest was + something of a purist in his written utterances: _ponit assidue et pro + stulto baceolum, et pro pullo pulleiaceum, et pro cerrito vacerrosum, + et vapide se habere pro male, et betizare pro languere, quod vulgo + lachanizare dicitur_. + + The inscriptions, especially those of Pompeii, supply abundant + evidence of the corruptions both of forms and of pronunciation common + among the vulgar. It is not easy always to determine whether a + mutilated form is evidence of a letter omitted in pronunciation, or + only in writing; but it is clear that the ordinary man habitually + dropped final _m_, _s_, and _t_, omitted _n_ before _s_, and + pronounced _i_ like _e_. There are already signs of the decay of _ae_ + to _e_, which later on became almost universal. The additions to our + vocabulary are slight and unimportant (cf. _Corpus Inscr._ Lat. iv., + with Zangemeister's _Indices_). + +64. To turn to the language of literature. In the dark days of Tiberius +and the two succeeding emperors a paralysis seemed to have come upon +prose and poetry alike. With the one exception of oratory, literature +had long been the utterance of a narrow circle, not the expression of +the energies of national life; and now, while all free speech in the +popular assemblies was silenced, the nobles were living under a +suspicious despotism, which, whatever the advantage which it brought to +the poorer classes and to the provincials, was to them a reign of +terror. It is no wonder that the fifty years after the accession of +Tiberius are a blank as regards all higher literature. Velleius +Paterculus, Valerius Maximus, Celsus and Phaedrus give specimens of the +Latin of the time, but the style of no one of these, classical for the +most part in vocabulary, but occasionally approaching the later usages +in syntax, calls for special analysis. The elder Seneca in his +collection of _suasoriae_ and _controversiae_ supplies examples of the +barren quibblings by which the young Romans were trained in the +rhetorical schools. A course of instruction, which may have been of +service when its end was efficiency in active public life, though even +then not without its serious drawbacks, as is shown by Cicero in his +treatise _De Oratore_, became seriously injurious when its object was +merely idle display. Prose came to be overloaded with ornament, and +borrowed too often the language, though not the genius, of poetry; while +poetry in its turn, partly owing to the fashion of recitation, became a +string of rhetorical points. + +65. _Seneca, Persius and Lucan._--In the writers of Nero's age there are +already plain indications of the evil effects of the rhetorical schools +upon language as well as literature. The leading man of letters was +undoubtedly Seneca the younger, "the Ovid of prose"; and his style set +the model which it became the fashion to imitate. But it could not +commend itself to the judgment of sound critics like Quintilian, who +held firmly to the great masters of an earlier time. He admits its +brilliance, and the fertility of its pointed reflections, but charges +the author justly with want of self-restraint, jerkiness, frequent +repetitions and tawdry tricks of rhetoric. Seneca was the worst of +models, and pleased by his very faults. In his tragedies the rhetorical +elaboration of the style only serves to bring into prominence the +frigidity and frequent bad taste of the matter. But his diction is on +the whole fairly classical; he is, in the words of Muretus, _vetusti +sermonis diligentior quam quidam inepte fastidiosi suspicantur_. In +Persius there is a constant straining after rhetorical effect, which +fills his verses with harsh and obscure expressions. The careful choice +of diction by which his master Horace makes every word tell is +exaggerated into an endeavour to gain force and freshness by the most +contorted phrases. The sin of allusiveness is fostered by the fashion of +the day for epigram, till his lines are barely intelligible after +repeated reading. Conington happily suggested that this style was +assumed only for satiric purposes, and pointed out that when not writing +satire Persius was as simple and unaffected as Horace himself. This +view, while it relieves Persius of much of the censure which has been +directed against his want of judgment, makes him all the more typical a +representative of this stage of silver Latinity. In his contemporary +Lucan we have another example of the faults of a style especially +attractive to the young, handled by a youth of brilliant but +ill-disciplined powers. The _Pharsalia_ abounds in spirited rhetoric, in +striking epigram, in high sounding declamation; but there are no flights +of sustained imagination, no ripe wisdom, no self-control in avoiding +the exaggerated or the repulsive, no mature philosophy of life or human +destiny. Of all the Latin poets he is the least Virgilian. It has been +said of him that he corrupted the style of poetry, not less than Seneca +that of prose. + +66. _Pliny_, _Quintilian_, _Frontinus._--In the elder Pliny the same +tendencies are seen occasionally breaking out in the midst of the +prosaic and inartistic form in which he gives out the stores of his +cumbrous erudition. Wherever he attempts a loftier tone than that of the +mere compiler, he falls into the tricks of Seneca. The nature of his +encyclopaedic subject matter naturally makes his vocabulary very +extensive; but in syntax and general tone of language he does not differ +materially from contemporary writers. Quintilian is of interest +especially for the sound judgment which led him to a true appreciation +of the writers of Rome's golden age. He set himself strenuously to +resist the tawdry rhetoric fashionable in his own time, and to hold up +before his pupils purer and loftier models. His own criticisms are +marked by excellent taste, and often by great happiness of expression, +which is pointed without being unduly epigrammatic. But his own style +did not escape, as indeed it hardly could, the influences of his time; +and in many small points his language falls short of classical purity. +There is more approach to the simplicity of the best models in +Frontinus, who furnishes a striking proof that it was rather the +corruption of literary taste than any serious change in the language of +ordinary cultivated men to which the prevalent style was due. Writing on +practical matters--the art of war and the water-supply of Rome--he goes +straight to the point without rhetorical flourishes; and the ornaments +of style which he occasionally introduces serve to embellish but not to +distort his thought. + +67. _The Flavian Age._--The epic poets of the Flavian age present a +striking contrast to the writers of the Claudian period. As a strained +originality was the cardinal fault of the one school, so a tame and +slavish following of authority is the mark of the other. The general +_correctness_ of this period may perhaps be ascribed (with Merivale) +partly to the political conditions, partly to the establishment of +professional schools. Teachers like Quintilian must have done much to +repress extravagance of thought and language; but they could not kindle +the spark of genius. Valerius Flaccus, Silius Italicus and Papinius +Statius are all correct in diction and in rhythm, and abound in +learning; but their inspiration is drawn from books and not from nature +or the heart; details are elaborated to the injury of the impression of +the whole; every line is laboured, and overcharged with epigrammatic +rhetoric. Statius shows by far the greatest natural ability and +freshness; but he attempts to fill a broad canvas with drawing and +colouring suited only to a miniature. Juvenal exemplifies the tendencies +of the language of his time, as moulded by a singularly powerful mind. A +careful study of the earlier poets, especially Virgil and Lucan, has +kept his language up to a high standard of purity. His style is +eminently rhetorical; but it is rhetoric of real power. The concise +brevity by which it is marked seems to have been the result of a +deliberate attempt to mould his natural diffuseness into the form +recognized as most appropriate for satire. In his verses we notice a few +metrical peculiarities which represent the pronunciation of his age, +especially the shortening of the final -_o_ in verbs, but as a rule they +conform to the Virgilian standard. In Martial the tendency of this +period to witty epigram finds its most perfect embodiment, combined with +finished versification. + +68. _Pliny the Younger and Tacitus._--The typical prose-writers of this +time are Pliny the younger and Tacitus. Some features of the style of +Tacitus are peculiar to himself; but on the whole the following +statement represents the tendencies shared in greater or less degree by +all the writers of this period. The gains lie mainly in the direction of +a more varied and occasionally more effective syntax; its most striking +defect is a lack of harmony in the periods, of arrangements in words, of +variety in particles arising from the loose connexion of sentences. The +vocabulary is extended, but there are losses as well as gains. +Quintilian's remarks are fully borne out by the evidence of extant +authorities: on the one hand, _quid quod nihil iam proprium placet, dum +parum creditur disertum, quod et alius dixisset_ (viii. _prooem._ 24); +_a corruptissimo quoque poetarum figuras seu translationes mutuamur; tum +demum ingeniosi scilicet, si ad intelligendos nos opus sit ingenio_ (ib. +25); _sordet omne quod natura dictavit_ (ib. 26); on the other hand, +_nunc utique, cum haec exercitatio procul a veritate seiuncta laboret +incredibili verborum fastidio, ac sibi magnam partem sermonis +absciderit_ (viii. 3, 23), _multa cotidie ab antiquis ficta moriuntur_ +(ib. 6, 32). A writer like Suetonius therefore did good service in +introducing into his writings terms and phrases borrowed, not from the +rhetoricians, but from the usage of daily life. + + 69. In the vocabulary of Tacitus there are to be noted:-- + + 1. Words borrowed (consciously or unconsciously) from the classical + poets, especially Virgil, occurring for the most part also in + contemporary prose. Of these Dräger gives a list of ninety-five + (_Syntax und Stil des Tacitus_, p. 96). + + 2. Words occurring only, or for the first time, in Tacitus. These are + for the most part new formations or compounds from stems already in + use, especially verbal substantives in -_tor_ and -_sor_, -_tus_ and + -_sus_, -_tura_ and -_mentum_, with new frequentatives. + + 3. Words used with a meaning (a) not found in earlier prose, but + sometimes borrowed from the poets, e.g. _componere_, "to bury"; + _scriptura_, "a writing"; _ferratus_ "armed with a sword"; (b) + peculiar to later writers, e.g. _numerosus_, "numerous"; _famosus_, + "famous"; _decollare_, "to behead"; _imputare_, "to take credit for," + &c.; (c) restricted to Tacitus himself, e.g. _dispergere_ = + _divolgare_. + + Generally speaking, Tacitus likes to use a simple verb instead of a + compound one, after the fashion of the poets, employs a pluperfect for + a perfect, and (like Livy and sometimes Caesar) aims at vividness and + variety by retaining the present and perfect subjunctive in indirect + speech even after historical tenses. Collective words are followed by + a plural far more commonly than in Cicero. The ellipse of a verb is + more frequent. The use of the cases approximates to that of the poets, + and is even more free. The accusative of limitation is common in + Tacitus, though never found in Quintilian. Compound verbs are + frequently followed by the accusative where the dative might have been + expected; and the Virgilian construction of an accusative with middle + and passive verbs is not unusual. The dative of purpose and the dative + with a substantive in place of a genitive are more common with Tacitus + than with any writer. The ablative of separation is used without a + preposition, even with names of countries and with common nouns; the + ablative of place is employed similarly without a preposition; the + ablative of time has sometimes the force of duration; the instrumental + ablative is employed even of persons. A large extension is given to + the use of the quantitative genitive after neuter adjectives and + pronouns, and even adverbs, and to the genitive with active + participles; and the genitive of relation after adjectives is + (probably by a Graecism) very freely employed. In regard to + prepositions, there are special uses of _citra_, _erga_, _iuxta_ and + _tenus_ to be noted, and a frequent tendency to interchange the use of + a preposition with that of a simple case in corresponding clauses. In + subordinate sentences _quod_ is used for "the fact that," and + sometimes approaches the later use of "that"; the infinitive follows + many verbs and adjectives that do not admit of this construction in + classical prose; the accusative and infinitive are used after negative + expressions of doubt, and even in modal and hypothetical clauses. + + Like Livy, the writers of this time freely employ the subjunctive of + repeated action with a relative, and extend its use to relative + conjunctions, which he does not. In clauses of comparison and + proportion there is frequently an ellipse of a verb (with _nihil aliud + quam_, _ut_, _tanquam_); _tanquam_, _quasi_ and _velut_ are used to + imply not comparison but alleged reason; _quin_ and _quominus_ are + interchanged at pleasure. _Quamquam_ and _quamvis_ are commonly + followed by the subjunctive, even when denoting facts. The free use of + the genitive and dative of the gerundive to denote purpose is common + in Tacitus, the former being almost limited to him. Livy's practice in + the use of participles is extended even beyond the limits to which he + restricts it. It has been calculated that where Caesar uses five + participial clauses, Livy has sixteen, Tacitus twenty-four. + + In his compressed brevity Tacitus may be said to be individual; but in + the poetical colouring of his diction, in the rhetorical cast of his + sentences, and in his love for picturesqueness and variety he is a + true representative of his time. + +70. _Suetonius._--The language of Suetonius is of interest as giving a +specimen of silver Latinity almost entirely free from personal +idiosyncrasies; his expressions are regular and straightforward, clear +and business-like; and, while in grammar he does not attain to +classical purity, he is comparatively free from rhetorical affectations. + +71. _The African Latinity._--A new era commences with the accession of +Hadrian (117). As the preceding half century had been marked by the +influence of Spanish Latinity (the Senecas, Lucan, Martial, Quintilian), +so in this the African style was paramount. This is the period of +affected archaisms and pedantic learning, combined at times with a +reckless love of innovation and experiment, resulting in the creation of +a large number of new formations and in the adoption of much of the +plebeian dialect. Fronto and Apuleius mark a strong reaction against the +culture of the preceding century, and for evil far more than for good +the chain of literary tradition was broken. The language which had been +unduly refined and elaborated now relapsed into a tasteless and confused +patch-work, without either harmony or brilliance of colouring. In the +case of the former the subject matter is no set-off against the +inferiority of the style. He deliberately attempts to go back to the +obsolete diction of writers like Cato and Ennius. We find compounds like +_altipendulus_, _nudiustertianus_, _tolutiloquentia_, diminutives such +as _matercella_, _anulla_, _passercula_, _studiolum_, forms like +_congarrire_, _disconcinnus_, _pedetemptius_, _desiderantissimus_ +(passive), _conticinium_; _gaudeo_, _oboedio_ and _perfungor_ are used +with an accusative, _modestus_ with a genitive. On the other hand he +actually attempts to revive the form _asa_ for _ara_. In Apuleius the +archaic element is only one element in the queer mixture which +constitutes his style, and it probably was not intended to give the tone +to the whole. Poetical and prosaic phrases, Graecisms, solecisms, +jingling assonances, quotations and coinages apparently on the spur of +the moment, all appear in this wonderful medley. There are found such +extraordinary genitives as _sitire beatitudinis_, _cenae pignerarer_, +_incoram omnium_, _foras corporis_, sometimes heaped one upon another as +_fluxos vestium Arsacidas et frugum pauperes Ityraeos et odorum divites +Arabas_. Diminutives are coined with reckless freedom, e.g. _diutule_, +_longule_, _mundule amicta el altiuscule sub ipsas papillas +succinctula_. He confesses himself that he is writing in a language not +familiar to him: _In urbe Latia advena studiorum Quiritium indigenam +sermonem aerumnabili labore, nullo magistro praeeunte, aggressus +excolui_; and the general impression of his style fully bears out his +confession. Melanchthon is hardly too severe when he says that Apuleius +brays like his own ass. The language of Aulus Gellius is much superior +in purity; but still it abounds in rare and archaic words, e.g. +_edulcare_, _recentari_, _aeruscator_, and in meaningless frequentatives +like _solitavisse_. He has some admirable remarks on the pedantry of +those who delighted in obsolete expressions (xi. 7) such as _apluda_, +_flocus_ and _bovinator_; but his practice falls far short of his +theory. + +72. _The Lawyers._--The style of the eminent lawyers of this period, +foremost among whom is Gaius, deserves especial notice as showing well +one of the characteristic excellences of the Latin language. It is for +the most part dry and unadorned, and in syntax departs occasionally from +classical usages, but it is clear, terse and exact. Technical terms may +cause difficulty to the ordinary reader, but their meaning is always +precisely defined; new compounds are employed whenever the subject +requires them, but the capacities of the language rise to the demands +made upon it; and the conceptions of jurisprudence have never been more +adequately expressed than by the great Romanist jurists. + (A. S. W.; R. S. C.) + + For the subsequent history of the language see ROMANCE LANGUAGES. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The grounds for this pronunciation will be found best stated in + Postgate, _How to pronounce Latin_ (1907), Arnold and Conway, _The + Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin_ (4th ed., Cambridge, + 1908); and in the grammars enumerated in § 28 above, especially the + preface to vol. i. of _Roby's Grammar_. The chief points about _c_ + may be briefly given as a specimen of the kind of evidence. (1) In + some words the letter following c varies in a manner which makes it + impossible to believe that the pronunciation of the _c_ depended upon + this, e.g. _decumus_ and _decimus_, _dic_ from Plaut. _dice_; (2) if + _c_ was pronounced before _e_ and _i_ otherwise than before _a_, _o_ + and _u_, it is hard to see why _k_ should not have been retained for + the latter use; (3) no ancient writer gives any hint of a varying + pronunciation of _c_; (4) a Greek [kappa] is always transliterated by + _c_, and _c_ by [kappa]; (5) Latin words containing _c_ borrowed by + Gothic and early High German are always spelt with _k_; (6) the + varying pronunciations of _ce_, _ci_ in the Romance languages are + inexplicable except as derived independently from an original _ke_, + _ki_. + + [2] The inscription was first published by Helbig and Dümmler in + _Mittheilungen des deutschen archaol. Inst. Rom._ ii. 40; since in + _C.I.L._ xiv. 4123 and Conway, _Italic Dial._ 280, where other + references will be found. + + [3] This inscription was first published by Dressel, _Annali dell' + Inst. Archeol. Romano_ (1880), p. 158, and since then by a multitude + of commentators. The view of the inscription as a curse, translating + a Greek cursing-formula, which has been generally adopted, was first + put forward by R. S. Conway in the _American Journal of Philology_, + x. (1889), 453; see further his commentary _Italic Dialects_, p. 329, + and since then G. Hempl, _Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc._ xxxiii. + (1902), 150, whose interpretation of _iouesat = iurat_ and _Opetoi + Tesiai_ has been here adopted, and who gives other references. + + [4] The most important writings upon it are those of Domenico + Comparetti, _Iscriz. arcaica del Foro Romano_ (Florence-Rome, 1900); + Hülsen, _Berl. philolog. Wochenschrift_ (1899), No. 40; and + Thurneysen, _Rheinisches Museum_ (Neue Folge), iii. 2. Prof. G. + Tropea gives a _Cronaca della discussione_ in a series of very useful + articles in the _Rivista di storia antica_ (Messina, 1900 and 1901). + Skutsch's article already cited puts the trustworthy results in an + exceedingly brief compass. + + [5] For further information see special articles on these authors, + and LATIN LITERATURE. + + [6] Cicero also refers to certain _scripta dulcissima_ of the son of + Scipio Africanus Maior, which must have possessed some merits of + style. + + [7] The study of the rhythm of the _Clausulae_, i.e. of the last + dozen (or half-dozen) syllables of a period in different Latin + authors, has been remarkably developed in the last three years, and + is of the highest importance for the criticism of Latin prose. It is + only possible to refer to Th. Zielinski's _Das Clauselgesetz in + Cicero's Reden_ (St. Petersburg, 1904), reviewed by A. C. Clark in + _Classical Review_, 1905, p. 164, and to F. Skutsch's important + comments in Vollmöller's _Jahresberichten über die Fortschritte der + romanischen Philologie_ (1905) and _Glotta_ (i. 1908, esp. p. 413), + also to A. C. Clark's _Fontes Prosae Numerosae_ (Oxford, 1909), _The + Cursus in Mediaeval and Vulgar Latin_ (ibid. 1910), and article + CICERO. + + + + +LATIN LITERATURE. The germs of an indigenous literature had existed at +an early period in Rome and in the country districts of Italy, and they +have an importance as indicating natural wants in the Italian race, +which were ultimately satisfied by regular literary forms. The art of +writing was first employed in the service of the state and of religion +for books of ritual, treaties with other states, the laws of the Twelve +Tables and the like. An approach to literature was made in the _Annales +Maximi_, records of private families, funeral orations and inscriptions +on busts and tombs such as those of the Scipios in the Appian Way. In +the satisfaction they afforded to the commemorative and patriotic +instincts they anticipated an office afterwards performed by the +national epics and the works of regular historians. A still nearer +approach to literature was probably made in oratory, as we learn from +Cicero that the famous speech delivered by Appius Claudius Caecus +against concluding peace with Pyrrhus (280 B.C.) was extant in his time. +Appius also published a collection of moral maxims and reflections in +verse. No other name associated with any form of literature belonging to +the pre-literary age has been preserved by tradition. + +But it was rather in the chants and litanies of the ancient religion, +such as those of the Salii and the Fratres Arvales, and the dirges for +the dead (_neniae_), and in certain extemporaneous effusions, that some +germs of a native poetry might have been detected; and finally in the +use of Saturnian verse, a metre of pure native origin, which by its +rapid and lively movement gave expression to the vivacity and quick +apprehension of the Italian race. This metre was employed in ritual +hymns, which seem to have assumed definite shapes out of the +exclamations of a primitive priesthood engaged in a rude ceremonial +dance. It was also used by a class of bards or itinerant soothsayers +known by the name of _vates_, of whom the most famous was one Marcius, +and in the "Fescennine verses," as sung at harvest-homes and weddings, +which gave expression to the coarse gaiety of the people and to their +strong tendency to personal raillery and satiric comment. The metre was +also employed in commemorative poems, accompanied with music, which were +sung at funeral banquets in celebration of the exploits and virtues of +distinguished men. These had their origin in the same impulse which +ultimately found its full gratification in Roman history, Roman epic +poetry, and that form of Roman oratory known as _laudationes_, and in +some of the _Odes_ of Horace. The latest and probably the most important +of these rude and inchoate forms was that of dramatic _saturae_ +(medleys), put together without any regular plot and consisting +apparently of contests of wit and satiric invective, and perhaps of +comments on current events, accompanied with music (Livy vii. 2). These +have a real bearing on the subsequent development of Latin literature. +They prepared the mind of the people for the reception of regular +comedy. They may have contributed to the formation of the style of +comedy which appears at the very outset much more mature than that of +serious poetry, tragic or epic. They gave the name and some of the +characteristics to that special literary product of the Roman soil, the +_satura_, addressed to readers, not to spectators, which ultimately was +developed into pure poetic satire in Lucilius, Horace, Persius and +Juvenal, into the prose and verse miscellany of Varro, and into +something approaching the prose novel in Petronius. + + +_First Period: from 240 to about 80 B.C._ + + Livius Andronicus. + +The historical event which brought about the greatest change in the +intellectual condition of the Romans, and thereby exercised a decisive +influence on the whole course of human culture, was the capture of +Tarentum in 272. After the capture many Greek slaves were brought to +Rome, and among them the young Livius Andronicus (c. 284-204), who was +employed in teaching Greek in the family of his master, a member of the +Livian gens. From that time to learn Greek became a regular part of the +education of a Roman noble. The capture of Tarentum was followed by the +complete Romanizing of all southern Italy. Soon after came the first +Punic war, the principal scene of which was Sicily, where, from common +hostility to the Carthaginian, Greek and Roman were brought into +friendly relations, and the Roman armies must have become familiar with +the spectacles and performances of the Greek theatre. In the year after +the war (240), when the armies had returned and the people were at +leisure to enjoy the fruits of victory, Livius Andronicus substituted at +one of the public festivals a regular drama, translated or adapted from +the Greek, for the musical medleys (_saturae_) hitherto in use. From +this time dramatic performances became a regular accompaniment of the +public games, and came more and more to encroach on the older kinds of +amusement, such as the chariot races. The dramatic work of Livius was +mainly of educative value. The same may be said of his translation of +the _Odyssey_, which was still used as a school-book in the days of +Horace, and the religious hymn which he was called upon to compose in +207 had no high literary pretensions. He was, however, the first to +familiarize the Romans with the forms of the Greek drama and the Greek +epic, and thus to determine the main lines which Latin literature +followed for more than a century afterwards. + + + Naevius. + +His immediate successor, Cn. Naevius (d. c. 200 B.C.), was not, like +Livius, a Greek, but either a Roman citizen or, more probably, a +Campanian who enjoyed the limited citizenship of a Latin and who had +served in the Roman army in the first Punic war. His first appearance as +a dramatic author was in 235. He adapted both tragedies and comedies +from the Greek, but the bent of his genius, the tastes of his audience, +and the condition of the language developed through the active +intercourse and business of life, gave a greater impulse to comedy than +to tragedy. Naevius tried to use the theatre, as it had been used by the +writers of the Old Comedy of Athens, for the purposes of political +warfare, and thus seems to have anticipated by a century the part played +by Lucilius. But his attacks upon the Roman aristocracy, especially the +Metelli, were resented by their objects; and Naevius, after being +imprisoned, had to retire in his old age into banishment. He was not +only the first in point of time, and according to ancient testimony one +of the first in point of merit, among the comic poets of Rome, and in +spirit, though not in form, the earliest of the line of Roman satirists, +but he was also the oldest of the national poets. Besides celebrating +the success of M. Claudius Marcellus in 222 over the Gauls in a play +called _Clastidium_, he gave the first specimen of the _fabula +praetexta_ in his _Alimonium Romuli et Remi_, based on the most national +of all Roman traditions. Still more important service was rendered by +him in his long Saturnian poem on the first Punic war, in which he not +only told the story of contemporary events but gave shape to the legend +of the settlement of Aeneas in Latium,--the theme ultimately adopted for +the great national epic of Rome. + + + Plautus. + +His younger contemporary T. Maccius Plautus (c. 254-184) was the +greatest comic dramatist of Rome. He lived and wrote only to amuse his +contemporaries, and thus, although more popular in his lifetime and more +fortunate than any of the older authors in the ultimate survival of a +large number of his works, he is less than any of the great writers of +Rome in sympathy with either the serious or the caustic spirit in Latin +literature. Yet he is the one extant witness to the humour and vivacity +of the Italian temperament at a stage between its early rudeness and +rigidity and its subsequent degeneracy. + + + Ennius. + +Thus far Latin literature, of which the predominant characteristics are +dignity, gravity and fervour of feeling, seemed likely to become a mere +vehicle of amusement adapted to all classes of the people in their +holiday mood. But a new spirit, which henceforth became predominant, +appeared in the time of Plautus. Latin literature ceased to be in close +sympathy with the popular spirit, either politically or as a form of +amusement, but became the expression of the ideas, sentiment and culture +of the aristocratic governing class. It was by Q. Ennius (239-169) of +Rudiae in Messapia, that a new direction was given to Latin literature. +Deriving from his birthplace the culture, literary and philosophical, of +Magna Graecia, and having gained the friendship of the greatest of the +Romans living in that great age, he was of all the early writers most +fitted to be the medium of conciliation between the serious genius of +ancient Greece and the serious genius of Rome. Alone among the older +writers he was endowed with the gifts of a poetical imagination and +animated with enthusiasm for a great ideal. + +First among his special services to Latin literature was the fresh +impulse which he gave to tragedy. He turned the eyes of his +contemporaries from the commonplace social humours of later Greek life +to the contemplation of the heroic age. But he did not thereby +denationalize the Roman drama. He animated the heroes of early Greece +with the martial spirit of Roman soldiers and the ideal magnanimity and +sagacity of Roman senators, and imparted weight and dignity to the +language and verse in which their sentiments and thoughts were +expressed. Although Rome wanted creative force to add a great series of +tragic dramas to the literature of the world, yet the spirit of +elevation and moral authority breathed into tragedy by Ennius passed +into the ethical and didactic writings and the oratory of a later time. + +Another work was the _Saturae_, written in various metres, but chiefly +in the trochaic tetrameter. He thus became the inventor of a new form of +literature; and, if in his hands the _satura_ was rude and indeterminate +in its scope, it became a vehicle by which to address a reading public +on matters of the day, or on the materials of his wide reading, in a +style not far removed from the language of common life. His greatest +work, which made the Romans regard him as the father of their +literature, was his epic poem, in eighteen books, the _Annales_, in +which the record of the whole career of Rome was unrolled with +idealizing enthusiasm and realistic detail. The idea which inspired +Ennius was ultimately realized in both the national epic of Virgil and +the national history of Livy. And the metrical vehicle which he +conceived as the only one adequate to his great theme was a rude +experiment, which was ultimately developed into the stately Virgilian +hexameter. Even as a grammarian he performed an important service to the +literary language of Rome, by fixing its prosody and arresting the +tendency to decay in its final syllables. Although of his writings only +fragments remain, these fragments are enough, along with what we know of +him from ancient testimony, to justify us in regarding him as the most +important among the makers of Latin literature before the age of Cicero. + + + Cato. + +There is still one other name belonging partly to this, partly to the +next generation, to be added to those of the men of original force of +mind and character who created Latin literature, that of M. Porcius Cato +the Censor (234-149), the younger contemporary of Ennius, whom he +brought to Rome. More than Naevius and Plautus he represented the pure +native element in that literature, the mind and character of Latium, the +plebeian pugnacity, which was one of the great forces in the Roman +state. His lack of imagination and his narrow patriotism made him the +natural leader of the reaction against the new Hellenic culture. He +strove to make literature ancillary to politics and to objects of +practical utility, and thus started prose literature on the chief lines +that it afterwards followed. Through his industry and vigorous +understanding he gave a great impulse to the creation of Roman oratory, +history and systematic didactic writing. He was one of the first to +publish his speeches and thus to bring them into the domain of +literature. Cicero, who speaks of 150 of these speeches as extant in his +day, praises them for their acuteness, their wit, their conciseness. He +speaks with emphasis of the impressiveness of Cato's eulogy and the +satiric bitterness of his invective. + +Cato was the first historical writer of Rome to use his native tongue. +His _Origines_, the work of his old age, was written with that +thoroughly Roman conception of history which regarded actions and events +solely as they affected the continuous and progressive life of a state. +Cato felt that the record of Roman glory could not be isolated from the +story of the other Italian communities, which, after fighting against +Rome for their own independence, shared with her the task of conquering +the world. To the wider national sympathies which stimulated the +researches of the old censor into the legendary history of the Italian +towns we owe some of the most truly national parts of Virgil's _Aeneid_. + + + Terence. + + Lucilius. + +In Naevius, Plautus, Ennius and Cato are represented the contending +forces which strove for ascendancy in determining what was to be the +character of the new literature. The work, begun by them, was carried on +by younger contemporaries and successors; by Statius Caecilius (c. +220-168), an Insubrian Gaul, in comedy; in tragedy by M. Pacuvius (c. +220-132), the nephew of Ennius, called by Cicero the greatest of Roman +tragedians; and, in the following generation, by L. Accius (c. 170-86), +who was more usually placed in this position. The impulse given to +oratory by Cato, Ser. Sulpicius Galba and others, and along with it the +development of prose composition, went on with increased momentum till +the age of Cicero. But the interval between the death of Ennius (169) +and the beginning of Cicero's career, while one of progressive advance +in the appreciation of literary form and style, was much less +distinguished by original force than the time immediately before and +after the end of the second Punic war. The one complete survival of the +generation after the death of Ennius, the comedy of P. Terentius Afer or +Terence (c. 185-159), exemplifies the gain in literary accomplishment +and the loss in literary freedom. Terence has nothing Roman or Italian +except his pure and idiomatic Latinity. His Athenian elegance affords +the strongest contrast to the Italian rudeness of Cato's _De Re +Rustica_. By looking at them together we understand how much the comedy +of Terence was able to do to refine and humanize the manners of Rome, +but at the same time what a solvent it was of the discipline and ideas +of the old republic. What makes Terence an important witness of the +culture of his time is that he wrote from the centre of the Scipionic +circle, in which what was most humane and liberal in Roman statesmanship +was combined with the appreciation of what was most vital in the Greek +thought and literature of the time. The comedies of Terence may +therefore be held to give some indication of the tastes of Scipio, +Laelius and their friends in their youth. The influence of Panaetius and +Polybius was more adapted to their maturity, when they led the state in +war, statesmanship and oratory, and when the humaner teaching of +Stoicism began to enlarge the sympathies of Roman jurists. But in the +last years during which this circle kept together a new spirit appeared +in Roman politics and a new power in Roman literature,--the +revolutionary spirit evoked by the Gracchi in opposition to the +long-continued ascendancy of the senate, and the new power of Roman +satire, which was exercised impartially and unsparingly against both the +excesses of the revolutionary spirit and the arrogance and incompetence +of the extreme party among the nobles. Roman satire, though in form a +legitimate development of the indigenous dramatic _satura_ through the +written _satura_ of Ennius and Pacuvius, is really a birth of this time, +and its author was the youngest of those admitted into the intimacy of +the Scipionic circle, C. Lucilius of Suessa Aurunca (c. 180-103). Among +the writers before the age of Cicero he alone deserves to be named with +Naevius, Plautus Ennius and Cato as a great originative force in +literature. For about thirty years the most important event in Roman +literature was the production of the satires of Lucilius, in which the +politics, morals, society and letters of the time were criticized with +the utmost freedom and pungency, and his own personality was brought +immediately and familiarly before his contemporaries. The years that +intervened between his death and the beginning of the Ciceronian age are +singularly barren in works of original value. But in one direction there +was some novelty. The tragic writers had occasionally taken their +subjects from Roman life (_fabulae praetextae_), and in comedy we find +the corresponding _togatae_ of Lucius Afranius and others, in which +comedy, while assuming a Roman dress, did not assume the virtue of a +Roman matron. + + + General results from 130 to 80. + +The general results of the last fifty years of the first period (130 to +80) may be thus summed up. In poetry we have the satires of Lucilius, +the tragedies of Accius and of a few successors among the Roman +aristocracy, who thus exemplified the affinity of the Roman stage to +Roman oratory; various annalistic poems intended to serve as +continuations of the great poem of Ennius; minor poems of an +epigrammatic and erotic character, unimportant anticipations of the +Alexandrian tendency operative in the following period; works of +criticism in trochaic tetrameters by Porcius Licinus and others, forming +part of the critical and grammatical movement which almost from the +first accompanied the creative movement in Latin literature, and which +may be regarded as rude precursors of the didactic epistles that Horace +devoted to literary criticism. + + + Oratory. + +The only extant prose work which may be assigned to the end of this +period is the treatise on rhetoric known by the title _Ad Herennium_ (c. +84) a work indicative of the attention bestowed on prose style and +rhetorical studies during the last century of the republic, and which +may be regarded as a precursor of the oratorical treatises of Cicero and +of the work of Quintilian. But the great literary product of this period +was oratory, developed indeed with the aid of these rhetorical studies, +but itself the immediate outcome of the imperial interests, the legal +conflicts, and the political passions of that time of agitation. The +speakers and writers of a later age looked back on Scipio and Laelius, +the Gracchi and their contemporaries, L. Crassus and M. Antonius, as +masters of their art. + + + History. + +In history, regarded as a great branch of prose literature, it is not +probable that much was accomplished, although, with the advance of +oratory and grammatical studies, there must have been not only greater +fluency of composition but the beginning of a richer and more ornate +style. Yet Cicero denies to Rome the existence, before his own time, of +any adequate historical literature. Nevertheless it was by the work of a +number of Roman chroniclers during this period that the materials of +early Roman history were systematized, and the record of the state, as +it was finally given to the world in the artistic work of Livy, was +extracted from the early annals, state documents and private memorials, +combined into a coherent unity, and supplemented by invention and +reflection. Amongst these chroniclers may be mentioned L. Calpurnius +Piso Frugi (consul 133, censor 108), C. Sempronius Tuditanus (consul +129), Cn. Gellius, C. Fannius (consul 122), L. Coelius Antipater, who +wrote a narrative of the second Punic war about 120, and Sempronius +Asellio, who wrote a history of his own times, have a better claim to be +considered historians. There were also special works on antiquities and +contemporary memoirs, and autobiographies such as those of M. Aemilius +Scaurus, the elder, Q. Lutatius Catulus (consul 102 B.C.), and P. +Rutilius Rufus, which formed the sources of future historians. (See +further ANNALES; and ROME: _History_, _Ancient_, § "Authorities.") + + + Summary of the period. + +Although the artistic product of the first period of Latin literature +which has reached us in a complete shape is limited to the comedies of +Plautus and Terence, the influence of the lost literature in determining +the spirit, form and style of the eras of more perfect accomplishment +which followed is unmistakable. While humour and vivacity characterize +the earlier, and urbanity of tone the later development of comedy, the +tendency of serious literature had been in the main practical, ethical, +commemorative and satirical. The higher poetical imagination had +appeared only in Ennius, and had been called forth in him by sympathy +with the grandeur of the national life and the great personal qualities +of its representative men. Some of the chief motives of the later +poetry, e.g. the pleasures and sorrows of private life, had as yet found +scarcely any expression in Latin literature. The fittest metrical +vehicle for epic, didactic, and satiric poetry had been discovered, but +its movement was as yet rude and inharmonious. The idiom of ordinary +life and social intercourse and the more fervid and elevated diction of +oratorical prose had made great progress, but the language of +imagination and poetical feeling was, if vivid and impressive in +isolated expressions, still incapable of being wrought into consecutive +passages of artistic composition. The influences of Greek literature to +which Latin literature owed its birth had not as yet spread beyond Rome +and Latium. The Sabellian races of central and eastern Italy and the +Italo-Celtic and Venetian races of the north, in whom the poetic +susceptibility of Italy was most manifest two generations later, were +not, until after the Social war, sufficiently in sympathy with Rome, and +were probably not as yet sufficiently educated to induce them to +contribute their share to the national literature. Hence the end of the +Social war, and of the Civil war, which arose out of it, is most clearly +a determining factor in Roman literature, and may most appropriately be +taken as marking the end of one period and the beginning of another. + + +_Second Period: from 80 to 42 B.C._ + +The last age of the republic coincides with the first half of the Golden +age of Roman literature. It is generally known as the Ciceronian age +from the name of its greatest literary representative, whose activity as +a speaker and writer was unremitting during nearly the whole period. It +is the age of purest excellence in prose, and of a new birth of poetry, +characterized rather by great original force and artistic promise than +by perfect accomplishment. The five chief representatives of this age +who still hold their rank among the great classical writers are Cicero, +Caesar and Sallust in prose, Lucretius and Catullus in verse. The works +of other prose writers, Varro and Cornelius Nepos, have been partially +preserved; but these writers have no claim to rank with those already +mentioned as creators and masters of literary style. Although literature +had not as yet become a trade or profession, an educated reading public +already existed, and books and intellectual intercourse filled a large +part of the leisure of men actively engaged in affairs. Even oratory was +intended quite as much for readers as for the audiences to which it was +immediately addressed; and some of the greatest speeches which have come +down from that great age of orators were never delivered at all, but +were published as manifestoes after the event with the view of +influencing educated opinion, and as works of art with the view of +giving pleasure to educated taste. + + + Cicero. + +Thus the speeches of M. Tullius Cicero (106-43) belong to the domain of +literature quite as much as to that of forensic or political oratory. +And, although Demosthenes is a master of style unrivalled even by +Cicero, the literary interest of most of Cicero's speeches is stronger +than that of the great mass of Greek oratory. It is urged with justice +that the greater part of Cicero's _Defence of Archias_ was irrelevant to +the issue and would not have been listened to by a Greek court of +justice or a modern jury. But it was fortunate for the interests of +literature that a court of educated Romans could be influenced by the +considerations there submitted to them. In this way a question of the +most temporary interest, concerning an individual of no particular +eminence or importance, has produced one of the most impressive +vindications of literature ever spoken or written. Oratory at Rome +assumed a new type from being cultivated as an art which endeavoured to +produce persuasion not so much by intellectual conviction, as by appeal +to general human sympathies. In oratory, as in every other intellectual +province, the Greeks had a truer sense of the limits and conditions of +their art. But command over form is only one element in the making of an +orator or poet. The largeness and dignity of the matter with which he +has to deal are at least as important. The Roman oratory of the law +courts had to deal not with petty questions of disputed property, of +fraud, or violence, but with great imperial questions, with matters +affecting the well-being of large provinces and the honour and safety of +the republic; and no man ever lived who, in these respects, was better +fitted than Cicero to be the representative of the type of oratory +demanded by the condition of the later republic. To his great artistic +accomplishment, perfected by practice and elaborate study, to the power +of his patriotic, his moral, and personal sympathies, and his passionate +emotional nature, must be added his vivid imagination and the rich and +copious stream of his language, in which he had no rival among Roman +writers or speakers. It has been said that Roman poetry has produced +few, if any, great types of character. But the Verres, Catiline, Antony +of Cicero are living and permanent types. The story told in the _Pro +Cluentio_ may be true or false, but the picture of provincial crime +which it presents is vividly dramatic. Had we only known Cicero in his +speeches we should have ranked him with Demosthenes as one who had +realized the highest literary ideal. We should think of him also as the +creator and master of Latin style--and, moreover, not only as a great +orator but as a just and appreciative critic of oratory. But to his +services to Roman oratory we have to add his services not indeed to +philosophy but to the literature of philosophy. Though not a philosopher +he is an admirable interpreter of those branches of philosophy which are +fitted for practical application, and he presents us with the results of +Greek reflection vivified by his own human sympathies and his large +experience of men. In giving a model of the style in which human +interest can best be imparted to abstract discussions, he used his great +oratorical gift and art to persuade the world to accept the most hopeful +opinions on human destiny and the principles of conduct most conducive +to elevation and integrity of character. + +The _Letters_ of Cicero are thoroughly natural--_colloquia absentium +amicorum_, to use his own phrase. Cicero's letters to Atticus, and to +the friends with whom he was completely at his ease, are the most +sincere and immediate expression of the thought and feeling of the +moment. They let us into the secret of his most serious thoughts and +cares, and they give a natural outlet to his vivacity of observation, +his wit and humour, his kindliness of nature. It shows how flexible an +instrument Latin prose had become in his hand, when it could do justice +at once to the ample and vehement volume of his oratory, to the calmer +and more rhythmical movement of his philosophical meditation, and to the +natural interchange of thought and feeling in the everyday intercourse +of life. + + + Caesar. + +Among the many rival orators of the age the most eminent were Quintus +Hortensius Ortalus and C. Julius Caesar. The former was the leading +representative of the Asiatic or florid style of oratory, and, like +other members of the aristocracy, such as C. Memmius and L. Manlius +Torquatus, and like Q. Catulus in the preceding generation, was a kind +of dilettante poet and a precursor of the poetry of pleasure, which +attained such prominence in the elegiac poets of the Augustan age. Of C. +Julius Caesar (102-44) as an orator we can judge only by his reputation +and by the testimony of his great rival and adversary Cicero; but we are +able to appreciate the special praise of perfect taste in the use of +language attributed to him.[1] In his _Commentaries_, by laying aside +the ornaments of oratory, he created the most admirable style of prose +narrative, the style which presents interesting events in their sequence +of time and dependence on the will of the actor, rapidly and vividly, +with scarcely any colouring of personal or moral feeling, any oratorical +passion, any pictorial illustration. While he shows the persuasive art +of an orator by presenting the subjugation of Gaul and his own action in +the Civil War in the light most favourable to his claim to rule the +Roman world, he is entirely free from the Roman fashion of +self-laudation or disparagement of an adversary. The character of the +man reveals itself especially in a perfect simplicity of style, the +result of the clearest intelligence and the strongest sense of personal +dignity. He avoids not only every unusual but every superfluous word; +and, although no writing can be more free from rhetorical colouring, yet +there may from time to time be detected a glow of sympathy, like the +glow of generous passion in Thucydides, the more effective from the +reserve with which it betrays itself whenever he is called on to record +any act of personal heroism or of devotion to military duty. + + + Sallust. + +In the simplicity of his style, the directness of his narrative, the +entire absence of any didactic tendency, Caesar presents a marked +contrast to another prose writer of that age--the historian C. +Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (c. 87-36). Like Varro, he survived Cicero +by some years, but the tone and spirit in which his works are written +assign him to the republican era. He was the first of the purely +artistic historians, as distinct from the annalists and the writers of +personal memoirs. He imitated the Greek historians in taking particular +actions--the _Jugurthan War_ and the _Catilinarian Conspiracy_--as the +subjects of artistic treatment. He wrote also a continuous work, +_Historiae_, treating of the events of the twelve years following the +death of Sulla, of which only fragments are preserved. His two extant +works are more valuable as artistic studies of the rival parties in the +state and of personal character than as trustworthy narratives of facts. +His style aims at effectiveness by pregnant expression, sententiousness, +archaism. He produces the impression of caring more for the manner of +saying a thing than for its truth. Yet he has great value as a painter +of historical portraits, some of them those of his contemporaries, and +as an author who had been a political partisan and had taken some part +in making history before undertaking to write it; and he gives us, from +the popular side, the views of a contemporary on the politics of the +time. Of the other historians, or rather annalists, who belong to this +period, such as Q. Claudius Quadrigarius, Q. Valerius Antias, and C. +Licinius Macer, the father of Calvus, we have only fragments remaining. + + + Varro. + +The period was also remarkable for the production of works which we +should class as technical or scientific rather than literary. The +activity of one of these writers was so great that he is entitled to a +separate mention. This was M. Terentius Varro, the most learned not only +of the Romans but of the Greeks, as he has been called. The list of +Varro's writings includes over seventy treatises and more than six +hundred books dealing with topics of every conceivable kind. His +_Menippeae Saturae_, miscellanies in prose and verse, of which +unfortunately only fragments are left, was a work of singular literary +interest. + + + Lucretius. + +Since the _Annals_ of Ennius no great and original poem had appeared. +The powerful poetical force which for half a century continued to be the +strongest force in literature, and which created masterpieces of art and +genius, first revealed itself in the latter part of the Ciceronian age. +The conditions which enabled the poetic genius of Italy to come to +maturity in the person of T. Lucretius Carus (96-55) were entire +seclusion from public life and absorption in the ideal pleasures of +contemplation and artistic production. This isolation from the familiar +ways of his contemporaries, while it was, according to tradition and the +internal evidence of his poem, destructive to his spirit's health, +resulted in a work of genius, unique in character, which still stands +forth as the greatest philosophical poem in any language. In the form of +his poem he followed a Greek original; and the stuff out of which the +texture of his philosophical argument is framed was derived from Greek +science; but all that is of deep human and poetical meaning in the poem +is his own. While we recognize in the _De Rerum Natura_ some of the most +powerful poetry in any language and feel that few poets have penetrated +with such passionate sincerity and courage into the secret of nature and +some of the deeper truths of human life, we must acknowledge that, as +compared with the great didactic poem of Virgil, it is crude and +unformed in artistic design, and often rough and unequal in artistic +execution. Yet, apart altogether from its independent value, by his +speculative power and enthusiasm, by his revelation of the life and +spectacle of nature, by the fresh creativeness of his diction and the +elevated movement of his rhythm, Lucretius exercised a more powerful +influence than any other on the art of his more perfect successors. + + + Catullus. + +While the imaginative and emotional side of Roman poetry was so +powerfully represented by Lucretius, attention was directed to its +artistic side by a younger generation, who moulded themselves in a great +degree on Alexandrian models. Such were Valerius Cato also a +distinguished literary critic, and C. Licinius Calvus, an eminent +orator. Of this small group of poets one only has survived, fortunately +the man of most genius among them, the bosom-friend of Calvus, C. +Valerius Catullus (84-54). He too was a new force in Roman literature. +He was a provincial by birth, although early brought into intimate +relations with members of the great Roman families. The subjects of his +best art are taken immediately from his own life--his loves, his +friendships, his travels, his animosities, personal and political. His +most original contribution to the substance of Roman literature was that +he first shaped into poetry the experience of his own heart, as it had +been shaped by Alcaeus and Sappho in the early days of Greek poetry. No +poet has surpassed him in the power of vitally reproducing the pleasure +and pain of the passing hour, not recalled by idealizing reflection as +in Horace, nor overlaid with mythological ornament as in Propertius, but +in all the keenness of immediate impression. He also introduced into +Roman literature that personal as distinct from political or social +satire which appears later in the _Epodes_ of Horace and the _Epigrams_ +of Martial. He anticipated Ovid in recalling the stories of Greek +mythology to a second poetical life. His greatest contribution to poetic +art consisted in the perfection which he attained in the phalaecian, the +pure iambic, and the scazon metres, and in the ease and grace with which +he used the language of familiar intercourse, as distinct from that of +the creative imagination, of the _rostra_, and of the schools, to give +at once a lifelike and an artistic expression to his feelings. He has +the interest of being the last poet of the free republic. In his life +and in his art he was the precursor of those poets who used their genius +as the interpreter and minister of pleasure; but he rises above them in +the spirit of personal independence, in his affection for his friends, +in his keen enjoyment of natural and simple pleasures, and in his power +of giving vital expression to these feelings. + + +_Third Period: Augustan Age, 42 B.C. to A.D. 17._ + + Influence of imperial institutions. + +The poetic impulse and culture communicated to Roman literature in the +last years of the republic passed on without any break of continuity +into the literature of the succeeding age. One or two of the circle of +Catullus survived into that age; but an entirely new spirit came over +the literature of the new period, and it is by new men, educated indeed +under the same literary influences, but living in an altered world and +belonging originally to a different order in the state, that the new +spirit was expressed. The literature of the later republic reflects the +sympathies and prejudices of an aristocratic class, sharing in the +conduct of national affairs and living on terms of equality with one +another; that of the Augustan age, first in its early serious +enthusiasm, and then in the licence and levity of its later development, +represents the hopes and aspirations with which the new monarchy was +ushered into the world, and the pursuit of pleasure and amusement, which +becomes the chief interest of a class cut off from the higher energies +of practical life, and moving in the refining and enervating atmosphere +of an imperial court. The great inspiring influence of the new +literature was the enthusiasm produced first by the hope and afterwards +by the fulfilment of the restoration of peace, order, national glory, +under the rule of Augustus. All that the age longed for seemed to be +embodied in a man who had both in his own person and by inheritance the +natural spell which sways the imagination of the world. The sentiment of +hero-worship was at all times strong in the Romans, and no one was ever +the object of more sincere as well as simulated hero-worship than +Augustus. It was not, however, by his equals in station that the first +feeling was likely to be entertained. The earliest to give expression to +it was Virgil; but the spell was soon acknowledged by the colder and +more worldly-wise Horace. The disgust aroused by the anti-national +policy of Antony, and the danger to the empire which was averted by the +result of the battle of Actium, combined with the confidence inspired by +the new ruler to reconcile the great families as well as the great body +of the people to the new order of things. + +While the establishment of the empire produced a revival of national and +imperial feeling, it suppressed all independent political thought and +action. Hence the two great forms of prose literature which drew their +nourishment from the struggles of political life, oratory and +contemporary history, were arrested in their development. The main +course of literature was thus for a time diverted into poetry. That +poetry in its most elevated form aimed at being the organ of the new +empire and of realizing the national ideals of life and character under +its auspices; and in carrying out this aim it sought to recall the great +memories of the past. It became also the organ of the pleasures and +interests of private life, the chief motives of which were the love of +nature and the passion of love. It sought also to make the art and +poetry of Greece live a new artistic life. Satire, debarred from comment +on political action, turned to social and individual life, and combined +with the newly-developed taste for ethical analysis and reflection +introduced by Cicero. One great work had still to be done in prose--a +retrospect of the past history of the state from an idealizing and +romanticizing point of view. For that work the Augustan age, as the end +of one great cycle of events and the beginning of another, was eminently +suited, and a writer who, by his gifts of imagination and sympathy, was +perhaps better fitted than any other man of antiquity for the task, and +who through the whole of this period lived a life of literary leisure, +was found to do justice to the subject. + +Although the age did not afford free scope and stimulus to individual +energy and enterprise, it furnished more material and social advantages +for the peaceful cultivation of letters. The new influence of patronage, +which in other times has chilled the genial current of literature, +become, in the person of Maecenas, the medium through which literature +and the imperial policy were brought into union. Poetry thus acquired +the tone of the world, kept in close connexion with the chief source of +national life, while it was cultivated to the highest pitch of artistic +perfection under the most favourable conditions of leisure and freedom +from the distractions and anxieties of life. + + + Virgil. + +The earliest in the order of time of the poets who adorn this age--P. +Vergilius Maro or Virgil (70-19)--is also the greatest in genius, the +most richly cultivated, and the most perfect in art. He is the +idealizing poet of the hopes and aspirations and of the purer and +happier life of which the age seemed to contain the promise. He elevates +the present by associating it with the past and future of the world, and +sanctifies it by seeing in it the fulfilment of a divine purpose. Virgil +is the true representative poet of Rome and Italy, of national glory and +of the beauty of nature, the artist in whom all the efforts of the past +were made perfect, and the unapproachable standard of excellence to +future times. While more richly endowed with sensibility to all native +influences, he was more deeply imbued than any of his contemporaries +with the poetry, the thought and the learning of Greece. The earliest +efforts of his art (the _Eclogues_) reproduce the cadences, the diction +and the pastoral fancies of Theocritus; but even in these imitative +poems of his youth Virgil shows a perfect mastery of his materials. The +Latin hexameter, which in Ennius and Lucretius was the organ of the more +dignified and majestic emotions, became in his hands the most perfect +measure in which the softer and more luxurious sentiment of nature has +been expressed. The sentiment of Italian scenery and the love which the +Italian peasant has for the familiar sights and sounds of his home found +a voice which never can pass away. + +In the _Georgics_ we are struck by the great advance in the originality +and self-dependence of the artist, in the mature perfection of his +workmanship, in the deepening and strengthening of all his sympathies +and convictions. His genius still works under forms prescribed by Greek +art, and under the disadvantage of having a practical and utilitarian +aim imposed on it. But he has ever in form so far surpassed his +originals that he alone has gained for the pure didactic poem a place +among the highest forms of serious poetry, while he has so transmuted +his material that, without violation of truth, he has made the whole +poem alive with poetic feeling. The homeliest details of the farmer's +work are transfigured through the poet's love of nature; through his +religious feeling and his pious sympathy with the sanctities of human +affection; through his patriotic sympathy with the national greatness; +and through the rich allusiveness of his art to everything in poetry and +legend which can illustrate and glorify his theme. + +In the _Eclogues_ and _Georgics_ Virgil is the idealizing poet of the +old simple and hardy life of Italy, as the imagination could conceive of +it in an altered world. In the _Aeneid_ he is the idealizing poet of +national glory, as manifested in the person of Augustus. The epic of +national life, vividly conceived but rudely executed by Ennius, was +perfected in the years that followed the decisive victory at Actium. To +do justice to his idea Virgil enters into rivalry with a greater poet +than those whom he had equalled or surpassed in his previous works. And, +though he cannot unroll before us the page of heroic action with the +power and majesty of Homer, yet by the sympathy with which he realizes +the idea of Rome, and by the power with which he has used the details of +tradition, of local scenes, of religious usage, to embody it, he has +built up in the form of an epic poem the most enduring and the most +artistically constructed monument of national grandeur. + + + Horace. + +The second great poet of the time--Q. Horatius Flaccus or Horace (68-8) +is both the realist and the idealist of his age. If we want to know the +actual lives, manners and ways of thinking of the Romans of the +generation succeeding the overthrow of the republic it is in the +_Satires_ and partially in the _Epistles_ of Horace that we shall find +them. If we ask what that time provided to stir the fancy and move the +mood of imaginative reflection, it is in the lyrical poems of Horace +that we shall find the most varied and trustworthy answer. His literary +activity extends over about thirty years and naturally divides itself +into three periods, each marked by a distinct character. The +first--extending from about 40 to 29--is that of the _Epodes_ and +_Satires_. In the former he imitates the Greek poet Archilochus, but +takes his subjects from the men, women and incidents of the day. +Personality is the essence of his _Epodes_; in the _Satires_ it is used +merely as illustrative of general tendencies. In the _Satires_ we find +realistic pictures of social life, and the conduct and opinions of the +world submitted to the standard of good feeling and common sense. The +style of the _Epodes_ is pointed and epigrammatic, that of the _Satires_ +natural and familiar. The hexameter no longer, as in Lucilius, moves +awkwardly as if in fetters, but, like the language of Terence, of +Catullus in his lighter pieces, of Cicero in his letters to Atticus, +adapts itself to the everyday intercourse of life. The next period is +the meridian of his genius, the time of his greatest lyrical +inspiration, which he himself associates with the peace and leisure +secured to him by his Sabine farm. The life of pleasure which he had +lived in his youth comes back to him, not as it was in its actual +distractions and disappointments, but in the idealizing light of +meditative retrospect. He had not only become reconciled to the new +order of things, but was moved by his intimate friendship with Maecenas +to aid in raising the world to sympathy with the imperial rule through +the medium of his lyrical inspiration, as Virgil had through the glory +of his epic art. With the completion of the three books of _Odes_ he +cast aside for a time the office of the _vates_, and resumed that of the +critical spectator of human life, but in the spirit of a moralist rather +than a satirist. He feels the increasing languor of the time as well as +the languor of advancing years, and seeks to encourage younger men to +take up the rôle of lyrical poetry, while he devotes himself to the +contemplation of the true art of living. Self-culture rather than the +fulfilment of public or social duty, as in the moral teaching of Cicero, +is the aim of his teaching; and in this we recognize the influence of +the empire in throwing the individual back on himself. As Cicero tones +down his oratory in his moral treatises, so Horace tones down the +fervour of his lyrical utterances in his _Epistles_, and thus produces a +style combining the ease of the best epistolary style with the grace and +concentration of poetry--the style, as it has been called, of "idealized +common sense," that of the _urbanus_ and cultivated man of the world who +is also in his hours of inspiration a genuine poet. In the last ten +years of his life Horace resumed his lyrical function for a time, under +pressure of the imperial command, and produced some of the most +exquisite and mature products of his art. But his chief activity is +devoted to criticism. He first vindicates the claims of his own age to +literary pre-eminence, and then seeks to stimulate the younger writers +of the day to what he regarded as the manlier forms of poetry, and +especially to the tragic drama, which seemed for a short time to give +promise of an artistic revival. + +But the poetry of the latter half of the Augustan age destined to +survive did not follow the lines either of lyrical or of dramatic art +marked out by Horace. The latest form of poetry adopted from Greece and +destined to gain and permanently to hold the ear of the world was the +_elegy_. From the time of Mimnermus this form seems to have presented +itself as the most natural vehicle for the poetry of pleasure in an age +of luxury, refinement and incipient decay. Its facile flow and rhythm +seem to adapt it to the expression and illustration of personal feeling. +It goes to the mind of the reader through a medium of sentiment rather +than of continuous thought or imaginative illustration. The greatest +masters of this kind of poetry are the elegiac poets of the Augustan +age--Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid. + + + Tibullus + +Of the ill-fated C. Cornelius Gallus, their predecessor, we have but a +single pentameter remaining. Of the three Tibullus (c. 54-19) is the +most refined and tender. As the poet of love he gives utterance to the +pensive melancholy rather than to the pleasures associated with it. In +his sympathy with the life and beliefs of the country people he shows an +affinity both to the idyllic spirit and to the piety of Virgil. There is +something, too, in his fastidious refinement and in his shrinking from +the rough contact of life that reminds us of the English poet Gray. + + + Propertius. + +A poet of more strength and more powerful imagination, but of less +refinement in his life and less exquisite taste in his art, is Sextus +Propertius (c. 50-c. 15). His youth was a more stormy one than that of +Tibullus, and was passed, not like his, among the "healthy woods" of his +country estate, but amid all the licence of the capital. His passion for +Cynthia, the theme of his most finished poetry, is second only in +interest to that of Catullus for Lesbia; and Cynthia in her fascination +and caprices seems a more real and intelligible personage than the +idealized object first of the idolatry and afterwards of the malediction +of Catullus. Propertius is a less accomplished artist and a less equably +pleasing writer than either Tibullus or Ovid, but he shows more power of +dealing gravely with a great or tragic situation than either of them, +and his diction and rhythm give frequent proof of a concentrated force +of conception and a corresponding movement of imaginative feeling which +remind us of Lucretius. + + + Ovid. + +The most facile and brilliant of the elegiac poets and the least serious +in tone and spirit is P. Ovidius Naso or Ovid (43 B.C.-A.D. 18). As an +amatory poet he is the poet of pleasure and intrigue rather than of +tender sentiment or absorbing passion. Though he treated his subject in +relation to himself with more levity and irony than real feeling, yet by +his sparkling wit and fancy he created a literature of sentiment and +adventure adapted to amuse the idle and luxurious society of which the +elder Julia was the centre. His power of continuous narrative is best +seen in the _Metamorphoses_, written in hexameters to which he has +imparted a rapidity and precision of movement more suited to romantic +and picturesque narrative than the weighty self-restrained verse of +Virgil. In his _Fasti_ he treats a subject of national interest; it is +not, however, through the strength of Roman sentiment but through the +power of vividly conceiving and narrating stories of strong human +interest that the poem lives. In his latest works--the _Tristia_ and _Ex +Ponto_--he imparts the interest of personal confessions to the record of +a unique experience. Latin poetry is more rich in the expression of +personal feeling than of dramatic realism. In Ovid we have both. We know +him in the intense liveliness of his feeling and the human weakness of +his nature more intimately than any other writer of antiquity, except +perhaps Cicero. As Virgil marks the point of maturest excellence in +poetic diction and rhythm, Ovid marks that of the greatest facility. + + + Livy. + +The Augustan age was one of those great eras in the world like the era +succeeding the Persian War in Greece, the Elizabethan age in England, +and the beginning of the 19th century in Europe, in which what seems a +new spring of national and individual life calls out an idealizing +retrospect of the past. As the present seems full of new life, the past +seems rich in glory and the future in hope. The past of Rome had always +a peculiar fascination for Roman writers. Virgil in a supreme degree, +and Horace, Propertius and Ovid in a less degree, had expressed in their +poetry the romance of the past. But it was in the great historical work +of T. Livius or Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17) that the record of the national +life received its most systematic exposition. Its execution was the +work of a life prolonged through the languor and dissolution following +so soon upon the promise of the new era, during which time the past +became glorified by contrast with the disheartening aspect of the +present. The value of the work consists not in any power of critical +investigation or weighing of historical evidence but in the intense +sympathy of the writer with the national ideal, and the vivid +imagination with which under the influence of this sympathy he gives +life to the events and personages, the wars and political struggles, of +times remote from his own. He makes us feel more than any one the +majesty of the Roman state, of its great magistracies, and of the august +council by which its policy was guided. And, while he makes the words +_senatus populusque Romanus_ full of significance for all times, no one +realizes with more enthusiasm all that is implied in the words _imperium +Romanum_, and the great military qualities of head and heart by which +that empire was acquired and maintained. The vast scale on which the +work was conceived and the thoroughness of artistic execution with which +the details are finished are characteristically Roman. The prose style +of Rome, as a vehicle for the continuous narration of events coloured by +a rich and picturesque imagination and instinct with dignified emotion, +attained its perfection in Livy. + + +_Fourth Period: The Silver Age, from A.D. 17 to about 130_. + + Characteristics of post-Augustan age. + +For more than a century after the death of Augustus Roman literature +continues to flow in the old channels. Though drawing from the +provinces, Rome remains the centre of the literary movement. The +characteristics of the great writers are essentially national, not +provincial nor cosmopolitan. In prose the old forms--oratory, history, +the epistle, treatises or dialogues on ethical and literary +questions--continue to be cultivated. Scientific and practical subjects, +such as natural history, architecture, medicine, agriculture, are +treated in more elaborate literary style. The old Roman _satura_ is +developed into something like the modern prose novel. In the various +provinces of poetry, while there is little novelty or inspiration, there +is abundance of industry and ambitious effort. The national love of +works of large compass shows itself in the production of long epic +poems, both of the historic and of the imitative Alexandrian type. The +imitative and rhetorical tastes of Rome showed themselves in the +composition of exotic tragedies, as remote in spirit and character from +Greek as from Roman life, of which the only extant specimens are those +attributed to the younger Seneca. The composition of didactic, lyrical +and elegiac poetry also was the accomplishment and pastime of an +educated dilettante class, the only extant specimens of any interest +being some of the _Silvae_ of Statius. The only voice with which the +poet of this age can express himself with force and sincerity is that of +satire and satiric epigram. We find now only imitative echoes of the old +music created by Virgil and others, as in Statius, or powerful +declamation, as in Lucan and Juvenal. There is a deterioration in the +diction as well as in the music of poetry. The elaborate literary +culture of the Augustan age has done something to impair the native +force of the Latin idiom. The language of literature, in the most +elaborate kind of prose as well as poetry, loses all ring of popular +speech. The old oratorical tastes and aptitudes find their outlet in +public recitations and the practice of declamation. Forced and distorted +expression, exaggerated emphasis, point and antithesis, an affected +prettiness, are studied with the view of gaining the applause of +audiences who thronged the lecture and recitation rooms in search of +temporary excitement. Education is more widely diffused, but is less +thorough, less leisurely in its method, derived less than before from +the purer sources of culture. The precocious immaturity of Lucan's +career affords a marked contrast to the long preparation of Virgil and +Horace for their high office. Although there are some works of this +so-called Silver Age of considerable and one at least of supreme +interest, from the insight they afford into the experience of a century +of organized despotism and its effect on the spiritual life of the +ancient world, it cannot be doubted that the steady literary decline +which characterized the last centuries of paganism was beginning before +the death of Ovid and Livy. + +The influences which had inspired republican and Augustan literature +were the artistic impulse derived from a familiarity with the great +works of Greek genius, becoming more intimate with every new generation, +the spell of Rome over the imagination of the kindred Italian races, the +charm of Italy, and the vivid sensibility of the Italian temperament. +These influences were certainly much less operative in the first century +of the empire. The imitative impulse, which had much of the character of +a creative impulse, and had resulted in the appropriation of the forms +of poetry suited to the Roman and Italian character and of the metres +suited to the genius of the Latin language, no longer stimulated to +artistic effort. The great sources of Greek poetry were no longer +regarded, as they were by Lucretius and Virgil, as sacred, untasted +springs, to be approached in a spirit of enthusiasm tempered with +reverence. We have the testimony of two men of shrewd common sense and +masculine understanding--Martial and Juvenal--to the stale and lifeless +character of the art of the Silver Age, which sought to reproduce in the +form of epics, tragedies and elegies the bright fancies of the Greek +mythology. + +The idea of Rome, owing to the antagonism between the policy of the +government and the sympathies of the class by which literature was +favoured and cultivated, could no longer be an inspiring motive, as it +had been in the literature of the republic and of the Augustan age. The +spirit of Rome appears only as animating the protest of Lucan, the +satire of Persius and Juvenal, the sombre picture which Tacitus paints +of the annals of the empire. Oratory is no longer an independent voice +appealing to sentiments of Roman dignity, but the weapon of the +"informers" (_delatores_), wielded for their own advancement and the +destruction of that class which, even in their degeneracy, retained most +sympathy with the national traditions. Roman history was no longer a +record of national glory, stimulating the patriotism and flattering the +pride of all Roman citizens, but a personal eulogy or a personal +invective, according as servility to a present or hatred of a recent +ruler was the motive which animated it. + +The charm of Italian scenes still remained the same, but the fresh and +inspiring feeling cf nature gave place to the mere sensuous +gratification derived from the luxurious and artificial beauty of the +country villa. The idealizing poetry of passion, which found a genuine +voice in Catullus and the elegiac poets, could not prolong itself +through the exhausting licence of successive generations. The vigorous +vitality which gives interest to the personality of Catullus, Propertius +and Ovid no longer characterizes their successors. The pathos of natural +affection is occasionally recognized in Statius and more rarely in +Martial, but it has not the depth of tenderness found in Lucretius and +Virgil. The wealth and luxury of successive generations, the monotonous +routine of life, the separation of the educated class from the higher +work of the world, have produced their enervating and paralysing effect +on the mainsprings of poetic and imaginative feeling. + + + New literary elements. + +New elements, however, appear in the literature of this period. As the +result of the severance from the active interests of life, a new +interest is awakened in the inner life of the individual. The immorality +of Roman society not only affords abundant material to the satirist, but +deepens the consciousness of moral evil in purer and more thoughtful +minds. To these causes we attribute the pathological observation of +Seneca and Tacitus, the new sense of purity in Persius called out by +contrast with the impurity around him, the glowing if somewhat +sensational exaggeration of Juvenal, the vivid characterization of +Martial. The literature of no time presents so powerfully the contrast +between moral good and evil. In this respect it is truly representative +of the life of the age. Another new element is the influence of a new +race. In the two preceding periods the rapid diffusion of literary +culture following the Social War and the first Civil War was seen to +awaken into new life the elements of original genius in Italy and +Cisalpine Gaul. In the first century of the empire a similar result was +produced by the diffusion of that culture in the Latinized districts of +Spain. The fervid temperament of a fresh and vigorous race, which +received the Latin discipline just as Latium had two or three centuries +previously received the Greek discipline, revealed itself in the +writings of the Senecas, Lucan, Quintilian, Martial and others, who in +their own time added literary distinction to the Spanish towns from +which they came. The new extraneous element introduced into Roman +literature draws into greater prominence the characteristics of the last +great representatives of the genuine Roman and Italian spirit--the +historian Tacitus and the satirist Juvenal. + +On the whole this century shows, in form, language and substance, the +signs of literary decay. But it is still capable of producing men of +original force; it still maintains the traditions of a happier time; it +is still alive to the value of literary culture, and endeavours by +minute attention to style to produce new effects. Though it was not one +of the great eras in the annals of literature, yet the century which +produced Martial, Juvenal and Tacitus cannot be pronounced barren in +literary originality, nor that which produced Seneca and Quintilian +devoid of culture and literary taste. + +This fourth period is itself subdivided into three divisions: (1) from +the accession of Tiberius to the death of Nero, 68--the most important +part of it being the Neronian age, 54 to 68; (2) the Flavian era, from +the death of Nero to the death of Domitian, 96; (3) the reigns of Nerva +and Trajan and part of the reign of Hadrian. + + + Period from Tiberius to Nero. + +1. For a generation after the death of Augustus no new original literary +force appeared. The later poetry of the Augustan age had ended in +trifling dilettantism, for the continuance of which the atmosphere of +the court was no longer favourable. The class by which literature was +encouraged had become both enervated and terrorized. The most remarkable +poetical product of the time is the long-neglected astrological poem of +Manilius which was written at the beginning of Tiberius's reign. Its +vigour and originality have had scanty justice done to them owing to the +difficulty of the subject-matter and the style, and the corruptions +which still disfigure its text. Very different has been the fate of the +_Fables_ of Phaedrus. This slight work of a Macedonian freedman, +destitute of national significance and representative in its morality +only of the spirit of cosmopolitan individualism, owes its vogue to its +easy Latinity and popular subject-matter. Of the prose writers C. +Velleius Paterculus, the historian, and Valerius Maximus, the collector +of anecdotes, are the most important. A. Cornelius Celsus composed a +series of technical handbooks, one of which, upon medicine, has +survived. Its purity of style and the fact that it was long a standard +work entitle it to a mention here. The traditional culture was still, +however, maintained, and the age was rich in grammarians and +rhetoricians. The new profession of the _delator_ must have given a +stimulus to oratory. A high ideal of culture, literary as well as +practical, was realized in Germanicus, which seems to have been +transmitted to his daughter Agrippina, whose patronage of Seneca had +important results in the next generation. The reign of Claudius was a +time in which antiquarian learning, grammatical studies, and +jurisprudence were cultivated, but no important additions were made to +literature. A fresh impulse was given to letters on the accession of +Nero, and this was partly due to the theatrical and artistic tastes of +the young emperor. Four writers of the Neronian age still possess +considerable interest,--L. Annaeus Seneca, M. Annaeus Lucanus, A. +Persius Flaccus and Petronius Arbiter. The first three represent the +spirit of their age by exhibiting the power of the Stoic philosophy as a +moral, political and religious force; the last is the most cynical +exponent of the depravity of the time. Seneca (c. 5 B.C.-A.D. 65) is +less than Persius a pure Stoic, and more of a moralist and pathological +observer of man's inner life. He makes the commonplaces of a +cosmopolitan philosophy interesting by his abundant illustration drawn +from the private and social life of his contemporaries. He has knowledge +of the world, the suppleness of a courtier, Spanish vivacity, and the +_ingenium amoenum_ attributed to him by Tacitus, the fruit of which is +sometimes seen in the "honeyed phrases" mentioned by Petronius--pure +aspirations combined with inconsistency of purpose--the inconsistency of +one who tries to make the best of two worlds, the ideal inner life and +the successful real life in the atmosphere of a most corrupt court. The +_Pharsalia_ of Lucan (39-65), with Cato as its hero, is essentially a +Stoic manifesto of the opposition. It is written with the force and +fervour of extreme youth and with the literary ambition of a race as yet +new to the discipline of intellectual culture, and is characterized by +rhetorical rather than poetical imagination. The six short _Satires_ of +Persius (34-62) are the purest product of Stoicism--a Stoicism that had +found in a contemporary, Thrasea, a more rational and practical hero +than Cato. But no important writer of antiquity has less literary charm +than Persius. In avoiding the literary conceits and fopperies which he +satirizes he has recourse to the most unnatural contortions of +expression. Of hardly greater length are the seven eclogues of T. +Calpurnius Siculus, written at the beginning of the reign of Nero, which +are not without grace and facility of diction. Of the works of the time +that which from a human point of view is perhaps the most detestable in +ancient literature has the most genuine literary quality, the fragment +of a prose novel--the _Satyricon_--of Petronius (d. 66). It is most +sincere in its representation, least artificial in diction, most +penetrating in its satire, most just in its criticism of art and style. + + + Age of Domitian. + +2. A greater sobriety of tone was introduced both into life and +literature with the accession of Vespasian. The time was, however, +characterized rather by good sense and industry than by original genius. +Under Vespasian C. Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the elder (compiler of the +_Natural History_, an encyclopaedic treatise, 23-79), is the most +important prose writer, and C. Valerius Flaccus Setinus Balbus, author +of the _Argonautica_ (d. c. 90), the most important among the writers of +poetry. The reign of Domitian, although it silenced the more independent +spirits of the time, Tacitus and Juvenal, witnessed more important +contributions to Roman literature than any age since the +Augustan,--among them the _Institutes_ of Quintilian, the _Punic War_ of +Silius Italicus, the epics and the _Silvae_ of Statius, and the +_Epigrams_ of Martial. M. Fabius Quintilianus, or Quintilian (c. 35-95), +is brought forward by Juvenal as a unique instance of a thoroughly +successful man of letters, of one not belonging by birth to the rich or +official class, who had risen to wealth and honours through literature. +He was well adapted to his time by his good sense and sobriety of +judgment. His criticism is just and true rather than subtle or +ingenious, and has thus stood the test of the judgment of after-times. +The poem of Ti. Catius Silius Italicus (25-101) is a proof of the +industry and literary ambition of members of the rich official class. Of +the epic poets of the Silver Age P. Papinius Statius (c. 45-96) shows +the greatest technical skill and the richest pictorial fancy in the +execution of detail; but his epics have no true inspiring motive, and, +although the recitation of the _Thebaid_ could attract and charm an +audience in the days of Juvenal, it really belongs to the class of poems +so unsparingly condemned both by him and Martial. In the _Silvae_, +though many of them have little root in the deeper feelings of human +nature, we find occasionally more than in any poetry after the Augustan +age something of the purer charm and pathos of life. But it is not in +the _Silvae_, nor in the epics and tragedies of the time, nor in the +cultivated criticism of Quintilian that the age of Domitian lives for +us. It is in the _Epigrams_ of M. Valerius Martialis or Martial (c. +41-104) that we have a true image of the average sensual frivolous life +of Rome at the end of the 1st century, seen through a medium of wit and +humour, but undistorted by the exaggeration which moral indignation and +the love of effect add to the representation of Juvenal. Martial +represents his age in his _Epigrams_, as Horace does his in his +_Satires_ and _Odes_, with more variety and incisive force in his +sketches, though with much less poetic charm and serious meaning. We +know the daily life, the familiar personages, the outward aspect of Rome +in the age of Domitian better than at any other period of Roman +history, and this knowledge we owe to Martial. + + + Period of Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian. + +3. But it was under Nerva and Trajan that the greatest and most truly +representative works of the empire were written. The _Annals_ and +_Histories_ of Cornelius Tacitus (54-119), with the supplementary _Life +of Agricola_ and the _Germania_, and the _Satires_ of D. Iunius +Iuvenalis or Juvenal (c. 47-130), sum up for posterity the moral +experience of the Roman world from the accession of Tiberius to the +death of Domitian. The generous scorn and pathos of the historian acting +on extraordinary gifts of imaginative insight and characterization, and +the fierce indignation of the satirist finding its vent in exaggerating +realism, doubtless to some extent warped their impressions; nevertheless +their works are the last voices expressive of the freedom and manly +virtue of the ancient world. In them alone among the writers of the +empire the spirit of the Roman republic seems to revive. The _Letters_ +of C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus or Pliny the Younger (61-c. 115), +though they do not contradict the representation of Tacitus and Juvenal +regarded as an exposure of the political degradation and moral +corruption of prominent individuals and classes, do much to modify the +pervadingly tragic and sombre character of their representation. + +With the death of Juvenal, the most important part of whose activity +falls in the reign of Trajan, Latin literature as an original and +national expression of the experience, character, and sentiment of the +Roman state and empire, and as one of the great literatures of the +world, may be considered closed. + + +_Later Writers._ + + Claudian. + +What remains to describe is little but death and decay. Poetry died +first; the paucity of writings in verse is matched by their +insignificance. For two centuries after Juvenal there are no names but +those of Q. Serenus Sammonicus, with his pharmacopoeia in verse (c. +225), and M. Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus, who wrote a few feeble +eclogues and (283) a dull piece on the training of dogs for the chase. +Towards the middle of the 4th century we have Decimus Magnus Ausonius, a +professor of Bordeaux and afterwards consul (379), whose style is as +little like that of classical poetry as is his prosody. His _Mosella_, a +detailed description of the river Moselle, is the least unattractive of +his works. A little better is his contemporary, Rufius Festus Avienus, +who made some free translations of astronomical and geographical poems +in Greek. A generation later, in what might be called the expiring +effort of Latin poetry, appeared two writers of much greater merit. The +first is Claudius Claudianus (c. 400), a native of Alexandria and the +court poet of the emperor Honorius and his minister Stilicho. Claudian +may be properly styled the last of the poets of Rome. He breathes the +old national spirit, and his mastery of classical idiom and +versification is for his age extraordinary. Something of the same may be +seen in Rutilius Namatianus, a Gaul by birth, who wrote in 416 a +description of his voyage from the capital to his native land, which +contains the most glowing eulogy of Rome ever penned by an ancient hand. +Of the Christian "poets" only Aurelius Prudentius Clemens (c. 348-410) +need be mentioned. He was well read in the ancient literature; but the +task of embodying the Christian spirit in the classical form was one far +beyond his powers. + + + Suetonius. + + Apuleius. + +The vitality of the prose literature was not much greater though its +complete extinction was from the nature of the case impossible. The most +important writer in the age succeeding Juvenal was the biographer C. +Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 75-160), whose work is more valuable for its +matter than its manner. His style is simple and direct, but has hardly +any other merit. A little later the rise of M. Cornelius Fronto (c. +100-175), a native of Cirta, marks the beginning of an African +influence. Fronto, a distinguished orator and intimate friend of the +emperor M. Aurelius, broke away from the traditional Latin of the Silver +and Golden ages, and took as his models the pre-classical authors. The +reaction was short-lived; but the same affectation of antiquity is seen +in the writings of Apuleius, also an African, who lived a little later +than Fronto and was a man of much greater natural parts. In his +_Metamorphoses_, which were based upon a Greek original, he takes the +wonderful story of the adventures of Lucius of Madaura, and interweaves +the famous legend of Cupid and Psyche. His bizarre and mystical style +has a strange fascination for the reader; but there is nothing Roman or +Italian about it. Two epitomists of previous histories may be mentioned: +Justinus (of uncertain date) who abridged the history of Pompeius +Trogus, an Augustan writer; and P. Annius Florus, who wrote in the reign +of Hadrian a rhetorical sketch based upon Livy. The _Historia Augusta_, +which includes the lives of the emperors from Hadrian to Numerianus +(117-284), is the work of six writers, four of whom wrote under +Diocletian and two under Constantine. It is a collection of personal +memoirs of little historical importance, and marked by puerility and +poverty of style. Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330-400) had a higher +conception of the historian's function. His narrative of the years +353-378 (all that now remains) is honest and straightforward, but his +diction is awkward and obscure. The last pagan prose writer who need be +mentioned is Q. Aurelius Symmachus (c. 350-410), the author of some +speeches and a collection of letters. All the art of his ornate and +courtly periods cannot disguise the fact that there was nothing now for +paganism to say. + + + Christian writers. + +It is in Christian writers alone that we find the vigour of life. The +earliest work of Christian apologetics is the _Octavius_ or Minucius +Felix, a contemporary of Fronto. It is written in pure Latin and is +strongly tinged by classical influences. Quite different is the work of +"the fierce Tertullian," Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus (c. 150-230), +a native of Carthage, the most vigorous of the Latin champions of the +new faith. His style shows the African revolt of which we have already +spoken, and in its medley of archaisms, Graecisms and Hebraisms reveals +the strength of the disintegrating forces at work upon the Latin +language. A more commanding figure is that of Aurelius Augustinus or St +Augustine (354-430), bishop of Hippo, who for comprehensiveness and +dialectical power stands out in the same way as Hieronymus or St Jerome +(c. 331 or 340-420), a native of Stridon in Dalmatia, does for +many-sided learning and scholarship. + + + Grammarians. + +The decline of literature proper was attended by an increased output of +grammatical and critical studies. From the time of L. Aelius Stilo +Praeconinus, who was the teacher of Varro and Cicero, much interest had +been taken in literary and linguistic problems at Rome. Varro under the +republic, and M. Verrius Flaccus in the Augustan age, had busied +themselves with lexicography and etymology. The grammarian M. Valerius +Probus (c. A.D. 60) was the first critical editor of Latin texts. In the +next century we have Velius Longus's treatise _De Orthographia_, and +then a much more important work, the _Noctes Atticae_ of Aulus Gellius, +and (c. 200) a treatise in verse by Terentianus, an African, upon Latin +pronunciation, prosody and metre. Somewhat later are the commentators on +Terence and Horace, Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio. The tradition +was continued in the 4th century by Nonius Marcellus and C. Marius +Victorinus, both Africans; Aelius Donatus, the grammarian and +commentator on Terence and Virgil, Flavius Sosipater Charisius and +Diomedes, and Servius, the author of a valuable commentary on Virgil. +Ambrosius Macrobius Theodosius (c. 400) wrote a treatise on Cicero's +_Somnium Scipionis_ and seven books of miscellanies (_Saturnalia_); and +Martianus Capella (c. 430), a native of Africa, published a compendium +of the seven liberal arts, written in a mixture of prose and verse, with +some literary pretensions. The last grammarian who need be named is the +most widely known of all, the celebrated Priscianus, who published his +text-book at Constantinople probably in the middle of the 5th century. + + + Jurists. + +In jurisprudence, which may be regarded as one of the outlying regions +of literature, Roman genius had had some of its greatest triumphs, and, +if we take account of the "codes," was active to the end. The most +distinguished of the early jurists (whose works are lost) were Q. +Mucius Scaevola, who died in 82 B.C., and following him Ser. Sulpicius +Rufus, who died in 43 B.C. In the Augustan age M. Antistius Labeo and C. +Ateius Capito headed two opposing schools in jurisprudence, Labeo being +an advocate of method and reform, and Capito being a conservative and +empiricist. The strife, which reflects the controversy between the +"analogists" and the "anomalists" in philology, continued long after +their death. Salvius Julianus was entrusted by Hadrian with the task of +reducing into shape the immense mass of law which had grown up in the +edicts of successive praetors--thus taking the first step towards a +code. Sex. Pomponius, a contemporary, wrote an important legal manual of +which fragments are preserved. The most celebrated handbook, however, is +the _Institutiones_ of Gaius, who lived under Antonius Pius--a model of +what such treatises should be. The most eminent of all the Roman jurists +was Aemilius Papinianus, the intimate friend of Septimius Severus; of +his works only fragments remain. Other considerable writers were the +prolific Domitius Ulpianus (c. 215) and Julius Paulus, his contemporary. +The last juristical writer of note was Herennius Modestinus (c. 240). +But though the line of great lawyers had ceased, the effects of their +work remained and are clearly visible long after in the "codes"--the +code of Theodosius (438) and the still more famous code of Justinian +(529 and 533), with which is associated the name of Tribonianus. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most full and satisfactory modern account of Latin + literature is M. Schanz's _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur._ The + best in English is the translation by C. C. Warr of W. S. Teuffel and + L. Schwabe's _History of Roman Literature_. J. W. Mackail's short + _History of Latin Literature_ is full of excellent literary and + aesthetic criticisms on the writers. C. Lamarre's _Histoire de la + littérature latine_ (1901, with specimens) only deals with the writers + of the republic. W. Y. Sellar's _Roman Poets of the Republic and Poets + of the Augustan Age_, and R. Y. Tyrrell's _Lectures on Latin Poetry_, + will also be found of service. A concise account of the various Latin + writers and their works, together with bibliographies, is given in J. + E. B. Mayor's _Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature_ (1879), which + is based on a German work by E. Hübner. See also the separate + bibliographies to the articles on individual writers. + (W. Y. S.; J. P. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Latine loqui elegantissime_. + + + + +LATINUS, in Roman legend, king of the aborigines in Latium, and +eponymous hero of the Latin race. In Hesiod (_Theogony_, 1013) he is the +son of Odysseus and Circe, and ruler of the Tyrsenians; in Virgil, the +son of Faunus and the nymph Marica, a national genealogy being +substituted for the Hesiodic, which probably originated from a Greek +source. Latinus was a shadowy personality, invented to explain the +origin of Rome and its relations with Latium, and only obtained +importance in later times through his legendary connexion with Aeneas +and the foundation of Rome. According to Virgil (_Aeneid_, vii.-xii.), +Aeneas, on landing at the mouth of the Tiber, was welcomed by Latinus, +the peaceful ruler whose seat of government was Laurentum, and +ultimately married his daughter Lavinia. + + Other accounts of Latinus, differing considerably in detail, are to be + found in the fragments of Cato's _Origines_ (in Servius's commentary + on Virgil) and in Dionysius of Halicarnassus; see further authorities + in the article by J. A. Hild, in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire + des antiquités_. + + + + +LATITUDE (Lat. _latitudo_, _latus_, broad), a word meaning breadth or +width, hence, figuratively, freedom from restriction, but more generally +used in the geographical and astronomical sense here treated. The +latitude of a point on the earth's surface is its angular distance from +the equator, measured on the curved surface of the earth. The direct +measure of this distance being impracticable, it has to be determined by +astronomical observations. As thus determined it is the angle between +the direction of the plumb-line at the place and the plane of the +equator. This is identical with the angle between the horizontal planes +at the place and at the equator, and also with the elevation of the +celestial pole above the horizon (see ASTRONOMY). Latitude thus +determined by the plumb-line is termed _astronomical_. The _geocentric +latitude_ of a place is the angle which the line from the earth's centre +to the place makes with the plane of the equator. _Geographical +latitude_, which is used in mapping, is based on the supposition that +the earth is an elliptic spheroid of known compression, and is the +angle which the normal to this spheroid makes with the equator. It +differs from the astronomical latitude only in being corrected for local +deviation of the plumb-line. + +The latitude of a celestial object is the angle which the line drawn +from some fixed point of reference to the object makes with the plane of +the ecliptic. + +_Variability of Terrestrial Latitudes._--The latitude of a point on the +earth's surface, as above defined, is measured from the equator. The +latter is defined by the condition that its plane makes a right angle +with the earth's axis of rotation. It follows that if the points in +which this axis intersects the earth's surface, _i.e_. the poles of the +earth, change their positions on the earth's surface, the position of +the equator will also change, and therefore the latitudes of places will +change also. About the end of the 19th century research showed that +there actually was a very minute but measurable periodic change of this +kind. The north and south poles, instead of being fixed points on the +earth's surface, wander round within a circle about 50 ft. in diameter. +The result is a variability of terrestrial latitudes generally. + +[Illustration] + + To show the cause of this motion, let BQ represent a section of an + oblate spheroid through its shortest axis, PP. We may consider this + spheroid to be that of the earth, the ellipticity being greatly + exaggerated. If set in rotation around its axis of figure PP, it will + continue to rotate around that axis for an indefinite time. But if, + instead of rotating around PP, it rotates around some other axis, RR, + making a small angle, POR, with the axis of figure PP; then it has + been known since the time of Euler that the axis of rotation RR, if + referred to the spheroid regarded as fixed, will gradually rotate + round the axis of figure PP in a period defined in the following + way:--If we put C = the moment of momentum of the spheroid around the + axis of figure, and A = the corresponding moment around an axis + passing through the equator EQ, then, calling one day the period of + rotation of the spheroid, the axis RR will make a revolution around PP + in a number of days represented by the fraction C/(C - A). In the case + of the earth, this ratio is 1/0.0032813 or 305. It follows that the + period in question is 305 days. + +Up to 1890 the most careful observations and researches failed to +establish the periodicity of such a rotation, though there was strong +evidence of a variation of latitude. Then S. C. Chandler, from an +elaborate discussion of a great number of observations, showed that +there was really a variation of the latitude of the points of +observation; but, instead of the period being 305 days, it was about 428 +days. At first sight this period seemed to be inconsistent with +dynamical theory. But a defect was soon found in the latter, the +correction of which reconciled the divergence. In deriving a period of +305 days the earth is regarded as an absolutely rigid body, and no +account is taken either of its elasticity or of the mobility of the +ocean. A study of the figure will show that the centrifugal force round +the axis RR will act on the equatorial protuberance of the rotating +earth so as to make it tend in the direction of the arrows. A slight +deformation of the earth will thus result; and the axis of figure of the +distorted spheroid will no longer be PP, but a line P´P´ between PP and +RR. As the latter moves round, P´P´ will continually follow it through +the incessant change of figure produced by the change in the direction +of the centrifugal force. Now the rate of motion of RR is determined by +the actual figure at the moment. It is therefore less than the motion in +an absolutely rigid spheroid in the proportion RP´ : RP. It is found +that, even though the earth were no more elastic than steel, its +yielding combined with the mobility of the ocean would make this ratio +about 2 : 3, resulting in an increase of the period by one-half, making +it about 457 days. Thus this small flexibility is even greater than +that necessary to the reconciliation of observation with theory, and the +earth is shown to be more rigid than steel--a conclusion long since +announced by Kelvin for other reasons. + +Chandler afterwards made an important addition to the subject by showing +that the motion was represented by the superposition of two harmonic +terms, the first having a period of about 430 days, the other of one +year. The result of this superposition is a seven-year period, which +makes 6 periods of the 428-day term (428^d × 6 = 2568^d = 7 years, +nearly), and 7 periods of the annual term. Near one phase of this +combined period the two component motions nearly annul each other, so +that the variation is then small, while at the opposite phase, 3 to 4 +years later, the two motions are in the same direction and the range of +variation is at its maximum. The coefficient of the 428-day term seems +to be between 0.12´´ and 0.16´´; that of the annual term between 0.06´´ +and 0.11´´. Recent observations give smaller values of both than those +made between 1890 and 1900, and there is no reason to suppose either to +be constant. + +The present state of the theory may be summed up as follows:-- + +1. The fourteen-month term is an immediate result of the fact that the +axes of rotation and figure of the earth do not strictly coincide, but +make with each other a small angle of which the mean value is about +0.15". If the earth remained invariable, without any motion of matter on +its surface, the result of this non-coincidence would be the revolution +of the one pole round the other in a circle of radius 0.15", or about 15 +ft., in a period of about 429 days. This revolution is called the +_Eulerian motion_, after the mathematician who discovered it. But owing +to meteorological causes the motion in question is subject to annual +changes. These changes arise from two causes--the one statical, the +other dynamical. + +2. The statical causes are deposits of snow or ice slowly changing the +position of the pole of figure of the earth. For example, a deposit of +snow in Siberia would bring the equator of figure of the earth a little +nearer to Siberia and throw the pole a little way from it, while a +deposit on the American continent would have the opposite effect. Owing +to the approximate symmetry of the American and Asiatic continents it +does not seem likely that the inequality of snowfall would produce an +appreciable effect. + +3. The dynamical causes are atmospheric and oceanic currents. Were these +currents invariable their only effect would be that the Eulerian motion +would not take place exactly round the mean pole of figure, but round a +point slightly separated from it. But, as a matter of fact, they are +subject to an annual variation. Hence the motion of the pole of rotation +is also subject to a similar variation. The annual term in the latitude +is thus accounted for. + +Besides Chandler, Albrecht of Berlin has investigated the motion of the +pole P. The methods of the two astronomers are in some points different. +Chandler has constructed empirical formulae representing the motion, +with the results already given, while Albrecht has determined the motion +of the pole from observation simply, without trying to represent it +either by a formula or by theory. It is noteworthy that the difference +between Albrecht's numerical results and Chandler's formulae is +generally less than 0.05´´. + +When the fluctuation in the position of the pole was fully confirmed, +its importance in astronomy and geodesy led the International Geodetic +Association to establish a series of stations round the globe, as nearly +as possible on the same parallel of latitude, for the purpose of +observing the fluctuation with a greater degree of precision than could +be attained by the miscellaneous observations before available. The same +stars were to be observed from month to month at each station with +zenith-telescopes of similar approved construction. This secures a +double observation of each component of the polar motion, from which +most of the systematic errors are eliminated. The principal stations +are: Carloforte, Italy; Mizusawa, Japan; Gaithersburg, Maryland; and +Ukiah, California, all nearly on the same parallel of latitude, 39° 8´. + +The fluctuations derived from this international work during the last +seven years deviate but slightly from Chandler's formulae though they +show a markedly smaller value of the annual term. In consequence, the +change in the amplitude of the fluctuation through the seven-year period +is not so well marked as before 1900. + + Chandler's investigations are found in a series of papers published in + the _Astronomical Journal_, vols. xi. to xv. and xviii. Newcomb's + explanation of the lengthening of the Eulerian period is found in the + _Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ for March 1892. + Later volumes of the _Astronomical Journal_ contain discussions of the + causes which may produce the annual fluctuation. An elaborate + mathematical discussion of the theory is by Vito Volterra: "Sulla + teoria dei movimenti del Polo terrestre" in the _Astronomische + Nachrichten_, vol. 138; also, more fully in his memoir "Sur la théorie + des variations des latitudes," _Acta Mathematica_, vol. xxii. The + results of the international observations are discussed from time to + time by Albrecht in the publications of the International Geodetic + Association, and in the _Astronomische Nachrichten_ (see also EARTH, + FIGURE OF). (S. N.) + + + + +LATIUM,[1] in ancient geography, the name given to the portion of +central Italy which was bounded on the N.W. by Etruria, on the S.W. by +the Tyrrhenian Sea, on the S.E. by Campania, on the E. by Samnium and on +the N.E. by the mountainous district inhabited by the Sabini, Aequi and +Marsi. The name was, however, applied very differently at different +times. Latium originally means the land of the Latini, and in this +sense, which alone is in use historically, it was a tract of limited +extent; but after the overthrow of the Latin confederacy, when the +neighbouring tribes of the Rutuli, Hernici, Volsci and Aurunci, as well +as the Latini properly so called, were reduced to the condition of +subjects and citizens of Rome, the name of Latium was extended to +comprise them all. It thus denoted the whole country from the Tiber to +the mouth of the Savo, and just included the Mons Massicus, though the +boundary was not very precisely fixed (see below). The change thus +introduced, though already manifest in the composition of the Latin +league (see below) was not formally established till the reign of +Augustus, who formed of this larger Latium and Campania taken together +the first region of Italy; but it is already recognized by Strabo (v. 3. +2. p. 228), as well as by Pliny, who terms the additional territory thus +incorporated _Latium Adjectum_, while he designates the original Latium, +extending from the Tiber to Circeii, as _Latium Antiquum_. + +1. LATIUM ANTIQUUM consisted principally of an extensive plain, now +known as the Campagna di Roma, bounded towards the interior by the +Apennines, which rise very abruptly from the plains to a height of +between 4000 and 5000 ft. Several of the Latin cities, including Tibur +and Praeneste, were situated on the terrace-like underfalls of these +mountains,[2] while Cora, Norba and Setia were placed in like manner on +the slopes of the Volscian mountains (Monti Lepini), a rugged and lofty +limestone range, which runs parallel to the main mass of the Apennines, +being separated from them, however, by the valley of the Trerus (Sacco), +and forms a continuous barrier from there to Terracina. No volcanic +eruptions are known to have taken place in these mountains within the +historic period, though Livy sometimes speaks of it "raining stones in +the Alban hills" (i. 31, xxxv. 9--on the latter occasion it even did so +on the Aventine). It is asserted, too, that some of the earliest tombs +of the necropolis of Alba Longa (q.v.) were found beneath a stratum of +peperino. Earthquakes (not of a violent character within recent +centuries, though the ruin of the Colosseum is probably to be ascribed +to this cause) are not unknown even at the present day in Rome and in +the Alban Hills, and a seismograph has been established at Rocca di +Papa. The surface is by no means a uniform plain, but is a broad +undulating tract, furrowed throughout by numerous depressions, with +precipitous banks, serving as water-courses, though rarely traversed by +any considerable stream. As the general level of the plain rises +gradually, though almost imperceptibly, to the foot of the Apennines, +these channels by degrees assume the character of ravines of a +formidable description. + + + Geology. + + Four main periods may be distinguished in the geological history of + Rome and the surrounding district. The hills on the right bank of the + Tiber culminating in Monte Mario (455 ft.) belong to the first of + these, being of the Pliocene formation; they consist of a lower + bluish-grey clay and an upper group of yellow sands and gravels. This + clay since Roman times has supplied the material for brick-making, and + the valleys which now separate the different summits (Janiculum, + Vatican, Monte Mario) are in considerable measure artificial. On the + left bank this clay has been reached at a lower level, at the foot of + the Pincian Hill, while in the Campagna it has been found to extend + below the later volcanic formations. The latter may be divided into + two groups, corresponding to the second and third periods. In the + second period volcanic activity occurred at the bottom of the Pliocene + sea, and the tufa, which extends over the whole Campagna to a + thickness of 300 ft. or more, was formed. At the same time, hot + springs, containing abundant carbonate of lime in solution, produced + deposits of travertine at various points. In the third, after the + Campagna, by a great general uplift, had become a land surface, + volcanic energy found an outlet in comparatively few large craters, + which emitted streams of hard lava as well as fragmentary materials, + the latter forming sperone (_lapis Gabinus_) and peperino (_lapis + Albanus_), while upon one of the former, which runs from the Alban + Hills to within 2 m. of Rome, the Via Appia was carried. The two main + areas near Rome are formed by the group of craters on the north + (Bracciano, Bolsena, &c.) and the Alban Hills on the south, the latter + consisting of one great crater with a base about 12 m. in diameter, in + the centre of which a smaller crater was later on built up (the basin + is now known as the Campo di Annibale) with several lateral vents (the + Lake of Albano, the Lake of Nemi, &c.). The Alban Mount (Monte Cavo) + is almost the highest point on the rim of the inner crater, while + Mount Algidus and Tusculum are on the outer ring wall of the larger + (earlier) crater. + + The fourth period is that in which the various subaërial agencies of + abrasion, and especially the streams which drain the mountain chain of + the Apennines, have produced the present features of the Campagna, a + plain furrowed by gullies and ravines. The communities which inhabited + the detached hills and projecting ridges which later on formed the + city of Rome were in a specially favourable position. These hills + (especially the Palatine, the site of the original settlement) with + their naturally steep sides, partly surrounded at the base by marshes + and situated not far from the confluence of the Anio with the Tiber, + possessed natural advantages not shared by the other primitive + settlements of the district; and their proximity to one another + rendered it easy to bring them into a larger whole. The volcanic + materials available in Rome and its neighbourhood were especially + useful in building. The tufa, sperone and peperino were easy to + quarry, and could be employed by those who possessed comparatively + elementary tools, while travertine, which came into use later, was an + excellent building stone, and the lava (_selce_) served for paving + stones and as material for concrete. The strength of the renowned + Roman concrete is largely due to the use of pozzolana (see PUTEOLI), + which also is found in plenty in the Campagna. + + Between the volcanic tract of the Campagna and the sea there is a + broad strip of sandy plain, evidently formed merely by the + accumulation of sand from the sea, and constituting a barren tract, + still covered almost entirely with wood as it was in ancient times, + except for the almost uninterrupted line of villas along the ancient + coast-line, which is now marked by a line of sand-hills, some ½ m. or + more inland (see LAVINIUM, TIBER). This long belt of sandy shore + extends without a break for a distance of above 30 m. from the mouth + of the Tiber to the promontory of Antium (Porto d'Anzio); a low rocky + headland, projecting out into the sea, and forming the only + considerable angle in this line of coast. Thence again a low sandy + shore of similar character, but with extensive shore lagoons which + served in Roman times and serve still for fish-breeding, extends for + about 24 m. to the foot of the Monte Circeo (_Circeius Mons_, q.v.). + The region of the Pomptine Marshes (q.v.) occupies almost the whole + tract between the sandy belt on the seashore and the Volscian + mountains, extending from the southern foot of the Alban Hills below + Velletri to the sea near Terracina. + + + Drainage. + + The district sloping down from Velletri to the dead level of the + Pontine (Pomptine) Marshes has not, like the western and northern + slopes of the Alban Hills, drainage towards the Tiber. The subsoil too + is differently formed: the surface consists of very absorbent + materials, then comes a stratum of less permeable tufa or peperino + (sometimes clay is present), and below that again more permeable + materials. In ancient, and probably pre-Roman, times this district was + drained by an elaborate system of _cuniculi_, small drainage tunnels, + about 5 ft. high and 2 ft. wide, which ran, not at the bottom of the + valleys, where there were sometimes streams already, and where, in any + case, erosion would have broken through their roofs, but along their + slopes, through the less permeable tufa, their object being to drain + the hills on each side of the valleys. They had probably much to do + with the relative healthiness of this district in early times. Some of + them have been observed to be earlier in date than the Via Appia (312 + B.C.). They were studied in detail by R. de la Blanchère. When they + fell into desuetude, malaria gained the upper hand, the lack of + drainage providing breeding-places for the malarial mosquito. Remains + of similar drainage channels exist in many parts of the Campagna + Romana and of southern Etruria at points where the natural drainage + was not sufficient, and especially in cultivated or inhabited hills + (though it was not necessary here, as in the neighbourhood of + Velletri, to create a drainage system, as streams and rivers were + already present as natural collectors) and streams very frequently + pass through them at the present day. The drainage channels which were + dug for the various crater lakes in the neighbourhood of Rome are also + interesting in this regard. That of the Alban Lake is the most famous; + but all the other crater lakes are similarly provided. As the drainage + by _cuniculi_ removed the moisture in the subsoil, so the drainage of + the lakes by _emissaria_, outlet channels at a low level, prevented + the permeable strata below the tufa from becoming impregnated with + moisture which they would otherwise have derived from the lakes of the + Alban Hills. The slopes below Velletri, on the other hand, derive much + of their moisture from the space between the inner and outer ring of + the Alban volcano, which it was impossible to drain: and this in turn + receives much moisture from the basin of the extinct inner crater.[3] + + + Pre-historic remains. + + Numerous isolated palaeolithic objects of the Mousterian type have + been found in the neighbourhood of Rome in the quaternary gravels of + the Tiber and Anio; but no certain traces of the neolithic period have + come to light, as the many flint implements found sporadically round + Rome probably belong to the period which succeeded neolithic (called + by Italian archaeologists the eneolithic period) inasmuch as both + stone and metal (not, however, bronze, but copper) were in use.[4] At + Sgurgola, in the valley of the Sacco, a skeleton was found in a + rock-cut tomb of this period which still bears traces of painting with + cinnabar. A similar rock-cut tomb was found at Mandela, in the Anio + valley. Both are outside the limits of the Campagna in the narrower + sense; but similar tombs were found (though less accurately observed) + in travertine quarries between Rome and Tivoli. Objects of the Bronze + age too have only been found sporadically. The earliest cemeteries and + hut foundations of the Alban Hills belong to the Iron age, and + cemeteries and objects of a similar character have been found in Rome + itself and in southern Etruria, especially the characteristic + hut-urns. The objects found in these cemeteries show close affinity + with those found in the terremare of Emilia, these last being of + earlier date, and hence Pigorini and Helbig consider that the Latini + were close descendants of the inhabitants of the terremare. On the + other hand, the ossuaries of the Villanova type, while they occur as + far south as Veii and Caere, have never so far been found on the left + bank of the Tiber, in Latium proper (see L. Pigorini in _Rendiconti + dei Lincei_, ser. v. vol. xvi., 1907, p. 676, and xviii., 1909). We + thus have at the beginning of the Iron age two distinct currents of + civilization in central Italy, the Latin and that of Villanova. As to + the dates to which these are to be attributed, there is not as yet + complete accord, _e.g_. some archaeologists assign to the 11th, others + (and with far better reasons) to the 8th century B.C., the earliest + tombs of the Alban necropolis and the coeval tombs of the necropolis + recently discovered in the Forum at Rome. In this last necropolis + cremation seems slightly to precede inhumation in date. + + For the prehistoric period see _Bullettino di paleontologia Italiana, + passim_, B. Modestov, _Introduction à l'histoire romaine_ (Paris, + 1907), and T. E. Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy_ (Oxford, + 1909). + + + Latin League. + +It is uncertain to what extent reliance can be placed upon the +traditional accounts of the gradual spread of the supremacy of Rome in +Latium, and the question cannot be discussed here.[5] The list of the +thirty communities belonging to the Latin league, given by Dionysius of +Halicarnassus (v. 61), is, however, of great importance. It is +considered by Th. Mommsen (_Roman History_, i. 448) that it dates from +about the year 370 B.C., to which period belong the closing of the +confederacy, no fresh communities being afterwards admitted to it, and +the consequent fixing of the boundaries of Latium. The list is as +follows: Ardeates, Aricini, Bovillani,[6] Bubentani, Cabani, Carventani, +Circeiates, Coriolani, Corbintes, Corni (probably Corani), Fortinei (?), +Gabini, Laurentini, Lavinates, Labicani, Lanuvini, Nomentani, Norbani, +Praenestini, Pedani, Querquetulani, Satricani, Scaptini, Setini, +Tellenii, Tiburtini, Tolerini, Tusculani, Veliterni. + + These communities may be briefly described according to their + geographical arrangement. Laurentum and Lavinium, names so conspicuous + in the legendary history of Aeneas, were situated in the sandy strip + near the sea-coast--the former only 8 m. S.E. of Ostia, which was from + the first merely the port of Rome, and never figured as an independent + city. Farther S.E. again lay Ardea, the ancient capital of the Rutuli, + and some distance beyond that Antium, situated on the sea-coast, which + does not occur in the list of Dionysius, and is, in the early annals + of Rome, called a Volscian town--even their chief city. On the + southern underfalls of the Alban mountains, commanding the plain at + the foot, stood Lanuvium and Velitrae; Aricia rose on a neighbouring + hill, and Corioli was probably situated on the lower slopes. The + village of the Cabani (probably identical with the Cabenses) is + possibly to be sought on the site of the modern Rocca di Papa, N. of + Monte Cavo. The more important city of Tusculum occupied one of the + northern summits of the same group; while opposite to it, in a + commanding situation on a lofty offshoot of the Apennines, rose + Praeneste, now Palestrina. Bola and Pedum were probably in the same + neighbourhood, Labici on an outlying summit (Monte Compatri) of the + Alban Hills below Tusculum, and Corbio (probably at Rocca Priora) on a + rocky summit east of the same city. Tibur (Tivoli) occupied a height + commanding the outlet of the river Anio. Corniculum, farther west, + stood on the summit of one of three conical hills that rise abruptly + out of the plain at the distance of a few miles from Monte Gennaro, + the nearest of the Apennines, and which were thence known as the + Montes Corniculani. Nomentum was a few miles farther north, between + the Apennines and the Tiber, and close to the Sabine frontier. The + boundary between the two nations was indeed in this part very + fluctuating. Nearly in the centre of the plain of the Campagna stood + Gabii; Bovillae was also in the plain, but close to the Appian Way, + where it begins to ascend the Alban Hills. Several other + cities--Tellenae, Scaptia and Querquetulum--mentioned in the list of + Dionysius were probably situated in the Campagna, but the site cannot + be determined. Satricum, on the other hand, was certainly south of the + Alban Hills, between Velitrae and Antium; while Cora, Norba and Setia + (all of which retain their ancient names with little modification) + crowned the rocky heights which form advanced posts from the Volscian + mountains towards the Pontine Marshes. Carventum possibly occupied the + site of Rocca Massima N. of Cori, and Tolerium was very likely at + Valmontone in the valley of the Sacco (anc. Trerus or Tolerus). The + cities of the Bubentani and Fortinei are quite unknown. + +A considerable number of the Latin cities had before 370 B.C. either +been utterly destroyed or reduced to subjection by Rome, and had thus +lost their independent existence. Such were Antemnae and Caenina, both +of them situated within a few miles of Rome to the N., the conquest of +which was ascribed to Romulus; Fidenae, about 5 m. N. of the city, and +close to the Tiber; and Crustumerium, in the hilly tract farther north +towards the Sabine frontier. Suessa Pometia also, on the borders of the +Pontine Marshes, to which it was said to have given name, was a city of +importance, the destruction of which was ascribed to Tarquinius +Superbus. In any case it had disappeared before 370 B.C., as it does not +occur in the list of the Latin league attributable to that date. It is +probably to be sought between Velletri and Cisterna. But by far the most +important of these extinct cities was Alba, on the lake to which it gave +its name, which was, according to universally received tradition, the +parent of Rome, as well as of numerous other cities within the limits of +Latium, including Gabii, Fidenae, Collatia, Nomentum and other +well-known towns. Whether or not this tradition deserves to rank as +historical, it appears certain that at a still earlier period there +existed a confederacy of thirty towns, of which Alba was the supreme +head. A list of those who were wont to participate in the sacrifices on +the Alban Mount is given us by Pliny (_N.H._ iii. 5. 69) under the name +of _populi albenses_, which includes only six or at most eight of those +found in the list of Dionysius;[7] and these for the most part among the +more obscure and least known of the names given by him. Many of the rest +are unknown; while the more powerful cities of Aricia, Lanuvium and +Tusculum, though situated immediately on the Alban Hills, are not +included, and appear to have maintained a wholly independent position. +This earlier league was doubtless broken up by the fall of Alba; it was +probably the increasing power of the Volsci and Aequi that led to the +formation of the later league, including all the more powerful cities of +Latium, as well as to the alliance concluded by them with the Romans in +the consulship of Spurius Cassius (493 B.C.). Other cities of the Latin +league had already (according to the traditional dates) received Latin +colonies--Velitrae (494 B.C.), Norba (492), Ardea (442), Labici (418), +Circei (393), Satricum (385), Setia (382). + +The cities of the Latin league continued to hold general meetings or +assemblies from time to time at the grove of the Aqua Ferentina, a +sanctuary at the foot of the Alban Hills, perhaps in a valley below +Marino, while they had also a common place of worship on the summit of +the Alban Mount (Monte Cavo), where stood the celebrated temple of +Jupiter Latiaris. The participation in the annual sacrifices at this +sanctuary was regarded as typical of a Latin city (hence the name +"prisci Latini" given to the participating peoples); and they continued +to be celebrated long after the Latins had lost their independence and +been incorporated in the Roman state.[8] + + + Roman supremacy. + +We are on firmer ground in dealing with the spread of the supremacy of +Rome in Latium when we take account of the foundation of new colonies +and of the formation of new tribes, processes which as a rule go +together. The information that we have as to the districts in which the +sixteen earliest clans (_tribus rusticae_)[9] were settled shows us +that, except along the Tiber, Rome's dominion extended hardly more than +5 m. beyond the city gates (Mommsen, _History of Rome_, i. 58). Thus, +towards the N. and E. we find the towns of Antemnae, Fidenae, Caenina +and Gabii;[10] on the S.E., towards Alba, the boundary of Roman +territory was at the Fossae Cluiliae, 5 m. from Rome, where Coriolanus +encamped (Livy ii. 39), and, on the S., towards Laurentum at the 6th +mile, where sacrifice to Terminus was made (Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 681): the +Ambarvalia too were celebrated even in Strabo's day (v. 3. 3. p. 230) at +a place called [Greek: Phêstoi] between the 5th and 6th mile. The +identification (cf. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, vi. +2223) of this locality with the grove of the Arval brothers at the 5th +mile of the Via Portuensis, to the W. of Rome, and of the Ambarvalia +with the festival celebrated by this brotherhood in May of each year, is +now generally accepted. But Roman sway must either from the first, or +very soon, have extended to Ostia, the port of Rome at the mouth of the +Tiber: and it was as the emporium of Latium that Rome acquired her first +importance.[11] + + + The primitive tribes. + +The boundary of the _Ager Romanus antiquus_ towards the north-west is +similarly fixed by the festival of the Robigalia at the 5th milestone of +the Via Clodia. Within this area fall the districts inhabited by the +earliest tribes, so far as these are known to us. The _tribus Romilia_ +was settled on the right bank of the Tiber near the sanctuary of the +Arvales, the _Galeria_ perhaps a little farther west on the lower course +of the stream now known as Galera, and the _Fabia_ perhaps on the +Cremera towards Veii. We know that the _pagus Lemonius_ was on the Via +Latina, and that the _tribus Pupinia_ dwelt between Tusculum and the +city, while the territory of the _Papiria_ possibly lay nearer Tusculum, +as it was to this tribe that the Roman citizens in Tusculum belonged in +later days. It is possible that the _Camilia_ was situated in the +direction of Tibur, inasmuch as this town was afterwards enrolled in +this tribe. The _tribus Claudia_, probably the last of the 16 older +_tribus rusticae_, was according to tradition founded in 504 B.C. Its +territory lay beyond the Anio, between Fidenae and Ficulea (Liv. ii. 16; +Dion. Hal. v. 40). The locality of the _pagi_ round which the other +tribes were grouped is not known to us. + + + Road system. + + With the earliest extensions of the Roman territory coincided the + first beginnings of the Roman road system. The road to Ostia may have + existed from the first: but after the Latin communities on the lower + Anio had fallen under the dominion of Rome, we may well believe that + the first portion of the Via Salaria, leading to Antemnae, Fidenae + (the fall of which is placed by tradition in 428 B.C.) and + Crustumerium, came into existence. The formation (according to the + traditional dating in 495 or 471 B.C.) of the _tribus Clustumina_ (the + only one of the earlier twenty-one tribes which bears a local name) is + both a consequence of an extension of territory and of the + establishment of the assembly of the plebs by tribes, for which an + inequality of the total number of divisions was desirable (Mommsen, + _History of Rome_, i. 360). The correlative of the Via Salaria was the + Via Campana, so called because it led past the grove of the Arvales + along the right bank of the Tiber to the Campus Salinarum + Romanarum,[12] the salt marshes, from which the Via Salaria took its + name, inasmuch as it was the route by which Sabine traders came from + the interior to fetch the salt. To this period would also belong the + Via Ficulensis, leading to Ficulea, and afterwards prolonged to + Nomentum, and the Via Collatina, which led to Collatia. Gabii became + Roman in fairly early times, though at what period is uncertain, and + with its subjugation must have originated the Via Gabina, afterwards + prolonged to Praeneste. The Via Latina too must be of very early + origin; and tradition places the foundation of the Latin colony at + Signia (to which it led) as early as 495 B.C. Not long after the + capture of Fidenae, the main outpost of Veii, the chief city itself + fell (396 B.C.) and a road (still traceable) was probably made + thither. There was also probably a road to Caere in early times, + inasmuch as we hear of the flight of the Vestals thither in 389 B.C. + The origin of the rest of the roads is no doubt to be connected with + the gradual establishment of the Latin league. We find that while the + later (long distance) roads bear as a rule the name of their + constructor, all the short distance roads on the left bank of the + Tiber bear the names of towns which belonged to the league--Nomentum, + Tibur, Praeneste, Labici, Ardea, Laurentum--while Ficulea and Collatia + do not appear. The Via Pedana, leading to Pedum, is known to us only + from an inscription (_Bull. Soc. Antiquaires de France_, 1905, p. 177) + discovered in Tunisia in 1905, and may be of much later origin; it was + a branch of the Via Praenestina. + + There must too have been a road, along the line of the later Via + Appia, to Bovillae, Aricia, Lanuvium and Velitrae, going thence to + Cora, Norba and Setia along the foot of the Volscian Mountains; while + nameless roads, which can still be traced, led direct from Rome to + Satricum and to Lavinium. + +We can trace the advance of the Roman supremacy with greater ease after +387 B.C., inasmuch as from this year (adopting the traditional dating +for what it is worth) until 299 B.C. every accession of territory is +marked by the foundation of a group of new tribes; the limit of 35 in +all was reached in the latter year. In 387, after the departure of the +Gauls, southern Etruria was conquered, and four new tribes were formed: +_Arnensis_ (probably derived from Aro, mod. Arrone--though the ancient +name does not occur in literature--the stream which forms the outlet to +the lake of Bracciano, anc. _Lacus Sabatinus_),[13] _Sabatina_ (called +after this lake), _Stellatina_ (named from the Campus Stellatinus, near +Capena; cf. Festus p. 343 Müll.) and _Tromentina_ (which, Festus tells +us, was so called from the Campus Tromentus, the situation of which we +do not know). Four years later were founded the Latin colonies of +Sutrium and Nepet. In 358 B.C. Roman preponderance in the Pomptine +territory was shown by the formation of the _tribus Pomptina_ and +_Publilia_, while in 338 and 329 respectively Antium and Tarracina +became colonies of Roman citizens, the former having been founded as a +Latin colony in 494 B.C. + +After the dissolution of the Latin league which followed upon the defeat +of the united forces of the Samnites and of those Latin and Volscian +cities which had revolted against Rome, two new tribes, _Maecia and +Scaptia_,[14] were created in 332 B.C. in connexion with the +distribution of the newly acquired lands (Mommsen, _History_, i. 462). A +further advance in the same direction ending in the capture of Privernum +in 329 B.C. is marked by the establishment in 318 B.C. of the _tribus +Oufentina_ (from the river Ufens which runs below Setia, mod. _Sezze_, +and Privernum, mod. _Piperno_, and the _tribus Falerna_ (in the Ager +Falernus), while the foundation of the colonies of Cales (334) and +Fregellae (328) secured the newly won south Volscian and Campanian +territories and led no doubt to a prolongation of the Via Latina. The +moment had now come for the pushing forward of another line of +communication, which had no doubt reached Tarracina in 329 B.C. but was +now definitely constructed (_munita_) as a permanent military highway as +far as Capua in 312 B.C. by Appius Claudius, after whom it was named. To +him no doubt is due the direct line of road through the Pontine Marshes +from Velitrae to Terracina. Its construction may fairly be taken to mark +the period at which the roads of which we have spoken, hitherto probably +mere tracks, began to be transformed into real highways. In the same +year (312) the colony of Interamna Lirenas was founded, while Luceria, +Suessa (Aurunca) and Saticula had been established a year or two +previously. Sora followed nine years later. In 299 B.C. further +successes led to the establishment of two new tribes--the _Teretina_ in +the upper valley of the Trerus (Sacco) and the _Aniensis_, in the upper +valley of the Anio--while to about the same time we must attribute the +construction of two new military roads, both secured by fortresses. The +southern road, the Via Valeria led to Carsioli and Alba Fucens (founded +as Latin colonies respectively in 298 and 303 B.C.), and the northern +(afterwards the Via Flaminia[15]) to Narnia (founded as a Latin colony +in 299 B.C.). There is little doubt that the formation of the _tribus +Quirina_ (deriving its name possibly from the town of Cures) and the +_tribus Velina_ (from the river Velinus, which forms the well-known +waterfalls near Terni) is to be connected with the construction of the +latter high road, though its date is not certainly known. The further +history of Roman supremacy in Italy will be found in the article ROME: +_History_. We notice, however, that the continual warfare in which the +Roman state was engaged led to the decadence of the free population of +Latium, and that the extension of the empire of Rome was fatal to the +prosperity of the territory which immediately surrounded the city.[16] + + + Causes of depopulation. + +What had previously, it seems, been a well-peopled region, with peasant +proprietors, kept healthy by careful drainage, became in the 4th and 3rd +centuries B.C. a district consisting in large measure of huge estates +(_latifundia_) owned by the Roman aristocracy, cultivated by gangs of +slaves. This led to the disappearance of the agricultural population, to +a decline in public safety, and to the spread of malaria in many parts; +indeed, it is quite possible that it was not introduced into Latium +before the 4th century B.C. The evil increased in the later period of +the Republic, and many of the old towns of Latium sank into a very +decayed condition; with this the continual competition of the provinces +as sources of food-supply no doubt had a good deal to do. Cicero speaks +of Gabii, Labici and Bovillae as places that had fallen into abject +poverty, while Horace refers to Gabii and Fidenae as mere "deserted +villages," and Strabo as "once fortified towns, but now villages, +belonging to private individuals." Many of the smaller places mentioned +in the list of Dionysius, or the early wars of the Romans, had +altogether ceased to exist, but the statement of Pliny that fifty-three +communities (_populi_) had thus perished within the boundaries of Old +Latium is perhaps exaggerated. By the end of the Republic a good many +parts of Latium were infected, and Rome itself was highly malarious in +the warm months (see W. H. S. Jones in _Annals of Archaeology and +Anthropology_, ii. 97, Liverpool, 1909). The emperors Claudius, Nerva +and Trajan turned their attention to the district, and under their +example and exhortation the Roman aristocracy erected numerous villas +within its boundaries, and used them at least for summer residences. +During the 2nd century the Campagna seems to have entered on a new era +of prosperity. The system of roads radiating in all directions from Rome +(see ITALY: _History_, § B) belonged to a much earlier period; but they +were connected by a network of crossroads (now mostly abandoned, while +the main lines are still almost all in use) leading to the very numerous +villas with which the Campagna was strewn (even in districts which till +recently were devastated by malaria), and which seem in large measure to +belong to this period. Some of these are of enormous extent, _e.g._ the +villa of the Quintilii on the Via Appia, that known as Setta Bassi on +the Via Latina, and that of Hadrian near Tibur, the largest of all. + +When the land tax was introduced into Italy in 292, the first region of +Augustus obtained the name of _provincia Campania_. Later on the name +Latium entirely disappeared, and the name Campania extended as far as +Veii and the Via Aurelia, whence the medieval and modern name Campagna +di Roma. The donation made by Constantine to various churches of Rome of +numerous estates belonging to the _patrimonium Caesaris_ in the +neighbourhood of Rome was of great historical importance, as being the +origin of the territorial dominion of the papacy. His example was +followed by others, so that the church property in the Campagna soon +became considerable; and, owing to the immunities and privileges which +it enjoyed, a certain revival of prosperity ensued. The invasions of the +barbarian hordes did great harm, but the formation of centres +(_domuscultae_) in the 8th and 9th centuries was a fact of great +importance: the inhabitants, indeed, formed the medieval militia of the +papacy. Smaller centres (the _colonia_--often formed in the remains of +an ancient villa--the _curtis_ or _curia_, the _castrum_, the _casale_) +grew up later. We may note that, owing to the growth of the temporal +power of the popes, there was never a _dux Romae_ dependent on the +exarchate of Ravenna, similar to those established by Narses in the +other districts of Italy. + + + Under the commune. + + Modern conditions + +The papal influence was also retained by means of the suburban +bishoprics, which took their rise as early as the 4th and 5th centuries. +The rise of the democratic commune of Rome[17] about 1143 and of the +various trade corporations which we already find in the early 11th +century led to struggles with the papacy; the commune of Rome made +various attempts to exercise supremacy in the Campagna and levied +various taxes from the 12th century until the 15th. The commune also +tried to restrict the power of the barons, who, in the 13th century +especially, though we find them feudatories of the holy see from the +10th century onwards, threatened to become masters of the whole +territory, which is still dotted over with the baronial castles and +lofty solitary towers of the rival families of Rome--Orsini, Colonna, +Savelli, Conti, Caetani--who ruthlessly destroyed the remains of earlier +edifices to obtain materials for their own, and whose castles, often +placed upon the high roads, thus following a strategic line to a +stronghold in the country, did not contribute to the undisturbed +security of traffic upon them, but rather led to their abandonment. On a +list of the inhabited centres of the Campagna of the 14th century with +the amount of salt (which was a monopoly of the commune of Rome) +consumed by each, Tomassetti bases an estimate of the population: this +was about equal to that of our own times, but differently distributed, +some of the smaller centres having disappeared at the expense of the +towns. Several of the popes, as Sixtus IV. and Julius III., made +unsuccessful attempts to improve the condition of the Campagna, the +former making a serious attempt to revive agriculture as against +pasture, while in the latter part of the 16th century a line of +watch-towers was erected along the coast. In the Renaissance, it is +true, falls the erection of many fine villas in the neighbourhood of +Rome--not only in the hills round the Campagna, but even in certain +places in the lower ground, e.g. those of Julius II. at La Magliana and +of Cardinal Trivulzio at Salone,--and these continued to be frequented +until the end of the 18th century, when the French Revolution dealt a +fatal blow to the prosperity of the Roman nobility. The 17th and 18th +centuries, however, mark the worst period of depopulation in the more +malarious parts of the Campagna, which seems to have begun in the 15th +century, though we hear of malaria throughout the middle ages. The most +healthy portions of the territory are in the north and east, embracing +the slopes of the Apennines which are watered by the Teverone and Sacco; +and the most pestilential is the stretch between the Monti Lepini and +the sea. The Pontine Marshes (_q.v_.) included in the latter division, +were drained, according to the plan of Bolognini, by Pius VI., who +restored the ancient Via Appia to traffic; but though they have returned +to pasture and cultivation, their insalubrity is still notorious. The +soil in many parts is very fertile and springs are plentiful and +abundant: the water is in some cases sulphureous or ferruginous. In +summer, indeed, the vast expanse is little better than an arid steppe; +but in the winter it furnishes abundant pasture to flocks of sheep from +the Apennines and herds of silver-grey oxen and shaggy black horses, and +sheep passing in the summer to the mountain pastures. A certain amount +of horse-breeding is done, and the government has, as elsewhere in +Italy, a certain number of stallions. Efforts have been made since 1882 +to cure the waterlogged condition of the marshy grounds. The methods +employed have been three--(i.) the cutting of drainage channels and +clearing the marshes by pumping, the method principally employed; (ii.) +the system of warping, i.e. directing a river so that it may deposit its +sedimentary matter in the lower-lying parts, thus levelling them up and +consolidating them, and then leading the water away again by drainage; +(iii.) the planting of firs and eucalyptus trees, e.g. at Tre Fontane +and elsewhere. These efforts have not been without success, though it +cannot be affirmed that the malarial Campagna is anything like healthy +yet. The regulation of the rivers, more especially of the Tiber, is +probably the most efficient method for coping with the problem. Since +1884 the Italian Government have been systematically enclosing, pumping +dry and generally draining the marshes of the Agro Romano, that is, the +tracts around Ostia; the Isola Sacra, at the mouth of the Tiber; and +Maccarese. Of the whole of the Campagna less than one-tenth comes +annually under the plough. In its picturesque desolation, contrasting so +strongly with its prosperity in Roman times, immediately surrounding a +city of over half a million inhabitants, and with lofty mountains in +view from all parts of it, it is one of the most interesting districts +in the world, and has a peculiar and indefinable charm. The modern +province of Rome (forming the _compartimento_ of Lazio) includes also +considerable mountain districts, extending as far N.W. as the Lake of +Bolsena, and being divided on the N.E. from Umbria by the Tiber, while +on the E. it includes a considerable part of the Sabine mountains and +Apennines. The ancient district of the Hernicans, of which Alatri is +regarded as the centre, is known as the Ciociaria, from a kind of +sandals (_cioce_) worn by the peasants. On the S.E. too a considerable +proportion of the group of the Lepini belongs to the province. The land +is for the most part let by the proprietors to _mercanti di Campagna_, +who employ a subordinate class of factors (_fattori_) to manage their +affairs on the spot. + + + Malaria. + +The recent discovery that the malaria which has hitherto rendered parts +of the Campagna almost uninhabitable during the summer is propagated by +the mosquito (_Anopheles claviger_) marks a new epoch; the most diverse +theories as to its origin had hitherto been propounded, but it is now +possible to combat it on a definite plan, by draining the marshes, +protecting the houses by fine mosquito-proof wire netting (for +_Anopheles_ is not active by day), improving the water supply, &c., +while for those who have fever, quinine (now sold cheaply by the state) +is a great specific. A great improvement is already apparent; and a law +carried in 1903 for the _Bonifica dell' Agro Romano_ compels the +proprietors within a radius of some 6 m. of Rome to cultivate their +lands in a more productive way than has often hitherto been the case, +exemption from taxes for ten years and loans at 2-1/2% from the +government being granted to those who carry on improvements, and those +who refuse being expropriated compulsorily. The government further +resolved to open roads and schools and provide twelve additional +doctors. Much is done in contending against malaria by the Italian Red +Cross Society. In 1900 31% of the inhabitants of the Agro Romano had +been fever-stricken; since then the figure has rapidly decreased (5.1% +in 1905). + + + Produce. + +The wheat crop in 1906 in the Agro Romano was 8,108,500 bushels, the +Indian corn 3,314,000 bushels, the wine 12,100,000 gallons and the olive +oil 1,980,000 gallons,--these last two from the hill districts. The wine +production had declined by one-half from the previous year, exportation +having fallen off in the whole country. 1907, however, was a year of +great overproduction all over Italy. The wine of the Alban hills is +famous in modern as in ancient times, but will not as a rule bear +exportation. The forests of the Alban hills and near the coast produce +much charcoal and light timber, while the Sabine and Volscian hills have +been largely deforested and are now bare limestone rocks. Much of the +labour in the winter and spring is furnished by peasants who come down +from the Volscian and Hernican mountains, and from Abruzzi, and occupy +sometimes caves, but more often the straw or wicker huts which are so +characteristic a feature of the Campagna. The fixed population of the +Campagna in the narrower sense (as distinct from the hills) is less than +1000. Emigration to America, especially from the Volscian and Hernican +towns, is now considerable. + + 2. LATIUM NOVUM OR ADJECTUM, as it is termed by Pliny, comprised the + territories occupied in earlier times by the Volsci and Hernici. It + was for the most part a rugged and mountainous country, extending at + the back of Latium proper, from the frontier of the Sabines to the + sea-coast between Terracina and Sinuessa. But it was not separated + from the adjacent territories by any natural frontier or physical + boundaries, and it is only by the enumeration of the towns in Pliny + according to the division of Italy by Augustus that we can determine + its limits. It included the Hernican cities of Anagnia, Ferentinum, + Alatrium and Verulae--a group of mountain strongholds on the north + side of the valley of the Trerus (Sacco); together with the Volscian + cities on the south of the same valley, and in that of the Liris, the + whole of which, with the exception of its extreme upper end, was + included in the Volscian territory. Here were situated Signia, + Frusino, Fabrateria, Fregellae, Sora, Arpinum, Atina, Aquinum, Casinum + and Interamna; Anxur (Terracina) was the only seaport that properly + belonged to the Volscians, the coast from thence to the mouth of the + Liris being included in the territory of the Aurunci, or Ausones as + they were termed by Greek writers, who possessed the maritime towns of + Fundi, Formiae, Caieta and Minturnae, together with Suessa in the + interior, which had replaced their more ancient capital of Aurunca. + Sinuessa, on the sea-coast between the Liris (Garigliano) and the + Vulturnus, at the foot of the Monte Massico, was the last town in + Latium according to the official use of the term and was sometimes + assigned to Campania, while Suessa was more assigned to Latium. On the + other hand, as Nissen points out (_Italische Landeskunde_, ii. 554), + the Pons Campanus, by which the Via Appia crossed the Savo some 9 m. + S.E. of Sinuessa, indicates by its name the position of the old + Campanian frontier. In the interior the boundary fell between Casinum + and Teanum Sidicinum, at about the 100th milestone of the Via + Latina--a fact which led later to the jurisdiction of the Roman courts + being extended on every side to the 100th mile from the city, and to + this being the limit beyond which banishment from Rome was considered + to begin. + + Though the Apennines comprised within the boundaries of Latium do not + rise to a height approaching that of the loftiest summits of the + central range, they attain to a considerable altitude, and form steep + and rugged mountain masses from 4000 to 5000 ft. high. They are + traversed by three principal valleys: (1) that of the Anio, now called + Teverone, which descends from above Subiaco to Tivoli, where it enters + the plain of the Campagna; (2) that of the Trerus (Sacco), which has + its source below Palestrina (Praeneste), and flows through a + comparatively broad valley that separates the main mass of the + Apennines from the Volscian mountains or Monti Lepini, till it joins + the Liris below Ceprano; (3) that of the Liris (Garigliano), which + enters the confines of New Latium about 20 m. from its source, flows + past the town of Sora, and has a very tortuous course from thence to + the sea at Minturnae; its lower valley is for the most part of + considerable width, and forms a fertile tract of considerable extent, + bordered on both sides by hills covered with vines, olives and fruit + trees, and thickly studded with towns and villages. + + It may be observed that, long after the Latins had ceased to exist as + a separate people we meet in Roman writers with the phrase of _nomen + Latinum_, used not in an ethnical but a purely political sense, to + designate the inhabitants of all those cities on which the Romans had + conferred "Latin rights" (_jus Latinum_)--an inferior form of the + Roman franchise, which had been granted in the first instance to + certain cities of the Latins, when they became subjects of Rome, and + was afterwards bestowed upon many other cities of Italy, especially + the so-called Latin colonies. At a later period the same privileges + were extended to places in other countries also--as for instance to + most of the cities in Sicily and Spain. All persons enjoying these + rights were termed in legal phraseology _Latini_ or _Latinae + conditionis_. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the topography of Latium, and the local history of + its more important cities, the reader may consult Sir W. Gell's + _Topography of Rome and its Vicinity_ (2nd ed., 1 vol., London, 1846); + A. Nibby, _Analisi storico-topografico-antiquaria della carta dei + dintorni di Roma_ (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1848); J. Westphal, _Die römische + Kampagne_ (Berlin, 1829); A. Bormann, _Alt-lateinische Chorographie + und Städte-Geschichte_ (Halle, 1852); M. Zoeller, _Latium und Rom_ + (Leipzig, 1878); R. Burn's _Rome and the Campagna_ (London, 1871); H. + Dessau, _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v. xiv. (Berlin, 1887) (Latium); Th. + Mommsen, _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vol. x. pp. 498-675 (Berlin, 1883); G. + Tomassetti, "Della Campagna Romana nel medio evo," published in the + _Archivio della Società Romana di Storia Patria_ (Rome, 1874-1907), + and separately (a work dealing with the medieval history and + topography of the Campagna in great detail, containing also valuable + notices of the classical period); by the same author, _La Campagna + romana_ (Rome, 1910 foll.); R. A. Lanciani, "I Comentari di Frontino + intorno agli acquedotti," _Memorie dei Lincei_ (Rome, 1880), serie + iii. vol. v. p. 215 sqq. (and separately), also many articles, and + _Wanderings in the Roman Campagna_ (London, 1909); E. Abbate, _Guida + della provincia di Roma_ (Rome, 1894, 2 vols.); H. Nissen, _Italische + Landeskunde_, ii. (Berlin, 1902), 557 sqq.; T. Ashby, "The Classical + Topography of the Roman Campagna," in _Papers of the British School at + Rome_, i. iii.-v. (London, 1902 foll.). (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Latium_, from the same root as _latus_, side; _later_, brick; + [Greek: platys], flat; Sans. _prath_: not connected with _latus_, + wide. + + [2] In the time of Augustus the boundary of Latium extended as far E. + as Treba (Trevi), 12 m. S.E. of Sublaqueum (Subiaco). + + [3] See R. de la Blanchère in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des + antiquités_, s.vv. _Cuniculus, Emissarium_, and the same author's + _Chapitre d'histoire pontine_ (Paris, 1889). + + [4] See G. A. Colini in _Bullettino di paletnologia Italiana_, xxxi. + (1905). + + [5] The most important results will be found stated at the outset of + the articles ROME: _History_ (the chief being that the Plebeians of + Rome probably consisted of Latins and the Patricians of Sabines), + LIGURIA, SICULI and ARICIA. For the Etruscan dominion in the Latin + plain see ETRURIA. Special mention may here be made of one or two + points of importance. The legends represent the Latins of the + historical period as a fusion of different races, Ligures, Veneti and + Siculi among them; the story of the alliance of the Trojan settler + Aeneas with the daughter of Latinus, king of the aborigines, and the + consequent enmity of the Rutulian prince Turnus, well known to + readers of Virgil, is thoroughly typical of the reflection of these + distant ethnical phenomena in the surviving traditions. In view of + the historical significance of the NO- ethnicon (see SABINI) it is + important to observe that the original form of the ethnic adjective + no doubt appears in the title of _Juppiter Latiaris_ (not _Latinus_); + and that Virgil's description of the descent of the noble Drances at + Latinus's court (Aen. xi. 340)--_genus huic materna superbum + Nobilitas dabat, incertum de patre ferebat_--indicates a very + different system of family ties from the famous _patria potestas_ and + agnation of the Patrician and Sabine clans. (R. S. C.) + + [6] The MSS. read [Greek: boillanôn] or [Greek: boilanôn]: the Latin + translation has Bolanorum. It is difficult to say which is to be + preferred. The list gives only twenty-nine names, and Mommsen + proposes to insert Signini. + + [7] Albani, Aesolani (probably E. of Tibur), Accienses, Abolani, + Bubetani, Bolani, Cusuetani (Carventani?), Coriolani, Fidenates, + Foreti (Fortinei?), Hortenses (near Corbio), Latinienses (near Rome + itself), Longani, Manates, Macrales, Munienses (Castrimoenienses?), + Numinienses, Olliculani, Octulani, Pedani, Poletaurini, + Querquetulani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tolerienses, Tutienses (not, one + would think, connected with the small stream called Tutia at the 6th + mile of the Via Salaria; Liv. xxvi. 11), Vimitellari, Velienses, + Venetulani, Vitellenses (not far from Corbio). + + [8] To an earlier stage of the Latin league, perhaps to about 430 + B.C. (Mommsen, _op. cit._ 445 n. 2) belongs the dedication of the + grove of Diana by a dictator Latinus, in the name of the people of + Tusculum, Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurentum, Cora, Tibur, Suessa Pometia + and Ardea. + + [9] Of the _gentes_ from which these tribes took their names, six + entirely disappeared in later days, while the other ten can be traced + as patrician--a proof that the patricians were not noble families in + origin (Mommsen, _Römische Forschungen_, i. 106). For the tribes see + W. Kubitschek, _De Romanarum tribuum origine_ (Vienna, 1882). + + [10] We have various traces of the early antagonism to Gabii, e.g. + the opposition between _ager Romanus_ and _ager Gabinus_ in the + augural law. + + [11] For the early extension of Roman territory towards the sea, cf. + Festus, p. 213, Müll., _s.v._ "Pectuscum:" _Pectuscum Palati dicta + est ea regio urbis, quam Romulus obversam posuit, ea parte, in qua + plurimum erat agri Romani ad mare versus et qua mollissime adibatur + Urbo, cum Etruscorum agrum a Romano Tiberis discluderet, ceterae + vicinae civitates colles aliquos haberent oppositos_. + + [12] The ancient name is known from an inscription discovered in + 1888. + + [13] So Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, ii. 1204. + + [14] Festus tells us (p. 136 Müll.) that the Maecia derived its name + "a quodam castro." Scaptia was the only member of the Latin league + that gave its name to a tribe. + + [15] See FLAMINIA, VIA and VALERIA, VIA. + + [16] L. Caetani indeed (_Nineteenth Century and After_, 1908) + attributes the economic decadence of the Roman Campagna to the + existence of free trade throughout the Roman empire. + + [17] The commune of Rome as such seems to have been in existence in + 999 at least. + + + + +LATONA (Lat. form of Gr. [Greek: Lêtô], Leto), daughter of Coeus and +Phoebe, mother of Apollo and Artemis. The chief seats of her legend are +Delos and Delphi, and the generally accepted tradition is a union of the +legends of these two places. Leto, pregnant by Zeus, seeks for a place +of refuge to be delivered. After long wandering she reaches the barren +isle of Delos, which, according to Pindar (Frag. 87, 88), was a +wandering rock borne about by the waves till it was fixed to the bottom +of the sea for the birth of Apollo and Artemis. In the oldest forms of +the legend Hera is not mentioned; but afterwards the wanderings of Leto +are ascribed to the jealousy of that goddess, enraged at her amour with +Zeus. The foundation of Delphi follows immediately on the birth of the +god; and on the sacred way between Tempe and Delphi the giant Tityus +offers violence to Leto, and is immediately slain by the arrows of +Apollo and Artemis (_Odyssey_, xi. 576-581; Apollodorus i. 4). Such are +the main facts of the Leto legend in its common literary form, which is +due especially to the two Homeric hymns to Apollo. But Leto is a real +goddess, not a mere mythological figure. The honour paid to her in +Delphi and Delos might be explained as part of the cult of her son +Apollo; but temples to her existed in Argos, in Mantineia and in Xanthus +in Lycia; her sacred grove was on the coast of Crete. In Lycia graves +are frequently placed under her protection, and she is also known as a +goddess of fertility and as [Greek: kourotrophos]. It is to be observed +that she appears far more conspicuously in the Apolline myths than in +those which grew round the great centres of Artemis worship, the reason +being that the idea of Apollo and Artemis as twins is one of later +growth on Greek soil. Lycia, one of the chief seats of the cult of +Apollo, where most frequent traces are found of the worship of Leto as +the great goddess, was probably the earlier home of her religion. + + In Greek art Leto usually appears carrying her children in her arms, + pursued by the dragon sent by the jealous Hera, which is slain by the + infant Apollo; in vase paintings especially she is often represented + with Apollo and Artemis. The statue of Leto in the Letoön at Argos was + the work of Praxiteles. + + + + +LATOUCHE, HYACINTHE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE THABAUD DE [known as HENRI] +(1785-1851), French poet and novelist, was born at La Châtre (Indre) on +the 2nd of February 1785. Among his works may be distinguished his +comedies: _Projets de sagesse_ (1811), and, in collaboration with Émile +Deschamps, _Selmours de Florian_ (1818), which ran for a hundred nights; +also _La Reine d'Espagne_ (1831), which proved too indecent for the +public taste; a novel, _Fragoletta: Naples et Paris en 1799_ (1829), +which attained a success of notoriety; _La Vallée aux coups_ (1833), a +volume of prose essays and verse; and two volumes of poems, _Les Adieux_ +(1843) and _Les Agrestes_ (1844). Latouche's chief claim to remembrance +is that he revealed to the world the genius of André Chénier, then only +known to a limited few. The remains of the poet's work had passed from +the hands of Daunou to Latouche, who had sufficient critical insight +instantly to recognize their value. In editing the first selection of +Chénier's poems (1819) he made some trifling emendations, but did not, +as Béranger afterwards asserted, make radical and unnecessary changes. +Latouche was guilty of more than one literary fraud. He caused a +licentious story of his own to be attributed to the duchesse de Duras, +the irreproachable author of _Ourika_. He made many enemies by malicious +attacks on his contemporaries. The _Constitutionnel_ was suppressed in +1817 by the government for an obscure political allusion in an article +by Latouche. He then undertook the management of the _Mercure du XIX^e +siècle_, and began a bitter warfare against the monarchy. After 1830 he +edited the _Figaro_, and spared neither the liberal politicians nor the +romanticists who triumphed under the monarchy of July. In his turn he +was violently attacked by Gustave Planche in the _Revue des deux mondes_ +for November 1831. But it must be remembered to the credit of Latouche +that he did much to encourage George Sand at the beginning of her +career. The last twenty years of his life were spent in retirement at +Aulnay, where he died on the 9th of March 1851. + + Sainte-Beuve, in the _Causeries du lundi_, vol. 3, gives a not too + sympathetic portrait of Latouche. See also George Sand in the _Siècle_ + for the 18th, 19th and 20th of July 1851. + + + + +LA TOUR, MAURICE QUENTIN DE (1704-1788), French pastellist, was born at +St Quentin on the 5th of September 1704. After leaving Picardy for Paris +in 1727 he entered the studio of Spoède--an upright man, but a poor +master, rector of the academy of St Luke, who still continued, in the +teeth of the Royal Academy, the traditions of the old gild of the master +painters of Paris. This possibly contributed to the adoption by La Tour +of a line of work foreign to that imposed by an academical training; for +pastels, though occasionally used, were not a principal and distinct +branch of work until 1720, when Rosalba Carriera brought them into +fashion with the Parisian world. In 1737 La Tour exhibited the first of +that splendid series of a hundred and fifty portraits which formed the +glory of the Salon for the succeeding thirty-seven years. In 1746 he was +received into the academy; and in 1751, the following year to that in +which he received the title of painter to the king, he was promoted by +that body to the grade of councillor. His work had the rare merit of +satisfying at once both the taste of his fashionable models and the +judgment of his brother artists. His art, consummate of its kind, +achieved the task of flattering his sitters, whilst hiding that flattery +behind the just and striking likeness which, says Pierre Jean Mariette, +he hardly ever missed. His portraits of Rousseau, of Voltaire, of Louis +XV., of his queen, of the dauphin and dauphiness, are at once documents +and masterpieces unsurpassed except by his life-size portrait of Madame +de Pompadour, which, exhibited at the Salon of 1755, became the chief +ornament of the cabinet of pastels in the Louvre. The museum of St +Quentin also possesses a magnificent collection of works which at his +death were in his own hands. La Tour retired to St Quentin at the age of +80, and there he died on the 18th of February 1788. The riches amassed +during his long life were freely bestowed by him in great part before +his death; he founded prizes at the school of fine arts in Paris and for +the town of Amiens, and endowed St Quentin with a great number of useful +and charitable institutions. He never married, but lived on terms of +warm affection with his brother (who survived him, and left to the town +the drawings now in the museum); and his relations to Mlle Marie Fel +(1713-1789), the celebrated singer, were distinguished by a strength and +depth of feeling not common to the loves of the 18th century. + + See, in addition to the general works on French art, C. Desmeze, _M. + Q. de La Tour, peintre du roi_ (1854); Champfleury, _Les Peintres de + Laon et de St Quentin_ (1855); and "La Tour" in the _Collection des + artistes célèbres_ (1886); E. and J. de Goncourt, _La Tour_ (1867); + Guiffrey and M. Tourneux, _Correspondance inédite de M. G. de la Tour_ + (1885); Tourneux, _La Tour, biographie critique_ (1904); and _Patoux, + L'Oeuvre de M. Quentin de la Tour au musée de St Quentin_ (St Quentin, + 1882). + + + + +LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, THÉOPHILE MALO (1743-1800), French soldier, was born +at Carhaix in Brittany on the 23rd of December 1743, the son of an +advocate named Corret. His desire for a military career being strongly +marked, he was enabled, by the not uncommon device of producing a +certificate of nobility signed by his friends, first to be nominally +enlisted in the Maison du Roi, and soon afterwards to receive a +commission in the line, under the name of Corret de Kerbaufret. Four +years after joining, in 1771, he assumed by leave of the duke of +Bouillon the surname of La Tour d'Auvergne, being in fact descended from +an illegitimate half-brother of the great Turenne. Many years of routine +service with his regiment were broken only by his participation as a +volunteer in the duc de Crillon's Franco-Spanish expedition to Minorca +in 1781. This led to an offer of promotion into the Spanish army, but he +refused to change his allegiance. In 1784 he was promoted captain, and +in 1791 he received the cross of St Louis. In the early part of the +Revolution his patriotism was still more conspicuously displayed in his +resolute opposition to the proposals of many of his brother officers in +the Angoumois regiment to emigrate rather than to swear to the +constitution. In 1792 his lifelong interest in numismatics and questions +of language was shown by a work which he published on the Bretons. At +this time he was serving under Montesquiou in the Alps, and although +there was only outpost fighting he distinguished himself by his courage +and audacity, qualities which were displayed in more serious fighting in +the Pyrenees the next year. He declined well-earned promotion to +colonel, and, being broken in health and compelled, owing to the loss of +his teeth, to live on milk, he left the army in 1795. On his return by +sea to Brittany he was captured by the English and held prisoner for two +years. When released, he settled at Passy and published _Origines +gauloises_, but in 1797, on the appeal of an old friend whose son had +been taken as a conscript, he volunteered as the youth's substitute, and +served on the Rhine (1797) and in Switzerland (1798-1799) as a captain. +In recognition of his singular bravery and modesty Carnot obtained a +decree from the first consul naming La Tour d'Auvergne "first grenadier +of France" (27th of April 1800). This led him to volunteer again, and he +was killed in action at Oberhausen, near Donauwörth, on the 27th of June +1800. + +La Tour d'Auvergne's almost legendary courage had captivated the +imagination of the French soldier, and his memory was not suffered to +die. It was customary for the French troops and their allies of the +Rhine Confederation under Napoleon to march at attention when passing +his burial-place on the battlefield. His heart was long carried by the +grenadier company of his regiment, the 46th; after being in the +possession of Garibaldi for many years, it was finally deposited in the +keeping of the city of Paris in 1883. But the most striking tribute to +his memory is paid to-day as it was by order of the first consul in +1800. "His name is to be kept on the pay list and roll of his company. +It will be called at all parades and a non-commissioned officer will +reply, _Mort au champ d'honneur_." This custom, with little variation, +is still observed in the 46th regiment on all occasions when the colour +is taken on parade. + + + + +LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRÉ (1762-1833), French naturalist, was born in +humble circumstances at Brives-la-Gaillarde (Corrèze), on the 20th of +November 1762. In 1778 he entered the collège Lemoine at Paris, and on +his admission to priestly orders in 1786 he retired to Brives, where he +devoted all the leisure which the discharge of his professional duties +allowed to the study of entomology. In 1788 he returned to Paris and +found means of making himself known to the leading naturalists there. +His "Mémoire sur les mutilles découvertes en France," contributed to the +_Proceedings_ of the Society of Natural History in Paris, procured for +him admission to that body. At the Revolution he was compelled to quit +Paris, and as a priest of conservative sympathies suffered considerable +hardship, being imprisoned for some time at Bordeaux. His _Précis des +caractères génériques des insectes, disposés dans un ordre naturel_, +appeared at Brives in 1796. In 1798 he became a corresponding member of +the Institute, and at the same time was entrusted with the task of +arranging the entomological collection at the recently organized Muséum +d'Histoire Naturelle (Jardin des Plantes); in 1814 he succeeded G. A. +Olivier as member of the Académie des Sciences, and in 1821 he was made +a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. For some time he acted as professor +of zoology in the veterinary school at Alfort near Paris, and in 1830, +when the chair of zoology of invertebrates at the Muséum was divided +after the death of Lamarck, Latreille was appointed professor of zoology +of crustaceans, arachnids and insects, the chair of molluscs, worms and +zoophytes being assigned to H. M. D. de Blainville. "On me donne du pain +quand je n'ai plus de dents," said Latreille, who was then in his +sixty-eighth year. He died in Paris on the 6th of February 1833. + + In addition to the works already mentioned, the numerous works of + Latreille include: _Histoire naturelle générale et particulière des + crustacés et insectes_ (14 vols., 1802-1805), forming part of C. N. S. + Sonnini's edition of Buffon; _Genera crustaceorum et insectorum, + secundum ordinem naturalem in familias disposita_ (4 vols., + 1806-1807); _Considérations générales sur l'ordre naturel des animaux + composant les classes des crustacés, des arachnides, et des insectes_ + (1810); _Familles naturelles du règne animal, exposées succinctement + et dans un ordre analytique_ (1825); _Cours d'entomologie_ (of which + only the first volume appeared, 1831); the whole of the section + "Crustacés, Arachnides, Insectes," in G. Cuvier's _Règne animal_; + besides many papers in the _Annales du Muséum_, the _Encyclopédie + méthodique_, the _Dictionnaire classique d'histoire naturelle_ and + elsewhere. + + + + +LA TRÉMOILLE, an old French family which derives its name from a village +(the modern La Trimouille) in the department of Vienne. The family has +been known since the middle of the 11th century, and since the 14th +century its members have been conspicuous in French history. Guy, sire +de la Trémoille, standard-bearer of France, was taken prisoner at the +battle of Nicopolis (1396), and Georges, the favourite of King Charles +VII., was captured at Agincourt (1415). Louis (2), called the _chevalier +sans reproche_, defeated and captured the duke of Orleans at the battle +of Saint Aubin-du-Cormier (1488), distinguished himself in the wars in +Italy, and was killed at Pavia (1525). In 1521 François (2) acquired a +claim on the kingdom of Naples by his marriage with Anne de Laval, +daughter of Charlotte of Aragon. Louis (3) became duke of Thouars in +1563, and his son Claude turned Protestant, was created a peer of France +in 1595, and married a daughter of William the Silent in 1598. To this +family belonged the lines of the counts of Joigny, the marquises of +Royan and counts of Olonne, and the marquises and dukes of Noirmoutier. + + + + +LATROBE, CHARLES JOSEPH (1801-1875), Australian governor, was born in +London on the 20th of March 1801. The Latrobes were of Huguenot +extraction, and belonged to the Moravian community, of which the father +and grandfather of C. J. Latrobe were ministers. His father, Christian +Ignatius Latrobe (1758-1836), a musician of some note, did good service +in the direction of popularizing classical music in England by his +_Selection of Sacred Music from the Works of the most Eminent Composers +of Germany and Italy_ (6 vols., 1806-1825). C. J. Latrobe was an +excellent mountaineer, and made some important ascents in Switzerland in +1824-1826. In 1832 he went to America with Count Albert Pourtales, and +in 1834 crossed the prairies from New Orleans to Mexico with Washington +Irving. In 1837 he was invested with a government commission in the West +Indies, and two years later was made superintendent of the Port Philip +district of New South Wales. When Port Philip was erected into a +separate colony as Victoria in 1851, Latrobe became lieutenant-governor. +The discovery of gold in that year attracted enormous numbers of +immigrants annually. Latrobe discharged the difficult duties of +government at this critical period with tact and success. He retired in +1854, became C.B. in 1858 and died in London on the 2nd of December +1875. Beside some volumes of travel he published a volume of poems, _The +Solace of Song_ (1837). + + See _Brief Notices of the Latrobe Family_ (1864), a privately printed + translation of an article revised by members of the family in the + Moravian _Brüderbote_ (November 1864). + + + + +LATTEN (from O. Fr. _laton_, mod. Fr. _laiton_, possibly connected with +Span. _lata_, Ital. _latta_, a lath), a mixed metal like brass, composed +of copper and zinc, generally made in thin sheets, and used especially +for monumental brasses and effigies. A fine example is in the screen of +Henry VII.'s tomb in Westminster Abbey. There are three forms of latten, +"black latten," unpolished and rolled, "shaven latten," of extreme +thinness, and "roll latten," of the thickness either of black or shaven +latten, but with both sides polished. + + + + +LATTICE LEAF PLANT, in botany, the common name for _Ouvirandra +fenestralis_, an aquatic monocotyledonous plant belonging to the small +natural order Aponogetonaceae and a native of Madagascar. It has a +singular appearance from the structure of the leaves, which are oblong +in shape, from 6 to 18 in. long and from 2 to 4 in. broad; they spread +horizontally beneath the surface of the water, and are reduced to little +more than a lattice-like network of veins. The tuberculate roots are +edible. The plant is grown in cultivation as a stove-aquatic. + + + + +LATUDE, JEAN HENRI, often called DANRY or MASERS DE LATUDE (1725-1805), +prisoner of the Bastille, was born at Montagnac in Gascony on the 23rd +of March 1725. He received a military education and went to Paris in +1748 to study mathematics. He led a dissipated life and endeavoured to +curry favour with the marquise de Pompadour by secretly sending her a +box of poison and then informing her of the supposed plot against her +life. The ruse was discovered, and Mme de Pompadour, not appreciating +the humour of the situation, had Latude put in the Bastille on the 1st +of May 1749. He was later transferred to Vincennes, whence he escaped in +1750. Retaken and reimprisoned in the Bastille, he made a second brief +escape in 1756. He was transferred to Vincennes in 1764, and the next +year made a third escape and was a third time recaptured. He was put in +a madhouse by Malesherbes in 1775, and discharged in 1777 on condition +that he should retire to his native town. He remained in Paris and was +again imprisoned. A certain Mme Legros became interested in him through +chance reading of one of his memoirs, and, by a vigorous agitation in +his behalf, secured his definite release in 1784. He exploited his long +captivity with considerable ability, posing as a brave officer, a son of +the marquis de la Tude, and a victim of Pompadour's intrigues. He was +extolled and pensioned during the Revolution, and in 1793 the convention +compelled the heirs of Mme de Pompadour to pay him 60,000 francs +damages. He died in obscurity at Paris on the 1st of January 1805. + + The principal work of Latude is the account of his imprisonment, + written in collaboration with an advocate named Thiéry, and entitled + _Le Despotisme dévoilé, ou Mémoires de Henri Masers de la Tude, détenu + pendant trente-cinq ans dans les diverses prisons d'état_ (Amsterdam, + 1787, ed. Paris, 1889). An Eng. trans. of a portion was published in + 1787. The work is full of lies and misrepresentations, but had great + vogue at the time of the French Revolution. Latude also wrote essays + on all sorts of subjects. + + See J. F. Barrière, _Mémoires de Linguet et de Latude_ (1884); G. + Bertin, _Notice_ in edition of the _Mémoires_ (1889); F. + Funck-Brentano, "Latude," in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (1st October + 1889). + + + + +LATUKA, a tribe of negroid stock inhabiting the mountainous country E. +of Gondokoro on the upper Nile. They have received a tinge of Hamitic +blood from the Galla people, and have high foreheads, large eyes, +straight noses and thick but not pouting lips. They are believed by Sir +H. H. Johnston to be the original and purest type of the great Masai +people, and are assimilated to the Nilotic negro races in customs. Like +their neighbours the Bari and Shilluk tribes, they despise clothing, +though the important chiefs have adopted Arab attire. Their country is +fertile, and they cultivate tobacco, durra and other crops. Their +villages are numerous, and some are of considerable size. Tarangole, for +instance, on the Khor Kohs, has upwards of three thousand huts, and +sheds for many thousands of cattle. The Latuka are industrious and +especially noted for skill as smiths. Emin Pasha stated that the lion +was so little dreaded by the Latuka that on one being caught in a +leopard trap they hastily set it free. + + + + +LAUBAN, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of Silesia, is +situated in a picturesque valley, at the junction of the lines of +railway from Görlitz and Sorau, 16 m. E. of the former. Pop. (1905) +14,624. Lauban has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a town +hall, dating from 1541, a conventual house of the order of St Magdalene, +dating from the 14th century, a municipal library and museum, two +hospitals, an orphanage and several schools. Its industrial +establishments comprise tobacco, yarn, thread, linen and woollen cloth +manufactories, bleaching and dyeing works, breweries and oil and flour +mills. + +Lauban was founded in the 10th and fortified in the 13th century; in +1427 and 1431 it was devastated by the Hussites, and in 1640 by the +Swedes. In 1761 it was the headquarters of Frederick the Great, and in +1813 it was the last Saxon town that made its submission to Prussia. + + See Berkel, _Geschichte der Stadt Lauban_ (Lauban, 1896). + + + + +LAUBE, HEINRICH (1806-1884), German dramatist, novelist and +theatre-director, was born at Sprottau in Silesia on the 18th of +September 1806. He studied theology at Halle and Breslau (1826-1829), +and settled in Leipzig in 1832. Here he at once came into prominence +with his political essays, collected under the title _Das neue +Jahrhundert_, in two parts--_Polen_ (1833) and _Politische Briefe_ +(1833)--and with the novel _Das junge Europa_, in three parts--_Die +Poeten_, _Die Krieger_, _Die Bürger_--(1833-1837). These writings, in +which, after the fashion of Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Börne, he severely +criticized the political régime in Germany, together with the part he +played in the literary movement known as _Das junge Deutschland_, led to +his being subjected to police surveillance and his works confiscated. On +his return, in 1834, from a journey to Italy, undertaken in the company +of Karl Gutzkow, Laube was expelled from Saxony and imprisoned for nine +months in Berlin. In 1836 he married the widow of Professor Hänel of +Leipzig; almost immediately afterwards he suffered a year's imprisonment +for his revolutionary sympathies. In 1839 he again settled in Leipzig +and began a literary activity as a playwright. Chief among his earlier +productions are the tragedies _Monaldeschi_ (1845) and _Struensee_ +(1847); the comedies _Rokoko, oder die alten Herren_ (1846); _Gottsched +und Gellert_ (1847); and _Die Karlsschüler_ (1847), of which the +youthful Schiller is the hero. In 1848 Laube was elected to the national +assembly at Frankfort-on-Main for the district of Elbogen, but resigned +in the spring of 1849, when he was appointed artistic director of the +Hofburg theatre in Vienna. This office he held until 1867, and in this +period fall his finest dramatic productions, notably the tragedies _Graf +Essex_ (1856) and _Montrose_ (1859), and his historical romance _Der +deutsche Krieg_ (1865-1866, 9 vols.), which graphically pictures a +period in the Thirty Years' War. In 1869 he became director of the +Leipzig Stadttheater, but returned to Vienna in 1870, where in 1872 he +was placed at the head of the new Stadttheater; with the exception of a +short interval he managed this theatre with brilliant success until his +retirement from public life in 1880. He has left a valuable record of +his work in Vienna and Leipzig in the three volumes _Das Burgtheater_ +(1868), _Das norddeutsche Theater_ (1872) and _Das Wiener Stadttheater_ +(1875). His pen was still active after his retirement, and in the five +years preceding his death, which took place at Vienna on the 1st of +August 1884, he wrote the romances and novels _Die Böhminger_ (1880), +_Louison_ (1881), _Der Schatten-Wilhelm_ (1883), and published an +interesting volume of reminiscences, _Erinnerungen, 1841-1881_ (1882). +Laube's dramas are not remarkable for originality or for poetical +beauty; their real and great merit lies in their stage-craft. As a +theatre-manager he has had no equal in Germany, and his services in this +capacity have assured him a more lasting name in German literary history +than his writings. + + His _Gesammelte Schriften_ (excluding his dramas) were published in 16 + vols. (1879-1882); his _Dramatische Werke_, in 13 vols. (1845-1875); a + popular edition of the latter in 12 vols. (1880-1892). An edition of + Laube's _Ausgewählte Werke_ in 10 vols. appeared in 1906 with an + introduction by H. H. Houben. See also J. Proelss, _Das junge + Deutschland_ (1892); and H. Bulthaupt, _Dramaturgie des Schauspiels_ + (vol. iii., 6th ed., 1901). + + + + +L'AUBESPINE, a French family which sprang from Claude de l'Aubespine, a +lawyer of Orleans and bailiff of the abbey of St Euverte in the +beginning of the 16th century, and rapidly acquired distinction in +offices connected with the law. Sebastien de l'Aubespine (d. 1582), +abbot of Bassefontaine, bishop of Vannes and afterwards of Limoges, +fulfilled important diplomatic missions in Germany, Hungary, England, +the Low Countries and Switzerland under Francis I. and his successors. +Claude (c. 1500-1567), baron of Châteauneuf-sur-Cher, Sebastien's +brother, was a secretary of finance; he had charge of negotiations with +England in 1555 and 1559, and was several times commissioned to treat +with the Huguenots in the king's name. His son Guillaume was a +councillor of state and ambassador to England. Charles de l'Aubespine +(1580-1653) was ambassador to Germany, the Low Countries, Venice and +England, besides twice holding the office of keeper of the seals of +France, from 1630 to 1633, and from 1650 to 1651. The family fell into +poor circumstances and became extinct in the 19th century. (M. P.*) + + + + +LAUCHSTÄDT, a town of Germany in the province of Prussian Saxony, on the +Laucha, 6 m. N.W. of Merseburg by the railway to Schafstädt. Pop. (1905) +2034. It contains an Evangelical church, a theatre, a hydropathic +establishment and several educational institutions, among which is an +agricultural school affiliated to the university of Halle. Its +industries include malting, vinegar-making and brewing. Lauchstädt was a +popular watering-place in the 18th century, the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg +often making it their summer residence. From 1789 to 1811 the Weimar +court theatrical company gave performances here of the plays of Schiller +and Goethe, an attraction which greatly contributed to the well-being of +the town. + + See Maak, _Das Goethetheater in Lauchstädt_ (Lauchstädt, 1905); and + Nasemann, _Bad Lauchstädt_ (Halle, 1885). + + + + +LAUD, WILLIAM (1573-1645), English archbishop, only son of William Laud, +a clothier, was born at Reading on the 7th of October 1573. He was +educated at Reading free school, matriculated at St John's college, +Oxford, in 1589, gained a scholarship in 1590, a fellowship in 1593, and +graduated B.A. in 1594, proceeding to D.D. in 1608. In 1601 he took +orders, in 1603 becoming chaplain to Charles Blount, earl of Devonshire. +Laud early took up a position of antagonism to the Calvinistic party in +the church, and in 1604 was reproved by the authorities for maintaining +in his thesis for the degree of B.D. "that there could be no true church +without bishops," and again in 1606 for advocating "popish" opinions in +a sermon at St Mary's. If high-church doctrines, however, met with +opposition at Oxford, they were relished elsewhere, and Laud obtained +rapid advancement. In 1607 he was made vicar of Stanford in +Northamptonshire, and in 1608 he became chaplain to Bishop Neile, who in +1610 presented him to the living of Cuxton, when he resigned his +fellowship. In 1611, in spite of the influence of Archbishop Abbot and +Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, Laud was made president of St John's, and in +1614 obtained in addition the prebend of Buckden, in 1615 the +archdeaconry of Huntingdon, and in 1616 the deanery of Gloucester. Here +he repaired the fabric and changed the position of the communion table, +a matter which aroused great religious controversy, from the centre of +the choir to the east end, by a characteristic tactless exercise of +power offending the bishop, who henceforth refused to enter the +cathedral. In 1617 he went with the king to Scotland, and aroused +hostility by wearing the surplice. In 1621 he became bishop of St +David's, when he resigned the presidentship of St John's. + +In April 1622 Laud, by the king's orders, took part in a controversy +with Percy, a Jesuit, known as Fisher, the aim of which was to prevent +the conversion of the countess of Buckingham, the favourite's mother, to +Romanism, and his opinions expressed on that occasion show considerable +breadth and comprehension. While refusing to acknowledge the Roman +Church as _the_ true church, he allowed it to be _a_ true church and a +branch of the Catholic body, at the same time emphasizing the perils of +knowingly associating with error; and with regard to the English Church +he denied that the acceptance of all its articles was necessary. The +foundation of belief was the Bible, not any one branch of the Catholic +church arrogating to itself infallibility, and when dispute on matters +of faith arose, "a lawful and free council, determining according to +Scripture, is the best judge on earth." A close and somewhat strange +intimacy, considering the difference in the characters and ideals of the +two men, between Laud and Buckingham now began, and proved the chief +instrument of Laud's advancement. The opportunity came with the old +king's death in 1625, for James, with all his pedantry, was too wise and +cautious to embark in Laud's rash undertakings, and had already shown a +prudent moderation, after setting up bishops in Scotland, in going no +further in opposition to the religious feelings of the people. On the +accession of Charles, Laud's ambitious activities were allowed free +scope. A list of the clergy was immediately prepared by him for the +king, in which each name was labelled with an O or a P, distinguishing +the Orthodox to be promoted from the Puritans to be suppressed. Laud +defended Richard Montague, who had aroused the wrath of the parliament +by his pamphlet against Calvinism. His influence soon extended into the +domain of the state. He supported the king's prerogative throughout the +conflict with the parliament, preached in favour of it before Charles's +second parliament in 1626, and assisted in Buckingham's defence. In 1626 +he was nominated bishop of Bath and Wells, and in July 1628 bishop of +London. On the 12th of April 1629 he was made chancellor of Oxford +University. + +In the patronage of learning and in the exercise of authority over the +morals and education of youth Laud was in his proper sphere, many +valuable reforms at Oxford being due to his activity, including the +codification of the statutes, the statute by which public examinations +were rendered obligatory for university degrees, and the ordinance for +the election of proctors, the revival of the college system, of moral +and religious discipline and order, and of academic dress. He founded or +endowed various professorships, including those of Hebrew and Arabic, +and the office of public orator, encouraged English and foreign +scholars, such as Voss, Selden and Jeremy Taylor, founded the university +printing press, procuring in 1633 the royal patent for Oxford, and +obtained for the Bodleian library over 1300 MSS., adding a new wing to +the building to contain his gifts. His rule at Oxford was marked by a +great increase in the number of students. In his own college he erected +the new buildings, and was its second founder. Of his chancellorship he +himself wrote a history, and the Laudian tradition long remained the +great standard of order and good government in the university. Elsewhere +he showed his liberality and his zeal for reform. He was an active +visitor of Eton and Winchester, and endowed the grammar school at +Reading, where he was himself educated. In London he procured funds for +the restoration of the dilapidated cathedral of St Paul's. + +He was far less great as a ruler in the state, showing as a judge a +tyrannical spirit both in the star chamber and high-commission court, +threatening Felton, the assassin of Buckingham, with the rack, and +showing special activity in procuring a cruel sentence in the former +court against Alexander Leighton in June 1630 and against Henry +Sherfield in 1634. His power was greatly increased after his return from +Scotland, whither he had accompanied the king, by his promotion to the +archbishopric of Canterbury in August 1633. "As for the state indeed," +he wrote to Wentworth on this occasion, "I am for _Thorough_." In 1636 +the privy council decided in his favour his claim of jurisdiction as +visitor over both universities. Soon afterwards he was placed on the +commission of the treasury and on the committee of the privy council for +foreign affairs. He was all-powerful both in church and state. He +proceeded to impose by authority the religious ceremonies and usages to +which he attached so much importance. His vicar-general, Sir Nathaniel +Brent, went through the dioceses of his province, noting every +dilapidation and every irregularity. The pulpit was no longer to be the +chief feature in the church, but the communion table. The Puritan +lecturers were suppressed. He showed great hostility to the Puritan +sabbath and supported the reissue of the _Book of Sports_, especially +odious to that party, and severely reprimanded Chief Justice Richardson +for his interference with the Somerset wakes. He insisted on the use of +the prayer-book among the English soldiers in the service of Holland, +and forced strict conformity on the church of the merchant adventurers +at Delft, endeavouring even to reach the colonists in New England. He +tried to compel the Dutch and French refugees in England to unite with +the Church of England, advising double taxation and other forms of +persecution. In 1634 the justices of the peace were ordered to enter +houses to search for persons holding conventicles and bring them before +the commissioners. He took pleasure in displaying his power over the +great, and in punishing them in the spiritual courts for moral offences. +In 1637 he took part in the sentence of the star chamber on Prynne, +Bastwick and Burton, and in the same year in the prosecution of Bishop +Williams. He urged Strafford in Ireland to carry out the same reforms +and severities. + +He was now to extend his ecclesiastical system to Scotland, where during +his visits the appearance of the churches had greatly displeased him. +The new prayer-book and canons were drawn up by the Scottish bishops +with his assistance and enforced in the country, and, though not +officially connected with the work, he was rightly regarded as its real +author. The attack not only on the national religion, but on the +national independence of Scotland, proved to be the point at which the +system, already strained, broke and collapsed. Laud continued to support +Strafford's and the king's arbitrary measures to the last, and spoke in +favour of the vigorous continuation of the war on Strafford's side in +the memorable meeting of the committee of eight on the 5th of May 1640, +and for the employment of any means for carrying it on. "Tried all +ways," so ran the notes of his speech, "and refused all ways. By the law +of God and man you should have subsistence and lawful to take it." +Though at first opposed to the sitting of convocation, after the +dissolution of parliament, as an independent body, on account of the +opposition it would arouse, he yet caused to be passed in it the new +canons which both enforced his ecclesiastical system and assisted the +king's divine right, resistance to his power entailing "damnation." +Laud's infatuated policy could go no further, and the _etcetera_ oath, +according to which whole classes of men were to be forced to swear +perpetual allegiance to the "government of this church by archbishops, +bishops, deans and archdeacons, &c.," was long remembered and derided. +His power now quickly abandoned him. He was attacked and reviled as the +chief author of the troubles on all sides. In October he was ordered by +Charles to suspend the _etcetera_ oath. The same month, when the high +commission court was sacked by the mob, he was unable to persuade the +star chamber to punish the offenders. On the 18th of December he was +impeached by the Long Parliament, and on the 1st of March imprisoned in +the tower. On the 12th of May, at Strafford's request, the archbishop +appeared at the window of his cell to give him his blessing on his way +to execution, and fainted as he passed by. For some time he was left +unnoticed in confinement. On the 31st of May 1643, however, Prynne +received orders from the parliament to search his papers, and published +a mutilated edition of his diary. The articles of impeachment were sent +up to the Lords in October, the trial beginning on the 12th of March +1644, but the attempt to bring his conduct under a charge of high +treason proving hopeless, an attainder was substituted and sent up to +the Lords on the 22nd of November. In these proceedings there was no +semblance of respect for law or justice, the Lords yielding (4th of +January 1645) to the menaces of the Commons, who arrogated to themselves +the right to declare any crimes they pleased high treason. Laud now +tendered the king's pardon, which had been granted to him in April 1643. +This was rejected, and it was with some difficulty that his petition to +be executed with the axe, instead of undergoing the ordinary brutal +punishment for high treason, was granted. He suffered death on the 10th +of January on Tower Hill, asserting his innocence of any offence known +to the law, repudiating the charge of "popery," and declaring that he +had always lived in the Protestant Church of England. He was buried in +the chancel of All Hallows, Barking, whence his body was removed on the +24th of July 1663 to the chapel of St John's College, Oxford. + +Laud never married. He is described by Fuller as "low of stature, little +in bulk, cheerful in countenance (wherein gravity and quickness were all +compounded), of a sharp and piercing eye, clear judgment and (abating +the influence of age) firm memory." His personality, on account of the +sharp religious antagonisms with which his name is inevitably +associated, has rarely been judged with impartiality. His severities +were the result of a narrow mind and not of a vindictive spirit, and +their number has certainly been exaggerated. His career was +distinguished by uprightness, by piety, by a devotion to duty, by +courage and consistency. In particular it is clear that the charge of +partiality for Rome is unfounded. At the same time the circumstances of +the period, the fact that various schemes of union with Rome were +abroad, that the missions of Panzani and later of Conn were gathering +into the Church of Rome numbers of members of the Church of England who, +like Laud himself, were dissatisfied with the Puritan bias which then +characterized it, the incident mentioned by Laud himself of his being +twice offered the cardinalate, the movement carried on at the court in +favour of Romanism, and the fact that Laud's changes in ritual, however +clearly defined and restricted in his own intention, all tended towards +Roman practice, fully warranted the suspicions and fears of his +contemporaries. Laud's complete neglect of the national sentiment, in +his belief that the exercise of mere power was sufficient to suppress +it, is a principal proof of his total lack of true statesmanship. The +hostility to "innovations in religion," it is generally allowed, was a +far stronger incentive to the rebellion against the arbitrary power of +the crown, than even the violation of constitutional liberties; and to +Laud, therefore, more than to Strafford, to Buckingham, or even perhaps +to Charles himself, is especially due the responsibility for the +catastrophe. He held fast to the great idea of the catholicity of the +English Church, to that conception of it which regards it as a branch of +the whole Christian church, and emphasizes its historical continuity and +identity from the time of the apostles, but here again his policy was at +fault; for his despotic administration not only excited and exaggerated +the tendencies to separatism and independentism which finally prevailed, +but excluded large bodies of faithful churchmen from communion with +their church and from their country. The emigration to Massachusetts in +1629, which continued in a stream till 1640, was not composed of +separatists but of episcopalians. Thus what Laud grasped with one hand +he destroyed with the other. + +Passing to the more indirect influence of Laud on his times, we can +observe a narrowness of mind and aim which separates him from a man of +such high imagination and idealism as Strafford, however closely +identified their policies may have been for the moment. The chief +feature of Laud's administration is attention to countless details, to +the most trivial of which he attached excessive importance, and which +are uninspired by any great underlying principle. His view was always +essentially material. The one element in the church which to him was all +essential was its visibility. This was the source of his intense dislike +of the Puritan and Nonconformist conception of the church, which +afforded no tangible or definite form. Hence the necessity for outward +conformity, and the importance attached to ritual and ceremony, unity in +which must be established at all costs, in contrast to dogma and +doctrine, in which he showed himself lenient and large-minded, winning +over Hales by friendly discussion, and encouraging the publication of +Chillingworth's _Religion of Protestants_. He was not a bigot, but a +martinet. The external form was with him the essential feature of +religion, preceding the spiritual conception, and in Laud's opinion +being the real foundation of it. In his last words on the scaffold he +alludes to the dangers and slanders he had endured labouring to keep an +uniformity in the external service of God; and Bacon's conception of a +spiritual union founded on variety and liberty was one completely beyond +his comprehension. + +This narrow materialism was the true cause of his fatal influence both +in church and state. In his own character it produced the somewhat +blunted moral sense which led to the few incidents in his career which +need moral defence, his performance of the marriage ceremony between his +first patron Lord Devonshire and the latter's mistress, the divorced +wife of Lord Rich, an act completely at variance with his principles; +his strange intimacy with Buckingham; his love of power and place. +Indistinguishable from his personal ambition was his passion for the +aggrandisement of the church and its predominance in the state. He was +greatly delighted at the foolish appointment of Bishop Juxon as lord +treasurer in 1636. "No churchman had it," he cries exultingly, "since +Henry VII.'s time, ... and now if the church will not hold up themselves +under God, I can do no more." Spiritual influence, in Laud's opinion, +was not enough for the church. The church as the guide of the nation in +duty and godliness, even extending its activity into state affairs as a +mediator and a moderator, was not sufficient. Its power must be material +and visible, embodied in great places of secular administration and +enthroned in high offices of state. Thus the church, descending into the +political arena, became identified with the doctrines of one political +party in the state--doctrines odious to the majority of the nation--and +at the same time became associated with acts of violence and injustice, +losing at once its influence and its reputation. Equally disastrous to +the state was the identification of the king's administration with one +party in the church, and that with the party in an immense minority not +only in the nation but even among the clergy themselves. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--All Laud's works are to be found in the _Library of + Anglo-Catholic Theology_ (7 vols.), including his sermons (of no great + merit), letters, history of the chancellorship, history of his + troubles and trial, and his remarkable diary, the MSS. of the last two + works being the property of St John's College. Various modern opinions + of Laud's career can be studied in T. Longueville's _Life of Laud, by + a Romish Recusant_ (1894); _Congregational Union Jubilee Lectures_, + vol. i. (1882); J. B. Mozley's _Essay on Laud; Archbishop Laud_, by A. + C. Benson (1887); _Wm. Laud_, by W. H. Hutton (1895); _Archbishop Laud + Commemoration_, ed. by W. F. Collins (lectures, bibliography, + catalogue of exhibits, 1895); Hook's _Lives of the Archbishops of + Canterbury_; and H. Bell, _Archbishop Laud and Priestly Government_ + (1907). (P. C. Y.) + + + + +LAUD (Lat. _laus_), a term meaning praise, now rarely found in this +sense except in poetry or hymns. Lauds is the name for the second of the +offices of the canonical hours in the Roman breviary, so called from the +three _laudes_ or psalms of praise, cxlviii.-cl. which form part of the +service (see BREVIARY and HOURS, CANONICAL). + + + + +LAUDANUM, originally the name given by Paracelsus to a famous medical +preparation of his own composed of gold, pearls, &c. (_Opera_, 1658, i. +492/2), but containing opium as its chief ingredient. The term is now +only used for the alcoholic tincture of opium (_q.v._). The name was +either invented by Paracelsus from Lat. _laudare_ to praise, or was a +corrupted form of "ladanum" (Gr. [Greek: lêdanon], from Pers. _ladan_), +a resinous juice or gum obtained from various kinds of the _Cistus_ +shrub, formerly used medicinally in external applications and as a +stomachic, but now only in perfumery and in making fumigating pastilles, +&c. + + + + +LAUDER, SIR THOMAS DICK, Bart. (1784-1848), Scottish author, only son of +Sir Andrew Lauder, 6th baronet, was born at Edinburgh in 1784. He +succeeded to the baronetcy in 1820. His first contribution to +_Blackwood's Magazine_ in 1817, entitled "Simon Roy, Gardener at +Dunphail," was by some ascribed to Sir Walter Scott. His paper (1818) on +"The Parallel Roads of Glenroy," printed in vol. ix. of the +_Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, first drew attention +to the phenomenon in question. In 1825 and 1827 he published two +romances, _Lochandhu_ and the _Wolf of Badenoch_. He became a frequent +contributor to _Blackwood_ and also to _Tait's Magazine_, and in 1830 he +published _An Account of the Great Floods of August 1829 in the Province +of Moray and adjoining Districts_. Subsequent works were _Highland +Rambles, with Long Tales to Shorten the Way_ (2 vols. 8vo, 1837), +_Legendary Tales of the Highlands_ (3 vols, 12mo, 1841), _Tour round the +Coasts of Scotland_ (1842) and _Memorial of the Royal Progress in +Scotland_ (1843). Vol. i. of a _Miscellany of Natural History_, +published in 1833, was also partly prepared by Lauder. He was a Liberal, +and took an active interest in politics; he held the office of secretary +to the Board of Scottish Manufactures. He died on the 29th of May 1848. +An unfinished series of papers, written for _Tait's Magazine_ shortly +before his death, was published under the title _Scottish Rivers_, with +a preface by John Brown, M.D., in 1874. + + + + +LAUDER, WILLIAM (d. 1771), Scottish literary forger, was born in the +latter part of the 17th century, and was educated at Edinburgh +university, where he graduated in 1695. He applied unsuccessfully for +the post of professor of humanity there, in succession to Adam Watt, +whose assistant he had been for a time, and also for the keepership of +the university library. He was a good scholar, and in 1739, published +_Poetarum Scotorum Musae Sacrae_, a collection of poems by various +writers, mostly paraphrased from the Bible. In 1742 Lauder came to +London. In 1747 he wrote an article for the _Gentleman's Magazine_ to +prove that Milton's _Paradise Lost_ was largely a plagiarism from the +_Adamus Exul_ (1601) of Hugo Grotius, the _Sarcotis_ (1654) of J. Masen +(Masenius, 1606-1681), and the _Poemata Sacra_ (1633) of Andrew Ramsay +(1574-1659). Lauder expounded his case in a series of articles, and in a +book (1753) increased the list of plundered authors to nearly a hundred. +But his success was short-lived. Several scholars, who had independently +studied the alleged sources of Milton's inspiration, proved conclusively +that Lauder had not only garbled most of his quotations, but had even +inserted amongst them extracts from a Latin rendering of _Paradise +Lost_. This led to his exposure, and he was obliged to write a complete +confession at the dictation of his former friend Samuel Johnson. After +several vain endeavours to clear his character he emigrated to +Barbadoes, where he died in 1771. + + + + +LAUDER, a royal and police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) +719. It is situated on the Leader, 29 m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North +British railway's branch line from Fountainhall, of which it is the +terminus. The burgh is said to date from the reign of William the Lion +(1165-1214); its charter was granted in 1502. In 1482 James III. with +his court and army rested here on the way to raise the siege of Berwick. +While the nobles were in the church considering grievances, Robert +Cochrane, recently created earl of Mar, one of the king's favourites, +whose "removal" was at the very moment under discussion, demanded +admittance. Archibald Douglas, earl of Angus, opened the door and seized +Mar, who was forthwith dragged to Lauder Bridge and there, along with +six other obnoxious favourites, hanged in sight of his royal master. It +was in connexion with this exploit that Angus acquired the nickname of +"Bell-the-cat." The public buildings include a town-hall and a library. +The parish church was built in 1673 by the earl of Lauderdale, in +exchange for the older edifice, the site of which was required for the +enlargement of Thirlestane castle, which, originally a fortress, was +then remodelled for a residence. The town is a favourite with anglers. + + + + +LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND, DUKE OF (1616-1682), eldest surviving son of +John Maitland, 2nd Lord Maitland of Thirlestane (d. 1645), who was +created earl of Lauderdale in 1624, and of Lady Isabel Seton, daughter +of Alexander, earl of Dunfermline, and great-grandson of Sir Richard +Maitland (q.v.), the poet, a member of an ancient family of +Berwickshire, was born on the 24th of May 1616, at Lethington. He began +public life as a zealous adherent of the Presbyterian cause, took the +covenant, sat as an elder in the assembly at St Andrews in July 1643, +and was sent to England as a commissioner for the covenant in August, +and to attend the Westminster assembly in November. In February 1644 he +was a member of the committee of both kingdoms, and on the 20th of +November was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king +at Uxbridge, when he made efforts to persuade Charles to agree to the +establishment of Presbyterianism. In 1645 he advised Charles to reject +the proposals of the Independents, and in 1647 approved of the king's +surrender to the Scots. At this period Lauderdale veered round +completely to the king's cause, had several interviews with him, and +engaged in various projects for his restoration, offering the aid of the +Scots, on the condition of Charles's consent to the establishment of +Presbyterianism, and on the 26th of December he obtained from Charles at +Carisbrooke "the engagement" by which Presbyterianism was to be +established for three years, schismatics were to be suppressed, and the +acts of the Scottish parliament ratified, the king in addition promising +to admit the Scottish nobles into public employment in England and to +reside frequently in Scotland. Returning to Scotland, in the spring of +1648, Lauderdale joined the party of Hamilton in alliance with the +English royalists. Their defeat at Preston postponed the arrival of the +prince of Wales, but Lauderdale had an interview with the prince in the +Downs in August, and from this period obtained supreme influence over +the future king. He persuaded him later to accept the invitation to +Scotland from the Argyll faction, accompanied him thither in 1650 and in +the expedition into England, and was taken prisoner at Worcester in +1651, remaining in confinement till March 1660. He joined Charles in May +1660 at Breda, and, in spite of the opposition of Clarendon and Monk, +was appointed secretary of state. From this time onwards he kept his +hold upon the king, was lodged at Whitehall, was "never from the king's +ear nor council,"[1] and maintained his position against his numerous +adversaries by a crafty dexterity in dealing with men, a fearless +unscrupulousness, and a robust strength of will, which overcame all +opposition. Though a man of considerable learning and intellectual +attainment, his character was exceptionally and grossly licentious, and +his base and ignoble career was henceforward unrelieved by a single +redeeming feature. He abandoned Argyll to his fate, permitted, if he did +not assist in, the restoration of episcopacy in Scotland, and after +triumphing over all his opponents in Scotland drew into his own hands +the whole administration of that kingdom, and proceeded to impose upon +it the absolute supremacy of the crown in church and state, restoring +the nomination of the lords of the articles to the king and initiating +severe measures against the Covenanters. In 1669 he was able to boast +with truth that "the king is now master here in all causes and over all +persons." + +His own power was now at its height, and his position as the favourite +of Charles, controlled by no considerations of patriotism or +statesmanship, and completely independent of the English parliament, +recalled the worst scandals and abuses of the Stuart administration +before the Civil War. He was a member of the cabal ministry, but took +little part in English affairs, and was not entrusted with the first +secret treaty of Dover, but gave personal support to Charles in his +degrading demands for pensions from Louis XIV. On the 2nd of May 1672 he +was created duke of Lauderdale and earl of March, and on the 3rd of June +knight of the garter. In 1673, on the resignation of James in +consequence of the Test Act, he was appointed a commissioner for the +admiralty. In October he visited Scotland to suppress the dissenters and +obtain money for the Dutch War, and the intrigues organized by +Shaftesbury against his power in his absence, and the attacks made upon +him in the House of Commons in January 1674 and April 1675, were alike +rendered futile by the steady support of Charles and James. On the 25th +of June 1674 he was created earl of Guilford and Baron Petersham in the +peerage of England. His ferocious measures having failed to suppress the +conventicles in Scotland, he summoned to his aid in 1677 a band of +Highlanders, who were sent into the western country. In consequence, a +large party of Scottish nobles came to London, made common cause with +the English country faction, and compelled Charles to order the +disbandment of the marauders. In May 1678 another demand by the Commons +for Lauderdale's removal was thrown out by court influence by one vote. +He maintained his triumphs almost to the end. In Scotland, which he +visited immediately after this victory in parliament, he overbore all +opposition to the king's demands for money. Another address for his +removal from the Commons in England was suppressed by the dissolution of +parliament on the 26th of May 1679, and a renewed attack upon him, by +the Scottish party and Shaftesbury's faction combined, also failed. On +the 22nd of June 1679 the last attempt of the unfortunate Covenanters +was suppressed at Bothwell Brig. In 1680, however, failing health +obliged Lauderdale to resign the place and power for which he had so +long successfully struggled. His vote given for the execution of Lord +Stafford on the 29th of November is said also to have incurred the +displeasure of James. In 1682 he was stripped of all his offices, and he +died in August. Lauderdale married (1) Lady Anne Home, daughter of the +1st earl of Home, by whom he had one daughter; and (2) Lady Elizabeth +Murray, daughter of the 1st earl of Dysart and widow of Sir Lionel +Tollemache. He left no male issue, consequently his dukedom and his +English titles became extinct, but he was succeeded in the earldom by +his brother Charles (see below). + + See _Lauderdale Papers Add._ MSS. in Brit. Mus., 30 vols., a small + selection of which, entitled _The Lauderdale Papers_, were edited by + Osmond Airy for the Camden Society in 1884-1885; _Hamilton Papers_ + published by the same society; "Lauderdale Correspondence with + Archbishop Sharp," _Scottish Hist. Soc. Publications_, vol. 15 (1893); + Burnet's _Lives of the Hamiltons_ and _History of his Own Time_; R. + Baillie's Letters; S. R. Gardiner's _Hist. of the Civil War and of the + Commonwealth_; Clarendon's _Hist. of the Rebellion_; and the + _Quarterly Review_, clvii. 407. Several speeches of Lauderdal are + extant. (P. C. Y.) + + + _Earls of Lauderdale._ + + Charles Maitland, 3rd earl of Lauderdale (d. 1691), became an ordinary + lord of session as Lord Halton in 1669, afterwards assisting his + brother, the duke, in the management of public business in Scotland. + His eldest son, Richard (1653-1695), became the 4th earl. As Lord + Maitland he was lord-justice-general from 1681 to 1684; he was an + adherent of James II. and after fighting at the battle of the Boyne he + was an exile in France until his death. This earl made a verse + translation of Virgil (published 1737). He left no sons, and his + brother John (c. 1655-1710) became the 5th earl. John, a supporter of + William III. and of the union of England and Scotland, was succeeded + by his son Charles (c. 1688-1744), who was the grandfather of James, + the 8th earl. + + James Maitland, 8th earl of Lauderdale (1759-1839), was a member of + parliament from 1780 until August 1789 when he succeeded his father in + the earldom. In the House of Commons he took an active part in debate, + and in the House of Lords, where he was a representative peer for + Scotland, he was prominent as an opponent of the policy of Pitt and + the English government with regard to France, a country he had visited + in 1792. In 1806 he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron + Lauderdale of Thirlestane and for a short time he was keeper of the + great seal of Scotland. By this time the earl, who had helped to found + the Society of the Friends of the People in 1792, had somewhat + modified his political views; this process was continued, and after + acting as the leader of the Whigs in Scotland, Lauderdale became a + Tory and voted against the Reform Bill of 1832. He died on the 13th of + September 1839. He wrote an _Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of + Public Wealth_ (1804 and 1819), a work which has been translated into + French and Italian and which produced a controversy between the author + and Lord Brougham; _The Depreciation of the Paper-currency of Great + Britain Proved_ (1812); and other writings of a similar nature. He was + succeeded by his sons James (1784-1860) and Anthony (1785-1863) as 9th + and 10th earls. Anthony, a naval officer, died unmarried in March + 1863, when his barony of the United Kingdom became extinct, but his + Scottish earldom devolved upon a cousin, Thomas Maitland (1803-1878), + a grandson of the 7th earl, who became 11th earl of Lauderdale. + Thomas, who was an admiral of the fleet, died without sons, and the + title passed to Charles Barclay-Maitland (1822-1884), a descendant of + the 6th earl. When Charles died unmarried, another of the 6th earl's + descendants, Frederick Henry Maitland (b. 1840), became 13th earl of + Lauderdale. + + The earls of Lauderdale are hereditary standard bearers for Scotland. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Pepys's Diary_, 2nd of March 1664. + + + + +LAUENBURG, a duchy of Germany, formerly belonging with Holstein to +Denmark, but from 1865 to Prussia, and now included in the Prussian +province of Schleswig-Holstein. It lies on the right bank of the Elbe, +is bounded by the territories of Hamburg, Lübeck, Mecklenburg-Strelitz +and the province of Hanover, and comprises an area of 453 sq. m. The +surface is a slightly undulating plain. The soil, chiefly alluvial, +though in some places arenaceous, is generally fertile and well +cultivated, but a great portion is covered with forests, interspersed +with lakes. By means of the Stecknitz canal, the Elbe, the principal +river, is connected with the Trave. The chief agricultural products are +timber, fruit, grain, hemp, flax and vegetables. Cattle-breeding affords +employment for many of the inhabitants. The railroad from Hamburg to +Berlin traverses the country. The capital is Ratzeburg, and there are +two other towns, Mölln and Lauenburg. + +The earliest inhabitants of Lauenburg were a Slav tribe, the Polabes, +who were gradually replaced by colonists from Saxony. About the middle +of the 12th century the country was subdued by the duke of Saxony, Henry +the Lion, who founded a bishopric at Ratzeburg, and after Henry's fall +in 1180 it formed part of the smaller duchy of Saxony, which was +governed by Duke Bernhard. In 1203 it was conquered by Waldemar II., +king of Denmark, but in 1227 it reverted to Albert, a son of its former +duke. When Albert died in 1260 Saxony was divided. Lauenburg, or +Saxe-Lauenburg, as it is generally called, became a separate duchy ruled +by his son John, and had its own lines of dukes for over 400 years, one +of them, Magnus I. (d. 1543), being responsible for the introduction of +the reformed teaching into the land. The reigning family, however, +became extinct when Duke Julius Francis died in September 1689, and +there were at least eight claimants for his duchy, chief among them +being John George III., elector of Saxony, and George William, duke of +Brunswick-Lüneburg-Celle, the ancestors of both these princes having +made treaties of mutual succession with former dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg. +Both entered the country, but George William proved himself the stronger +and occupied Ratzeburg; having paid a substantial sum of money to the +elector, he was recognized by the inhabitants as their duke. When he +died three years later Lauenburg passed to his nephew, George Louis, +elector of Hanover, afterwards king of Great Britain as George I., whose +rights were recognized by the emperor Charles VI. in 1728. In 1803 the +duchy was occupied by the French, and in 1810 it was incorporated with +France. It reverted to Hanover after the battle of Leipzig in 1813, and +in 1816 was ceded to Prussia, the greater part of it being at once +transferred by her to Denmark in exchange for Swedish Pomerania. In +1848, when Prussia made war on Denmark, Lauenburg was occupied at her +own request by some Hanoverian troops, and was then administered for +three years under the authority of the German confederation, being +restored to Denmark in 1851. Definitely incorporated with this country +in 1853, it experienced another change of fortune after the short war of +1864 between Denmark on the one side and Prussia and Austria on the +other, as by the peace of Vienna (30th of October 1864) it was ceded +with Schleswig and Holstein to the two German powers. By the convention +of Gastein (14th of August 1865) Austria surrendered her claim to +Prussia in return for the payment of nearly £300,000 and in September +1865 King William I. took formal possession of the duchy. Lauenburg +entered the North German confederation in 1866 and the new German empire +in 1870. It retained its constitution and its special privileges until +the 1st of July 1876, when it was incorporated with the kingdom of +Prussia. In 1890 Prince Bismarck received the title of duke of +Lauenburg. + + See P. von Kobbe, _Geschichte und Landesbeschreibung des Herzogtums + Lauenburg_ (Altona, 1836-1837); Duve, _Mitteilungen zur Kunde der + Staatsgeschichte Lauenburgs_ (Ratzeburg, 1852-1857), and the _Archiv + des Vereins für die Geschichte des Herzogtums Lauenburg_ (Ratzeburg, + 1884 seq.). + + + + +LAUFF, JOSEF (1855- ), German poet and dramatist, was born at Cologne +on the 16th of November 1855, the son of a jurist. He was educated at +Münster in Westphalia, and entering the army served as a lieutenant of +artillery at Thorn and subsequently at Cologne, where he attained the +rank of captain in 1890. In 1898 he was summoned by the German emperor, +William II., to Wiesbaden, being at the same time promoted to major's +rank, in order that he might devote his great dramatic talents to the +royal theatre. His literary career began with the epic poems _Jan van +Calker, ein Malerlied vom Niederrhein_ (1887, 3rd ed., 1892) and _Der +Helfensteiner, ein Sang aus dem Bauernkriege_ (3rd ed., 1896). These +were followed by _Die Overstolzin_ (5th ed., 1900), _Herodias_ (2nd ed., +1898) and the _Geislerin_ (4th ed., 1902). He also wrote the novels _Die +Hexe_ (6th ed., 1900), _Regina coeli_ (a story of the fall of the Dutch +Republic) (7th ed., 1904), _Die Hauptmannsfrau_ (8th ed., 1903) and +_Marie Verwahnen_ (1903). But he is best known as a dramatist. Beginning +with the tragedy _Ignez de Castro_ (1894), he proceeded to dramatize the +great monarchs of his country, and, in a Hohenzollern tetralogy, issued +_Der Burggraf_ (1897, 6th ed. 1900) and _Der Eisenzahn_ (1900), to be +followed by _Der grosse Kurfürst_ (The Great Elector) and _Friedrich der +Grosse_ (Frederick the Great). + + See A. Schroeter, _Josef Lauff, Ein litterarisches Zeitbild_ (1899), + and B. Sturm, _Josef Lauff_ (1903). + + + + +LAUGHTER, the visible and audible expression of mirth, pleasure or the +sense of the ridiculous by movements of the facial muscles and +inarticulate sounds (see COMEDY, PLAY and HUMOUR). The O. Eng. +_hleahtor_ is formed from _hleahhan_, to laugh, a common Teutonic word; +cf. Ger. _lachen_, Goth. _hlahjan_, Icel. _hlaeja_, &c. These are in +origin echoic or imitative words, to be referred to a Teut. base +_hlah_-, Indo-Eur. _kark_-, to make a noise; Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) +connects ultimately Gr. [Greek: klôssein], to cluck like a hen, [Greek: +krazein], to croak, &c. A gentle and inaudible form of laughter +expressed by a movement of the lips and by the eyes is a "smile." This +is a comparatively late word in English, and is due to Scandinavian +influence; cf. Swed. _smila_; it is ultimately connected with Lat. +_mirari_, to wonder, and probably with Gr. [Greek: meidos]. + + + + +LAUMONT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE NICHOLAS GILLET DE (1747-1834), French +mineralogist, was born in Paris on the 28th of May 1747. He was educated +at a military school, and served in the army from 1772-1784, when he was +appointed inspector of mines. His attention in his leisure time was +wholly given to mineralogy, and he assisted in organizing the new École +des Mines in Paris. He was author of numerous mineralogical papers in +the _Journal_ and _Annales des Mines_. The mineral laumontite was named +after him by Haüy. He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1834. + + + + +LAUNCESTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Launceston +parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 35½ m. N.W. of Plymouth, on +branches of the Great Western and the London & South-Western railways. +Pop. (1901) 4053. It lies in a hilly district by and above the river +Kensey, an affluent of the Tamar, the houses standing picturesquely on +the southern slope of the narrow valley, with the keep of the ancient +castle crowning the summit. On the northern slope lies the parish of St +Stephen. The castle, the ruins of which are in part of Norman date, was +the seat of the earls of Cornwall, and was frequently besieged during +the civil wars of the 17th century. In 1656 George Fox the Quaker was +imprisoned in the north-east tower for disturbing the peace at St Ives +by distributing tracts. Fragments of the old town walls and the south +gateway, of the Decorated period, are standing. The church of St Mary +Magdalen, built of granite, and richly ornamented without, was erected +early in the 16th century, but possesses a detached tower dated 1380. A +fine Norman doorway, now appearing as the entrance to a hotel, is +preserved from an Augustinian priory founded in the reign of Henry I. +The parish church of St Stephen is Early English, and later, with a +Perpendicular tower. The trade of Launceston is chiefly agricultural, +but there are tanneries and iron foundries. The borough is under a +mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2189 acres. + +A silver penny of Æthelred II. witnesses to the fact that the privilege +of coining money was exercised by Launceston (Dunheved, Lanscaveton, +Lanstone) more than half a century before the Norman conquest. At the +time of the Domesday survey the canons of St Stephen held Launceston, +and the count of Mortain held Dunheved. The number of families settled +on the former is not given, but attention is called to the market which +had been removed thence by the count to the neighbouring castle of +Dunheved, which had two mills, one villein and thirteen bordars. A spot +more favoured by nature could not have been chosen either for settlement +or for defence than the rich lands near the confluence of the Kensey and +Tamar, out of which there rises abruptly the gigantic mound upon which +the castle is built. It is not known when the canons settled here nor +whether the count's castle, then newly erected, replaced some earlier +fortification. Reginald, earl of Cornwall (1140-1175), granted to the +canons rights of jurisdiction in all their lands and exemption from suit +of court in the shire and hundred courts. Richard (1225-1272), king of +the Romans, constituted Dunheved a free borough, and granted to the +burgesses freedom from pontage, stallage and suillage, liberty to elect +their own reeves, exemption from all pleas outside the borough except +pleas of the crown, and a site for a gild-hall. The farm of the borough +was fixed at 100s. payable to the earl, 65s. to the prior and 100s. 10d. +to the lepers of St Leonard's. In 1205 the market which had been held on +Sunday was changed to Thursday. An inquisition held in 1383 discloses +two markets, a merchant gild, pillory and tumbrel. In 1555 Dunheved, +otherwise Launceston, received a charter of incorporation, the common +council to consist of a mayor, 8 aldermen and a recorder. By its +provisions the borough was governed until 1835. The parliamentary +franchise which had been conferred in 1294 was confined to the +corporation and a number of free burgesses. In 1832 Launceston was shorn +of one of its members, and in 1885 merged in the county. Separated from +it by a small bridge over the Kensey lies the hamlet of Newport which, +from 1547 until 1832, also returned two members. These were swept away +when the Reform Bill became law. Launceston was the assize town until +Earl Richard, having built a palace at Restormel, removed the assize to +Lostwithiel. In 1386 Launceston regained the privilege by royal charter. +From 1715 until 1837, eleven years only excepted, the assize was held +alternately here and at Bodmin. Since that time Bodmin has enjoyed the +distinction. Launceston has never had a staple industry. The manufacture +of serge was considerable early in the 19th century. Its market on +Saturdays is well attended, and an ancient fair on the Feast of St +Thomas is among those which survive. + + See A. F. Robbins, _Launceston Past and Present_. + + + + +LAUNCESTON, the second city of Tasmania, in the county of Cornwall, on +the river Tamar, 40 m. from the N. coast of the island, and 133 m. by +rail N. by W. of Hobart. The city lies amid surroundings of great +natural beauty in a valley enclosed by lofty hills. Cora Linn, about 6 +m. distant, a deep gorge of the North Esk river, the Punch Bowl and +Cataract Gorge, over which the South Esk falls in a magnificent cascade, +joining the North Esk to form the Tamar, are spots famed throughout the +Australian commonwealth for their romantic beauty. The city is the +commercial capital of northern Tasmania, the river Tamar being navigable +up to the town for vessels of 4000 tons. The larger ships lie in +midstream and discharge into lighters, while vessels of 2000 tons can +berth alongside the wharves on to which the railway runs. Launceston is +a well-planned, pleasant town, lighted by electricity, with numerous +parks and squares and many fine buildings. The post office, the custom +house, the post office savings bank and the Launceston bank form an +attractive group; the town hall is used exclusively for civic purposes, +public meetings and social functions being held in an elegant building +called the Albert hall. There are also a good art gallery, a theatre and +a number of fine churches, one of which, the Anglican church of St John, +dates from 1824. The city, which attained that rank in 1889, has two +attractive suburbs, Invermay and Trevallyn; it has a racecourse at +Mowbray 2 m. distant, and is the centre and port of an important +fruit-growing district. Pop. of the city proper (1901) 18,022, of the +city and suburbs 21,180. + + + + +LAUNCH. (1) A verb meaning originally to hurl, discharge a missile or +other object, also to rush or shoot out suddenly or rapidly. It is +particularly used of the setting afloat a vessel from the stocks on +which she has been built. The word is an adaptation of O. Fr. _lancher_, +_lancier_, to hurl, throw, Lat. _lanceare_, from _lancea_, a lance or +spear. (2) The name of a particular type of boat, usually applied to one +of the largest size of ships' boats, or to a large boat moved by +electricity, steam or other power. The word is an adaptation of the +Span. _lancha_, pinnace, which is usually connected with _lanchara_, the +Portuguese name, common in 16th and 17th century histories, for a +fast-moving small vessel. This word is of Malay origin and is derived +from _lanchar_, quick, speedy. + + + + +LAUNDRY, a place or establishment where soiled linen, &c., is washed. +The word is a contraction of an earlier form _lavendry_, from Lat. +_lavanda_, things to be washed, _lavare_, to wash. "Launder," a similar +contraction of _lavender_, was one (of either sex) who washes linen; +from its use as a verb came the form "launderer," employed as both +masculine and feminine in America, and the feminine form "laundress," +which is also applied to a female caretaker of chambers in the Inns of +Court, London. + +Laundry-work has become an important industry, organized on a scale +which requires elaborate mechanical plant very different from the simple +appliances that once sufficed for domestic needs. For the actual +cleansing of the articles, instead of being rubbed by the hand or +trodden by the foot of the washerwoman, or stirred and beaten with a +"dolly" in the wash-tub, they are very commonly treated in rotary +washing machines driven by power. These machines consist of an outer +casing containing an inner horizontal cylindrical cage, in which the +clothes are placed. By the rotation of this cage, which is reversed by +automatic gearing every few turns, they are rubbed and tumbled on each +other in the soap and water which is contained in the outer casing and +enters the inner cylinder through perforations. The outer casing is +provided with inlet valves for hot and cold water, and with discharge +valves; and often also arrangements are made for the admission of steam +under pressure, so that the contents can be boiled. Thus the operations +of washing, boiling, rinsing and blueing (this last being the addition +of a blue colouring matter to mask the yellow tint and thus give the +linen the appearance of whiteness) can be performed without removing the +articles from the machine. For drying, the old methods of wringing by +hand, or by machines in which the clothes were squeezed between rollers +of wood or india-rubber, have been largely superseded by +"hydro-extractors" or "centrifugals." In these the wet garments are +placed in a perforated cage or basket, supported on vertical bearings, +which is rotated at a high speed (1000 to 1500 times a minute) and in a +short time as much as 85% of the moisture may thus be removed. The +drying is often completed in an apartment through which dry air is +forced by fans. In the process of finishing linen the old-fashioned +laundress made use of the mangle, about the only piece of mechanism at +her disposal. In the box-mangle the articles were pressed on a flat +surface by rollers which were weighted with a box full of stones, moved +to and fro by a rack and pinion. In a later and less cumbrous form of +the machine they were passed between wooden rollers or "bowls" held +close together by weighted levers. An important advance was marked by +the introduction of machines which not only smooth and press the linen +like the mangle, but also give it the glazed finish obtained by hot +ironing. Machines of this kind are essentially the same as the calenders +used in paper and textile manufacture. They are made in a great variety +of forms, to enable them to deal with articles of different shapes, but +they may be described generally as consisting either of a polished metal +roller, heated by steam or gas, which works against a blanketted or +felted surface in the form of another roller or a flat table, or, as in +the Decoudun type, of a felted metal roller rotating against a heated +concave bed of polished metal. In cases where hand-ironing is resorted +to, time is economized by the employment of irons which are continuously +heated by gas or electricity. + + + + +LA UNION, a seaport and the capital of the department of La Union, +Salvador, 144 m. E.S.E. of San Salvador. Pop. (1905) about 4000. La +Union is situated at the foot of a lofty volcano, variously known as +Conchagua, Pinos and Meanguera, and on a broad indentation in the +western shore of Fonseca Bay. Its harbour, the best in the republic, is +secure in all weathers and affords good anchorage to large ships. La +Union is the port of shipment for the exports of San Miguel and other +centres of production in eastern Salvador. + + + + +LA UNION, a town of eastern Spain in the province of Murcia, 5 m. by +rail E. of Cartagena and close to the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) +30,275, of whom little more than half inhabit the town itself. The rest +are scattered among the numerous metal works and mines of iron, +manganese, calamine, sulphur and lead, which are included within the +municipal boundaries. La Union is quite a modern town, having sprung up +in the second half of the 19th century. It has good modern municipal +buildings, schools, hospital, town hall and large factories. + + + + +LAURAHÜTTE, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 5 +m. S.E. of Beuthen, on the railway Tarnowitz-Emanuelsegen. It has an +Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, but is especially noteworthy +for its huge iron works, which employ about 6000 hands. Pop. (1900) +13,571. + + + + +LAUREATE (Lat. _laureatus_, from _laurea_, the laurel tree). The laurel, +in ancient Greece, was sacred to Apollo, and as such was used to form a +crown or wreath of honour for poets and heroes; and this usage has been +widespread. The word "laureate" or "laureated" thus came in English to +signify eminent, or associated with glory, literary or military. +"Laureate letters" in old times meant the despatches announcing a +victory; and the epithet was given, even officially (e.g. to John +Skelton) by universities, to distinguished poets. The name of +"bacca-laureate" for the university degree of bachelor shows a confusion +with a supposed etymology from Lat. _bacca lauri_ (the laurel berry), +which though incorrect (see BACHELOR) involves the same idea. From the +more general use of the term "poet laureate" arose its restriction in +England to the office of the poet attached to the royal household, first +held by Ben Jonson, for whom the position was, in its essentials, +created by Charles I. in 1617. (Jonson's appointment does not seem to +have been formally made as poet-laureate, but his position was +equivalent to that). The office was really a development of the practice +of earlier times, when minstrels and versifiers were part of the retinue +of the King; it is recorded that Richard Coeur de Lion had a +_versificator regis_ (Gulielmus Peregrinus), and Henry III. had a +versificator (Master Henry); in the 15th century John Kay, also a +"versifier," described himself as Edward IV.'s "humble poet laureate." +Moreover, the crown had shown its patronage in various ways; Chaucer had +been given a pension and a perquisite of wine by Edward III., and +Spenser a pension by Queen Elizabeth. W. Hamilton classes Chaucer, +Gower, Kay, Andrew Bernard, Skelton, Robert Whittington, Richard +Edwards, Spenser and Samuel Daniel, as "volunteer Laureates." Sir +William Davenant succeeded Jonson in 1638, and the title of poet +laureate was conferred by letters patent on Dryden in 1670, two years +after Davenant's death, coupled with a pension of £300 and a butt of +Canary wine. The post then became a regular institution, though the +emoluments varied, Dryden's successors being T. Shadwell (who originated +annual birthday and New Year odes), Nahum Tate, Nicholas Rowe, Laurence +Eusden, Colley Cibber, William Whitehead, Thomas Warton, H. J. Pye, +Southey, Wordsworth, Tennyson and, four years after Tennyson's death, +Alfred Austin. The office took on a new lustre from the personal +distinction of Southey, Wordsworth and Tennyson; it had fallen into +contempt before Southey, and on Tennyson's death there was a +considerable feeling that no possible successor was acceptable (William +Morris and Swinburne being hardly court poets). Eventually, however, the +undesirability of breaking with tradition for temporary reasons, and +thus severing the one official link between literature and the state, +prevailed over the protests against following Tennyson by any one of +inferior genius. It may be noted that abolition was similarly advocated +when Warton and Wordsworth died. + +The poet laureate, being a court official, was considered responsible +for producing formal and appropriate verses on birthdays and state +occasions; but his activity in this respect has varied, according to +circumstances, and the custom ceased to be obligatory after Pye's death. +Wordsworth stipulated, before accepting the honour, that no formal +effusions from him should be considered a necessity; but Tennyson was +generally happy in his numerous poems of this class. The emoluments of +the post have varied; Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, +and later an annual "terse of Canary wine." To Pye an allowance of £27 +was made instead of the wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the lord +chamberlain's department, and £27 from the lord steward's in lieu of the +"butt of sack." + + See Walter Hamilton's _Poets Laureate of England_ (1879), and his + contributions to _Notes and Queries_ (Feb. 4, 1893). + + + + +LAUREL. At least four shrubs or small trees are called by this name in +Great Britain, viz. the common or cherry laurel (_Prunus Laurocerasus_), +the Portugal laurel (_P. lusitanica_), the bay or sweet laurel (_Laurus +nobilis_) and the spurge laurel (_Daphne Laureola_). The first two +belong to the rose family (_Rosaceae_), to the section _Cerasus_ (to +which also belongs the cherry) of the genus _Prunus_. + +The common laurel is a native of the woody and sub-alpine regions of the +Caucasus, of the mountains of northern Persia, of north-western Asia +Minor and of the Crimea. It was received into Europe in 1576, and +flowered for the first time in 1583. Ray in 1688 relates that it was +first brought from Trebizonde to Constantinople, thence to Italy, +France, Germany and England. Parkinson in his _Paradisus_ records it as +growing in a garden at Highgate in 1629; and in Johnson's edition of +Gerard's _Herbal_ (1633) it is recorded that the plant "is now got into +many of our choice English gardens, where it is well respected for the +beauty of the leaues and their lasting or continuall greennesse" (see +Loudon's _Arboretum_, ii. 717). The leaves of this plant are rather +large, broadly lance-shaped and of a leathery consistence, the margin +being somewhat serrated. They are remarkable for their poisonous +properties, giving off the odour of bitter almonds when bruised; the +vapour thus issuing is sufficient to kill small insects by the prussic +acid which it contains. The leaves when cut up finely and distilled +yield oil of bitter almonds and hydrocyanic (prussic) acid. Sweetmeats, +custards, cream, &c., are often flavoured with laurel-leaf water, as it +imparts the same flavour as bitter almonds; but it should be used +sparingly, as it is a dangerous poison, having several times proved +fatal. The first case occurred in 1731, which induced a careful +investigation to be made of its nature; Schrader in 1802 discovered it +to contain hydrocyanic acid. The effects of the distilled laurel-leaf +water on living vegetables is to destroy them like ordinary prussic +acid; while a few drops act on animals as a powerful poison. It was +introduced into the British pharmacopoeia in 1839, but is generally +superseded by the use of prussic acid. The _aqua laurocerasi_, or cherry +laurel water, is now standardized to contain 0.1% of hydrocyanic acid. +It must not be given in doses larger than 2 drachms. It contains benzole +hydrate, which is antiseptic, and is therefore suitable for hypodermic +injection; but the drug is of inconsistent strength, owing to the +volatility of prussic acid. + +The following varieties of the common laurel are in cultivation: the +Caucasian (_Prunus Laurocerasus_, var. _caucasica_), which is hardier +and bears very rich dark-green glossy foliage; the Versailles laurel +(var. _latifolia_), which has larger leaves; the Colchican (var. +_colchica_), which is a dwarf-spreading bush with narrow sharply +serrated pale-green leaves. There is also the variety _rotundifolia_ +with short broad leaves, the Grecian with narrow leaves and the +Alexandrian with very small leaves. + +The Portugal laurel is a native of Portugal and Madeira. It was +introduced into England about the year 1648, when it was cultivated in +the Oxford Botanic Gardens. During the first half of the 18th century +this plant, the common laurel and the holly were almost the only hardy +evergreen shrubs procurable in British nurseries. They are all three +tender about Paris, and consequently much less seen in the neighbourhood +of that city than in England, where they stand the ordinary winters but +not very severe ones. There is a variety (_myrtifolia_) of compact habit +with smaller narrow leaves, also a variegated variety. + +The evergreen glossy foliage of the common and Portugal laurels render +them well adapted for shrubberies, while the racemes of white flowers +are not devoid of beauty. The former often ripens its insipid drupes, +but the Portugal rarely does so. It appears to be less able to +accommodate itself to the English climate, as the wood does not usually +"ripen" so satisfactorily. Hence it is rather more liable to be cut by +the frost. It is grown in the open air in the southern United States. + +The bay or sweet laurel (_Laurus nobilis_) belongs to the family +Lauraceae, which contains sassafras, benzoin, camphor and other trees +remarkable for their aromatic properties. It is a large evergreen shrub, +sometimes reaching the height of 60 ft., but rarely assuming a truly +tree-like character. The leaves are smaller than those of the preceding +laurels, possessing an aromatic and slightly bitter flavour, and are +quite devoid of the poisonous properties of the cherry laurel. The small +yellowish-green flowers are produced in axillary clusters, are male or +female, and consist of a simple 4-leaved perianth which encloses nine +stamens in the male, the anthers of which dehisce by valves which lift +upwards as in the common barberry, and carry glandular processes at the +base of the filament. The fruit consists of a succulent berry surrounded +by the persistent base of the perianth. The bay laurel is a native of +Italy, Greece and North Africa, and is abundantly grown in the British +Isles as an evergreen shrub, as it stands most winters. The date of its +introduction is unknown, but must have been previous to 1562, as it is +mentioned in Turner's _Herbal_ published in that year. A full +description also occurs in Gerard's _Herball_ (1597, p. 1222). It was +used for strewing the floors of houses of distinguished persons in the +reign of Elizabeth. Several varieties have been cultivated, differing in +the character of their foliage, as the _undulata_ or wave-leafed, +_salicifolia_ or willow-leafed, the variegated, the broad-leafed and the +curled; there is also the double-flowered variety. The bay laurel was +carried to North America by the early colonists. + +This laurel is generally held to be the _Daphne_ of the ancients, though +Lindley, following Gerard (_Herball_, 1597, p. 761), asserted that the +Greek _Daphne_ was _Ruscus racemosus_. Among the Greeks the laurel was +sacred to Apollo, especially in connexion with Tempe, in whose laurel +groves the god himself obtained purification from the blood of the +Python. This legend was dramatically represented at the Pythian festival +once in eight years, a boy fleeing from Delphi to Tempe, and after a +time being led back with song, crowned and adorned with laurel. Similar +[Greek: daphnêphoriai] were known elsewhere in Greece. Apollo, himself +purified, was the author of purification and atonement to other +penitents, and the laurel was the symbol of this power, which came to be +generally associated with his person and sanctuaries. The relation of +Apollo to the laurel was expressed in the legend of Daphne (q.v.). The +victors in the Pythian games were crowned with the laurels of Apollo, +and thus the laurel became the symbol of triumph in Rome as well as in +Greece. As Apollo was the god of poets, the _Laurea Apollinaris_ +naturally belonged to poetic merit (see LAUREATE). The various +prerogatives of the laurel among the ancients are collected by Pliny +(_Hist. Nat._ xv. 30). It was a sign of truce, like the olive branch; +letters announcing victory and the arms of the victorious soldiery were +garnished with it; it was thought that lightning could not strike it, +and the emperor Tiberius always wore a laurel wreath during +thunderstorms. From its association with the divine power of +purification and protection, it was often set before the door of Greek +houses, and among the Romans it was the guardian of the gates of the +Caesars (Ovid, _Met._ i. 562 sq.). The laurel worn by Augustus and his +successors had a miraculous history: the laurel grove at the imperial +villa by the ninth milestone on the Flaminian way sprang from a shoot +sent from heaven to Livia Drusilla (Sueton. _Galba_, i.). Like the +olive, the laurel was forbidden to profane use. It was employed in +divination; the crackling of its leaves in the sacred flame was a good +omen (Tibull. ii. 5. 81), and their silence unlucky (Propert. ii. 21); +and the leaves when chewed excited a prophetic afflatus ([Greek: +daphnêphagoi], cf. Tibull. ii. 5. 63). There is a poem enumerating the +ancient virtues of the laurel by J. Passeratius (1594). + +The last of the plants mentioned above under the name of laurel is the +so-called spurge laurel (_Daphne Laureola_). This and one other species +(_D. Mezereum_), the mezereon, are the sole representatives of the +family Thymelaeaceae in Great Britain. The spurge laurel is a small +evergreen shrub, with alternate somewhat lanceolate leaves with entire +margins. The green flowers are produced in early spring, and form +drooping clusters at the base of the leaves. The calyx is four-cleft, +and carries eight stamens in two circles of four each within the tube. +The pistil forms a berry, green at first, but finally black. The +mezereon differs in blossoming before the leaves are produced, while the +flowers are lilac instead of green. The bark furnishes the drug _Cortex +Mezerei_, for which that of the spurge laurel is often substituted. Both +are powerfully acrid, but the latter is less so than the bark of +mezereon. It is now only used as an ingredient of the _liquor sarsae +compositus concentratus_. Of other species in cultivation there are _D. +Fortunei_ from China, which has lilac flowers; _D. pontica_, a native of +Asia Minor; _D. alpina_, from the Italian Alps; _D. collina_, south +European; and _D. Cneorum_, the garland flower or trailing daphne, the +handsomest of the hardy species. + + See Hemsley's _Handbook of Hardy Trees_, &c. + + + + +LAURENS, HENRY (1724-1792), American statesman, was born in Charleston, +South Carolina, on the 24th of February 1724, of Huguenot ancestry. When +sixteen he became a clerk in a counting-house in London, and later +engaged in commercial pursuits with great success at Charleston until +1771, when he retired from active business. He spent the next three +years travelling in Europe and superintending the education of his sons +in England. In spite of his strong attachment to England, and although +he had defended the Stamp Act, in 1774, in the hope of averting war, he +united with thirty-seven other Americans in a petition to parliament +against the passing of the Boston Port Bill. Becoming convinced that a +peaceful settlement was impracticable, he returned to Charleston at the +close of 1774, and there allied himself with the conservative element of +the Whig party. He was soon made president of the South Carolina council +of safety, and in 1776 vice-president of the state; in the same year he +was sent as a delegate from South Carolina to the general continental +congress at Philadelphia, of which body he was president from November +1777 until December 1778. In August 1780 he started on a mission to +negotiate on behalf of congress a loan of ten million dollars in +Holland; but he was captured on the 3rd of September off the Banks of +Newfoundland by the British frigate "Vestal," taken to London and +closely imprisoned in the Tower. His papers were found to contain a +sketch of a treaty between the United States and Holland projected by +William Lee, in the service of Congress, and Jan de Neufville, acting on +behalf of Mynheer Van Berckel, pensionary of Amsterdam, and this +discovery eventually led to war between Great Britain and the United +Provinces. During his imprisonment his health became greatly impaired. +On the 31st of December 1781 he was released on parole, and he was +finally exchanged for Cornwallis. In June 1782 he was appointed one of +the American commissioners for negotiating peace with Great Britain, but +he did not reach Paris until the 28th of November 1782, only two days +before the preliminaries of peace were signed by himself, John Adams, +Franklin and Jay. On the day of signing, however, he procured the +insertion of a clause prohibiting the British from "carrying away any +negroes or other property of American inhabitants"; and this +subsequently led to considerable friction between the British and +American governments. On account of failing health he did not remain for +the signing of the definitive treaty, but returned to Charleston, where +he died on the 8th of December 1792. + +His son, JOHN LAURENS (1754-1782), American revolutionary officer, was +born at Charleston, South Carolina, on the 28th of October 1754. He was +educated in England, and on his return to America in 1777, in the height +of the revolutionary struggle, he joined Washington's staff. He soon +gained his commander's confidence, which he reciprocated with the most +devoted attachment, and was entrusted with the delicate duties of a +confidential secretary, which he performed with much tact and skill. He +was present in all Washington's battles, from Brandywine to Yorktown, +and his gallantry on every occasion has gained him the title of "the +Bayard of the Revolution." Laurens displayed bravery even to rashness in +the storming of the Chew mansion at Germantown; at Monmouth, where he +saved Washington's life, and was himself severely wounded; and at +Coosahatchie, where, with a handful of men, he defended a pass against a +large English force under General Augustine Prevost, and was again +wounded. He fought a duel against General Charles Lee, and wounded him, +on account of that officer's disrespectful conduct towards Washington. +Laurens distinguished himself further at Savannah, and at the siege of +Charleston in 1780. After the capture of Charleston by the English, he +rejoined Washington, and was selected by him as a special envoy to +appeal to the king of France for supplies for the relief of the American +armies, which had been brought by prolonged service and scanty pay to +the verge of dissolution. The more active co-operation of the French +fleets with the land forces in Virginia, which was one result of his +mission, brought about the disaster of Cornwallis at Yorktown. Laurens +lost no time in rejoining the army, and at Yorktown was at the head of +an American storming party which captured an advanced redoubt. Laurens +was designated with the vicomte de Noailles to arrange the terms of the +surrender, which virtually ended the war, although desultory +skirmishing, especially in the South, attended the months of delay +before peace was formally concluded. In one of these trifling affairs on +the 27th of August 1782, on the Combahee river, Laurens exposed himself +needlessly and was killed. Washington lamented deeply the death of +Laurens, saying of him, "He had not a fault that I could discover, +unless it were intrepidity bordering upon rashness." + + The most valuable of Henry Laurens's papers and pamphlets including + the important "Narrative of the Capture of Henry Laurens, of his + Confinement in the Tower of London, &c., 1780, 1781, 1782," in vol. i. + (Charleston, 1857) of the Society's _Collections_, have been published + by the South Carolina Historical Society. John Laurens's military + correspondence, with a brief memoir by W. G. Simms, was privately + printed by the Bradford Club, New York, in 1867. + + + + +LAURENT, FRANÇOIS (1810-1887), Belgian historian and jurisconsult, was +born at Luxemburg on the 8th of July 1810. He held a high appointment in +the ministry of justice for some time before he became professor of +civil law in the university of Ghent in 1836. His advocacy of liberal +and anti-clerical principles both from his chair and in the press made +him bitter enemies, but he retained his position until his death on the +11th of February 1887. He treated the relations of church and state in +_L'Église et l'état_ (Brussels, 3 vols., 1858-1862; new and revised +edition, 1865), and the same subject occupied a large proportion of the +eighteen volumes of his chief historical work, _Études sur l'histoire de +l'humanité_ (Ghent and Brussels, 1855-1870), which aroused considerable +interest beyond the boundaries of Belgium. His fame as a lawyer rests on +his authoritative exposition of the Code Napoléon in his _Principes de +droit civil_ (Brussels, 33 vols., 1869-1878), and his _Droit civil +international_ (Brussels, 8 vols., 1880-1881). He was charged in 1879 by +the minister of justice with the preparation of a report on the proposed +revision of the civil code. Besides his anti-clerical pamphlets his +minor writings include much discussion of social questions, of the +organization of savings banks, asylums, &c., and he founded the _Société +Callier_ for the encouragement of thrift among the working classes. With +Gustave Callier, whose funeral in 1863 was made the occasion of a +display of clerical intolerance, Laurent had much in common, and the +efforts of the society were directed to the continuation of Callier's +philanthropic schemes. + + For a complete list of his works, see G. Koninck, _Bibliographie + nationale_ (Brussels, vol. ii., 1892). + + + + +LAURENTINA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading southwards from Rome. +The question of the nomenclature of the group of roads between the Via +Ardeatina and the Via Ostiensis is somewhat difficult, and much depends +on the view taken as to the site of Laurentum. It seems probable, +however, that the Via Laurentina proper is that which led out of the +Porta Ardeatina of the Aurelian wall and went direct to Tor Paterno, +while the road branching from the Via Ostiensis at the third mile, and +leading past Decimo to Lavinium (Pratica), which crosses the other road +at right angles not far from its destination (the Laurentina there +running S.W. and that to Lavinium S.E.) may for convenience be called +Lavinatis, though this name does not occur in ancient times. On this +latter road, beyond Decimo, two milestones, one of Tiberius, the other +of Maxentius, each bearing the number 11, have been found; and farther +on, at Capocotta, traces of ancient buildings, and an important +sepulchral inscription of a Jewish ruler of a synagogue have come to +light. That the Via Laurentina was near the Via Ardeatina is clear from +the fact that the same contractor was responsible for both roads. +Laurentum was also accessible by a branch from the Via Ostiensis at the +eighth mile (at Malafede) leading past Castel Porziano, the royal +hunting-lodge, which is identical with the ancient Ager Solonius (in +which, Festus tells us, was situated the Pomonal or sacred grove of +Pomona) and which later belonged to Marius. + + See R. Lanciani in articles quoted under LAVINIUM. (T. As.) + + + + +LAURENTIUS, PAUL (1554-1624), Lutheran divine, was born on the 30th of +March 1554 at Ober Wierau, where his father, of the same names, was +pastor. From a school at Zwickau he entered (1573) the university of +Leipzig, graduating in 1577. In 1578 he became rector of the Martin +school at Halberstadt; in 1583 he was appointed town's preacher at +Plauen-im-Vogtland, and in 1586 superintendent at Oelnitz. On the 20th +of October 1595 he took his doctorate in theology at Jena, his thesis on +the _Symbolum Athanasii_ (1597), gaining him similar honours at +Wittenberg and Leipzig. He was promoted (1605) to be pastor and +superintendent at Dresden, and transferred (1616) to the superintendence +at Meissen, where he died on the 24th of February 1624. His works +consist chiefly of commentaries and expository discourses on prophetic +books of the Old Testament, parts of the Psalter, the Lord's Prayer and +the history of the Passion. In two orations he compared Luther to +Elijah. Besides theological works he was the author of a _Spicilegium +Gnomonologicum_ (1612). + + The main authority is C. Schlegel, the historian of the Dresden + superintendents (1698), summarized by H. W. Rotermund, in the + additions (1810) to Jöcher, _Gelehrten-Lexicon_ (1750). (A. Go.*) + + + + +LAURIA (LURIA or LORIA) ROGER DE (d. 1305), admiral of Aragon and +Sicily, was the most prominent figure in the naval war which arose +directly from the Sicilian Vespers. Nothing is really known of his life +before he was named admiral in 1283. His father was a supporter of the +Hohenstaufen, and his mother came to Spain with Costanza, the daughter +of Manfred of Beneventum, when she married Peter, the eldest son and +heir of James the Conqueror of Aragon. According to one account Bella of +Lauria, the admiral's mother, had been the foster mother of Costanza. +Roger, who accompanied his mother, was bred at the court of Aragon and +endowed with lands in the newly conquered kingdom of Valencia. When the +misrule of Charles of Anjou's French followers had produced the famous +revolt known as the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, Roger de Lauria +accompanied King Peter III. of Aragon on the expedition which under the +cover of an attack on the Moorish kingdom of Tunis was designed to be an +attempt to obtain possession of all or at least part of the Hohenstaufen +dominions in Naples and Sicily which the king claimed by right of his +wife as the heiress of Manfred. In 1283, when the island had put itself +under the protection of Peter III. and had crowned him king, he gave the +command of his fleet to Roger de Lauria. The commission speaks of him in +the most laudatory terms, but makes no reference to previous military +services. + +From this time forward till the peace of Calatabellota in 1303, Roger +de Lauria was the ever victorious leader of fleets in the service of +Aragon, both in the waters of southern Italy and on the coast of +Catalonia. In the year of his appointment he defeated a French naval +force in the service of Charles of Anjou, off Malta. The main object +before him was to repel the efforts of the Angevine party to reconquer +Sicily and then to carry the war into their dominions in Naples. +Although Roger de Lauria did incidental fighting on shore, he was as +much a naval officer as any modern admiral, and his victories were won +by good manoeuvring and by discipline. The Catalan squadron, on which +the Sicilian was moulded, was in a state of high and intelligent +efficiency. Its chiefs relied not on merely boarding, and the use of the +sword, as the French forces of Charles of Anjou did, but on the use of +the ram, and of the powerful cross-bows used by the Catalans either by +hand or, in case of the larger ones, mounted on the bulwarks, with great +skill. The conflict was in fact the equivalent on the water of the +battles between the English bowmen and the disorderly chivalry of France +in the Hundred Years' War. In 1284 Roger defeated the Angevine fleet in +the Bay of Naples, taking prisoner the heir to the kingdom, Charles of +Salerno, who remained a prisoner in the hands of the Aragonese in +Sicily, and later in Spain, for years. In 1285 he fought on the coast of +Catalonia one of the most brilliant campaigns in all naval history. The +French king Philippe le Hardi had invaded Catalonia with a large army to +which the pope gave the character of crusaders, in order to support his +cousin of Anjou in his conflict with the Aragonese. The king, Peter +III., had offended his nobles by his vigorous exercise of the royal +authority, and received little support from them, but the outrages +perpetrated by the French invaders raised the towns and country against +them. The invaders advanced slowly, taking the obstinately defended +towns one by one, and relying on the co-operation of a large number of +allies, who were stationed in squadrons along the coast, and who brought +stores and provisions from Narbonne and Aigues Mortes. They relied in +fact wholly on their fleet for their existence. A successful blow struck +at that would force them to retreat. King Peter was compelled to risk +Sicily for a time, and he recalled Roger de Lauria from Palermo to the +coast of Catalonia. The admiral reached Barcelona on the 24th of August, +and was informed of the disposition of the French. He saw that if he +could break the centre of their line of squadrons, stretched as it was +so far that its general superiority of numbers was lost in the attempt +to occupy the whole of the coast, he could then dispose of the +extremities in detail. On the night of the 9th of September he fell on +the central squadron of the French fleet near the Hormigas. The Catalan +and Sicilian squadrons doubled on the end of the enemies' line, and by a +vigorous employment of the ram, as well as by the destructive shower of +bolts from the cross-bows, which cleared the decks of the French, gained +a complete victory. The defeat of the enemy was followed, as usually in +medieval naval wars, by a wholesale massacre. Roger then made for Rosas, +and tempted out the French squadron stationed there by approaching under +French colours. In the open it was beaten in its turn. The result was +the capture of the town, and of the stores collected there by King +Philippe for the support of his army. Within a short time he was forced +to retreat amid sufferings from hunger, and the incessant attacks of the +Catalan mountaineers, by which his army was nearly annihilated. This +campaign, which was followed up by destructive attacks on the French +coast, saved Catalonia from the invaders, and completely ruined the +French naval power for the time being. No medieval admiral of any nation +displayed an equal combination of intellect and energy, and none of +modern times has surpassed it. The work had been so effectually done on +the coast of Catalonia that Roger de Lauria was able to return to +Sicily, and resume his command in the struggle of Aragonese and Angevine +to gain, or to hold, the possession of Naples. + +He maintained his reputation and was uniformly successful in his battles +at sea, but they were not always fought for the defence of Sicily. The +death of Peter III. in 1286 and of his eldest son Alphonso in the +following year caused a division among the members of the house of +Aragon. The new king, James, would have given up Sicily to the Angevine +line with which he made peace and alliance, but his younger brother +Fadrique accepted the crown offered him by the Sicilians, and fought for +his own hand against both the Angevines and his senior. King James tried +to force him to submission without success. Roger de Lauria adhered for +a time to Fadrique, but his arrogant temper made him an intolerable +supporter, and he appears, moreover, to have thought that he was bound +to obey the king of Aragon. His large estates in Valencia gave him a +strong reason for not offending that sovereign. He therefore left +Fadrique, who confiscated his estates in Sicily and put one of his +nephews to death as a traitor. For this Roger de Lauria took a ferocious +revenge in two successive victories at sea over the Sicilians. When the +war, which had become a ravening of wild beasts, was at last ended by +the peace of Calatabellota, Roger de Lauria retired to Valencia, where +he died on the 2nd of January 1305, and was buried, by his express +orders, in the church of Santas Creus, a now deserted monastery of the +Cistercians, at the feet of his old master Peter III. In his ferocity, +and his combination of loyalty to his feudal lord with utter want of +scruple to all other men, Roger belonged to his age. As a captain he was +far above his contemporaries and his successors for many generations. + + Signor Amari's _Guerra del Vespro Siciliano_ gives a general picture + of these wars, but the portrait of Roger de Lauria must be sought in + the _Chronicle_ of the Catalan Ramon de Muntaner who knew him and was + formed in his school. There is a very fair and well "documented" + account of the masterly campaign of 1285 in Charles de la Roncière's + _Histoire de la marine française_, i. 189-217. (D. H.) + + + + +LAURIA, or LORIA, a city of Basilicata, Italy, in the province of +Potenza, situated near the borders of Calabria, 7½ m. by road S. of +Lagonegro. Pop. (1901) 10,470. It is a walled town on the steep side of +a hill with another portion in the plain below, 1821 ft. above +sea-level. The castle was the birthplace of Ruggiero di Loria, the great +Italian admiral of the 13th century. It was destroyed by the French +under Masséna in 1806. + + + + +LAURIER, SIR WILFRID (1841- ), Canadian statesman, was born on the +20th of November 1841, at St Lin in the province of Quebec. The child of +French Roman Catholic parents, he attended the elementary school of his +native parish and for eight or nine months was a pupil of the Protestant +elementary school at New Glasgow in order to learn English; his +association with the Presbyterian family with whom he lived during this +period had a permanent influence on his mind. At twelve years of age he +entered L'Assomption college, and was there for seven years. The +college, like all the secondary schools in Quebec then available for +Roman Catholics, was under direct ecclesiastical control. On leaving it +he entered a law office at Montreal and took the law course at McGill +University. At graduation he delivered the valedictory address for his +class. This, like so many of his later utterances, closed with an appeal +for sympathy and union between the French and English races as the +secret of the future of Canada. He began to practise law in Montreal, +but owing to ill-health soon removed to Athabaska, where he opened a law +office and undertook also to edit _Le Défricheur_, a newspaper then on +the eve of collapse. At Athabaska, the seat of one of the superior +courts of Quebec, the population of the district was fairly divided +between French- and English-speaking people, and Laurier's career was +undoubtedly influenced by his constant association with English-speaking +people and his intimate acquaintance with their views and aspirations. + +While at Montreal he had joined the Institut Canadien, a literary and +scientific society which, owing to its liberal discussions and the fact +that certain books upon its shelves were on the _Index expurgatorius_, +was finally condemned by the Roman Catholic authorities. _Le Défricheur_ +was an organ of extreme French sentiment, opposed to confederation, and +also under ecclesiastical censure. One of its few surviving copies +contains an article by Laurier opposing confederation as a scheme +designed in the interest of the English colonies in North America, and +certain to prove the tomb of the French race and the ruin of Lower +Canada. The Liberals of Quebec under the leadership of Sir Antoine +Dorion were hostile to confederation, or at least to the terms of union +agreed upon at the Quebec conference, and Laurier in editorials and +speeches maintained the position of Dorion and his allies. He was +elected to the Quebec legislature in 1871, and his first speech in the +provincial assembly excited great interest, on account of its literary +qualities and the attractive manner and logical method of the speaker. +He was not less successful in the Dominion House of Commons, to which he +was elected in 1874. During his first two years in the federal +parliament his chief speeches were made in defence of Riel and the +French halfbreeds who were concerned in the Red River rebellion, and on +fiscal questions. Sir John Macdonald, then in opposition, had committed +his party to a protectionist policy, and Laurier, notwithstanding that +the Liberal party stood for a low tariff, avowed himself to be "a +moderate protectionist." He declared that if he were in Great Britain he +would be a free trader, but that free trade or protection must be +applied according to the necessities of a country, and that which +protection necessarily involved taxation it was the price a young and +vigorous nation must pay for its development. But the Liberal +government, to which Laurier was admitted as minister of inland revenue +in 1877, made only a slight increase in duties, raising the general +tariff from 15% to 17½%; and against the political judgment of Alexander +Mackenzie, Sir Richard Cartwright, George Brown, Laurier and other of +the more influential leaders of the party, it adhered to a low tariff +platform. In the bye-election which followed Laurier's admission to the +cabinet he was defeated--the only personal defeat he ever sustained; but +a few weeks later he was returned for Quebec East, a constituency which +he held thenceforth by enormous majorities. In 1878 his party went out +of office and Sir John Macdonald entered upon a long term of power, with +protection as the chief feature of his policy, to which was afterwards +added the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway. + +After the defeat of the Mackenzie government, Laurier sat in Parliament +as the leader of the Quebec Liberals and first lieutenant to the Hon. +Edward Blake, who succeeded Mackenzie in the leadership of the party. He +was associated with Blake in his sustained opposition to high tariff, +and to the Conservative plan for the construction of the Canadian +Pacific railway, and was a conspicuous figure in the long struggle +between Sir John Macdonald and the leaders of the Liberal party to +settle the territorial limits of the province of Ontario and the +legislative rights of the provinces under the constitution. He was +forced also to maintain a long conflict with the ultramontane element of +the Roman Catholic church in Quebec, which for many years had a close +working alliance with the Conservative politicians of the province and +even employed spiritual coercion in order to detach votes from the +Liberal party. Notwithstanding that Quebec was almost solidly Roman +Catholic the Rouges sternly resisted clerical pressure; they appealed to +the courts and had certain elections voided on the ground of undue +clerical influence, and at length persuaded the pope to send out a +delegate to Canada, through whose inquiry into the circumstances the +abuses were checked and the zeal of the ultramontanes restrained. + +In 1887, upon the resignation of Blake on the ground of ill-health, +Laurier became leader of the Liberal party, although he and many of the +more influential men in the party doubted the wisdom of the proceeding. +He was the first French Canadian to lead a federal party in Canada since +confederation. Apart from the natural fear that he would arouse +prejudice in the English-speaking provinces, the second Riel rebellion +was then still fresh in the public mind, and the fierce nationalist +agitation which Riel's execution had excited in Quebec had hardly +subsided. Laurier could hardly have come to the leadership at a more +inopportune moment, and probably he would not have accepted the office +at all if he had not believed that Blake could be persuaded to resume +the leadership when his health was restored. But from the first he won +great popularity even in the English-speaking provinces, and showed +unusual capacity for leadership. His party was beaten in the first +general election held after he became leader (1891), but even with its +policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States, and with Sir +John Macdonald still at the head of the Conservative party, it was +beaten by only a small majority. Five years later, with unrestricted +reciprocity relegated to the background, and with a platform which +demanded tariff revision so adjusted as not to endanger established +interests, and which opposed the federal measure designed to restore in +Manitoba the separate or Roman Catholic schools which the provincial +government had abolished, Laurier carried the country, and in July 1896 +he was called by Lord Aberdeen, then governor-general, to form a +government. + +He was the first French-Canadian to occupy the office of premier; and +his personal supremacy was shown by his long continuance in power. +During the years from 1896 to 1910, he came to hold a position within +the British Empire which was in its way unique, and in this period he +had seen Canadian prosperity advance progressively by leaps and bounds. +The chief features of his administration were the fiscal preference of +33(1/3)% in favour of goods imported into Canada from Great Britain, the +despatch of Canadian contingents to South Africa during the Boer war, +the contract with the Grand Trunk railway for the construction of a +second transcontinental road from ocean to ocean, the assumption by +Canada of the imperial fortresses at Halifax and Esquimault, the +appointment of a federal railway commission with power to regulate +freight charges, express rates and telephone rates, and the relations +between competing companies, the reduction of the postal rate to Great +Britain from 5 cents to 2 cents and of the domestic rate from 3 cents to +2 cents, a substantial contribution to the Pacific cable, a practical +and courageous policy of settlement and development in the Western +territories, the division of the North-West territories into the +provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and the enactment of the +legislation necessary to give them provincial status, and finally +(1910), a tariff arrangement with the United States, which, if not all +that Canada might claim in the way of reciprocity, showed how entirely +the course of events had changed the balance of commercial interests in +North America. + +Laurier made his first visit to Great Britain on the occasion of Queen +Victoria's diamond jubilee (1897), when he received the grand cross of +the Bath; he then secured the denunciation of the Belgian and German +treaties and thus obtained for the colonies the right to make +preferential trade arrangements with the mother country. His personality +made a powerful impression in Great Britain and also in France, which he +visited before his return to Canada. His strong facial resemblance both +to Lord Beaconsfield and to Sir John Macdonald marked him out in the +public eye, and he captured attention by his charm of manner, fine +command of scholarly English and genuine eloquence. Some of his speeches +in Great Britain, coming as they did from a French-Canadian, and +revealing delicate appreciation of British sentiment and thorough +comprehension of the genius of British institutions, excited great +interest and enthusiasm, while one or two impassioned speeches in the +Canadian parliament during the Boer war profoundly influenced opinion in +Canada and had a pronounced effect throughout the empire. + +A skilful party-leader, Laurier kept from the first not only the +affection of his political friends but the respect of his opponents; +while enforcing the orderly conduct of public business, he was careful +as first minister to maintain the dignity of parliament. In office he +proved more of an opportunist than his career in opposition would have +indicated, but his political courage and personal integrity remained +beyond suspicion. His jealousy for the political autonomy of Canada was +noticeable in his attitude at the Colonial conference held at the time +of King Edward's coronation, and marked all his diplomatic dealings with +the mother country. But he strove for sympathetic relations between +Canadian and imperial authorities, and favoured general legislative and +fiscal co-operation between the two countries. He strove also for good +relations between the two races in Canada, and between Canada and the +United States. Although he was classed in Canada as a Liberal, his +tendencies would in England have been considered strongly conservative; +an individualist rather than a collectivist, he opposed the intrusion +of the state into the sphere of private enterprise, and showed no +sympathy with the movement for state operation of railways, telegraphs +and telephones, or with any kindred proposal looking to the extension of +the obligations of the central government. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. S. Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal + Party; a Political History_ (Toronto, 1903); L. O. David, _Laurier et + son temps_ (Montreal, 1905); see also Henri Moreau, _Sir Wilfrid + Laurier, Premier Ministre du Canada_ (Paris, 1902); and the collection + of Laurier's speeches from 1871 to 1890, compiled by Ulric Barthe + (Quebec, 1890). (J. S. W.) + + + + +LAURISTON, JACQUES ALEXANDRE BERNARD LAW, MARQUIS DE (1768-1828), French +soldier and diplomatist, was the son of Jacques François Law de +Lauriston (1724-1785), a general officer in the French army, and was +born at Pondicherry on the 1st of February 1768. He obtained his first +commission about 1786, served with the artillery and on the staff in the +earlier Revolutionary campaigns, and became brigadier of artillery in +1795. Resigning in 1796, he was brought back into the service in 1800 as +aide-de-camp to Napoleon, with whom as a cadet Lauriston had been on +friendly terms. In the years immediately preceding the first empire +Lauriston was successively director of the Le Fère artillery school and +special envoy to Denmark, and he was selected to convey to England the +ratification of the peace of Amiens (1802). In 1805, having risen to the +rank of general of division, he took part in the war against Austria. He +occupied Venice and Ragusa in 1806, was made governor-general of Venice +in 1807, took part in the Erfurt negotiations of 1808, was made a count, +served with the emperor in Spain in 1808-1809 and held commands under +the viceroy Eugène Beauharnais in the Italian campaign and the advance +to Vienna in the same year. At the battle of Wagram he commanded the +guard artillery in the famous "artillery preparation" which decided the +battle. In 1811 he was made ambassador to Russia; in 1812 he held a +command in the _Grande Armée_ and won distinction by his firmness in +covering the retreat from Moscow. He commanded the V. army corps at +Lützen and Bautzen and the V. and XI. in the autumn campaign, falling +into the hands of the enemy in the disastrous retreat from Leipzig. He +was held a prisoner of war until the fall of the empire, and then joined +Louis XVIII., to whom he remained faithful in the Hundred Days. His +reward was a seat in the house of peers and a command in the royal +guard. In 1817 he was created marquis and in 1823 marshal of France. +During the Spanish War he commanded the corps which besieged and took +Pamplona. He died at Paris on the 12th of June 1828. + + + + +LAURIUM ([Greek: Laurion], mod. ERGASTIRI), a mining town in Attica, +Greece, famous for the silver mines which were one of the chief sources +of revenue of the Athenian state, and were employed for coinage. After +the battle of Marathon, Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to devote +the revenue derived from the mines to shipbuilding, and thus laid the +foundation of the Athenian naval power, and made possible the victory of +Salamis. The mines, which were the property of the state, were usually +farmed out for a certain fixed sum and a percentage on the working; +slave labour was exclusively employed. Towards the end of the 5th +century the output was diminished, partly owing to the Spartan +occupation of Decelea. But the mines continued to be worked, though +Strabo records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and +Pausanias speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient +workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and +pans and other arrangements for extracting the metal, may still be seen. +The mines are still worked at the present day by French and Greek +companies, but mainly for lead, manganese and cadmium. The population of +the modern town was 10,007 in 1907. + + See E. Ardaillon, "Les Mines du Laurion dans l'antiquité," No. lxxvii. + of the _Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome_. + + + + +LAURIUM, a village of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A., near the centre +of Keweenaw peninsula, the northern extremity of the state. Pop. (1890) +1159; (1900) 5643, of whom 2286 were foreign-born; (1904) 7653; (1910) +8537. It is served by the Mineral Range and the Mohawk and Copper Range +railways. It is in one of the most productive copper districts in the +United States, and copper mining is its chief industry. Immediately W. +of Laurium is the famous Calumet and Hecla mine. The village was +formerly named Calumet, and was incorporated under that name in 1889, +but in 1895 its name was changed by the legislature to Laurium, in +allusion to the mineral wealth of Laurium in Greece. The name Calumet is +now applied to the post office in the village of Red Jacket +(incorporated 1875; pop. 1900, 4668; 1904, 3784; 1910, 4211), W. of the +Calumet and Hecla mine; and Laurium, the mining property and Red Jacket +are all in the township of Calumet (pop. 1904, state census, 28,587). + + + + +LAURUSTINUS, in botany, the popular name of a common hardy evergreen +garden shrub known botanically as _Viburnum Tinus_, with rather +dark-green ovate leaves in pairs and flat-topped clusters (or corymbs) +of white flowers, which are rose-coloured before expansion, and appear +very early in the year. It is a native of the Mediterranean region, and +was in cultivation in Britain at the end of the 16th century. _Viburnum_ +belongs to the natural order Caprifoliaceae and includes the common +wayfaring tree (_V. Lantana_) and the guelder rose (_V. Opulus_). + + + + +LAURVIK, LARVIK or LAURVIG, a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg and +Laurvik _amt_ (county), at the head of a short fjord near the mouth of +the Laagen river, 98 m. S.S.W. of Christiania by the Skien railway. Pop. +(1900) 10,664. It has various industries, including saw and planing +mills, shipbuilding, glassworks and factories for wood-pulp, barrels and +potato flour; and an active trade in exporting timber, ice, wood-pulp +and granite, chiefly to Great Britain, and in importing from the same +country coal and salt. The port has a depth of 18 to 24 ft. beside the +quays. Four miles south is Fredriksvaern, formerly a station of the +Norwegian fleet and the seat of a naval academy. Laurviks Bad is a +favourite spa, with mineral and sulphur springs and mud-baths. + + + + +LAUSANNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of Vaud. It is the junction of +the railway lines from Geneva, from Brieg and the Simplon, from Fribourg +and Bern, and from Vallorbe (for Paris). A funicular railway connects +the upper town with the central railway station and with Ouchy, the port +of Lausanne on the lake of Geneva. Lausanne takes its name from the Flon +stream flowing through it, which was formerly called Laus (water). The +older or upper portion of the town is built on the crest and slopes of +five hillocks and in the hollows between them, all forming part of the +Jorat range. It has a picturesque appearance from the surface of the +lake, above which the cathedral rises some 500 ft., while from the town +there is a fine view across the lake towards the mountains of Savoy and +of the Valais. The quaint characteristics of the hilly site of the old +town have largely been destroyed by modern improvements, which began in +1836 and were not quite completed in 1910. The Grand Pont, designed by +the cantonal engineer, Adrien Pichard (1790-1841), was built 1839-1844, +while the Barre tunnel was pierced 1851-1855 and the bridge of Chauderon +was built in 1905. The valleys and lower portions of the town were +gradually filled up so as to form a series of squares, of which those of +Riponne and of St François are the finest, the latter now being the real +centre of the town. The railways were built between 1856 and 1862, while +the opening of the Simplon tunnel (1906) greatly increased the +commercial importance of Lausanne, which is now on the great +international highway from Paris to Milan. From 1896 onwards a +well-planned set of tramways within the town was constructed. The town +is still rapidly extending, especially towards the south and west. Since +the days of Gibbon (resident here for three periods, 1753-1758, +1763-1764 and 1783-1793), whose praises of the town have been often +repeated, Lausanne has become a favourite place of residence for +foreigners (including many English), who are especially attracted by the +excellent establishments for secondary and higher education. Hence in +1900 there were 9501 foreign residents (of whom 628 were British +subjects) out of a total population of 46,732 inhabitants; in 1905 it +was reckoned that these numbers had risen respectively to 10,625, 818 +and 53,577. In 1709 it is said that the inhabitants numbered but 7432 +and 9965 in 1803, while the numbers were 20,515 in 1860 and 33,340 in +1888. Of the population in 1900 the great majority was French-speaking +(only 6627 German-speaking and 3146 Italian-speaking) and Protestant +(9364 Romanists and 473 Jews). + +The principal building is the cathedral church (now Protestant) of Notre +Dame, which with the castle occupies the highest position. It is the +finest medieval ecclesiastical building in Switzerland. Earlier +buildings were more or less completely destroyed by fire, but the +present edifice was consecrated in 1275 by Pope Gregory X. in the +presence of the emperor Rudolf of Habsburg. It was sacked after the +Bernese conquest (1536) and the introduction of Protestantism, but many +ancient tapestries and other precious objects are still preserved in the +Historical Museum at Bern. The church was well restored at great cost +from 1873 onwards, as it is the great pride of the citizens. Close by is +the castle, built in the early 15th century by the bishops, later the +residence of the Bernese bailiffs and now the seat of the various +branches of the administration of the canton of Vaud. Near both is the +splendid Palais de Rumine (on the Place de la Riponne), opened in 1906 +and now housing the university as well as the cantonal library, the +cantonal picture gallery (or Musée Arlaud, founded 1841) and the +cantonal collections of archaeology, natural history, &c. The university +was raised to that rank in 1890, but, as an academy, dates from 1537. +Among its former teachers may be mentioned Theodore Beza, Conrad Gesner, +J. P. de Crousaz, Charles Monnard, Alexandre Vinet, Eugène Rambert, +Juste Olivier and several members of the Secretan family. On the +Montbenon heights to the south-west of the cathedral group is the +federal palace of justice, the seat (since 1886) of the federal court of +justice, which, erected by the federal constitution of 29th May 1874, +was fixed at Lausanne by a federal resolution of 26th June 1874. The +house, La Grotte, which Gibbon inhabited 1783-1793, and on the terrace +of which he completed (1787) his famous history, was demolished in 1896 +to make room for the new post office that stands on the Place St +François. The asylum for the blind was mainly founded (1845) by the +generosity of W. Haldimand, an Englishman of Swiss descent. The first +book printed in Lausanne was the missal of the cathedral church (1493), +while the _Gazette de Lausanne_ (founded 1798) took that name in 1804. +Lausanne has been the birthplace of many distinguished men, such as +Benjamin Constant, the Secretans, Vinet and Rambert. It is the seat of +many benevolent, scientific and literary societies and establishments. + +The original town (mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary) was on the shore +of the lake, near Vidy, south-west of the present city. It was burnt in +the 4th century by the Alamanni. Some of the inhabitants took refuge in +the hills above and there founded a new town, which acquired more +importance when Bishop Marius about 590 chose it as his see city +(perhaps transferring it from Avenches). Here rose the cathedral church, +the bishop's palace, &c. Across the Flon was a Burgundian settlement, +later known as the Bourg, while to the west was a third colony around +the church of St Laurent. These three elements joined together to form +the present city. The bishops obtained little by little great temporal +powers (the diocese extended to the left bank of the Aar) and riches, +becoming in 1125 princes of the empire, while their chapter was +recruited only from the noblest families. But in 1368 the bishop was +forced to recognize various liberties and customs that had been +gradually won by the citizens, the _Plaid Général_ of that year showing +that there was already some kind of municipal government, save for the +_cité_, which was not united with the _ville inférieure_ or the other +four _quartiers_ (Bourg, St Laurent, La Palud and Le Pont) in 1481. In +1525 the city made an alliance with Bern and Fribourg. But in 1536 the +territory of the bishop (as well as the Savoyard barony of Vaud) was +forcibly conquered by the Bernese, who at once introduced Protestantism. +The Bernese occupation lasted till 1798, though in 1723 an attempt was +made to put an end to it by Major Davel, who lost his life in +consequence. In 1798 Lausanne became a simple prefecture of the canton +Léman of the Helvetic republic. But in 1803, on the creation of the +canton of Vaud by the Act of Mediation, it became its capital. The +bishop of Lausanne resided after 1663 at Fribourg, while from 1821 +onwards he added "and of Geneva" to his title. + + Besides the general works dealing with the canton of Vaud (q.v.), the + following books refer specially to Lausanne: A. Bernus, _L'Imprimerie + à Lausanne et à Morges jusqu'à la fin du 16^(ième) siècle_ (Lausanne, + 1904); M. Besson, _Récherches sur les origines des évêchés de Genève, + Lausanne, Sion_ (Fribourg, 1906); A. Bonnard, "Lausanne au 18^(ième) + siècle," in the work entitled _Chez nos aïeux_ (Lausanne, 1902); E. + Dupraz, _La Cathédrale de Lausanne ... étude historique_ (Lausanne, + 1906); E. Gibbon, _Autobiography and Letters_ (3 vols., 1896); F. + Gingins and F. Forel, _Documents concernant l'ancien évêché de + Lausanne_, 2 parts (Lausanne, 1846-1847); J. H. Lewis and F. Gribble, + _Lausanne_ (1909); E. van Muyden and others, _Lausanne à travers les + âges_ (Lausanne, 1906); Meredith Read, _Historic Studies in Vaud, + Berne and Savoy_ (2 vols., 1897); M. Schmitt, _Mémoires hist. sur le + diocèse de Lausanne_ (2 vols., Fribourg, 1859); J. Stammler + (afterwards bishop of Lausanne), _Le Trésor de la cathédrale de + Lausanne_ (Lausanne, 1902; trans. of a German book of 1894). + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LAUTREC, ODET DE FOIX, VICOMTE DE (1488-1528), French soldier. The +branch of the viscounts of Lautrec originated with Pierre, the grandson +of Archambaud de Grailly, captal de Buch, who came into possession of +the county of Foix in 1401. Odet de Foix and his two brothers, the +seigneur de Lescun and the seigneur de l'Esparre or Asparros, served +Francis I. as captains; and the influence of their sister, Françoise de +Châteaubriant, who became the king' mistress, gained them high offices. +In 1515 Lautrec took part in the campaign of Marignano. In 1516 he +received the government of the Milanese, and by his severity made the +French domination insupportable. In 1521 he succeeded in defending the +duchy against the Spanish army, but in 1522 he was completely defeated +at the battle of the Bicocca, and was forced to evacuate the Milanese. +The mutiny of his Swiss troops had compelled him, against his wish, to +engage in the battle. Created marshal of France, he received again, in +1527, the command of the army of Italy, occupied the Milanese, and was +then sent to undertake the conquest of the kingdom of Naples. The +defection of Andrea Doria and the plague which broke out in the French +camp brought on a fresh disaster. Lautrec himself caught the infection, +and died on the 15th of August 1528. He had the reputation of a gallant +and able soldier, but this reputation scarcely seems to be justified by +the facts; though he was always badly used by fortune. + + There is abundant MS. correspondence in the Bibliothèque Nationale, + Paris. See the Works of Brantôme (Coll. Société d'Histoire de France, + vol. iii., 1867); _Memoirs_ of Martin du Bellay (Coll. Michaud and + Poujoulat, vol. v., 1838). + + + + +LAUZUN, ANTONIN NOMPAR DE CAUMONT, MARQUIS DE PUYGUILHEM, DUC DE +(1632-1723), French courtier and soldier, was the son of Gabriel, comte +de Lauzun, and his wife Charlotte, daughter of the duc de La Force. He +was brought up with the children of his kinsman, the maréchal de +Gramont, of whom the comte de Guiche became the lover of Henrietta of +England, duchess of Orleans, while Catherine Charlotte, afterwards +princess of Monaco, was the object of the one passion of Lauzun's life. +He entered the army, and served under Turenne, also his kinsman, and in +1655 succeeded his father as commander of the _cent gentilshommes de la +maison du roi_. Puyguilhem (or Péguilin, as contemporaries simplified +his name) rapidly rose in Louis XIV.'s favour, became colonel of the +royal regiment of dragoons, and was gazetted _maréchal de camp_. He and +Mme de Monaco belonged to the coterie of the young duchess of Orleans. +His rough wit and skill in practical jokes pleased Louis XIV., but his +jealousy and violence were the causes of his undoing. He prevented a +meeting between Louis XIV. and Mme de Monaco, and it was jealousy in +this matter, rather than hostility to Louise de la Vallière, which led +him to promote Mme de Montespan's intrigues with the king. He asked this +lady to secure for him the post of grand-master of the artillery, and on +Louis's refusal to give him the appointment he turned his back on the +king, broke his sword, and swore that never again would he serve a +monarch who had broken his word. The result was a short sojourn in the +Bastille, but he soon returned to his functions of court buffoon. +Meanwhile, the duchess of Montpensier (La Grande Mademoiselle) had +fallen in love with the little man, whose ugliness seems to have +exercised a certain fascination over many women. He naturally encouraged +one of the greatest heiresses in Europe, and the wedding was fixed for +the 20th of December 1670, when on the 18th Louis sent for his cousin +and forbade the marriage. Mme de Montespan had never forgiven his fury +when she failed to procure the grand-mastership of the artillery, and +now, with Louvois, secured his arrest. He was removed in November 1671 +from the Bastille to Pignerol, where excessive precautions were taken to +ensure his safety. He was eventually allowed free intercourse with +Fouquet, but before that time he managed to find a way through the +chimney into Fouquet's room, and on another occasion succeeded in +reaching the courtyard in safety. Another fellow-prisoner, from +communication with whom he was supposed to be rigorously excluded, was +Eustache Dauger (see IRON MASK). + +It was now intimated to Mademoiselle that Lauzun's restoration to +liberty depended on her immediate settlement of the principality of +Dombes, the county of Eu and the duchy of Aumale--three properties +assigned by her to Lauzun--on the little duc de Maine, eldest son of +Louis XIV. and Mme de Montespan. She gave way, but Lauzun, even after +ten years of imprisonment, refused to sign the documents, when he was +brought to Bourbon for the purpose. A short term of imprisonment at +Chalon-sur-Sâone made him change his mind, but when he was set free +Louis XIV. was still set against the marriage, which is supposed to have +taken place secretly (see MONTPENSIER). Married or not, Lauzun was +openly courting Fouquet's daughter, whom he had seen at Pignerol. He was +to be restored to his place at court, and to marry Mlle Fouquet, who, +however, became Mme d'Uzès in 1683. In 1685 Lauzun went to England to +seek his fortune under James II., whom he had served as duke of York in +Flanders. He rapidly gained great influence at the English court. In +1688 he was again in England, and arranged the flight of Mary of Modena +and the infant prince, whom he accompanied to Calais, where he received +strict instructions from Louis to bring them "on any pretext" to +Vincennes. In the late autumn of 1689 he was put in command of the +expedition fitted out at Brest for service in Ireland, and he sailed in +the following year. Lauzun was honest, a quality not too common in James +II.'s officials in Ireland, but had no experience of the field, and he +blindly followed Richard Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel. After the battle of +the Boyne they fled to Limerick, and thence to the west, leaving Patrick +Sarsfield to show a brave front. In September they sailed for France, +and on their arrival at Versailles Lauzun found that his failure had +destroyed any prospect of a return of Louis XIV.'s favour. Mademoiselle +died in 1693, and two years later Lauzun married Geneviève de Durfort, a +child of fourteen, daughter of the maréchal de Lorges. Mary of Modena, +through whose interest Lauzun secured his dukedom, retained her faith in +him, and it was he who in 1715, more than a quarter of a century after +the flight from Whitehall, brought her the news of the disaster of +Sheriffmuir. Lauzun died on the 19th of November 1723. The duchy fell to +his nephew, Armand de Gontaut, comte de Biron. + + See the letters of Mme de Sévigné, the memoirs of Saint-Simon, who was + Lauzun's wife's brother-in-law; also J. Lair, _Nicolas Fouquet_, vol. + ii. (1890); Martin Hailes, _Mary of Modena_ (1905), and M. F. Sandars, + _Lauzun, Courtier and Adventurer_ (1908). + + + + +LAVA, an Italian word (from Lat. _lavare_, to wash) applied to the +liquid products of volcanic activity. Streams of rain-water, formed by +condensation of exhaled steam often mingled with volcanic ashes so as to +produce mud, are known as _lava d'acqua_, whilst the streams of molten +matter are called _lava di fuoco_. The term lava is applied by +geologists to all matter of volcanic origin, which is, or has been, in a +molten state. The magma, or molten lava in the interior of the earth, +may be regarded as a mutual solution of various mineral silicates, +charged with highly-heated vapour, sometimes to the extent of +super-saturation. According to the proportion of silica, the lava is +distinguished as "acid" or "basic." The basic lavas are usually darker +and denser than lavas of acid type, and when fused they tend to flow to +great distances, and may thus form far-spreading sheets, whilst the acid +lavas, being more viscous, rapidly consolidate after extrusion. The lava +is emitted from the volcanic vent at a high temperature, but on exposure +to the air it rapidly consolidates superficially, forming a crust which +in many cases is soon broken up by the continued flow of the subjacent +liquid lava, so that the surface becomes rugged with clinkers. J. D. +Dana introduced the term "aa" for this rough kind of lava-stream, whilst +he applied the term "pahoehoe" to those flows which have a smooth +surface, or are simply wrinkled and ropy; these terms being used in this +sense in Hawaii, in relation to the local lavas. The different kinds of +lava are more fully described in the article VOLCANO. + + + + +LAVABO (Lat. "I will wash"; the Fr. equivalent is lavoir), in +ecclesiastical usage, the term for the washing of the priests' hands, at +the celebration of the Mass, at the offertory. The words of Psalm xxvi. +6, _Lavabo inter innocentes manus meas_, are said during the rite. The +word is also used for the basin employed in the ritual washing, and also +for the lavatories, generally erected in the cloisters of monasteries. +Those at Gloucester, Norwich and Lincoln are best known. A very curious +example at Fontenay, surrounding a pillar, is given by Viollet-le-Duc. +In general the lavabo is a sort of trough; in some places it has an +almery for towels, &c. + + + + +LAVAGNA, a seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, from +which it is 25½ m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7005. It has a small +shipbuilding trade, and exports great quantities of slate (_lavagna_, +taking its name from the town). It also has a large cotton-mill. It was +the seat of the Fieschi family, independent counts, who, at the end of +the 12th century, were obliged to recognize the supremacy of Genoa. +Sinibaldo Fieschi became Pope Innocent IV. (1243-1254), and Hadrian V. +(1276) was also a Fieschi. + + + + +LAVAL, ANDRÉ DE, SEIGNEUR DE LOHÉAC (c. 1408-1485), French soldier. In +1423 he served in the French army against England, and in 1428 was taken +prisoner by John Talbot, 1st earl of Shrewsbury, after the capitulation +of Laval, which he was defending. After paying his ransom he was present +with Joan of Arc at the siege of Orleans, at the battle of Patay, and at +the coronation of Charles VII. He was made admiral of France in 1437 and +marshal in 1439. He served Charles VII. faithfully in all his wars, even +against the dauphin (1456), and when the latter became king as Louis +XI., Laval was dismissed from the marshal's office. After the War of the +Public Weal he was restored to favour, and recovered the marshal's +bâton, the king also granting him the offices of lieutenant-general to +the government of Paris and governor of Picardy, and conferring upon him +the collar of the order of St Michael. In 1472 Laval was successful in +resisting the attacks of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, on +Beauvais. + + + + +LAVAL, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of +Mayenne, on the Mayenne river, 188 m. W.S.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. +(1906) 24,874. On the right bank of the river stands the old feudal +city, with its ancient castle and its irregularly built houses whose +slate roofs and pointed gables peep from the groves of trees which +clothe the hill. On the left bank the regularly built new town extends +far into the plain. The river, here 80 yds. broad, is crossed by the +handsome railway viaduct, a beautiful stone bridge called Pont Neuf, and +the Pont Vieux with three pointed arches, built in the 16th century. +There is communication by steamer as far as Angers. Laval may justly +claim to be one of the loveliest of French towns. Its most curious and +interesting monument is the sombre old castle of the counts (now a +prison) with a donjon of the 12th century, the roof of which presents a +fine example of the timberwork superseded afterwards by stone +machicolation. The "new castle," dating partly from the Renaissance, +serves as court-house. Laval possesses several churches of different +periods: in that of the Trinity, which serves as the cathedral, the +transept and nave are of the 12th century while the choir is of the +16th; St Vénérand (15th century) has good stained glass; Notre-Dame des +Cordeliers, which dates from the end of the 14th century or the +beginning of the 15th, has some fine marble altars. Half-a-mile below +the Pont Vieux is the beautiful 12th-century church of Avenières, with +an ornamental spire of 1534. The finest remaining relic of the ancient +fortifications is the Beucheresse gate near the cathedral. The narrow +streets around the castle are bordered by many old houses of the 15th +and 16th century, chief among which is that known as the "Maison du +Grand Veneur." There are an art-museum, a museum of natural history and +archaeology and a library. The town is embellished by fine promenades, +at the entrance of one of which, facing the mairie, stands the statue of +the celebrated surgeon Ambroise Paré (1517-1590). Laval is the seat of a +prefect, a bishopric created in 1855, and a court of assizes, and has +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a +board of trade-arbitrators, training colleges, an ecclesiastical +seminary and a lycée for boys. The principal industry of the town is the +cloth manufacture, introduced from Flanders in the 14th century. The +production of fabrics of linen, of cotton or of mixtures of both, +occupies some 10,000 hands in the town and suburbs. Among the numerous +other industries are metal-founding, flour-milling, tanning, dyeing, the +making of boots and shoes, and the sawing of the marble quarried in the +vicinity. There is trade in grain. + +Laval is not known to have existed before the 9th century. It was taken +by John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in 1428, changed hands several times +during the wars of the League, and played an important part at the end +of the 18th century in the war of La Vendée. + +SEIGNEURS AND COUNTS OF LAVAL. The castle of Laval was founded at the +beginning of the 11th century by a lord of the name of Guy, and remained +in the possession of his male descendants until the 13th century. In +1218 the lordship passed to the house of Montmorency by the marriage of +Emma, daughter of Guy VI. of Laval, to Mathieu de Montmorency, the hero +of the battle of Bouvines. Of this union was born Guy VII. seigneur of +Laval, the ancestor of the second house of Laval. Anne of Laval (d. +1466), the heiress of the second family, married John de Montfort, who +took the name of Guy (XIII.) of Laval. At Charles VII.'s coronation +(1429) Guy XIV., who was afterwards son-in-law of John V., duke of +Brittany, and father-in-law of King René of Anjou, was created count of +Laval, and the countship remained in the possession of Guy's male +descendants until 1547. After the Montforts, the countship of Laval +passed by inheritance to the families of Rieux and Sainte Maure, to the +Colignys, and finally to the La Trémoilles, who held it until the +Revolution. + + See Bertrand de Broussillon, _La Maison de Laval_ (3 vols., + 1895-1900). + + + + +LA VALLIÈRE, LOUISE FRANÇOISE DE (1644-1710), mistress of Louis XIV., +was born at Tours on the 6th of August 1644, the daughter of an officer, +Laurent de la Baume le Blanc, who took the name of La Vallière from a +small property near Amboise. Laurent de la Vallière died in 1651; his +widow, who soon married again, joined the court of Gaston d'Orléans at +Blois. Louise was brought up with the younger princesses, the +step-sisters of La Grande Mademoiselle. After Gaston's death his widow +moved with her daughters to the palace of the Luxembourg in Paris, and +with them went Louise, who was now a girl of sixteen. Through the +influence of a distant kinswoman, Mme de Choisy, she was named maid of +honour to Henrietta of England, who was about her own age and had just +married Philip of Orleans, the king's brother. Henrietta joined the +court at Fontainebleau, and was soon on the friendliest terms with her +brother-in-law, so friendly indeed that there was some scandal, to avoid +which it was determined that Louis should pay marked attentions +elsewhere. The person selected was Madame's maid of honour, Louise. She +had been only two months in Fontainebleau before she became the king's +mistress. The affair, begun on Louis's part as a blind, immediately +developed into real passion on both sides. It was Louis's first serious +attachment, and Louise was an innocent, religious-minded girl, who +brought neither coquetry nor self-interest to their relation, which was +sedulously concealed. Nicolas Fouquet's curiosity in the matter was one +of the causes of his disgrace. In February 1662 there was a storm when +Louise refused to tell her lover the relations between Madame +(Henrietta) and the comte de Guiche. She fled to an obscure convent at +Chaillot, where Louis rapidly followed her. Her enemies, chief of whom +was Olympe Mancini, comtesse de Soissons, Mazarin's niece, sought her +downfall by bringing her liaison to the ears of Queen Maria Theresa. She +was presently removed from the service of Madame, and established in a +small building in the Palais Royal, where in December 1663 she gave +birth to a son Charles, who was given in charge to two faithful servants +of Colbert. Concealment was practically abandoned after her return to +court, and within a week of Anne of Austria's death in January 1666, La +Vallière appeared at mass side by side with Maria Theresa. But her +favour was already waning. She had given birth to a second child in +January 1665, but both children were dead before the autumn of 1666. A +daughter born at Vincennes in October 1666, who received the name of +Marie Anne and was known as Mlle de Blois, was publicly recognized by +Louis as his daughter in letters-patent making the mother a duchess in +May 1667 and conferring on her the estate of Vaujours. In October of +that year she bore a son, but by this time her place in Louis's +affections was definitely usurped by Athénaïs de Montespan (q.v.), who +had long been plotting against her. She was compelled to remain at court +as the king's official mistress, and even to share Mme de Montespan's +apartments at the Tuileries. She made an attempt at escape in 1671, when +she fled to the convent of Ste Marie de Chaillot, only to be compelled +to return. In 1674 she was finally permitted to enter the Carmelite +convent in the Rue d'Enfer. She took the final vows a year later, when +Bossuet pronounced the allocution. + +Her daughter married Armand de Bourbon, prince of Conti, in 1680. The +count of Vermandois, her youngest born, died on his first campaign at +Courtrai in 1683. + + La Vallière's _Réflexions sur la miséricorde de Dieu_, written after + her retreat, were printed by Lequeux in 1767, and in 1860 _Réflexions, + lettres et sermons_, by M. P. Clement (2 vols.). Some apocryphal + _Mémoires_ appeared in 1829, and the _Lettres de Mme la duchesse de la + Vallière_ (1767) are a corrupt version of her correspondence with the + maréchal de Bellefonds. Of modern works on the subject see Arsène + Houssaye, _Mlle de la Vallière et Mme de Montespan_ (1860); Jules + Lair, _Louise de la Vallière_ (3rd ed., 1902, Eng. trans., 1908); and + C. Bonnet, _Documents inédits sur Mme de la Vallière_ (1904). + + + + +LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR (1741-1801), German poet and physiognomist, was +born at Zürich on the 15th of November 1741. He was educated at the +gymnasium of his native town, where J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger +were among his teachers. When barely one-and-twenty he greatly +distinguished himself by denouncing, in conjunction with his friend, the +painter H. Fuseli, an iniquitous magistrate, who was compelled to make +restitution of his ill-gotten gains. In 1769 Lavater took orders, and +officiated till his death as deacon or pastor in various churches in his +native city. His oratorical fervour and genuine depth of conviction gave +him great personal influence; he was extensively consulted as a casuist, +and was welcomed with demonstrative enthusiasm in his numerous journeys +through Germany. His mystical writings were also widely popular. +Scarcely a trace of this influence has remained, and Lavater's name +would be forgotten but for his work on physiognomy, _Physiognomische +Fragmente zur Beförderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe_ +(1775-1778). The fame even of this book, which found enthusiastic +admirers in France and England, as well as in Germany, rests to a great +extent upon the handsome style of publication and the accompanying +illustrations. It left, however, the study of physiognomy (q.v.), as +desultory and unscientific as it found it. As a poet, Lavater published +_Christliche Lieder_ (1776-1780) and two epics, _Jesus Messias_ (1780) +and _Joseph von Arimathia_ (1794), in the style of Klopstock. More +important and characteristic of the religious temperament of Lavater's +age are his introspective _Aussichten in die Ewigkeit_ (4 vols., +1768-1778); _Geheimes Tagebuch von einem Beobachter seiner selbst_ (2 +vols., 1772-1773) and _Pontius Pilatus, oder der Mensch in allen +Gestalten_ (4 vols., 1782-1785). From 1774 on, Goethe was intimately +acquainted with Lavater, but at a later period he became estranged from +him, somewhat abruptly accusing him of superstition and hypocrisy. +Lavater had a mystic's indifference to historical Christianity, and, +although esteemed by himself and others a champion of orthodoxy, was in +fact only an antagonist of rationalism. During the later years of his +life his influence waned, and he incurred ridicule by some exhibitions +of vanity. He redeemed himself by his patriotic conduct during the +French occupation of Switzerland, which brought about his tragical +death. On the taking of Zürich by the French in 1799, Lavater, while +endeavouring to appease the soldiery, was shot through the body by an +infuriated grenadier; he died after long sufferings borne with great +fortitude, on the 2nd of January 1801. + + Lavater himself published two collections of his writings, _Vermischte + Schriften_ (2 vols., 1774-1781), and _Kleinere prosaische Schriften_ + (3 vols., 1784-1785). His _Nachgelassene Schriften_ were edited by G. + Gessner (5 vols., 1801-1802); _Sämtliche Werke_ (but only poems) (6 + vols., 1836-1838); _Ausgewählte Schriften_ (8 vols., 1841-1844). See + G. Gessner, _Lavaters Lebensbeschreibung_ (3 vols., 1802-1803); U. + Hegner, _Beiträge zur Kenntnis Lavaters_ (1836); F. W. Bodemann, + _Lavater nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken_ (1856; 2nd ed., 1877); + F. Muncker, _J. K. Lavater_ (1883); H. Waser, _J. K. Lavater nach + Hegners Aufzeichnungen_ (1894); _J. K. Lavater, Denkschrift zum 100. + Todestag_ (1902). + + + + +LAVAUR, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Tarn, 37 m. S.E. of Montauban by rail. Pop. (1906), +town 4069; commune 6388. Lavaur stands on the left bank of the Agout, +which is here crossed by a railway-bridge and a fine stone bridge of the +late 18th century. From 1317 till the Revolution Lavaur was the seat of +a bishopric, and there is a cathedral dating from the 13th, 14th and +15th centuries, with an octagonal bell-tower; a second smaller square +tower contains a _jaquemart_ (a statue which strikes the hours with a +hammer) of the 16th century. In the bishop's garden is the statue of +Emmanuel Augustin, marquis de Las Cases, one of the companions of +Napoleon at St Helena. The town carries on distilling and flour-milling +and the manufacture of brushes, plaster and wooden shoes. There are a +subprefecture and tribunal of first instance. Lavaur was taken in 1211 +by Simon de Montfort during the wars of the Albigenses, and several +times during the religious wars of the 16th century. + + + + +LAVEDAN, HENRI LÉON ÉMILE (1859- ), French dramatist and man of letters, +was born at Orleans, the son of Hubert Léon Lavedan, a well-known +Catholic and liberal journalist. He contributed to various Parisian +papers a series of witty tales and dialogues of Parisian life, many of +which were collected in volume form. In 1891 he produced at the Théâtre +Français _Une Famille_, followed at the Vaudeville in 1894 by _Le Prince +d'Aurec_, a satire on the nobility, afterwards re-named _Les +Descendants_. Later brilliant and witty pieces were _Les Deux noblesses_ +(1897), _Catherine_ (1897), _Le Nouveau jeu_ (1898), _Le Vieux marcheur_ +(1899), _Le Marquis de Priola_ (1902), and _Varennes_ (1904), written in +collaboration with G. Lenôtre. He had a great success with _Le Duel_ +(Comédie Française, 1905), a powerful psychological study of the +relations of two brothers. Lavedan was admitted to the French Academy in +1898. + + + + +LAVELEYE, ÉMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE (1822-1892), Belgian economist, was born +at Bruges on the 5th of April 1822, and educated there and at the +Collège Stanislas in Paris, a celebrated establishment in the hands of +the Oratorians. He continued his studies at the Catholic university of +Louvain and afterwards at Ghent, where he came under the influence of +François Huet, the philosopher and Christian Socialist. In 1844 he won a +prize with an essay on the language and literature of Provence. In 1847 +he published _L'Histoire des rois francs_, and in 1861 a French version +of the _Nibelungen_, but though he never lost his interest in literature +and history, his most important work was in the domain of economics. He +was one of a group of young lawyers, doctors and critics, all old pupils +of Huet, who met once a week to discuss social and economic questions, +and was thus led to publish his views on these subjects. In 1859 some +articles by him in the _Revue des deux mondes_ laid the foundation of +his reputation as an economist. In 1864 he was elected to the chair of +political economy at the state university of Liége. Here he wrote his +most important works: _La Russie et l'Autriche depuis Sadowa_ (1870), +_Essai sur les formes de gouvernement dans les sociétés modernes_ +(1872), _Des Causes actuelles de guerre en Europe et de l'arbitrage_ and +_De la propriété et de ses formes primitives_ (1874), dedicated to the +memory of John Stuart Mill and François Huet. He died at Doyon, near +Liége, on the 3rd of January 1892. Laveleye's name is particularly +connected with bimetallism and primitive property, and he took a special +interest in the revival and preservation of small nationalities. But his +activity included the whole realm of political science, political +economy, monetary questions, international law, foreign and Belgian +politics, questions of education, religion and morality, travel and +literature. He had the art of popularizing even the most technical +subjects, owing to the clearness of his view and his firm grasp of the +matter in hand. He was especially attracted to England, where he thought +he saw many of his ideals of social, political and religious progress +realized. He was a frequent contributor to the English newspapers and +leading reviews. The most widely circulated of his works was a pamphlet +on _Le Parti clérical en Belgique_, of which 2,000,000 copies were +circulated in ten languages. + + + + +LAVENDER, botanically _Lavandula_, a genus of the natural order Labiatae +distinguished by an ovate tubular calyx, a two-lipped corolla, of which +the upper lip has two and the lower three lobes, and four stamens bent +downwards. + +The plant to which the name of lavender is commonly applied, _Lavandula +vera_, is a native of the mountainous districts of the countries +bordering on the western half of the Mediterranean, extending from the +eastern coast of Spain to Calabria and northern Africa, growing in some +places at a height of 4500 ft. above the sea-level, and preferring stony +declivities in open sunny situations. It is cultivated in the open air +as far north as Norway and Livonia. Lavender forms an evergreen +under-shrub about 2 ft. high, with greyish-green hoary linear leaves, +rolled under at the edges when young; the branches are erect and give a +bushy appearance to the plant. The flowers are borne on a terminal spike +at the summit of a long naked stalk, the spike being composed of 6-10 +dense clusters in the axils of small, brownish, rhomboidal, tapering, +opposite bracts, the clusters being more widely separated towards the +base of the spike. The calyx is tubular, contracted towards the mouth, +marked with 13 ribs and 5-toothed, the posterior tooth being the +largest. The corolla is of a pale violet colour, but darker on its inner +surface, tubular, two-lipped, the upper lip with two and the lower with +three lobes. Both corolla and calyx are covered with stellate hairs, +amongst which are imbedded shining oil glands to which the fragrance of +the plant is due. The leaves and flowers of lavender are said to have +been used by the ancients to perfume their baths; hence the Med. Lat. +name _Lavandula_ or _Lavendula_ is supposed to have been derived from +_lavare_, to wash. This derivation is considered doubtful and a +connexion has been suggested with Lat. _livere_, to be of a bluish, pale +or livid colour. + +Although _L. Stoechas_ was well known to the ancients, no allusion +unquestionably referring to _L. vera_ has been found in the writings of +classical authors, the earliest mention of the latter plant being in the +12th century by the abbess Hildegard, who lived near Bingen on the +Rhine. Under the name of _llafant_ or _llafantly_ it was known to the +Welsh physicians as a medicine in the 13th century. The dried flowers +have long been used in England, the United States and other countries +for perfuming linen, and the characteristic cry of "Lavender! sweet +lavender!" was still to be heard in London streets at the beginning of +the 20th century. In England lavender is cultivated chiefly for the +distillation of its essential oil, of which it yields on an average 1½% +when freed from the stalks, but in the south of Europe the flowers form +an object of trade, being exported to the Barbary states, Turkey and +America. + + In Great Britain lavender is grown in the parishes of Mitcham, + Carshalton and Beddington in Surrey, and in Hertfordshire in the + parish of Hitchin. The most suitable soil seems to be a sandy loam + with a calcareous substratum, and the most favourable position a sunny + slope in localities elevated above the level of fogs, where the plant + is not in danger of early frost and is freely exposed to air and + light. At Hitchin lavender is said to have been grown as early as + 1568, but as a commercial speculation its cultivation dates back only + to 1823. The plants at present in cultivation do not produce seed, and + the propagation is always made by slips or by dividing the roots. The + latter plan has only been followed since 1860, when a large number of + lavender plants were killed by a severe frost. Since that date the + plants have been subject to the attack of a fungus, in consequence of + which the price of the oil has been considerably enhanced. + + The flowers are collected in the beginning of August, and taken direct + to the still. The yield of oil depends in great measure upon the + weather. After a wet and dull June and July the yield is sometimes + only half as much as when the weather has been bright and sunshiny. + From 12 to 30 lb. of oil per acre is the average amount obtained. The + oil contained in the stem has a more rank odour and is less volatile + than that of the flowers; consequently the portion that distils over + after the first hour and a half is collected separately. + + [Illustration: Lavender (_Lavandula vera_). + + 1. Flower, side view. + 2. Flower, front view. + 3. Calyx opened and spread flat. + 4. Corolla opened and spread flat. + 5. Pistil.] + + The finest oil is obtained by the distillation of the flowers, without + the stalks, but the labour spent upon this adds about 10s. per lb. to + the expense of the oil, and the same end is practically attained by + fractional distillation. The oil mellows by keeping three years, after + which it deteriorates unless mixed with alcohol; it is also improved + by redistillation. Oil of lavender is distilled from the wild plants + in Piedmont and the South of France, especially in the villages about + Mont Ventoux near Avignon, and in those some leagues west of + Montpellier. The best French oil realizes scarcely one-sixth of the + price of the English oil. Cheaper varieties are made by distilling the + entire plant. + + Oil of lavender is a mobile liquid having a specific gravity from 0.85 + to 0.89. Its chief constituents are linalool acetate, which also + occurs in oil of bergamot, and linalool, C10H17OH, an alcohol derived + by oxidation from myrcene, C10H16, which is one of the terpenes. The + dose is ½-3 minims. The British pharmacopeia contains a spiritus + lavandulae, dose 5-20 minims: and a compound tincture, dose ½-1 + drachm. This is contained in liquor arsenicalis, and its + characteristic odour may thus be of great practical importance, + medico-legally and otherwise. The pharmacology of oil of lavender is + simply that of an exceptionally pleasant and mild volatile oil. It is + largely used as a carminative and as a colouring and flavouring agent. + Its adulteration with alcohol may be detected by chloride of calcium + dissolving in it and forming a separate layer of liquid at the bottom + of the vessel. Glycerine acts in the same way. If it contain + turpentine it will not dissolve in three volumes of alcohol, in which + quantity the pure oil is perfectly soluble. + + Lavender flowers were formerly considered good for "all disorders of + the head and nerves"; a spirit prepared with them was known under the + name of palsy drops. + + Lavender water consists of a solution of the volatile oil in spirit + of wine with the addition of the essences of musk, rose, bergamot and + ambergris, but is very rarely prepared by distillation of the flowers + with spirit. + + In the climate of New York lavender is scarcely hardy, but in the + vicinity of Philadelphia considerable quantities are grown for the + market. In American gardens sweet basil (_Ocimum basilicum_) is + frequently called lavender. + + _Lavandula Spica_, a species which differs from _L. vera_ chiefly in + its smaller size, more crowded leaves and linear bracts, is also used + for the distillation of an essential oil, which is known in England as + oil of spike and in France under the name of _essence d'aspic_. It is + used in painting on porcelain and in veterinary medicine. The oil as + met with in commerce is less fragrant than that of _L. vera_--probably + because the whole plant is distilled, for the flowers of the two + species are scarcely distinguishable in fragrance. _L. Spica_ does not + extend so far north, nor ascend the mountains beyond 2000 ft. It + cannot be cultivated in Britain except in sheltered situations. A + nearly allied species, _L. lanata_, a native of Spain, with broader + leaves, is also very fragrant, but does not appear to be distilled for + oil. + + _Lavandula Stoechas_, a species extending from the Canaries to Asia + Minor, is distinguished from the above plants by its blackish purple + flowers, and shortly stalked spikes crowned by conspicuous purplish + sterile bracts. The flowers were official in the London pharmacopoeia + as late as 1746. They are still used by the Arabs as an expectorant + and antispasmodic. The Stoechades (now called the isles of Hyères near + Toulon) owed their name to the abundance of the plant growing there. + + Other species of lavender are known, some of which extend as far east + as to India. A few which differ from the above in having divided + leaves, as _L. dentata_, _L. abrotanoides_, _L. multifolia_, _L. + pinnata_ and _L. viridis_, have been cultivated in greenhouses, &c., + in England. + + Sea lavender is a name applied in England to several species of + _Statice_, a genus of littoral plants belonging to the order _Plumba + gineae_. Lavender cotton is a species of the genus _Santolina_, small, + yellow-flowered, evergreen undershrubs of the Composite order. + + + + +LAVERDY, CLÉMENT CHARLES FRANÇOIS DE (1723-1793), French statesman, was +a member of the parlement of Paris when the case against the Jesuits +came before that body in August 1761. He demanded the suppression of the +order and thus acquired popularity. Louis XV. named him +controller-general of the finances in December 1763, but the burden was +great and Laverdy knew nothing of finance. Three months after his +nomination he forbade anything of any kind whatever to be printed +concerning his administration, thus refusing advice as well as censure. +He used all sorts of expedients, sometimes dishonest, to replenish the +treasury, and was even accused of having himself profited from the +commerce in wheat. A court intrigue led to his sudden dismissal on the +1st of October 1768. Henceforward he lived in retirement until, during +the Revolution, he was involved in the charges against the financiers of +the old régime. The Revolutionary tribunal condemned him to death, and +he was guillotined on the 24th of November 1793. + + See A. Jobez, _La France sous Louis XV_ (1869). + + + + +LAVERNA, an old Italian divinity, originally one of the spirits of the +underworld. A cup found in an Etruscan tomb bears the inscription +"Lavernai Pocolom," and in a fragment of Septimius Serenus Laverna is +expressly mentioned in connexion with the _di inferi_. By an easy +transition, she came to be regarded as the protectress of thieves, whose +operations were associated with darkness. She had an altar on the +Aventine hill, near the gate called after her Lavernalis, and a grove on +the Via Salaria. Her aid was invoked by thieves to enable them to carry +out their plans successfully without forfeiting their reputation for +piety and honesty (Horace, _Ep._ i. 16, 60). Many explanations have been +given of the name: (1) from _latere_ (Schol. on Horace, who gives +_laternio_ as another form of _lavernio_ or robber); (2) from _lavare_ +(Acron on Horace, according to whom thieves were called _lavatores_, +perhaps referring to bath thieves); (3) from _levare_ (cf. +shop-lifters). Modern etymologists connect it with _lu-crum_, and +explain it as meaning the goddess of gain. + + + + +LAVERY, JOHN (1857- ), British painter, was born in Belfast, and +received his art training in Glasgow, London and Paris. He was elected +associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1892 and academician in 1896, +having won a considerable reputation as a painter of portraits and +figure subjects, and as a facile and vigorous executant. He became also +vice-president of the International Society of sculptors, painters and +gravers. Many of his paintings have been acquired for public +collections, and he is represented in the National Galleries at +Brussels, Berlin and Edinburgh, in the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg, +the Philadelphia Gallery, the New South Wales Gallery, the Modern +Gallery, Venice, the Pinakothek, Munich, the Glasgow Corporation +Gallery, and the Luxembourg. + + + + +LAVIGERIE, CHARLES MARTIAL ALLEMAND (1825-1892), French divine, cardinal +archbishop of Carthage and Algiers and primate of Africa, was born at +Bayonne on the 31st of October 1825, and was educated at St Sulpice, +Paris. He was ordained priest in 1849, and was professor of +ecclesiastical history at the Sorbonne from 1854 to 1856. In 1856 he +accepted the direction of the schools of the East, and was thus for the +first time brought into contact with the Mahommedan world. "C'est là," +he wrote, "que j'ai connu enfin ma vocation." Activity in missionary +work, especially in alleviating the distresses of the victims of the +Druses, soon brought him prominently into notice; he was made a +chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in October 1861, shortly after +his return to Europe, was appointed French auditor at Rome. Two years +later he was raised to the see of Nancy, where he remained for four +years, during which the diocese became one of the best administered in +France. While bishop of Nancy he met Marshal MacMahon, then +governor-general of Algeria, who in 1866 offered him the see of Algiers, +just raised to an archbishopric. Lavigerie landed in Africa on the 11th +of May 1868, when the great famine was already making itself felt, and +he began in November to collect the orphans into villages. This action, +however, did not meet with the approval of MacMahon, who feared that the +Arabs would resent it as an infraction of the religious peace, and +thought that the Mahommedan church, being a state institution in +Algeria, ought to be protected from proselytism; so it was intimated to +the prelate that his sole duty was to minister to the colonists. +Lavigerie, however, continued his self-imposed task, refused the +archbishopric of Lyons, which was offered to him by the emperor, and won +his point. Contact with the natives during the famine caused Lavigerie +to entertain exaggerated hopes for their general conversion, and his +enthusiasm was such that he offered to resign his archbishopric in order +to devote himself entirely to the missions. Pius IX. refused this, but +granted him a coadjutor, and placed the whole of equatorial Africa under +his charge. In 1870 Lavigerie warmly supported papal infallibility. In +1871 he was twice a candidate for the National Assembly, but was +defeated. In 1874 he founded the Sahara and Sudan mission, and sent +missionaries to Tunis, Tripoli, East Africa and the Congo. The order of +African missionaries thus founded, for which Lavigerie himself drew up +the rule, has since become famous as the _Pères Blancs_. From 1881 to +1884 his activity in Tunisia so raised the prestige of France that it +drew from Gambetta the celebrated declaration, _L'Anticléricalisme n'est +pas un article d'exportation_, and led to the exemption of Algeria from +the application of the decrees concerning the religious orders. On the +27th of March 1882 the dignity of cardinal was conferred upon Lavigerie, +but the great object of his ambition was to restore the see of St +Cyprian; and in that also he was successful, for by a bull of 10th +November 1884 the metropolitan see of Carthage was re-erected, and +Lavigerie received the pallium on the 25th of January 1885. The later +years of his life were spent in ardent anti-slavery propaganda, and his +eloquence moved large audiences in London, as well as in Paris, Brussels +and other parts of the continent. He hoped, by organizing a fraternity +of armed laymen as pioneers, to restore fertility to the Sahara; but +this community did not succeed, and was dissolved before his death. In +1890 Lavigerie appeared in the new character of a politician, and +arranged with Pope Leo XIII. to make an attempt to reconcile the church +with the republic. He invited the officers of the Mediterranean squadron +to lunch at Algiers, and, practically renouncing his monarchical +sympathies, to which he clung as long as the comte de Chambord was +alive, expressed his support of the republic. and emphasized it by +having the Marseillaise played by a band of his _Pères Blancs_. The +further steps in this evolution emanated from the pope, and Lavigerie, +whose health now began to fail, receded comparatively into the +background. He died at Algiers on the 26th of November 1892. + (G. F. B.) + + + + +LA VILLEMARQUÉ, THÉODORE CLAUDE HENRI, VICOMTE HERSART DE (1815-1895), +French philologist and man of letters, was born at Keransker, near +Quimperlé, on the 6th of July 1815. He was descended from an old Breton +family, which counted among its members a Hersart who had followed Saint +Louis to the Crusade, and another who was a companion in arms of Du +Guesclin. La Villemarqué devoted himself to the elucidation of the +monuments of Breton literature. Introduced in 1851 by Jacob Grimm as +correspondent to the Academy of Berlin, he became in 1858 a member of +the Academy of Inscriptions. His works include: _Contes populaires des +anciens Bretons_ (1842), to which was prefixed an essay on the origin of +the romances of the Round Table; _Essai sur l'histoire de la langue +bretonne_ (1837); _Poèmes des bardes bretons du sixième siècle_ (1850); +_La Légende celtique en Irelande, en Cambrie et en Bretagne_ (1859). The +popular Breton songs published by him in 1839 as _Barzaz Breiz_ were +considerably retouched. La Villemarqué's work has been superseded by the +work of later scholars, but he has the merit of having done much to +arouse popular interest in his subject. He died at Keransker on the 8th +of December 1895. + + On the subject of the doubtful authenticity of Barzaz Breiz, see + Luzel's Preface to his _Chansons populaires de la Basse-Bretagne_, + and, for a list of works on the subject, the _Revue Celtique_ (vol. + v.). + + + + +LAVINIUM, an ancient town of Latium, on the so-called Via Lavinatis (see +LAURENTINA, VIA), 19 m. S. of Rome, the modern PRATICA, situated 300 ft. +above sea-level and 2½ m. N.E. from the sea-coast. Its foundation is +attributed to Aeneas (whereas Laurentum was the primitive city of King +Latinus), who named it after his wife Lavinia. It is rarely mentioned in +Roman history and often confused with Lanuvium or Lanivium in the text +both of authors and of inscriptions. The custom by which the consuls and +praetors or dictators sacrificed on the Alban Mount and at Lavinium to +the Penates and to Vesta, before they entered upon office or departed +for their province, seems to have been one of great antiquity. There is +no trace of its having continued into imperial times, but the cults of +Lavinium were kept up, largely by the imperial appointment of honorary +non-resident citizens to hold the priesthoods. The citizens of Lavinium +were known under the empire as Laurentes Lavinates, and the place itself +at a late period as Laurolavinium. It was deserted or forgotten not long +after the time of Theodosius. + +Lavinium was preceded by a more ancient town, LAURENTUM, the city of +Latinus (Verg. _Aen._ viii.); of this the site is uncertain, but it is +probably to be sought at the modern Tor Paterno, close to the sea-coast +and 5 m. N. by W. of Lavinium. Here the name of Laurentum is preserved +by the modern name Pantan di Lauro. Even in ancient times it was famous +for its groves of bay-trees (_laurus_) from which its name was perhaps +derived, and which in imperial times gave the villas of its territory a +name for salubrity, so that both Vitellius and Commodus resorted there. +The exact date of the abandonment of the town itself and the +incorporation of its territory with that of Lavinium is uncertain, but +it may be placed in the latter part of the republic. Under the empire a +portion of it must have been imperial domain and forest. We hear of an +imperial, procurator in charge of the elephants at Laurentum; and the +imperial villa may perhaps be identified with the extensive ruins at Tor +Paterno itself. The remains of numerous other villas lie along the +ancient coast-line (which was half a mile inland of the modern, being +now marked by a row of sand-hills, and was followed by the Via +Severiana), both north-west and south-east of Tor Paterno: they extended +as a fact in an almost unbroken line along the low sandy coast--now +entirely deserted and largely occupied by the low scrub which serves as +cover for the wild boars of the king of Italy's preserves--from the +mouth of the Tiber to Antium, and thence again to Astura; but there are +no traces of any buildings previous to the imperial period. In one of +these villas, excavated by the king of Italy in 1906, was found a fine +replica of the famous discobolus of Myron. The plan of the building is +interesting, as it diverges entirely from the normal type and adapts +itself to the site. Some way to the N.W. was situated the village of +Vicus Augustanus Laurentium, taking its name probably from Augustus +himself, and probably identical with the village mentioned by Pliny the +younger as separated by only one villa from his own. This village was +brought to light by excavation in 1874, and its forum and curia are +still visible. The remains of the villa of Pliny, too, were excavated in +1713 and in 1802-1819, and it is noteworthy that the place bears the +name Villa di Pino (sic) on the staff map; how old the name is, is +uncertain. It is impossible without further excavation to reconcile the +remains--mainly of substructions--with the elaborate description of his +villa given by Pliny (cf. H. Winnefeld in _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, +1891, 200 seq.). + +The site of the ancient Lavinium, no less than 300 ft. above sea-level +and 2½ m. inland, is far healthier than the low-lying Laurentum, where, +except in the immediate vicinity of the coast, malaria must have been a +dreadful scourge. It possesses considerable natural strength, and +consists of a small hill, the original acropolis, occupied by the modern +castle and the village surrounding it, and a larger one, now given over +to cultivation, where the city stood. On the former there are now no +traces of antiquity, but on the latter are scanty remains of the city +walls, in small blocks of the grey-green tufa (_cappellaccio_) which is +used in the earliest buildings of Rome, and traces of the streets. The +necropolis, too, has been discovered, but not systematically excavated; +but objects of the first Iron age, including a sword of Aegean type +(thus confirming the tradition), have been found; also remains of a +building with Doric columns of an archaistic type, remains of later +buildings in brick, and inscriptions, some of them of considerable +interest. + + See R. Lanciani in _Monumenti dei Lincei_, xiii. (1903), 133 seq.; + xvi. (1906), 241 seq. (T. As.) + + + + +LAVISSE, ERNEST (1842- ), French historian, was born at +Nouvion-en-Thiérache, Aisne, on the 17th of December 1842. In 1865 he +obtained a fellowship in history, and in 1875 became a doctor of +letters; he was appointed _maître de conférence_ (1876) at the école +normale supérieure, succeeding Fustel de Coulanges, and then professor +of modern history at the Sorbonne (1888), in the place of Henri Wallon. +He was an eloquent professor and very fond of young people, and played +an important part in the revival of higher studies in France after 1871. +His knowledge of pedagogy was displayed in his public lectures and his +addresses, in his private lessons, where he taught a small number of +pupils the historical method, and in his books, where he wrote _ad +probandum_ at least as much as _ad narrandum_: class-books, collections +of articles, intermingled with personal reminiscences (_Questions +d'enseignement national_, 1885; _Études et étudiants_, 1890; _À propos +de nos écoles_, 1895), rough historical sketches (_Vue générale de +l'histoire politique de l'Europe_, 1890), &c. Even his works of +learning, written without a trace of pedantry, are remarkable for their +lucidity and vividness. + +After the Franco-Prussian War Lavisse studied the development of Prussia +and wrote _Étude sur l'une des origines de la monarchie prussienne, ou +la Marche de Brandebourg sous la dynastie ascanienne_, which was his +thesis for his doctor's degree in 1875, and _Études sur l'histoire de la +Prusse_ (1879). In connexion with his study of the Holy Roman Empire, +and the cause of its decline, he wrote a number of articles which were +published in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_; and he wrote _Trois empereurs +d'Allemagne_ (1888), _La Jeunesse du grand Frédéric_ (1891) and +_Frédéric II. avant son avènement_ (1893) when studying the modern +German empire and the grounds for its strength. With his friend Alfred +Rambaud he conceived the plan of _L'Histoire générale du IV^e siècle +jusqu'à nos jours_, to which, however, he contributed nothing. He edited +the _Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu'à la Révolution_ +(1901- ), in which he carefully revised the work of his numerous +assistants, reserving the greatest part of the reign of Louis XIV. for +himself. This section occupies the whole of volume vii. It is a +remarkable piece of work, and the sketch of absolute government in +France during this period has never before been traced with an equal +amount of insight and brilliance. Lavisse was admitted to the Académie +Française on the death of Admiral Jurien de la Gravière in 1892, and +after the death of James Darmesteter became editor of the _Revue de +Paris_. He is, however, chiefly a master of pedagogy. When the école +normale was joined to the university of Paris, Lavisse was appointed +director of the new organization, which he had helped more than any one +to bring about. + + + + +LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794), French chemist, was born in +Paris on the 26th of August 1743. His father, an _avocat au parlement_, +gave him an excellent education at the collège Mazarin, and encouraged +his taste for natural science; and he studied mathematics and astronomy +with N. L. de Lacaille, chemistry with the elder Rouelle and botany with +Bernard de Jussieu. In 1766 he received a gold medal from the Academy of +Sciences for an essay on the best means of lighting a large town; and +among his early work were papers on the analysis of gypsum, on thunder, +on the aurora and on congelation, and a refutation of the prevalent +belief that water by repeated distillation is converted into earth. He +also assisted J. E. Guettard (1715-1786) in preparing his mineralogical +atlas of France. In 1768, recognized as a man who had both the ability +and the means for a scientific career, he was nominated _adjoint +chimiste_ to the Academy, and in that capacity made numerous reports on +the most diverse subjects, from the theory of colours to water-supply +and from invalid chairs to mesmerism and the divining rod. The same year +he obtained the position of _adjoint_ to Baudon, one of the +farmers-general of the revenue, subsequently becoming a full titular +member of the body. This was the first of a series of posts in which his +administrative abilities found full scope. Appointed _régisseur des +poudres_ in 1775, he not only abolished the vexatious search for +saltpetre in the cellars of private houses, but increased the production +of the salt and improved the manufacture of gunpowder. In 1785 he was +nominated to the committee on agriculture, and as its secretary drew up +reports and instructions on the cultivation of various crops, and +promulgated schemes for the establishment of experimental agricultural +stations, the distribution of agricultural implements and the adjustment +of rights of pasturage. Seven years before he had started a model farm +at Fréchine, where he demonstrated the advantages of scientific methods +of cultivation and of the introduction of good breeds of cattle and +sheep. Chosen a member of the provincial assembly of Orleans in 1787, he +busied himself with plans for the improvement of the social and economic +conditions of the community by means of savings banks, insurance +societies, canals, workhouses, &c.; and he showed the sincerity of his +philanthropical work by advancing money out of his own pocket, without +interest, to the towns of Blois and Romorantin, for the purchase of +barley during the famine of 1788. Attached in this same year to the +_caisse d'escompte_, he presented the report of its operations to the +national assembly in 1789, and as commissary of the treasury in 1791 he +established a system of accounts of unexampled punctuality. He was also +asked by the national assembly to draw up a new scheme of taxation in +connexion with which he produced a report _De la richesse territoriale +de la France_, and he was further associated with committees on hygiene, +coinage, the casting of cannon, &c., and was secretary and treasurer of +the commission appointed in 1790 to secure uniformity of weights and +measures. + +In 1791, when Lavoisier was in the middle of all this official activity, +the suppression of the farmers-general marked the beginning of troubles +which brought about his death. His membership of that body was alone +sufficient to make him an object of suspicion; his administration at the +_régie des poudres_ was attacked; and Marat accused him in the _Ami du +Peuple_ of putting Paris in prison and of stopping the circulation of +air in the city by the _mur d'octroi_ erected at his suggestion in 1787. +The Academy, of which as treasurer at the time he was a conspicuous +member, was regarded by the convention with no friendly eyes as being +tainted with "incivism," and in the spring of 1792 A. F. Fourcroy +endeavoured to persuade it to purge itself of suspected members. The +attempt was unsuccessful, but in August of the same year Lavoisier had +to leave his house and laboratory at the Arsenal, and in November the +Academy was forbidden until further orders to fill up the vacancies in +its numbers. Next year, on the 1st of August, the convention passed a +decree for the uniformity of weights and measures, and requested the +Academy to take measures for carrying it out, but a week later Fourcroy +persuaded the same convention to suppress the Academy together with +other literary societies _patentées et dotées_ by the nation. In +November it ordered the arrest of the ex-farmers-general, and on the +advice of the committee of public instruction, of which Guyton de +Morveau and Fourcroy were members, the names of Lavoisier and others +were struck off from the commission of weights and measures. The fate of +the ex-farmers-general was sealed on the 2nd of May 1794, when, on the +proposal of Antoine Dupin, one of their former officials, the convention +sent them for trial by the Revolutionary tribunal. Within a week +Lavoisier and 27 others were condemned to death. A petition in his +favour addressed to Coffinhal, the president of the tribunal, is said to +have been met with the reply _La République n'a pas besoin de savants_, +and on the 8th of the month Lavoisier and his companions were +guillotined at the Place de la Révolution. He died fourth, and was +preceded by his colleague Jacques Paulze, whose daughter he had married +in 1771. "_Il ne leur a fallu_," Lagrange remarked, "_qu'un moment pour +faire tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour +en reproduire une semblable_." + +Lavoisier's name is indissolubly associated with the overthrow of the +phlogistic doctrine that had dominated the development of chemistry for +over a century, and with the establishment of the foundations upon which +the modern science reposes. "He discovered," says Justus von Liebig +(_Letters on Chemistry_, No. 3), "no new body, no new property, no +natural phenomenon previously unknown; but all the facts established by +him were the necessary consequences of the labours of those who preceded +him. His merit, his immortal glory, consists in this--that he infused +into the body of the science a new spirit; but all the members of that +body were already in existence, and rightly joined together." Realizing +that the total weight of all the products of a chemical reaction must be +exactly equal to the total weight of the reacting substances, he made +the balance the _ultima ratio_ of the laboratory, and he was able to +draw correct inferences from his weighings because, unlike many of the +phlogistonists, he looked upon heat as imponderable. It was by weighing +that in 1770 he proved that water is not converted into earth by +distillation, for he showed that the total weight of a sealed glass +vessel and the water it contained remained constant, however long the +water was boiled, but that the glass vessel lost weight to an extent +equal to the weight of earth produced, his inference being that the +earth came from the glass, not from the water. On the 1st of November +1772 he deposited with the Academy a sealed note which stated that +sulphur and phosphorus when burnt increased in weight because they +absorbed "air," while the metallic lead formed from litharge by +reduction with charcoal weighed less than the original litharge because +it had lost "air." The exact nature of the airs concerned in the +processes he did not explain until after the preparation of +"dephlogisticated air" (oxygen) by Priestley in 1774. Then, perceiving +that in combustion and the calcination of metals only a portion of a +given volume of common air was used up, he concluded that Priestley's +new air, _air éminemment pur_, was what was absorbed by burning +phosphorus, &c., "non-vital air," azote, or nitrogen remaining behind. +The gas given off in the reduction of metallic calces by charcoal he at +first supposed to be merely that contained in the calx, but he soon came +to understand that it was a product formed by the union of the charcoal +with the "dephlogisticated air" in the calx. In a memoir presented to +the Academy in 1777, but not published till 1782, he assigned to +dephlogisticated air the name oxygen, or "acid-producer," on the +supposition that all acids were formed by its union with a simple, +usually non-metallic, body; and having verified this notion for +phosphorus, sulphur, charcoal, &c., and even extended it to the +vegetable acids, he naturally asked himself what was formed by the +combustion of "inflammable air" (hydrogen). This problem he had attacked +in 1774, and in subsequent years he made various attempts to discover +the acid which, under the influence of his oxygen theory, he expected +would be formed. It was not till the 25th of June 1783 that in +conjunction with Laplace he announced to the Academy that water was the +product formed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, but by that +time he had been anticipated by Cavendish, to whose prior work, however, +as to that of several other investigators in other matters, it is to be +regretted that he did not render due acknowledgment. But a knowledge of +the composition of water enabled him to storm the last defences of the +phlogistonists. Hydrogen they held to be the phlogiston of metals, and +they supported this view by pointing out that it was liberated when +metals were dissolved in acids. Considerations of weight had long +prevented Lavoisier from accepting this doctrine, but he was now able to +explain the process fully, showing that the hydrogen evolved did not +come from the metal itself, but was one product of the decomposition of +the water of the dilute acid, the other product, oxygen, combining with +the metal to form an oxide which in turn united with the acid. A little +later this same knowledge led him to the beginnings of quantitative +organic analysis. Knowing that the water produced by the combustion of +alcohol was not pre-existent in that substance but was formed by the +combination of its hydrogen with the oxygen of the air, he burnt alcohol +and other combustible organic substances, such as wax and oil, in a +known volume of oxygen, and, from the weight of the water and carbon +dioxide produced and his knowledge of their composition, was able to +calculate the amounts of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen present in the +substance. + +Up to about this time Lavoisier's work, mainly quantitative in +character, had appealed most strongly to physicists, but it now began to +win conviction from chemists also. C. L. Berthollet, L. B. Guyton de +Morveau and A. F. Fourcroy, his collaborators in the reformed system of +chemical terminology set forth in 1787 in the _Méthode de nomenclature +chimique_, were among the earliest French converts, and they were +followed by M. H. Klaproth and the German Academy, and by most English +chemists except Cavendish, who rather suspended his judgment, and +Priestley, who stubbornly clung to the opposite view. Indeed, though the +partisans of phlogiston did not surrender without a struggle, the +history of science scarcely presents a second instance of a change so +fundamental accomplished with such ease. The spread of Lavoisier's +doctrines was greatly facilitated by the defined and logical form in +which he presented them in his _Traité élémentaire de chimie_ (_présenté +dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes_) (1789). The +list of simple substances contained in the first volume of this work +includes light and caloric with oxygen, azote and hydrogen. Under the +head of "oxidable or acidifiable" substances, the combination of which +with oxygen yielded acids, were placed sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, and +the muriatic, fluoric and boracic radicals. The metals, which by +combination with oxygen became oxides, were antimony, silver, arsenic, +bismuth, cobalt, copper, tin, iron, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, +nickel, gold, platinum, lead, tungsten and zinc; and the "simple earthy +salifiable substances" were lime, baryta, magnesia, alumina and silica. +The simple nature of the alkalies Lavoisier considered so doubtful that +he did not class them as elements, which he conceived as substances +which could not be further decomposed by any known process of +analysis--_les molécules simples et indivisibles qui composent les +corps_. The union of any two of the elements gave rise to binary +compounds, such as oxides, acids, sulphides, &c. A substance containing +three elements was a binary compound of the second order; thus salts, +the most important compounds of this class, were formed by the union of +acids and oxides, iron sulphate, for instance, being a compound of iron +oxide with sulphuric acid. + +In addition to his purely chemical work, Lavoisier, mostly in +conjunction with Laplace, devoted considerable attention to physical +problems, especially those connected with heat. The two carried out some +of the earliest thermochemical investigations, devised apparatus for +measuring linear and cubical expansions, and employed a modification of +Joseph Black's ice calorimeter in a series of determinations of specific +heats. Regarding heat (_matière de feu_ or _fluide igné_) as a peculiar +kind of imponderable matter, Lavoisier held that the three states of +aggregation--solid, liquid and gas--were modes of matter, each depending +on the amount of _matière de feu_ with which the ponderable substances +concerned were interpenetrated and combined; and this view enabled him +correctly to anticipate that gases would be reduced to liquids and +solids by the influence of cold and pressure. He also worked at +fermentation, respiration and animal heat, looking upon the processes +concerned as essentially chemical in nature. A paper discovered many +years after his death showed that he had anticipated later thinkers in +explaining the cyclical process of animal and vegetable life, for he +pointed out that plants derive their food from the air, from water, and +in general from the mineral kingdom, and animals in turn feed on plants +or on other animals fed by plants, while the materials thus taken up by +plants and animals are restored to the mineral kingdom by the +breaking-down processes of fermentation, putrefaction and combustion. + + A complete edition of the writings of Lavoisier, _Oeuvres de + Lavoisier, publiées par les soins du ministre de l'instruction + publique_, was issued at Paris in six volumes from 1864-1893. This + publication comprises his _Opuscules physiques et chimiques_ (1774), + many memoirs from the Academy volumes, and numerous letters, notes and + reports relating to the various matters on which he was engaged. At + the time of his death he was preparing an edition of his collected + works, and the portions ready for the press were published in two + volumes as _Mémoires de chimie_ in 1805 by his widow (in that year + married to Count Rumford), who had drawn and engraved the plates in + his _Traité élémentaire de chimie_ (1789). + + Sec E. Grimaux, _Lavoisier 1743-1794, d'après sa correspondance, ses + manuscripts_, &c. (1888), which gives a list of his works; P. E. M. + Berthelot, _La Révolution chimique: Lavoisier_ (1890), which contains + an analysis of and extracts from his laboratory notebooks. + + + + +LA VOISIN. CATHERINE MONVOISIN, known as "La Voisin" (d. 1680), French +sorceress, whose maiden name was Catherine Deshayes, was one of the +chief personages in the famous _affaire des poisons_, which disgraced +the reign of Louis XIV. Her husband, Monvoisin, was an unsuccessful +jeweller, and she practised chiromancy and face-reading to retrieve +their fortunes. She gradually added the practice of witchcraft, in which +she had the help of a renegade priest, Étienne Guibourg, whose part was +the celebration of the "black mass," an abominable parody in which the +host was compounded of the blood of a little child mixed with horrible +ingredients. She practised medicine, especially midwifery, procured +abortion and provided love powders and poisons. Her chief accomplice was +one of her lovers, the magician Lesage, whose real name was Adam +Coeuret. The great ladies of Paris flocked to La Voisin, who accumulated +enormous wealth. Among her clients were Olympe Mancini, comtesse de +Soissons, who sought the death of the king's mistress, Louise de la +Vallière; Mme de Montespan, Mme de Gramont (_la belle_ Hamilton) and +others. The bones of toads, the teeth of moles, cantharides, iron +filings, human blood and human dust were among the ingredients of the +love powders concocted by La Voisin. Her knowledge of poisons was not +apparently so thorough as that of less well-known sorcerers, or it would +be difficult to account for La Vallière's immunity. The art of poisoning +had become a regular science. The death of Henrietta, duchess of +Orleans, was attributed, falsely it is true, to poison, and the crimes +of Marie Madeleine de Brinvilliers (executed in 1676) and her +accomplices were still fresh in the public mind. In April 1679 a +commission appointed to inquire into the subject and to prosecute the +offenders met for the first time. Its proceedings, including some +suppressed in the official records, are preserved in the notes of one of +the official _rapporteurs_, Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie. The revelation +of the treacherous intention of Mme de Montespan to poison Louis XIV. +and of other crimes, planned by personages who could not be attacked +without scandal which touched the throne, caused Louis XIV. to close the +_chambre ardente_, as the court was called, on the 1st of October 1680. +It was reopened on the 19th of May 1681 and sat until the 21st of July +1682. Many of the culprits escaped through private influence. Among +these were Marie Anne Mancini, duchesse de Bouillon, who had sought to +get rid of her husband in order to marry the duke of Vendôme, though +Louis XIV. banished her to Nérac. Mme de Montespan was not openly +disgraced, because the preservation of Louis's own dignity was +essential, and some hundred prisoners, among them the infamous Guibourg +and Lesage, escaped the scaffold through the suppression of evidence +insisted on by Louis XIV. and Louvois. Some of these were imprisoned in +various fortresses, with instructions from Louvois to the respective +commandants to flog them if they sought to impart what they knew. Some +innocent persons were imprisoned for life because they had knowledge of +the facts. La Voisin herself was executed at an early stage of the +proceedings, on the 20th of February 1680, after a perfunctory +application of torture. The authorities had every reason to avoid +further revelations. Thirty-five other prisoners were executed; five +were sent to the galleys and twenty-three were banished. Their crimes +had furnished one of the most extraordinary trials known to history. + + See F. Ravaisson, _Archives de la Bastille_, vols. iv.-vii. + (1870-1874); the notes of La Reynie, preserved in the Bibliothèque + Nationale; F. Funck-Brentano, _Le Drame des poisons_ (1899); A. + Masson, _La Sorcellerie et la science des poisons au XVII^e siècle_ + (1904). Sardou made the affair a background for his _Affaire des + poisons_ (1907). There is a portrait of La Voisin by Antoine Coypel, + which has been often reproduced. + + + + +LAW, JOHN (1671-1729), Scots economist, best known as the originator of +the "Mississippi scheme," was born at Edinburgh in April 1671. His +father, a goldsmith and banker, bought shortly before his death, which +took place in his son's youth, the lands of Lauriston near Edinburgh. +John lived at home till he was twenty, and then went to London. He had +already studied mathematics, and the theory of commerce and political +economy, with much interest; but he was known rather as fop than +scholar. In London he gambled, drank and flirted till in April 1694 a +love intrigue resulted in a duel with Beau Wilson in Bloomsbury Square. +Law killed his antagonist, and was condemned to death. His life was +spared, but he was detained in prison. He found means to escape to +Holland, then the greatest commercial country in Europe. Here he +observed with close attention the practical working of banking and +financial business, and conceived the first ideas of his celebrated +"system." After a few years spent in foreign travel, he returned to +Scotland, then exhausted and enraged by the failure of the Darien +expedition (1695-1701). He propounded plans for the relief of his +country in a work[1] entitled _Money and Trade Considered, with a +Proposal for supplying the Nation with Money_ (1705). This attracted +some notice, but had no practical effect, and Law again betook himself +to travel. He visited Brussels, Paris, Vienna, Genoa, Rome, making large +sums by gambling and speculation, and spending them lavishly. He was in +Paris in 1708, and made some proposals to the government as to their +financial difficulties, but Louis XIV. declined to treat with a +"Huguenot," and d'Argenson, chief of the police, had Law expelled as a +suspicious character. He had, however, become intimately acquainted +with the duke of Orleans, and when in 1715 that prince became regent, +Law at once returned to Paris. + +The extravagant expenditure of the late monarch had plunged the kingdom +into apparently inextricable financial confusion. The debt was 3000 +million livres, the estimated annual expenditure, exclusive of interest +payments, 148 million livres, and the income about the same. The +advisability of declaring a national bankruptcy was seriously discussed, +and though this plan was rejected, measures hardly less violent were +carried. By a _visa_, or examination of the state liabilities by a +committee with full powers of quashing claims, the debt was reduced +nearly a half, the coin in circulation was ordered to be called in and +reissued at the rate of 120 for 100--a measure by which foreign coiners +profited greatly, and a chamber of justice was established to punish +speculators, to whom the difficulties of the state were ascribed. These +measures had so little success that the _billets d'état_ which were +issued as part security for the new debt at once sank 75% below their +nominal value. At this crisis Law unfolded a vast scheme to the +perplexed regent. A royal bank was to manage the trade and currency of +the kingdom, to collect the taxes, and to free the country from debt. +The council of finance, then under the duc de Noailles, opposed the +plan, but the regent allowed Law to take some tentative steps. By an +edict of 2nd May 1716, a private institution called _La Banque +générale_, and managed by Law, was founded. The capital was 6 million +livres, divided into 1200 shares of 5000 livres, payable in four +instalments, one-fourth in cash, three-fourths in _billets d'état_. It +was to perform the ordinary functions of a bank, and had power to issue +notes payable at sight in the weight and value of the money mentioned at +day of issue. The bank was a great and immediate success. By providing +for the absorption of part of the state paper it raised the credit of +the government. The notes were a most desirable medium of exchange, for +they had the element of fixity of value, which, owing to the arbitrary +mint decrees of the government, was wanting in the coin of the realm. +They proved the most convenient instruments of remittance between the +capital and the provinces, and they thus developed the industries of the +latter. The rate of interest, previously enormous and uncertain, fell +first to 6 and then to 4%; and when another decree (10th April 1717) +ordered collectors of taxes to receive notes as payments, and to change +them for coin at request, the bank so rose in favour that it soon had a +note-issue of 60 million livres. Law now gained the full confidence of +the regent, and was allowed to proceed with the development of the +"system." + +The trade of the region about the Mississippi had been granted to a +speculator named Crozat. He found the undertaking too large, and was +glad to give it up. By a decree of August 1717 Law was allowed to +establish the _Compagnie de la Louisiane ou d'Occident_, and to endow it +with privileges practically amounting to sovereignty over the most +fertile region of North America. The capital was 100 million livres +divided into 200,000 shares of 500 livres. The payments were to be +one-fourth in coin and three-fourths in _billets d'état_. On these last +the government was to pay 3 million livres interest yearly to the +company. As the state paper was depreciated the shares fell much below +par. The rapid rise of Law had made him many enemies, and they took +advantage of this to attack the system. D'Argenson, now head of the +council of finance, with the brothers Paris of Grenoble, famous tax +farmers of the day, formed what was called the "anti-system." The +farming of the taxes was let to them, under an assumed name, for 48½ +million livres yearly. A company was formed, the exact counterpart of +the Mississippi company. The capital was the same, divided in the same +manner, but the payments were to be entirely in money. The returns from +the public revenue were sure; those from the Mississippi scheme were +not. Hence the shares of the latter were for some time out of favour. +Law proceeded unmoved with the development of his plans. On the 4th of +December 1718 the bank became a government institution under the name of +_La Banque royale_. Law was director, and the king guaranteed the notes. +The shareholders were repaid in coin, and, to widen the influence of +the new institution, the transport of money between towns where it had +branches was forbidden. The paper-issue now reached 110 millions. Law +had such confidence in the success of his plans that he agreed to take +over shares in the Mississippi company at par at a near date. The shares +began rapidly to rise. The next move was to unite the companies _Des +Indes Orientales_ and _De Chine_, founded in 1664 and 1713 respectively, +but now dwindled away to a shadow, to his company. The united +association, _La Compagnie des Indes_, had a practical monopoly of the +foreign trade of France. These proceedings necessitated the creation of +new capital to the nominal amount of 25 million livres. The payment was +spread over 20 months. Every holder of four original shares (_mères_) +could purchase one of the new shares (_filles_) at a premium of 50 +livres. All these 500-livre shares rapidly rose to 750, or 50% above +par. Law now turned his attention to obtaining additional powers within +France itself. On the 25th of July 1719 an edict was issued granting the +company for nine years the management of the mint and the coin-issue. +For this privilege the company paid 5 million livres, and the money was +raised by a new issue of shares of the nominal value of 500 livres, but +with a premium of other 500. The list was only open for twenty days, and +it was necessary to present four _mères_ and one _fille_ in order to +obtain one of the new shares (_petites filles_). At the same time two +dividends per annum of 6% each were promised. Again there was an attempt +to ruin the bank by the commonplace expedient of making a run on it for +coin; but the conspirators had to meet absolute power managed with +fearlessness and skill. An edict appeared reducing, at a given date, the +value of money, and those who had withdrawn coin from the bank hastened +again to exchange it for the more stable notes. Public confidence in Law +was increased, and he was enabled rapidly to proceed with the completion +of the system. A decree of 27th August 1719 deprived the rival company +of the farming of the revenue, and gave it to the _Compagnie des Indes_ +for nine years in return for an annual payment of 52 million livres. +Thus at one blow the "anti-system" was crushed. One thing yet remained; +Law proposed to take over the national debt, and manage it on terms +advantageous to the state. The mode of transfer was this. The debt was +over 1500 million livres. Notes were to be issued to that amount, and +with these the state creditors must be paid in a certain order. Shares +were to be issued at intervals corresponding to the payments, and it was +expected that the notes would be used in buying them. The government was +to pay 3% for the loan. It had formerly been bound to pay 80 millions, +it would now pay under 50, a clear gain of over 30. As the shares of the +company were almost the only medium for investment, the transfer would +be surely effected. The creditors would now look to the government +payments and the commercial gains of the company for their annual +returns. Indeed the creditors were often not able to procure the shares, +for each succeeding issue was immediately seized upon, though the +500-livre share was now issued at a premium of 4500 livres. After the +third issue, on the 2nd of October, the shares immediately resold at +8000 livres in the Rue Quincampoix, then used as a bourse. They went on +rapidly rising as new privileges were still granted to the company. Law +had now more than regal power. The exiled Stuarts paid him court; the +proudest aristocracy in Europe humbled themselves before him; and his +liberality made him the idol of the populace. After, as a necessary +preliminary, becoming a Catholic, he was made controller-general of the +finances in place of d'Argenson. Finally, in February 1720, the bank was +in name as well as in reality united to the company. + +The system was now complete; but it had already begun to decay. In +December 1719 it was at its height. The shares had then amounted to +20,000 livres, forty times their nominal price. A sort of madness +possessed the nation. Men sold their all and hastened to Paris to +speculate. The population of the capital was increased by an enormous +influx of provincials and foreigners. Trade received a vast though +unnatural impulse. Everybody seemed to be getting richer, no one poorer. +Those who could still reflect saw that this prosperity was not real. +The whole issue of shares at the extreme market-price valued 12,000 +million livres. It would require 600 million annual revenue to give a 5% +dividend on this. Now, the whole income of the company as yet was hardly +sufficient to pay 5% on the original capital of 1677 million livres. The +receipts from the taxes, &c., could be precisely calculated, and it +would be many years before the commercial undertakings of the +company--with which only some trifling beginning had been made--would +yield any considerable return. People began to sell their shares, and to +buy coin, houses, land--anything that had a stable element of value in +it. There was a rapid fall in the shares, a rapid rise in all kinds of +property, and consequently a rapid depreciation of the paper money. Law +met these new tendencies by a succession of the most violent edicts. The +notes were to bear a premium over specie. Coin was only to be used in +small payments, and only a small amount was to be kept in the possession +of private parties. The use of diamonds, the fabrication of gold and +silver plate, was forbidden. A dividend of 40% on the original capital +was promised. By several ingenious but fallaciously reasoned pamphlets +Law endeavoured to restore public confidence. The shares still fell. At +last, on the 5th of March 1720, an edict appeared fixing their price at +9000 livres, and ordering the bank to buy and sell them at that price. +The fall now was transferred to the notes, of which there were soon over +2500 million livres in circulation. A large proportion of the coined +money was removed from the kingdom. Prices rose enormously. There was +everywhere distress and complete financial confusion. Law became an +object of popular hatred. He lost his court influence, and was obliged +to consent to a decree (21st May 1720) by which the notes and +consequently the shares were reduced to half their nominal value. This +created such a commotion that its promoters were forced to recall it, +but the mischief was done. What confidence could there be in the +depreciated paper after such a measure? Law was removed from his office, +and his enemies proceeded to demolish the "system." A vast number of +shares had been deposited in the bank. These were destroyed. The notes +were reconverted into government debt, but there was first a _visa_ +which reduced that debt to the same size as before it was taken over by +the company. The rate of interest was lowered, and the government now +only pledged itself to pay 37 instead of 80 millions annually. Finally +the bank was abolished, and the company reduced to a mere trading +association. By November the "system" had disappeared. With these last +measures Law, it may well be believed, had nothing to do. He left France +secretly in December 1720, resumed his wandering life, and died at +Venice, poor and forgotten, on the 21st of March 1729. + + Of Law's writings the most important for the comprehension of the + "system" is his _Money and Trade Considered_. In this work he says + that national power and wealth consist in numbers of people, and + magazines of home and foreign goods. These depend on trade, and that + on money, of which a greater quantity employs more people; but credit, + if the credit have a circulation, has all the beneficial effects of + money. To create and increase instruments of credit is the function of + a bank. Let such be created then, and let its notes be only given in + return for land sold or pledged. Such a currency would supply the + nation with abundance of money; and it would have many advantages, + which Law points out in detail, over silver. The bank or commission + was to be a government institution, and its profits were to be spent + in encouraging the export and manufacture of the nation. A very + evident error lies at the root of the "system." Money is not the + result but the cause of wealth, he thought. To increase it then must + be beneficial, and the best way is by a properly secured paper + currency. This is the motive force; but it is to be applied in a + particular way. Law had a profound belief in the omnipotence of + government. He saw the evils of minor monopolies, and of private + farming of taxes. He proposed to centre foreign trade and internal + finance in one huge monopoly managed by the state for the people, and + carrying on business through a plentiful supply of paper money. He did + not see that trade and commerce are best left to private enterprise, + and that such a scheme would simply result in the profits of + speculators and favourites. The "system" was never so far developed as + to exhibit its inherent faults. The madness of speculators ruined the + plan when only its foundations were laid. One part indeed might have + been saved. The bank was not necessarily bound to the company, and had + its note-issue been retrenched it might have become a permanent + institution. As Thiers points out, the edict of the 5th of March + 1720, which made the shares convertible into notes, ruined the bank + without saving the company. The shares had risen to an unnatural + height, and they should have been allowed to fall to their natural + level. Perhaps Law felt this to be impossible. He had friends at court + whose interests were involved in the shares, and he had enemies eager + for his overthrow. It was necessary to succeed completely or not at + all; so Law, a gambler to the core, risked and lost everything. + Notwithstanding the faults of the "system," its author was a financial + genius of the first order. He had the errors of his time; but he + propounded many truths as to the nature of currency and banking then + unknown to his contemporaries. The marvellous skill which he displayed + in adapting the theory of the "system" to the actual condition of + things in France, and in carrying out the various financial + transactions rendered necessary by its development, is absolutely + without parallel. His profound self-confidence and belief in the truth + of his own theories were the reasons alike of his success and his + ruin. He never hesitated to employ the whole force of a despotic + government for the definite ends which he saw before him. He left + France poorer than he entered it, yet he was not perceptibly changed + by his sudden transitions of fortune. Montesquieu visited him at + Venice after his fall, and has left a description of him touched with + a certain pathos. Law, he tells us, was still the same in character, + perpetually planning and scheming, and, though in poverty, revolving + vast projects to restore himself to power, and France to commercial + prosperity. + + The fullest account of the Mississippi scheme is that of Thiers, _Law + et son système des finances_ (1826, American trans. 1859). See also + Heymann, _Law und sein System_ (1853); Pierre Bonnassieux, _Les + Grandes Compagnies de commerce_ (1892); S. Alexi, _John Law und sein + System_ (1885); E. Levasseur, _Récherches historiques sur le système + de Law_ (1854); and Jobez, _Une Préface au socialisme, ou le système + de Law et la chasse aux capitalistes_ (1848). Full biographical + details are given in Wood's _Life of Law_ (Edinburgh, 1824). All Law's + later writings are to be found in Daire, _Collection des principaux + économistes_, vol. i. (1843). Other works on Law are: A. W. + Wiston-Glynn, _John Law of Lauriston_ (1908); P. A. Cachut, _The + Financier Law, his Scheme and Times_ (1856); A. Macf. Davis, _An + Historical Study of Law's System_ (Boston, 1887); A. Beljame, _La + Pronunciation du nom de Jean Law le financier_ (1891). See also E. A. + Benians in _Camb. Mod. Hist._ vi. 6 (1909). For minor notices see + Poole's _Index to Periodicals_. There is a portrait of Law by A. S. + Belle in the National Portrait Gallery, London. (F. Wa.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A work entitled _Proposals and Reasons for constituting a Council + of Trade in Scotland_ was published anonymously at Edinburgh in 1701. + It was republished at Glasgow in 1751 with Law's name attached; but + several references in the state papers of the time mention William + Paterson (1658-1719), founder of the Bank of England, as the author + of the plan therein propounded. Even if Law had nothing to do with + the composition of the work, he must have read it and been influenced + by it. This may explain how it contains the germs of many of the + developments of the "system." Certainly the suggestion of a central + board, to manage great commercial undertakings, to furnish occupation + for the poor, to encourage mining, fishing and manufactures, and to + bring about a reduction in the rate of interest, was largely realized + in the Mississippi scheme. See Bannister's Life of William Paterson + (ed. 1858), and _Writings of William Paterson_ (2nd ed., 3 vols., + 1859). + + + + +LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761), English divine, was born at King's Cliffe, +Northamptonshire. In 1705 he entered as a sizar at Emmanuel College, +Cambridge; in 1711 he was elected fellow of his college and was +ordained. He resided at Cambridge, teaching and taking occasional duty +until the accession of George I., when his conscience forbade him to +take the oaths of allegiance to the new government and of abjuration of +the Stuarts. His Jacobitism had already been betrayed in a tripos speech +which brought him into trouble; and he was now deprived of his +fellowship and became a non-juror. For the next few years he is said to +have been a curate in London. By 1727 he was domiciled with Edward +Gibbon (1666-1736) at Putney as tutor to his son Edward, father of the +historian, who says that Law became "the much honoured friend and +spiritual director of the whole family." In the same year he accompanied +his pupil to Cambridge, and resided with him as governor, in term time, +for the next four years. His pupil then went abroad, but Law was left at +Putney, where he remained in Gibbon's house for more than ten years, +acting as a religious guide not only to the family but to a number of +earnest-minded folk who came to consult him. The most eminent of these +were the two brothers John and Charles Wesley, John Byrom the poet, +George Cheyne the physician and Archibald Hutcheson, M.P. for Hastings. +The household was dispersed in 1737. Law was parted from his friends, +and in 1740 retired to King's Cliffe, where he had inherited from his +father a house and a small property. There he was presently joined by +two ladies: Mrs Hutcheson, the rich widow of his old friend, who +recommended her on his death-bed to place herself under Law's spiritual +guidance, and Miss Hester Gibbon, sister to his late pupil. This curious +trio lived for twenty-one years a life wholly given to devotion, study +and charity, until the death of Law on the 9th of April 1761. + + Law was a busy writer under three heads:-- + + 1. _Controversy._--In this field he had no contemporary peer save + perhaps Richard Bentley. The first of his controversial works was + _Three Letters to the Bishop of Bangor_ (1717), which were considered + by friend and foe alike as one of the most powerful contributions to + the Bangorian controversy on the high church side. Thomas Sherlock + declared that "Mr Law was a writer so considerable that he knew but + one good reason why his lordship did not answer him." Law's next + controversial work was _Remarks on Mandeville's Fable of the Bees_ + (1723), in which he vindicates morality on the highest grounds; for + pure style, caustic wit and lucid argument this work is remarkable; it + was enthusiastically praised by John Sterling, and republished by F. + D. Maurice. Law's _Case of Reason_ (1732), in answer to Tindal's + _Christianity as old as the Creation_ is to a great extent an + anticipation of Bishop Butler's famous argument in the _Analogy_. In + this work Law shows himself at least the equal of the ablest champion + of Deism. His _Letters to a Lady inclined to enter the Church of Rome_ + are excellent specimens of the attitude of a high Anglican towards + Romanism. His controversial writings have not received due + recognition, partly because they were opposed to the drift of his + times, partly because of his success in other fields. + + 2. _Practical Divinity._--The _Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life_ + (1728), together with its predecessor, _A Treatise of Christian + Perfection_ (1726), deeply influenced the chief actors in the great + Evangelical revival. The Wesleys, George Whitefield, Henry Venn, + Thomas Scott and Thomas Adam all express their deep obligation to the + author. The _Serious Call_ affected others quite as deeply. Samuel + Johnson, Gibbon, Lord Lyttelton and Bishop Horne all spoke + enthusiastically of its merits; and it is still the only work by which + its author is popularly known. It has high merits of style, being + lucid and pointed to a degree. In a tract entitled _The Absolute + Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments_ (1726) Law was tempted by the + corruptions of the stage of the period to use unreasonable language, + and incurred some effective criticism from John Dennis in _The Stage + Defended_. + + 3. _Mysticism._--Though the least popular, by far the most + interesting, original and suggestive of all Law's works are those + which he wrote in his later years, after he had become an enthusiastic + admirer (not a disciple) of Jacob Boehme, the Teutonic theosophist. + From his earliest years he had been deeply impressed with the piety, + beauty and thoughtfulness of the writings of the Christian mystics, + but it was not till after his accidental meeting with the works of + Boehme, about 1734, that pronounced mysticism appeared in his works. + Law's mystic tendencies divorced him from the practical-minded Wesley, + but in spite of occasional wild fancies the books are worth reading. + They are _A Demonstration of the Gross and Fundamental Errors of a + late Book called a "Plain Account, &c., of the Lord's Supper_" (1737); + _The Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Regeneration_ (1739); _An + Appeal to all that Doubt and Disbelieve the Truths of Revelation_ + (1740); _An Earnest and Serious Answer to Dr Trapp's Sermon on being + Righteous Overmuch_ (1740); _The Spirit of Prayer_ (1749, 1752); _The + Way to Divine Knowledge_ (1752); _The Spirit of Love_ (1752, 1754); _A + Short but Sufficient Confutation of Dr Warburton's Projected Defence + (as he calls it) of Christianity in his "Divine Legation of Moses"_ + (1757); _A Series of Letters_ (1760); a _Dialogue between a Methodist + and a Churchman_ (1760); and _An Humble, Earnest and Affectionate + Address to the Clergy_ (1761). + + Richard Tighe wrote a short account of Law's life in 1813. See also + Christopher Walton, _Notes and Materials for a Complete Biography of + W. Law_ (1848); Sir Leslie Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th + century_, and in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (xxxii. 236); W. H. Lecky, + _History of England in the 18th Century_; C. J. Abbey, _The English + Church in the 18th Century_; and J. H. Overton, _William Law, Nonjuror + and Mystic_ (1881). + + + + +LAW (O. Eng. _lagu_, M. Eng. _lawe_; from an old Teutonic root _lag_, +"lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. _lex_, Fr. _loi_), a word +used in English in two main senses--(1) as a rule prescribed by +authority for human action, and (2) in scientific and philosophic +phraseology, as a uniform order of sequence (e.g. "laws" of motion). In +the first sense the word is used either in the abstract, for +jurisprudence generally or for a state of things in which the laws of a +country are duly observed ("law and order"), or in the concrete for some +particular rule or body of rules. It is usual to distinguish further +between "law" and "equity" (q.v.). The scientific and philosophic usage +has grown out of an early conception of jurisprudence, and is really +metaphorical, derived from the phrase "natural law" or "law of nature," +which presumed that commands were laid on matter by God (see T. E. +Holland, _Elements of Jurisprudence_, ch. ii.). The adjective "legal" is +only used in the first sense, never in the second. In the case of the +"moral law" (see ETHICS) the term is employed somewhat ambiguously +because of its connexion with both meanings. There is also an Old +English use of the word "law" in a more or less sporting sense ("to give +law" or "allow so much law"), meaning a start or fair allowance in time +or distance. Presumably this originated simply in the liberty-loving +Briton's respect for proper legal procedure; instead of the brute +exercise of tyrannous force he demanded "law," or a fair opportunity +and trial. But it may simply be an extension of the meaning of "right," +or of the sense of "leave" which is found in early uses of the French +_loi_. + +In this work the laws or uniformities of the physical universe are dealt +with in the articles on the various sciences. The general principles of +law in the legal sense are discussed under JURISPRUDENCE. What may be +described as "national systems" of law are dealt with historically and +generally under ENGLISH LAW, AMERICAN LAW, ROMAN LAW, GREEK LAW, +MAHOMMEDAN LAW, INDIAN LAW, &c. Certain broad divisions of law are +treated under CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW, CANON LAW, CIVIL LAW, +COMMON LAW, CRIMINAL LAW, ECCLESIASTICAL LAW, EQUITY, INTERNATIONAL LAW, +MILITARY LAW, &c. And the particular laws of different countries on +special subjects are stated under the headings for those subjects +(BANKRUPTCY, &c.). For courts (q.v.) of law, and procedure, see +JURISPRUDENCE, APPEAL, TRIAL, KING'S BENCH, &c. + + AUTHORITIES.--The various legal articles have bibliographies attached, + but it may be convenient here to mention such general works on law, + apart from the science of jurisprudence, as (for English law) Lord + Halsbury's _Laws of England_ (vol. i., 1907), _The Encyclopaedia of + the Laws of England_, ed. Wood Renton (1907), Stephen's _Commentaries + on the Laws of England_ (1908), Brett's _Commentaries on the present + Laws of England_ (1896), Broom's _Commentaries on the Common Law_ + (1896) and Brodie-Innes's _Comparative Principles of the Laws of + England and Scotland_ (vol. i., 1903); and, for America, Bouvier's + _Law Dictionary_, and Kent's _Commentaries on American Law_. + + + + +LAWES, HENRY (1595-1662), English musician, was born at Dinton in +Wiltshire in December 1595, and received his musical education from John +Cooper, better known under his Italian pseudonym Giovanni Coperario (d. +1627), a famous composer of the day. In 1626 he was received as one of +the gentlemen of the chapel royal, which place he held till the +Commonwealth put a stop to church music. But even during that songless +time Lawes continued his work as a composer, and the famous collection +of his vocal pieces, _Ayres and Dialogues for One, Two and Three +Voyces_, was published in 1653, being followed by two other books under +the same title in 1655 and 1658 respectively. When in 1660 the king +returned, Lawes once more entered the royal chapel, and composed an +anthem for the coronation of Charles II. He died on the 21st of October +1662, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Lawes's name has become known +beyond musical circles by his friendship with Milton, whose _Comus_ he +supplied with incidental music for the performance of the masque in +1634. The poet in return immortalized his friend in the famous sonnet in +which Milton, with a musical perception not common amongst poets, +exactly indicates the great merit of Lawes. His careful attention to the +words of the poet, the manner in which his music seems to grow from +those words, the perfect coincidence of the musical with the metrical +accent, all put Lawes's songs on a level with those of Schumann or Liszt +or any modern composer. At the same time he is by no means wanting in +genuine melodic invention, and his concerted music shows the learned +contrapuntist. + + + + +LAWES, SIR JOHN BENNET, BART. (1814-1900), English agriculturist, was +born at Rothamsted on the 28th of December 1814. Even before leaving +Oxford, where he matriculated in 1832, he had begun to interest himself +in growing various medicinal plants on the Rothamsted estates, which he +inherited on his father's death in 1822. About 1837 he began to +experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots, +and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the +field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure +formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus initiated +the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the +services of Sir J. H. Gilbert, with whom he carried on for more than +half a century those experiments in raising crops and feeding animals +which have rendered Rothamsted famous in the eyes of scientific +agriculturists all over the world (see AGRICULTURE). In 1854 he was +elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, which in 1867 bestowed a Royal +medal on Lawes and Gilbert jointly, and in 1882 he was created a +baronet. In the year before his death, which happened on the 31st of +August 1900, he took measures to ensure the continued existence of the +Rothamsted experimental farm by setting aside £100,000 for that purpose +and constituting the Lawes Agricultural Trust, composed of four members +from the Royal Society, two from the Royal Agricultural Society, one +each from the Chemical and Linnaean Societies, and the owner of +Rothamsted mansion-house for the time being. + + + + +LAW MERCHANT or LEX MERCATORIA, originally a body of rules and +principles relating to merchants and mercantile transactions, laid down +by merchants themselves for the purpose of regulating their dealings. It +was composed of such usages and customs as were common to merchants and +traders in all parts of Europe, varied slightly in different localities +by special peculiarities. The law merchant owed its origin to the fact +that the civil law was not sufficiently responsive to the growing +demands of commerce, as well as to the fact that trade in pre-medieval +times was practically in the hands of those who might be termed +cosmopolitan merchants, who wanted a prompt and effective jurisdiction. +It was administered for the most part in special courts, such as those +of the gilds in Italy, or the fair courts of Germany and France, or as +in England, in courts of the staple or piepowder (see also SEA LAWS). +The history of the law merchant in England is divided into three stages: +the first prior to the time of Coke, when it was a special kind of +law--as distinct from the common law--administered in special courts for +a special class of the community (i.e. the mercantile); the second stage +was one of transition, the law merchant being administered in the common +law courts, but as a body of customs, to be proved as a fact in each +individual case of doubt; the third stage, which has continued to the +present day, dates from the presidency over the king's bench of Lord +Mansfield (q.v.), under whom it was moulded into the mercantile law of +to-day. To the law merchant modern English law owes the fundamental +principles in the law of partnership, negotiable instruments and trade +marks. + + See G. Malynes, _Consuetudo vel lex mercatoria_ (London, 1622); W. + Mitchell, _The Early History of the Law Merchant_ (Cambridge, 1904); + J. W. Smith, _Mercantile Law_ (ed. Hart and Simey, 1905). + + + + +LAWN, a very thin fabric made from level linen or cotton yarns. It is +used for light dresses and trimmings, also for handkerchiefs. The terms +lawn and cambric (q.v.) are often intended to indicate the same fabric. +The word "lawn" was formerly derived from the French name for the fabric +_linon_, from _lin_, flax, linen, but Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898, +Addenda) and A. Thomas (_Romania_, xxix. 182, 1900) have shown that the +real source of the word is to be found in the name of the French town +Laon. Skeat quotes from Palsgrave, _Les claircissement de la langue +Françoÿse_ (1530), showing that the early name of the fabric was _Laune +lynen_. An early form of the word was "laund," probably due to an +adaptation to "laund," lawn, glade or clearing in a forest, now used of +a closely-mown expanse of grass in a garden, park, &c. (see GRASS and +HORTICULTURE). This word comes from O. Fr. _launde_, mod. _lande___, +wild, heathy or sandy ground, covered with scrub or brushwood, a word of +Celtic origin; cf. Irish and Breton _lann_, heathy ground, also +enclosure, land; Welsh _llan_, enclosure. It is cognate with "land," +common to Teutonic languages. In the original sense of clearing in a +forest, glade, Lat. _saltus_, "lawn," still survives in the New Forest, +where it is used of the feeding-places of cattle. + + + + +LAWN-TENNIS, a game played with racquet and ball on a court traversed by +a net, but without enclosing walls. It is a modern adaptation of the +ancient game of tennis (q.v.), with which it is identical as regards the +scoring of the game and "set." Lawn-tennis is essentially a summer game, +played in the open air, either on courts marked with whitewash on +close-cut grass like a cricket pitch, or on asphalt, cinders, gravel, +wood, earth or other substance which can be so prepared as to afford a +firm, level and smooth surface. In winter, however, the game is often +played on the floor of gymnasiums, drill sheds or other buildings, when +it is called "covered-court lawn-tennis"; but there is no difference in +the game itself corresponding to these varieties of court. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The lawn-tennis court for the single-handed game, one player against one +("singles"), is shown in fig. 1, and that for the four-handed game +("doubles") in fig. 2. The net stretched across the middle of the court +is attached to the tops of two posts which stand 3 ft. outside the court +on each side. The height of the net is 3 ft. 6 in. at the posts and 3 +ft. at the centre. The court is bisected longitudinally by the +half-court-line, which, however, is marked only between the two +service-lines and at the points of junction with the base-lines. The +divisions of the court on each side of the half-court-line are called +respectively the right-hand and left-hand courts; and the portion of +these divisions between the service-lines and the net are the right-hand +service-court and left-hand service-court respectively. The balls, which +are made of hollow india-rubber, tightly covered with white flannel, are +2½ in. in diameter, and from 1(7/8) to 2 oz. in weight. The racquets +(fig. 3), for which there are no regulation dimensions, are broader and +lighter than those used in tennis. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Before play begins, a racquet is spun as in tennis, and the winner of +the spin elects either to take first service or to take choice of +courts. If he takes choice of courts, he and his partner (if the game be +doubles) take their position on the selected side of the net, one +stationing himself in the right-hand court and the other in the left, +which positions are retained throughout the set. If the winner of the +spin takes choice of courts, his opponent has first service; and vice +versa. The players change sides of the net at the end of the first, +third and every subsequent alternate game, and at the end of each set; +but they may agree not to change during any set except the last. Service +is delivered by each player in turn, who retains it for one game +irrespective of the winning or losing of points. In doubles the partner +of the server in the first game serves in the third, and the partner of +the server in the second game serves in the fourth; the same order being +preserved till the end of the set; but each pair of partners decide for +themselves before their first turn of service which of the two shall +serve first. The server delivers the service from the right- and +left-hand courts alternately, beginning in each of his service games +from the right-hand court, even though odds be given or owed; he must +stand behind (i.e. farther from the net than) the base-line, and must +serve the ball so that it drops in the opponent's service-court +diagonally opposite to the court served from, or upon one of the lines +enclosing that service-court. If in a serve, otherwise good, the ball +touches the net, it is a "let" whether the serve be "taken" or not by +striker-out; a "let" does not annul a previous "fault." (For the meaning +of "let," "rest," "striker-out" and other technical terms used in the +game, see TENNIS and RACQUETS.) The serve is a fault (1) if it be not +delivered by the server from the proper court, and from behind the +base-line; (2) if the ball drops into the net or out-of-court, or into +any part of the court other than the proper service-court. The +striker-out cannot, as in racquets, "take," and thereby condone, a +fault. When a fault has been served, the server must serve again from +the same court, unless it was a fault because served from the wrong +court, in which case the server crosses to the proper court before +serving again. Two consecutive faults score a point against the side of +the server. Lawn-tennis differs from tennis and racquets in that the +service may not be taken on the volley by striker-out. After the serve +has been returned the play proceeds until the "rest" (or "rally") ends +by one side or the other failing to make a "good return"; a good return +in lawn-tennis meaning a stroke by which the ball, having been hit with +the racquet before its second bound, is sent over the net, even if it +touches the net, so as to fall within the limits of the court on the +opposite side. A point is scored by the player, or side, whose opponent +fails to return the serve or to make a good return in the rest. A player +also loses a point if the ball when in play touches him or his partner, +or their clothes; or if he or his racquet touches the net or any of its +supports while the ball is in play; or if he leaps over the net to avoid +touching it; or if he volley the ball before it has passed the net. + + For him who would excel in lawn-tennis a strong fast service is hardly + less necessary than a heavily "cut" service to the tennis player and + the racquet player. High overhand service, by which alone any great + pace can be obtained, was first perfected by the brothers Renshaw + between 1880 and 1890, and is now universal even among players far + below the first rank. The service in vogue among the best players in + America, and from this circumstance known as the "American service," + has less pace than the English but is "cut" in such a way that it + swerves in the air and "drags" off the ground, the advantage being + that it gives the server more time to "run in" after his serve, so as + to volley his opponent's return from a position within a yard or two + of the net. Both in singles and doubles the best players often make it + their aim to get up comparatively near the net as soon as possible, + whether they are serving or receiving the serve, the object being to + volley the ball whenever possible before it begins to fall. The + server's partner, in doubles, stands about a yard and a half from the + net, and rather nearer the side-line than the half-court-line; the + receiver of the service, not being allowed to volley the serve, must + take his stand according to the nature of the service, which, if very + fast, will require him to stand outside the base-line; the receiver's + partner usually stands between the net and the service-line. All four + players, if the rest lasts beyond a stroke or two, are generally found + nearer to the net than the service-lines; and the game, assuming the + players to be of the championship class, consists chiefly of rapid low + volleying, varied by attempts on one side or the other to place the + ball out of the opponents' reach by "lobbing" it over their heads into + the back part of the court. Good "lobbing" demands great skill, to + avoid on the one hand sending the ball out of court beyond the + base-line, and on the other allowing it to drop short enough for the + adversary to kill it with a "smashing" volley. Of "lobbing" it has + been laid down by the brothers Doherty that "the higher it is the + better, so long as the length is good"; and as regards returning lobs + the same authorities say, "you must get them if you can before they + drop, for it is usually fatal to let them drop when playing against a + good pair." The reason for this is that if the lob be allowed to drop + before being returned, so much time is given to the striker of it to + gain position that he is almost certain to be able to kill the return, + unless the lob be returned by an equally good and very high lob, + dropping within a foot or so of the base-line in the opposite court, a + stroke that requires the utmost accuracy of strength to accomplish + safely. The game in the hands of first-class players consists largely + in manoeuvring for favourable position in the court while driving the + opponent into a less favourable position on his side of the net; the + player who gains the advantage of position in this way being generally + able to finish the rest by a smashing volley impossible to return. + Ability to play this "smash" stroke is essential to strong + lawn-tennis. "To be good overhead," say the Dohertys, "is the sign of + a first-class player, even if a few have managed to get on without + it." The smash stroke is played very much in the same way as the + overhand service, except that it is not from a defined position of + known distance from the net; and therefore when making it the player + must realize almost instinctively what his precise position is in + relation to the net and the side-lines, for it is of the last + importance that he should not take his eye off the ball "even for the + hundredth part of a second." By drawing the racquet across the ball at + the moment of impact spin may be imparted to it as in tennis, or as + "side" is imparted to a billiard ball, and the direction of this spin + and the consequent behaviour of the ball after the stroke may be + greatly varied by a skilful player. Perhaps the most generally useful + form of spin, though by no means the only one commonly used, is that + known as "top" or "lift," a vertical rotatory motion of the ball in + the same direction as its flight, which is imparted to it by an upward + draw of the racquet at the moment of making the stroke, and the effect + of which is to make it drop more suddenly than it would ordinarily do, + and in an unexpected curve. A drive made with plenty of "top" can be + hit much harder than would otherwise be possible without sending the + ball out of court, and it is therefore extensively employed by the + best players. While the volleying game is almost universally the + practice of first-class players--A. W. Gore, M. J. G. Ritchie and S. + H. Smith being almost alone among those of championship rank in modern + days to use the volley comparatively little--its difficulty places it + beyond the reach of the less skilful. In lawn-tennis as played at the + ordinary country house or local club the real "smash" of a Renshaw or + a Doherty is seldom to be seen, and the high lob is almost equally + rare. Players of moderate calibre are content to take the ball on the + bound and to return it with some pace along the side-lines or across + the court, with the aim of placing it as artfully as possible beyond + the reach of the adversary; and if now and again they venture to + imitate a stroke employed with killing effect at Wimbledon, they think + themselves fortunate if they occasionally succeed in making it without + disaster to themselves. + + Before 1890 the method of handicapping at lawn-tennis was the same as + in tennis so far as it was applicable to a game played in an open + court. In 1890 bisques were abolished, and in 1894 an elaborate system + was introduced by which fractional parts of "fifteen" could be + conceded by way of handicap, in accordance with tables inserted in the + laws of the game. The system is a development of the tennis + handicapping by which a finer graduation of odds may be given. + "One-sixth of fifteen" is one stroke given in every six games of a + set; and similarly two-sixths, three-sixths, four-sixths and + five-sixths of fifteen, are respectively two, three, four and five + strokes given in every six games of a set; the particular game in the + set in which the stroke in each case must be given being specified in + the tables. + +_History._--Lawn-tennis cannot be said to have existed prior to the year +1874. It is, indeed, true that outdoor games based on tennis were from +time to time improvised by lovers of that game who found themselves out +of reach of a tennis-court. Lord Arthur Hervey, sometime bishop of Bath +and Wells, had thus devised a game which he and his friends played on +the lawn of his rectory in Suffolk; and even so early as the end of the +18th century "field tennis" was mentioned by the _Sporting Magazine_ as +a game that rivalled the popularity of cricket. But, however much or +little this game may have resembled lawn-tennis, it had long ceased to +exist; and even to be remembered, when in 1874 Major Wingfield took out +a patent for a game called Sphairistike, which the specification +described as "a new and improved portable court for playing the ancient +game of tennis." The court for this game was wider at the base-lines +than at the net, giving the whole court the shape of an hour-glass; one +side of the net only was divided into service-courts, service being +always delivered from a fixed mark in the centre of the opposite court; +and from the net-posts side-nets were fixed which tapered down to the +ground at about the middle of the side-lines, thus enclosing nearly half +the courts on each side of the net. The possibilities of Sphairistike +were quickly perceived; and under the new name of lawn-tennis its +popularity grew so quickly that in 1875 a meeting of those interested in +the game was held at Lord's cricket-ground, where a committee of the +Marylebone Club (M.C.C.) was appointed to draw up a code of rules. The +hour-glass shape of the court was retained by this code (issued in May +1875), and the scoring of the game followed in the main the racquets +instead of the tennis model. It was at the suggestion of J. M. +Heathcote, the amateur tennis champion, that balls covered with white +flannel were substituted for the uncovered balls used at first. In 1875, +through the influence of Henry Jones ("Cavendish"), lawn-tennis was +included in the programme of the All England Croquet Club, which in 1877 +became the All England Croquet and Lawn-Tennis Club, on whose ground at +Wimbledon the All England championships have been annually played since +that date. In the same year, in anticipation of the first championship +meeting, the club appointed a committee consisting of Henry Jones, +Julian Marshall and C. G. Heathcote to revise the M.C.C. code of rules; +the result of their labours being the introduction of the tennis in +place of the racquets scoring, the substitution of a rectangular for the +"hour-glass" court, and the enactment of the modern rule as regards the +"fault." The height of the net, which under the M.C.C. rules had been 4 +ft. in the centre, was reduced to 3 ft. 3 in.; and regulations as to the +size and weight of the ball were also made. Some controversy had already +taken place in the columns of the _Field_ as to whether volleying the +ball, at all events within a certain distance of the net, should not be +prohibited. Spencer Gore, the first to win the championship in 1877, +used the volley with great skill and judgment, and in principle +anticipated the tactics afterwards brought to perfection by the +Renshaws, which aimed at forcing the adversary back to the base-line and +killing his return with a volley from a position near the net. P. F. +Hadow, champion in 1878, showed how the volley might be defeated by +skilful use of the lob; but the question of placing some check on the +volley continued to be agitated among lovers of the game. The rapidly +growing popularity of lawn-tennis was proved in 1879 by the inauguration +at Oxford of the four-handed championship, and at Dublin of the Irish +championship, and by the fact that there were forty-five competitors for +the All England single championship at Wimbledon, won by J. T. Hartley, +a player who chiefly relied on the accuracy of his return without +frequent resort to the volley. It was in the autumn of the same year, in +a tournament at Cheltenham, that W. Renshaw made his first successful +appearance in public. The year 1880 saw the foundation of the Northern +Lawn-Tennis Association, whose tournaments have long been regarded as +inferior in importance only to the championship meetings at Wimbledon +and Dublin, and a revision of the rules which substantially made them +what they have ever since remained. This year is also memorable for the +first championship doubles won by the twin brothers William and Ernest +Renshaw, a success which the former followed up by winning the Irish +championship, beating among others H. F. Lawford for the first time. + +The Renshaws had already developed the volleying game at the net, and +had shown what could be done with the "smash" stroke (which became known +by their name as the "Renshaw smash"), but their service had not as yet +become very severe. In 1881 the distinctive features of their style were +more marked, and the brothers first established firmly the supremacy +which they maintained almost without interruption for the next eight +years. In the doubles they discarded the older tactics of one partner +standing back and the other near the net; the two Renshaws stood about +the same level, just inside the service-line, and from there volleyed +with relentless severity and with an accuracy never before equalled, and +seldom if ever since; while their service also acquired an immense +increase of pace. Their chief rival, and the leading exponent of the +non-volleying game for several years, was H. F. Lawford. After a year or +two it became evident that neither the volleying tactics of Renshaw nor +the strong back play of Lawford would be adopted to the exclusion of the +other, and both players began to combine the two styles. Thus the +permanent features of lawn-tennis may be said to have been firmly +established by about the year 1885; and the players who have since then +come to the front have for the most part followed the principles laid +down by the Renshaws and Lawford. One of the greatest performances at +lawn-tennis was in the championship competition in 1886 when W. Renshaw +beat Lawford a love set in 9½ minutes. The longest rest in first-class +lawn-tennis occurred in a match between Lawford and E. Lubbock in 1880, +when eighty-one strokes were played. Among players in the first class +who were contemporaries of the Renshaws, mention should be made of E. de +S. Browne, a powerful imitator of the Renshaw style; C. W. Grinstead, R. +T. Richardson, V. Goold (who played under the _nom de plume_ "St +Leger"), J. T. Hartley, E. W. Lewis, E. L. Williams, H. Grove and W. J. +Hamilton; while among the most prominent lady players of the period were +Miss M. Langrishe, Miss Bradley, Miss Maud Watson, Miss L. Dod, Miss +Martin and Miss Bingley (afterwards Mrs Hillyard). In 1888 the +Lawn-Tennis Association was established; and the All England Mixed +Doubles Championship (four-handed matches for ladies and gentlemen in +partnership) was added to the existing annual competitions. Since 1881 +lawn-tennis matches between Oxford and Cambridge universities have been +played annually; and almost every county in England, besides Scotland, +Wales and districts such as "Midland Counties," "South of England," &c., +have their own championship meetings. Tournaments are also played in +winter at Nice, Monte Carlo and other Mediterranean resorts where most +of the competitors are English visitors. + + The results of the All England championships have been as follows:-- + + Year. Gentlemen's | Year. Gentlemen's + Singles. | Singles. + | + 1877 S. W. Gore | 1894 J. Pim + 1878 P. F. Hadow | 1895 W. Baddeley + 1879 J. T. Hartley | 1896 H. S. Mahony + 1880 J. T. Hartley | 1897 R. F. Doherty + 1881 W. Renshaw | 1898 R. F. Doherty + 1882 W. Renshaw | 1899 R. F. Doherty + 1883 W. Renshaw | 1900 R. F. Doherty + 1884 W. Renshaw | 1901 A. W. Gore + 1885 W. Renshaw | 1902 H. L. Doherty + 1886 W. Renshaw | 1903 H. L. Doherty + 1887 H. F. Lawford | 1904 H. L. Doherty + 1888 E. Renshaw | 1905 H. L. Doherty + 1889 W. Renshaw | 1906 H. L. Doherty + 1890 W. J. Hamilton | 1907 N. E. Brookes + 1891 W. Baddeley | 1908 A. W. Gore + 1892 W. Baddeley | 1909 A. W. Gore + 1893 J. Pim | 1910 A. F. Wilding + + + Year. Gentlemen's Doubles. + + 1879 L. R. Erskine and H. F. Lawford + 1880 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw + 1881 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw + 1882 J. T. Hartley " R. T. Richardson + 1883 C. W. Grinstead " C. E. Welldon + 1884 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw + 1885 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw + 1886 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw + 1887 P. B. Lyon " H. W. W. Wilberforce + 1888 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw + 1889 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw + 1890 J. Pim " F. O. Stoker + 1891 W. Baddeley " H. Baddeley + 1892 H. S. Barlow " E. W. Lewis + 1893 J. Pim " F. O. Stoker + 1894 W. Baddeley " H. Baddeley + 1895 W. Baddeley " H. Baddeley + 1896 W. Baddeley " H. Baddeley + 1897 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1898 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1899 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1900 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1901 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1902 S. H. Smith " F. L. Riseley + 1903 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1904 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1905 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1906 S. H. Smith " F. L. Riseley + 1907 N. E. Brookes " A. F. Wilding + 1908 M. J. G. Ritchie " A. F. Wilding + 1909 A. W. Gore " H. Roper Barrett + 1910 M. J. G. Ritchie " A. F. Wilding + + + Year. Ladies' Singles. Year. Ladies' Singles. + + 1884 Miss M. Watson | 1898 Miss C. Cooper + 1885 Miss M. Watson | 1899 Mrs Hillyard + 1886 Miss Bingley | 1900 Mrs Hillyard + 1887 Miss Dod | 1901 Mrs Sterry (Miss C. + 1888 Miss Dod | Cooper) + 1889 Mrs Hillyard | 1902 Miss M. E. Robb + (Miss Bingley) | 1903 Miss D. K. Douglass + 1890 Miss Rice | 1904 Miss D. K. Douglass + 1891 Miss Dod | 1905 Miss M. Sutton + 1892 Miss Dod | 1906 Miss D. K. Douglass + 1893 Miss Dod | 1907 Miss M. Sutton + 1894 Mrs Hillyard | 1908 Mrs Sterry + 1895 Miss C. Cooper | 1909 Miss D. Boothby + 1896 Miss C. Cooper | 1910 Mrs Lambert Chambers + 1897 Mrs Hillyard | (Miss Douglass) + + + Year. Ladies' and Gentlemen's Doubles. + + 1888 E. Renshaw and Mrs Hillyard + 1889 J. C. Kay " Miss Dod + 1890 J. Baldwin " Miss K. Hill + 1891 J. C. Kay " Miss Jackson + 1892 A. Dod " Miss Dod + 1893 W. Baddeley " Mrs Hillyard. + 1894 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper + 1895 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper + 1896 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper + 1897 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper + 1898 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper + 1899 C. H. L. Cazelet " Miss Robb + 1900 H. L. Doherty " Miss C. Cooper + 1901 S. H. Smith " Miss Martin + 1902 S. H. Smith " Miss Martin + 1903 F. L. Riseley " Miss D. K. Douglass + 1904 S. H. Smith " Miss E. W. Thompson + 1905 S. H. Smith " Miss E. W. Thompson + 1906 F. L. Riseley " Miss D. K. Douglass + 1907 N. E. Brookes " Mrs Hillyard + 1908 A. F. Wilding " Mrs Lambert Chambers (Miss + D. K. Douglass) + 1909 H. Roper Barrett " Miss Morton + 1910 S. N. Doust " Mrs Lambert Chambers + +In the United States lawn-tennis was played at Nahant, near Boston, +within a year of its invention in England, Dr James Dwight and the +brothers F. R. and R. D. Sears being mainly instrumental in making it +known to their countrymen. In 1881 at a meeting in New York of +representatives of thirty-three clubs the United States National +Lawn-Tennis Association was formed; and the adoption of the English +rules put an end to the absence of uniformity in the size of the ball +and height of the net which had hindered the progress of the game. The +association decided to hold matches for championship of the United +States at Newport, Rhode Island; and, by a curious coincidence, in the +same year in which W. Renshaw first won the English championship, R. D. +Sears won the first American championship by playing a volleying game at +the net which entirely disconcerted his opponents, and he successfully +defended his title for the next six years, winning the doubles +throughout the same period in partnership with Dwight. In 1887, Sears +being unable to play through ill-health, the championship went to H. W. +Slocum. Other prominent players of the period were the brothers C. M. +and J. S. Clark, who in 1883 came to England and were decisively beaten +at Wimbledon by the two Renshaws. To a later generation belong the +strongest single players, M. D. Whitman, Holcombe Ward, W. A. Larned and +Karl Behr. Holcombe Ward and Dwight Davis, who have the credit of +introducing the peculiar "American twist service," were an exceedingly +strong pair in doubles; but after winning the American doubles +championship for three years in succession, they were defeated in 1902 +by the English brothers R. F. and H. L. Doherty. The championship +singles in 1904 and 1905 was won by H. Ward and B. C. Wright, the latter +being one of the finest players America has produced; and these two in +partnership won the doubles for three years in succession, until they +were displaced by F. B. Alexander and H. H. Hackett, who in their turn +held the doubles championship for a like period. In 1909 two young +Californians, Long and McLoughlin, unexpectedly came to the front, and, +although beaten in the final round for the championship doubles, they +represented the United States in the contest for the Davis cup (see +below) in Australia in that year; McLoughlin having acquired a service +of extraordinary power and a smashing stroke with a reverse spin which +was sufficient by itself to place him in the highest rank of lawn-tennis +players. + + _Winners of United States Championships._ + + Year. Gentlemen's | Year. Gentlemen's + Singles. | Singles. + | + 1881 R. D. Sears | 1896 R. D. Wrenn + 1882 R. D. Sears | 1897 R. D. Wrenn + 1883 R. D. Sears | 1898 M. D. Whitman + 1884 R. D. Sears | 1899 M. D. Whitman + 1885 R. D. Sears | 1900 M. D. Whitman + 1886 R. D. Sears | 1901 W. A. Larned + 1887 R. D. Sears | 1902 W. A. Larned + 1888 H. W. Slocum | 1903 H. L. Doherty + 1889 H. W. Slocum | 1904 H. Ward + 1890 O. S. Campbell | 1905 B. C. Wright + 1891 O. S. Campbell | 1906 W. J. Clothier + 1892 O. S. Campbell | 1907 W. A. Larned + 1893 R. D. Wrenn | 1908 W. A. Larned + 1894 R. D. Wrenn | 1909 W. A. Larned + 1895 F. H. Hovey | 1910 W. A. Larned + + + Year. Gentlemen's Doubles. + + 1882 J. Dwight and R. D. Sears + 1883 J. Dwight " R. D. Sears + 1884 J. Dwight " R. D. Sears + 1885 J. S. Clark " R. D. Sears + 1886 J. Dwight " R. D. Sears + 1887 J. Dwight " R. D. Sears + 1888 V. G. Hall " O. S. Campbell + 1889 H. W. Slocum " H. A. Taylor + 1890 V. G. Hall " C. Hobart + 1891 O. S. Campbell " R. P. Huntingdon + 1892 O. S. Campbell " R. P. Huntingdon + 1893 C. Hobart " F. H. Hovey + 1894 C. Hobart " F. H. Hovey + 1895 R. D. Wrenn " M. G. Chase + 1896 C. B. Neel " S. R. Neel + 1897 L. E. Ware " G. P. Sheldon + 1898 L. E. Ware " G. P. Sheldon + 1899 D. F. Davis " H. Ward + 1900 D. F. Davis " H. Ward + 1901 D. F. Davis " H. Ward + 1902 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1903 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty + 1904 H. Ward " B. C. Wright + 1905 H. Ward " B. C. Wright + 1906 H. Ward " B. C. Wright + 1907 F. B. Alexander " H. H. Hackett + 1908 F. B. Alexander " H. H. Hackett + 1909 F. B. Alexander " H. H Hackett + 1910 F. B. Alexander " H. H. Hackett + + + Year. Ladies' Singles. Year. Ladies' Singles. + + 1890 Miss E. C. Roosevelt | 1901 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore + 1891 Miss Mabel E. Cahill | 1902 Miss Marion Jones + 1892 Miss Mabel E. Cahill | 1903 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore + 1893 Miss Aline M. Terry | 1904 Miss May Sutton + 1894 Miss Helen R. Helwig | 1905 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore + 1895 Miss J. P. Atkinson | 1906 Miss Helen H. Homans + 1896 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore | 1907 Miss Evelyn Sears + 1897 Miss J. P. Atkinson | 1908 Mrs Barger Wallach + 1898 Miss J. P. Atkinson | 1909 Miss Hazel Hotchkiss + 1899 Miss Marion Jones | 1910 Miss Hazel Hotchkiss + 1900 Miss Myrtle McAteer | + + + Year. Ladies' and Gentlemen's Doubles. + + 1894 E. P. Fischer and Miss J. P. Atkinson + 1895 E. P. Fischer " Miss J. P. Atkinson + 1896 E. P. Fischer " Miss J. P. Atkinson + 1897 D. L. Magruder " Miss Laura Henson + 1898 E. P. Fischer " Miss Carrie Neely + 1899 A. L. Hoskins " Miss Edith Rastall + 1900 Alfred Codman " Miss M. Hunnewell + 1901 R. D. Little " Miss Marion Jones + 1902 W. C. Grant " Miss E. H. Moore + 1903 Harry Allen " Miss Chapman + 1904 W. C. Grant " Miss E. H. Moore + 1905 Clarence Hobart " Mrs Clarence Hobart + 1906 E. B. Dewhurst " Miss Coffin + 1907 W. F. Johnson " Miss Sayres + 1908 N. W. Niles " Miss E. Rotch + 1909 W. F. Johnson " Miss H. Hotchkiss + 1910 J. R. Carpenter " Miss H. Hotchkiss + +In 1900 an international challenge cup was presented by the American D. +F. Davis, to be competed for in the country of the holders. In the +summer of that year a British team, consisting of A. W. Gore, E. D. +Black and H. R. Barrett, challenged for the cup but were defeated by the +Americans, Whitman, Larned, Davis and Ward. In 1902 a more +representative British team, the two Dohertys and Pim, were again +defeated by the same representatives of the United States; but in the +following year the Dohertys brought the Davis cup to England by beating +Larned and the brothers Wrenn at Longwood. In 1904 the cup was played +for at Wimbledon, when representatives of Belgium, Austria and France +entered, but failed to defeat the Dohertys and F. L. Riseley, who +represented Great Britain. In 1905 the entries included France, Austria, +Australasia, Belgium and the United States; in 1906 the same countries, +except Belgium, competed; but in both years the British players +withstood the attack. In 1907, however, when the contest was confined to +England, the United States and Australasia, the latter was successful in +winning the cup, which was then for the first time taken to the +colonies, where it was retained in the following year when the +Australians N. E. Brookes and A. F. Wilding defeated the representatives +of the United States, who had previously beaten the English challengers +in America. In 1909 England was not represented in the competition, and +the Australians again retained the cup, beating the Americans McLoughlin +and Long both in singles and doubles. + + See "The Badminton Library," _Tennis: Lawn-Tennis: Racquets: Fives_, + new and revised edition (1903); R. F. and H. L. Doherty, _On + Lawn-Tennis_ (1903); E. H. Miles, _Lessons in Lawn-Tennis_ (1899); E. + de Nanteuil, _La Paume et le lawn-tennis_ (1898); J. Dwight, "Form in + Lawn-Tennis," in _Scribner's Magazine_, vol. vi.; A. Wallis Myers, + _The Complete Lawn-Tennis Player_ (1908). (R. J. M.) + + + + +LAWRENCE (LAURENTIUS, LORENZO), ST, Christian martyr, whose name appears +in the canon of the mass, and whose festival is on the 10th of August. +The basilica reared over his tomb at Rome is still visited by pilgrims. +His legend is very popular. Deacon of the pope (St) Sixtus (Xystus) II., +he was called upon by the judge to bring forth the treasures of the +church which had been committed to his keeping. He thereupon produced +the church's poor people. Seeing his bishop, Sixtus, being led to +punishment, he cried: "Father! whither goest thou without thy son? Holy +priest! whither goest thou without thy deacon?" Sixtus prophesied that +Lawrence would follow him in three days. The prophecy was fulfilled, and +Lawrence was sentenced to be burnt alive on a gridiron. In the midst of +his torments he addressed the judge ironically with the words: _Assum +est, versa et manduca_ ("I am roasted enough on this side; turn me +round, and eat"). All these details of the well-known legend are already +related by St Ambrose (_De Offic._ i. 41, ii. 28). The punishment of the +gridiron and the speech of the martyr are probably a reminiscence of the +Phrygian martyrs, as related by Socrates (iii. 15) and Sozomen (v. 11). +But the fact of the martyrdom is unquestionable. The date is usually put +at the persecution of Valerian in 258. + +The cult of St Lawrence has spread throughout Christendom, and there are +numerous churches dedicated to him, especially in England, where 228 +have been counted. The Escurial was built in honour of St Lawrence by +Philip II. of Spain, in memory of the battle of St Quentin, which was +won in 1557 on the day of the martyr's festival. The meteorites which +appear annually on or about the 10th of August are popularly known as +"the tears of St Lawrence." + + See _Acta sanctorum_, Augusti ii. 485-532; P. Franchi de' Cavalieri, + _S. Lorenzo e il supplicio della graticola_ (Rome, 1900); _Analecta + Bollandiana_, xix. 452 and 453; Fr. Arnold-Forster, _Studies in Church + Dedications or England's Patron Saints_, i. 508-515, iii. 18, 389-390 + (1899). (H. De.) + + + + +LAWRENCE, AMOS (1786-1852), American merchant and philanthropist, was +born in Groton, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 22nd of April 1786, a +descendant of John Lawrence of Wisset, Suffolk, England, who was one of +the first settlers of Groton. Leaving Groton academy (founded by his +father, Samuel Lawrence, and others) in 1799, he became a clerk in a +country store in Groton, whence after his apprenticeship he went, with +$20 in his pocket, to Boston and there set up in business for himself in +December 1807. In the next year he took into his employ his brother, +Abbott (see below), whom he made his partner in 1814, the firm name +being at first A. & A. Lawrence, and afterwards A. & A. Lawrence & Co. +In 1831 when his health failed, Amos Lawrence retired from active +business, and Abbott Lawrence was thereafter the head of the firm. The +firm became the greatest American mercantile house of the day, was +successful even in the hard times of 1812-1815, afterwards engaged +particularly in selling woollen and cotton goods on commission, and did +much for the establishment of the cotton textile industry in New +England: in 1830 by coming to the aid of the financially distressed +mills of Lowell, Massachusetts, where in that year the Suffolk, Tremont +and Lawrence companies were established, and where Luther Lawrence, the +eldest brother, represented the firm's interests; and in 1845-1847 by +establishing and building up Lawrence, Massachusetts, named in honour of +Abbott Lawrence, who was a director of the Essex company, which +controlled the water power of Lawrence, and afterwards was president of +the Atlantic Cotton Mills and Pacific Mills there. In 1842 Amos Lawrence +decided not to allow his property to increase any further, and in the +last eleven years of his life he spent in charity at least $525,000, a +large sum in those days. He gave to Williams college, to Bowdoin +college, to the Bangor theological seminary, to Wabash college, to +Kenyon college and to Groton academy, which was re-named Lawrence +academy in honour of the family, and especially in recognition of the +gifts of William Lawrence, Amos's brother; to the Boston children's +infirmary, which he established, and ($10,000) to the Bunker Hill +monument fund; and, besides, he gave to many good causes on a smaller +scale, taking especial delight in giving books, occasionally from a +bundle of books in his sleigh or carriage as he drove. He died in Boston +on the 31st of December 1852. + + See _Extracts from the Diary and Correspondence of the late Amos + Lawrence, with a Brief Account of Some Incidents in his Life_ (Boston, + 1856), edited by his son William R. Lawrence. + +His brother, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1792-1855), was born in Groton, +Massachusetts, on the 16th of December 1792. Besides being a partner in +the firm established by his brother, and long its head, he promoted +various New England railways, notably the Boston & Albany. He was a Whig +representative in Congress in 1835-1837 and in 1839-1840 (resigning in +September 1840 because of ill-health); and in 1842 was one of the +commissioners for Massachusetts, who with commissioners from Maine and +with Daniel Webster, secretary of state and plenipotentiary of the +United States, settled with Lord Ashburton, the British plenipotentiary, +the question of the north-eastern boundary. In 1842 he was presiding +officer in the Massachusetts Whig convention; he broke with President +Tyler, tacitly rebuked Daniel Webster for remaining in Tyler's cabinet +after his colleagues had resigned, and recommended Henry Clay and John +Davis as the nominees of the Whig party in 1844--an action that aroused +Webster to make his famous Faneuil Hall address. In 1848 Lawrence was a +prominent candidate for the Whig nomination for the vice-presidency, but +was defeated by Webster's followers. He refused the portfolios of the +navy and of the interior in President Taylor's cabinet, and in 1849-1852 +was United States minister to Great Britain, where he was greatly aided +by his wealth and his generous hospitality. He was an ardent +protectionist, and represented Massachusetts at the Harrisburg +convention in 1827. He died in Boston on the 18th of August 1855, +leaving as his greatest memorial the Lawrence scientific school of +Harvard university, which he had established by a gift of $50,000 in +1847 and to which he bequeathed another $50,000; in 1907-1908 this +school was practically abolished as a distinct department of the +university. He made large gifts to the Boston public library, and he +left $50,000 for the erection of model lodging-houses, thus carrying on +the work of an Association for building model lodging-houses for the +poor, organized in Boston in 1857. + + See Hamilton A. Hill, _Memoir of Abbott Lawrence_ (Boston, 1884). + Randolph Anders' _Der Weg zum Glück, oder die Kunst Millionär zu + werden_ (Berlin, 1856) is a pretended translation of moral maxims from + a supposititious manuscript bequeathed to Abbott Lawrence by a rich + uncle. + + + + +LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (1814-1886), American philanthropist, son of Amos +Lawrence, was born in Groton, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 31st of July +1814. He graduated at Harvard in 1835, went into business in Lowell, and +in 1837 established in Boston his own counting-house, which from 1843 to +1858 was the firm of Lawrence & Mason, and which was a selling agent for +the Cocheco mills of Dover, New Hampshire, and for other textile +factories. Lawrence established a hosiery and knitting mill at +Ipswich--the first of importance in the country--and was a director in +many large corporations. He was greatly interested in the claims of +Eleazer Williams of Green Bay, Wisconsin, and through loans to this +"lost dauphin" came into possession of much land in Wisconsin; in 1849 +he founded at Appleton, Wisconsin, a school named in his honour Lawrence +university (now Lawrence college). He also contributed to funds for the +colonization of free negroes in Liberia. In 1854 he became treasurer of +the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company (reorganized in 1855 as the New +England Emigrant Aid Company), which sent 1300 settlers to Kansas, where +the city of Lawrence was named in his honour. He contributed personally +for the famous Sharp rifles, which, packed as "books" and "primers," +were shipped to Kansas and afterwards came into the hands of John Brown, +who had been a _protégé_ of Lawrence. During the contest in Kansas, +Lawrence wrote frequently to President Pierce (his mother's nephew) in +behalf of the free-state settlers; and when John Brown was arrested he +appealed to the governor of Virginia to secure for him a lawful trial. +On Robinson and others in Kansas he repeatedly urged the necessity of +offering no armed resistance to the Federal government; and he deplored +Brown's fanaticism. In 1858 and in 1860 he was the Whig candidate for +governor of Massachusetts. Till the very outbreak of the Civil War he +was a "law and order" man, and he did his best to secure the adoption of +the Crittenden compromise; but he took an active part in drilling +troops, and in 1862 he raised a battalion of cavalry which became the +2nd Massachusetts Regiment of Cavalry, of which Charles Russell Lowell +was colonel. Lawrence was a member of the Protestant Episcopal Church +and built (1873-1880) Lawrence hall, Cambridge, for the Episcopal +theological school, of which he was treasurer. In 1857-1862 he was +treasurer of Harvard college, and in 1879-1885 was an overseer. He died +in Nahant, Mass., on the 22nd of August 1886. + + See William Lawrence, _Life of Amos A. Lawrence, with Extracts from + his Diary and Correspondence_ (Boston, 1888). + +His son, WILLIAM LAWRENCE (1850- ), graduated in 1871 at Harvard, and +in 1875 at the Episcopal theological school, where, after being rector +of Grace Church, Lawrence, Mass., in 1876-1884, he was professor of +homiletics and natural theology in 1884-1893 and dean in 1888-1893. In +1893 he succeeded Phillips Brooks as Protestant Episcopal bishop of +Massachusetts. He wrote _A Life of Roger Wolcott, Governor of +Massachusetts_ (1902). + + + + +LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827-1876), English novelist, was born at +Braxted, Essex, on the 25th of March 1827, and was educated at Rugby and +at Balliol college, Oxford. He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple +in 1852, but soon abandoned the law for literature. In 1857 he +published, anonymously, his first novel, _Guy Livingstone, or Thorough_. +The book achieved a very large sale, and had nine or ten successors of a +similar type, the best perhaps being _Sword and Gown_ (1859). Lawrence +may be regarded as the originator in English fiction of the _beau +sabreur_ type of hero, great in sport and love and war. He died at +Edinburgh on the 23rd of September 1876. + + + + +LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY (1806-1857), British soldier and +statesman in India, brother of the 1st Lord Lawrence (q.v.), was born at +Matara, Ceylon, on the 28th of June 1806. He inherited his father's +stern devotion to duty and Celtic impulsiveness, tempered by his +mother's gentleness and power of organization. Early in 1823 he joined +the Bengal Artillery at the Calcutta suburb of Dum Dum, where also Henry +Havelock was stationed about the same time. The two officers pursued a +very similar career, and developed the same Puritan character up to the +time that both died at Lucknow in 1857. In the first Burmese War Henry +Lawrence and his battery formed part of the Chittagong column which +General Morrison led over the jungle-covered hills of Arakan, till fever +decimated the officers and men, and Lawrence found himself at home +again, wasted by a disease which never left him. On his return to India +with his younger brother John in 1829 he was appointed revenue surveyor +by Lord William Bentinck. At Gorakhpur the wonderful personal influence +which radiated from the young officer formed a school of attached +friends and subordinates who were always eager to serve under him. After +some years spent in camp, during which he had married his cousin Honoria +Marshall, and had surveyed every village in four districts, each larger +than Yorkshire, he was recalled to a brigade by the outbreak of the +first Afghan War towards the close of 1838. As assistant to Sir George +Clerk, he now added to his knowledge of the people political experience +in the management of the district of Ferozepore; and when disaster came +he was sent to Peshawar in order to push up supports for the relief of +Sale and the garrison of Jalalabad. The war had been begun under the +tripartite treaty signed at Lahore on the 20th of June 1838. But the +Sikhs were slow to play their part after the calamities in Afghanistan. +No one but Henry Lawrence could manage the disorderly contingent which +they reluctantly supplied to Pollock's avenging army in 1842. He helped +to force the Khyber Pass on the 5th of April, playing his guns from the +heights, for 8 and 20 m. In recognition of his services Lord +Ellenborough appointed him to the charge of the valley of Dehra Dun and +its hill stations, Mussoorie and Landour, where he first formed the idea +of asylums for the children of European soldiers. After a month's +experience there it was discovered that the appointment, was the legal +right of the civil service, and he was transferred, as assistant to the +envoy at Lahore, to Umballa, where he reduced to order the lapsed +territory of Kaithal. Soon he received the office of resident at the +protected court of Nepal, where, assisted by his wife, he began a series +of contributions to the _Calcutta Review_, a selected volume of which +forms an Anglo-Indian classic. There, too, he elaborated his plans which +resulted in the erection and endowment of the noblest philanthropic +establishments in the East--the Lawrence military asylums at Sanawar (on +the road to Simla), at Murree in the Punjab, at Mount Abu in Rajputana, +and at Lovedale on the Madras Nilgiris. From 1844 to his death he +devoted all his income, above a modest pittance for his children, to +this and other forms of charity. + +The _Review_ articles led the new governor-general, Lord Hardinge, to +summon Lawrence to his side during the first Sikh War; and not these +articles only. He had published the results of his experience of Sikh +rule and soldiering in a vivid work, the _Adventures of an Officer in +the Service of Ranjit Singh_ (1845), in which he vainly attempted to +disguise his own personality and exploits. After the doubtful triumphs +of Moodkee and Ferozshah Lawrence was summoned from Nepal to take the +place of Major George Broadfoot, who had fallen. Aliwal came; then the +guns of Sobraon chased the demoralized Sikhs across the Sutlej. All +through the smoke Lawrence was at the side of the governor-general. He +gave his voice, not for the rescue of the people from anarchy by +annexation, but for the reconstruction of the Sikh government, and was +himself appointed resident at Lahore, with power "over every department +and to any extent" as president of the council of regency till the +maharaja Dhuleep Singh should come of age. Soon disgusted by the "venal +and selfish durbar" who formed his Sikh colleagues, he summoned to his +side assistants like Nicholson, James Abbott and Edwardes, till they all +did too much for the people, as he regretfully confessed. But "my chief +confidence was in my brother John, ... who gave me always such help as +only a brother could." Wearied out he went home with Lord Hardinge, and +was made K.C.B., when the second Sikh War summoned him back at the end +of 1848 to see the whole edifice of Sikh "reconstruction" collapse. It +fell to Lord Dalhousie to proclaim the Punjab up to the Khyber British +territory on the 29th of March 1849. But still another compromise was +tried. As the best man to reconcile the Sikh chiefs to the inevitable, +Henry Lawrence was made president of the new board of administration +with charge of the political duties, and his brother John was entrusted +with the finances. John could not find the revenue necessary for the +rapid civilization of the new province so long as Henry would, for +political reasons, insist on granting life pensions and alienating large +estates to the needy remnants of Ranjit Singh's court. Lord Dalhousie +delicately but firmly removed Sir Henry Lawrence to the charge of the +great nobles of Rajputana, and installed John as chief commissioner. If +resentment burned in Henry's heart, it was not against his younger +brother, who would fain have retired. To him he said, "If you preserve +the peace of the country and make the people high and low happy, I shall +have no regrets that I vacated the field for you." + +In the comparative rest of Rajputana he once more took up the pen as an +army reformer. In March and September 1856 he published two articles, +called forth by conversations with Lord Dalhousie at Calcutta, whither +he had gone as the hero of a public banquet. The governor-general had +vainly warned the home authorities against reducing below 40,000 the +British garrison of India even for the Crimean War, and had sought to +improve the position of the sepoys. Lawrence pointed out the latent +causes of mutiny, and uttered warnings to be too soon justified. In +March 1857 he yielded to Lord Canning's request that he should then take +the helm at Lucknow, but it was too late. In ten days his magic rule put +down administrative difficulties indeed, as he had done at Lahore. But +what could even he effect with only 700 European soldiers, when the +epidemic spread after the Meerut outbreak of mutiny on the 10th of May? +In one week he had completed those preparations which made the defence +of the Lucknow residency for ever memorable. Amid the deepening gloom +Lord Canning ever wrote home of him as "a tower of strength," and he was +appointed provisional governor-general. On the 30th of May mutiny burst +forth in Oudh, and he was ready. On the 29th of June, pressed by fretful +colleagues, and wasted by unceasing toil, he led 336 British soldiers +with 11 guns and 220 natives out of Chinhat to reconnoitre the +insurgents, when the natives joined the enemy and the residency was +besieged. On the 2nd of July, as he lay exhausted by the day's work and +the terrific heat in an exposed room, a shell struck him, and in +forty-eight hours he was no more. A baronetcy was conferred on his son. +A marble statue was placed in St Paul's as the national memorial of one +who has been declared to be the noblest man that has lived and died for +the good of India. + + His biography was begun by Sir Herbert Edwardes, and completed (2 + vols. 1872) by Herman Merivale. See also J. J. McLeod Innes, _Sir + Henry Lawrence_ ("Rulers of India" series), 1898. + + + + +LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD MAIR LAWRENCE, 1ST BARON (1811-1879), viceroy and +governor-general of India, was born at Richmond, Yorkshire, on the 24th +of March 1811. His father, Colonel Alexander Lawrence, volunteered for +the forlorn hope at Seringapatam in presence of Baird and of Wellington, +whose friend he became. His mother, Letitia Knox, was a collateral +descendant of John Knox. To this couple were born twelve children, of +whom three became famous in India, Sir George St Patrick, Sir Henry +(q.v.) and Lord Lawrence. Irish Protestants, the boys were trained at +Foyle college, Derry, and at Clifton, and received Indian appointments +from their mother's cousin, John Hudleston, who had been the friend of +Schwartz in Tanjore. In 1829, when only seventeen, John Lawrence landed +at Calcutta as a civilian; he mastered the Persian language at the +college of Fort William, and was sent to Delhi, on his own application, +as assistant to the collector. The position was the most dangerous and +difficult to which a Bengal civilian could be appointed at that time. +The titular court of the pensioner who represented the Great Mogul was +the centre of that disaffection and sensuality which found their +opportunity in 1857. A Mussulman rabble filled the city. The district +around, stretching from the desert of Rajputana to the Jumna, was slowly +recovering from the anarchy to which Lord Lake had given the first blow. +When not administering justice in the city courts or under the village +tree, John Lawrence was scouring the country after the marauding Meos +and Mahommedan freebooters. His keen insight and sleepless energy at +once detected the murderer of his official superior, William Fraser, in +1835, in the person of Shams-uddin Khan, the nawab of Loharu, whose +father had been raised to the principality by Lake, and the assassin was +executed. The first twenty years, from 1829 to 1849, during which John +Lawrence acted as the magistrate and land revenue collector of the most +turbulent and backward portion of the Indian empire as it then was, +formed the period of the reforms of Lord William Bentinck. To what +became the lieutenant-governorship of the North-Western (now part of the +United) Provinces Lord Wellesley had promised the same permanent +settlement of the land-tax which Lord Cornwallis had made with the large +landholders or zemindars of Bengal. The court of directors, going to the +opposite extreme, had sanctioned leases for only five years, so that +agricultural progress was arrested. In 1833 Merttins Bird and James +Thomason introduced the system of thirty years' leases based on a +careful survey of every estate by trained civilians, and on the mapping +of every village holding by native subordinates. These two revenue +officers created a school of enthusiastic economists who rapidly +registered and assessed an area as large as that of Great Britain, with +a rural population of twenty-three millions. Of that school John +Lawrence proved the most ardent and the most renowned. Intermitting his +work at Delhi, he became land revenue settlement officer in the district +of Etawah, and there began, by buying out or getting rid of the +talukdars, to realize the ideal which he did much to create throughout +the rest of his career--a country "thickly cultivated by a fat contented +yeomanry, each man riding his own horse, sitting under his own fig-tree, +and enjoying his rude family comforts." This and a quiet persistent +hostility to the oppression of the people by their chiefs formed the two +features of his administrative policy throughout life. + +It was fortunate for the British power that, when the first Sikh War +broke out, John Lawrence was still collector of Delhi. The critical +engagements at Ferozeshah, following Moodkee, and hardly redeemed by +Aliwal, left the British army somewhat exhausted at the gate of the +Punjab, in front of the Sikh entrenchments on the Sutlej. For the first +seven weeks of 1846 there poured into camp, day by day, the supplies and +munitions of war which this one man raised and pushed forward, with all +the influence acquired during fifteen years of an iron yet sympathetic +rule in the land between the Jumna and the Sutlej. The crowning victory +of Sobraon was the result, and at thirty-five Lawrence became +commissioner of the Jullundur Doab, the fertile belt of hill and dale +stretching from the Sutlej north to the Indus. The still youthful +civilian did for the newly annexed territory what he had long before +accomplished in and around Delhi. He restored it to order, without one +regular soldier. By the fascination of his personal influence he +organized levies of the Sikhs who had just been defeated, led them now +against a chief in the upper hills and now to storm the fort of a raja +in the lower, till he so welded the people into a loyal mass that he was +ready to repeat the service of 1846 when, three years after, the second +Sikh War ended in the conversion of the Punjab up to Peshawar into a +British province. + +Lord Dalhousie had to devise a government for a warlike population now +numbering twenty-three millions, and covering an area little less than +that of the United Kingdom. The first results were not hopeful; and it +was not till John Lawrence became chief commissioner, and stood alone +face to face with the chiefs and people and ring fence of still untamed +border tribes, that there became possible the most successful experiment +in the art of civilizing turbulent millions which history presents. The +province was mapped out into districts, now numbering thirty-two, in +addition to thirty-six tributary states, small and great. To each the +thirty years' leases of the north-west settlement were applied, after a +patient survey and assessment by skilled officials ever in the saddle or +the tent. The revenue was raised on principles so fair to the peasantry +that Ranjit Singh's exactions were reduced by a fourth, while +agricultural improvements were encouraged. For the first time in its +history since the earliest Aryan settlers had been overwhelmed by +successive waves of invaders, the soil of the Punjab came to have a +marketable value, which every year of British rule has increased. A +stalwart police was organized; roads were cut through every district, +and canals were constructed. Commerce followed on increasing cultivation +and communications, courts brought justice to every man's door, and +crime hid its head. The adventurous and warlike spirits, Sikh and +Mahommedan, found a career in the new force of irregulars directed by +the chief commissioner himself, while the Afghan, Dost Mahommed, kept +within his own fastnesses, and the long extent of frontier at the foot +of the passes was patrolled. + +Seven years of such work prepared the lately hostile and always anarchic +Punjab under such a pilot as John Lawrence not only to weather the storm +of 1857 but to lead the older provinces into port. On the 12th of May +the news of the tragedies at Meerut and Delhi reached him at Rawalpindi. +The position was critical in the last degree, for of 50,000 native +soldiers 38,000 were Hindustanis of the very class that had mutinied +elsewhere, and the British troops were few and scattered. For five days +the fate of the Punjab hung upon a thread, for the question was, "Could +the 12,000 Punjabis be trusted and the 38,000 Hindustanis be disarmed?" +Not an hour was lost in beginning the disarming at Lahore; and, as one +by one the Hindustani corps succumbed to the epidemic of mutiny, the +sepoys were deported or disappeared, or swelled the military rabble in +and around the city of Delhi. The remembrance of the ten years' war +which had closed only in 1849, a bountiful harvest, the old love of +battle, the offer of good pay, but, above all, the personality of +Lawrence and his officers, raised the Punjabi force into a new army of +59,000 men, and induced the non-combatant classes to subscribe to a 6% +loan. Delhi was invested, but for three months the rebel city did not +fall. Under John Nicholson, Lawrence sent on still more men to the +siege, till every available European and faithful native soldier was +there, while a movable column swept the country, and the border was kept +by an improvised militia. At length, when even in the Punjab confidence +became doubt, and doubt distrust, and that was passing into +disaffection, John Lawrence was ready to consider whether we should not +give up the Peshawar valley to the Afghans as a last resource, and send +its garrison to recruit the force around Delhi. Another week and that +alternative must have been faced. But on the 20th of September the city +and palace of Delhi were again in British hands, and the chief +commissioner and his officers united in ascribing "to the Lord our God +all the praise due for nerving the hearts of our statesmen and the arms +of our soldiers." As Sir John Lawrence, Bart., G.C.B., with the thanks +of parliament, the gratitude of his country, and a life pension of £2000 +a year in addition to his ordinary pension of £1000, the "saviour of +India" returned home in 1859. After guarding the interests of India and +its people as a member of the secretary of state's council, he was sent +out again in 1864 as viceroy and governor-general on the death of Lord +Elgin. If no great crisis enabled Lawrence to increase his reputation, +his five years' administration of the whole Indian empire was worthy of +the ruler of the Punjab. His foreign policy has become a subject of +imperial interest, his name being associated with the "close border" as +opposed to the "forward" policy; while his internal administration was +remarkable for financial prudence, a jealous regard for the good of the +masses of the people and of the British soldiers, and a generous +interest in education, especially in its Christian aspects. + +When in 1854 Dost Mahommed, weakened by the antagonism of his brothers +in Kandahar, and by the interference of Persia, sent his son to Peshawar +to make a treaty, Sir John Lawrence was opposed to any entangling +relation with the Afghans after the experience of 1838-1842, but he +obeyed Lord Dalhousie so far as to sign a treaty of perpetual peace and +friendship. His ruling idea, the fruit of long and sad experience, was +that _de facto_ powers only should be recognized beyond the frontier. +When in 1863 Dost Mahommed's death let loose the factions of Afghanistan +he acted on this policy to such an extent that he recognized both the +sons, Afzul Khan and Shere Ali, at different times, and the latter fully +only when he had made himself master of all his father's kingdom. The +steady advance of Russia from the north, notwithstanding the Gortchakov +circular of 1864, led to severe criticism of this cautious "buffer" +policy which he justified under the term of "masterly inactivity." But +he was ready to receive Shere Ali in conference, and to aid him in +consolidating his power after it had been established and maintained for +a time, when his term of office came to an end and it fell to Lord Mayo, +his successor, to hold the Umballa conference in 1869. When, nine years +after, the second Afghan War was precipitated, the retired viceroy gave +the last days of his life to an unsparing exposure, in the House of +Lords and in the press, of a policy which he had striven to prevent in +its inception, and which he did not cease to denounce in its course and +consequences. + +On his final return to England early in 1869, after forty years' +service in and for India, "the great proconsul of our English Christian +empire" was created Baron Lawrence of the Punjab, and of Grately, Hants. +He assumed the same arms and crest as those of his brother Henry, with a +Pathan and a Sikh trooper as supporters, and took as his motto "Be +ready," his brother's being "Never give in." For ten years he gave +himself to the work of the London school board, of which he was the +first chairman, and of the Church missionary society. Towards the end +his eyesight failed, and on the 27th of June 1879 he died at the age of +sixty-eight. He was buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey, beside +Clyde, Outram and Livingstone. He had married the daughter of the Rev. +Richard Hamilton, Harriette-Katherine, who survived him, and he was +succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest son, John Hamilton Lawrence (b. +1846). + + See Bosworth Smith, _Life of Lord Lawrence_ (1885); Sir Charles + Aitchison, _Lord Lawrence_ ("Rulers of India" series, 1892); L. J. + Trotter, _Lord Lawrence_ (1880); and F. M. Holmes, _Four Heroes of + India_. + + + + +LAWRENCE, STRINGER (1697-1775), English soldier, was born at Hereford on +the 6th of March 1697. He seems to have entered the army in 1727 and +served in Gibraltar and Flanders, subsequently taking part in the battle +of Culloden. In 1748, with the rank of major and the reputation of an +experienced soldier, he went out to India to command the East India +Company's troops. Dupleix's schemes for the French conquest of southern +India were on the point of taking effect, and not long after his arrival +at Fort St David, Stringer Lawrence was actively engaged. He +successfully foiled an attempted French surprise at Cuddalore, but +subsequently was captured by a French cavalry patrol at Ariancopang near +Pondicherry and kept prisoner till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1749 +he was in command at the capture of Devicota. On this occasion Clive +served under him and a life-long friendship began. On one occasion, when +Clive had become famous, he honoured the creator of the Indian army by +refusing to accept a sword of honour unless one was voted to Lawrence +also. In 1750 Lawrence returned to England, but in 1752 he was back in +India. Here he found Clive in command of a force intended for the relief +of Trichinopoly. As senior officer Lawrence took over the command, but +was careful to allow Clive every credit for his share in the subsequent +operations, which included the relief of Trichinopoly and the surrender +of the entire French besieging force. In 1752 with an inferior force he +defeated the French at Bahur (Behoor) and in 1753 again relieved +Trichinopoly. For the next seventeen months he fought a series of +actions in defence of this place, finally arranging a three months' +armistice, which was afterwards converted into a conditional treaty. He +had commanded in chief up to the arrival of the first detachment of +regular forces of the crown. In 1757 he served in the operations against +Wandiwash, and in 1758-1759 was in command of Fort St George during the +siege by the French under Lally. In 1759 failing health compelled him to +return to England. He resumed his command in 1761 as major-general and +commander-in-chief. Clive supplemented his old friend's inconsiderable +income by settling on him an annuity of £500 a year. In 1765 he presided +over the board charged with arranging the reorganization of the Madras +army, and he finally retired the following year. He died in London on +the 10th of January 1775. The East India Company erected a monument to +his memory in Westminster Abbey. + + See Biddulph, _Stringer Lawrence_ (1901). + + + + +LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS (1769-1830), English painter, was born at Bristol +on the 4th of May 1769. His father was an innkeeper, first at Bristol +and afterwards at Devizes, and at the age of six Thomas was already +shown off to the guests of the Black Boar as an infant prodigy who could +sketch their likenesses and declaim speeches from Milton. In 1779 the +elder Lawrence had to leave Devizes, having failed in business, and the +precocious talent of the son, who had gained a sort of reputation along +the Bath road, became the support of the family. His debut as a crayon +portrait painter was made at Oxford, where he was well patronized, and +in 1782 the family settled in Bath, where the young artist soon found +himself fully employed in taking crayon likenesses of the fashionables +of the place at a guinea or a guinea and a half a head. In 1784 he +gained the prize and silver-gilt palette of the Society of Arts for a +crayon drawing after Raphael's "Transfiguration," and presently +beginning to paint in oil. Throwing aside the idea of going on the stage +which he had for a short time entertained, he came to London in 1787, +was kindly received by Reynolds, and entered as a student at the Royal +Academy. He began to exhibit almost immediately, and his reputation +increased so rapidly that he became an associate of the Academy in 1791. +The death of Sir Joshua in 1792 opened the way to further successes. He +was at once appointed painter to the Dilettanti society, and principal +painter to the king in room of Reynolds. In 1794 he was a Royal +Academician, and he became the fashionable portrait painter of the age, +having as his sitters all the rank, fashion and talent of England, and +ultimately most of the crowned heads of Europe. In 1815 he was knighted; +in 1818 he went to Aix-la-Chapelle to paint the sovereigns and +diplomatists gathered there, and visited Vienna and Rome, everywhere +receiving flattering marks of distinction from princes, due as much to +his courtly manners as to his merits as an artist. After eighteen months +he returned to England, and on the very day of his arrival was chosen +president of the Academy in room of West, who had died a few days +before. This office he held from 1820 to his death on the 7th of January +1830. He was never married. + +Sir Thomas Lawrence had all the qualities of personal manner and +artistic style necessary to make a fashionable painter, and among +English portrait painters he takes a high place, though not as high as +that given to him in his lifetime. His more ambitious works, in the +classical style, such as his once celebrated "Satan," are practically +forgotten. + + The best display of Lawrence's work is in the Waterloo Gallery of + Windsor, a collection of much historical interest. "Master Lambton," + painted for Lord Durham at the price of 600 guineas, is regarded as + one of his best portraits, and a fine head in the National Gallery, + London, shows his power to advantage. The _Life and Correspondence of + Sir T. Lawrence_, by D. E. Williams, appeared in 1831. + + + + +LAWRENCE, a city and the county-seat of Douglas county, Kansas, U.S.A., +situated on both banks of the Kansas river, about 40 m. W. of Kansas +City. Pop. (1890) 9997, (1900) 10,862, of whom 2032 were negroes, (1910 +census) 12,374. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the +Union Pacific railways, both having tributary lines extending N. and S. +Lawrence is surrounded by a good farming region, and is itself a +thriving educational and commercial centre. Its site slopes up from the +plateau that borders the river to the heights above, from which there is +a view of rare beauty. Among the city's principal public buildings are +the court house and the Y.M.C.A. building. The university of Kansas, +situated on Mount Oread, overlooking the city, was first opened in 1866, +and in 1907-1908 had a faculty of 105 and 2063 students, including 702 +women (see KANSAS). Just S. of the city of Lawrence is Haskell institute +(1884), one of the largest Indian schools in the country, maintained for +children of the tribal Indians by the national government. In 1907 the +school had 813 students, of whom 313 were girls; it has an academic +department, a business school and courses in domestic science, in +farming, dairying and gardening, and in masonry, carpentry, painting, +blacksmithing, waggon-making, shoemaking, steam-fitting, printing and +other trades. Among the city's manufactures are flour and grist mill +products, pianos and cement plaster. Lawrence, named in honour of Amos +A. Lawrence, was founded by agents of the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid +Company in July 1854, and during the Territorial period was the +political centre of the free-state cause and the principal point against +which the assaults of the pro-slavery party were directed. It was first +known as Wakarusa, from the creek by which it lies. A town association +was organized in September 1854 before any Territorial government had +been established. In the next month some pro-slavery men presented +claims to a part of the land, projected a rival town to be called +Excelsior on the same site, and threatened violence; but when Lawrence +had organized its "regulators" the pro-slavery men retired and later +agreed to a compromise by which the town site was limited to 640 acres. +In December 1855 occurred the "Wakarusa war." A free-state man having +been murdered for his opinions, a friend who threatened retaliation was +arrested by the pro-slavery sheriff, S. J. Jones; he was rescued and +taken to Lawrence; the city disclaimed complicity, but Jones persuaded +Governor Wilson Shannon that there was rebellion, and Shannon authorized +a posse; Missouri responded, and a pro-slavery force marched on +Lawrence. The governor found that Lawrence had not resisted and would +not resist the service of writs; by a written "agreement" with the +free-state leaders he therefore withdrew his sanction from the +Missourians and averted battle. The retreating Missourians committed +some homicides. It was during this "war" that John Brown first took up +arms with the free-state men. Preparations for another attack continued, +particularly after Sheriff Jones, while serving writs in Lawrence, was +wounded. On the 21st of May 1856, at the head of several hundred +Missourians, he occupied the city without resistance, destroyed its +printing offices and the free-state headquarters and pillaged private +houses. In 1855 and again in 1857 the pro-slavery Territorial +legislature passed an Act giving Lawrence a charter, but the people of +Lawrence would not recognize that "bogus" government, and on the 13th of +July 1857, after an application to the Topeka free-state legislature for +a charter had been denied, adopted a city charter of their own. Governor +Walker proclaimed this rebellion against the United States, appeared +before the town in command of 400 United States dragoons and declared it +under martial law; as perfect order prevailed, and there was no overt +resistance to Territorial law, the troops were withdrawn after a few +weeks by order of President Buchanan, and in February 1858 the +legislature passed an Act legalizing the city charter of July 1857. On +the 21st of August 1863 William C. Quantrell and some 400 mounted +Missouri bushrangers surprised the sleeping town and murdered 150 +citizens. The city's arms were in storage and no resistance was +possible. This was the most distressing episode in all the turbulence of +territorial days and border warfare in Kansas. A monument erected in +1895 commemorates the dead. After the free-state men gained control of +the Territorial legislature in 1857 the legislature regularly adjourned +from Lecompton, the legal capital, to Lawrence, which was practically +the capital until the choice of Topeka under the Wyandotte constitution. +The first railway to reach Lawrence was the Union Pacific in 1864. + + See F. W. Blackmar, "The Annals of an Historic Town," in the _Annual + Report_ of the American Historical Association for 1893 (Washington, + 1894). + + + + +LAWRENCE, a city, and one of the three county-seats (Salem and +Newburyport are the others) of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on +both sides of the Merrimac river, about 30 m. from its mouth and about +26 m. N.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 44,654, (1900) 62,559, of whom +28,577 were foreign-born (7058 being Irish, 6999 French Canadians, 5131 +English, 2465 German, 1683 English Canadian), and (1910 census) 85,892. +It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad and by electric railways to +Andover, Boston, Lowell, Haverhill and Salem, Massachusetts, and to +Nashua and Salem, New Hampshire. The city's area of 6.54 sq. m. is about +equally divided by the Merrimac, which is here crossed by a great stone +dam 900 ft. long, and, with a fall of 28 ft., supplies about 12,000 +horsepower. Water from the river is carried to factories by a canal on +each side of the river and parallel to it; the first canal was built on +the north side in 1845-1847 and is 1 m. long; the canal on the south +side is about ¾ m. long, and was built several years later. There are +large and well-kept public parks, a common (17 acres) with a soldiers' +monument, a free public library, with more than 50,000 volumes in 1907, +a city hall, county and municipal court-houses, a county gaol and house +of correction, a county industrial school and a state armoury. + +The value of the city's factory product was $48,036,593 in 1905, +$41,741,980 in 1900. The manufacture of textiles is the most important +industry; in 1905 the city produced worsteds valued at $30,926,964 and +cotton goods worth $5,745,611, the worsted product being greater than +that of any other American city. The Wood worsted mill here is said to +be the largest single mill in the world. The history of Lawrence is +largely the history of its textile mills. The town was formed in 1845 +from parts of Andover (S. of the Merrimac) and of Methuen (N. of the +river), and it was incorporated as a town in 1847, being named in honour +of Abbott Lawrence, a director of the Essex company, organized in 1845 +(on the same day as the formation of the town) for the control of the +water power and for the construction of the great dam across the +Merrimac. The Bay State woollen mills, which in 1858 became the +Washington mills, and the Atlantic cotton mills were both chartered in +1846. The Pacific mills (1853) introduced from England in 1854 Lister +combs for worsted manufacture; and the Washington mills soon afterward +began to make worsted dress goods. Worsted cloths for men's wear seem to +have been made first about 1870 at nearly the same time in the +Washington mills here, in the Hockanum mills of Rockville, Connecticut, +and in Wanskuck mills, Providence, Rhode Island. The Pemberton mills, +built in 1853, collapsed and afterwards took fire on the 10th of January +1860; 90 were killed and hundreds severely injured. Lawrence was +chartered as a city in 1853, and annexed a small part of Methuen in 1854 +and parts of Andover and North Andover in 1879. + + See H. A. Wadsworth, _History of Lawrence, Massachusetts_ (Lawrence, + 1880). + + + + +LAWRENCEBURG, a city and the county-seat of Dearborn county, Indiana, +U.S.A., on the Ohio river, in the S.E. part of the state, 22 m. (by +rail) W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4284, (1900) 4326 (413 +foreign-born); (1910) 3930. Lawrenceburg is served by the Baltimore & +Ohio South-Western and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis +railways, by the Cincinnati, Lawrenceburg & Aurora electric street +railroad, and by river packets to Louisville and Cincinnati. The city +lies along the river and on higher land rising 100 ft. above +river-level. It formerly had an important river trade with New Orleans, +beginning about 1820 and growing in volume after the city became the +terminus of the Whitewater canal, begun in 1836. The place was laid out +in 1802. In 1846 an "old" and a "new" settlement were united, and +Lawrenceburg was chartered as a city. Lawrenceburg was the birthplace of +James B. Eads, the famous engineer, and of John Coit Spooner (b. 1843), +a prominent Republican member of the United States Senate from Wisconsin +in 1885-1891 and in 1897-1907; and the Presbyterian Church of +Lawrenceburg was the first charge (1837-1839) of Henry Ward Beecher. + + + + +LAWSON, CECIL GORDON (1851-1882), English landscape painter, was the +youngest son of William Lawson of Edinburgh, esteemed as a portrait +painter. His mother also was known for her flower pieces. He was born +near Shrewsbury on the 3rd of December 1851. Two of his brothers (one of +them, Malcolm, a clever musician and song-writer) were trained as +artists, and Cecil was from childhood devoted to art with the intensity +of a serious nature. Soon after his birth the Lawsons moved to London. +Lawson's first works were studies of fruit, flowers, &c., in the manner +of W. Hunt; followed by riverside Chelsea subjects. His first exhibit at +the Royal Academy (1870) was "Cheyne Walk," and in 1871 he sent two +other Chelsea subjects. These gained full recognition from +fellow-artists, if not from the public. Among his friends were now +numbered Fred Walker, G. J. Pinwell and their associates. Following +them, he made a certain number of drawings for wood-engraving. Lawson's +Chelsea pictures had been painted in somewhat low and sombre tones; in +the "Hymn to Spring" of 1872 (rejected by the Academy) he turned to a +more joyous play of colour, helped by work in more romantic scenes in +North Wales and Ireland. Early in 1874 he made a short tour in Holland, +Belgium and Paris; and in the summer he painted his large "Hop Gardens +of England." This was much praised at the Academy of 1876. But Lawson's +triumph was with the great luxuriant canvas "The Minister's Garden," +exhibited in 1878 at the Grosvenor Gallery, and now in the Manchester +Art Gallery. This was followed by several works conceived in a new and +tragic mood. His health began to fail, but he worked on. He married in +1879 the daughter of Birnie Philip, and settled at Haslemere. His later +subjects are from this neighbourhood (the most famous being "The August +Moon," now in the National Gallery of British Art) or from Yorkshire. +Towards the end of 1881 he went to the Riviera, returned in the spring, +and died at Haslemere on the 10th of June 1882. Lawson may be said to +have restored to English landscape the tradition of Gainsborough, Crome +and Constable, infused with an imaginative intensity of his own. Among +English landscape painters of the latter part of the 19th century his is +in many respects the most interesting name. + + See E. W. Gosse, _Cecil Lawson, a Memoir_ (1883); Heseltine Owen, "In + Memoriam: Cecil Gordon Lawson," _Magazine of Art_ (1894). (L. B.) + + + + +LAWSON, SIR JOHN (d. 1665), British sailor, was born at Scarborough. +Joining the parliamentary navy in 1642, he accompanied Penn to the +Mediterranean in 1650, where he served for some time. In 1652 he served +under Blake in the Dutch War and was present at the first action in the +Downs and the battle of the Kentish Knock. At Portland, early in 1653, +he was vice-admiral of the red, and his ship was severely handled. +Lawson took part in the battles of June and July in the following +summer. In 1654-1655 he commanded in the North Sea and the Channel. +Appointed in January 1655-1656 as Blake's second-in-command, Lawson was +a few weeks later summarily dismissed from his command, probably for +political reasons. He was a Republican and Anabaptist, and therefore an +enemy to Cromwell. It is not improbable that like Penn and others he was +detected in correspondence with the exiled Charles II., who certainly +hoped for his support. In 1657, along with Harrison and others, he was +arrested and, for a short time, imprisoned for conspiring against +Cromwell. Afterwards he lived at Scarborough until the fall of Richard +Cromwell's government. During the troubled months which succeeded that +event Lawson, flying his flag as admiral of the Channel fleet, played a +marked political rôle. His ships escorted Charles to England, and he was +soon afterwards knighted. Sent out in 1661 with Montagu, earl of +Sandwich, to the Mediterranean, Lawson conducted a series of campaigns +against the piratical states of the Algerian coast. Thence summoned to a +command in the Dutch War, he was mortally wounded at Lowestoft. He died +on the 29th of June 1665. + + See Charnock, _Biographia navalis_, i. 20; Campbell, _Lives of the + Admirals_, ii. 251; Penn, _Life of Sir William Penn_; Pepys, _Diary_. + + + + +LAWSON, SIR WILFRID, Bart. (1829-1906), English politician and +temperance leader, son of the 1st baronet (d. 1867), was born on the 4th +of September 1829. He was always an enthusiast in the cause of total +abstinence, and in parliament, to which he was first elected in 1859 for +Carlisle, he became its leading spokesman. In 1864 he first introduced +his Permissive Bill, giving to a two-thirds majority in any district a +veto upon the granting of licences for the sale of intoxicating liquors; +and though this principle failed to be embodied in any act, he had the +satisfaction of seeing a resolution on its lines accepted by a majority +in the House of Commons in 1880, 1881 and 1883. He lost his seat for +Carlisle in 1865, but in 1868 was again returned as a supporter of Mr +Gladstone, and was member till 1885; though defeated for the new +Cockermouth division of Cumberland in 1885, he won that seat in 1886, +and he held it till the election of 1900, when his violent opposition to +the Boer War caused his defeat, but in 1903 he was returned for the +Camborne division of Cornwall and at the general election of 1906 was +once more elected for his old constituency in Cumberland. During all +these years he was the champion of the United Kingdom Alliance (founded +1853), of which he became president. An extreme Radical, he also +supported disestablishment, abolition of the House of Lords, and +disarmament. Though violent in the expression of his opinions, Sir +Wilfrid Lawson remained very popular for his own sake both in and out of +the House of Commons; he became well known for his humorous vein, his +faculty for composing topical doggerel being often exercised on +questions of the day. He died on the 1st of July 1906. + + + + +LAY, a word of several meanings. Apart from obsolete and dialectical +usages, such as the East Anglian word meaning "pond," possibly cognate +with Lat. _lacus_, pool or lake, or its use in weaving for the batten of +a loom, where it is a variant form of "lath," the chief uses are as +follows: (1) A song or, more accurately, a short poem, lyrical or +narrative, which could be sung or accompanied by music; such were the +romances sung by minstrels. Such an expression as the "Lay of the +Nibelungen" is due to mistaken association of the word with Ger. _Lied_, +song, which appears in Anglo-Saxon as _léoð_. "Lay" comes from O. Fr. +_lai_, of which the derivation is doubtful. The _New English Dictionary_ +rejects Celtic origins sometimes put forward, such as Ir. _laoidh_, +Welsh _llais_, and takes O. Mid. and High Ger. _leich_ as the probable +source. (2) "Non-clerical" or "unlearned." In this sense "lay" comes +directly from Fr. _lai_ (_laïque_, the learned form nearer to the Latin, +is now used) from Lat. _laicus_, Gr. [Greek: laikos], of or belonging to +the people ([Greek: laos], Attic [Greek: leôs]). The word is now +specially applied to persons who are not in orders, and more widely to +those who do not belong to other learned professions, particularly the +law and medicine. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes two examples from +versions of the Bible. In the Douai version of 1 Sam. xxi. 4, Ahimelech +tells David that he has "no lay bread at hand but only holy bread"; here +the Authorized Version has "common bread," the Vulgate _laicos panes_. +In Coverdale's version of Acts iv. 13, the high priest and his kindred +marvel at Peter and John as being "unlearned and lay people"; the +Authorized Version has "unlearned and ignorant men." In a cathedral of +the Church of England "lay clerks" and "lay vicars" sing such portions +of the service as may be performed by laymen and clergy in minor orders. +"Lay readers" are persons who are granted a commission by the bishop to +perform certain religious duties in a particular parish. The commission +remains in force until it is revoked by the bishop or his successors, or +till there is a new incumbent in the parish, when it has to be renewed. +In a religious order a "lay brother" is freed from duties at religious +services performed by the other members, and from their studies, but is +bound by vows of obedience and chastity and serves the order by manual +labour. For "lay impropriator" see APPROPRIATION, and for "lay rector" +see RECTOR and TITHES; see further LAYMEN, HOUSE OF. (3) "Lay" as a verb +means "to make to lie down," "to place upon the ground," &c. The past +tense is "laid"; it is vulgarly confused with the verb "to lie," of +which the past is "lay." The common root of both "lie" and "lay" is +represented by O. Teut. _leg_; cf. Dutch _leggen_, Ger. _legen_, and +Eng. "ledge."[1] (4) "Lay-figure" is the name commonly given to +articulated figures of human beings or animals, made of wood, +papier-maché or other materials; draped and posed, such figures serve as +models for artists (see MODELS, ARTISTS). The word has no connexion with +"to lay," to place in position, but is an adaptation of the word +"layman," commonly used with this meaning in the 18th century. This was +adapted from Dutch _leeman_ (the older form is _ledenman_) and meant an +"articulated or jointed man" from _led_, now _lid_, a joint; cf. Ger. +_Gliedermann_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The verb "to lie," to speak falsely, to tell a falsehood, is in + O. Eng. _léogan_; it appears in most Teutonic languages, e.g. Dutch + _lugen_, Ger. _lügen_. + + + + +LAYA, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1833), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the +4th of December 1761 and died in August 1833. He wrote his first comedy +in collaboration with Gabriel M. J. B. Legouvé in 1785, but the piece, +though accepted by the Comédie Française, was never represented. In 1789 +he produced a plea for religious toleration in the form of a five-act +tragedy in verse, _Jean Calas_; the injustice of the disgrace cast on a +family by the crime of one of its members formed the theme of _Les +Dangers de l'opinion_ (1790); but it is by his _Ami des lois_ (1793) +that Laya is remembered. This energetic protest against mob-rule, with +its scarcely veiled characterizations of Robespierre as Nomophage and of +Marat as Duricrâne, was an act of the highest courage, for the play was +produced at the Théâtre Français (temporarily Théâtre de la Nation) only +nineteen days before the execution of Louis XVI. Ten days after its +first production the piece was prohibited by the commune, but the public +demanded its representation; the mayor of Paris was compelled to appeal +to the convention, and the piece was played while some 30,000 Parisians +guarded the hall. Laya went into hiding, and several persons convicted +of having a copy of the obnoxious play in their possession were +guillotined. At the end of the Terror Laya returned to Paris. In 1813 he +replaced Delille in the Paris chair of literary history and French +poetry; he was admitted to the Academy in 1817. Laya produced in 1797 +_Les Deux Stuarts_, and in 1799 _Falkland_, the title-rôle of which +provided Talma with one of his finest opportunities. Laya's works, which +chiefly owe their interest to the circumstances attending their +production, were collected in 1836-1837. + + See _Notice biographique sur J. L. Laya_ (1833); Ch. Nodier, _Discours + de réception_, 26th December (1833); Welschinger, _Théâtre de la + révolution_ (1880). + + + + +LAYAMON, early English poet, was the author of a chronicle of Britain +entitled _Brut_, a paraphrase of the _Brut d'Angleterre_ by Wace, a +native of Jersey, who is also known as the author of the _Roman de Rou_. +The excellent edition of Layamon by Sir F. Madden (Society of +Antiquaries, London, 1847) should be consulted. All that is known +concerning Layamon is derived from two extant MSS., which present texts +that often vary considerably, and it is necessary to understand their +comparative value before any conclusions can be drawn. The older text +(here called the A-text) lies very near the original text, which is +unfortunately lost, though it now and then omits lines which are +absolutely necessary to the sense. The later text (here called the +B-text) represents a later recension of the original version by another +writer who frequently omits couplets, and alters the language by the +substitution of better-known words for such as seemed to be obsolescent; +e.g. _harme_ (harm) in place of _balewe_ (bale), and _dead_ in place of +_feie_ (fated to die, or dead). Hence little reliance can be placed on +the B-text, its chief merit being that it sometimes preserves couplets +which seem to have been accidentally omitted in A; besides which, it +affords a valuable commentary on the original version. + +We learn from the brief prologue that Layamon was a priest among the +people, and was the son of Leovenath (a late spelling of A.-S. +Leofnoth); also, that he lived at Ernley, at a noble church on Severn +bank, close by Radstone. This is certainly Areley Regis, or Areley +Kings, close by Redstone rock and ferry, 1 m. to the S. of Stourport in +Worcestershire. The B-text turns Layamon into the later form Laweman, +i.e. Law-man, correctly answering to Chaucer's "Man of Lawe," though +here apparently used as a mere name. It also turns Leovenath into Leuca, +i.e. Leofeca, a diminutive of Leofa, which is itself a pet-name for +Leofnoth; so that there is no real contradiction. But it absurdly +substitutes "with the good knight," which is practically meaningless, +for "at a noble church." + +We know no more about Layamon except that he was a great lover of books; +and that he procured three books in particular which he prized above +others, "turning over the leaves, and beholding them lovingly." These +were: the English book that St Beda made; another in Latin that St Albin +and St Austin made; whilst the third was made by a French clerk named +Wace, who (in 1155) gave a copy to the noble Eleanor, who was queen of +the high king Henry (i.e. Henry II.). + +The first of these really means the Anglo-Saxon translation of Beda's +_Ecclesiastical History_, which begins with the words: "Ic Beda, Cristes +theow," i.e. "I, Beda, Christ's servant." The second is a strange +description of the original of the translation, i.e. Albinus Beda's own +Latin book, the second paragraph of which begins with the words: "Auctor +ante omnes atque adiutor opusculi huius Albinus Abba reverentissimus vir +per omnia doctissimus extitit"; which Layamon evidently misunderstood. +As to the share of St Augustine in this work, see Book I., chapters +23-34, and Book II., chapters 1 and 2, which are practically all +concerned with him and occupy more than a tenth of the whole work. The +third book was Wace's poem, _Brut d'Angleterre_. But we find that +although Layamon had ready access to all three of these works, he soon +settled down to the translation of the third, without troubling much +about the others. His chief obligation to Beda is for the well-known +story about Pope Gregory and the English captives at Rome; see Layamon, +vol. iii. 180. + +It is impossible to enter here upon a discussion of the numerous points +of interest which a proper examination of this vast and important work +would present to any careful inquirer. Only a few bare results can be +here enumerated. The A-text may be dated about 1205, and the B-text +(practically by another writer) about 1275. Both texts, the former +especially, are remarkably free from admixture with words of French +origin; the lists that have been given hitherto are inexact, but it may +be said that the number of French words in the A-text can hardly exceed +100, or in the B-text 160. Layamon's work is largely original; Wace's +_Brut_ contains 15,300 lines, and Layamon's 32,240 lines of a similar +length; and many of Layamon's additions to Wace are notable, such as his +story "regarding the fairy elves at Arthur's birth, and his +transportation by them after death in a boat to Avalon, the abode of +Argante, their queen"; see Sir F. Madden's pref. p. xv. Wace's _Brut_ is +almost wholly a translation of the Latin chronicle concerning the early +history of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth, who said that he obtained +his materials from a manuscript written in Welsh. The name Brut is the +French form of Brutus, who was the fabulous grandson of Ascanius, and +great-grandson of Aeneas of Troy, the hero of Virgil's _Aeneid_. After +many adventures, this Brutus arrived in England, founded Troynovant or +New Troy (better known as London), and was the progenitor of a long line +of British kings, among whom were Locrine, Bladud, Leir, Gorboduc, +Ferrex and Porrex, Lud, Cymbeline, Constantine, Vortigern, Uther and +Arthur; and from this mythical Brutus the name Brut was transferred so +as to denote the entire chronicle of this British history. Layamon gives +the whole story, from the time of Brutus to that of Cadwalader, who may +be identified with the Caedwalla of the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, +baptized by Pope Sergius in the year 688. Both texts of Layamon are in a +south-western dialect; the A-text in particular shows the Wessex dialect +of earlier times (commonly called Anglo-Saxon) in a much later form, and +we can hardly doubt that the author, as he intimates, could read the old +version of Beda intelligently. The remarks upon the B-text in Sir F. +Madden's preface are not to the point; the peculiar spellings to which +he refers (such as _same_ for _shame_) are by no means due to any +confusion with the Northumbrian dialect, but rather to the usual +vagaries of a scribe who knew French better than English, and had some +difficulty in acquiring the English pronunciation and in representing it +accurately. At the same time, he was not strong in English grammar, and +was apt to confuse the plural form with the singular in the tenses of +verbs; and this is the simple explanation of most of the examples of +so-called "nunnation" in this poem (such as the use of _wolden_ for +_wolde_), which only existed in writing and must not be seriously +considered as representing real spoken sounds. The full proof of this +would occupy too much space; but it should be noticed that, in many +instances, "this pleonastic _n_ has been struck out or erased by a +second hand." In other instances it has escaped notice, and that is all +that need be said. The peculiar metre of the poem has been sufficiently +treated by J. Schipper. An abstract of the poem has been given by Henry +Morley; and good general criticisms of it by B. ten Brink and others. + + See _Layamon's Brut, or a Chronicle of Britain; a Poetical Semi-Saxon + Paraphrase of the Brut of Wace; ..._ by Sir F. Madden (1847); B. ten + Brink, _Early English Literature_, trans. by H. M. Kennedy (in Bonn's + Standard Library, 1885); H. Morley, _English Writers_, vol. iii. + (1888); J. Schipper, _Englische Metrik_, i. (Bonn, 1882), E. Guest, _A + History of English Rhythms_ (new ed. by W. W. Skeat, 1882), Article + "Layamon," in the _Dict. Nat. Biog.; Six Old English Chronicles_, + including Gildas, Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth (in Bohn's + Antiquarian Library); _Le Roux de Lincy, Le Roman de Brut, par Wace, + avec un commentaire et des notes_ (Rouen, 1836-1838), E. Mätzner, + _Altenglische Sprachproben_ (Berlin, 1867). (W. W. S.) + + + + +LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY (1817-1894), British author and diplomatist, +the excavator of Nineveh, was born in Paris on the 5th of March 1817. +The Layards were of Huguenot descent. His father, Henry P. J. Layard, of +the Ceylon Civil Service, was the son of Charles Peter Layard, dean of +Bristol, and grandson of Daniel Peter Layard, the physician. Through his +mother, a daughter of Nathaniel Austen, banker, of Ramsgate, he +inherited Spanish blood. This strain of cosmopolitanism must have been +greatly strengthened by the circumstances of his education. Much of his +boyhood was spent in Italy, where he received part of his schooling, and +acquired a taste for the fine arts and a love of travel; but he was at +school also in England, France and Switzerland. After spending nearly +six years in the office of his uncle, Benjamin Austen, a solicitor, he +was tempted to leave England for Ceylon by the prospect of obtaining an +appointment in the civil service, and he started in 1839 with the +intention of making an overland journey across Asia. After wandering for +many months, chiefly in Persia, and having abandoned his intention of +proceeding to Ceylon, he returned in 1842 to Constantinople, where he +made the acquaintance of Sir Stratford Canning, the British ambassador, +who employed him in various unofficial diplomatic missions in European +Turkey. In 1845, encouraged and assisted by Canning, Layard left +Constantinople to make those explorations among the ruins of Assyria +with which his name is chiefly associated. This expedition was in +fulfilment of a design which he had formed, when, during his former +travels in the East, his curiosity had been greatly excited by the ruins +of Nimrud on the Tigris, and by the great mound of Kuyunjik, near Mosul, +already partly excavated by Botta. Layard remained in the neighbourhood +of Mosul, carrying on excavations at Kuyunjik and Nimrud, and +investigating the condition of various tribes, until 1847; and, +returning to England in 1848, published _Nineveh and its Remains: with +an Account of a Visit to the Chaldaean Christians of Kurdistan, and the +Yezidis, or Devil-worshippers; and an Inquiry into the Manners and Arts +of the Ancient Assyrians_ (2 vols., 1848-1849). To illustrate the +antiquities described in this work he published a large folio volume of +_Illustrations of the Monuments of Nineveh_ (1849). After spending a few +months in England, and receiving the degree of D.C.L. from the +university of Oxford, Layard returned to Constantinople as attaché to +the British embassy, and, in August 1849, started on a second +expedition, in the course of which he extended his investigations to the +ruins of Babylon and the mounds of southern Mesopotamia. His record of +this expedition, _Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon_, +which was illustrated by another folio volume, called _A Second Series +of the Monuments of Nineveh_, was published in 1853. During these +expeditions, often in circumstances of great difficulty, Layard +despatched to England the splendid specimens which now form the greater +part of the collection of Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum. +Apart from the archaeological value of his work in identifying Kuyunjik +as the site of Nineveh, and in providing a great mass of materials for +scholars to work upon, these two books of Layard's are among the +best-written books of travel in the language. + +Layard now turned to politics. Elected as a Liberal member for Aylesbury +in 1852, he was for a few weeks under-secretary for foreign affairs, but +afterwards freely criticized the government, especially in connexion +with army administration. He was present in the Crimea during the war, +and was a member of the committee appointed to inquire into the conduct +of the expedition. In 1855 he refused from Lord Palmerston an office not +connected with foreign affairs, was elected lord rector of Aberdeen +university, and on 15th June moved a resolution in the House of Commons +(defeated by a large majority) declaring that in public appointments +merit had been sacrificed to private influence and an adherence to +routine. After being defeated at Aylesbury in 1857, he visited India to +investigate the causes of the Mutiny. He unsuccessfully contested York +in 1859, but was elected for Southwark in 1860, and from 1861 to 1866 +was under-secretary for foreign affairs in the successive +administrations of Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell. In 1866 he +was appointed a trustee of the British Museum, and in 1868 chief +commissioner of works in W. E. Gladstone's government and a member of +the Privy Council. He retired from parliament in 1869, on being sent as +envoy extraordinary to Madrid. In 1877 he was appointed by Lord +Beaconsfield ambassador at Constantinople, where he remained until +Gladstone's return to power in 1880, when he finally retired from public +life. In 1878, on the occasion of the Berlin conference, he received the +grand cross of the Bath. Layard's political life was somewhat stormy. +His manner was brusque, and his advocacy of the causes which he had at +heart, though always perfectly sincere, was vehement to the point +sometimes of recklessness. Layard retired to Venice, where he devoted +much of his time to collecting pictures of the Venetian school, and to +writing on Italian art. On this subject he was a disciple of his friend +G. Morelli, whose views he embodied in his revision of F. Kugler's +_Handbook of Painting, Italian Schools_ (1887). He wrote also an +introduction to Miss Ffoulkes's translation of Morelli's _Italian +Painters_ (1892-1893), and edited that part of Murray's _Handbook of +Rome_ (1894) which deals with pictures. In 1887 he published, from notes +taken at the time, a record of his first journey to the East, entitled +_Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Babylonia_. An abbreviation of +this work, which as a book of travel is even more delightful than its +predecessors, was published in 1894, shortly after the author's death, +with a brief introductory notice by Lord Aberdare. Layard also from time +to time contributed papers to various learned societies, including the +Huguenot Society, of which he was first president. He died in London on +the 5th of July 1894. (A. Gl.) + + + + +LAYMEN, HOUSES OF, deliberative assemblies of the laity of the Church of +England, one for the province of Canterbury, and the other for the +province of York. That of Canterbury was formed in 1886, and that of +York shortly afterwards. They are merely consultative bodies, and the +primary intention of their foundation was to associate the laity in the +deliberations of convocation. They have no legal status. The members are +elected by the various diocesan conferences, which are in turn elected +by the laity of their respective parishes or rural deaneries. Ten +members are appointed for the diocese of London, six for each of the +dioceses of Winchester, Rochester, Lichfield and Worcester; and four for +each of the remaining dioceses. The president of each house has the +discretionary power of appointing additional laymen, not exceeding ten +in number. + + + + +LAYNEZ (or LAINEZ), DIEGO (1512-1565), the second general of the Society +of Jesus, was born in Castile, and after studying at Alcala joined +Ignatius of Loyola in Paris, being one of the six who with Loyola in +August 1534 took the vow of missionary work in Palestine in the +Montmartre church. This plan fell through, and Laynez became professor +of scholastic theology at Sapienza. After the order had been definitely +established (1540) Laynez was sent to Germany. He was one of the pope's +theologians at the council of Trent (q.v.), where he played a weighty +and decisive part. When Loyola died in 1556 Laynez acted as vicar of the +society, and two years later became general. Before his death at Rome, +on the 19th of January 1565, he had immensely strengthened the despotic +constitution of the order and developed its educational activities (see +JESUITS). + + His _Disputationes Tridentinae_ were published in 2 volumes in 1886. + Lives by Michel d'Esne (Douai, 1597) and Pet. Ribadeneira (Madrid, + 1592; Lat. trans. by A. Schott, Antwerp, 1598). See also H. Müller, + _Les Origines de la Compagnie de Jésus: Ignace et Lainez_ (1898). + + + + +LAZAR, one afflicted with the disease of leprosy (q.v.). The term is an +adaptation in medieval Latin of the name of Lazarus (q.v.), in Luke xvi. +20, who was supposed to be a leper. The word was not confined to persons +suffering from leprosy; thus Caxton (_The Life of Charles the Great_, +37), "there atte laste were guarysshed and heled viij lazars of the +palesey." + +LAZARETTO or LAZAR-HOUSE is a hospital for the reception of poor persons +suffering from the plague, leprosy or other infectious or contagious +diseases. A peculiar use of "lazaretto" is found in the application of +the term, now obsolete, to a place in the after-part of a merchant +vessel for the storage of provisions, &c. _Lazzarone_, a name now often +applied generally to beggars, is an Italian term, particularly used of +the poorest class of Neapolitans, who, without any fixed abode, live by +odd jobs and fishing, but chiefly by begging. + + + + +LAZARITES (LAZARISTS or LAZARIANS), the popular names of the +"Congregation of Priests of the Mission" in the Roman Catholic Church. +It had its origin in the successful mission to the common people +conducted by St Vincent de Paul (q.v.) and five other priests on the +estates of the Gondi family. More immediately it dates from 1624, when +the little community acquired a permanent settlement in the collège des +Bons Enfans in Paris. Archiepiscopal recognition was obtained in 1626; +by a papal bull of the 12th of January 1632, the society was constituted +a congregation, with St Vincent de Paul at its head. About the same time +the canons regular of St Victor handed over to the congregation the +priory of St Lazarus (formerly a lazar-house) in Paris, whence the name +of Lazarites or Lazarists. Within a few years they had acquired another +house in Paris and set up other establishments throughout France; +missions were also sent to Italy (1638), Tunis (1643), Algiers and +Ireland (1646), Madagascar (1648) and Poland (1651). A fresh bull of +Alexander VII. in April 1655 further confirmed the society; this was +followed by a brief in September of the same year, regulating its +constitution. The rules then adopted, which were framed on the model of +those of the Jesuits, were published at Paris in 1668 under the title +_Regulae seu constitutiones communes congregationis missionis_. The +special objects contemplated were the religious instruction of the lower +classes, the training of the clergy and foreign missions. During the +French Revolution the congregation was suppressed and St Lazare +plundered by the mob; it was restored by Napoleon in 1804 at the desire +of Pius VII., abolished by him in 1809 in consequence of a quarrel with +the pope, and again restored in 1816. The Lazarites were expelled from +Italy in 1871 and from Germany in 1873. The Lazarite province of Poland +was singularly prosperous; at the date of its suppression in 1796 it +possessed thirty-five establishments. The order was permitted to return +in 1816, but is now extinct there. In Madagascar it had a mission from +1648 till 1674. In 1783 Lazarites were appointed to take the place of +the Jesuits in the Levantine and Chinese missions; they still have some +footing in China, and in 1874 their establishments throughout the +Turkish empire numbered sixteen. In addition, they established branches +in Persia, Abyssinia, Mexico, the South American republics, Portugal, +Spain and Russia, some of which have been suppressed. In the same year +they had fourteen establishments in the United States of America. The +total number of Lazarites throughout the world is computed at about +3000. Amongst distinguished members of the congregation may be +mentioned: P. Collet (1693-1770), writer on theology and ethics; J. de +la Grive (1689-1757), geographer; E. Boré (d. 1878), orientalist; P. +Bertholon (1689-1757), physician; and Armand David, Chinese missionary +and traveller. + + See _Regulae seu constitutiones communes congregationis missionis_ + (Paris, 1668); _Mémoires de la congrégation de la mission_ (1863); + _Congrégation de la mission. Répertoire historique_ (1900); _Notices + bibliographiques sur les écrivains de la congrégation de la mission_ + (Angoulême, 1878); P. Hélyot, _Dict. des ordres religieux_, viii. + 64-77; M. Heimbrecher, _Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholischen + Kirche_, ii. (1897); C. Stork in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ + (Catholic), vii.; E. Bougaud, _History of St Vincent de Paul_ (1908). + + + + +LAZARUS (a contracted form of the Heb. name Eleazar, "God has helped," +Gr. [Greek: Lazaros]), a name which occurs in the New Testament in two +connexions. + +1. LAZARUS OF BETHANY, brother of Martha and Mary. The story that he +died and after four days was raised from the dead is told by John (xi., +xii.) only, and is not mentioned by the Synoptists. By many this is +regarded as the greatest of Christ's miracles. It produced a great +effect upon many Jews; the _Acta Pilati_ says that Pilate trembled when +he heard of it, and, according to Bayle's _Dictionary_, Spinoza declared +that if he were persuaded of its truth he would become a Christian. The +story has been attacked more vigorously than any other portion of the +Fourth Gospel, mainly on two grounds, (i.) the fact that, in spite of +its striking character, it is omitted by the Synoptists, and (ii.) its +unique significance. The personality of Lazarus in John's account, his +relation to Martha and Mary, and the possibility that John reconstructed +the story by the aid of inferences from the story of the supper in Luke +x. 40, and that of the anointing of Christ in Bethany given by Mark and +Matthew, are among the chief problems. The controversy has given rise to +a great mass of literature, discussions of which will be found in the +lives of Christ, the biblical encyclopaedias and the commentaries on St +John. + +2. LAZARUS is also the name given by Luke (xvi. 20) to the beggar in the +parable known as that of "Lazarus and Dives,"[1] illustrating the misuse +of wealth. There is little doubt that the name is introduced simply as +part of the parable, and not with any idea of identifying the beggar +with Lazarus of Bethany. It is curious, not only that Luke's story does +not appear in the other gospels, but also that in no other of Christ's +parables is a name given to the central character. Hence it was in early +times thought that the story was historical, not allegorical (see +LAZAR). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The English Bible does not use Lat. _Dives_ (rich) as a proper + name, saying merely "a certain rich man." The idea that Dives was a + proper name arose from the Vulgate _quidam dives_, whence it became a + conventional name for a rich man. + + + + +LAZARUS, EMMA (1849-1887), American Jewish poetess, was born in New +York. When the Civil War broke out she was soon inspired to lyric +expression. Her first book (1867) included poems and translations which +she wrote between the ages of fourteen and seventeen. As yet her models +were classic and romantic. At the age of twenty-one she published +_Admetus and other Poems_ (1871). _Admetus_ is inscribed to Emerson, who +greatly influenced her, and with whom she maintained a regular +correspondence for several years. She led a retired life, and had a +modest conception of her own powers. Much of her next work appeared in +_Lippincott's Magazine_, but in 1874 she published a prose romance +(_Alide_) based on Goethe's autobiography, and received a generous +letter of admiration from Turgeniev. Two years later she visited Concord +and made the acquaintance of the Emerson circle, and while there read +the proof-sheets of her tragedy _The Spagnoletto_. In 1881 she published +her excellent translations of Heine's poems. Meanwhile events were +occurring which appealed to her Jewish sympathies and gave a new turn to +her feeling. The Russian massacres of 1880-1881 were a trumpet-call to +her. So far her Judaism had been latent. She belonged to the oldest +Jewish congregation of New York, but she had not for some years taken a +personal part in the observances of the synagogue. But from this time +she took up the cause of her race, and "her verse rang out as it had +never rung before, a clarion note, calling a people to heroic action and +unity; to the consciousness and fulfilment of a grand destiny." Her +poems, "The Crowing of the Red Cock" and "The Banner of the Jew" (1882) +stirred the Jewish consciousness and helped to produce the new Zionism +(q.v.). She now wrote another drama, the _Dance to Death_, the scene of +which is laid in Nordhausen in the 14th century; it is based on the +accusation brought against the Jews of poisoning the wells and thus +causing the Black Death. The _Dance to Death_ was included (with some +translations of medieval Hebrew poems) in _Songs of a Semite_ (1882), +which she dedicated to George Eliot. In 1885 she visited Europe. She +devoted much of the short remainder of her life to the cause of Jewish +nationalism. In 1887 appeared _By the waters of Babylon_, which consists +of a series of "prose poems," full of prophetic fire. She died in New +York on the 19th of November 1887. A sonnet by Emma Lazarus is engraved +on a memorial tablet on the colossal Bartholdi statue of Liberty, New +York. + + See article in the _Century Magazine_, New Series, xiv. 875 (portrait + p. 803), afterwards prefixed as a _Memoir_ to the collected edition of + _The poems of Emma Lazarus_ (2 vols., 1889). (I. A.) + + + + +LAZARUS, HENRY (1815-1895), British clarinettist, was born in London on +the 1st of January 1815, and was a pupil of Blizard, bandmaster of the +Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea, and subsequently of Charles Godfrey, +senior, bandmaster of the Coldstream Guards. He made his first +appearance as a soloist at a concert of Mme Dulcken's, in April 1838, +and in that year he was appointed as second clarinet to the Sacred +Harmonic Society. From Willman's death in 1840 Lazarus was principal +clarinet at the opera, and all the chief festivals and orchestral +concerts. His beautiful tone, excellent phrasing and accurate execution +were greatly admired. He was professor of the clarinet at the Royal +Academy of Music from 1854 until within a short time of his death, and +was appointed to teach his instrument at the Military School of Music, +Kneller Hall, in 1858. His last public appearance was at a concert for +his benefit in St James's Hall, in June 1892, and he died on the 6th of +March 1895. + + + + +LAZARUS, MORITZ (1824-1903), German philosopher, was born on the 15th of +September 1824 at Filehne, Posen. The son of a rabbinical scholar, he +was educated in Hebrew literature and history, and subsequently in law +and philosophy at the university of Berlin. From 1860 to 1866 he was +professor in the university of Berne, and subsequently returned to +Berlin as professor of philosophy in the kriegsakademie (1868) and later +in the university of Berlin (1873). On the occasion of his seventieth +birthday he was honoured with the title of _Geheimrath_. The fundamental +principle of his philosophy was that truth must be sought not in +metaphysical or a priori abstractions but in psychological +investigation, and further that this investigation cannot confine itself +successfully to the individual consciousness, but must be devoted +primarily to society as a whole. The psychologist must study mankind +from the historical or comparative standpoint, analysing the elements +which constitute the fabric of society, with its customs, its +conventions and the main tendencies of its evolution. This +_Völkerpsychologie_ (folk- or comparative psychology) is one of the +chief developments of the Herbartian theory of philosophy; it is a +protest not only against the so-called scientific standpoint of natural +philosophers, but also against the individualism of the positivists. In +support of his theory he founded, in combination with H. Steinthal, the +_Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft_ (1859). His +own contributions to this periodical were numerous and important. His +chief work was _Das Leben der Seele_ (Berlin, 1855-1857; 3rd edition, +1883). Other philosophical works were:--_Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten_ +(1860 and 1867), _Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte_ (1865 and 1872); +_Zur Lehre von den Sinnestäuschungen_ (1867); _Ideale Fragen_ (1875 and +1885), _Erziehung und Geschichte_ (1881); _Unser Standpunkt_ (1881); +_Ueber die Reize des Spiels_ (1883). Apart from the great interest of +his philosophical work, Lazarus was pre-eminent among the Jews of the +so-called Semitic domination in Germany. Like Heine, Auerbach and +Steinthal, he rose superior to the narrower ideals of the German Jews, +and took a leading place in German literature and thought. He protested +against the violent anti-Semitism of the time, and, in spite of the +moderate tone of his publications, drew upon himself unqualified +censure. He wrote in this connexion a number of articles collected in +1887 under the title _Treu und Frei. Reden und Vorträge über Juden und +Judenthum_. In 1869 and 1871 he was president of the first and second +Jewish Synods at Leipzig and Augsburg. + + See R. Flint, _The Philosophy of History in Europe_; M. Brasch, + _Gesammelte Essays und Characterköpfe zur neuen Philos. und + Literatur_; E. Berliner, _Lazarus und die öffentliche Meinung_; M. + Brasch, "Der Begründer de Völkerpsychologie," in _Nord et Sud_, + (September 1894). + + + + +LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF, a religious and military order founded in +Jerusalem about the middle of the 12th century. Its primary object was +the tending of the sick, especially lepers, of whom Lazarus (see LAZAR) +was regarded as the patron. From the 13th century, the order made its +way into various countries of Europe--Sicily, Lower Italy and Germany +(Thuringia); but its chief centre of activity was France, where Louis +IX. (1253) gave the members the lands of Boigny near Orleans and a +building at the gates of Paris, which they turned into a lazar-house for +the use of the lepers of the city. A papal confirmation was obtained +from Alexander IV. in 1255. The knights were one hundred in number, and +possessed the right of marrying and receiving pensions charged on +ecclesiastical benefices. An eight-pointed cross was the insignia of +both the French and Italian orders. The gradual disappearance of +leprosy combined with other causes to secularize the order more and +more. In Savoy in 1572 it was merged by Gregory XIII. (at the instance +of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy) in the order of St Maurice (see +KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY: _Orders of Knighthood, Italy_). The chief task +of this branch was the defence of the Catholic faith, especially against +the Protestantism of Geneva. It continued to exist till the second half +of the 19th century. In 1608 it was in France united by Henry IV. with +the order of Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel. It was treated with especial +favour by Louis XIV., and the most brilliant period of its existence was +from 1673 to 1691, under the marquis de Louvois. From that time it began +to decay. It was abolished at the Revolution, reintroduced during the +Restoration, and formally abolished by a state decree of 1830. + + See L. Mainbourg, _Hist. des croisades_ (1682; Eng. trans. by Nalson, + 1686); P. Hélyot, _Hist. des ordres monastiques_ (1714), pp. 257, 386; + J. G. Uhlhorn, _Die christliche Liebesthätigkeit im Mittelalter_ + (Stuttgart, 1884); articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie für + protestantische Theologie_, xi. (1902) and Wetzer and Welte's + (Catholic) _Kirchenlexikon_, vii. (1891). + + + + +LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825-1909), American historian, was born at +Philadelphia on the 19th of September 1825. His father was a publisher, +whom in 1843 he joined in business, and he retained his connexion with +the firm till 1880. Weak health, however, caused him from early days to +devote himself to research, mainly on church history in the later middle +ages, and his literary reputation rests on the important books he +produced on this subject. These are: _Superstition and Force_ +(Philadelphia, 1866, new ed. 1892); _Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal +Celibacy_ (Philadelphia, 1867); _History of the Inquisition of the +Middle Ages_ (New York, 1888); _Chapters from the religious history of +Spain connected with the Inquisition_ (Philadelphia, 1890); _History of +auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church_ (3 vols., +London, 1896); _The Moriscos of Spain_ (Philadelphia, 1901), and +_History of the Inquisition of Spain_ (4 vols., New York and London, +1906-1907). He also edited a _Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the +13th century_ (Philadelphia, 1892), and in 1908 was published his +_Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies_. As an authority on the +Inquisition he stood in the highest rank of modern historians, and +distinctions were conferred on him by the universities of Harvard, +Princeton, Pennsylvania, Giessen and Moscow. He died at Philadelphia on +the 24th of October 1909. + + + + +LEAD (pronounced _leed_), a city of Lawrence county, South Dakota, +U.S.A., situated in the Black Hills, at an altitude of about 5300 ft., 3 +m. S.W. of Deadwood. Pop. (1890) 2581, (1900) 6210, of whom 2145 were +foreign-born, (1905) 8217, (1910) 8392. In 1905 it was second in +population among the cities of the state. It is served by the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, +Milwaukee & St Paul railways. Lead has a hospital, the Hearst Free +Library and the Hearst Free Kindergarten, and is the see of a Roman +Catholic bishopric. It is the centre of the mining interests of the +Black Hills, and the Homestake Gold Mine here contains perhaps the +largest and most easily worked mass of low-grade ore and one of the +largest mining plants (1000 stamps) in the world; it has also three +cyanide mills. From 1878 to 1906 the value of the gold taken from this +mine amounted to about $58,000,000, and the net value of the product of +1906 alone was approximately $5,313,516. For two months in the spring of +1907 the mine was rendered idle by a fire (March 25), which was so +severe that it was necessary to flood the entire mine. Mining tools and +gold jewelry are manufactured. The first settlement was made here by +mining prospectors in July 1876. Lead was chartered as a city in 1890 +and became a city of the first class in 1904. + + + + +LEAD, a metallic chemical element; its symbol is Pb (from the Lat. +_plumbum_), and atomic weight 207.10 (O = 16). This metal was known to +the ancients, and is mentioned in the Old Testament. The Romans used it +largely, as it is still used, for the making of water pipes, and +soldered these with an alloy of lead and tin. Pliny treats of these two +metals as _plumbum nigrum_ and _plumbum album_ respectively, which seems +to show that at his time they were looked upon as being only two +varieties of the same species. In regard to the ancients' knowledge of +lead compounds, we may state that the substance described by Dioscorides +as [Greek: molybdaina] was undoubtedly litharge, that Pliny uses the +word minium in its present sense of red lead, and that white lead was +well known to Geber in the 8th century. The alchemists designated it by +the sign of Saturn [symbol]. + +_Occurrence._--Metallic lead occurs in nature but very rarely and then +only in minute amount. The chief lead ores are galena and cerussite; of +minor importance are anglesite, pyromorphite and mimetesite (qq.v.). +Galena (q.v.), the principal lead ore, has a world-wide distribution, +and is always contaminated with silver sulphide, the proportion of noble +metal varying from about 0.01 or less to 0.3%, and in rare cases coming +up to ½ or 1%. Fine-grained galena is usually richer in silver than the +coarse-grained. Galena occurs in veins in the Cambrian clay-slate, +accompanied by copper and iron pyrites, zinc-blende, quartz, calc-spar, +iron-spar, &c.; also in beds or nests within sandstones and rudimentary +limestones, and in a great many other geological formations. It is +pretty widely diffused throughout the earth's crust. The principal +English lead mines are in Derbyshire; but there are also mines at +Allandale and other parts of western Northumberland, at Alston Moor and +other parts of Cumberland, in the western parts of Durham, in Swaledale +and Arkendale and other parts of Yorkshire, in Salop, in Cornwall, in +the Mendip Hills in Somersetshire, and in the Isle of Man. The Welsh +mines are chiefly in Flint, Cardigan and Montgomery shires; the Scottish +in Dumfries, Lanark and Argyll; and the Irish in Wicklow, Waterford and +Down. Of continental mines we may mention those in Saxony and in the +Harz, Germany; those of Carinthia, Austria; and especially those of the +southern provinces of Spain. It is widely distributed in the United +States, and occurs in Mexico and Brazil; it is found in Tunisia and +Algeria, in the Altai Mountains and India, and in New South Wales, +Queensland, and in Tasmania. + +The native carbonate or cerussite (q.v.) occasionally occurs in the pure +form, but more frequently in a state of intimate intermixture with clay +("lead earth," _Bleierde_), limestone, iron oxides, &c. (as in the ores +of Nevada and Colorado), and some times also with coal ("black lead +ore"). All native carbonate of lead seems to be derived from what was +originally galena, which is always present in it as an admixture. This +ore, metallurgically, was not reckoned of much value, until immense +quantities of it were discovered in Nevada and in Colorado (U.S.). The +Nevada mines are mostly grouped around the city of Eureka, where the ore +occurs in "pockets" disseminated at random through limestone. The crude +ore contains about 30% lead and 0.2 to 0.3% silver. The Colorado lead +district is in the Rocky Mountains, a few miles from the source of the +Arkansas river. It forms gigantic deposits of almost constant thickness, +embedded between a floor of limestone and a roof of porphyry. Stephens's +discovery of the ore in 1877 was the making of the city of Leadville, +which, in 1878, within a year of its foundation, had over 10,000 +inhabitants. The Leadville ore contains from 24 to 42% lead and 0.1 to +2% silver. In Nevada and Colorado the ore is worked chiefly for the sake +of the silver. Deposits are also worked at Broken Hill, New South Wales. + +Anglesite, or lead sulphate, PbSO4, is poor in silver, and is only +exceptionally mined by itself; it occurs in quantity in France, Spain, +Sardinia and Australia. Of other lead minerals we may mention the basic +sulphate lanarkite, PbO·PbSO4; leadhillite, PbSO4·3PbCO3; the basic +chlorides matlockite, PbO·PbCl2, and mendipite, PbCl2·2PbO; the +chloro-phosphate pyromorphite, PbCl2·3Pb3(PO4)2, the chloro-arsenate +mimetesite, PbCl2·3Pb3(AsO4)2; the molybdate wulfenite, PbMoO4; the +chromate crocoite or crocoisite, PbCrO4; the tungstate stolzite, PbWO4. + + _Production._--At the beginning of the 19th century the bulk of the + world's supply of lead was obtained from England and Spain, the former + contributing about 17,000 tons and the latter 10,000 tons annually. + Germany, Austria, Hungary, France, Russia and the United States began + to rank as producers during the second and third decades; Belgium + entered in about 1840; Italy in the 'sixties; Mexico, Canada, Japan + and Greece in the 'eighties; while Australia assumed importance in + 1888 with a production of about 18,000 tons, although it had + contributed small and varying amounts for many preceding decades. In + 1850 England headed the list of producers with about 66,000 tons; this + amount had declined in 1872 to 61,000 tons. Since this date, it has, + on the whole, diminished, although large outputs occurred in isolated + years, for instance, a production of 40,000 tons in 1893 was followed + by 60,000 tons in 1896 and 40,000 in 1897. The output in 1900 was + 35,000 tons, and in 1905, 25,000 tons. Spain ranked second in 1850 + with about 47,000 tons; this was increased in 1863, 1876 and in 1888 + to 84,000, 127,000 and 187,000 tons respectively; but the maximum + outputs mentioned were preceded and succeeded by periods of + depression. In 1900 the production was 176,000 tons, and in 1905, + 179,000 tons. The United States, which ranked third with a production + of 20,000 tons in 1850, maintained this annual yield, until 1870, when + it began to increase; the United States now ranks as the chief + producer; in 1900 the output was 253,000 tons, and in 1905, 319,744 + tons. Germany has likewise made headway; an output of 12,000 tons in + 1850 being increased to 120,000 tons in 1900 and to 152,590 in 1905. + This country now ranks third, having passed England in 1873. Mexico + increased its production from 18,000 tons in 1883 to 83,000 tons in + 1900 and about 88,000 tons in 1905. The Australian production of + 18,000 tons in 1888 was increased to 58,000 tons in 1891, a value + maintained until 1893, when a depression set in, only 21,000 tons + being produced in 1897; prosperity then returned, and in 1898 the + yield was 68,000 tons, and in 1905, 120,000 tons. Canada became + important in 1895 with a production of 10,000 tons; this increased to + 28,654 tons in 1900; and in 1905 the yield was 25,391 tons. Italy has + been a fairly steady producer; the output in 1896 was 20,000 tons, and + in 1905, 25,000 tons. + + +_Metallurgy._ + +The extraction of the metal from pure (or nearly pure) galena is the +simplest of all metallurgical operations. The ore is roasted (i.e. +heated in the presence of atmospheric oxygen) until all the sulphur is +burned away and the lead left. This simple statement, however, correctly +formulates only the final result. The first effect of the roasting is +the elimination of sulphur as sulphur-dioxide, with formation of oxide +and sulphate of lead. In practice this oxidation process is continued +until the whole of the oxygen is as nearly as possible equal in weight +to the sulphur present as sulphide or as sulphate, i.e. in the ratio S : +O2. The heat is then raised in (relative) absence of air, when the two +elements named unite into sulphur-dioxide, while a regulus of molten +lead remains. Lead ores are smelted in the reverberatory furnace, the +ore-hearth, and the blast-furnace. The use of the first two is +restricted, as they are suited only for galena ores or mixtures of +galena and carbonate, which contain not less than 58% lead and not more +than 4% silica; further, ores to be treated in the ore-hearth should run +low in or be free from silver, as the loss in the fumes is excessive. In +the blast-furnace all lead ores are successfully smelted. Blast-furnace +treatment has therefore become more general than any other. + + Three types of reverberatory practice are in vogue--the English, + Carinthian and Silesian. In Wales and the south of England the process + is conducted in a reverberatory furnace, the sole of which is paved + with slags from previous operations, and has a depression in the + middle where the metal formed collects to be let off by a tap-hole. + The dressed ore is introduced through a "hopper" at the top, and + exposed to a moderate oxidizing flame until a certain proportion of + ore is oxidized, openings at the side enabling the workmen to stir up + the ore so as to constantly renew the surface exposed to the air. At + this stage as a rule some rich slags of a former operation are added + and a quantity of quicklime is incorporated, the chief object of which + is to diminish the fluidity of the mass in the next stage, which + consists in this, that, with closed air-holes, the heat is raised so + as to cause the oxide and sulphate on the one hand and the sulphide on + the other to reduce each other to metal. The lead produced runs into + the hollow and is tapped off. The roasting process is then resumed, to + be followed by another reduction, and so on. + + A similar process is used in Carinthia; only the furnaces are smaller + and of a somewhat different form. They are long and narrow; the sole + is plane, but slopes from the fire-bridge towards the flue, so that + the metal runs to the latter end to collect in pots placed _outside_ + the furnace. In Carinthia the oxidizing process from the first is + pushed on so far that metallic lead begins to show, and the oxygen + introduced predominates over the sulphur left. The mass is then + stirred to liberate the lead, which is removed as _Rührblei_. Charcoal + is now added, and the heat urged on to obtain _Pressblei_, an inferior + metal formed partly by the action of the charcoal on the oxide of + lead. The fuel used is fir-wood. + + The Silesian furnace has an oblong hearth sloping from the fire-bridge + to the flue-bridge. This causes the lead to collect at the coolest + part of the hearth, whence it is tapped, &c., as in the English + furnace. While by the English and Carinthian processes as much lead as + possible is extracted in the furnace, with the Silesian method a very + low temperature is used, thus taking out about one-half of the lead + and leaving very rich slags (50% lead) to be smelted in the + blast-furnace, the ultimate result being a very much higher yield than + by either of the other processes. The loss in lead by the combined + reverberatory and blast-furnace treatment is only 3.2%. + + In Cumberland, Northumberland, Durham and latterly the United States, + the reverberatory furnace is used only for roasting the ore, and the + oxidized ore is then reduced by fusion in a low, square blast-furnace + (a "Scottish hearth furnace") lined with cast iron, as is also the + inclined sole-plate which is made to project beyond the furnace, the + outside portion (the "work-stone") being provided with grooves guiding + any molten metal that may be placed on the "stone" into a cast iron + pot; the "tuyère" for the introduction of the wind was, in the earlier + types, about half way down the furnace. + + As a preliminary to the melting process, the "browse" left in the + preceding operation (half-fused and imperfectly reduced ore) is + introduced with some peat and coal, and heated with the help of the + blast. It is then raked out on the work-stone and divided into a very + poor "grey" slag which is put aside, and a richer portion, which goes + back into the furnace. Some of the roasted ore is strewed upon it, + and, after a quarter of an hour's working, the whole is taken out on + the work-stone, where the lead produced runs off. The "browse," after + removal of the "grey" slag, is reintroduced, ore added, and, after a + quarter of an hour's heating, the mass again placed on the work-stone, + &c. + + In the more recent form of the hearth process the blocks of cast iron + forming the sides and back of the Scottish furnace are now generally + replaced in the United States by water-cooled shells (water-jackets) + of cast iron. In this way continuous working has been rendered + possible, whereas formerly operations had to be stopped every twelve + or fifteen hours to allow the over-heated blocks and furnace to cool + down. A later improvement (which somewhat changes the mode of working) + is that by Moffett. While he also prevents interruption of the + operation by means of water-jackets, he uses hot-blast, and produces, + besides metallic lead, large volumes of lead fumes which are drawn off + by fans through long cooling tubes, and then forced through suspended + bags which filter off the dust, called "blue powder." Thus, a mixture + of lead sulphate (45%) and oxide (44%) with some sulphide (8%), zinc + and carbonaceous matter, is agglomerated by a heap-roast and then + smelted in a slag-eye furnace with grey slag from the ore-hearth. The + furnace has, in addition to the usual tuyères near the bottom, a + second set near the throat in order to effect a complete oxidation of + all combustible matter. Much fume is thus produced. This is drawn off, + cooled and filtered, and forms a white paint of good body, consisting + of about 65% lead sulphate, 26% lead oxide, 6% zinc oxide and 3% other + substances. Thus in the Moffett method it is immaterial whether metal + or fume is produced, as in either case it is saved and the price is + about the same. + + In smelting at once in the same blast-furnace ores of different + character, the old use of separate processes of precipitation, + roasting and reduction, and general reduction prevailing in the Harz + Mountains, Freiberg and other places, to suit local conditions, has + been abandoned. Ores are smelted raw if the fall of matte (metallic + sulphide) does not exceed 5%; otherwise they are subjected to a + preliminary oxidizing roast to expel the sulphur, unless they run too + high in silver, say 100 oz. to the ton, when they are smelted raw. The + leading reverberatory furnace for roasting lead-bearing sulphide ores + has a level hearth 14-16 ft. wide and 60-80 ft. long. It puts through + 9-12 tons of ore in twenty-four hours, reducing the percentage of + sulphur to 2-4%, and requires four to six men and about 2 tons of + coal. In many instances it has been replaced by mechanical furnaces, + which are now common in roasting sulphide copper ores (see SULPHURIC + ACID). A modern blast-furnace is oblong in horizontal section and + about 24 ft. high from furnace floor to feed floor. The shaft, resting + upon arches supported by four cast iron columns about 9 ft. high, is + usually of brick, red brick on the outside, fire-brick on the inside; + sometimes it is made of wrought iron water-jackets. The smelting zone + always has a bosh and a contracted tuyère section. It is enclosed by + water-jackets, which are usually cast iron, sometimes mild steel. The + hearth always has an Arents siphon tap. This is an inclined channel + running through the side-wall, beginning near the bottom of the + crucible and ending at the top of the hearth, where it is enlarged + into a basin. The crucible and the channel form the two limbs of an + inverted siphon. While the furnace is running the crucible and channel + remain filled with lead; all the lead reduced to the metallic state in + smelting collects in the crucible, and rising in the channel, + overflows into the basin, whence it is removed. The slag and matte + formed float upon the lead in the crucible and are tapped, usually + together, at intervals into slag-pots, where the heavy matter settles + on the bottom and the light slag on the top. When cold they are + readily separated by a blow from a hammer. The following table gives + the dimensions of some well-known American lead-furnaces. + + _Lead Blast-Furnace._ + + +----------------------+------+----------+--------------+ + | Locality. | Year.| Tuyère |Height, Tuyère| + | | | Section. | to Throat. | + +----------------------+------+----------+--------------+ + | | | In. | Ft. | + | Leadville, Colorado | 1880 | 33 × 84 | 14 | + | Denver, " | 1880 | 36 × 100 | 17 | + | Durango, " | 1882 | 36 × 96 | 12.6 | + | Denver, " | 1892 | 42 × 100 | 16 | + | Leadville, " | 1892 | 42 × 120 | 18 | + | Salt Lake City, Utah | 1895 | 45 × 140 | 20 | + +----------------------+------+----------+--------------+ + + A furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyères, with a working height of + 17-20 ft., will put through in twenty-four hours, with twelve men, 12% + coke and 2 lb. blast-pressure, 85-100 tons average charge, i.e. one + that is a medium coarse, contains 12-15% lead, not over 5% zinc, and + makes under 5% matte. In making up a charge, the ores and fluxes, + whose chemical compositions have been determined, are mixed so as to + form out of the components not to be reduced to the metallic or + sulphide state, typical slags (silicates of ferrous and calcium + oxides, incidentally of aluminium oxide, which have been found to do + successful work). Such slags contain SiO2 = 30-33%, Fe(Mn)O = 27-50%, + Ca(Mg, Ba)O = 12-28%, and retain less than 1% lead and 1 oz. silver to + the ton. The leading products of the blast-furnace are argentiferous + lead (base bullion), matte, slag and flue-dust (fine particles of + charge and volatilized metal carried out of the furnace by the + ascending gas current). The base bullion (assaying 300 ± oz. per ton) + is desilverized (see below); the matte (Pb = 8-12%, Cu = 3-4%, Ag = + (1/3)-(1/5) of the assay-value of the base bullion, rest Fe and S) is + roasted and resmelted, when part of the argentiferous lead is + recovered as base bullion, while the rest remains with the copper, + which becomes concentrated in a copper-matte (60% copper) to be worked + up by separate processes. The slag is a waste product, and the + flue-dust, collected by special devices in dust-chambers, is + briquetted by machinery, with lime as a bond, and then resmelted with + the ore-charge. The yield in lead is over 90%, in silver over 97% and + in gold 100%. The cost of smelting a ton of ore in Colorado in a + single furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyères, is about $3. + + + Refining. + + The lead produced in the reverberatory furnace and the ore-hearth is + of a higher grade than that produced in the blast-furnace, as the ores + treated are purer and richer, and the reducing action is less + powerful. The following analysis of blast-furnace lead of Freiberg, + Saxony, is from an exceptionally impure lead: Pb = 95.088, Ag = 0.470, + Bi = 0.019, Cu = 0.225, As = 1.826, Sb = 0.958, Sn = 1.354, Fe = + 0.007, Zn = 0.002, S = 0.051. Of the impurities, most of the copper, + nickel and copper, considerable arsenic, some antimony and small + amounts of silver are removed by liquation. The lead is melted down + slowly, when the impurities separate in the form of a scum (dross), + which is easily removed. The purification by liquation is assisted by + poling the lead when it is below redness. A stick of green wood is + forced into it, and the vapours and gases set free expose new surfaces + to the air, which at this temperature has only a mildly oxidizing + effect. The pole, the use of which is awkward, has been replaced by + dry stream, which has a similar effect. To remove tin, arsenic and + antimony, the lead has to be brought up to a bright-red heat, when the + air has a strongly oxidizing effect. Tin is removed mainly as a + powdery mixture of stannate of lead and lead oxide, arsenic and + antimony as a slagged mixture of arsenate and antimonate of lead and + lead oxide. They are readily withdrawn from the surface of the lead, + and are worked up into antimony (arsenic)--tin-lead and antimony-lead + alloys. Liquation, if not followed by poling, is carried on as a rule + in a reverberatory furnace with an oblong, slightly trough-shaped + inclined hearth; if the lead is to be poled it is usually melted down + in a cast-iron kettle. If the lead is to be liquated and then brought + to a bright-red heat, both operations are carried on in the same + reverberatory furnace. This has an oblong, dish-shaped hearth of acid + or basic fire-brick built into a wrought-iron pan, which rests on + transverse rails supported by longitudinal walls. The lead is melted + down at a low temperature and drossed. The temperature is then raised, + and the scum which forms on the surface is withdrawn until pure + litharge forms, which only takes place after all the tin, arsenic and + antimony have been eliminated. + + + Desilverizing. + + Silver is extracted from lead by means of the process of cupellation. + Formerly all argentiferous lead had to be cupelled, and the resulting + litharge then reduced to metallic lead. In 1833 Pattinson invented his + process by means of which practically all the silver is concentrated + in 13% of the original lead to be cupelled, while the rest becomes + market lead. In 1842 Karsten discovered that lead could be + desilverized by means of zinc. His invention, however, only took + practical form in 1850-1852 through the researches of Parkes, who + showed how the zinc-silver-lead alloy formed could be worked and the + desilverized lead freed from the zinc it had taken up. In the Parkes + process only 5% of the original lead need be cupelled. Thus, while + cupellation still furnishes the only means for the final separation of + lead and silver, it has become an auxiliary process to the two methods + of concentration given. Of these the Pattinson process has become + subordinate to the Parkes process, as it is more expensive and leaves + more silver and impurities in the market lead. It holds its own, + however, when base bullion contains bismuth in appreciable amounts, as + in the Pattinson process bismuth follows the lead to be cupelled, + while in the Parkes process it remains with the desilverized lead + which goes to market, and lead of commerce should contain little + bismuth. At Freiberg, Saxony, the two processes have been combined. + The base bullion is imperfectly Pattinsonized, giving lead rich in + silver and bismuth, which is cupelled, and lead low in silver, and + especially so in bismuth, which is further desilverized by the Parkes + process. + + The effect of the two processes on the purity of the market lead is + clearly shown by the two following analyses by Hampe, which represent + lead from Lautenthal in the Harz Mountains, where the Parkes process + replaced that of Pattinson, the ores and smelting process remaining + practically the same:-- + + +----------+-----------+----------+----------+------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Process. | Pb. | Cu. | Sb. | As. | Bi. | Ag. | Fe. | Zn. | Ni. | + +----------+-----------+----------+----------+------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Pattinson| 99.966200 | 0.015000 | 1.010000 | none | 0.000600 | 0.002200 | 0.004000 | 0.001000 | 1.001000 | + | Parkes | 99.983139 | 0.001413 | 0.005698 | none | 0.005487 | 0.000460 | 0.002289 | 0.000834 | 0.000680 | + +----------+-----------+----------+----------+------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + + + Cupelling. + + The reverberatory furnace commonly used for cupelling goes by the name + of the English cupelling furnace. It is oblong, and has a fixed roof + and a movable iron hearth (test). Formerly the test was lined with + bone-ash; at present the hearth material is a mixture of crushed + limestone and clay (3:1) or Portland cement, either alone or mixed + with crushed fire-brick; in a few instances the lining has been made + of burnt magnesite. In the beginning of the operation enough + argentiferous lead is charged to fill the cavity of the test. After it + has been melted down and brought to a red heat, the blast, admitted at + the back, oxidizes the lead and drives the litharge formed towards the + front, where it is run off. At the same time small bars of + argentiferous lead, inserted at the back, are slowly pushed forward, + so that in melting down they may replace the oxidized lead. Thus the + level of the lead is kept approximately constant, and the silver + becomes concentrated in the lead. In large works the silver-lead alloy + is removed when it contains 60-80% silver, and the cupellation of the + rich bullion from several concentration furnaces is finished in a + second furnace. At the same time the silver is brought to the required + degree of fineness, usually by the use of nitre. In small works the + cupellation is finished in one furnace, and the resulting low-grade + silver fined in a plumbago crucible, either by overheating in the + presence of air, or by the addition of silver sulphate to the melted + silver, when air or sulphur trioxide and oxygen oxidize the + impurities. The lead charged contains about 1.5% lead if it comes from + a Pattinson plant, from 5-10% if from a Parkes plant. In a test 7 ft. + by 4 ft. 10 in. and 4 in. deep, about 6 tons of lead are cupelled in + twenty-four hours. A furnace is served by three men, working in + eight-hour shifts, and requires about 2 tons of coal, which + corresponds to about 110 gallons reduced oil, air being used as + atomizer. The loss in lead is about 5%. The latest cupelling furnaces + have the general form of a reverberatory copper-smelting furnace. The + working door through which the litharge is run off lies under the flue + which carries off the products of combustion and the lead fumes, the + lead is charged and the blast is admitted near the fire-bridge. + + + Pattinson process. + + In the _Pattinson_ process the argentiferous lead is melted down in + the central cast iron kettle of a series 8-15, placed one next to the + other, each having a capacity of 9-15 tons and a separate fire-place. + The crystals of impoverished lead which fall to the bottom, upon + coaling the charge, are taken out with a skimmer and discharged into + the neighbouring kettle (say to the right) until about two-thirds of + the original charge has been removed; then the liquid enriched lead is + ladled into the kettle on the opposite side. To the kettle, two-thirds + full of crystals of lead, is now added lead of the same tenor in + silver, the whole is liquefied, and the cooling, crystallizing, + skimming and ladling are repeated. The same is done with the kettle + one-third filled with liquid lead, and so on until the first kettle + contains market lead, the last cupelling lead. The intervening kettles + contain leads with silver contents ranging from above market to below + cupelling lead. The original Pattinson process has been in many cases + replaced by the Luce-Rozan process (1870), which does away with + arduous labour and attains a more satisfactory crystallization. The + plant consists of two tilting oval metal pans (capacity 7 tons), one + cylindrical crystallizing pot (capacity 22 tons), with two discharging + spouts and one steam inlet opening, two lead moulds (capacity 3½ + tons), and a steam crane. Pans and pot are heated from separate + fire-places. Supposing the pot to be filled with melted lead to be + treated, the fire is withdrawn beneath and steam introduced. This + cools and stirs the lead when crystals begin to form. As soon as + two-thirds of the lead has separated in the form of crystals, the + steam is shut off and the liquid lead drained off through the two + spouts into the moulds. The fire underneath the pot is again started, + the crystals are liquefied, and one of the two pans, filled with + melted lead, is tilted by means of the crane and its contents poured + into the pot. In the meantime the lead in the moulds, which has + solidified, is removed with the crane and stacked to one side, until + its turn comes to be raised and charged into one of the pans. The + crystallization proper lasts one hour, the working of a charge four + hours, six charges being run in twenty-four hours. + + + Parkes process. + + It is absolutely necessary for the success of the _Parkes_ process + that the zinc and lead should contain only a small amount of impurity. + The spelter used must therefore be of a good grade, and the lead is + usually first refined in a reverberatory furnace (the softening + furnace). The capacity of the furnace must be 10% greater than that of + the kettle into which the softened lead is tapped, as the dross and + skimmings formed amount to about 10% of the weight of the lead + charged. The kettle is spherical, and is suspended over a fire-place + by a broad rim resting on a wall; it is usually of cast iron. Most + kettles at present hold 30 tons of lead; some, however, have double + that capacity. When zinc is placed on the lead (heated to above the + melting-point of zinc), liquefied and brought into intimate contact + with the lead by stirring, gold, copper, silver and lead will combine + with the zinc in the order given. By beginning with a small amount of + zinc, all the gold and copper and some silver and lead will be alloyed + with the zinc to a so-called gold--or copper--crust, and the residual + lead saturated with zinc. By removing from the surface of the lead + this first crust and working it up separately (liquating, retorting + and cupelling), doré silver is obtained. By the second addition of + zinc most of the silver will be collected in a saturated + zinc-silver-lead crust, which, when worked up, gives fine silver. A + third addition becomes necessary to remove the rest of the silver, + when the lead will assay only 0.1 oz. silver per ton. As this complete + desilverization is only possible by the use of an excess of zinc, the + unsaturated zinc-silver-lead alloy is put aside to form part of the + second zincking of the next following charge. In skimming the crust + from the surface of the lead some unalloyed lead is also drawn off, + and has to be separated by an additional operation (liquation), as, + running lower in silver than the crust, it would otherwise reduce its + silver content and increase the amount of lead to be cupelled. A + zincking takes 5-6 hours; 1.5-2.5% zinc is required for desilverizing. + The liquated zinc-silver-lead crust contains 5-10% silver, 30-40% zinc + and 65-50% lead. Before it can be cupelled it has to be freed from + most of the zinc, which is accomplished by distilling in a retort made + of a mixture similar to that of the plumbago crucible. The retort is + pear-shaped, and holds 1000-1500 lb of charge, consisting of liquated + crust mixed with 1-3% of charcoal. The condenser commonly used is an + old retort. The distillation of 1000 lb. charge lasts 5-6 hours, + requires 500-600 lb. coke or 30± gallons reduced oil, and yields about + 10% metallic zinc and 1% blue powder--a mixture of finely-divided + metallic zinc and zinc oxide. About 60% of the zinc used in + desilverizing is recovered in a form to be used again. One man serves + 2-4 retorts. The desilverized lead, which retains 0.6-0.7% zinc, has + to be refined before it is suited for industrial use. The operation is + carried on in a reverberatory furnace or in a kettle. In the + reverberatory furnace, similar to the one used in softening, the lead + is brought to a bright-red heat and air allowed to have free access. + The zinc and some lead are oxidized; part of the zinc passes off with + the fumes, part is dissolved by the litharge, forming a melted mixture + which is skimmed off and reduced in a blast-furnace or a reverberatory + smelting furnace. In the kettle covered with a hood the zinc is + oxidized by means of dry steam, and incidentally some lead by the air + which cannot be completely excluded. A yellowish powdery mixture of + zinc and lead oxides collects on the lead; it is skimmed off and sold + as paint. From the reverberatory furnace or the kettle the refined + lead is siphoned off into a storage (market) kettle after it has + cooled somewhat, and from this it is siphoned off into moulds placed + in a semi-circle on the floor. In the process the yield in metal, + based upon the charge in the kettle, is lead 99%, silver 100+%, gold + 98-100%. The plus-silver is due to the fact that in assaying the base + bullion by cupellation, the silver lost by volatilization and + cupel-absorption is neglected. In the United States the cost of + desilverizing a ton base bullion is about $6. + +_Properties of Lead._--Pure lead is a feebly lustrous bluish-white +metal, endowed with a characteristically high degree of softness and +plasticity, and almost entirely devoid of elasticity. Its breaking +strain is very small: a wire (1/10)th in. thick is ruptured by a charge +of about 30 lb. The specific gravity is 11.352 for ingot, and from +11.354 to 11.365 for sheet lead (water of 4°C. = 1). The expansion of +unit-length from 0°C. to to 100°C. is .002948 (Fizeau). The conductivity +for heat (Wiedemann and Franz) or electricity is 8.5, that of silver +being taken as 100. It melts at 327.7°C. (H. L. Callendar); at a +bright-red heat it perceptibly vapourizes, and boils at a temperature +between 1450° and 1600°. The specific heat is .0314 (Regnault). Lead +exposed to ordinary air is rapidly tarnished, but the thin dark film +formed is very slow in increasing. When kept fused in the presence of +air lead readily takes up oxygen, with the formation at first of a +dark-coloured scum, and then of monoxide PbO, the rate of oxidation +increasing with the temperature. + +Water when absolutely pure has no action on lead, but in the presence of +air the lead is quickly attacked, with formation of the hydrate, +Pb(OH)2, which is appreciably soluble in water forming an alkaline +liquid. When carbonic acid is present the dissolved oxide is soon +precipitated as basic carbonate, so that the corrosion of the lead +becomes continuous. Since all soluble lead compounds are strong +cumulative poisons, danger is involved in using lead cisterns or pipes +in the distribution of _pure_ waters. The word "pure" is emphasized +because experience shows that the presence in a water of even small +proportions of calcium bicarbonate or sulphate prevents its action on +lead. All impurities do not act in a similar way. Ammonium nitrate and +nitrite, for instance, intensify the action of a water on lead. Even +pure waters, however, such as that of Loch Katrine (which forms the +Glasgow supply), act so slowly, at least on such lead pipes as have +already been in use for some time, that there is no danger in using +short lead service pipes even for them, if the taps are being constantly +used. Lead cisterns must be unhesitatingly condemned. + +The presence of carbonic acid in a water does not affect its action on +lead. Aqueous non-oxidizing acids generally have little or no action on +lead in the absence of air. Dilute sulphuric acid (say an acid of 20% +H2SO4 or less) has no action on lead even when air is present, nor on +boiling. Strong acid does act, the more so the greater its concentration +and the higher its temperature. Pure lead is far more readily corroded +than a metal contaminated with 1% or even less of antimony or copper. +Boiling concentrated sulphuric acid converts lead into sulphate, with +evolution of sulphur dioxide. Dilute nitric acid readily dissolves the +metal, with formation of nitrate Pb(NO3)2. + +_Lead Alloys._--Lead, unites readily with almost all other metals; +hence, and on account of its being used for the extraction of (for +instance) silver, its alchemistic name of _saturnus_. Of the alloys the +following may be named:-- + + _With Antimony._--Lead contaminated with small proportions of antimony + is more highly proof against sulphuric acid than the pure metal. An + alloy of 83 parts of lead and 17 of antimony is used as type metal; + other proportions are used, however, and other metals added besides + antimony (e.g. tin, bismuth) to give the alloy certain properties. + + _Arsenic_ renders lead harder. An alloy made by addition of about + (1/56)th of arsenic has been used for making shot. + + _Bismuth and Antimony._--An alloy consisting of 9 parts of lead, 2 of + antimony and 2 of bismuth is used for stereotype plates. + + _Bismuth and Tin._--These triple alloys are noted for their low fusing + points. An alloy of 5 of lead, 8 of bismuth and 3 of tin fuses at + 94.4°C, i.e. below the boiling-point of water (Rose's metal). An alloy + of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium (Wood's + alloy) melts below 70°C. + + _Tin_ unites with lead in any proportion with slight expansion, the + alloy fusing at a lower temperature than either component. It is used + largely for soldering. + + "Pewter" (q.v.) may be said to be substantially an alloy of the same + two metals, but small quantities of copper, antimony and zinc are + frequently added. + + +_Compounds of Lead._ + +Lead generally functions as a divalent element of distinctly metallic +character, yielding a definite series of salts derived from the oxide +PbO. At the same time, however, it forms a number of compounds in which +it is most decidedly tetravalent; and thus it shows relations to carbon, +silicon, germanium and tin. + + _Oxides._--Lead combines with oxygen to form five oxides, viz. Pb2O, + PbO, PbO2, Pb2O3 and Pb3O4. The _suboxide_, Pb2O, is the first product + of the oxidation of lead, and is also obtained as a black powder by + heating lead oxalate to 300° out of contact with air. It ignites when + heated in air with the formation of the monoxide; dilute acids convert + it into metallic lead and lead monoxide, the latter dissolving in the + acid. The _monoxide_, PbO, occurs in nature as the mineral _lead + ochre_. This oxide is produced by heating lead in contact with air and + removing the film of oxide as formed. It is manufactured in two forms, + known as "massicot" and "litharge." The former is produced at + temperatures below, the latter at temperatures above the fusing-point + of the oxide. The liquid litharge when allowed to cool solidifies into + a hard stone-like mass, which, however, when left to itself, soon + crumbles up into a heap of resplendent dark yellow scales known as + "flake litharge." "Buff" or "levigated litharge" is prepared by + grinding the larger pieces under water. Litharge is much used for the + preparation of lead salts, for the manufacture of oil varnishes, of + certain cements, and of lead plaster, and for other purposes. Massicot + is the raw material for the manufacture of "red lead" or "minium." + + Lead monoxide is dimorphous, occurring as cubical dodecahedra and as + rhombic octahedra. Its specific gravity is about 9; it is sparingly + soluble in water, but readily dissolves in acids and molten alkalis. A + yellow and red modification have been described (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._, + 1906, 50, p. 265). The corresponding _hydrate_, Pb(OH)2, is obtained + as a white crystalline precipitate by adding ammonia to a solution of + lead nitrate or acetate. It dissolves in an excess of alkali to form + _plumbites_ of the general formula Pb(OM)2. It absorbs carbon dioxide + from the air when moist. A hydrated oxide, 2PbO·H2O, is obtained when + a solution of the monoxide in potash is treated with carbon dioxide. + + _Lead dioxide_, PbO2, also known as "puce oxide," occurs in nature as + the mineral plattnerite, and may be most conveniently prepared by + heating mixed solutions of lead acetate and bleaching powder until the + original precipitate blackens. The solution is filtered, the + precipitate well washed, and, generally, is put up in the form of a + paste in well-closed vessels. It is also obtained by passing chlorine + into a suspension of lead oxide or carbonate, or of magnesia and lead + sulphate, in water; or by treating the sesquioxide or red oxide with + nitric acid. The formation of lead dioxide by the electrolysis of a + lead solution, the anode being a lead plate coated with lead oxide or + sulphate and the cathode a lead plate, is the fundamental principle of + the storage cell (see ACCUMULATOR). Heating or exposure to sunlight + reduces it to the red oxide; it fires when ground with sulphur, and + oxidizes ammonia to nitric acid, with the simultaneous formation of + ammonium nitrate. It oxidizes a manganese salt (free from chlorine) in + the presence of nitric acid to a permanganate; this is a very delicate + test for manganese. It forms crystallizable salts with potassium and + calcium hydrates, and functions as a weak acid forming salts named + plumbates. The Kassner process for the manufacture of oxygen depends + upon the formation of calcium plumbate, Ca2PbO4, by heating a mixture + of lime and litharge in a current of air, decomposing this substance + into calcium carbonate and lead dioxide by heating in a current of + carbon dioxide, and then decomposing these compounds with the + evolution of carbon dioxide and oxygen by raising the temperature. + _Plumbic acid_, PbO(OH)2, is obtained as a bluish-black, lustrous body + of electrolysing an alkaline solution of lead sodium tartrate. + + _Tetravalent Lead._--If a suspension of lead dichloride in + hydrochloric acid be treated with chlorine gas, a solution of lead + tetrachloride is obtained; by adding ammonium chloride ammonium + plumbichloride, (NH4)2PbCl6, is precipitated, which on treatment with + strong sulphuric acid yields _lead tetrachloride_, PbCl4, as a + translucent, yellow, highly refractive liquid. It freezes at -15° to a + yellowish crystalline mass; on heating it loses chlorine and forms + lead dichloride. With water it forms a hydrate, and ultimately + decomposes into lead dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It combines with + alkaline chlorides--potassium, rubidium and caesium--to form + crystalline _plumbichlorides_; it also forms a crystalline compound + with quinoline. By dissolving red lead, Pb3O4, in glacial acetic acid + and crystallizing the filtrate, colourless monoclinic prisms of lead + tetracetate, Pb(C2H3O2)4, are obtained. This salt gives the + corresponding chloride and fluoride with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric + acids, and the phosphate, Pb(HPO4)2, with phosphoric acid. + + These salts are like those of tin; and the resemblance to this metal + is clearly enhanced by the study of the alkyl compounds. Here + compounds of divalent lead have not yet been obtained; by acting with + zinc ethide on lead chloride, _lead tetraethide_, Pb(C2H3)4, is + obtained, with the separation of metallic lead. + + _Lead sesquioxide_, Pb2O3, is obtained as a reddish-yellow amorphous + powder by carefully adding sodium hypochlorite to a cold potash + solution of lead oxide, or by adding very dilute ammonia to a solution + of red lead in acetic acid. It is decomposed by acids into a mixture + of lead monoxide and dioxide, and may thus be regarded as lead + metaplumbate, PbPbO3. _Red lead_ or _triplumbic tetroxide_, Pb3O4, is + a scarlet crystalline powder of specific gravity 8.6-9.1, obtained by + roasting very finely divided pure massicot or lead carbonate; the + brightness of the colour depends in a great measure on the roasting. + Pliny mentions it under the name of _minium_, but it was confused with + cinnabar and the red arsenic sulphide; Dioscorides mentions its + preparation from white lead or lead carbonate. On heating it assumes a + finer colour, but then turns violet and finally black; regaining, + however, its original colour on cooling. On ignition, it loses oxygen + and forms litharge. Commercial red lead is frequently contaminated + with this oxide, which may, however, be removed by repeated digestion + with lead acetate. Its common adulterants are iron oxides, powdered + barytes and brick dust. Acids decompose it into lead dioxide and + monoxide, and the latter may or may not dissolve to form a salt; red + lead may, therefore, be regarded as _lead orthoplumbate_, Pb2PbO4. It + is chiefly used as a pigment and in the manufacture of flint glass. + + _Lead chloride_, PbCl2, occurs in nature as the mineral cotunnite, + which crystallizes in the rhombic system, and is found in the + neighbourhood of volcanic craters. It is artificially obtained by + adding hydrochloric acid to a solution of lead salt, as a white + precipitate, little soluble in cold water, less so in dilute + hydrochloric acid, more so in the strong acid, and readily soluble in + hot water, from which on cooling, the excess of dissolved salt + separates out in silky rhombic needles. It melts at 485° and + solidifies on cooling to a translucent, horn-like mass; an early name + for it was _plumbum corneum_, horn lead. A basic chloride, Pb(OH)Cl, + was introduced in 1849 by Pattinson as a substitute for white lead. + Powdered galena is dissolved in hot hydrochloric acid, the solution + allowed to cool and the deposit of impure lead chloride washed with + cold water to remove iron and copper. The residue is then dissolved in + hot water, filtered, and the clear solution is mixed with very thin + milk of lime so adjusted that it takes out one-half of the chlorine of + the PbCl2. The oxychloride comes down as an amorphous white + precipitate. Another oxychloride, PbCl2·7PbO, known as "Cassel + yellow," was prepared by Vauquelin by fusing pure oxide, PbO, with + one-tenth of its weight of sal ammoniac. "Turner's yellow" or "patent + yellow" is another artificially prepared oxychloride, used as a + pigment. Mendipite and matlockite are mineral oxychlorides. + + _Lead, fluoride_, PbF2, is a white powder obtained by precipitating a + lead salt with a soluble fluoride; it is sparingly soluble in water + but readily dissolves in hydrochloric and nitric acids. A + chloro-fluoride, PbClF, is obtained by adding sodium fluoride to a + solution of lead chloride. Lead bromide, PbBr2, a white solid, and + lead iodide, PbI2, a yellow solid, are prepared by precipitating a + lead salt with a soluble bromide or iodide; they resemble the chloride + in solubility. + + _Lead carbonate_, PbCO3, occurs in nature as the mineral cerussite + (q.v.). It is produced by the addition of a solution of lead salt to + an excess of ammonium carbonate, as an almost insoluble white + precipitate. Of greater practical importance is a basic carbonate, + substantially 2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2, largely used as a white pigment under + the name of "white lead." This pigment is of great antiquity; + Theophrastus called it [Greek: psimythion], and prepared it by acting + on lead with vinegar, and Pliny, who called it _cerussa_, obtained it + by dissolving lead in vinegar and evaporating to dryness. It thus + appears that white lead and sugar of lead were undifferentiated. Geber + gave the preparation in a correct form, and T. O. Bergman proved its + composition. This pigment is manufactured by several methods. In the + old Dutch method, pieces of sheet lead are suspended in stoneware pots + so as to occupy the upper two-thirds of the vessels. A little vinegar + is poured into each pot; they are then covered with plates of sheet + lead, buried in horse-dung or spent tanner's bark, and left to + themselves for a considerable time. By the action of the acetic acid + and atmospheric oxygen, the lead is converted superficially into a + basic acetate, which is at once decomposed by the carbon dioxide, with + formation of white lead and acetic acid, which latter then acts _de + novo_. After a month or so the plates are converted to a more or less + considerable depth into crusts of white lead. These are knocked off, + ground up with water, freed from metal-particles by elutriation, and + the paste of white lead is allowed to set and dry in small conical + forms. The German method differs from the Dutch inasmuch as the lead + is suspended in a large chamber heated by ordinary means, and there + exposed to the simultaneous action of vapour of aqueous acetic acid + and of carbon dioxide. Another process depends upon the formation of + lead chloride by grinding together litharge with salt and water, and + then treating the alkaline fluid with carbon dioxide until it is + neutral. White lead is an earthy, amorphous powder. The inferior + varieties of commercial "white lead" are produced by mixing the + genuine article with more or less of finely powdered heavy spar or + occasionally zinc-white (ZnO). Venetian white, Hamburg white and Dutch + white are mixtures of one part of white lead with one, two and three + parts of barium sulphate respectively. + + _Lead sulphide_, PbS, occurs in nature as the mineral galena (q.v.), + and constitutes the most valuable ore of lead. It may be artificially + prepared by leading sulphur vapour over lead, by fusing litharge with + sulphur, or, as a black precipitate, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen + into a solution of a lead salt. It dissolves in strong nitric acid + with the formation of the nitrate and sulphate, and also in hot + concentrated hydrochloric acid. + + _Lead sulphate_, PbSO4, occurs in nature as the mineral anglesite + (q.v.), and may be prepared by the addition of sulphuric acid to + solutions of lead salts, as a white precipitate almost insoluble in + water (1 in 21,739), less soluble still in dilute sulphuric acid (1 in + 36,504) and insoluble in alcohol. Ammonium sulphide blackens it, and + it is coluble in solution of ammonium acetate, which distinguishes it + from barium sulphate. Strong sulphuric acid dissolves it, forming an + acid salt, Pb(HSO4)2, which is hydrolysed by adding water, the normal + sulphate being precipitated; hence the milkiness exhibited by samples + of oil of vitriol on dilution. + + _Lead nitrate_, Pb(NO3)2, is obtained by dissolving the metal or oxide + in aqueous nitric acid; it forms white crystals, difficultly soluble + in cold water, readily in hot water and almost insoluble in strong + nitric acid. It was mentioned by Libavius, who named it _calx plumb + dulcis_. It is decomposed by heat into oxide, nitrogen peroxide and + oxygen; and is used for the manufacture of fusees and other + deflagrating compounds, and also for preparing mordants in the dyeing + and calico-printing industries. Basic nitrates, e.g. Pb(NO3)OH, + Pb3O(OH)2(NO3)2, Pb3O2(OH)NO3, &c., have been described. + + _Lead Phosphates._--The normal ortho-phosphate, Pb3(PO4)2, is a white + precipitate obtained by adding sodium phosphate to lead acetate; the + acid phosphate, PbHPO4, is produced by precipitating a boiling + solution of lead nitrate with phosphoric acid; the pyrophosphate and + meta-phosphate are similar white precipitates. + + _Lead Borates._--By fusing litharge with boron trioxide, glasses of a + composition varying with the proportions of the mixture are obtained; + some of these are used in the manufacture of glass. The borate, + Pb2B6O11·4H2O, is obtained as a white precipitate by adding borax to a + lead salt; this on heating with strong ammonia gives PbB2O4·H2·O, + which, in turn, when boiled with a solution of boric acid, gives + PbB4O7·4H2O. + + _Lead silicates_ are obtained as glasses by fusing litharge with + silica; they play a considerable part in the manufacture of the lead + glasses (see GLASS). + + _Lead chromate_, PbCrO4, is prepared industrially as a yellow pigment, + chrome yellow, by precipitating sugar of lead solution with potassium + bichromate. The beautiful yellow precipitate is little soluble in + dilute nitric acid, but soluble in caustic potash. The vermilion-like + pigment which occurs in commerce as "chrome-red" is a basic chromate, + Pb2CrO5, prepared by treating recently precipitated normal chromate + with a properly adjusted proportion of caustic soda, or by boiling it + with normal (yellow) potassium chromate. + + _Lead acetate_, Pb(C2H3O2)2·3H2O (called "sugar" of lead, on account + of its sweetish taste), is manufactured by dissolving massicot in + aqueous acetic acid. It forms colourless transparent crystals, soluble + in one and a half parts of cold water and in eight parts of alcohol, + which on exposure to ordinary air become opaque through absorption of + carbonic acid, which forms a crust of basic carbonate. An aqueous + solution readily dissolves lead oxide, with formation of a strongly + alkaline solution containing basic acetates (_Acetum Plumbi_ or + _Saturni_). When carbon dioxide is passed into this solution the whole + of the added oxide, and even part of the oxide of the normal salt, is + precipitated as a basic carbonate chemically similar, but not quite + equivalent as a pigment, to white lead. + +_Analysis._--When mixed with sodium carbonate and heated on charcoal in +the reducing flame lead salts yield malleable globules of metal and a +yellow oxide-ring. Solutions of lead salts (colourless in the absence of +coloured acids) are characterized by their behaviour to hydrochloric +acid, sulphuric acid and potassium chromate. But the most delicate +precipitant for lead is sulphuretted hydrogen, which produces a black +precipitate of lead sulphide, insoluble in cold dilute nitric acid, less +so in cold hydrochloric, and easily decomposed by hot hydrochloric acid +with formation of the characteristic chloride. The atomic weight, +determined by G. P. Baxter and J. H. Wilson (_J. Amer. Chem. Soc._, +1908, 30, p. 187) by analysing the chloride, is 270.190 (O = 16). + + +_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._ + +The metal itself is not used in medicine. The chief pharmacopoeial salts +are: (1) _Plumbi oxidum_ (lead oxide), litharge. It is not used +internally, but from it is made _Emplastrum Plumbi_ (diachylon plaster), +which is an oleate of lead and is contained in emplastrum hydrargeri, +emplastrum plumbi iodidi, emplastrum resinae, emplastrum saponis. (2) +_Plumbi Acetas_ (sugar of lead), dose 1 to 5 grains. From this salt are +made the following preparations: (a) _Pilula Plumbi cum Opio_, the +strength of the opium in it being 1 in 8, dose 2 to 4 grains; (b) +_Suppositoria Plumbi composita_, containing lead acetate, opium and oil +of theobroma, there being one grain of opium in each suppository; (c) +_Unguentum Plumbi Acetatis_; (d) _Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Fortior_, +Goulard's extract, strength 24% of the subacetate; this again has a +sub-preparation, the _Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutis_, called +Goulard's water or Goulard's lotion, containing 1 part in 80 of the +strong extract; (e) _Glycerinum Plumbi Subacetatis_, from which is made +the _Unguentum Glycerini Plumbi Subacetatis_. (3) _Plumbi Carbonas_, +white lead, a mixture of the carbonate and the hydrate, a heavy white +powder insoluble in water; it is not used internally, but from it is +made _Unguentum Plumbi Carbonatis_, strength 1 in 10 parts of paraffin +ointment. (4) _Plumbi Iodidium_, a heavy bright yellow powder not used +internally. From it are made (a) _Emplastrum Plumbi Iodidi_, and (b) +_Unguentum Plumbi Iodidi_. The strength of each is 1 in 10. + +Applied externally lead salts have practically no action upon the +unbroken skin, but applied to sores, ulcers or any exposed mucous +membranes they coagulate the albumen in the tissues themselves and +contract the small vessels. They are very astringent, haemostatic and +sedative; the strong solution of the subacetate is powerfully caustic +and is rarely used undiluted. Lead salts are applied as lotions in +conditions where a sedative astringent effect is desired, as in weeping +eczema; in many varieties of chronic ulceration; and as an injection for +various inflammatory discharges from the vagina, ear and urethra, the +Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutum being the one employed. The sedative +effect of lead lotion in pruritus is well known. Internally lead has an +astringent action on the mucous membranes, causing a sensation of +dryness; the dilute solution of the subacetate forms an effective gargle +in tonsillitis. The chief use of the preparations of lead, however, is +as an astringent in acute diarrhoea, particularly if ulceration be +present, when it is usefully given in combination with opium in the form +of the Pilula Plumbi cum Opio. It is useful in haemorrhage from a +gastric ulcer or in haemorrhage from the intestine. Lead salts usually +produce constipation, and lead is an active ecbolic. Lead is said to +enter the blood as an albuminate in which form it is deposited in the +tissues. As a rule the soluble salts if taken in sufficient quantities +produce acute poisoning, and the insoluble salts chronic plumbism. The +symptoms of acute poisoning are pain and diarrhoea, owing to the setting +up of an active gastro-enteritis, the foeces being black (due to the +formation of a sulphide of lead), thirst, cramps in the legs and +muscular twitchings, with torpor, collapse, convulsions and coma. The +treatment is the prompt use of emetics, or the stomach should be washed +out, and large doses of sodium or magnesium sulphate given in order to +form an insoluble sulphate. Stimulants, warmth and opium may be +required. For an account of chronic plumbism see LEAD POISONING. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the history of lead see W. H. Pulsifer, _Notes for a + History of Lead_ (1888); B. Neumann, _Die Metalle_ (1904); A. Rossing, + _Geschichte der Metalle_ (1901). For the chemistry see H. Roscoe and + C. Schorlemmer, _Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry_, vol. ii. (1897); H. + Moissan, _Traité de chimie minerale_; O. Dammer, _Handbuch der + anorganischen Chemie_. For the metallurgy see J. Percy, _The + Metallurgy of Lead_ (London, 1870); H. F. Collins, _The Metallurgy of + Lead and Silver_ (London, 1899), part i. "Lead"; H. O. Hofmann, _The + Metallurgy of Lead_ (6th ed., New York, 1901); W. R. Ingalls, _Lead + Smelting and Refining_ (1906); A. G. Betts, _Lead Refining by + Electrolysis_ (1908); M. Eissler, _The Metallurgy of Argentiferous + Silver_. _The Mineral Industry_, begun in 1892, annually records the + progress made in lead smelting. + + + + +LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831- ), English painter, the son of E. +Leader Williams, an engineer, received his art education first at the +Worcester School of Design and later in the schools of the Royal +Academy. He began to exhibit at the Academy in 1854, was elected A.R.A. +in 1883 and R.A. in 1898, and became exceedingly popular as a painter of +landscape. His subjects are attractive and skilfully composed. He was +awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition in 1889, and was made a +knight of the Legion of Honour. One of his pictures, "The Valley of the +Llugwy," is in the National Gallery of British Art. + + See _The Life and Work of B. W. Leader, R.A._, by Lewis Lusk, _Art + Journal_ Office (1901). + + + + +LEADHILLITE, a rare mineral consisting of basic lead sulphato-carbonate, +Pb4SO4(CO3)2(OH)2. Crystals have usually the form of six-sided plates +(fig. 1) or sometimes of acute rhombohedra (fig. 2); they have a perfect +basal cleavage (parallel to P in fig. 1) on which the lustre is strongly +pearly; they are usually white and translucent. The hardness is 2.5 and +the sp. gr. 6.26-6.44. The crystallographic and optical characters point +to the existence of three distinct kinds of leadhillite, which are, +however, identical in external appearance and may even occur intergrown +together in the same crystal: (a) monoclinic with an optic axial angle +of 20°; (b) rhombohedral (fig. 2) and optically uniaxial; (c) +orthorhombic (fig. 1) with an optic axial angle of 72¾°. The first of +these is the more common kind, and the second has long been known under +the name susannite. The fact that the published analyses of leadhillite +vary somewhat from the formula given above suggests that these three +kinds may also be chemically distinct. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Leadhillite is a mineral of secondary origin, occurring with cerussite, +anglesite, &c., in the oxidized portions of lead-bearing lodes; it has +also been found in weathered lead slags left by the Romans. It has been +found most abundantly in the Susanna mine at Leadhills in Scotland +(hence the names leadhillite and susannite). Good crystals have also +been found at Red Gill in Cumberland and at Granby in Missouri. Crystals +from Sardinia have been called maxite. (L. J. S.) + + + + +LEADHILLS, a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland, 5¾ m. W.S.W. of Elvanfoot +station on the Caledonian Railway Company's main line from Glasgow to +the south. Pop. (1901) 835. It is the highest village in Scotland, lying +1301 ft. above sea-level, near the source of Glengonner Water, an +affluent of the Clyde. It is served by a light railway. Lead and silver +have been mined here and at Wanlockhead, 1½ m. S.W., for many +centuries--according to some authorities even in Roman days. Gold was +discovered in the reign of James IV., but though it is said then to have +provided employment for 300 persons, its mining has long ceased to be +profitable. The village is neat and well built, and contains a masonic +hall and library, the latter founded by the miners about the middle of +the 18th century. Allan Ramsay, the poet, and William Symington +(1763-1831), one of the earliest adaptors of the steam engine to the +purposes of navigation, were born at Leadhills. + + + + +LEAD POISONING, or PLUMBISM, a "disease of occupations," which is itself +the cause of organic disease, particularly of the nervous and urinary +systems. The workpeople affected are principally those engaged in +potteries where lead-glaze is used; but other industries in which health +is similarly affected are file-making, house-painting and glazing, +glass-making, copper-working, coach-making, plumbing and gasfitting, +printing, cutlery, and generally those occupations in which lead is +concerned. + +The symptoms of chronic lead poisoning vary within very wide limits, +from colic and constipation up to total blindness, paralysis, +convulsions and death. They are thus described by Dr J. T. Arlidge +(_Diseases of Occupations_):-- + + The poison finds its way gradually into the whole mass of the + circulating blood, and exerts its effects mainly on the nervous + system, paralysing nerve-force and with it muscular power. Its victims + become of a sallow-waxy hue; the functions of the stomach and bowels + are deranged, appetite fails and painful colic with constipation + supervenes. The loss of power is generally shown first in the fingers, + hands and wrists, and the condition known as "wrist-drop" soon + follows, rendering the victim useless for work. The palsy will extend + to the shoulders, and after no long time to the legs also. Other + organs frequently involved are the kidneys, the tissue of which + becomes permanently damaged; whilst the sight is weakened or even + lost. + +Dr M'Aldowie, senior physician to the North Staffordshire Infirmary, has +stated that "in the pottery trade lead is very slow in producing serious +effects compared with certain other industries." In his experience the +average period of working in lead before serious lesions manifest +themselves is 18 years for females and 22½ years for males. But some +individuals fall victims to the worst forms of plumbism after a few +months' or even weeks' exposure to the danger. Young persons are more +readily affected than those of mature age, and women more than men. In +addition, there seems to be an element of personal susceptibility, the +nature of which is not understood. Some persons "work in the lead" for +twenty, forty or fifty years without the slightest ill effects; others +have attacks whenever they are brought into contact with it. Possibly +the difference is due to the general state of health; robust persons +resist the poison successfully, those with impoverished blood and feeble +constitution are mastered by it. Lead enters the body chiefly through +the nose and mouth, being inspired in the form of dust or swallowed with +food eaten with unwashed hands. It is very apt to get under the nails, +and is possibly absorbed in this way through the skin. Personal care and +cleanliness are therefore of the greatest importance. A factory surgeon +of great experience in the English Potteries has stated that seventeen +out of twenty cases of lead-poisoning in the china and earthenware +industry are due to carelessness (_The Times_, 8th October 1898). + +The Home Office in England has from time to time made special rules for +workshops and workpeople, with the object of minimizing or preventing +the occurrence of lead-poisoning; and in 1895 notification of cases was +made compulsory. The health of workpeople in the Potteries was the +subject of a special inquiry by a scientific committee in 1893. The +committee stated that "the general truth that the potteries occupation +is one fraught with injury to health and life is beyond dispute," and +that "the ill effects of the trade are referable to two chief +causes--namely, dust and the poison of lead." Of these the inhalation of +clay and flint dust was the more important. It led to bronchitis, +pulmonary tuberculosis and pneumonia, which were the most prevalent +disorders among potters, and responsible for 70% of the mortality. That +from lead the committee did not attempt to estimate, but they found that +plumbism was less prevalent than in past times, and expressed the +opinion "that a large part of the mortality from lead poisoning is +avoidable; although it must always be borne in mind that no arrangements +or rules, with regard to the work itself, can entirely obviate the +effects of the poison to which workers are exposed, because so much +depends upon the individual and the observance of personal care and +cleanliness." They recommended the adoption of certain special rules in +the workshops, with the objects of protecting young persons from the +lead, of minimizing the evils of dust, and of promoting cleanliness, +particularly in regard to meals. Some of these recommendations were +adopted and applied with good results. With regard to the suggestion +that "only leadless glazes should be used on earthenware," they did not +"see any immediate prospect of such glazes becoming universally +applicable to pottery manufacture," and therefore turned their attention +to the question of "fritting" the lead. + + It may be explained that lead is used in china and earthenware to give + the external glaze which renders the naturally porous ware watertight. + Both "white" and "red" lead are used. The lead is added to other + ingredients, which have been "fritted" or fused together and then + ground very fine in water, making a thick creamy liquid into which the + articles are dipped. After dipping the glaze dries quickly, and on + being "fired" in the kiln it becomes fused by the heat into the + familiar glassy surface. In the manufacture of ware with enamelled + colours, glaze is mixed with the pigment to form a flux, and such + colours are used either moist or in the form of a dry powder. + "Fritting" the lead means mixing it with the other ingredients of the + glaze beforehand and fusing them all together under great heat into a + kind of rough glass, which is then ground to make the glaze. Treated + in this way the lead combines with the other ingredients and becomes + less soluble, and therefore less dangerous, than when added afterwards + in the raw state. The committee (1893) thought it "reasonable to + suppose that the fritting of lead might ultimately be found + universally practicable," but declared that though fritting "no doubt + diminishes the danger of lead-poisoning," they "could not regard all + fritts as equally innocuous." + +In the annual report of the chief inspector of factories for 1897, it +was stated that there had been "material improvement in dust conditions" +in the potting industry, but "of lead-poisoning unfortunately the same +could not be said, the number of grave cases reported, and particularly +cases of blindness, having ominously increased of late." This appears to +have been largely due to the erroneous inclusion among potting processes +of "litho-transfer making," a colour industry in which girls are +employed. New special rules were imposed in 1899 prohibiting the +employment of persons under fifteen in the dangerous processes, ordering +a monthly examination of all women and young persons working in lead by +the certifying surgeon, with power to suspend those showing symptoms of +poisoning, and providing for the more effectual removal of dust and the +better enforcement of cleanliness. At the same time a scientific inquiry +was ordered into the practicability of dispensing with lead in glazes or +of substituting fritted compounds for the raw carbonate. The scientific +experts reported in 1899, recommending that the use of raw lead should +be absolutely prohibited, and expressing the opinion that the greater +amount of earthenware could be successfully glazed without any lead. +These views were in advance of the opinions held by practical potters, +and met with a good deal of opposition. By certain manufacturers +considerable progress had been made in diminishing the use of raw lead +and towards the discovery of satisfactory leadless glazes; but it is a +long step from individual experiments to the wholesale compulsory +revolution of the processes of manufacture in so large and varied an +industry, and in the face of foreign competitors hampered by no such +regulations. The materials used by each manufacturer have been arrived +at by a long process of experience, and they are such as to suit the +particular goods he supplies for his particular market. It is therefore +difficult to apply a uniform rule without jeopardizing the prosperity of +the industry, which supports a population of 250,000 in the Potteries +alone. However, the bulk of the manufacturers agreed to give up the use +of raw lead, and to fritt all their glazes in future, time being allowed +to effect the change of process; but they declined to be bound to any +particular composition of glaze for the reasons indicated. + +In 1901 the Home Office brought forward a new set of special rules. Most +of these were framed to strengthen the provisions for securing +cleanliness, removing dust, &c., and were accepted with a few +modifications. But the question of making even more stringent +regulations, even to the extent of making the use of lead-glaze illegal +altogether, was still agitated; and in 1906 the Home Office again +appointed an expert committee to reinvestigate the subject. They +reported in 1910, and made various recommendations in detail for +strengthening the existing regulations; but while encouraging the use of +leadless glaze in certain sorts of common ceramic ware, they pointed out +that, without the use of lead, certain other sorts could either not be +made at all or only at a cost or sacrifice of quality which would entail +the loss of important markets. + + In 1908 Dr Collis made an inquiry into the increase of plumbism in + connexion with the smelting of metals, and he considered the increase + in the cases of poisoning reported to be due to the third schedule of + the Workmen's Compensation Act, (1) by causing the prevalence of + pre-existing plumbism to come to light, (2) by the tendency this + fostered to replace men suspected of lead impregnation by new hands + amongst whom the incidence is necessarily greater. + + + + +LEADVILLE, a city and the county seat of Lake county, Colorado, U.S.A., +one of the highest (mean elevation c. 10,150 ft.) and most celebrated +mining "camps" of the world. Pop. (1900) 12,455, of whom 3802 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 7508. It is served by the Denver & Rio +Grande, the Colorado & Southern and the Colorado Midland railways. It +lies amid towering mountains on a terrace of the western flank of the +Mosquito Range at the head of the valley of the Arkansas river, where +the river cuts the valley between the Mosquito and the Sawatch +(Saguache) ranges. Among the peaks in the immediate environs are Mt. +Massive (14,424 ft., the highest in the state) and Elbert Peak (14,421 +ft.). There is a United States fish hatchery at the foot of Mt. Massive. +In the spring of 1860 placer gold was discovered in California Gulch, +and by July 1860 Oro City had probably 10,000 inhabitants. In five years +the total yield was more than $5,000,000; then it diminished, and Oro +City shrank to a few hundred inhabitants. This settlement was within the +present limits of Leadville. In 1876 the output of the mines was about +$20,000. During sixteen years "heavy sands" and great boulders that +obstructed the placer fields had been moved thoughtlessly to one side. +These boulders were from enormous lead carbonate deposits extremely rich +in silver. The discovery of these deposits was made on the hills at the +edge of Leadville. The first building was erected in June 1877; in +December there were several hundred miners, in January the town was +organized and named; at the end of 1879 there were, it is said, 35,000 +inhabitants. Leadville was already a chartered city, with the usual +organization and all public facilities. In 1880 it was reached by the +Denver & Rio Grande railway. In early years Leadville was one of the +most turbulent, picturesque and in all ways extraordinary, of the mining +camps of the West. The value of the output from 1879 to 1889 totalled +$147,834,186, including one-fifth of the silver production and a third +of the lead consumption of the country. The decline in the price of +silver, culminating with the closing of the India mints and the repeal +of the Sherman Law in 1893, threatened Leadville's future. But the +source of the gold of the old placers was found in 1892. From that year +to 1899 the gold product rose from $262,692 to $2,183,332. From 1879 to +1900 the camp yielded $250,000,000 (as compared with $48,000,000 of gold +and silver in five years from the Comstock, Nevada, lode; and +$60,000,000 and 225,000 tons of lead, in fourteen years, from the +Eureka, Nevada, mines). Before 1898 the production of zinc was +unimportant, but in 1906 it was more valuable than that of silver and +gold combined. This increased output is a result of the establishment of +concentrating mills, in which the zinc content is raised from 18 or 20% +in the raw ores to 25 or 45% in the concentrates. In 1904, per ton of +Lake county ore, zinc was valued at $6.93, silver at $4.16, lead at +$3.85, gold at $1.77 and copper at $.66. The copper mined at Leadville +amounted to about one-third the total mined in the state in 1906. Iron +and manganese have been produced here, and in 1906 Leadville was the +only place in the United States known to have produced bismuth. There +were two famous labour strikes in the "diggings" in 1879 and 1896. The +latter attracted national attention; it lasted from the 19th of June +1896 to the 9th of March 1897, when the miners, being practically +starved out, declared the strike off. There had been a riot on the 21st +of September 1896 and militia guarded the mines for months afterwards. +In January 1897 the mines on Carbonate Hill were flooded after the +removal of their pumps. This strike closed many mines, which were not +opened for several years. Leadville stocks are never on the exchange, +and "flotation" and "promotion" have been almost unknown. + + The ores of the Leadville District occur in a blue limestone formation + overlaid by porphyry, and are in the form of heavy sulphides, + containing copper, gold, silver, lead and zinc; oxides containing + iron, manganese and small amounts of silver and lead; and siliceous + ores, containing much silver and a little lead and gold. The best + grade of ores usually consists of a mixture of sulphides, with some + native gold. Nowhere have more wonderful advances in mining been + apparent--in the size and character of furnaces and pumps; the + development of local smelter supplies; the fall in the cost of coal, + of explosives and other mine supplies; the development of railways and + diminution of freight expenses; and the general improvement of + economic and scientific methods--than at Leadville since 1880. The + increase of output more than doubled from 1890 to 1900, and many ores + once far too low in grade for working now yield sure profits. The + Leadville smelters in 1900 had a capacity of 35,000 tons monthly; + about as much more local ore being treated at Denver, Pueblo and other + places. + + See S. F. Emmons, _Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, + Colorado_, monograph United States Geological Survey, vol. 12 (1886), + and with J. D. Irving, _The Downtown District of Leadville, Colorado_, + Bulletin 320, United States Geological Survey (1907), particularly for + the discussion of the origin of the ores of the region. + + + + +LEAF (O. Eng. _léaf_, cf. Dutch _loof_, Ger. _Laub_, Swed. _löf_, &c.; +possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. [Greek: lepein], to +peel, strip), the name given in popular language to all the green +expanded organs borne upon an axis, and so applied to similar objects, +such as a thin sheet of metal, a hinged flap of a table, the page of a +book, &c. Investigation has shown that many other parts of a plant which +externally appear very different from ordinary leaves are, in their +essential particulars, very similar to them, and are in fact their +morphological equivalents. Such are the scales of a bulb, and the +various parts of the flower, and assuming that the structure ordinarily +termed a leaf is the typical form, these other structures were +designated changed or metamorphosed leaves, a somewhat misleading +interpretation. All structures morphologically equivalent with the leaf +are now included under the general term _phyllome_ (leaf-structure). + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik by permission of +Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 1.--Apex of a shoot showing origin of leaves: f, leaf rudiment; g, +rudiment of an axillary bud.] + +Leaves are produced as lateral outgrowths of the stem in definite +succession below the apex. This character, common to all leaves, +distinguishes them from other organs. In the higher plants we can easily +recognize the distinction between stem and leaf. Amongst the lower +plants, however, it is found that a demarcation into stem and leaf is +impossible, but that there is a structure which partakes of the +characters of both--such is a _thallus_. The leaves always arise from +the outer portion of the primary meristem of the plant, and the tissues +of the leaf are continuous with those of the stem. Every leaf originates +as a simple cellular papilla (fig. 1), which consists of a development +from the cortical layers covered by epidermis; and as growth proceeds, +the fibro-vascular bundles of the stem are continued outwards, and +finally expand and terminate in the leaf. The increase in length of the +leaf by growth at the apex is usually of a limited nature. In some +ferns, however, there seems to be a provision for indefinite terminal +growth, while in others this growth is periodically interrupted. It not +unfrequently happens, especially amongst Monocotyledons, that after +growth at the apex has ceased, it is continued at the base of the leaf, +and in this way the length may be much increased. Amongst Dicotyledons +this is very rare. In all cases the dimensions of the leaf are enlarged +by interstitial growth of its parts. + + + Structure of leaves. + +The simplest leaf is found in some mosses, where it consists of a single +layer of cells. The typical foliage leaf consists of several layers, and +amongst vascular plants is distinguishable into an outer layer +(_epidermis_) and a central tissue (_parenchyma_) with fibro-vascular +bundles distributed through it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of a Melon leaf, perpendicular to the +surface. + + es, Upper epidermis. + ei, Lower epidermis. + p, Hairs. + st, Stomata. + ps, Upper (palisade) layers of parenchymatous cells. + pi, Lower (spongy) layers of parenchymatous cells. + m, Air-spaces connected with stomata. + l, Air-spaces between the loose cells in the spongy parenchyma. + fv, Bundles of fibro-vascular tissue.] + + The _epidermis_ (fig. 2, es, ei), composed of cells more or less + compressed, has usually a different structure and aspect on the two + surfaces of the leaf. The cells of the epidermis are very closely + united laterally and contain no green colouring matter (chlorophyll) + except in the pair of cells--guard-cells--which bound the stomata. The + outer wall, especially of the upper epidermis, has a tough outer layer + or cuticle which renders it impervious to water. The epidermis is + continuous except where stomata or spaces bounded by specialized cells + communicate with intercellular spaces in the interior of the leaf. It + is chiefly on the epidermis of the lower surface (fig. 2, ei) that + stomata, st, are produced, and it is there also that hairs, p, usually + occur. The lower epidermis is often of a dull or pale-green colour, + soft and easily detached. The upper epidermis is frequently smooth and + shining, and sometimes becomes very hard and dense. Many tropical + plants present on the upper surface of their leaves several layers of + compressed cells beneath the epidermis which serve for storage of + water and are known as aqueous tissue. In leaves which float upon the + surface of the water, as those of the water-lily, the upper epidermis + alone possesses stomata. + + The _parenchyma_ of the leaf is the cellular tissue enclosed within + the epidermis and surrounding the vessels (fig. 2, ps, pi). It is + known as _mesophyll_, and is formed of two distinct series of cells, + each containing the green chlorophyll-granules, but differing in form + and arrangement. Below the epidermis of the upper side of the leaf + there are one or two layers of cells, elongated at right angles to the + leaf surface (fig. 2, ps), and applied so closely to each other as to + leave only small intercellular spaces, except where stomata happen to + be present (fig. 2, m); they form the palisade tissue. On the other + side of the leaf the cells are irregular, often branched, and are + arranged more or less horizontally (fig. 2, pi), leaving air-spaces + between them, l, which communicate with stomata; on this account the + tissue has received the name of spongy. In leaves having a very firm + texture, as those of Coniferae and Cycadaceae, the cells of the + parenchyma immediately beneath the epidermis are very much thickened + and elongated in a direction parallel to the surface of the leaf, so + as to be fibre-like. These constitute a hypodermal layer, beneath + which the chlorophyll cells of the parenchyma are densely packed + together, and are elongated in a direction vertical to the surface of + the leaf, forming the palisade tissue. The form and arrangement of the + cells, however, depend much on the nature of the plant, and its + exposure to light and air. Sometimes the arrangement of the cells on + both sides of the leaf is similar, as occurs in leaves which have + their edges presented to the sky. In very succulent plants the cells + form a compact mass, and those in the centre are often colourless. In + some cases the cellular tissue is deficient at certain points, giving + rise to distinct holes in the leaf, as in _Monstera Adansonii_. The + fibro-vascular system in the leaf constitutes the _venation_. The + fibro-vascular bundles from the stem bend out into the leaf, and are + there arranged in a definite manner. In _skeleton leaves_, or leaves + in which the parenchyma is removed, this arrangement is well seen. In + some leaves, as in the barberry, the veins are hardened, producing + spines without any parenchyma. The hardening of the extremities of the + fibro-vascular tissue is the cause of the spiny margin of many leaves, + such as the holly, of the sharp-pointed leaves of madder, and of + mucronate leaves, or those having a blunt end with a hard projection + in the centre. + +The form and arrangement of the parts of a typical foliage leaf are +intimately associated with the part played by the leaf in the life of +the plant. The flat surface is spread to allow the maximum amount of +sunlight to fall upon it, as it is by the absorption of energy from the +sun's rays by means of the chlorophyll contained in the cells of the +leaf that the building up of plant food is rendered possible; this +process is known as photo-synthesis; the first stage is the combination +of carbon dioxide, absorbed from the air taken in through the stomata +into the living cells of the leaf, with water which is brought into the +leaf by the wood-vessels. The wood-vessels form part of the +fibro-vascular bundles or veins of the leaf and are continuous +throughout the leaf-stalk and stem with the root by which water is +absorbed from the soil. The palisade layers of the mesophyll contain the +larger number of chlorophyll grains (or corpuscles) while the absorption +of carbon dioxide is carried on chiefly through the lower epidermis +which is generally much richer in stomata. The water taken up by the +root from the soil contains nitrogenous and mineral salts which combine +with the first product of photo-synthesis--a carbohydrate--to form more +complicated nitrogen-containing food substances of a proteid nature; +these are then distributed by other elements of the vascular bundles +(the _phloem_) through the leaf to the stem and so throughout the plant +to wherever growth or development is going on. A large proportion of the +water which ascends to the leaf acts merely as a carrier for the other +raw food materials and is got rid of from the leaf in the form of water +vapour through the stomata--this process is known as _transpiration_. +Hence the extended surface of the leaf exposing a large area to light +and air is eminently adapted for the carrying out of the process of +photo-synthesis and transpiration. The arrangement of the leaves on the +stem and branches (see _Phyllotaxy_, below) is such as to prevent the +upper leaves shading the lower, and the shape of the leaf serves towards +the same end--the disposition of leaves on a branch or stem is often +seen to form a "mosaic," each leaf fitting into the space between +neighbouring leaves and the branch on which they are borne without +overlapping. + +Submerged leaves, or leaves which are developed under water, differ in +structure from aerial leaves. They have usually no fibro-vascular +system, but consist of a congeries of cells, which sometimes become +elongated and compressed so as to resemble veins. They have a layer of +compact cells on their surface, but no true epidermis, and no stomata. +Their internal structure consists of cells, disposed irregularly, and +sometimes leaving spaces which are filled with air for the purpose of +floating the leaf. When exposed to the air these leaves easily part with +their moisture, and become shrivelled and dry. In some cases there is +only a network of filament-like cells, the spaces between which are not +filled with parenchyma, giving a skeleton appearance to the leaf, as in +_Ouvirandra fenestralis_ (Lattice plant). + +A leaf, whether aerial or submerged, generally consists of a flat +expanded portion, called the _blade_, or _lamina_, of a narrower portion +called the _petiole_ or _stalk_, and sometimes of a portion at the base +of the petiole, which forms a _sheath_ or _vagina_ (fig. 5, s), or is +developed in the form of outgrowths, called _stipules_ (fig. 24, s). +All these portions are not always present. The sheathing or stipulary +portion is frequently wanting. When a leaf has a distinct stalk it is +_petiolate_; when it has none, it is _sessile_, and if in this case it +embraces the stem it is said to be _amplexicaul_. The part of the leaf +next the petiole or the axis is the _base_, while the opposite extremity +is the _apex_. The leaf is usually flattened and expanded horizontally, +i.e. at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the shoot, so that the +upper face is directed towards the heavens, and the lower towards the +earth. In some cases leaves, as in Iris, or leaf-like petioles, as in +Australian acacias and eucalypti, have their plane of expansion parallel +to the axis of the shoot, there is then no distinction into an upper and +a lower face, but the two sides are developed alike; or the leaf may +have a cylindrical or polyhedral form, as in mesembryanthemum. The upper +angle formed between the leaf and the stem is called its _axil_; it is +there that leaf-buds are normally developed. The leaf is sometimes +articulated with the stem, and when it falls off a _scar_ remains; at +other times it is continuous with it, and then decays, while still +attached to the axis. In their early state all leaves are continuous +with the stem, and it is only in their after growth that articulations +are formed. When leaves fall off annually they are called _deciduous_; +when they remain for two or more years they are _persistent_, and the +plant is _evergreen_. The laminar portion of a leaf is occasionally +articulated with the petiole, as in the orange, and a joint at times +exists between the vaginal or stipulary portion and the petiole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Leaf of Elm (_Ulmus_). Reticulated venation; +primary veins going to the margin, which is serrated. Leaf unequal at +the base.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Multicostate leaf of Castor-oil plant (_Ricinus +communis_). It is palmately-cleft, and exhibits seven lobes at the +margin. The petiole is inserted a little above the base, and hence the +leaf is called peltate or shield-like.] + + + Venation. + + The arrangement of the fibro-vascular system in the lamina constitutes + the _venation_ or _nervation_. In an ordinary leaf, as that of the + elm, there is observed a large central vein running from the base to + the apex of the leaf, this is the _midrib_ (fig. 3); it gives off + veins laterally (_primary veins_). A leaf with only a single midrib is + said to be _unicostate_ and the venation is described as pinnate or + feather-veined. In some cases, as sycamore or castor oil (fig. 4), in + place of there being only a single midrib there are several large + veins (_ribs_) of nearly equal size, which diverge from the point + where the blade joins the petiole or stem, giving off lateral veins. + The leaf in this case is _multicostate_ and the venation palmate. The + primary veins give off secondary veins, and these in their turn give + off tertiary veins, and so on until a complete network of vessels is + produced, and those veins usually project on the under surface of the + leaf. To a distribution of veins such as this the name of + _reticulated_ or _netted_ venation has been applied. In the leaves of + some plants there exists a midrib with large veins running nearly + parallel to it from the base to the apex of the lamina, as in grasses + (fig. 5); or with veins diverging from the base of the lamina in more + or less parallel lines, as in fan palms (fig. 6), or with veins + coming off from it throughout its whole course, and running parallel + to each other in a straight or curved direction towards the margin of + the leaf, as in plantain and banana. In these cases the veins are + often united by cross veinlets, which do not, however, form an angular + network. Such leaves are said to be _parallel-veined_. The leaves of + Monocotyledons have generally this kind of venation, while reticulated + venation most usually occurs amongst Dicotyledons. Some plants, which + in most points of their structure are monocotyledonous, yet have + reticulated venation; as in _Smilax_ and _Dioscorea_. In vascular + acotyledonous plants there is frequently a tendency to fork exhibited + by the fibro-vascular bundles in the leaf; and when this is the case + we have _fork-veined_ leaves. This is well seen in many ferns. The + distribution of the system of vessels in the leaf is usually easily + traced, but in the case of succulent plants, as _Hoya_, agave, + stonecrop and mesembryanthemum, the veins are obscure. The function of + the veins which consist of vessels and fibres is to form a rigid + framework for the leaf and to conduct liquids. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Stem of a Grass (_Poa_) with leaf. The sheaths +ending in a process l, called a ligule; the blade of the leaf, f.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Leaf of a Fan Palm (_Chamaerops_), showing the +veins running from the base to the margin, and not forming an angular +network.] + +In all plants, except Thallophytes, leaves are present at some period of +their existence. In _Cuscuta_ (Dodder) (q.v.), however, we have an +exception. The forms assumed by leaves vary much, not only in different +plants, but in the same plant. It is only amongst the lower classes of +plants--Mosses, Characeae, &c.--that all the leaves on a plant are +similar. As we pass up the scale of plant life we find them becoming +more and more variable. The structures in ordinary language designated +as leaves are considered so _par excellence_, and they are frequently +spoken of as _foliage leaves_. In relation to their production on the +stem we may observe that when they are small they are always produced in +great number, and as they increase in size their number diminishes +correspondingly. The cellular process from the axis which develops into +a leaf is simple and undivided; it rarely remains so, but in progress of +growth becomes segmented in various ways, either longitudinally or +laterally, or in both ways. By longitudinal segmentation we have a leaf +formed consisting of sheath, stalk and blade; or one or other of these +may be absent, and thus stalked, sessile, sheathing, &c., leaves are +produced. Lateral segmentation affects the lamina, producing +indentations, lobings or fissuring of its margins. In this way two +marked forms of leaf are produced--(1) _Simple_ form, in which the +segmentation, however deeply it extends into the lamina, does not +separate portions of the lamina which become articulated with the midrib +or petiole; and (2) _Compound_ form, where portions of the lamina are +separated as detached _leaflets_, which become articulated with the +midrib or petiole. In both simple and compound leaves, according to the +amount of segmentation and the mode of development of the parenchyma and +direction of the fibro-vascular bundles, many forms are produced. + + + Simple leaves. + + _Simple Leaves._--When the parenchyma is developed symmetrically on + each side of the midrib or stalk, the leaf is _equal_; if otherwise, + the leaf is _unequal_ or _oblique_ (fig. 3). If the margins are even + and present no divisions, the leaf is _entire_ (fig. 7); if there are + slight projections which are more or less pointed, the leaf is + _dentate_ or toothed; when the projections lie regularly over each + other, like the teeth of a saw, the leaf is _serrate_ (fig. 3); when + they are rounded the leaf is _crenate_. If the divisions extend more + deeply into the lamina than the margin, the leaf receives different + names according to the nature of the segments; thus, when the + divisions extend about half-way down (fig. 8), it is _cleft_; when the + divisions extend nearly to the base or to the midrib the leaf is + _partite_. + + If these divisions take place in a simple _feather-veined_ leaf it + becomes either _pinnatifid_ (fig. 9), when the segments extend to + about the middle, or _pinnatipartite_, when the divisions extend + nearly to the midrib. These primary divisions may be again subdivided + in a similar manner, and thus a feather-veined leaf will become + _bipinnatifid_ or _bipinnatipartite_; still further subdivisions give + origin to _tripinnatifid_ and _laciniated_ leaves. The same kinds of + divisions taking place in a simple leaf with palmate or _radiating_ + venation, give origin to _lobed_, _cleft_ and _partite_ forms. The + name _palmate_ or _palmatifid_ (fig. 4) is the general term applied to + leaves with radiating venation, in which there are several lobes + united by a broad expansion of parenchyma, like the palm of the hand, + as in the sycamore, castor-oil plant, &c. The divisions of leaves with + radiating venation may extend to near the base of the leaf, and the + names _bipartite_, _tripartite_, _quinquepartite_, &c., are given + according as the partitions are two, three, five or more. The term + _dissected_ is applied to leaves with radiating venation, having + numerous narrow divisions, as in _Geranium dissectum_. + + [Illustration: + + FIG. 7.--Ovate acute leaf of _Coriara myrtifolia_. Besides the + midrib there are two intra-marginal ribs which converge to the apex. + The leaf is therefore tricostate. + + FIG. 8.--Runcinate leaf of Dandelion. It is a pinnatifid leaf, with + the divisions pointing towards the petiole and a large triangular + apex. + + FIG. 9.--Pinnatifid leaf of _Valeriana dioica_.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Five-partite leaf of Aconite.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Pedate leaf of Stinking Hellebore + (_Helleborus foetidus_). The venation is radiating. It is a + palmately-partite leaf, in which the lateral lobes are deeply divided. + When the leaf hangs down it resembles the foot of a bird, and hence + the name.] + + When in a radiating leaf there are three primary partitions, and the + two lateral lobes are again cleft, as in hellebore (fig. 11), the leaf + is called _pedate_ or _pedatifid_, from a fancied resemblance to the + claw of a bird. In all the instances already alluded to the leaves + have been considered as flat expansions, in which the ribs or veins + spread out on the same plane with the stalk. In some cases, however, + the veins spread at right angles to the stalk, forming a _peltate_ + leaf as in Indian cress (fig. 12). + + The form of the leaf shows a very great variety ranging from the + narrow _linear_ form with parallel sides, as in grasses or the + needle-like leaves of pines and firs to more or less rounded or + _orbicular_--descriptions of these will be found in works on + descriptive botany--a few examples are illustrated here (figs. 7, 13, + 14, 15). The apex also varies considerably, being rounded, or + _obtuse_, sharp or _acute_ (fig. 7), notched (fig. 15), &c. Similarly + the shape of the base may vary, when rounded lobes are formed, as in + dog-violet, the leaf is cordate or heart-shaped; or kidney-shaped or + _reniform_ (fig. 16), when the apex is rounded as in ground ivy. When + the lobes are prolonged downwards and are acute, the leaf is + _sagittate_ (fig. 17); when they proceed at right angles, as in _Rumex + Acetosella_, the leaf is _hastate_ or halbert-shaped. When a simple + leaf is divided at the base into two leaf-like appendages, it is + called _auriculate_. When the development of parenchyma is such that + it more than fills up the spaces between the veins, the margins become + _wavy_, _crisp_ or _undulated_, as in _Rumex crispus_ and _Rheum + undulatum_. By cultivation the cellular tissue is often much + increased, giving rise to the _curled_ leaves of greens, savoys, + cresses, lettuce, &c. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Peltate leaves of Indian Cress (_Tropaeolum + majus_).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Lanceolate leaf of a species of Senna.] + + + Compound leaves. + + Compound leaves are those in which the divisions extend to the midrib + or petiole, and the separated portions become each articulated with + it, and receive the name of _leaflets_. The midrib, or petiole, has + thus the appearance of a branch with separate leaves attached to it, + but it is considered properly as one leaf, because in its earliest + state it arises from the axis as a single piece, and its subsequent + divisions in the form of leaflets are all in one plane. The leaflets + are either sessile (fig. 18) or have stalks, called _petiolules_ (fig. + 19). Compound leaves are pinnate (fig. 19) or palmate (fig. 18) + according to the arrangement of leaflets. When a pinnate leaf ends in + a pair of pinnae it is _equally_ or _abruptly pinnate_ (paripinnate); + when there is a single terminal leaflet (fig. 19), the leaf is + _unequally pinnate_ (imparipinnate); when the leaflets or pinnae are + placed alternately on either side of the midrib, and not directly + opposite to each other, the leaf is _alternately pinnate_; and when + the pinnae are of different sizes, the leaf is _interruptedly + pinnate_. When the division is carried into the second degree, and the + pinnae of a compound leaf are themselves pinnately compound, a + bipinnate leaf is formed. + + [Illustration: + + FIG. 14.--Oblong leaf of a species of Senna. + + FIG. 15.--Emarginate leaf of a species of Senna. The leaf in its + contour is somewhat obovate, or inversely egg-shaped, and its base + is oblique. + + FIG. 16.--Reniform leaf of _Nepeta Glechoma_, margin crenate. + + FIG. 17.--Sagittate leaf of Convolvulus.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Palmately compound leaf of the Horse-chestnut + (_Aesculus Hippocastanum_).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Imparipinnate (unequal pinnate) leaf of + Robinia. There are nine pairs of shortly-stalked leaflets (foliola, + pinnae), and an odd one at the extremity. At the base of the leaf the + spiny stipules are seen.] + + + Petiole. + + The _petiole_ or leaf-stalk is the part which unites the limb or blade + of the leaf to the stem. It is absent in _sessile_ leaves, and this is + also frequently the case when a sheath is present, as in grasses (fig. + 5). It consists of the fibro-vascular bundles with a varying amount of + cellular tissue. When the vascular bundles reach the base of the + lamina they separate and spread out in various ways, as already + described under venation. The lower part of the petiole is often + swollen (fig. 20, _p_), forming the _pulvinus_, formed of cellular + tissue, the cells of which exhibit the phenomenon of irritability. In + _Mimosa pudica_ (fig. 20) a sensitiveness is located in the pulvinus + which upon irritation induces a depression of the whole bipinnate + leaf, a similar property exists in the pulvini at the base of the + leaflets which fold upwards. The petiole varies in length, being + usually shorter than the lamina, but sometimes much longer. In some + palms it is 15 or 20 ft. long, and is so firm as to be used for poles + or walking-sticks. In general, the petiole is more or less rounded in + its form, the upper surface being flattened or grooved. Sometimes it + is compressed laterally, as in the aspen, and to this peculiarity the + trembling of the leaves of this tree is due. In aquatic plants the + leaf-stalk is sometimes distended with air, as in _Pontederia_ and + _Trapa_, so as to float the leaf. At other times it is _winged_, and + is either leafy, as in the orange (fig. 21, p), lemon and _Dionaea_, + or pitcher-like, as in _Sarracenia_ (fig. 22). In some Australian + acacias, and in some species of _Oxalis_ and _Bupleurum_, the petiole + is flattened in a vertical direction, the vascular bundles separating + immediately after quitting the stem and running nearly parallel from + base to apex. This kind of petiole (fig. 23, p) has been called a + _phyllode_. In these plants the laminae or blades of the leaves are + pinnate or bipinnate, and are produced at the extremities of the + phyllodes in a horizontal direction; but in many instances they are + not developed, and the phyllode serves the purpose of a leaf. These + phyllodes, by their vertical position and their peculiar form, give a + remarkable aspect to vegetation. On the same acacia there occur leaves + with the petiole and lamina perfect; others having the petiole + slightly expanded or winged, and the lamina imperfectly developed; and + others in which there is no lamina, and the petiole becomes large and + broad. Some petioles are long, slender and sensitive to contact, and + function as tendrils by means of which the plant climbs; as in the + nasturtiums (_Tropaeolum_), clematis and others; and in compound + leaves the midrib and some of the leaflets may similarly be + transformed into tendrils, as in the pea and vetch. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Branch and leaves of the Sensitive plant + (_Mimosa pudica_), showing the petiole in its erect state, a, and in + its depressed state, b; also the leaflets closed, c, and the leaflets + expanded, d. Irritability resides in the pulvinus, p.] + + + Leaf base. + + The leaf base is often developed as a _sheath_ (_vagina_), which + embraces the whole or part of the circumference of the stem (fig. 5). + This sheath is comparatively rare in dicotyledons, but is seen in + umbelliferous plants. It is much more common amongst monocotyledons. + In sedges the sheath forms a complete investment of the stem, whilst + in grasses it is split on one side. In the latter plants there is also + a membranous outgrowth, the _ligule_, at right angles to the median + plane of the leaf from the point where the sheath passes into the + lamina, there being no petiole (fig. 5, _l_). + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Leaf of Orange (_Citrus Aurantium_), showing + a winged leafy petiole p, which is articulated to the lamina l.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Pitcher (_ascidium_) of a species of + Side-saddle plant (_Sarracenia purpurea_). The pitcher is formed from + the petiole, which is prolonged.] + + In leaves in which no sheath is produced we not infrequently find + small foliar organs, _stipules_, at the base of the petiole (fig. 24, + s). The stipules are generally two in number, and they are important + as supplying characters in certain natural orders. Thus they occur in + the pea and bean family, in rosaceous plants and the family Rubiaceae. + They are not common in dicotyledons with opposite leaves. Plants + having stipules are called _stipulate_; those having none are + _exstipulate_. Stipules may be large or small, entire or divided, + deciduous or persistent. They are not usually of the same form as the + ordinary foliage leaves of the plant, from which they are + distinguished by their lateral position at the base of the petiole. In + the pansy (fig. 24) the true leaves are stalked and crenate, while the + stipules s are large, sessile and pinnatifid. In _Lathyrus Aphaca_ and + some other plants the true pinnate leaves are abortive, the petiole + forms a tendril, and the stipules alone are developed, performing the + office of leaves. When stipulate leaves are opposite to each other, at + the same height on the stem, it occasionally happens that the stipules + on the two sides unite wholly or partially, so as to form an + _interpetiolary_ or _interfoliar_ stipule, as in members of the family + Rubiaceae. In the case of alternate leaves, the stipules at the base + of each leaf are sometimes united to the petiole and to each other, so + as to form an _adnate_, _adherent_ or _petiolary_ stipule, as in the + rose, or an _axillary_ stipule, as in _Houttuynia cordata_. In other + instances the stipules unite together on the side of the stem opposite + the leaf forming an _ocrea_, as in the dock family (fig. 25). + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Leaf of an Acacia (_Acacia heterophylla_), + showing a flattened leaf-like petiole p, called a phyllode, with + straight venation, and a bipinnate lamina.] + + In the development of the leaf the stipules frequently play a most + important part. They begin to be formed after the origin of the + leaves, but grow much more rapidly than the leaves, and in this way + they arch over the young leaves and form protective chambers wherein + the parts of the leaf may develop. In the figs, magnolia and pondweeds + they are very large and completely envelop the young leaf-bud. The + stipules are sometimes so minute as to be scarcely distinguishable + without the aid of a lens, and so fugacious as to be visible only in + the very young state of the leaf. They may assume a hard and spiny + character, as in _Robinia Pseudacacia_ (fig. 19), or may be cirrose, + as in _Smilax_, where each stipule is represented by a tendril. At the + base of the leaflets of a compound leaf, small stipules (_stipels_) + are occasionally produced. + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Leaf of Pansy. s, Stipules.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Leaf of Polygonum, with part of stem. o, + Ocrea.] + + + Modifications. + + Variations in the structure and forms of leaves and leafstalks are + produced by the increased development of cellular tissue, by the + abortion or degeneration of parts, by the multiplication or repetition + of parts and by adhesion. When cellular tissue is developed to a great + extent, leaves become succulent and occasionally assume a crisp or + curled appearance. Such changes take place naturally, but they are + often increased by the art of the gardener, and the object of many + horticultural operations is to increase the bulk and succulence of + leaves. It is in this way that cabbages and savoys are rendered more + delicate and nutritious. By a deficiency in development of parenchyma + and an increase in the mechanical tissue, leaves are liable to become + hardened and spinescent. The leaves of barberry and of some species of + _Astragalus_, and the stipules of the false acacia (_Robinia_) are + spiny. To the same cause is due the spiny margin of the holly-leaf. + When two lobes at the base of a leaf are prolonged beyond the stem and + unite (fig. 26), the leaf is _perfoliate_, the stem appearing to pass + through it, as in _Bupleurum perfoliatum_ and _Chlora perfoliata_; + when two leaves unite by their bases they become _connate_ (fig. 27), + as in _Lonicera Caprifolium_; and when leaves adhere to the stem, + forming a sort of winged or leafy appendage, they are _decurrent_, as + in thistles. The formation of peltate leaves has been traced to the + union of the lobes of a cleft leaf. In the leaf of the _Victoria + regia_ the transformation may be traced during germination. The first + leaves produced by the young plant are linear, the second are + sagittate and hastate, the third are rounded-cordate and the next are + orbicular. The cleft indicating the union of the lobes remains in the + large leaves. The parts of the leaf are frequently transformed into + _tendrils_, with the view of enabling the plants to twine round others + for support. In Leguminous plants (the pea tribe) the pinnae are + frequently modified to form tendrils, as in _Lathyrus Aphaca_, in + which the stipules perform the function of true leaves. In + _Flagellaria indica_, _Gloriosa superba_ and others, the midrib of the + leaf ends in a tendril. In _Smilax_ there are two stipulary tendrils. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Perfoliate leaf of a species of Hare's-ear + (_Bupleurum rotundifolium_). The two lobes at the base of the leaf are + united, so that the stalk appears to come through the leaf.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Connate leaves of a species of Honeysuckle + (_Lonicera Caprifolium_). Two leaves are united by their bases.] + + The vascular bundles and cellular tissue are sometimes developed in + such a way as to form a circle, with a hollow in the centre, and thus + give rise to what are called _fistular_ or hollow leaves, as in the + onion, and to _ascidia_ or _pitchers_. Pitchers are formed either by + petioles or by laminae, and they are composed of one or more leaves. + In _Sarracenia_ (fig. 22) and _Heliamphora_ the pitcher is composed of + the petiole of the leaf. In the pitcher plant, _Nepenthes_, the + pitcher is a modification of the lamina, the petiole often plays the + part of a tendril, while the leaf base is flat and leaf-like (fig. + 28). + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Pitcher of a species of pitcher-plant + (_Nepenthes distillatoria_).] + + In _Utricularia_ bladder-like sacs are formed by a modification of + leaflets on the submerged leaves. + + In some cases the leaves are reduced to mere _scales_--_cataphyllary_ + leaves; they are produced abundantly upon underground shoots. In + parasites (_Lathraea_, _Orobanche_) and in plants growing on decaying + vegetable matter (_saprophytes_), in which no chlorophyll is formed, + these scales are the only leaves produced. In _Pinus_ the only leaves + produced on the main stem and the lateral shoots are scales, the + acicular leaves of the tree growing from axillary shoots. In _Cycas_ + whorls of scales alternate with large pinnate leaves. In many plants, + as already noticed, phyllodia or stipules perform the function of + leaves. The production of leaf-buds from leaves sometimes occurs as + in _Bryophyllum_, and many plants of the order Gesneraceae. The leaf + of Venus's fly-trap (_Dionaea muscipula_) when cut off and placed in + damp moss, with a pan of water underneath and a bell-glass for a + cover, has produced buds from which young plants were obtained. Some + species of saxifrage and of ferns also produce buds on their leaves + and fronds. In _Nymphaea micrantha_ buds appear at the upper part of + the petiole. + + + Phyllotaxis. + +Leaves occupy various positions on the stem and branches, and have +received different names according to their situation. Thus leaves +arising from the crown of the root, as in the primrose, are called +_radical_; those on the stem are _cauline_; on flower-stalks, _floral_ +leaves (see FLOWER). The first leaves developed are known as seed leaves +or _cotyledons_. The arrangement of the leaves on the axis and its +appendages is called _phyllotaxis_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--A stem with opposite leaves. The pairs are +placed at right angles alternately, or in what is called a decussate +manner. In the lowest pair one leaf is in front and the other at the +back; in the second pair the leaves are placed laterally, and so on.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--A stem with alternate leaves, arranged in a +pentastichous or quincuncial manner. The sixth leaf is directly above +the first, and commences the second cycle. The fraction of the +circumference of the stem expressing the divergence of the leaves is +two-fifths.] + + In their arrangement leaves follow a definite order. The points on the + stem at which leaves appear are called nodes; the part of the stem + between the nodes is the _internode_. When two leaves are produced at + the same node, one on each side of the stem or axis, and at the same + level, they are _opposite_ (fig. 29); when more than two are produced + they are _verticillate_, and the circle of leaves is then called a + _verticil_ or _whorl_. When leaves are opposite, each successive pair + may be placed at right angles to the pair immediately preceding. They + are then said to _decussate_, following thus a law of alternation + (fig. 29). The same occurs in the verticillate arrangement, the leaves + of each whorl rarely being _superposed_ on those of the whorl next it, + but usually alternating so that each leaf in a whorl occupies the + space between two leaves of the whorl next to it. There are + considerable irregularities, however, in this respect, and the number + of leaves in different whorls is not always uniform, as may be seen in + _Lysimachia vulgaris_. When a single leaf is produced at a node, and + the nodes are separated so that each leaf is placed at a different + height on the stem, the leaves are _alternate_ (fig. 30). A plane + passing through the point of insertion of the leaf in the node, + dividing the leaf into similar halves, is the median plane of the + leaf; and when the leaves are arranged alternately on an axis so that + their median planes coincide they form a straight row or + _orthostichy_. On every axis there are usually two or more + orthostichies. In fig. 31, leaf 1 arises from a node n; leaf 2 is + separated from it by an internode m, and is placed to the right or + left; while leaf 3 is situated directly above leaf 1. In this case, + then, there are two orthostichies, and the arrangement is said to be + _distichous_. When the fourth leaf is directly above the first, the + arrangement is _tristichous_. The same arrangement continues + throughout the branch, so that in the latter case the 7th leaf is + above the 4th, the 10th above the 7th; also the 5th above the 2nd, the + 6th above the 3rd and so on. The size of the angle between the median + planes of two consecutive leaves in an alternate arrangement is their + _divergence_; and it is expressed in fractions of the circumference of + the axis which is supposed to be a circle. In a regularly-formed + straight branch covered with leaves, if a thread is passed from one to + the other, turning always in the same direction, a spiral is + described, and a certain number of leaves and of complete turns occur + before reaching the leaf directly above that from which the + enumeration commenced. If this arrangement is expressed by a fraction, + the numerator of which indicates the number of turns, and the + denominator the number of internodes in the spiral cycle, the fraction + will be found to represent the angle of divergence of the consecutive + leaves on the axis. Thus, in fig. 32, a, b, the cycle consists of + five leaves, the 6th leaf being placed vertically over the 1st, the + 7th over the 2nd and so on; while the number of turns between the 1st + and 6th leaf is two; hence this arrangement is indicated by the + fraction 2/5. In other words, the distance or divergence between the + first and second leaf, expressed in parts of a circle, is 2/5 of a + circle or 360° × 2/5 = 144°. In fig. 31, a, b, the spiral is ½, i.e. + one turn and two leaves; the third leaf being placed vertically over + the first, and the divergence between the first and second leaf being + one-half the circumference of a circle, 360° × ½ = 180°. Again, in a + tristichous arrangement the number is 1/3, or one turn and three + leaves, the angular divergence being 120°. + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Portion of a branch of a Lime tree, with four + leaves arranged in a distichous manner, or in two rows. a, The branch + with the leaves numbered in their order, n being the node and m the + internode; b is a magnified representation of the branch, showing the + points of insertion of the leaves and their spiral arrangement, which + is expressed by the fraction ½, or one turn of the spiral for two + internodes.] + + By this means we have a convenient mode of expressing on paper the + exact position of the leaves upon an axis. And in many cases such a + mode of expression is of excellent service in enabling us readily to + understand the relations of the leaves. The divergences may also be + represented diagrammatically on a horizontal projection of the + vertical axis, as in fig. 33. Here the outermost circle represents a + section of that portion of the axis bearing the lowest leaf, the + innermost represents the highest. The broad dark lines represent the + leaves, and they are numbered according to their age and position. It + will be seen at once that the leaves are arranged in orthostichies + marked I.-V., and that these divide the circumference into five equal + portions. But the divergence between leaf 1 and leaf 2 is equal to + (2/5)ths of the circumference, and the same is the case between 2 and + 3, 3 and 4, &c. The divergence, then, is 2/5, and from this we learn + that, starting from any leaf on the axis, we must pass twice round the + stem in a spiral through five leaves before reaching one directly over + that with which we started. The line which, winding round an axis + either to the right or to the left, passes through the points of + insertion of all the leaves on the axis is termed the _genetic_ or + _generating spiral_; and that margin of each leaf which is towards the + direction from which the spiral proceeds is the _kathodic_ side, the + other margin facing the point whither the spiral passes being the + _anodic_ side. + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Part of a branch of a Cherry with six leaves, + the sixth being placed vertically over the first, after two turns of + the spiral. This is expressed by two-fifths. a, The branch, with the + leaves numbered in order; b, a magnified representation of the + branch, showing the points of insertion of the leaves and their spiral + arrangement.] + + In cases where the internodes are very short and the leaves are + closely applied to each other, as in the house-leek, it is difficult + to trace the _generating spiral_. Thus, in fig. 34 there are thirteen + leaves which are numbered in their order, and five turns of the spiral + marked by circles in the centre (5/13 indicating the arrangement); but + this could not be detected at once. So also in fir cones (fig. 35), + which are composed of scales or modified leaves, the generating spiral + cannot be determined easily. But in such cases a series of _secondary + spirals_ or _parastichies_ are seen running parallel with each other + both right and left, which to a certain extent conceal the genetic + spiral. + + The spiral is not always constant throughout the whole length of an + axis. The angle of divergence may alter either abruptly or gradually, + and the phyllotaxis thus becomes very complicated. This change may be + brought about by arrest of development, by increased development of + parts or by a torsion of the axis. The former are exemplified in many + Crassulaceae and aloes. The latter is seen well in the screw-pine + (_Pandanus_). In the bud of the screw-pine the leaves are arranged in + three orthostichies with the phyllotaxis 1/3, but by torsion the + developed leaves become arranged in three strong spiral rows running + round the stem. These causes of change in phyllotaxis are also well + exemplified in the alteration of an opposite or verticillate + arrangement to an alternate, and vice versa; thus the effect of + interruption of growth, in causing alternate leaves to become opposite + and verticillate, can be distinctly shown in _Rhododendron ponticum_. + The primitive or generating spiral may pass either from right to left + or from left to right. It sometimes follows a different direction in + the branches from that pursued in the stem. When it follows the same + course in the stem and branches, they are _homodromous_; when the + direction differs, they are _heterodromous_. In different species of + the same genus the phyllotaxis frequently varies. + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Diagram of a phyllotaxis represented by the + fraction 2/5.] + + All modifications of leaves follow the same laws of arrangement as + true leaves--a fact which is of importance in a morphological point of + view. In dicotyledonous plants the first leaves produced (the + cotyledons) are opposite. This arrangement often continues during the + life of the plant, but at other times it changes, passing into + distichous and spiral forms. Some tribes of plants are distinguished + by their opposite or verticillate, others by their alternate, leaves. + Labiate plants have decussate leaves, while Boraginaceae have + alternate leaves, and Tiliaceae usually have distichous leaves; + Rubiaceae have opposite leaves. Such arrangements as 2/5, 3/8, 5/13 + and 8/21 are common in Dicotyledons. The first of these, called a + _quincunx_, is met with in the apple, pear and cherry (fig. 32); the + second, in the bay, holly, _Plantago media_; the third, in the cones + of _Picea alba_ (fig. 35); and the fourth in those of the silver fir. + In monocotyledonous plants there is only one seed-leaf or cotyledon, + and hence the arrangement is at first alternate; and it generally + continues so more or less, rarely being verticillate. Such + arrangements as ½, 1/3 and 2/3 are common in Monocotyledons, as in + grasses, sedges and lilies. It has been found in general that, while + the number 5 occurs in the phyllotaxis of Dicotyledons, 3 is common in + that of Monocotyledons. + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Cycle of thirteen leaves placed closely + together so as to form a rosette, as in _Sempervivum_. A is the very + short axis to which the leaves are attached. The leaves are numbered + in their order, from below upwards. The circles in the centre indicate + the five turns of the spiral, and show the insertion of each of the + leaves. The divergence is expressed by the fraction (5/13)ths._] + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Cone of _Picea alba_ with the scales or + modified leaves numbered in the order of their arrangement on the axis + of the cone. The lines indicate a rectilinear series of scales and two + lateral secondary spirals, one turning from left to right, the other + from right to left.] + + In the axil of previously formed leaves leaf-buds arise. These + leaf-buds contain the rudiments of a shoot, and consist of leaves + covering a growing point. The buds of trees of temperate climates, + which lie dormant during the winter, are protected by scale leaves. + These scales or protective appendages of the bud consist either of the + altered laminae or of the enlarged petiolary sheath, or of stipules, + as in the fig and magnolia, or of one or two of these parts combined. + These are often of a coarse nature, serving a temporary purpose, and + then falling off when the leaf is expanded. They are frequently + covered with a resinous matter, as in balsam-poplar and + horse-chestnut, or by a thick downy covering as in the willow. In + plants of warm climates the buds have often no protective appendages, + and are then said to be _naked_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Circinate vernation. + + FIG. 37.--Transverse section of a conduplicate leaf. + + FIG. 38.--Transverse section of a plicate or plaited leaf. + + FIG. 39.--Transverse section of a convolute leaf. + + FIG. 40.--Transverse section of an involute leaf. + + FIG. 41.--Transverse section of a revolute leaf.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Transverse section of a bud, in which the + leaves are arranged in an accumbent manner. + + FIG. 43.--Transverse section of a bud, in which the leaves are + arranged in an equitant manner. + + FIG. 44.--Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves folded in + an obvolute manner. Each is conduplicate, and one embraces the edge + of the other. + + FIG. 45.--Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves arranged + in a supervolute manner.] + + The arrangement of the leaves in the bud is termed _vernation_ or + _prefoliation_. In considering vernation we must take into account + both the manner in which each individual leaf is folded and also the + arrangement of the leaves in relation to each other. These vary in + different plants, but in each species they follow a regular law. The + leaves in the bud are either placed simply in apposition, as in the + mistletoe, or they are folded or rolled up longitudinally or + laterally, giving rise to different kinds of vernation, as delineated + in figs. 36 to 45, where the folded or curved lines represent the + leaves, the thickened part being the midrib. The leaf taken + individually is either folded longitudinally from apex to base, as in + the tulip-tree, and called _reclinate_ or _replicate_; or rolled up in + a circular manner from apex to base, as in ferns (fig. 36), and called + _circinate_; or folded laterally, _conduplicate_ (fig. 37), as in oak; + or it has several folds like a fan, _plicate_ or _plaited_ (fig. 38), + as in vine and sycamore, and in leaves with radiating vernation, where + the ribs mark the foldings; or it is rolled upon itself, _convolute_ + (fig. 39), as in banana and apricot; or its edges are rolled inwards, + _involute_ (fig. 40), as in violet; or outwards, _revolute_ (fig. 41), + as in rosemary. The different divisions of a cut leaf may be folded or + rolled up separately, as in ferns, while the entire leaf may have + either the same or a different kind of vernation. The leaves have a + definite relation to each other in the bud, being either opposite, + alternate or verticillate; and thus different kinds of vernation are + produced. Sometimes they are nearly in a circle at the same level, + remaining flat or only slightly convex externally, and placed so as to + touch each other by their edges, thus giving rise to _valvate_ + vernation. At other times they are at different levels, and are + applied over each other, so as to be _imbricated_, as in lilac, and in + the outer scales of sycamore; and occasionally the margin of one leaf + overlaps that of another, while it in its turn is overlapped by a + third, so as to be _twisted_, _spiral_ or _contortive_. When leaves + are applied to each other face to face, without being folded or rolled + together, they are _appressed_. When the leaves are more completely + folded they either touch at their extremities and are _accumbent_ or + _opposite_ (fig. 42), or are folded inwards by their margin and become + _induplicate_; or a conduplicate leaf covers another similarly folded, + which in turn covers a third, and thus the vernation is _equitant_ + (fig. 43), as in privet; or conduplicate leaves are placed so that the + half of the one covers the half of another, and thus they become + _half-equitant_ or _obvolute_ (fig. 44), as in sage. When in the case + of convolute leaves one leaf is rolled up within the other, it is + _supervolute_ (fig. 45). The scales of a bud sometimes exhibit one + kind of vernation and the leaves another. The same modes of + arrangement occur in the flower-buds. + + Leaves, after performing their functions for a certain time, wither + and die. In doing so they frequently change colour, and hence arise + the beautiful and varied tints of the autumnal foliage. This change + of colour is chiefly occasioned by the diminished circulation in the + leaves, and the higher degree of oxidation to which their chlorophyll + has been submitted. + + Leaves which are articulated with the stem, as in the walnut and + horse-chestnut, fall and leave a scar, while those which are + continuous with it remain attached for some time after they have lost + their vitality. Most of the trees of Great Britain have deciduous + leaves, their duration not extending over more than a few months, + while in trees of warm climates the leaves often remain for two or + more years. In tropical countries, however, many trees lose their + leaves in the dry season. The period of defoliation varies in + different countries according to the nature of their climate. Trees + which are called evergreen, as pines and evergreen-oak, are always + deprived of a certain number of leaves at intervals, sufficient being + left, however, to preserve their green appearance. The cause of the + fall of the leaf in cold climates seems to be deficiency of light and + heat in winter, which causes a cessation in the functions of the cells + of the leaf. The fall is directly caused by the formation of a layer + of tissue across the base of the leaf-stalk; the cells of this layer + separate from one another and the leaf remains attached only by the + fibres of the veins until it becomes finally detached by the wind or + frost. Before its fall the leaf has become dry owing to loss of water + and the removal of the protoplasm and food substances to the stem for + use next season; the red and yellow colouring matters are products of + decomposition of the chlorophyll. Inorganic and other waste matters + are stored in the leaf-tissue and thus got rid of by the plant. The + leaf scar is protected by a corky change (suberization) in the walls + of the exposed cells. (A. B. R.) + + + + +LEAF-INSECT, the name given to orthopterous insects of the family +Phasmidae, referred to the single genus _Phyllium_ and characterized by +the presence of lateral laminae upon the legs and abdomen, which, in +association with an abundance of green colouring-matter, impart a broad +and leaf-like appearance to the whole insect. In the female this +deceptive resemblance is enhanced by the large size and foliaceous form +of the front wings which, when at rest edge to edge on the abdomen, +forcibly suggest in their neuration the midrib and costae of an ordinary +leaf. In this sex the posterior wings are reduced and functionless so +far as flight is concerned; in the male they are ample, membranous and +functional, while the anterior wings are small and not leaf-like. The +freshly hatched young are reddish in colour; but turn green after +feeding for a short time upon leaves. Before death a specimen has been +observed to pass through the various hues of a decaying leaf, and the +spectrum of the green colouring matter does not differ from that of the +chlorophyll of living leaves. Since leaf-insects are purely vegetable +feeders and not predaceous like mantids, it is probable that their +resemblance to leaves is solely for purposes of concealment from +enemies. Their egg capsules are similarly protected by their likeness to +various seeds. Leaf-insects range from India to the Seychelles on the +one side, and to the Fiji Islands on the other. (R. I. P.) + + + + +LEAGUE. 1. (Through Fr. _ligue_, Ital. _liga_, from Lat. _ligare_, to +bind), an agreement entered into by two or more parties for mutual +protection or joint attack, or for the furtherance of some common +object, also the body thus joined or "leagued" together. The name has +been given to numerous confederations, such as the Achaean League +(q.v.), the confederation of the ancient cities of Achaia, and +especially to the various holy leagues (_ligues saintes_), of which the +better known are those formed by Pope Julius II. against Venice in 1508, +often known as the League of Cambrai, and against France in 1511. "The +League," in French history, is that of the Catholics headed by the +Guises to preserve the Catholic religion against the Huguenots and +prevent the accession of Henry of Navarre to the throne (see FRANCE: +_History_). "The Solemn League and Covenant" was the agreement for the +establishment of Presbyterianism in both countries entered into by +England and Scotland in 1643 (see COVENANTERS). Of commercial leagues +the most famous is that of the Hanse towns, known as the Hanseatic +League (q.v.). The word has been adopted by political associations, such +as the Anti-Corn Law League, the Irish Land League, the Primrose League +and the United Irish League, and by numerous social organizations. +"League" has also been applied to a special form of competition in +athletics, especially in Association football. In this system clubs +"league" together in a competition, each playing every other member of +the association twice, and the order of merit is decided by the points +gained during the season, a win counting two and a draw one. + +2. (From the late Lat. _leuga_, or _leuca_, said to be a Gallic word; +the mod. Fr. _lieue_ comes from the O. Fr. _liue_; the Gaelic _leac_, +meaning a flat stone posted as a mark of distance on a road, has been +suggested as the origin), a measure of distance, probably never in +regular use in England, and now only in poetical or rhetorical language. +It was the Celtic as opposed to the Teutonic unit, and was used in +France, Spain, Portugal and Italy. In all the countries it varies with +different localities, and the ancient distance has never been fixed. The +kilometric league of France is fixed at four kilometres. The nautical +league is equal to three nautical miles. + + + + +LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN (1777-1860), British antiquarian and topographer, +was born in London on the 14th of January 1777. After completing his +education at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and spending four +years in the West Indies as lieutenant of marine artillery, he was sent +by the government to Constantinople to instruct the Turks in this branch +of the service. A journey through Asia Minor in 1800 to join the British +fleet at Cyprus inspired him with an interest in antiquarian topography. +In 1801, after travelling across the desert with the Turkish army to +Egypt, he was, on the expulsion of the French, employed in surveying the +valley of the Nile as far as the cataracts; but having sailed with the +ship engaged to convey the Elgin marbles from Athens to England, he lost +all his maps and observations when the vessel foundered off Cerigo. +Shortly after his arrival in England he was sent out to survey the coast +of Albania and the Morea, with the view of assisting the Turks against +attacks of the French from Italy, and of this he took advantage to form +a valuable collection of coins and inscriptions and to explore ancient +sites. In 1807, war having broken out between Turkey and England, he was +made prisoner at Salonica; but, obtaining his release the same year, he +was sent on a diplomatic mission to Ali Pasha of Iannina, whose +confidence he completely won, and with whom he remained for more than a +year as British representative. In 1810 he was granted a yearly sum of +£600 for his services in Turkey. In 1815 he retired from the army, in +which he held the rank of colonel, devoting the remainder of his life to +topographical and antiquarian studies, the results of which were given +to the world in the following volumes: _Topography of Athens_ (1821); +_Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor_ (1824); _Travels in the Morea_ (1830), +and a supplement, _Peloponnesiaca_ (1846); _Travels in Northern Greece_ +(1835); and _Numismata Hellenica_ (1854), followed by a supplement in +1859. A characteristic of the researches of Leake was their +comprehensive minuteness, which was greatly aided by his mastery of +technical details. His _Topography of Athens_, the first attempt at a +scientific treatment of the subject, is still authoritative in regard to +many important points (see ATHENS). He died at Brighton on the 6th of +January 1860. The marbles collected by him in Greece were presented to +the British Museum; his bronzes, vases, gems and coins were purchased by +the university of Cambridge after his death, and are now in the +Fitzwilliam Museum. He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., received the +honorary D.C.L. at Oxford (1816), and was a member of the Berlin Academy +of Sciences and correspondent of the Institute of France. + + See _Memoir_ by J. H. Marsden (1864); the _Architect_ for the 7th of + October 1876; E. Curtius in the _Preussische Jahrbücher_ (Sept., + 1876); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908), p. + 442. + + + + +LEAMINGTON, a municipal borough and health resort of Warwickshire, +England, on the river Leam near its junction with the Avon, 98 m. N.W. +from London, served by the Great Western and London & North Western +railways. Pop. (1901) 26,888. The parliamentary boroughs of Leamington +and Warwick were joined into one constituency in 1885, returning one +member. The centres of the towns are 2 m. apart, Warwick lying to the +west, but they are united by the intermediate parish of New Milverton. +There are three saline springs, and the principal pump-rooms, baths and +pleasant gardens lie on the right bank of the river. The chief public +buildings are the town hall (1884), containing a free library and +school of art; and the Theatre Royal and assembly room. The parish +church of All Saints is modernized, and the other churches are entirely +modern. The S. Warwickshire hospital and Midland Counties Home for +incurables are here. Leamington High School is an important school for +girls. There is a municipal technical school. Industries include iron +foundries and brickworks. The town lies in a well-wooded and picturesque +country, within a few miles of such interesting towns as Warwick, +Kenilworth, Coventry and Stratford-on-Avon. It is a favourite hunting +centre, and, as a health resort, attracts not only visitors but +residents. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen, and 24 +councillors. Area, 2817 acres. + + Leamington was a village of no importance until about 1786, when baths + were first erected, though the springs were noticed by Camden, writing + about 1586. The population in 1811 was only 543, The town was + incorporated in 1875. The name in former use was Leamington Priors, in + distinction from Leamington Hastings, a village on the upper Leam. By + royal licence granted in 1838 it was called Royal Leamington Spa. + + + + +LÉANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN (1862- ), French caricaturist and painter, was +born at Champsecret (Orne), and studied painting under Bin and Cabanel. +From 1887 he figured among the exhibitors of the Salon, where he showed +numerous portraits and genre pictures, but his popular fame is due to +his comic drawings and caricatures. The series of the "Gotha des +souverains," published in _Le Rire_, placed him in the front rank of +modern caricaturists. Besides his contributions to _Le Rire_, _Le +Figaro_ and other comic journals, he published a series of albums: +_Nocturnes_, _Le Musée des souverains_, and _Paris et la province_. +Léandre produced admirable work in lithography, and designed many +memorable posters, such as the "Yvette Guilbert." "Les nouveaux mariés," +"Joseph Prudhomme," "Les Lutteurs," and "La Femme au chien." He was +created a knight of the Legion of Honour. + + + + +LEAP-YEAR (more properly known as _bissextile_), the name given to the +year containing 366 days. The astronomers of Julius Caesar, 46 B.C., +settled the solar year at 365 days 6 hours. These hours were set aside +and at the end of four years made a day which was added to the fourth +year. The English name for the bissextile year is an allusion to the +result of the interposition of the extra day; for after the 29th of +February a date "leaps over" the day of the week on which it would fall +in ordinary years. Thus a birthday on the 10th of June, a Monday, will +in the next year, if a leap-year, be on the 10th of June, a Wednesday. +Of the origin of the custom for women to woo, not be wooed, during +leap-year no satisfactory explanation has ever been offered. In 1288 a +law was enacted in Scotland that "it is statut and ordaint that during +the rein of hir maist blissit Megeste, for ilk yeare knowne as lepe +yeare, ilk mayden ladye of bothe highe and lowe estait shall hae liberte +to bespeke ye man she likes, albeit he refuses to taik hir to be his +lawful wyfe, he shall be mulcted in ye sum ane pundis or less, as his +estait may be; except and awis gif he can make it appeare that he is +betrothit ane ither woman he then shall be free." A few years later a +like law was passed in France, and in the 15th century the custom was +legalized in Genoa and Florence. + + + + +LEAR, EDWARD (1812-1888), English artist and humorist, was born in +London on the 12th of May 1812. His earliest drawings were +ornithological. When he was twenty years old he published a brilliantly +coloured selection of the rarer Psittacidae. Its power attracted the +attention of the 13th earl of Derby, who employed Lear to draw his +Knowsley menagerie. He became a permanent favourite with the Stanley +family; and Edward, 15th earl, was the child for whose amusement the +first _Book of Nonsense_ was composed. From birds Lear turned to +landscape, his earlier efforts in which recall the manner of J. D. +Harding; but he quickly acquired a more individual style. About 1837 he +set up a studio at Rome, where he lived for ten years, with summer tours +in Italy and Sicily, and occasional visits to England. During this +period he began to publish his _Illustrated Journals of a Landscape +Painter_: charmingly written reminiscences of wandering, which +ultimately embraced Calabria, the Abruzzi, Albania, Corsica, &c. From +1848-1849 he explored Greece, Constantinople, the Ionian Islands, Lower +Egypt, the wildest recesses of Albania, and the desert of Sinai. He +returned to London, but the climate did not suit him. In 1854-1855 he +wintered on the Nile, and migrated successively to Corfu, Malta and +Rome, finally building himself a villa at San Remo. From Corfu Lear +visited Mount Athos, Syria, Palestine, and Petra; and when over sixty, +by the assistance of Lord Northbrock, then Govenor-General, he saw the +cities and scenery of greatest interest within a large area of India. +From first to last he was, in whatever circumstances of difficulty or +ill-health, an indomitable traveller. Before visiting new lands he +studied their geography and literature, and then went straight for the +mark; and wherever he went he drew most indefatigably and most +accurately. His sketches are not only the basis of more finished works, +but an exhaustive record in themselves. Some defect of technique or +eyesight occasionally left his larger oil painting, though nobly +conceived, crude or deficient in harmony; but his smaller pictures and +more elaborate sketches abound in beauty, delicacy, and truth. Lear +modestly called himself a topographical artist; but he included in the +term the perfect rendering of all characteristic graces of form, colour, +and atmosphere. The last task he set himself was to prepare for popular +circulation a set of some 200 drawings, illustrating from his travels +the scenic touches of Tennyson's poetry; but he did not live to complete +the scheme, dying at San Remo on the 30th of January 1888. Until sobered +by age, his conversation was brimful of humorous fun. The paradoxical +originality and ostentatiously uneducated draughtsmanship of his +numerous nonsense books won him a more universal fame than his serious +work. He had a true artist's sympathy with art under all forms, and +might have become a skilled musician had he not been a painter. +Swainson, the naturalist, praised young Lear's great red and yellow +macaw as "equalling any figure ever painted by Audubon in grace of +design, perspective, and anatomical accuracy." Murchison, examining his +sketches, complimented them as rigorously embodying geological truth. +Tennyson's lines "To E.L. on his Travels in Greece," mark the poet's +genuine admiration of a cognate spirit in classical art. Ruskin placed +the _Book of Nonsense_ first in the list of a hundred delectable volumes +of contemporary literature, a judgment endorsed by English-speaking +children all over the world. + + See _Letters of Edward Lear to Chichester Fortescue, Lord Carlingford, + and Frances, Countess Waldegrave_ (1907), edited by Lady Strachey, + with an introduction by Henry Strachey. (F. L.*) + + + + +LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. _laxare_, to loosen), a +certain form of tenure, or the contract embodying it, of land, houses, +&c.; see LANDLORD AND TENANT. + + + + +LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. +_Leder_, Dutch _leer_ or _leder_, Swed. _läder_, and in such Celtic +forms as Welsh _llader_), an imputrescible substance prepared from the +hides or skins of living creatures, both cold and warm blooded, by +chemical and mechanical treatment. Skins in the raw and natural moist +state are readily putrescible, and are easily disintegrated by bacterial +or chemical action, and if dried in this condition become harsh, horny +and intractable. The art of the leather manufacturer is principally +directed to overcoming the tendency to putrefaction, securing suppleness +in the material, rendering it impervious to and unalterable by water, +and increasing the strength of the skin and its power to resist wear and +tear. + +Leather is made by three processes or with three classes of substances. +Thus we have (1) tanned leather, in which the hides and skins are +combined with tannin or tannic acid; (2) tawed leather, in which the +skins are prepared with mineral salts; (3) chamoised (shamoyed) leather, +in which the skins are rendered imputrescible by treatment with oils and +fats, the decomposition products of which are the actual tanning agents. + + + Heavy leathers. + +_Sources and Qualities of Hides and Skins._--The hides used in heavy +leather manufacture may be divided into three classes: (1) ox and +heifer, (2) cow, (3) bull. Oxen and heifer hides produce the best +results, forming a tough, tight, solid leather. Cow hides are thin, the +hide itself being fibrous, but still compact, and by reason of its +spread or area is used chiefly for dressing purposes in the bag and +portmanteau manufacture and work of a similar description. Bull hides +are fibrous; they are largely used for heel lifts, and for cheap +belting, the thicker hides being used in the iron and steel industry. + +A second classification now presents itself, viz. the British home +supply, continental (Europe), British colonial, South American, East +Indian, Chinese, &c. + +In the British home supply there are three chief breeds: (1) Shorthorns +(Scotch breed), (2) Herefords (Midland breed), (3) Lowland, or Dutch +class. From a tanner's standpoint, the shorthorns are the best hides +procurable. The cattle are exposed to a variable climate in the +mountainous districts of Scotland, and nature, adapting herself to +circumstances, provides them with a thicker and more compact hide; they +are well grown, have short necks and small heads. The Hereford class are +probably the best English hide; they likewise have small heads and +horns, and produce good solid sole leather. The Lowland hides come +chiefly from Suffolk, Kent and Surrey; the animals have long legs, long +necks and big heads. The hides are usually thin and spready. The hides +of the animals killed for the Christmas season are poor. The animals +being stall-fed for the beef, the hides become distended, thin and +surcharged with fat, which renders them unsuitable for first-class work. + +The continental supply may be divided into two classes: (1) Hides from +hilly regions, (2) hides from lowlands. All animals subject to strong +winds and a wide range of temperatures have a very strong hide, and for +this reason those bred in hilly and mountainous districts are best. The +hides coming under heading No. 1 are of this class, and include those +from the Swiss and Italian Alps, Bavarian Highlands and Pyrenees, also +Florence, Oporto and Lisbon hides. They are magnificent hides, thick, +tightly-built, and of smooth grain. The butt is long and the legs short. +A serious defect in some of these hides is a thick place on the neck +caused by the yoke; this part of the hide is absolute waste. Another +defect, specially noticeable in Lisbon and Oporto hides, is goad marks +on the rump, barbed wire scratches and warbles, caused by the gadfly. +Those hides coming under heading No. 2 are Dutch, Rhine valley, Danish, +Swedish, Norwegian, Hungarian, &c. The first three hides are very +similar; they are spready, poorly grown, and are best used for bag and +portmanteau work. Hungarian oxen are immense animals, and supply a very +heavy bend. Swedish and Norwegian hides are evenly grown and of good +texture; they are well flayed, and used a great deal for manufacturing +picker bands, which require an even leather. + +New Zealand, Australian and Queensland hides resemble good English. A +small quantity of Canadian steers are imported; these are generally +branded. + +Chinese hides are exported dry, and they have generally suffered more or +less from peptonization in the storing and drying; this cannot be +detected until they are in the pits, when they fall to pieces. + +Anglos are imported as live-stock, and are killed within forty-eight +hours. They come to Hull, Birkenhead, Avonmouth and Deptford from +various American ports, and usually give a flatter result than English, +the general quality depending largely on whether the ship has had a good +voyage or not. + +Among South American hides, Liebig's slaughter supply the best; they are +thoroughly clean and carefully trimmed and flayed. They come to London, +Antwerp and Havre, and except for being branded are of first-class +quality. Second to the Liebig slaughter come the Uruguay hides. + +East Indian hides are known as kips, and are supposed to be, and should +be, the hides of yearling cattle. They are now dressed to a large extent +in imitation of box calf, being much cheaper. They come from a small +breed of ox, and have an extremely tight grain; the leather is not so +soft as calf. + +Calf-skins are largely supplied by the continent. They are soft and +pliant, and have a characteristically fine grain, are tight in texture +and quite apart from any other kind of skin. + + + Light leathers. + +The most valuable part of a sheepskin is the wool, and the value of the +pelt is inversely as the value of the wool. Pure Leicester and Norfolk +wools are very valuable, and next is the North and South Downs, but the +skins, i.e. the pelts, of these animals are extremely poor. Devon and +Cheviot cross-bred sheep supply a fair pelt, and sometimes these sheep +are so many times crossed that it is quite impossible to tell what the +skin is. Welsh skins also supply a good tough pelt, though small. Indian +and Persian sheepskins are very goaty, the herds being allowed to roam +about together so much. The sheepskin is the most porous and +open-textured skin in existence, as also the most greasy one; it is +flabby and soft, with a tight, compact grain, but an extremely loose +flesh. Stillborn lambs and lambs not over a month old are worth much +more than when they have lived for three months; they are used for the +manufacture of best kid gloves, and must be milk skins. Once the lambs +have taken to grass the skins supply a harsher leather. + +The best goat-skins come from the Saxon and Bavarian Highlands, Swiss +Alps, Pyrenees, Turkey, Bosnia, Southern Hungary and the Urals. The +goats being exposed to all winds yield fine skins. A good number come +from Argentina and from Abyssinia, the Cape and other parts of Africa. +Of all light leathers the goat has the toughest and tightest grain; it +is, therefore, especially liked for fancy work. The grain is rather too +bold for glacé work, for which the sheep is largely used. + +The seal-skin, used largely for levant work, is the skin of the +yellow-hair seal, found in the Northern seas, the Baltic, Norway and +Sweden, &c. The skin has a large, bold, brilliant grain, and being a +large skin is much used for upholstery and coach work, like the Cape +goat. It is quite distinct from the fur seal. + +Porpoise hide is really the hide of the white whale; it is dressed for +shooting, fishing and hunting boots. Horse hide is dressed for light +split and upper work; being so much stall-fed it supplies only a thin, +spready leather. The skins of other Equidae, such as the ass, zebra, +quagga, &c. are also dressed to some small extent, but are not important +sources. + + _Structure of Skin._--Upon superficial inspection, the hides and skins + of all mammalia appear to be unlike each other in general structure, + yet, upon closer examination, it is found that the anatomical + structure of most skins is so similar that for all practical purposes + we may assume that there is no distinction (see SKIN AND + EXO-SKELETON). But from the practical point of view, as opposed to the + anatomical, there are great and very important differences, such as + those of texture, thickness, area, &c.; and these differences cause a + great divergence in the methods of tanning used, almost necessitating + a distinct tannage for nearly every class of hide or skin. + + The skins of the lower animals, such as alligators, lizards, fish and + snakes, differ to a large extent from those of the mammalia, chiefly + in the epidermis, which is much more horny in structure and forms + scales. + + The skin is divided into two distinct layers: (1) the epidermis or + epithelium, i.e. the cuticle, (2) the corium derma, or cutis, i.e. the + true skin. These two layers are not only different in structure, but + are also of entirely distinct origin. The epidermis again divides + itself into two parts, viz. the "horny layer" or surface skin, and the + _rete Malpighi_, named after the Italian anatomist who first drew + attention to its existence. The _rete Malpighi_ is composed of living, + soft, nucleated cells, which multiply by division, and, as they + increase, are gradually pushed to the surface of the skin, becoming + flatter and drier as they near it, until they reach the surface as + dried scales. The epidermis is thus of cellular structure, and more or + less horny or waterproof. It must consequently be removed together + with the hair, wool or bristles before tannage begins, but as it is + very thin compared with the corium, this matters little. + + The hair itself does not enter the corium, but is embedded in a sheath + of epidermic structure, which is part of and continuous with the + epidermis. It is of cellular structure, and the fibrous part is + composed of long needle-shaped cells which contain the pigment with + which the hair is coloured. Upon removal of the hair some of these + cells remain behind and colour the skin, and this colour does not + disappear until these cells are removed by scudding. Each hair is + supplied with at least two fat or sebaceous glands, which discharge + into the orifice of the hair sheath; these glands impart to the hair + that natural glossy appearance which is characteristic of good health. + The hair bulb (b, fig. 1) consists of living nucleated cells, which + multiply rapidly, and, like the _rete Malpighi_, cause an upward + pressure, getting harder at the same time, thereby lengthening the + hair. + + The hair papilla (a, fig. 1) consists of a globule of the corium or + true skin embedded in the hair bulb, which by means of blood-vessels + feeds and nourishes the hair. Connected with the lower part of each + hair is an oblique muscle known as the arrector or erector pili, seen + at k, fig. 1; this is an involuntary muscle, and is contracted by + sudden cold, heat or shock, with an accompanying tightening of the + skin, producing the phenomenon commonly known as "goose flesh." This + is the outcome of the contracted muscle pulling on the base of the + hair, thereby giving it a tendency to approach the vertical, and + producing the simultaneous effect of making the "hair stand on end." + + The sudoriferous or sweat glands (R, fig. 1) consist of long + spiral-like capillaries, formed from the fibres of the connective + tissue of the corium. These glands discharge sometimes directly + through the epidermis, but more often into the orifice of the + hair-sheath. + + The epidermis is separated from the corium by a very important and + very fine membrane, termed the "hyaline" or "glassy layer," which + constitutes the actual grain surface of a hide or skin. This layer is + chemically different from the corium, as if it is torn or scratched + during the process of tanning the colour of the underlying parts is + much lighter than that of the grain surface. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. + + a, Hair papilla. + b, Hair bulb. + c, Hair sheath showing epidermic structure. + d, Dermic coat of hair sheath. + e, Outer root sheath. + f, Inner root sheath. + g, Hair cuticle. + h, Hair. + J, Sebaceous glands. + k, Erector pili. + m, Sweat ducts. + n and _p_, Epidermis. + n, Rete Malpighi. + p, Horny layer. + R, Sweat or sudoriferous gland. + S, Opening at sweat duct.] + + The corium, unlike the epidermis, is of fibrous, not cellular + structure; moreover, the fibres do not multiply among themselves, but + are gradually developed as needed from the interfibrillar substance, a + semi-soluble gelatinous modification of the true fibre. This + interfibrillar substance consequently has no structure, and is + prepared at any time on coming into contact with tannin to form + amorphous leather, which fills what would in the absence of this + substance be interfibrillar spaces. The more of this matter there is + present the more completely will the spaces be filled, and the more + waterproof will be the leather. An old bull, as is well known, + supplies a very poor, soft and spongy leather, simply because the hide + lacks interfibrillar substance, which has been sapped up by the body. + The fibres are, therefore, separated by interfibrillar spaces, which + on contact with water absorb it with avidity by capillary attraction. + But a heifer hide or young calf supplies the most tight and waterproof + leather known, because the animals are young, and having plenty of + nourishment do not require to draw upon and sap the interfibrillar + substance with which the skin is full to overflowing. + + The corium obtains its food from the body by means of lymph ducts, + with which it is well supplied. It is also provided with nodules of + lymph to nourish the hair, and nodules of grease, which increase in + number as they near the flesh side, until the net skin, _panniculus + adiposus_, or that which separates the corium from meat proper, is + quite full with them. + + The corium is coarse in the centre of the skin where the fibres, which + are of the kind known as white connective tissue, and which exist in + bundles bound together with yellow elastic fibres, are loosely woven, + but towards the flesh side they become more compact, and as the + hyaline layer is neared the bundles of fibres get finer and finer, and + are much more tightly interwoven, until finally, next the grain + itself, the fibres no longer exist in bundles, but as individual + fibrils lying parallel with the grain. This layer is known as the + _pars papillaris_. The bundles of fibre interweave one another in + every conceivable direction. The fibrils are extremely minute, and are + cemented together with a medium rather more soluble than themselves. + + There are only two exceptions to this general structure which need be + taken into account. Sheep-skin is especially loosely woven in the + centre, so much so that any carelessness in the wet work or sweating + process enables one to split the skin in two by tearing. This + loosely-woven part is full of fatty nodules, and the skin is generally + split at this part, the flesh going for chamois leather and the grain + for skivers. The other notable exception is the horse hide, which has + a third skin over the loins just above the kidneys, known as the crup; + it is very greasy and tight in structure, and is used for making a + very waterproof leather for seamen's and fishermen's boots. Pig-skin, + perhaps, is rather peculiar, in the fact that the bristles penetrate + almost right through the skin. + + _Tanning Materials._--Tannin or tannic acid is abundantly formed in a + very large number of plants, and secreted in such diverse organs and + members as the bark, wood, roots, leaves, seed-pods, fruit, &c. The + number of tannins which exists has not been determined, nor has the + constitution of those which do exist been satisfactorily settled. As + used in the tanyard tannin is present both in the free state and + combined with colouring matter and accompanied by decomposition + products, such as gallic acid or phlobaphenes (anhydrides of the + tannins), respectively depending upon the series to which the tannin + belongs. In whatever other points they differ, they all have the + common property of being powerfully astringent, of forming insoluble + compounds with gelatine or gelatinous tissue, of being soluble in + water to a greater or lesser extent, and of forming blacks (greenish + or bluish) with iron. Pyrogallol tannins give a blue-black coloration + or precipitate with ferric salts, and catechol tannins a green-black; + and whereas bromine water gives a precipitate with catechol tannins, + it does not with pyrogallol tannins. There are two distinctive classes + of tannins, viz. catechol and pyrogallol tannins. The materials + belonging to the former series are generally much darker in colour + than those classified with the latter, and moreover they yield reds, + phlobaphenes or tannin anhydrides, which deposit on or in the leather. + Pyrogallol tannins include some of the lightest coloured and best + materials known, and, speaking generally, the leather produced by them + is not so harsh or hard as that produced with catechol tannins. They + decompose, yielding ellagic acid (known technically as "bloom") and + gallic acid; the former has waterproofing qualities, because it fills + the leather, at the same time giving weight. + + It has been stated, and perhaps with some truth, that leather cannot + be successfully made with catechol tannins alone; pyrogallol tannins, + however, yield an excellent leather; but the finest results are + obtained by blending the two. + + The classification of the chief tanning materials is as follows:-- + + _Pyrogallols._ + + Myrobalans (_Terminalia Chebula_). + Chestnut wood (_Castanea vesca_). + Divi-divi (_Caesalpinia Coriaria_). + Algarobilla (_Caesalpinia brevifolia_). + Sumach (_Rhus Coriaria_). + Oakwood (_Quercus family_). + Chestnut oak (_Quercus Prinus_). + Galls (_Quercus Infectoria_). + Willow (_Salix arenaria_). + + _Catechols._ + + Gambier (_Uncaria Gambir_). + Hemlock (_Abies canadensis_). + Quebracho (_Quebracho Colorado_). + Mangrove or Cutch (_Rhizophora Mangle_). + Mimosa or Golden Wattle (_Acacia Pycnantha_). + Larch (_Larix Europaea_). + Canaigre (_Rumer Hymenosepalum_). + Birch (_Betula alba_). + Cutch Catechu (_Acacia Catechu_). + + _Subsidiary._ + + Oakbark (_Quercus Robur_). + Valonia (_Quercus Aegilops_). + + Myrobalans are the fruit of an Indian tree. There are several + different qualities, the order of which is as follows, the best being + placed first: Bhimley, Jubbalpore, Rajpore, Fair Coast Madras and + Vingorlas. They are a very light-coloured material, containing from 27 + % to 38 % of tannin; they deposit much "bloom," ferment fairly + rapidly, supplying acidity, and yield a mellow leather. + + Chestnut comes on the market in the form of crude and decolorized + liquid extracts, containing about 27 % to 31 % of tannin, and yields a + good leather of a light-brown colour. + + Oakwood reaches the market in the same form; it is a very similar + material, but only contains 24 % to 27 % of tannin, and yields a + slightly heavier and darker leather. + + Divi-divi is the dried seed pods of an Indian tree containing 40 % to + 45 % of tannin, and yielding a white leather; it might be valuable but + for the tendency to dangerous fermentation and development of a + dark-red colouring matter. + + Algarobilla consists of the seeds of an Indian tree, containing about + 45 % of tannin, and in general properties is similar to divi-divi, but + does not discolour so much upon fermentation. + + Sumach is perhaps the best and most useful material known. It is the + ground leaves of a Sicilian plant, containing about 28 % of tannin, + and yielding a nearly white and very beautiful leather. It is used + alone for tanning the best moroccos and finer leather, and being so + valuable is much adulterated, the chief adulterant being _Pistacia + lentiscus_ (Stinko or Lentisco), an inferior and light-coloured + catechol tannin. Other but inferior sumachs are also used. There is + Venetian sumach (_Rhus cotinus_) and Spanish sumach (_Colpoon + compressa_); these are used to some extent in the countries bordering + on the Mediterranean. _R. Glabra_ and _R. Copallina_ are also used in + considerable quantities in America, where they are cultivated. + + Galls are abnormal growths found upon oaks, and caused by the gall + wasp laying eggs in the plant. They are best harvested just before the + insect escapes. They contain from 50 % to 60 % of tannin, and are + generally used for the commercial supply of tannic acid, and not for + tanning purposes. + + Gambier, terra japonica or catechu, is the product of a shrub + cultivated in Singapore and the Malay Archipelago. It is made by + boiling the shrub and allowing the extract to solidify. It is a + peculiar material, and may be completely washed out of a leather + tanned with it. It mellows exceedingly, and keeps the leather fibre + open; it may be said that it only goes in the leather to prepare and + make easy the way for other tannins. Block gambier contains from 35 % + to 40 % and cube gambier from 50 % to 65 % of tannin. + + Hemlock generally reaches the market as extract, prepared from the + bark of the American tree. It contains about 22 % of tannin, has a + pine-like odour, but yields a rather dark-coloured red leather. + + Quebracho is imported mainly as solid extract, containing 63 % to 70 % + of tannin; it is a harsh, light-red tannage, but darkens rapidly on + exposure to light. It is used for freshening up very mellow liquors, + but is rather wasteful, as it deposits an enormous amount of its + tannin as phlobaphenes. + + Mangrove or cutch is a solid extract prepared from the mangrove tree + found in the swamps of Borneo and the Straits Settlements; it contains + upwards of 60 % of a red tannin. + + Mimosa is the bark of the Australian golden wattle (_Acacia + pycnantha_), and contains from 36 % to 50 % of tannin. It is a rather + harsh tannage, yielding a flesh-coloured leather, and is useful for + sharpening liquors. This bark is now successfully cultivated in Natal. + The tannin content of this Natal bark is somewhat inferior, but the + colour is superior to the Australian product. + + Larch bark contains 9 % to 10 % of light-coloured tannin, and is used + especially for tanning Scotch basils. + + Canaigre is the air-dried tuberous roots of a Mexican plant, + containing 25 % to 30 % of tannin and about 8 % of starch. It yields + an orange-coloured leather of considerable weight and firmness. Its + cultivation did not pay well enough, so that it is little used. + + Cutch, catechu or "dark catechu," is obtained from the wood of Indian + acacias, and is not to be confounded with mangrove cutch. It contains + 60 % of tanning matter and a large proportion of catechin similar to + that contained in gambier, but much redder. It is used for dyeing + browns and blacks with chrome and iron mordants. + + The willow and the white birch barks contain, respectively, 12 % to 14 + % and 2 % to 5 % of tannin. In combination they are used to produce + the famous Russia leather, whose insect-resisting odour is due to the + birch bark. In America this leather is imitated with the American + black birch bark (_Betula lenta_), and also with the oil obtained from + its dry distillation. + + In the list of materials two have been placed in a subsidiary class + because they are a mixture of catechol and pyrogallol tannin. Oak bark + produces the best leather known, proving that a blend of the two + classes of tannins gives the best results. It is the bark of the + coppice oak, and contains 12 % to 14 % of a reddish-yellow tannage. + Valonia is the acorn cup of the Turkish and Greek oak. The Smyrna or + Turkish valonia is best, and contains 32 % to 36 % of an almost white + tannin. Greek valonia is greyer in colour, and contains 26 % to 30 % + of tannin. It yields a tough, firm leather of great weight, due to the + rapid deposition of a large amount of bloom. + + _Grinding and Leaching[1] Tanning Materials._--At first sight it would + not seem possible that science could direct such a clumsy process as + the grinding of tanning materials, and yet even here, the "scientific + smashing" of tanning materials may mean the difference between profit + and loss to the tanner. In most materials the tannin exists imprisoned + in cells, and is also to some extent free, but with this latter + condition the science of grinding has nothing to do. If tanning + materials are simply broken by a series of clean cuts, only those + cells directly on the surfaces of the cuts will be ready to yield + their tannin; therefore, if materials are ground by cutting, a + proportion of the total tannin is thrown away. Hence it is necessary + to bruise, break and otherwise sever the walls of all the cells + containing the tannin; so that the machine wanted is one which + crushes, twists and cuts the material at the same time, turning it out + of uniform size and with little dust. + + The apparatus in most common use is built on the same principle as the + coffee mill, which consists of a series of segmental cutters; as the + bark works down into the smaller cutters of the mill it is twisted and + cut in every direction. This is a very good form of mill, but it + requires a considerable amount of power and works slowly. The teeth + require constant renewal, and should, therefore, be replaceable in + rows, not, as in some forms, cast on the bell. The disintegrator is + another form of mill, which produces its effect by violent concussion, + obtained by the revolution in opposite directions of from four to six + large metal arms fitted with projecting spikes inside a drum, the + faces of which are also fitted with protruding pieces of metal. The + arms make from 2000 to 4000 revolutions per minute. The chief + objection to this apparatus is that it forms much dust, which is + caught in silken bags fitted to gratings in the drum. The myrobalans + crusher, a very useful machine for such materials as myrobalans and + valonia, consists of a pair of toothed rollers above and a pair of + fluted rollers beneath. The material is dropped upon the toothed + rollers first, where it is broken and crushed; then the crushing is + finished and any sharp corners rounded off in the fluted rollers. + + It must not be thought that now the material is ground it is + necessarily ready for leaching. This may or may not be so, depending + upon whether the tanner is making light or heavy leathers. If light + leathers are being considered, it is ready for immediate leaching, + i.e. to be infused with water in preparation of a liquor. If heavy + leathers are in process of manufacture, he would be a very wasteful + tanner who would extract his material raw. It must be borne in mind + that when an infusion is made with fresh tanning material, the liquor + begins to deposit decomposition products after standing a day or two, + and the object of the heavy-leather tanner is to get this material + deposited in the leather, to fill the pores, produce weight and make a + firm, tough product. With this end in view he dusts his hides with + this fresh material in the layers, i.e. he spreads a layer between + each hide as it is laid down, so that the strong liquors penetrate and + deposit in the hides. When most of this power to deposit has been + usefully utilized in the layers, then the material (which is now, + perhaps, half spent) is leached. The light-leather maker does not want + a hard, firm leather, but a soft and pliable product; hence he leaches + his material fresh, and does not trouble as to whether the tannin + deposits in the pits or not. + + Whether fresh or partially spent material is leached, the process is + carried out in the same way. There are several methods in vogue; the + best method only will be described, viz. the "press leach" system. + + The leaching is carried out in a series of six square pits, each + holding about 3 to 4 tons of material. The method depends upon the + fact that when a weak liquor is forced over a stronger one they do not + mix, by reason of the higher specific gravity of the stronger one; the + weaker liquor, therefore, by its weight forces the stronger liquor + downwards, and as the pit in which it is contained is fitted with a + false bottom and side duct running over into the next pit, the + stronger liquor is forced upwards through this duct on to the next + stronger pit. There the process is repeated, until finally the weak + liquor or water, as the case may be, is run off the last vat as a very + strong infusion. As a concrete example let us take the six pits shown + in the figure. + + +-------+-------+-------+ + | | | | + | 4 | 5 | 6 | + | | | | + +-------+-------+-------+ + | | | | + | 3 | 2 | 1 | + | | | | + +-------+-------+-------+ + + No. 6 is the last vat, and the liquor, which is very strong, is about + to be run off. No. 1 is spent material, over which all six liquors + have passed, the present liquor having been pumped on as fresh water. + The liquor from No. 6 is run off into the pump well, and liquor No. 1 + is pumped over No. 2, thus forcing all liquors one forward and leaving + pit No. 1 empty; this pit is now cast and filled with clean fishings + and perhaps a little new material, clean water is then pumped on No. + 2, which is now the weakest pit, and all liquors are thus forced + forward one pit more, making No. 1 the strongest pit. After infusing + for some time this is run off to the pump well, and the process + repeated. It may be noted that the hotter the water is pumped on the + weakest pit, the better will the material be spent, and the nearer the + water is to boiling-point the better; in fact, a well-managed tanyard + should have the spent tan down to between 1% and 2% of tannin, + although this material is frequently thrown away containing up to 10% + and sometimes even more. There is a great saving of time and labour in + this method, since the liquors are self-adjusting. + + _Testing Tan Liquors._--The methods by which the tanning value of any + substance may be determined are many, but few are at once capable of + simple application and minute accuracy. An old method of ascertaining + the strength of a tan liquor is by means of a hydrometer standardized + against water, and called a barkometer. It consists of a long + graduated stem fixed to a hollow bulb, the opposite end of which is + weighted. It is placed in the liquor, the weighted end sinks to a + certain depth, and the reading is taken on the stem at that point + which touches "water mark." The graduations are such that if the + specific gravity is multiplied by 1000 and then 1000 is subtracted + from the result, the barkometer strength of the liquor is obtained. + Thus 1029 specific gravity equals 29° barkometer. This method affords + no indication of the amount of tannin present, but is useful to the + man who knows his liquors by frequent analysis. + + A factor which governs the quality of the leather quite as much as the + tannin itself is the acidity of the liquors. It is known that gallic + and tannic acids form insoluble calcium salts, and all the other acids + present as acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic, formic, &c., form + comparatively soluble salts, so that an easy method of determining + this important factor is as follows:-- + + Take a quantity, say 100 c.c., of tan liquor, filter till clear + through paper, then pipette 10 c.c. into a small beaker (about 1½ in. + diameter), place it on some printed paper and note how clear the print + appears through the liquor; now gradually add from a burette a clear + solution of saturated lime water until the liquor becomes just cloudy, + that is until it just loses its brilliancy. Now read off the number of + cubic centimetres required in the graduated stem of the burette, and + either read as degrees (counting each c.c. as one degree), to which + practice at once gives a useful signification, or calculate out in + terms of acetic acid per 100 c.c. of liquor, reckoning saturated lime + water as 1/20 normal. + + The methods which deal with the actual testing for tannin itself + depend mostly upon one or other of two processes; either the + precipitation of the tannin by means of gelatin, or its absorption by + means of prepared hide. Sir Humphry Davy was the first to propose a + method for analysing tanning materials, and he precipitated the tannin + by means of gelatin in the presence of alum, then dried and weighed + the precipitate, after washing free from excess of reagents. This + method was improved by Stoddart, but cannot lay claim to much + accuracy. Warington and Müller again modified the method, but their + procedure being tedious and difficult to work could not be regarded as + a great advance. Wagner then proposed precipitation by means of the + alkaloids, with special regard to cinchonine sulphate in the presence + of rosaniline acetate as indicator, but this method also proved + useless. After this many metallic precipitants were tried, used + gravimetrically and volumetrically, but without success. The weighing + of precipitated tannates will never succeed, because the tannins are + such a diverse class of substances that each tannin precipitates + different quantities of the precipitants, and some materials contain + two or three different tannins. Then there are also the difficulties + of incomplete precipitation and the precipitation of colouring matter, + &c. Among this class of methods may be mentioned Garland's, in which + tartar emetic and sal ammoniac were employed. It was improved by + Richards and Palmer. + + Another class of methods depends upon the destruction of the tannin by + some oxidizing agent, and the estimation of the amount required. + Terreil rendered the tannin alkaline, and after agitating it with a + known quantity of air, estimated the volume of oxygen absorbed. The + method was slow and subject to many sources of error. Commaille + oxidized with a known quantity of iodic acid and estimated the excess + of iodate. This process also was troublesome, besides oxidizing the + gallic acid (as do all the oxidation processes), and entailing a + separate estimation of them after the removal of the tannin. Ferdinand + Jean (1877) titrated alkaline tannin solution with standard iodine, + but the mixture was so dark that the end reaction with starch could + not be seen; in addition the gallic acid had again to be estimated. + Monier proposed permanganate as an oxidizing agent, and Lowenthal made + a very valuable improvement by adding indigo solution to the tannin + solution, which controlled the oxidation and acted as indicator. This + method also required double titration because of the gallic acid + present, the tanning matters being removed from solution by means of + gelatin and acidified salt. + + The indirect gravimetric hide-powder method first took form about + 1886. It was published in _Der Gerber_ by Simand and Weiss, other + workers being Eitner and Meerkatz. Hammer, Muntz and Ramspacher did + some earlier work on similar lines, depending upon the specific + gravity of solutions. Professor H. R. Procter perfected this method by + packing a bell, similar in shape to a bottomless bottle of about 2 oz. + (liq.) capacity, with the hide-powder, and siphoning the tan liquor up + through the powder and over into a receiver. This deprives the tan + liquor of tannin, and a portion of this non-tannin solution is + evaporated to dryness and weighed till constant; similarly a portion + of the original solution containing non-tannins and tannins is + evaporated and weighed till constant; then the weight of the + non-tannins subtracted from the weight of the non-tannins and tannins + gives the weight of tannin, which is calculated to percentage on + original solutions. This method was adopted as official by the + International Association of Leather Trades Chemists until September + 1906, when its faults were vividly brought before them by Gordon + Parker of London and Bennett of Leeds, working in collaboration, + although other but not so complete work had been previously done to + the same end. The main faults of the method were that the hide-powder + absorbed non-tannins, and therefore registered them as tannins, and + the hide-powder was partially soluble. This difficulty has now been + overcome to a large extent in the present official method of the + I.A.L.T.C. + + Meanwhile, Parker and Munro Payne proposed a new method of analysis, + the essence of which is as follows:--A definite excess of lime + solution is added to a definite quantity of tannin solution and the + excess of lime estimated; the tan solution is now deprived of tannin + by means of a soluble modification of gelatin, called "collin," and + the process is repeated. Thus we get two sets of figures, viz. total + absorption and acid absorption (i.e. acids other than tan); the latter + subtracted from the former gives tannin absorption, and this is + calculated out in percentage of original liquor. The method failed + theoretically, because a definite molecular weight had to be assumed + for tannins which are all different. There are also several other + objections, but though, like the hide-powder method, it is quite + empirical, it gives exceedingly useful results if the rules for + working are strictly adhered to. + + The present official method of the I.A.L.T.C. is a modification of the + American official method, which is in turn a modification of a method + proposed by W. Eitner, of the Vienna Leather Research Station. The + hide-powder is very slightly chrome-tanned with a basic solution of + chromium chloride, 2 grammes of the latter being used per 100 grammes + of hide-powder, and is then washed free from soluble salts and + squeezed to contain 70% of moisture, and is ready for use. This + preliminary chroming does away with the difficulty of the powder being + soluble, by rendering it quite insoluble; it also lessens the tendency + to absorb non-tannins. Such a quantity of this wet powder as contains + 6.5 grammes of dry hide is now taken, and water is added until this + quantity contains exactly 20 grammes of moisture, i.e. 26.5 grammes in + all; it is then agitated for 15 minutes with 100 c.c. of the prepared + tannin solution, which is made up to contain tannin within certain + definite limits, in a mechanical rotator, and filtered. Of this + non-tannin solution 50 c.c. is then evaporated to dryness. The same + thing is done with 50 c.c. of original solution containing non-tannins + and tannins, and both residues are weighed. The tannin is thus + determined by difference. The method does all that science can do at + present. The rules for carrying out the analysis are necessarily very + strict. The object in view is that all chemists should get exactly + concordant results, and in this the I.A.L.T.C. has succeeded. + + The work done by Wood, Trotman, Procter, Parker and others on the + alkaloidal precipitation of tannin deserves mention. + +_Heavy Leathers._--The hides of oxen are received in the tanyard in four +different conditions: (1) market or slaughter hides, which, coming +direct from the local abattoirs, are soft, moist and covered with dirt +and blood; (2) wet salted hides; (3) dry salted hides; (4) sun-dried or +"flint" hides--the last three forms being the condition in which the +imports of foreign hides are made. The first operation in the tannery is +to clean the hides and bring them back as nearly as possible to the +flaccid condition in which they left the animal's back. The blood and +other matter on market hides must be removed as quickly as possible, the +blood being of itself a cause of dark stains and bad grain, and with the +other refuse a source of putrefaction. When the hides are sound they are +given perhaps two changes of water. + + Salted hides need a longer soaking than market hides, as it is not + only essential to remove the salt from the hide, but also necessary to + plump and soften the fibre which has been partially dehydrated and + contracted by the salt. It must also be borne in mind that a 10 % + solution of salt dissolves hide substance, thereby causing an + undesirable loss of weight, and a weak solution prevents plumping, + especially when taken into the limes, and may also cause "buckling," + which cannot easily be removed in after processes. Dried and dry + salted hides require a much longer soaking than any other variety. + Dried hides are always uncertain, as they may have putrefied before + drying, and also may have been dried at too high a temperature; in the + former case they fall to pieces in the limes, and in the latter case + it is practically impossible to soak them back, unless putrefactive + processes are used, and such are always dangerous and difficult to + work because of the Rivers Pollution Acts. Prolonged soaking in cold + water dissolves a serious amount of hide substance. Soaking in brine + may be advantageous, as it prevents putrefaction to some extent. + Caustic soda, sodium sulphide and sulphurous acid may also be + advantageously employed on account of their softening and antiseptic + action. In treating salted goods, the first wash water should always + be rapidly changed, because, as mentioned, strong salt solutions + dissolve hide; four changes of water should always be given to these + goods. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Double-acting Stocks.] + + There are other and mechanical means of softening obstinate material, + viz. by stocking. The American hide mill, or double-acting stocks, + shown diagrammatically in fig. 2, is a popular piece of apparatus, but + the goods should never be subjected to violent mechanical treatment + until soft enough to stand it, else severe grain cracking may result. + Perhaps the use of sodium sulphide or caustic soda in conjunction with + the American wash wheel is the safest method. + + Whatever means are used the ultimate object is first to swell and open + up the fibres as much as possible, and secondly to remove putrefactive + refuse and dirt, which if left in is fixed by the lime in the process + of depilation, and causes a dirty buff. + +After being thus brought as nearly as possible into a uniform condition, +all hides are treated alike. The first operation to which they are +subjected is _depilation_, which removes not only the hair but also the +scarf skin or epidermis. When the goods are sent to the limes for +depilation they are, first of all, placed in an old lime, highly charged +with organic matter and bacteria. It is the common belief that the lime +causes the hair to loosen and fall out, but this is not so; in fact, +pure lime has the opposite effect of tightening the hair. The real +cause of the loosening of the hair is that the bacteria in the old lime +creep down the hair, enter the _rete Malpighi_ and hair sheath, and +attack and decompose the soft cellular structure of the sheath and bulb, +also altering the composition of the _rete Malpighi_ by means of which +the scarf skin adheres to the true skin. These products of the bacterial +action are soluble in lime, and immediately dissolve, leaving the scarf +skin and hair unbound and in a condition to leave the skin upon +scraping. In this first "green" lime the action is mainly this +destructive one, but the goods have yet to be made ready to receive the +tan liquor, which they must enter in a plump, open and porous condition. +Consequently, the "green" lime is followed with two more, the second +being less charged with bacteria, and the third being, if not actually a +new one, a very near approach to it; in these two limes the bundles of +fibre are gradually softened, split up and distended, causing the hide +to swell, the interfibrillar substance is rendered soluble and the whole +generally made suitable for transference to the tan liquors. The hide +itself is only very slightly soluble; if care is taken, the grease is +transformed into an insoluble calcium soap, and the hair is hardly acted +upon at all. + +The time the goods are in the limes and the method of making new limes +depends upon the quality of the leather to be turned out. The harder and +tougher the leather required the shorter and fresher the liming. For +instance, for sole leather where a hard result is required, the time in +the limes would be from 8 to 10 days, and a perfectly fresh top lime +would be used, with the addition of sodium sulphide to hasten the +process. Every tanner uses a different quantity of lime and sulphide, +but a good average quantity is 7 lb. lime per hide and 10-15 lb. sodium +sulphide per pit of 100 hides. The lime is slaked with water and the +sulphide mixed in during the slaking; if it is added to the pit when the +slaking is finished the greater part of its effect is lost, as it does +not then enter into the same chemical combinations with the lime, +forming polysulphides, as when it is added during the process of +slaking. + +For softer and more pliable leathers, such as are required for harness +and belting, a "lower" or mellower liming is given, and the time in the +limes is increased from 9 to 12 days. Some of the old mellow liquor is +added to the fresh lime in the making, so as just to take off the +sharpness. It would be made up as for sole leather, but with less +sulphide or none at all, and then a dozen buckets of an old lime would +be added. For lighter leathers from 3 to 6 weeks' liming is given, and a +fresh lime is never used. + + "Sweating" as a method of depilation is obsolete in England so far as + heavy leathers are concerned. It consists of hanging the goods in a + moist warm room until incipient putrefaction sets in. This first + attacks the more mucous portions, as the _rete Malpighi_, hair bulb + and sheath, and so allows the hair to be removed as before. The method + pulls down the hide, and the putrefaction may go too far, with + disastrous results, but there is much to recommend it for sheepskins + where the wool is the main consideration, the main point being that + while lime entirely destroys wool, this process leaves it intact, only + loosening the roots. It is consequently still much used. + + Another method of fellmongering (dewooling) sheepskins is to paint the + flesh side with a cream of lime made with a 10% solution of sodium + sulphide and lay the goods in pile flesh to flesh, taking care that + none of the solution comes in contact with the wool, which is ready + for pulling in from 4 to 8 hours. Although this process may be used + for any kind of skin, it is practically only used for sheep, as if any + other skin is depilated in this manner all plumping effect is lost. + Since this must be obtained in some way, it is an economy of time and + material to place the goods in lime in the first instance. + + Sometimes, in the commoner classes of sole leather, the hair is + removed by painting the hair side with cream of lime and sulphide, or + the same effect is produced by drawing the hides through a strong + solution of sulphide; this completely destroys the hair, actually + taking it into solution. But the hair roots remain embedded in the + skin, and for this reason such leather always shows a dirty buff. + + Arsenic sulphide (realgar) is slaked with the lime for the production + of the finer light leathers, such as glace kid and glove kid. This + method produces a very smooth grain (the tendency of sodium sulphide + being to make the grain harsh and bold), and is therefore very + suitable for the purpose, but it is very expensive. + + Sufficient proof of the fact that it is not the lime which causes + skins to unhair is found in the process of chemical liming patented by + Payne and Pullman. In this process the goods are first treated with + caustic soda and then with calcium chloride; in this manner lime is + formed in the skin by the reaction of the two salts, but still the + hair remains as tight as ever. If this process is to be used for + unhairing and liming effect, the goods must be first subjected to a + putrid soak to loosen the hair, and afterwards limed. Experiments made + by the present writer also prove this theory. A piece of calf skin was + subjected to sterilized lime for several months, at the end of which + time the hair was as tight as ever; then bacterial influence was + introduced, and the skin unhaired in as many days. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Tanner's Beam.] + +After liming it is necessary to unhair the goods. This is done by +stretching a hide over a tanner's beam (fig. 3), when with an unhairing +knife (a, fig. 4) the beamsman partially scrapes and partially shaves +off the hair and epidermis. Another workman, a "flesher," removes the +flesh or "net skin" (_panniculus adiposus_), a fatty matter from the +flesh side of the skin, with the fleshing knife (two-edged), seen in b, +fig. 4. For these operations several machines have been adapted, working +mostly with revolving spiral blades or vibrating cutters, under which +the hides pass in a fully extended state. Among these may be mentioned +the Leidgen unhairer, which works on a rubber bed, which "gives" with +the irregularities of the hide, and the Wilson flesher, consisting of a +series of knives attached to a revolving belt, and which also "give" in +contact with irregularities. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Tanner's Knives and Pin.] + +At this stage the hide is divided into several parts, the process being +known as "rounding." The object of the division is this: certain parts +of the hide termed the "offal" are of less value than the "butt," which +consists of the prime part. The grain of the butt is fine and close in +texture, whereas the offal grain is loose, coarse and open, and if the +offal is placed in the same superior liquors as the butt, being open and +porous, it will absorb the best of the tannin first; consequently the +offal goes to a set of inferior liquors, often consisting of those +through which the butts have passed. The hides are "rounded" with a +sharp curved butcher's knife; the divisions are seen in fig. 5. The +bellies, cheeks and shoulders constitute the offal, and are tanned +separately although the shoulder is not often detached from the butt +until the end of the "suspenders," being of slightly better quality than +the bellies. The butt is divided into two "bends." This separation is +not made until the tanning of the butt is finished, when it is cut in +two, and the components sold as "bends," although as often as not the +butt is not divided. In America the hides are only split down the ridge +of the back, from head to tail, and tanned as hides. Dressing hides are +more frequently rounded after tanning, the mode depending on the purpose +for which the leather is required. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +The next step is to remove as much "scud" and lime as possible, the +degree of removal of the latter depending upon the kind of leather to be +turned out. "Scudding" consists of working the already unhaired hide +over the beam with an unhairing knife with increased pressure, squeezing +out the dirt, which is composed of pigment cells, semi-soluble compounds +of lime, and hide, hair sacks and soluble hide substance, &c. This +exudes as a dirty, milky, viscid liquid, and mechanically brings the +lime out with it, but involves a great and undesirable loss of hide +substance, heavy leather being sold by weight. This difficulty is now +got over by giving the goods an acid bath first, to delime the surface; +the acid fixes this soluble hide substance (which is only soluble in +alkalies) and hardens it, thus preventing its loss, and the goods may +then be scudded clean with safety. The surface of all heavy leathers +must be delimed to obtain a good coloured leather, the demand of the +present day boot manufacturer; it is also necessary to carry this +further with milder leathers than sole, such as harness and belly, &c., +as excess of lime causes the leather to crack when finished. Perhaps the +best material for this purpose is boracic acid, using about 10 lb. per +100 butts, and suspending the goods. This acid yields a characteristic +fine grain, and because of its limited solubility cannot be used in +excess. Other acids are also used, such as acetic, lactic, formic, +hydrochloric, with varying success. Where the water used is very soft, +it is only necessary to wash in water for a few hours, when the butts +are ready for tanning, but if the water is hard, the lime is fixed in +the hide by the bicarbonates it contains, in the form of carbonate, and +the result is somewhat disastrous. + +After deliming, the butts are scudded, rinsed through water or weak +acid, and go off to the tan pits for tanning proper. Any lime which +remains is sufficiently removed by the acidity of the early tan liquors. + +The actual tanning now begins, and the operations involved may be +divided into a series of three: (1) colouring, (2) handling, (3) laying +away. + +The colouring pits or "suspenders," perhaps a series of eight pits, +consist of liquors ranging from 16° to 40° barkometer, which were once +the strongest liquors in the yard, but have gradually worked down, +having had some hundreds of hides through them; they now contain very +little tannin, and consist mainly of developed acids which neutralize +the lime, plump the hide, colour it off, and generally prepare it to +receive stronger liquors. The goods are suspended in these pits on +poles, which are lifted up and down several times a day to ensure the +goods taking an even colour; they are moved one pit forward each day +into slightly stronger liquors, and take about from 7 to 18 days to get +through the suspender stage. + + The reason why the goods are suspended at this stage instead of being + laid flat is that if the latter course were adopted, the hides would + sink and touch one another, and the touch-marks, not being accessible + to the tan liquor, would not colour, and uneven colouring would thus + result; in addition the weight of the top hides would flatten the + lower ones and prevent their plumping, and this condition would be + exceedingly difficult to remedy in the after liquors. Another question + which might occur to the non-technical reader is, why should not the + process be hastened by placing the goods in strong liquors? The reason + is simple. Strong tanning solutions have the effect of "drawing the + grain" of pelt, i.e. contracting the fibres, and causing the leather + to assume a very wrinkled appearance which cannot afterwards be + remedied; at the same time "case tanning" results, i.e. the outside + only gets tanned, leaving the centre still raw hide, and once the + outside is case-hardened it is impossible for the liquor to penetrate + and finish the tanning. This condition being almost irremediable, the + leather would thus be rendered useless. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Tanner's Hook (without handle).] + +After the "suspenders" the goods are transferred to a series of +"handlers" or "floaters," consisting of, perhaps, a dozen pits +containing liquors ranging from 30° to 55° barkometer. These liquors +contain an appreciable quantity of both tannin and acid, once formed the +"lay-aways," and are destined to constitute the "suspenders." In these +pits the goods, having been evenly coloured off, are laid flat, handled +every day in the "hinder" (weaker) liquors and shifted forward, perhaps +every two days, at the tanner's convenience. The "handling" consists of +lifting the butts out of the pit by means of a tanner's hook (fig. 6), +piling them on the side of the pit to drain, and returning them to the +pit, the top butt in the one handler being returned as the bottom in the +next. This operation is continued throughout the process, only, as the +hides advance, the necessity for frequent handling decreases. The top +two handler pits are sometimes converted into "dusters," i.e. when the +hides have advanced to these pits, as each butt is lowered, a small +quantity of tanning material is sprinkled on it. + +Some tanners, now that the hides are set flat, put them in suspension +again before laying away; the method has its advantages, but is not +general. The goods are generally laid away immediately. The layer +liquors consist of leached liquors from the fishings, strengthened with +either chestnut or oakwood extract, or a mixture of the two. The first +layer is made up to, say, 60° barkometer in this way, and as the hides +are laid down they are sprinkled with fresh tanning material, and remain +undisturbed for about one week. The second layer is a 70° barkometer +liquor, the hides are again sprinkled and allowed to lie for perhaps two +weeks. The third may be 80° barkometer and the fourth 90°, the goods +being "dusted" as before, and lying undisturbed for perhaps three or +four weeks respectively. Some tanners give more layers, and some give +less, some more or less time, or greater or lesser strengths of liquor, +but this tannage is a typical modern one. + +As regards "dusting" material, for mellow leather, mellow materials are +required, such as myrobalans being the mellowest and mimosa bark the +most astringent of those used in this connexion. For harder leather, as +sole leather, a much smaller quantity of myrobalans is used, if any at +all, a fair quantity of mimosa bark as a medium, and much valonia, which +deposits a large amount of bloom, and is of great astringency. About 3 +to 4 cwt. of a judicious mixture is used for each pit, the mellower +material predominating in the earlier liquors and the most astringent in +the later liquors. + +The tanning is now finished, and the goods are handled out of the pits, +brushed free from dusting material, washed up in weak liquor, piled and +allowed to drip for 2 or 3 days so that the tan may become set. + +_Finishing._--From this stage the treatment of sole leather differs from +that of harness, belting and mellower leathers. As regards the first, it +will be found on looking at the dripping pile of leather that each butt +is covered with a fawn-coloured deposit, known technically as "bloom"; +this disguises the under colour of the leather, just like a coat of +paint. The theory of the formation of this bloom is this. Strong +solutions of tannin, such as are formed between the hides from dusting +materials, are not able to exist for long without decomposition, and +consequently the tannin begins to condense, and forms other acids and +insoluble anhydrides; this insoluble matter separates in and on the +leather, giving weight, firmness, and rendering the leather waterproof. +It is known technically as bloom and chemically as ellagic acid. + + After dripping, the goods are scoured free from surface bloom in a + Wilson scouring machine, and are then ready for bleaching. There are + several methods by which this is effected, or, more correctly several + materials or mixtures are used, the method of application being the + same, viz. the goods are "vatted" (steeped) for some hours in the + bleaching mixture at a temperature of 110° F. The mixture may consist + of either sumach and a light-coloured chestnut extract made to 110° + barkometer, and 110° F., or some bleaching extract made for the + purpose, consisting of bisulphited liquid quebracho, which bleaches by + reason of the free sulphurous acid it contains. The former method is + best (though more expensive), as it removes less weight, and the light + shade of colour is more permanent than that obtained by using + bisulphited extracts. + + After the first vatting the goods are laid up in pile to drip; + meanwhile the liquor is again heated, and they are then returned for + another twenty-four hours, again removed and allowed to drip for 2 to + 3 days, after which they are oiled with cod oil on the grain and hung + up in the sheds to dry in the dark. When they have dried to an + india-rubber-like condition, they are piled and allowed to heat + slightly until a greyish "bloom" rises to the surface, they are then + set out and stretched in a Wilson scouring machine; using brass + slickers instead of the stone ones used for scouring, "pinned" over by + hand (with the three-edged instrument seen in c, fig. 4, and known as + a "pin") to remove any bloom not removed by the machine, oiled and + dried. When of a damp even colour they are "rolled on" between two + heavy rollers like a wringing machine, the pressure being applied from + above, hung up in the dark sheds again until the uneven colour so + produced has dried in, and then "rolled off" through the same machine, + the pressure being applied from below. They are now dried right out, + brushed on the grain to produce a slight gloss, and are finished. + +As regards the finishing of harness leather, &c., the goods, after +thorough dripping for a day or two, are brushed, lightly scoured, washed +up in hot sumach and extract to improve the colour, and are again laid +up in pile for two days; they are then given a good coat of cod oil, +sent to the sheds, and dried right out. Only sufficient scouring is +given to clean the goods, the object of the tanner being to leave as +much weight in as possible, although all this superfluous tan has to be +washed out by the currier before he can proceed. + +_Currying._--When the goods are dried from the sheds they are purchased +by the currier. If, as is often the case, the tanner is his own currier, +he does not tan the goods so heavily, or trouble about adding +superfluous weight, but otherwise the after processes, the art of the +currier, are the same. + +Currying consists of working oil and grease into the leather to render +it pliable and increase its strength. It was once thought that this was +a mere physical effect produced by the oil, but such is not the case. +Currying with animal oils is a second tannage in itself; the oils +oxidize in the fibres and produce aldehydes, which are well-known +tanning agents; and this double tannage renders the leather very strong. +Then there is the lubricating effect, a very important physical action +so far as the strength of the leather is concerned. Mineral oils are +much used, but they do not oxidize to aldehydes, or, for the matter of +that, to anything else, as they are not subject to decomposition. They, +therefore, produce no second tannage, and their action is merely the +physical one of lubrication, and this is only more or less temporary, +as, except in the case of the heavier greases, they slowly evaporate. +Where animal fats and oils are used, the longer the goods are left in +contact with the grease the better and stronger will be the leather. + +In the "Einbrennen" process (German for "burning in"), the hides are +thoroughly scoured, and when dry are dipped into hot grease, which is +then allowed to cool; when it is nearly set the goods are removed and +set out. This process is not much used in Great Britain. + +In hand-stuffing belting butts the goods are first thoroughly soaked in +water to which has been added some soda, and then scoured and stretched +by machine. They are then lightly shaved, to take off the loose flesh +and thin the neck. The whole of the mechanically deposited tannin is +removed by scouring, to make room for the grease, and they are then put +into a sumach vat of 40° barkometer to brighten the colour, horsed up to +drip, and set out. If any loading, to produce fictitious weight, is to +be done, it is done now, by brushing the solution of either epsom salts, +barium chloride or glucose, or a mixture, into the flesh, and laying +away in pile for some days to allow of absorption, when, perhaps, +another coat is given. Whether this is done or not, the goods are hung +up until "tempered" (denoting a certain degree of dryness), and then +treated with dubbin. This is manufactured by melting down tallow in a +steam-jacketed pan, and adding cod oil, the mixture being stirred +continually; when quite clear, it is cooled as rapidly as possible by +running cold water through the steam pan, the stirring being continued +until it has set. The tempered leather having been set out on a glass +table, to which the flesh side adheres, is given a thin coat of the +dubbin on the grain, turned, set out on the flesh, and given a thick +coat of dubbin. Then it is hung up in a wind shed, and as the moisture +dries out the grease goes in. After two or three days the goods are "set +out in grease" with a brass slicker, given a coat of dubbin on the grain +slightly thicker than the first coat, then flesh dubbined, a slightly +thinner coat being applied than at first, and stoved at 70° F. The +grease which is slicked off when "setting out in grease" is collected +and sold. After hanging in the warm stove for 2 or 3 days the butts are +laid away in grease for a month; they are then slicked out tight, flesh +and grain, and buck tallowed. Hard tallow is first rubbed on the grain, +when a slight polish is induced by rubbing with the smoothed rounded +edge of a thick slab of glass; they are then hung up in the stove or +stretched in frames to dry. A great deal of stuffing is now carried out +by drumming the goods in hot hard fats in previously heated drums; and +in modern times the tedious process of laying away in grease for a month +is either left undone altogether or very considerably shortened. + +In the tanning and dressing of the commoner varieties of kips and dried +hides, the materials used are of a poorer quality, and the time taken +for all processes is cut down, so that whereas the time taken to dress +the better class of leather is from 7 to 10 months, and in a few cases +more, these cheaper goods are turned out in from 3½ to 5 months. + +A considerable quantity of the leather which reaches England, such as +East India tanned kips, Australian sides, &c., is bought up and +retanned, being sold then as a much better-class leather. The first +operation with such goods is to "strip" them of any grease they may +contain, and part of their original tannage. This is effectually carried +out by first soaking them thoroughly, laying them up to drip, and +drumming for half an hour in a weak solution of soda; they are then +washed by drumming in plenty of water, the water is run off and replaced +by very weak sulphuric acid to neutralize any remaining soda; this is in +turn run off and replaced by weak tan liquor, and the goods are so +tanned by drumming for some days in a liquor of gradually increasing +strength. The liquor is made up as cheaply as possible with plenty of +solid quebracho and other cheap extract, which is dried in with, +perhaps, glucose, epsom salts, &c. to produce weight. Sometimes a better +tannage is given to goods of fair quality, in which they are, perhaps, +started in the drum and finished in layers, slightly better materials +being used all through, and a longer time taken to complete the tannage. + +The tannage of dressing hides for bag and portmanteau work is rather +different from the other varieties described, in that the goods, after +having had a rather longer liming, are "bated" or "puered." + + Bating consists of placing the goods in a wheel or paddle with hen or + pigeon excrement, and paddling for from a few hours to 2 or 3 days. In + puering, dog manure is used, and this being rather more active, the + process does not take so long. This bating or puering is carried out + in warm liquors, and the actions involved are several. From a + practical point of view the action is the removal of the lime and the + solution of the hair sacs and a certain amount of interfibrillar + substance. In this way the goods are pulled down to a soft flaccid + condition, which allows of the removal of short hair, hair sacs and + other filth by scudding with an unhairing knife upon the beam. The + lime is partially taken into solution and partially removed + mechanically during the scudding. A large quantity of hide substance, + semi-soluble and soluble, is lost by being pressed out, but this + matters little, as for dressing work, area, and not weight, is the + main consideration. Theoretically the action is due to bacteria and + bacterial products (organized ferments and enzymes), unorganized + ferments or vegetable ferments like the yeast ferment, such as + pancreadine, pepsin, &c. and chemicals, such as ammonium and calcium + salts and phosphates, all of which are present in the manure. The + evolved gases also play their part in the action. + + There are several bates upon the market as substitutes for dung bate. + A most popular one was the American "Tiffany" bate, made by keeping a + weak glue solution warm for some hours and then introducing a piece of + blue cheese to start fermentation; when fermenting, glucose was added, + and the bate was then ready for work. This and all other bates have + been more or less supplanted by "erodin," discovered after years of + research by Mr Wood (Nottingham) and Drs Popp and Becker (Vienna). + This is an artificial bate, containing the main constituents of the + dung bate. It is supplied in the form of a bag of nutrient material + for bacteria to thrive on and a bottle of bacterial culture. The + nutrient material is dissolved in water and the bacterial culture + added, and after allowing the mixture to get working it is ready for + use. Many tons of this bate are now being used per annum. Its + advantages are: (1) that it is clean, (2) that it is under perfect + control, and (3) that stains and bate burns, which so often accompany + the dung bate, are absolutely absent. Bate burns are caused by not + filtering the dung bate through coarse sacking before use. The + accumulation of useless solid matter settles on the skins if they are + not kept well in motion, causing excessive action in these places. + +After pulling down the goods to a soft, silky condition by bating or +puering, it is necessary, after scudding, to plump them up again and +bring them into a clean and fit condition for receiving the tan. This is +done by "drenching" in a bran drench. A quantity of bran is scalded and +allowed to ferment. When the fermentation has reached the proper stage +the goods are placed, together with the bran liquor, in a suitable pit +or vat, and are allowed to remain until they have risen three times; +this rising to the surface is caused by the gaseous products of the +fermentation being caught by the skin. The plumping action of the bran +is due to the acids produced during fermentation and also in part to the +gases, and the cleansing action is due to the mechanical action of the +particles of bran rubbing against the grain of the skins. After +drenching, the goods are washed free from bran, and are ready for the +tanning process. + + Drenching, now that all kinds of acids are available, is not so much + used for heavy hides as for light skins, it being found much more + convenient and cheaper to use acids. In fact, bating and puering are + being gradually replaced by acid baths in the case of heavy leathers, + the process being carried out as deliming for sole leather, only much + more thoroughly in the case of dressing leather. + +The tanning of dressing hides, which are not rounded into butts and +offal, is briefly as follows. They first enter a series of colouring +pits or suspenders, and then a series of handlers, by which time they +should be plump and coloured through; in this condition they are split +either by means of a union or band-knife splitting machine (fig. 7). + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Band Knife Splitting Machine.] + + This latter is the most popular machine, and consists essentially of + an endless band knife _a_, which revolves at considerable speed with + its cutting edges close to the sides of a pair of rollers through + which the leather is fed and pressed against the knife. The lower of + these rollers is made of short segments or rings, each separately + capable of yielding so as to accommodate itself to the unequal + thicknesses of various parts of a hide. The thickness of the leather + to be cut is gauged to the utmost minuteness by means of the hand + screws _b b_ which raise or lower the upper roller. The knife edge of + the cutter is kept keen by rubbing against revolving emery wheels _c_ + as it passes round. So delicately can this machine effect its work + that slices of leather uniform throughout and as thin as paper can be + easily prepared by it, and by its aid it is quite common to split + hides into as many as three useful splits. + +The dressing hides are usually split in two. Here we will leave the +split (flesh) for a time and continue with the treatment of the grain. +After splitting, they enter another series of handlers, are then piled +up for a day or two, and thrown into a large drum with sumach mixed to a +paste with hot water and a light-coloured extract. They are drummed in +this for one hour to brighten and mellow the grain, washed up in tepid +liquor, piled for two days, and drummed with cod oil or some other +suitable oil or mixture; they are now piled for a day or two to absorb, +dried out, flattened on the grain, and flesh folded. + +The splits are rinsed up in old sumach liquor and drummed with cheap +extracts and adulterants, such as size, glucose, barium chloride, epsom +salts, &c. after which they are piled up to drain, dried to a "sammied" +condition, rolled to make firm, and dried right out. + + In the dressing hide tannage very mellow materials are used. Gambier + and myrobalans form the main body of the tannage, together with a + little quebracho extract, mimosa bark, sumach and extracts. + +_Upper Leather._--Under the head of upper leather are included the thin, +soft and pliable leathers, which find their principal, but by no means +exclusive, application in making the uppers of boots and shoes, which +may be taken as a type of a class of leathers. They are made from such +skins as East Indian kips, light cow and horse hides, thin split hides, +such as those described under dressing leather, but split rather +thinner, and calf. The preparatory dressing of such skins and the +tanning operations do not differ essentially from those already +described. In proportion to the thinness of the skin treated, the +processes are more rapidly finished and less complex, the tannage is a +little lighter, heavy materials such as valonia being used sparsely if +at all. Generally speaking, the goods have a longer and mellower liming +and bating, the lime being more thoroughly removed than for the leathers +previously described, to produce greater pliability, and everything must +tend in this direction. The heavier hides and kips are split as +described under dressing leather, and then tanned right out. + +_Currying of the Lighter Leathers._--The duty of the currier is not +solely directed towards heavier leathers; he is also entrusted with the +dressing and fitting of the lighter leathers for the shoemaker, +coachbuilder, saddler, &c. He has to pare the leather down and reduce +inequalities in thickness, to impregnate it with fatty matter in order +to render it soft and pliable, and to give it such a surface dressing, +colour and finish as will please the eye and suit the purposes of its +consumers. The fact that machinery is used by some curriers for nearly +every mechanical operation, while others adhere to the manual system, +renders it almost impossible to give in brief an outline of operations +which will be consistent with any considerable number of curriers. + +[Illustration: FIG 8.--Currying Knife.] + + The following may be taken as a typical modern dressing of waxed calf + or waxed kips. The goods are first of all soaked down and brought to a + "sammied" condition for shaving. In the better-class leathers + hand-shaving is still adhered to, as it is maintained that the drag of + the shaving machine on the leather causes the "nap" finish to be + coarser. Hand-shaving is carried out on a beam or strong frame of + wood, supporting a stout plank faced with lignum vitae, and set + vertically, or nearly so. The knife (fig. 8) is a double-edged + rectangular blade about 12 in. by 5 in., girded on either side along + its whole length and down the centre with two bars 3 in. wide, leaving + each blade protruding 1 in. beyond them; it has a straight handle at + one end and a cross handle at the other in the plane of the blade. The + edges of this knife are first made very keen, and are then turned over + so as to form a wire edge, by means of the thicker of the two straight + steel tools shown in fig. 9. The wire edge is preserved by drawing the + thinner of the two steel tools along the interior angle of the wire + edge and then along the outside of the turnover edge. The skin being + thrown flesh uppermost over the vertical beam, the shaver presses his + body against it, and leaning over the top holds the knife by its two + handles almost at right angles to the leather, and proceeds to shave + it by a scraping stroke downwards which the wire edge, being set at + right angles to the knife and almost parallel with the skin, turns + into a cut. The skin is shifted so as to bring all parts under the + action of the knife, the shaver frequently passing a fold between his + finger to test the progress of his work. After shaving, the goods are + thoroughly soaked, allowed to drip, and are ready for "scouring." This + operation has for its object the removal of bloom (ellagic acid) and + any other superfluous adherent matter. The scouring solution consists + of a weak solution of soft soap and borax. This is first well brushed + into the flesh of the leather, which is then "sleeked" (slicked) out + with a steel slicker shown at S fig. 9. The upper part of the + "slicker" is wooden, and into it a steel, stone, brass or vulcanite + blade is forced and fastened. The wooden part is grasped in both + hands, and the blade is half rubbed and half scraped over the surface + of the leather in successive strokes, the angle of the slicker being a + continuation of the angle which the thrust out arms of the worker form + with the body, perhaps 30° to 45°, with the leather, depending upon + the pressure to be applied. The soap and borax solution is continually + dashed on the leather to supply a body for the removal of the bloom + with the steel slicker. The hide is now turned, and the grain is + scoured with a stone slicker and brush, with soap and borax solution, + it is then rinsed up, and sent to dry; when sammied, it is "set" i.e. + the grain is laid smooth with a brass or steel slicker and dried right + out. It is now ready for "stuffing," which is invariably done in the + drum with a mixture of stearine and "sod" oil, to which is sometimes + added cod oil and wool fat; it is then set out on the grain and + "canked" on the flesh, the grain side is glassed, and the leather + dried right out. The goods are now "rounded," i.e. the lighter + coloured parts of the grain are damped with a mixture of dubbin and + water to bring them to even colour, and are then laid in pile for a + few days to mellow, when they are ready for whitening. The goods are + damped down and got to the right temper with a weak soap and water + solution, and are then "whitened," an operation similar to shaving, + carried out with a turned edge slicker. By this means a fine flesh + surface is obtained upon which to finish by waxing; after this they + are "boarded" with an arm board (R, fig. 9) to bring up the grain, or + give a granular appearance to the leather and make it supple, when + they may be turned flesh inwards and bruised, a similar operation to + graining, essentially to soften and make them pliant. At this stage + the goods are known as "finished russet," and are stored until ready + for waxing. + + [Illustration: FIG 9.--Currying Apparatus. C, pommel; R, raising + board; S, slicker.] + + For waxing, the first operation is to black the goods. In England this + is generally done by hand, but machinery is much more used in the + United States. The process consists of well brushing into the flesh + side of the skins a black preparation made in one of two ways. The + older recipe is a mixture of lampblack, oil and perhaps a little + tallow; the newer recipe consists of soap, lampblack, logwood extract + and water. Either of these is brushed well into the flesh side, which + is then glassed up by means of a thick slab of glass, the smooth + rounded edges being used with a slicking motion, and the goods are + hung up to dry. When dry they are oiled with cod oil, and are ready + for sizing. Goods blacked with soap blacking are sized once, those + prepared with oil blacking are sized twice. The size used for soap + black skins may consist of a mixture of beeswax, pitch, linseed oil, + tallow, soap, glue and logwood extract. For oil blacked skins the + "bottom sizing" may be glue, soap, logwood extract and water, after + the application of which the goods are dried and the "top sizing" + applied; this consists of glue, cod oil, beeswax, tallow, venice + turps, black dye and water. The sizings having been applied with a + sponge or soft brush, thoroughly rubbed in with a glass slicker, crush + marks are removed by padding with a soft leather pad, and the goods, + after being dried out, are ready for the market. + + In the dressing of waxed grain leathers, such as French calf, satin + leather, &c., the preparatory processes are much the same as for waxed + leathers described above as far as stuffing, after which the grain is + prepared to take the colour by light hand scouring with weak soap and + borax solution. The dye is now applied, and so that it may take well + on the grain of the greasy leather, a quantity of either soap, turkey + red oil or methylated spirit is added to the solution. Acid colours + are preferably used, and three coats are given to the dry leather, + which is then grained with an arm board, and finished by the + application of hard buck tallow to the grain and brushing. The dye or + stain may consist of aniline colours for coloured leathers, or, in the + case of blacks, consecutive applications of logwood and iron solutions + are given. + +_Finishing dressing Hides for Bag and Portmanteau Work._--The hides as +received from the tanner are soaked down, piled to sammy, and shaved, +generally by machine, after which they are scoured, as under waxed +leather, sumached and hung up to dry; when just damp they are set out +with a brass slicker and dried right out. The grain is now filled by +applying a solution of either Irish moss, linseed mucilage or any other +mucilaginous filling material, and the flesh is sized with a mixture of +mucilage and French chalk, after which the goods are brush-stained with +an aniline dye, to which has been added linseed mucilage to give it +body; two coats are applied to the sammied leather. When the goods have +sammied, after the last coat of stain, they are "printed" with a brass +roller in a "jigger," or by means of a machine embosser. This process +consists of imprinting the grain by pressure from a brass roller, on +which the pattern is deeply etched. After printing, the flesh side is +sponged with a weak milk solution, lightly glassed and dried, when the +grain is sponged with weak linseed mucilage, almost dried, and brushed +by machine. The hides are now finished, by the application either of +pure buck tallow or of a mixture of carnauba wax and soap; this is +rubbed up into a slight gloss with a flannel. + +_Light Leathers._--So far only the heavier leathers have been dealt +with; we will now proceed to discuss lighter calf, goat, sheep, seal, +&c. + +In tanning light leathers everything must tend towards suppleness and +pliability in the finished leather, in contrast to the firmness and +solidity required in heavy leathers. Consequently, the liming is longer +and mellower; puering, bating or some bacterial substitute always +follows; the tannage is much shorter; and mellow materials are used. A +deposition of bloom in the goods is not often required, so that very +soon after they are struck through they are removed as tanned. The +materials largely used are sumach, oak bark, gambier, myrobalans, mimosa +bark, willow, birch and larch barks. + +As with heavy leathers, so also with light leathers, there are various +ways of tanning; and quality has much to do with the elaboration or +modification of the methods employed. The tanning of all leathers will +be dealt with first, dyeing and finishing operations being treated +later. + +The vegetable-tanned leather _de luxe_ is a bottle-tanned skin. It is +superior to every other class of vegetable-tanned leather in every way, +but owing to competition not a great deal is now produced, as it is +perhaps the most expensive leather ever put on the market. The method of +preparation is as follows. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Dash Wheel.] + +The skins are usually hard and dry when received, so they are at once +soaked down, and when sufficiently soft are either milled in the stocks, +drummed in a lattice drum (American dash wheel, fig. 10), or "broken +down" over the beam by working on the flesh with a blunt unhairing +knife. They are next mellow limed (about 3 weeks), sulphide being used +if convenient, unhaired and fleshed as described under heavy leathers, +and are then ready for puering. This process is carried through at about +80° F., when the goods are worked on the beam, rinsed, drenched in a +bran drench, scudded, and are ready for tanning. The skins are now +folded down the centre of the back from neck to butt (tail end), flesh +outwards, and the edges are tightly stitched all round to form bags, +leaving an aperture at one of the shanks for filling; they are now +turned grain outwards and filled with strong sumach liquor and some +quantity of solid sumach to fill up the interstices and prevent leakage, +after which the open shank is tied up, and they are thrown into warm +sumach liquor, where they float about like so many pigs, being +continually pushed under the surface with a dole. When struck through +they are piled on a shelf above the vat, and by their own weight the +liquor is forced through the skins. The tannage takes about 24 hours, +and when finished the stitching is ripped up, the skins are slicked out, +"strained" on frames and dried. "Straining" consists of nailing the +skins out on boards in a stretched condition, or the stretching in +frames by means of strings laced in the edge of the frame and attached +to the edge of the skin. + +The commoner sumach-tanned skins (but still of very good quality) are +tanned in paddle wheels, a series of three being most conveniently used +in the same manner as the three-pit system of liming, each wheel having +three packs of skins through it before being thrown away. This paddling +tends to make a bolder grain, as the skins are kept in continual motion, +and work over one another. Some manufacturers finish the tannage with a +mixture of sumach and oak bark; this treatment yields a less porous +product. Others, when the skins are strained and in a semi-dry +condition, apply neatsfoot or other oil, or a mixture of glycerine and +oil, to the grain to lubricate it and make it more supple; the glycerine +mixture is generally used for "chrome" leather, and will be discussed +later under that head. + +The skins tanned as above are largely dressed as _morocco_. Originally +"morocco" was produced by the Moors in southern Spain and Morocco, +whence the industry spread to the Levant, Turkey and the Mediterranean +coast of Africa generally, where the leather was made from a species of +sumach. Peculiarly enough, the dyeing was carried out before the +tanning, with Roman alum as "mordant" and kermes, which with the alum +produced a fine red colour. Such leather was peculiarly clear in colour, +elastic and soft, yet firm and fine in grain and texture, and has long +been much prized for bindings, being the material in which most of the +artistic work of the 16th-century binders was executed. Now, in addition +to the genuine morocco made from goat skins, we have imitation or French +moroccos, for which split calf and especially sheep skins are employed, +and as the appearance of morocco is the result of the style of graining +and finish, which can now be imitated by printing or embossing machines, +morocco can be made from all varieties of thin leather. + + Great quantities of "Persian" (East India tanned) sheep and goat are + now dressed as moroccos and for innumerable other purposes, the method + being as follows: The goods are tanned with turwar bark and cassia + bark, besides being impregnated with sesame oil, even to the extent of + 30%. The first operation is to "strip" them of the oil and original + tannage as far as possible, by drumming in a solution of soda; the + soap thus formed is got rid of by thoroughly washing the goods, when + they are "soured" in a weak bath of sulphuric acid to brighten the + colour and remove iron stains, after which they are washed up and + re-tanned by drumming in warm sumach, allowing about 4 oz. per skin. + They are then slicked out, dried and are ready for dyeing. + + The tanning of sheep and lamb skins differs very essentially from the + tanning of goat and other leathers, mainly in the preparatory + processes. As the wool is completely destroyed by lime, other methods + have to be resorted to. The process usually practised is known as + "sweating"; this consists of hanging the moist skins up in a warm, + badly-ventilated chamber and allowing incipient putrefaction to set + in. The chamber is always kept warm and saturated with moisture, + either by means of a steam jet or water sprinklers. During the process + large quantities of ammoniacal vapours are given off, and after two or + three days the skins become slimy to the touch, and the wool slips + easily; at this stage the goods are removed, for if the putrefaction + goes too far the grain of the skin is irretrievably ruined. The wool + is now "pulled" by pullers, who throw it into bins arranged to receive + the different qualities; for one pelt may have three different grades + of wool on it. + + Other methods of dewooling are to paint the flesh with a solution of + sodium sulphide, or cream of lime made with a solution of sodium + sulphide; in either case the goods are piled flesh to flesh for an + hour or so, and care is taken that the dewooling agent does not touch + the wool. The pelt is then pulled and rapidly swilled in a stream of + running water. The goods are now, in some yards, lightly limed to + plump them superficially, by paddling in a milk of lime, and at this + stage, or when the goods have been "struck through" with tan liquor, + they are "degreased" either by hydraulic pressure or by benzene + degreasing. This is to expel the oleaginous or fatty matter with which + sheep skins are richly impregnated; the average yield is about 4 oz. + per skin. The tannage is carried out in much the same way as for goat + skins, the goods being started in old acid bark liquors; the general + tannage consists of sumach and bark. + +_Basils_ are sheep skins tanned in various ways. English basils are +tanned with oak bark, although, as in all other leathers, inferior +tannages are now common; Scotch basils are tanned with larch bark, +Australian and New Zealand basils with mimosa bark and Turkish basils +with galls. The last are the commonest kind of skins imported into Great +Britain, and are usually only semi-tanned. _Roans_ are sumach-tanned +sheep skins. + +_Skivers_ are the grain splits of sheep skins, the fleshes of which are +finished for chamois leather. The goods are split in the limed state, +just as the grains are ready for tanning, and are subsequently treated +much as sumach-tanned goat skins, or in any other convenient way; the +fleshes, on the other hand, go back into the limes, as it is necessary +to get a large quantity of lime into leather which is to be finished as +chamois. + +_Russia Leather_ was originally a speciality of Russia, where it was +made from the hides of young cattle, and dressed either a brownish red +or black colour for upper leather, bookbinding, dressing-cases, purses, +&c. It is now made throughout Europe and America, the best qualities +being obtained from Austria. The empyreumatic odour of the old genuine +"Russia" leather was derived from a long-continued contact with willow +and the bark of the _white_ birch, which contains the odorous betulin +oil. Horse hides, calf, goat, sheep skins and even splits are now +dressed as "Russia leather," but most of these are of a decidedly +inferior quality, and as they are merely treated with birch bark oil to +give them something of the odour by which Russia leather is ordinarily +recognized, they scarcely deserve the name under which they pass. The +present-day genuine Russia leather is tanned like other light leathers, +but properly in willow bark, although poplar and spruce fir barks are +used. After tanning and setting out the goods are treated with the +empyreumatic oil obtained by the dry distillation of birch bark. The red +colour commonly seen in Russia leather is now produced by aniline +colours, but was originally gained by the application of an infusion of +Brazil wood, which was rubbed over the grain with a brush or sponge. +Some time ago Russia leather got into disrepute because of its rapid +decay; this was owing to its being dyed with a very acid solution of tin +salts and cochineal, the acid completely destroying the leather in a +year or two. The black leather is obtained by staining with logwood +infusion and iron acetate. The leather, if genuine quality, is very +watertight and strong, and owing to its impregnation with the +empyreumatic oil, it wards off the attacks of insects. + +_Seal Leathers, &c._--The tannage of seal skins is now an important +department of the leather industry of the United Kingdom. The skins form +one of the items of the whaling industry which principally centres in +Dundee, and at that port, as well as at Hull and Peterhead, they are +received in large quantities from the Arctic regions. This skin is that +of the white hair seal, and must not be confused with the expensive seal +fur obtained from Russian and Japanese waters. These white hair seal +skins are light but exceedingly close in texture, yielding a very strong +tough leather of large area and fine bold grain, known as _Levant +morocco_. The area of the skins renders them suitable for upholstery +work, and the flesh splits are dressed in considerable quantity for +"japanned" ("patent") leather and "bolsters," which are used to grain +other skins on, the raised buff affording a grip on the skin being +grained and thus preventing slipping. When the skins arrive in the +tanyard (generally lightly salted) they are drummed in old drench +liquors until soft, dipped into warm water and "blubbered" with a sharp +knife; they are then alternately dipped in warm water and drummed +several times to remove fat, after which they are heavily limed, as they +are still very greasy, and after unhairing and fleshing they are heavily +puered for the same reason. The tannage takes about a month, and is much +the same as for other leathers, the skins being split when "struck +through." + + Alligator leather is now produced to some extent both in the United + States and India. The belly and flanks alone are useful. There are no + special tanneries or processes for dressing the skins. Layers are not + given. The leather is used mostly for small fancy goods, and is much + imitated on sheepskin by embossing. + + Snake and frog skins are also dressed to some extent, the latter + having formed a considerable item in the exports of Japan; they are + dressed mostly for cigar cases and pocket books. The general procedure + is first to lime the goods and then to remove any scales (in the case + of snake skins) by scraping with an unhairing knife on a small beam, + after which the skins are bated and tanned in sumach by paddling. + + A considerable amount of leather is now produced in Australia from the + skins of kangaroo, wallaby and other marsupials. These skins are both + tanned and "tawed," the principal tanning agents being mimosa bark, + mallet bark and sugar bush, which abound in Australia. The leather + produced is of excellent quality, strong and pliable, and rivals in + texture and appearance the kid of Europe; but the circumstance that + the animals exist only in the wild state renders them a limited and + insecure source of leather. + +_Japan and Enamel Leathers._--Japanning is usually done on flesh splits, +whereas enamelling is done on the grain, and if splits are used they are +printed and boarded. The leather should be mellow, soft, free from +grease, with a firm grain and no inclination to stretch. It is first +shaved very smooth, thoroughly scoured with a stone, sumached, washed, +slicked out tight and dried; when "sammied," the grain is buffed to +remove scratches and oiled, the goods are then whitened or fluffed, and +if too hard, bruised by boarding; enamel goods are now grained. The +skins are now tightly nailed on boards and any holes patched up with +brown paper, so that the japan shall not touch the flesh when the first +thick coat of japan or the "daub" is put on. This is applied so thickly +that it cannot soak in, with fine-toothed slicker, and then placed in a +hot stove for twenty-four hours until quite dry; the coating is then +pumiced smooth and the second thinner coat, termed "blanback," is +applied. This is dried and pumiced, and a fine coating of japan or copal +varnish is finally given. This is dried and cooled, and if the goods are +for enamel they are boarded. + + English japans sometimes contain light petroleum, but no turps. The + secret of successful japanning lies in the age of the oil used; the + older the linseed oil is, the better the result. To prepare the ground + coat, boil 10 gallons linseed oil for one hour with 2 lb. litharge at + 600° F. to jellify the oil, and then add 2 lb. prussian blue and boil + the whole for half an hour longer. Before application the mixture is + thinned with 10 gallons light petroleum. For the second coat, boil 10 + gallons linseed oil for 2 hours with 2 lb. prussian blue and 2 lb. + lampblack; when of a thin jelly consistency thin with 5 gallons of + benzine or light petroleum. For the finishing coat, boil 5 gallons of + linseed oil for 1 hour, then add 1 lb. prussian blue, and boil for + another hour; thin with 10 gallons petroleum and apply with a brush in + a warm room. After drying, the goods are mellowed by exposure to the + sun for at least three days. + +_Tawing._--Wool rugs are, after the preliminary processes, sometimes +tanned in oak bark liquors by paddling, but are generally "tawed," that +is, dressed with alum and salt, and are therefore more suitably dealt +with under that head. Tawing implies that the conversion of skins into +leather is carried out by means of a mixture of which the more important +constituents are mineral salts, such as alum, chrome and iron, which may +or may not be supplemented with fatty and albuminous matter, both animal +and vegetable. + +As an example of alum tawing, calf kid may be taken as characteristic of +the process; glove kid is also treated on similar lines. The goods are +prepared for tawing in a manner similar to the preparation of tanned +leathers, arsenical limes being used to ensure a fine grain. After being +well drenched and washed the goods are ready for the tawing process. On +the continent of Europe it is usual for the goods to be thrown into a +tub with the tawing paste and trodden with the bare feet, although this +old-fashioned method is gradually being driven out, and the drum or +tumbler is being used. + + The tawing paste consists of a mixture of alum, salt, flour, egg yolk + and water; the quantities of each constituent diverge widely, every + dresser having his own recipe. The following has been used, but cannot + well be classed as typical: For 100 lb. skin take 9 lb. alum, 5 lb. + salt, dissolve in water, and mix to a thin paste with from 5 to 13 lb. + flour, using 4 to 6 egg yolks for every pound of flour used. Olive oil + is also mixed in sometimes. The skins are drummed or trodden, at + intervals, in the warm paste for some hours, removed, allowed to + drain, and dried rapidly, damped down or "sammied" and "staked" by + drawing them to and fro over a blunt knife fixed in the top of a post, + and known as a knee stake; this process softens them very + considerably. After staking, the goods are wet back and shaved smooth, + either with a moon knife, i.e. a circular concave convex knife, the + centre of which has been cut out, a piece of wood bridging the cavity + forming the grip, or with an ordinary currier's shaving knife; the + skins are now ready for dyeing and finishing. + +_Wool Rug Dressing._--Wool rugs are first thoroughly soaked, well washed +and clean-fleshed, scoured well by rubbing into the wool a solution of +soft soap and soda, and then leathered by rubbing into the flesh of the +wet skins a mixture consisting of three parts of alum and two parts of +salt until they are practically dry; they are now piled up over-night, +and the mixture is again applied. After the second or third application +the goods should be quite leathered. Other methods consist of stretching +the skins in frames and painting the flesh with a solution of alum and +salt, or, better, with a solution of basic alum and salt, the alum +being made basic by the gradual addition of soda until a permanent +precipitate is produced. + + The goods are now bleached, for even the most vigorous scouring will + not remove the yellow tint of the wool, especially at the tips. There + are several methods of bleaching, viz. by hydrogen peroxide, following + up with a weak vitriol bath; by potassium permanganate, following up + with a bath of sulphurous acid; or by fumigating in an air-tight + chamber with burning sulphur. The last-named method is the more + general; the wet skins are hung in the chamber, an iron pot containing + burning sulphur is introduced, and the exposure is continued for + several hours. + + If the goods are to be finished white, they are now given a vitriol + sour, scoured, washed, retanned, dried, and when dry softened by + working with a moon knife. If they are to be dyed, they must be + prepared for the dye solution by "chloring," which consists of + immersion in a cold solution of bleaching powder for some hours, and + then souring in vitriol. + + The next step is dyeing. If basic dyes are to be used, it is necessary + to neutralize the acidity of the skins by careful addition of soda, + and to prevent the tips from being dyed a darker colour than the + roots. Glauber salts and acetic acid are added to the dye-bath. The + tendency of basic colours to rub off may be overcome by passing the + goods through a solution of tannin in the form of cutch, sumach, + quebracho, &c.; in fact, some of the darker-coloured materials may be + used as a ground colour, thus economizing dyestuff and serving two + purposes. If acid colours are used, it is necessary to add sulphuric + acid to the dye bath, and in either case colours which will strike + below 50° C. must be used, as at that temperature alum leather + perishes. + + After being dyed, the goods are washed up, drained, and if necessary + retanned, the glossing finish is then produced by passing them through + a weak emulsion or "fat liquor" of oil, soap and water, after which + they are dried, softened by working with a moon knife and beating, + when they are combed out, and are ready for the market. + + Blacks are dyed by immersing the goods alternately in solutions of + logwood and iron, or a one-solution method is used, consisting of a + mixture of these two, with, in either case, varying additions of + lactic acid and sumach, copper salts, potassium bichromate, &c.; the + time of immersion varies from hours to days. After striking, the goods + are exposed to the air for some hours in order to oxidize to a good + black; they are then well scoured, washed, drained, retanned, dried, + softened and combed. + +_Chrome Tanning._--The first chrome tanning process was described by +Professor Knapp in 1858 in a paper on "Die Natur und Wesen der +Gerberie," but was first brought into commercial prominence by Dr +Heinzerling about 1878, and was worked in a most persevering way by the +Eglinton Chemical Company, who owned the English patents, though all +their efforts failed to produce any lasting effects. Now chrome tanning +is almost the most important method of light leather dressing, and has +also taken a prominent place in the heavy department, more especially in +curried leathers and cases where greater tensile strength is needed. The +leather produced is much stronger than any other leather, and will also +stand boiling water, whereas vegetable-tanned leather is completely +destroyed at 70° C. and alum leather at 50° C. + + The theory of chrome tanning is not perfectly understood, but in + general terms it consists of a partial chemical combination between + the hide fibre and the chrome salts, and a partial mechanical + deposition of chromium oxide in and on the fibre. The wet work, or + preparation for tanning, may be taken as much the same as for any + other leather. + + There are two distinct methods of chrome tanning, and several + different methods of making the solutions. The "two bath process" + consists of treating the skins with a bichromate in which the chromium + is in the acidic state, and afterwards reducing it to the basic state + by some reducing agent. The exact process is as follows: To prevent + wrinkled or "drawn" grain the goods are first paddled for half an hour + in a solution of vitriol and salt, when they are piled or "horsed" up + over night, and then, without washing, placed in a solution consisting + of 7 lb. of potassium bichromate, 3½ lb. of hydrochloric acid to each + 100 lb. of pelts, with sufficient water to conveniently paddle in; it + is recommended that 5% of salt be added to this mixture. The goods are + run in this for about 3 hours, or until struck through, when they are + horsed up for some hours, care being taken to cover them up, and are + then ready for the reducing bath. This consists of a 14% solution of + plain "hypo," or hyposulphite of soda, to which, during the process of + reduction, frequent additions of hydrochloric acid are made to free + the sulphurous and thiosulphuric acids, which are the active reducing + agents. After about 3 hours' immersion, during which time the goods + will have changed in colour from bright yellow to bright green, one or + two skins are cut in the thickest part, and if the green has struck + right through, the pack is removed as tanned, washed up, and allowed + to drain. + + The "single-bath process" consists of paddling, drumming, or otherwise + introducing into the skins a solution of a chrome salt, usually chrome + alum, which is already in the basic condition, and therefore does not + require reducing. The basic solutions are made as follows: For 100 lb. + of pelts 9 lb. of chrome alum are dissolved in 9 gallons of water, and + 2½ lb. of washing soda already dissolved in 1 gallon of water are + gradually added, with constant stirring. One-third of the solution is + added to 80 gallons of water, to which is added 7 lb. of salt, and the + skins are introduced; the other two-thirds are introduced at intervals + in two successive portions. Another liquor, used in the same way, is + made by dissolving 3 lb. of potassium bichromate in hot water, adding + ½ gallon strong hydrochloric acid and then, gradually, about 1½ lb. of + glucose or grape sugar; this reduces the acidic chrome salt, vigorous + effervescence ensuing. The whole is made up to 2 gallons and 5% to 15% + of salt is added. In yet another method a chrome alum solution is + rendered basic by boiling with "hypo," and after the reaction has + ceased the solution is allowed to settle and the clear portion used. + + After tanning, which takes from 8 hours to as many, and even more, + days, depending upon the method used and the class of skin being + dressed, the skins tanned by both methods are treated in a similar + manner, and are neutralized by drumming in borax solution, when they + are washed free from borax by drumming in warm water, and are ready + for dyeing, a process which will be dealt with further on. The goods + are sometimes tanned by suspension, but this method is generally + reserved for the tanning of the heavier leathers, which are treated in + much the same way, the several processes taking longer. + + _Iron Tannage._--Before leaving mineral tanning, mention may be made + of iron tannage, although this has gained no prominent position in + commerce. Ferric salts possess powerful tanning properties, and were + thoroughly investigated by Professor Knapp, who took out several + patents, but the tendency to produce a brittle leather has never been + entirely overcome, although it has been greatly modified by the + incorporation of organic matter, such as blood, rosin, paraffin, + urine, &c. Knapp's basic tanning liquor is made as follows: A strong + solution of ferrous sulphate is boiled and then oxidized to the ferric + state by the careful addition of nitric acid. Next, to destroy excess + of nitric acid, ferrous sulphate is added until effervescence ceases + and the resulting clear orange-coloured solution is concentrated to a + varnish-like consistency. It does not crystallize or decompose on + concentration. The hides or skins are prepared for tanning in the + usual way, and then handled or otherwise worked in solutions of the + above iron salt, the solutions, which are at first weak, being + gradually strengthened. + + The tannage occupies from 2 to 8 days, and the goods are then stuffed + in a ventilated drum with greases or soap. If the latter is used, an + insoluble iron soap is precipitated on the fibres of the leather, + which may then be finally impregnated with stearin and paraffin, and + finished in the usual manner as described under Curried Leathers. A + very fair leather may also be manufactured by using iron alum and salt + in the same manner as described under ordinary alum and salt. + +_Combination Tannages._--Leathers tanned by mixtures or separate baths +of both mineral and vegetable tanning agents have now taken an important +position in commerce. Such leathers are the Swedish and Danish glove +leathers, the United States "dongola leather," and French glazed kid. +The usefulness of such a combination will be evident, for while +vegetable tanning produces fullness, plumpness and resistance to water, +the mineral dressing produces a softness unnatural to vegetable tannages +without the use of large quantities of oils and fats. It may also be +noted that once a leather has been thoroughly tanned with either mineral +or vegetable materials, although it will absorb large quantities of the +material which has not been first used, it will retain in the main the +characteristics of the tannage first applied. The principle had long +been used in the manufacture of such tough and flexible leathers as +"green leather," "combing leather" and "picker bands," but was first +applied to the manufacture of imitation glazed kid by Kent in America, +who, about 1878, discovered the principle of "fatliquoring," and named +his product "dongola leather." The discovery of this process +revolutionized the manufacture of combination leathers. + + The Swedish and Danish glove leathers were first given a dressing of + alum and salt, with or without the addition of flour and egg, and were + then finished and coloured with vegetable materials, generally with + willow bark, although, in cases of scarcity, sumach, oak bark, madder + and larch were resorted to. The "green leathers" manufactured in + England generally receive about a week's tannage in gambier liquors, + and are finished off in hot alum and salt liquors, after which they + are dried, have the crystallized salts slicked off, are damped back, + and heavily stuffed with moellon, degras or sod oil. Kent, in the + manufacture of his dongola leather, used mixed liquors of gambier + alum and salt, and when tanned, washed the goods in warm water to + remove excess of tanning agent, piled up to samm, and fatliquored. In + making alum combinations it must be borne in mind that alum leather + will not glaze, and if a glazed finish is required, a fairly heavy + vegetable tannage should be first applied. For dull finishes the + mineral tannage may advantageously precede the vegetable. + + Very excellent chrome combination leather is also manufactured by the + application of the above principles, gambier always being in great + favour as the vegetable agent. The use of other materials deprives the + leather of its stretch, although they may be advantageously used where + the latter property is objectionable. + +_Oil Tanning._--Under the head of oil tanning is included "buff +leather," "buck leather," "piano leather," "chamois leather," and to a +greater or lesser extent, "Preller's crown or helvetia leather." The +process of oil tanning dates back to antiquity, and was known as +"shamoying," now spelt "chamoising." Chamoising yields an exceedingly +tough, strong and durable leather, and forms an important branch of the +leather industry. The theory of the process is the same as the theory of +currying, which is nothing more or less than chamoising, viz. the +lubrication of the fibres by the oil itself and the aldehyde tanning +which takes place, due to the oxidation and decomposition of the esters +of the fatty acids contained in the oil. The fact that an aldehyde +tannage takes place seems to have been first discovered by Payne and +Pullman, who took out a patent in 1898, covering formaldehyde and other +aldehydes used in alkaline solutions. Their product, "Kaspine" leather, +found considerable application in the way of military accoutrements. +Chamois, buff, buck and piano leathers are all manufactured by the same +process slightly modified to suit the class of hide used, the last three +being heavy leathers, the first light. + + As regards the process used for chamois leather, the reader will + remember, from the account of the vegetable tannage of sheep skins, + that after splitting from the limes, the fleshes were thrown back into + the pits for another three weeks' liming (six weeks in all) + preparatory to being dressed as chamois leather. It is necessary to + lime the goods for oil dressing very thoroughly, and if the grain has + not been removed by splitting, as in the case of sheep skins, it is + "frized" off with a sharp knife over the beam. The goods are now + rinsed, scudded and drenched, dried out until stiff, and stocked in + the faller stocks with plenty of cod oil for 2 to 3 hours until they + show signs of heating, when they are hung up in a cool shed. This + process is repeated several times during a period of from 4 to 6 days, + the heat driving the water out of the skins and the oil replacing it. + At the end of this time the goods, which will have changed to a brown + colour, are hung up and allowed to become as dry as possible, when + they are hung in a warm stove for some hours, after which they are + piled to heat off, thrown into tepid water and put through a wringing + machine. The grease which is recovered from the wringing machine is + known commercially as "degras" or "moellon," and fetches a good price, + as it is unrivalled for fatliquoring and related processes, such as + stuffing, producing a very soft product. They next receive a warm soda + lye bath, and are again wrung; this removes more grease, which forms + soap with the lye, and is recovered by treatment with vitriol, which + decomposes the soap. The grease which floats on top of the liquor is + sold under the name of "sod oil." This also is a valuable material for + fatliquoring, &c., but not so good as degras. + + After being wrung out, the goods are bleached by one of the processes + mentioned in the section on wool rug dressing, the permanganate method + being in general use in England. In countries where a fine climate + prevails the soap bleach or "sun bleach" is adopted; this consists of + dipping the goods in soap solution and exposing them to the sun's + rays, the process being repeated three or more times as necessary. + + The next step is fatliquoring to induce softness, after which they are + dried out slowly, staked or "perched" with a moon knife, fluffed on a + revolving wheel covered with fine emery to produce the fine "nap" or + surface, brushed over with french chalk, fuller's earth or china clay, + and finally finished on a very fine emery wheel. + +_Preller's Helvetia or Crown Leather._--This process of leather +manufacture was discovered in 1850 by Theodor Klemm, a cabinetmaker of +Württemberg, who being then in poor circumstances, sold his patent to an +Englishman named Preller, who manufactured it in Southwark, and adopted +a crown as his trade mark. Hence the name "crown" leather. The +manufacture then spread through Switzerland and Germany, the product +being used in the main for picker straps, belting and purposes where +waterproof goods were required, such as hose pipes and military water +bags. No taste is imparted to the water by this leather. + + The process of manufacture is as follows: The hides are unhaired by + short liming, painting with lime and sulphide, or sweating, and + cleansed by scudding and washing, after which they are coloured in + bark liquors, washed up through clean water, and hung up to dry + partially. When in a sammied condition the goods are placed on a table + and a thick layer of the tanning paste spread on the flesh side. The + tanning paste varies with each manufacturer, but the following is the + mixture originally used by Preller: 100 parts flour, 100 parts soft + fat or horse tallow, 35 parts butter, 88 parts ox brains, 50 parts + milk, 15 parts salt or saltpetre. + + The hides are now rolled in bundles, placed in a warm drum and worked + for 8 to 10 hours, after which they are removed and hung up until half + dry, when the process is repeated. Thus they are tumbled 3 to 4 times, + set out flesh and grain, rinsed through tepid water, set out, sammied, + and curried by coating with glycerin, oil, tallow and degras. The + table grease is now slicked off, and the goods are set out in grease, + grained and dried. + + _Transparent Leather._--Transparent leather is a rather horny product, + somewhat like raw hide, and has been used for stitching belts and + picker bands. The goods to be dressed are limed, unhaired, very + thoroughly delimed with acids, washed in water, scudded and + clean-fleshed right to the veins; they are now stretched in frames, + clean-fleshed with a moon knife, and brushed with warm water, when + several coats of glycerin, to which has been added some antiseptic + such as salicylic or picric acid, are applied; the goods are then + dried out, and another coat is applied, and when semi-dry they are + drummed in a mixture of glycerin, boracic acid, alum and salt, with + the addition of a little bichromate of potash to stain them a yellow + colour. After drumming for 2 to 3 hours they are removed, washed up, + lightly set out, and stretched in frames to dry, when they are ready + for cutting into convenient lengths for use. + + _Parchment._--A certain class of sheep skin known as Hampshires is + generally used in the manufacture of this speciality. The skins as + received are first very carefully washed to remove all dirt, dewooled, + limed for 3 to 4 weeks, they are then cleanly fleshed, unhaired, + rinsed up in water, and thickly split, the poorer hides being utilized + for chamois; they are now re-split at the fatty strata so that all fat + may be easily removed, and while the grains are dressed as skivers, + the fleshes are tied in frames, watered with hot water, scraped and + coated on both sides with a cream consisting of whiting, soda and + water, after which they are dried out in a hot stove. In the drying + the whiting mixture absorbs the grease from the skins; in fact, this + method of degreasing is often employed in the manufacture of wool + rugs. When dry, both sides of the skins are flooded to remove the + whiting, and are then well rubbed over with a flat piece of + pumice-stone, swilled, dried, re-pumiced, again swilled, and when + sammied are rolled off with a wooden roller and dried out. + + _Tar and Peat Tanning._--Tar tanning was discovered by a French + chemist named Philippi, who started with the idea that, if coal was a + decomposition product of forests, it must still necessarily possess + the tanning properties originally present in the trees. However + far-fetched such an argument may seem, Philippi succeeded in producing + a leather from wood and coal tar at a fairly cheap rate, the product + being of excellent texture and strength, but rather below the average + in the finish, which was inclined to be patchy, showing oily spots. + His method consisted of impregnating the goods with refined tar and + some organic acid, but the product does not seem to have taken any + hold upon the market, and is not much heard of now. + + Peat tanning was discovered by Payne, an English chemist, who was also + the co-discoverer of the Payne-Pullman formaldehyde tanning process. + His peat or humic acid tannage was patented by him about 1905, and is + now worked on a commercial scale. The humic acid is first extracted + from the peat by means of alkalis, and the hides are treated with this + solution, the humic acid being afterwards precipitated in the hides by + treatment with some stronger organic or mineral acid. + +_Dyeing, Staining and Finishing._--These operations are practised almost +exclusively on the lighter leathers. Heavy leathers, except coloured and +black harness and split hides for bag work, are not often dyed, and +their finishing is generally considered to be part of the tannage. In +light leathers a great business is done in buying up "crust" stock, i.e. +rough tanned stock, and then dyeing and finishing to suit the needs and +demands of the various markets. The carrying out of these operations is +a distinct and separate business from tanning, although where possible +the two businesses are carried on in the same works. + +Whatever the goods are and whatever their ultimate finish, the first +operation, upon receipt by the dyer of the crust stock, is sorting, an +operation requiring much skill. The sorter must be familiar with the why +and wherefore of all subsequent processes through which the leather must +go, so as to judge of the suitability of the various qualities of +leather for these processes, and to know where any flaws that may exist +will be sufficiently suppressed or hidden to produce a saleable +product, or will be rendered entirely unnoticeable. The points to be +considered in the sorting are coarseness or fineness of texture, +boldness or fineness of grain, colour, flaws including stains and +scratches, substance, &c. Light-coloured and flawless goods are +parcelled out for fine and delicate shades, those of darker hue and few +flaws are parcelled out for the darker shades, such as maroons, greens +(sage and olive), dark blues, &c., and those which are so badly stained +as to be unsuitable for colours go for blacks. After sorting, the goods +are soaked back to a limp condition by immersion in warm water, and are +then horsed up to drip, having been given, perhaps, a preliminary +slicking out. + +Up to this point all goods are treated alike, but the subsequent +processes now diverge according to the class of leather being treated +and the finish required. + +Persian goods for glacés, moroccos, &c., require special preparation for +dyeing, being first re-tanned. As received, they are sorted and soaked +as above, piled to samm, and shaved. Shaving consists of rendering the +flesh side of the skins smooth by shaving off irregularities, the skin, +which is supported on a rubber roller actuated by a foot lever, being +pressed against a series of spiral blades set on a steel roller, which +is caused to revolve rapidly. When shaved, the goods are stripped, +washed up, soured, sweetened and re-tanned in sumach, washed up, and +slicked out, and are then ready for dyeing. + +There are three distinct methods of dyeing, with several minor +modifications. Tray dyeing consists of immersing the goods, from 2 to 4 +dozen at a time, in two separate piles, in the dye solution at 60° C, +contained in a flat wooden tray about 5 ft. × 4 ft. × 1 ft., and keeping +them constantly moving by continually turning them from one pile to the +other. The disadvantages of this method are that the bath rapidly cools, +thus dyeing rapidly at the beginning and slowly at the termination of +the operation; hence a large excess of dye is wasted, much labour is +required, and the shades obtained are not so level as those obtained by +the other methods. But the goods are under observation the whole time, a +very distinct advantage when matching shades, and a white flesh may be +preserved. The paddle method of dyeing consists of paddling the goods in +a large volume of liquor contained in a semi-circular wooden paddle for +from half to three-quarters of an hour. The disadvantages are that the +liquor cools fairly rapidly, more dye is wasted than in the tray method, +and a white flesh cannot be preserved. But larger packs can be dyed at +the one operation, the goods are under observation the whole time, and +little labour is required. + +The drum method of dyeing is perhaps best, a drum somewhat similar to +that used by curriers being preferable. The goods are placed on the +shelves inside the dry drum, the lid of which is then fastened on, and +the machinery is started; when the drum is revolving at full speed, +which should be about 12 to 15 revolutions per minute, the dye solution +is added through the hollow axle, and the dyeing continued for half an +hour, when, without stopping the drum, if desired, the goods may be +fatliquored by running in the fatliquor through the hollow axle. The +disadvantages are that the flesh is dyed and the goods cannot be seen. +The advantages are that little labour is required, a large pack of skins +may be treated, level shades are produced, heat is retained, almost +complete exhaustion of the dye-bath is effected, and subsequent +processes, such as fatliquoring, may be carried out without stopping the +drum. + + Of the great number of coal-tar dyes on the market comparatively few + can be used in leather manufacture. The four chief classes are: (1) + acid dyes; (2) basic or tannin dyes; (3) direct or cotton dyes; (4) + mordant (alizarine) dyes. + + Acid dyes are not so termed because they have acid characteristics; + the name simply denotes that for the development of the full shade of + colour it is necessary to add acid to the dye-bath. These dyes are + generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids, and need the addition of an + acid to free the dye, which is the sulphonic acid. Although + theoretically any acid (stronger than the sulphonic acid present) will + do for this purpose, it is found in practice that only sulphuric and + formic acids may be employed, because others, such as acetic, lactic, + &c., do not develop the full shade of colour. Acid sodium sulphate may + also be successfully used. + + Acid colours produce a full level shade without bronzing, and do not + accentuate any defects in the leather, such as bad grain, &c. They are + also moderately fast to light and rubbing. They are generally applied + to leather at a temperature between 50° and 60° C., with an equal + weight of sulphuric acid. The quantity of dye used varies, but + generally, for goat, persians, &c., from 25 to 30 oz. are used per ten + dozen skins, and for calf half as much again, dissolved in such an + amount of water as is most convenient according to the method being + used. If sodium bisulphate is substituted for sulphuric acid twice as + much must be used, and if formic acid three times as much (by weight). + + Basic dyes are salts of organic colour bases with hydrochloric or some + other suitable acid. Basic colours precipitate the tannins, and thus, + because of their affinity for them, dye very rapidly, tending to + produce uneven shades, especially if the tannin on the skin is + unevenly distributed. They are much more intense in colour than the + acid dyes, have a strong tendency to bronze, and accentuate weak and + defective grain. They are also precipitated by hard waters, so that + the hardness should be first neutralized by the addition of acetic + acid, else the precipitated colour lake may produce streakily dyed + leather. To prevent rapid dyeing, acetic acid or sodium bisulphate + should always be added in small quantity to the dye-bath, preferably + the latter, as it prevents bronzing. The most important point about + the application of basic dyes to leather is the previous fixation of + the tannin on the surface of the leather to prevent its bleeding into + the dye-bath and precipitating the dye. All soluble salts of the heavy + metals will fix the tannin, but few are applicable, as they form + colour lakes, which are generally undesirable. Antimony and titanium + salts are generally used, the forms being tartar emetic (antimony + potassium tartrate), antimonine (antimony lactate), potassium titanium + oxalate, and titanium lactate. The titanium salts are economically + used when dyeing browns, as they produce a yellowish-brown shade; it + is therefore not necessary to use so much dye. About 2 oz. of tartar + emetic and 8 oz. of salt is a convenient quantity for 1 dozen goat + skins. The bath is used at 30° to 40° C., and the goods are immersed + for about 15 minutes, having been thoroughly washed before being dyed. + Iron salts are sometimes used by leather-stainers for saddening + (dulling) the shade of colour produced, iron tannate, a black salt, + being formed. It is often found economical to "bottom" goods with + acid, direct, or other colours, and then finish with basic colours; + this procedure forms a colour lake, and colour lakes are always faster + to light and rubbing than the colours themselves. + + Direct cotton dyes produce shades of great delicacy, and are used for + the dyeing of pale and "art" shades. They are applied in neutral or + very slightly acid baths, formic and acetic acids being most suitable + with the addition of a quantity of sodium chloride or sulphate. After + dyeing, the goods are well washed to free from excess of salt. The + eosine colours, including erythrosine, phloxine, rose Bengal, &c., are + applied in a similar manner, and are specially used for the beautiful + fluorescent pink shades they produce; acid and basic colours and + mineral acids precipitate them. + + The mordant colours, which include the alizarine and anthracene + colours, are extremely fast to light, and require a mordant to develop + the colour. They are specially applicable to chamois leather, although + a few may be used for chrome and alum leathers, and one or two are + successfully applied to vegetable-tanned leather without a mordant. + + Sulphur or sulphide colours, the first of which to appear were the + famous Vidal colours, are applied in sodium sulphide solution, and are + most successfully used on chrome leather, as they produce a colour + lake with chrome salts, the resulting colour being very fast to light + and rubbing. A very serious disadvantage in connexion with them is + that they must necessarily be applied in alkaline solution, and the + alkali has a disintegrating effect upon the fibre of the leather, + which cannot be satisfactorily overcome, although formaldehyde and + glycerin mixtures have been patented for the purpose. + + The Janus colours are perhaps worth mentioning as possessing both acid + and basic characteristics; they precipitate tannin, and are best + regarded as basic dyes from a leather-dyer's standpoint. + +The goods after dyeing are washed up, slicked out on an inclined glass +table, nailed on boards, or hung up by the hind shanks to dry out. + +Coal-tar dyes are not much used for the production of blacks, as they do +not give such a satisfactory result as logwood with an iron mordant. In +the dyeing of blacks the preliminary operation of souring is always +omitted and that of sumaching sometimes, but if much tan has been +removed it will be found necessary to use sumach, although cutch may be +advantageously and cheaply substituted. After shaving, the goods, if to +be dressed for "blue backs" (blue-coloured flesh), are dyed as already +described, with methyl violet or some other suitable dye; they are then +folded down the back and drawn through a hot solution of logwood and +fustic extracts, and then rapidly through a weak, cold iron sulphate and +copper acetate solution. Immediately afterwards they are rinsed up and +either drummed in a little neatsfoot oil or oiled over with a pad, flesh +and grain, and dried. When dry the goods are damped back and staked, +dried out and re-staked. + +After dry-staking, the goods are "seasoned," i.e. some suitable mixture +is applied to the grain to enable it to take the glaze. The following is +typical: 3 quarts logwood liquor, ½ pint bullock's blood, ½ pint milk, ½ +gill ammonia, ½ gill orchil and 3 quarts water. This season is brushed +well into the grain, and the goods are dried in a warm stove and glazed +by machine. The skins are glazed under considerable pressure, a polished +glass slab or roller being forced over the surface of the leather in a +series of rapid strokes, after which the goods are re-seasoned, +re-staked, fluffed, re-glazed, oiled over with a pad, dipped in linseed +oil and dried. They are now ready for market. If the goods are to be +finished dull they are seasoned with linseed mucilage, casein or milk +(many other materials are also used), and rolled, glassed with a +polished slab by hand, or ironed with a warm iron. + +Coloured glacés are finished in a similar manner to black glacés, dye +(instead of logwood and iron) being added to the season, which usually +consists of a simple mixture of dye, albumen and milk. + +Moroccos and grain leathers are boarded on the flesh side before and +after glazing, often being "tooth rolled" between the several +operations. Tooth rolling consists of forcing, under pressure, a toothed +roller over the grain; this cuts into the leather and helps to produce +many grains, which could not be produced naturally by boarding, besides +fixing them. + +Many artificial grains and patterns are also given to leather by +printing and embossing, these processes being carried out by passing the +leather between two rollers, the top one upon which the pattern is +engraved being generally steam heated. This impresses the pattern upon +the grain of the leather. + +The above methods will give a very general idea of the processes in +vogue for the dressing of goods for fancy work. The dressing of chrome +leathers for uppers is different in important particulars. + + _Chrome Box and Willow Calf._--Willow calf is coloured calf, box calf + is dressed black and grained with a "box" grain. A large quantity of + kips is now dressed as box calf; these goods are the hides of yearling + Indian cattle, and are dressed in an exactly similar manner as calf. + After tanning and boraxing to neutralize the acidity of the chrome + liquor, the goods are washed up, sammied, shaved, and are ready for + mordanting previous to dyeing. Very few dyes will dye chrome leather + direct, i.e. without mordanting. Sulphide colours are not yet in great + demand, nor are the alizarines used as much as they might be. The + ordinary acid and basic dyes are more generally employed, and the + goods consequently require to be first mordanted. The mordanting is + carried out by drumming the goods in a solution containing tannin, + and, except for pale shades, some dyewood extract is used; for reds + peachwood extract, for browns fustic or gambier, and for dark browns a + little logwood is added. For all pale shades sumach is exclusively + used. After drumming in the warm tannin infusion for half an hour, if + the goods are to be dyed with basic colours the tannin is first fixed + by drumming in tartar emetic and salt, or titanium, as previously + described; the dyeing is also carried out as described for persians, + except that a slightly higher temperature may be maintained. If the + goods are to be dyed black they are passed through logwood and iron + solutions. + + After dyeing and washing up, &c., the goods are fatliquored by placing + them in a previously heated drum and drumming them with a mixture + known as a "fatliquor," of which the following recipe is typical: + Dissolve 3 lb. of soft soap by boiling with 3 gallons of water, then + add 9 lb. of neatsfoot oil and boil for some minutes; now place the + mixture in an emulsifier and emulsify until cooled to 35° C., then add + the yolks of 5 fresh eggs and emulsify for a further half hour. The + fatliquor is added to the drum at 55° C., and the goods are drummed + for half an hour, when all the fatliquor should be absorbed; they are + then slicked out and dried. After drying, they are damped back, + staked, dried, re-staked and seasoned with materials similar to those + used for persians; when dry they are glazed, boarded on the flesh + ("grained") from neck to butt and belly to belly to give them the box + grain, fluffed, reseasoned, reglazed and regrained. + + _Finishing of Bag Hides._--The goods are first soaked back, piled to + samm, split or shaved, scoured by machine, finished off by hand, + washed up and retanned by drumming in warm sumach and extract, after + which they are washed up, struck out, hung up to samm, and "set." + "Setting" consists of laying the grain flat and smooth by striking out + with a steel or sharp brass slicker. They are then dried out, topped + with linseed mucilage, and again dried. This brushing over with + linseed mucilage prevents the dye from sinking too far into the + leather; gelatine, Irish moss, starch and gums are also used for the + same purpose. These materials are also added to the staining solution + to thicken it and further prevent its sinking in. + + When dry, the goods are stained by applying a ½% (usually) solution of + a suitable basic dye, thickened with linseed, with a brush. Two men + are usually employed on this work; one starts at the right-hand flank + and the other at the left-hand shank, and they work towards each + other, staining in sections; much skill is needed to obviate markings + where the sections overlap. The goods may advantageously be bottomed + with an acid dye or a dye-wood extract, and then finished with basic + dyes. Whichever method is used, two to three coats are given, drying + between each. After the last coat of stain, and while the goods are + still in a sammied condition, a mixture of linseed mucilage and French + chalk is applied to the flesh and glassed off wet, to give it a white + appearance, and then the goods are printed with any of the usual bag + grains by machine or hand, and dried out. For a bright finish the + season may consist of a solution of 15 parts carnauba wax, 10 parts + curd soap and 100 parts water boiled together; this is sponged into + the grain, dried and the hides are finished by either glassing or + brushing. For a duller finish the grain is simply rubbed over with + buck tallow and brushed. Hide bellies for small work are treated in + much the same manner. + + _Glove Leathers._--As these goods were tanned in alum, salt, flour and + egg, any undue immersion in water removes the tannage; for this reason + they are generally stained like bag hides, one man only being employed + on the same skin. The skins are first thoroughly soaked in warm water + and then drummed for some minutes in a fresh supply, when they are + re-egged to replace that which has been lost. This is best done by + drumming them for about 1½ hours in 40 to 50 egg yolks and 5 lb. of + salt for every hundred skins; they are then allowed to be in pile for + 24 hours, and are set out on the table ready for mordanting. The + mordants universally used are ammonia or alkaline soft soap; 1 in 1000 + of the former or a 1% solution of the latter. When the goods have + partially dried in, bottoming follows, and usually the natural wood + dyestuffs are used for this operation, such as fustic, Brazil wood, + peachwood, logwood and turmeric. After application of these colours + the goods are sammied and topped with a 1% solution of an acid dye, to + which has been added 20% of methylated spirit to prevent frothing with + the egg yolk; they are then dried out slowly, staked, pulled in shape, + fluffed and brushed by machine. The season, which is sponged on, may + consist of 1 part dye, 1 part albumen, 2 parts dextrine and ¼ part + glycerine, made up to 100 parts with water; when it has been applied, + the goods are sammied, brushed and ironed with a warm flat iron such + as is used in laundry work. + + _Bookbinding Leathers._--A committee of the Society of Arts (London) + has investigated the question of leather for bookbinding, attention + having been drawn to this subject by the rotten and decayed condition + often observed in bindings less than fifty years old. This committee + engaged in research work extending over several years, and the report + in which its results were given was edited for the Society of Arts and + the Leathersellers' Company (which also did much important work in + connexion with it) by Lord Cobham, chairman of the committee, and Sir + Henry Trueman Wood, secretary of the society. The essence of the + report, so far as leather manufacture is concerned, is as follows: The + goods should be soaked and limed in fresh liquors, and bating and + puering should be avoided, weak organic acids or erodine being used; + they should also be tanned with pyrogallol tanning materials, and + preferably with sumach. In shaving, they should only be necked and + backed, i.e. only irregularities should be removed, as further shaving + has a considerable weakening effect on the fibre. The striking out + should not be heavy enough to lay the fibre. In dyeing, acid dyes and + a few direct colours only are permissible, and in connexion with the + former the use of sulphuric acid is strongly condemned, as it + absolutely disintegrates the fibre; the use of formic, acetic and + lactic acids is permitted. The use of salts of mineral acids is to be + avoided, and in finishing, tight setting out and damp glazing is not + to be recommended; oil may be advantageously used. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. G. Bennett, _The Manufacture of Leather_ (1909); S. + R. Trotman, _Leather Trades Chemistry_ (1908); M. C. Lamb, _Leather + Dressing_ (1907); A. Watt, _Leather Manufacture_ (1906); H. R. + Procter, _Principles of Leather Manufacture_ (1903), and _Leather + Industries Laboratory Book_ (1908); L. A. Flemming, _Practical + Tanning_ (1910); A. M. Villon, _Practical Treatise on the Leather + Industry_ (1901); C. T. Davis, _Manufacture of Leather_ (1897). German + works include J. Borgman, _Die Rotlederfabrikation_ (Berlin, + 1904-1905), and _Feinlederfabrikation_ (1901); J. Jettmar, _Handbuch + der Chromgerbung_ (Leipzig, 1900); J. von Schroeder, _Gerbereichemie_ + (Berlin, 1898). (J. G. P.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See LYE. + + + + +LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL. Under the name of artificial leather, or of +American leather cloth, large quantities of a material having, more or +less, a leather-like surface are used, principally for upholstery +purposes, such as the covering of chairs, lining the tops of writing +desks and tables, &c. There is considerable diversity in the +preparation of such materials. A common variety consists of a web of +calico coated with boiled linseed oil mixed with dryers and lampblack or +other pigment. Several coats of this mixture are uniformly spread, +smoothed and compressed on the cotton surface by passing it between +metal rollers, and when the surface is required to possess a glossy +enamel-like appearance, it receives a finishing coat of copal varnish. A +grained morocco surface is given to the material by passing it between +suitably embossed rollers. Preparations of this kind have a close +affinity to cloth waterproofed with indiarubber, and to such +manufactures as ordinary waxcloth. An artificial leather which has been +patented and proposed for use as soles for boots, &c., is composed of +powdered scraps and cuttings of leather mixed with solution of +guttapercha dried and compressed. In place of the guttapercha solution, +oxidized linseed oil or dissolved resin may be used as the binding +medium for the leather powder. + + + + +LEATHERHEAD, an urban district in the Epsom parliamentary division of +Surrey, England, 18 m. S.S.W. of London, on the London, Brighton & South +Coast and the London & South-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 4694. It lies +at the foot of the North Downs in the pleasant valley of the river Mole. +The church of St Mary and St Nicholas dates from the 14th century. St +John's Foundation School, opened in London in 1852, is devoted to the +education of sons of poor clergymen. Leatherhead has brick-making and +brewing industries, and the district is largely residential. + + + + +LEATHES, STANLEY (1830-1900), English divine and Orientalist, was born +at Ellesborough, Bucks, on the 21st of March 1830, and was educated at +Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1852, M.A. 1853. In +1853 he was the first Tyrwhitt's Hebrew scholar. He was ordained priest +in 1857, and after serving several curacies was appointed professor of +Hebrew at King's College, London, in 1863. In 1868-1870 he was Boyle +lecturer (_The Witness of the Old Testament to Christ_), in 1873 Hulsean +lecturer (_The Gospel its Own Witness_), in 1874 Bampton Lecturer (_The +Religion of the Christ_) and from 1876 to 1880 Warburtonian lecturer. He +was a member of the Old Testament revision committee from 1870 to 1885. +In 1876 he was elected prebendary of St Paul's Cathedral, and he was +rector of Cliffe-at-Hoo near Gravesend (1880-1889) and of Much Hadham, +Hertfordshire (1889-1900). The university of Edinburgh gave him the +honorary degree of D.D. in 1878, and his own college made him an +honorary fellow in 1885. Besides the lectures noted he published +_Studies in Genesis_ (1880), _The Foundations of Morality_ (1882) and +some volumes of sermons. He died in May 1900. + +His son, Stanley Mordaunt Leathes (b. 1861), became a fellow of Trinity, +Cambridge, and lecturer on history, and was one of the editors of the +_Cambridge Modern History_; he was secretary to the Civil Service +Commission from 1903 to 1907, when he was appointed a Civil Service +Commissioner. + + + + +LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. _levain_, adapted from Fr. _levain_, in same sense, +from Lat. _levamen_, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, +comfort, _levare_, to lift up), a substance which produces fermentation, +particularly in the making of bread, properly a portion of already +fermented dough added to other dough for this purpose (see BREAD). The +word is used figuratively of any element, influence or agency which +effects a subtle or secret change. These figurative usages are mainly +due to the comparison of the kingdom of Heaven to leaven in Matt. xiii. +33, and to the warning against the leaven of the Pharisees in Matt. xvi. +6. In the first example the word is used of a good influence, but the +more usual significance is that of an evil agency. There was among the +Hebrews an association of the idea of fermentation and corruption, which +may have been one source of the prohibition of the use of leavened bread +in sacrificial offerings. For the usage of unleavened bread at the +feasts of the Passover and of Massôth, and the connexion of the two, see +PASSOVER. + + + + +LEAVENWORTH, a city and the county-seat of Leavenworth county, Kansas, +U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri river. Pop. (1900) 20,738, of +whom 3402 were foreign-born and 2925 were negroes; (1910 census) 19,363. +It is one of the most important railway centres west of the Missouri +river, being served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago +Great Western, the Missouri Pacific, the Union Pacific and the +Leavenworth & Topeka railways. The city is laid out regularly in the +bottom-lands of the river, and its streets are named after Indian +tribes. Rolling hills surround it on three sides. The city has many +handsome public buildings, and contains the Cathedral of the Immaculate +Conception, Leavenworth being the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. The +public institutions include the Kansas State Protective Home (1889) for +negroes, an Old Ladies' Rest (1892), St Vincent's Orphans' Asylum (1886, +open to all sects) and a Guardian Angels' Home (1889), for negroes--all +private charities aided by the state; also St John's Hospital (1879), +Cushing Hospital (1893) and Leavenworth Hospital (1900), which are +training schools for nurses. There is also a branch of the National Home +for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers. In the suburbs there are state and +United States penitentiaries. Leavenworth is a trading centre and has +various manufactures, the most important being foundry and machine shop +and flouring and grist-mill products, and furniture. The city's factory +products increased in value from $3,251,460 in 1900 to $4,151,767 in +1905, or 27.7%. There are valuable coal mines in Leavenworth and the +immediate vicinity. About 3 m. N. of the city, on a reservation of about +6000 acres, is Fort Leavenworth, an important United States military +post, associated with which are a National Cemetery and Service Schools +of the U.S. Army (founded in 1881 as the U.S. Infantry and Cavalry +School and in 1901 developed into a General Service and Staff College). +In 1907 there were three general divisions of these schools: the Army +School of the Line, for officers (not below the grade of captain) of the +regular army and for militia officers recommended by the governors of +their respective states or territories, offering courses in military +art, engineering, law and languages; the Army Signal School, also open +to regular and militia officers, and having departments of field +signalling, signal engineering, topography and languages; and the Army +Staff College, in which the students are the highest graduates from the +Army School of the Line, and the courses of instruction are included in +the departments of military art, engineering, law, languages and care of +troops. The course is one year in each school. At Fort Leavenworth there +is a colossal bronze statue of General U. S. Grant erected in 1889. A +military prison was established at Fort Leavenworth in 1875; it was used +as a civil prison from 1895 to 1906, when it was re-established as a +military prison. Its inmates were formerly taught various trades, but +owing to the opposition of labour organizations this system was +discontinued, and the prisoners are now employed in work on the military +reservation. + + The fort, from which the city took its name, was built in 1827, in the + Indian country, by Colonel Henry Leavenworth (1783-1834) of the 3rd + Infantry, for the protection of traders plying between the Missouri + river and Santa Fé. The town site was claimed by Missourians from + Weston in June 1854, Leavenworth thus being the oldest permanent + settlement in Kansas; and during the contest in Kansas between the + anti-slavery and pro-slavery settlers, it was known as a pro-slavery + town. It was first incorporated by the Territorial legislature in + 1855; a new charter was obtained in 1881; and in 1908 the city adopted + the commission plan of government. On the 3rd of April 1858 a + free-state convention adopted the Leavenworth Constitution here; this + constitution, which was as radically anti-slavery as the Lecompton + Constitution was pro-slavery, was nominally approved by popular vote + in May 1858, and was later submitted to Congress, but never came into + effect. During the Civil War Leavenworth enjoyed great prosperity, at + the expense of more inland towns, partly owing to the proximity of the + fort, which gave it immunity from border raids from Missouri and was + an important depôt of supplies and a place for mustering troops into + and out of the service. Leavenworth was, in Territorial days and until + after 1880, the largest and most thriving commercial city of the + state, and rivalled Kansas City, Missouri, which, however, finally got + the better of it in the struggle for railway facilities. + + + + +LEBANON (from Semitic _laban_, "to be white," or "whitish," probably +referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls of chalk or +limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range), in +its widest sense is the central mountain mass of Syria, extending for +about 100 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W. It is bounded W. by the sea, N. by +the plain Jun Akkar, beyond which rise the mountains of the Ansarieh, +and E. by the inland plateau of Syria, mainly steppe-land. To the south +Lebanon ends about the point where the river Litany bends westward, and +at Banias. A valley narrowing towards its southern end, and now called +the Buka'a, divides the mountainous mass into two great parts. That +lying to the west is still called Jebel Libnan; the greater part of the +eastern mass now bears the name of the Eastern Mountain (Jebel +el-Sharki). In Greek the western range was called Libanos, the eastern +Antilibanos. The southern extension of the latter, Mount Hermon (q.v.), +may in many respects be treated as a separate mountain. + +Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon have many features in common; in both the +southern portion is less arid and barren than the northern, the western +valleys better wooded and more fertile than the eastern. In general the +main elevations of the two ranges form pairs lying opposite one another; +the forms of both ranges are monotonous, but the colouring is splendid, +especially when viewed from a distance; when seen close at hand only a +few valleys with perennial streams offer pictures of landscape beauty, +their rich green contrasting pleasantly with the bare brown and yellow +mountain sides. The finest scenery is found in N. Lebanon, in the +Maronite districts of Kesrawan and Bsherreh, where the gorges are +veritable canyons, and the villages are often very picturesquely +situated. The south of the chain is more open and undulating. +Anti-Lebanon is the barest and most inhospitable part of the system. + + The district west of Lebanon, averaging about 20 m. in breadth, slopes + in an intricate series of plateaus and terraces to the Mediterranean. + The coast is for the most part abrupt and rocky, often leaving room + for only a narrow path along the shore, and when viewed from the sea + it does not suggest the extent of country lying between its cliffs and + the lofty summits behind. Most of the mountain spurs run from east to + west, but in northern Lebanon the prevailing direction of the valleys + is north-westerly, and in the south some ridges run parallel with the + principal chain. The valleys have for the most part been deeply + excavated by mountain streams; the apparently inaccessible heights are + crowned by numerous villages, castles or cloisters embosomed among + trees. The chief perennial streams, beginning from the north, are the + Nahr Akkar, N. Arka, N. el-Barid, N. Kadisha, "the holy river" (the + valley of which begins in the immediate neighbourhood of the highest + summits, and rapidly descends in a series of great bends till the + river reaches the sea at Tripoli), Wadi el-Joz (falling into the sea + at Batrun), Wadi Fidar, Nahr Ibrahim (the ancient Adonis, having its + source in a recess of the great mountain amphitheatre where the famous + sanctuary Apheca, the modern Afka, lay), Nahr el-Kelb (the ancient + Lycus), Nahr Beirut (the ancient Magoras, entering the sea at Beirut), + Nahr Damur (ancient Tamyras), Nahr el-'Auwali (the ancient Bostrenus, + which in the upper part of its course is joined by the Nahr el-Baruk). + The 'Auwali and the Nahr el-Zaherani, the only other considerable + streams before we reach the Litany, flow north-east to south-west, in + consequence of the interposition of a ridge subordinate and parallel + to the central chain. On the north, where the mountain bears the + special name of Jebel Akkar, the main ridge of Lebanon rises gradually + from the plain. A number of valleys run to the north and north-east, + among them that of the Nahr el-Kebir, the Eleutherus of the ancients, + which rises in the Jebel el-Abiad on the eastern slope of Lebanon, and + afterwards, skirting the district, flows westward to the sea. South of + Jebel el-Abiad, beneath the main ridge, which as a rule falls away + suddenly towards the east, occur several small elevated terraces + having a southward slope; among these are the Wadi en-Nusur ("vale of + eagles"), and the basin of the lake Yammuna, with its intermittent + spring Neb'a el-Arba'in. Of the streams which descend into the Buka'a, + the Berdani rises in Jebel Sunnin, and enters the plain by a deep and + picturesque mountain cleft at Zahleh. + + The most elevated summits occur in the north, but even these are of + very gentle gradient. The "Cedar block" consists of a double line of + four and three summits respectively, ranged from north to south, with + a deviation of about 35°. Those to the east are 'Uyun Urghush, Makmal, + Muskiyya (or Naba' esh-Shemaila) and Ras Zahr el-Kazib; fronting the + sea are Kam Sauda or Timarun, Fumm el-Mizab and Zahr el-Kandil. The + height of Zahr el-Kazib, by barometric measurement, is 10,018 ft.; + that of the others does not reach 10,000 ft. South from them is the + pass (8351 ft.) which leads from Baalbek to Tripoli; the great + mountain amphitheatre on the west side of its summit is remarkable. + Farther south is a second group of lofty summits--the snow-capped + Sunnin, visible from Beirut; its height is 8482 ft. Between this + group and the more southerly Jebel Keniseh (about 6700 ft.) lies the + pass (4700 ft.) traversed by the French post road between Beirut and + Damascus. Among the bare summits still farther south are the long + ridge of Jebel el-Baruk (about 7000 ft.), the Jebel Niha, with the + Tau'amat Niha (about 6100 ft.), near which is a pass to Sidon, and the + Jebel Rihan (about 5400 ft.). + + The Buka'a, the broad valley which separates Lebanon from + Anti-Lebanon, is watered by two rivers having their watershed near + Baalbek, at an elevation of about 3600 ft., and separated only by a + short mile at their sources. That flowing northwards, El-'Asi, is the + ancient Orontes (q.v.); the other is the Litany. In the lower part of + its course the latter has scooped out a deep and narrow rocky bed; at + Burghuz it is spanned by a great natural bridge. Not far from the + point where it suddenly trends to the west lie, immediately above the + romantic valley, at an elevation of 1500 ft., the imposing ruins of + the old castle Kal'at esh-Shakif, near one of the passes to Sidon. In + its lower part the Litany bears the name of Nahr el-Kasimiya. Neither + the Orontes nor the Litany has any important affluent. + + The Buka'a used to be known as Coelesyria (Strabo. xvi. 2, 21); but + that word as employed by the ancients had a much more extensive + application. At present its full name is Buka'a el-'Aziz (the dear + Buka'a), and its northern portion is known as Sahlet Ba'albek (the + plain of Baalbek). The valley is from 4 to 6 m. broad, with an + undulating surface. + + The Anti-Lebanon chain has been less fully explored than that of + Lebanon. Apart from its southern offshoots it is 67 m. long, while its + width varies from 16 to 13½ m. It rises from the plain of Hasya-Homs, + and in its northern portion is very arid. The range has not so many + offshoots as occur on the west side of Lebanon; under its precipitous + slopes stretch table-lands and broad plateaus, which, especially on + the east side looking towards the steppe, steadily increase in width. + Along the western side of northern Anti-Lebanon stretches the + Khasha'a, a rough red region lined with juniper trees, a succession of + the hardest limestone crests and ridges, bristling with bare rock and + crag that shelter tufts of vegetation, and are divided by a succession + of grassy ravines. On the eastern side the parallel valley of 'Asal + el-Ward deserves special mention; the descent towards the plain + eastwards, as seen for example at Ma'lula, is singular--first a + spacious amphitheatre and then two deep very narrow gorges. Few + perennial streams take their rise in Anti-Lebanon; one of the finest + and best watered valleys is that of Helbun, the ancient Chalybon, the + Helbon of Ezek. xxvii. 18. The highest points of the range, reckoning + from the north, are Halimat el-Kabu (8257 ft.), which has a splendid + view; the Fatli block, including Tal'at Musa (8721 ft.) and the + adjoining Jebel Nebi Baruh (7900 ft.); and a third group near Bludan, + in which the most prominent names are Shakif, Akhyar and Abu'l-Hin + (8330 ft.); Of the valleys descending westward the first to claim + mention is the Wadi Yafufa; a little farther south, lying north and + south, is the rich upland valley of Zebedani, where the Barada has its + highest sources. Pursuing an easterly course, this stream receives the + waters of the romantic 'Ain Fije (which doubles its volume), and + bursts out by a rocky gateway upon the plain of Damascus, in the + irrigation of which it is the chief agent. It is the Abana of 2 Kings + v. 12; the portion of Anti-Lebanon traversed by it was also called by + the same name (Canticles iv. 8). From the point where the southerly + continuation of Anti-Lebanon begins to take a more westerly direction, + a low ridge shoots out towards the south-west, trending farther and + farther away from the eastern chain and narrowing the Buka'a; upon the + eastern side of this ridge lies the elevated valley or hilly stretch + known as Wadi et-Teim. In the north, beside 'Ain Faluj, it is + connected by a low watershed with the Buka'a; from the gorge of the + Litany it is separated by the ridge of Jebel ed-Dahr. At its southern + end it contracts and merges into the plain of Banias, thus enclosing + Mount Hermon on its north-west and west sides; eastward from the + Hasbany branch of the Jordan lies the meadow-land Merj 'Iyun, the + ancient Ijon (1 Kings xv. 20). + + _Vegetation._--The western slope of Lebanon has the common + characteristics of the flora of the Mediterranean coast, but the + Anti-Lebanon belongs to the poorer region of the steppes, and the + Mediterranean species are met with only sporadically along the + water-courses. Forest and pasture land do not properly exist: the + place of the first is for the most part taken by a low brushwood; + grass is not plentiful, and the higher ridges maintain alpine plants + only so long as patches of snow continue to lie. The rock walls + harbour some rock plants, but many absolutely barren wildernesses of + stone occur. (1) On the western slope, to a height of 1600 ft., is the + coast region, similar to that of Syria in general and of the south of + Asia Minor. Characteristic trees are the locust tree and the stone + pine; in _Melia Azedarach_ and _Ficus Sycomorus_ (Beirut) is an + admixture of foreign and partially subtropical elements. The great + mass of the vegetation, however is of the low-growing type (_maquis_ + or _garrigue_ of the western Mediterranean), with small and stiff + leaves, and frequently thorny and aromatic, as for example the ilex + (_Quercus coccifera_), _Smilax_, _Cistus_, _Lentiscus_, _Calycotome_, + &c. (2) Next comes, from 1600 to 6500 ft., the mountain region, which + may also be called the forest region, still exhibiting sparse woods + and isolated trees wherever shelter, moisture and the inhabitants + have permitted their growth. From 1600 to 3200 ft. is a zone of dwarf + hard-leaved oaks, amongst which occur the Oriental forms _Fontanesia + phillyraeoides_, _Acer syriacum_ and the beautiful red-stemmed + _Arbutus Andrachne_. Higher up, between 3700 and 4200 ft., a tall + pine, _Pinus Brutia_, is characteristic. Between 4200 and 6200 ft. is + the region of the two most interesting forest trees of Lebanon, the + cypress and the cedar. The former still grows thickly, especially in + the valley of the Kadisha; the horizontal is the prevailing variety. + In the upper Kadisha valley there is a cedar grove of about three + hundred trees, amongst which five are of gigantic size. (See also + CEDAR.) The cypress and cedar zone exhibits a variety of other + leaf-bearing and coniferous trees; of the first may be mentioned + several oaks--_Quercus subalpina_ (Kotschy), _Q. Cerris_ and the + hop-hornbeam (_Ostrya_); of the second class the rare Cilician silver + fir (_Abies cilicica_) may be noticed. Next come the junipers, + sometimes attaining the size of trees (_Juniperus excelsa_, _J. + rufescens_ and, with fruit as large as plums, _J. drupacea_). But the + chief ornament of Lebanon is the _Rhododendron ponticum_, with its + brilliant purple flower clusters; a peculiar evergreen, _Vinca + libanotica_, also adds beauty to this zone. (3) Into the alpine region + (6200 to 10,400 ft.) penetrate a few very stunted oaks (_Quercus + subalpina_), the junipers already mentioned and a barberry (_Berberis + cretica_), which sometimes spreads into close thickets. Then follow + the low, dense, prone, pillow-like dwarf bushes, thorny and grey, + common to the Oriental highlands--_Astragalus_ and the peculiar + _Acantholimon_. They are found to within 300 ft. of the highest + summits. + + Upon the exposed mountain slopes a species of rhubarb (_Rheum Ribes_) + is noticeable, and also a vetch (_Vicia canescens_) excellent for + sheep. The spring vegetation, which lasts until July, appears to be + rich, especially as regards showy plants, such as _Corydalis_, + _Gagea_, _Colchicum_, _Puschkinia_, _Geranium_, _Ornithogalum_, &c. + The flora of the highest ridges, along the edges of the snow patches, + exhibits no forms related to the northern alpine flora, but + suggestions of it are found in a _Draba_, an _Androsace_, an _Alsine_ + and a violet, occurring, however, only in local species. Upon the + highest summits are found _Saponaria Pumilio_ (resembling our _Silene + acaulis_) and varieties of _Galium_, _Euphorbia_, _Astragalus_, + _Veronica_, _Jurinea_, _Festuca_, _Scrophularia_, _Geranium_, + _Asphodeline_, _Allium_, _Asperula_; and, on the margins of the snow + fields, a _Taraxacum_ and _Ranunculus demissus_. The alpine flora of + Lebanon thus connects itself directly with the Oriental flora of lower + altitudes, and is unrelated to the glacial flora of Europe and + northern Asia. + + _Zoology._--There is nothing of special interest about the fauna of + Lebanon. Bears are no longer numerous; the panther and the ounce are + met with; the wild hog, hyaena, wolf and fox are by no means rare; + jackals and gazelles are very common. The polecat and hedgehog also + occur. As a rule there are not many birds, but the eagle and the + vulture may occasionally be seen; of eatable kinds partridges and wild + pigeons are the most abundant. + +_Population._--In the following sections the Lebanon proper will alone +be considered, without reference to Anti-Lebanon, because the peculiar +political status of the former range since 1864 has effectually +differentiated it; whereas the Anti-Lebanon still forms an integral part +of the Ottoman province of Syria (q.v.), and neither its population nor +its history is readily distinguishable from those of the surrounding +districts. + +The total population in the Lebanon proper is about 400,000, and is +increasing faster than the development of the province will admit. There +is consequently much emigration, the Christian surplus going mainly to +Egypt, and to America, the Druses to the latter country and to the +Hauran. The emigrants to America, however, usually return after making +money, build new houses and settle down. The singularly complex +population is composed of Christians, Maronites, and Orthodox Eastern +and Uniate; of Moslems, both Sunni and Shiah (Metawali); and of Druses. + + (a) _Maronites_ (q.v.) form about three-fifths of the whole and have + the north of the Mountain almost to themselves, while even in the + south, the old Druse stronghold, they are now numerous. Feudalism is + practically extinct among them and with the decline of the Druses, and + the great stake they have acquired in agriculture, they have laid + aside much of their warlike habit together with their arms. Even their + instinct of nationality is being sensibly impaired by their gradual + assimilation to the Papal Church, whose agents exercise from Beirut an + increasing influence on their ecclesiastical elections and church + government. They are strong also in the Buka'a, and have colonies in + most of the Syrian cities. + + (b) _Orthodox_ Eastern form a little more than one-eighth of the + whole, and are strongest in S. Lebanon (Metn and Kurah districts). + Syrians by race and Arab-speaking, they are descendants of those + "Melkites" who took the side of the Byzantine church in the time of + Justinian II. against the Moslems and eventually the Maronites. They + are among the most progressive of the Lebanon elements. + + (c) _Greek Uniate_ are less numerous, forming little more than + one-twelfth, but are equally progressive. Their headquarters is + Zahleh; but they are found also in strength in Metn and Jezzin, where + they help to counterbalance Druses. They sympathize with the Maronites + against the Orthodox Eastern, and, like both, are of Syrian race, and + Arab speech. + + (d) _Sunnite Moslems_ are a weak element, strongest in Shuf and Kurah, + and composed largely of Druse renegades and "Druse" families, which, + like the Shehab, were of Arab extraction and never conformed to the + creed of Hamza. + + (e) _Shiite Moslems_ outnumber the Sunni, and make about one + twenty-fifth of the whole. They are called _Metawali_ and are + strongest in North Lebanon (Kesrawan and Batrun), but found also in + the south, in Buka'a and in the coast-towns from Beirut to Acre. They + are said to be descendants of Persian tribes; but the fact is very + doubtful, and they may be at least as aboriginal as the Maronites, and + a remnant of an old Incarnationist population which did not accept + Christianity, and kept its heretical Islam free from those influences + which modified Druse creed. They own a chief sheikh, resident at + Jeba'a, and have the reputation, like most heretical communities in + the Sunni part of the Moslem world, of being exceedingly fanatical and + inhospitable. It is undoubtedly the case that they are suspicious of + strangers and defiant of interference. Another small body of Shiites, + the _Ismailites_ (Assassins (q.v.) of the crusading chronicles), also + said to be of Persian origin, live about Kadmus at the extreme N. of + Lebanon, but outside the limits of the privileged province. They are + about 9000 strong. + + (f) _Druses_ (q.v.), now barely an eighth of the whole and confined to + Shuf and Metn in S. Lebanon, are tending to emigrate or conform to + Sunni Islam. Since the establishment of the privileged province they + have lost the Ottoman support which used to compensate for their + numerical inferiority as compared with the Christians; and they are + fast losing also their old habits and distinctiveness. No longer armed + or wearing their former singular dress, the remnant of them in Lebanon + seems likely ere long to be assimilated to the "Osmanli" Moslems. + Their feud with the Maronites, whose accentuation in the middle of the + 19th century was largely due to the tergiversations of the ruling + Shehab family, now reduced to low estate, is dying away, but they + retain something of their old clan feeling and feudal organization, + especially in Shuf. + +The mixed population, as a whole, displays the usual characteristics of +mountaineers, fine physique and vigorous independent spirit; but its +ancient truculence has given way before strong government action since +the middle 19th century, and the great increase of agricultural +pursuits, to which the purely pastoral are now quite secondary. The +culture of the mulberry and silk, of tobacco, of the olive and vine, of +many kinds of fruits and cereals, has expanded enormously, and the +Lebanon is now probably the most productive region in Asiatic Turkey in +proportion to its area. It exports largely through Beirut and Saida, +using both the French railway which crosses S. Lebanon on its way to +Damascus, and the excellent roads and mule-paths made since 1883. +Lebanon has thick deposits of lignite coal, but of inferior quality +owing to the presence of iron pyrites. The abundant iron is little +worked. Manufactures are of small account, the raw material going mostly +to the coast; but olive-oil is made, together with various wines, of +which the most famous is the _vino d'oro_, a sweet liqueur-like +beverage. This wine is not exported in any quantity, as it will not bear +a voyage well and is not made to keep. Bee-keeping is general, and there +is an export of eggs to Egypt. + +_History._--The inhabitants of Lebanon have at no time played a +conspicuous part in history. There are remains of prehistoric +occupation, but we do not even know what races dwelt there in the +historical period of antiquity. Probably they belonged chiefly to the +Aramaean group of nationalities; the Bible mentions Hivites (Judges iii. +3) and Giblites (Joshua xiii. 5). Lebanon was included within the ideal +boundaries of the land of Israel, and the whole region was well known to +the Hebrews, by whose poets its many excellences are often praised. How +far the Phoenicians had any effective control over it is unknown; the +absence of their monuments does not argue much real jurisdiction. Nor +apparently did the Greek Seleucid kingdom have much to do with the +Mountain. In the Roman period the district of _Phoenice_ extended to +Lebanon. In the 2nd century, with the inland districts, it constituted a +subdivision of the province of Syria, having Emesa (Homs) for its +capital. From the time of Diocletian there was a _Phoenice ad Libanum_, +with Emesa as capital, as well as a _Phoenice Maritima_ of which Tyre +was the chief city. Remains of the Roman period occur throughout +Lebanon. By the 6th century it was evidently virtually independent +again; its Christianization had begun with the immigration of +Monothelite sectaries, flying from persecution in the Antioch district +and Orontes valley. At all times Lebanon has been a place of refuge for +unpopular creeds. Large part of the mountaineers took up Monothelism and +initiated the national distinction of the Maronites, which begins to +emerge in the history of the 7th century. The sectaries, after helping +Justinian II. against the caliph Abdalmalik, turned on the emperor and +his Orthodox allies, and were named Mardaites (rebels). Islam now began +to penetrate S. Lebanon, chiefly by the immigration of various more or +less heretical elements, Kurd, Turkoman, Persian and especially Arab, +the latter largely after the break-up of the kingdom of Hira; and early +in the 11th century these coalesced into a nationality (see Druses) +under the congenial influence of the Incarnationist creed brought from +Cairo by Ismael Darazi and other emissaries of the caliph Hakim and his +vizier Hamza. The subsequent history of Lebanon to the middle of the +19th century will be found under Druses and Maronites, and it need only +be stated here that Latin influence began to be felt in N. Lebanon +during the Frank period of Antioch and Palestine, the Maronites being +inclined to take the part of the crusading princes against the Druses +and Moslems; but they were still regarded as heretic Monothelites by +Abulfaragius (Bar-Hebraeus) at the end of the 13th century; nor is their +effectual reconciliation to Rome much older than 1736, the date of the +mission sent by the pope Clement XII., which fixed the actual status of +their church. An informal French protection had, however, been exercised +over them for some time previously, and with it began the feud of +Maronites and Druses, the latter incited and spasmodically supported by +Ottoman pashas. The feudal organization of both, the one under the house +of Khazin, the other under those of Maan and Shehab successively, was in +full force during the 17th and 18th centuries; and it was the break-up +of this in the first part of the 19th century which produced the anarchy +that culminated after 1840 in the civil war. The Druses renounced their +Shehab amirs when Beshir al-Kassim openly joined the Maronites in 1841, +and the Maronites definitely revolted from the Khazin in 1858. The +events of 1860 led to the formation of the privileged Lebanon province, +finally constituted in 1864. It should be added, however, that among the +Druses of Shuf, feudalism has tended to re-establish itself, and the +power is now divided between the Jumblat and Yezbeki families, a leading +member of one of which is almost always Ottoman _kaimakam_ of the +Druses, and locally called _amir_. + + The Lebanon has now been constituted a _sanjak_ or _mutessariflik_, + dependent directly on the Porte, which acts in this case in + consultation with the six great powers. This province extends about 93 + m. from N. to S. (from the boundary of the _sanjak_ of Tripoli to that + of the _caza_ of Saida), and has a mean breadth of about 28 m. from + one foot of the chain to the other, beginning at the edge of the + littoral plain behind Beirut and ending at the W. edge of the Buka'a; + but the boundaries are ill-defined, especially on the E. where the + original line drawn along the crest of the ridge has not been adhered + to, and the mountaineers have encroached on the Buka'a. The Lebanon is + under a military governor (_mushir_) who must be a Christian in the + service of the sultan, approved by the powers, and has, so far, been + chosen from the Roman Catholics owing to the great preponderance of + Latin Christians in the province. He resides at Deir al-Kamar, an old + seat of the Druse amirs. At first appointed for three years, then for + ten, his term has been fixed since 1892 at five years, the longer term + having aroused the fear of the Porte, lest a personal domination + should become established. Under the governor are seven _kaimakams_, + all Christians except a Druse in Shuf, and forty-seven _mudirs_, who + all depend on the kaimakams except one in the home district of Deir + al-Kamar. A central _mejliss_ or Council of twelve members is composed + of four Maronites, three Druses, one Turk, two Greeks (Orthodox), one + Greek Uniate and one Metawali. This was the original proportion, and + it has not been altered in spite of the decline of the Druses and + increase of the Maronites. The members are elected by the seven cazas. + In each _mudirieh_ there is also a local _mejliss_. The old feudal and + _mukataji_ (see DRUSES) jurisdictions are abolished, i.e. they often + persist under Ottoman forms, and three courts of First Instance, under + the _mejliss_, and superior to the petty courts of the _mudirs_ and + the village _sheikhs_, administer justice. Judges are appointed by the + governor, but sheikhs by the villages. Commercial cases, and + litigation in which strangers are concerned, are carried to Beirut. + The police is recruited locally, and no regular troops appear in the + province except on special requisition. The taxes are collected + directly, and must meet the needs of the province, before any sum is + remitted to the Imperial Treasury. The latter has to make deficits + good. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction is exercised only over the clergy, + and all rights of asylum are abolished. + + This constitution has worked well on the whole, the only serious + hitches having been due to the tendency of governors-general and + _kaimakams_ to attempt to supersede the _mejliss_ by autocratic + action, and to impair the freedom of elections. The attention of the + porte was called to these tendencies in 1892 and again in 1902, on the + appointments of new governors. Since the last date there has been no + complaint. Nothing now remains of the former French predominance in + the Lebanon, except a certain influence exerted by the fact that the + railway is French, and by the precedence in ecclesiastical functions + still accorded by the Maronites to official representatives of France. + In the Lebanon, as in N. Albania, the traditional claim of France to + protect Roman Catholics in the Ottoman Empire has been greatly + impaired by the non-religious character of the Republic. Like Italy, + she is now regarded by Eastern Catholics with distrust as an enemy of + the Holy Father. + + See DRUSES. Also V. Cuinet, _Syrie, Liban et Palestine_ (1896); N. + Verney and G. Dambmann, _Puissances étrangères en Syrie_, &c. (1900); + G. Young, _Corps de droit ottoman_, vol. i. (1905); G. E. Post, _Flora + of Syria_, &c. (1896); M. von Oppenheim, _Vom Mittelmeer_, &c. (1899). + (A. So.; D. G. H.) + + + + +LEBANON, a city of Saint Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A., on Silver +Creek, about 24 m. E. of Saint Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1910) 1907. It is +served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western railroad and by the East +Saint Louis & Suburban Electric line. It is situated on a high +tableland. Lebanon is the seat of McKendree College, founded by +Methodists in 1828 and one of the oldest colleges in the Mississippi +valley. It was called Lebanon Seminary until 1830, when the present name +was adopted in honour of William McKendree (1757-1835), known as the +"Father of Western Methodism," a great preacher, and a bishop of the +Methodist Church in 1808-1835, who had endowed the college with 480 +acres of land. In 1835 the college was chartered as the "McKendreean +College," but in 1839 the present name was again adopted. There are coal +mines and excellent farming lands in the vicinity of Lebanon. Among the +city's manufactures are flour, planing-mill products, malt liquors, soda +and farming implements. The municipality owns and operates its +electric-lighting plant. Lebanon was chartered as a city in 1874. + + + + +LEBANON, a city and the county-seat of Lebanon county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., in the fertile Lebanon Valley, about 25 m. E. by N. of +Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 17,628, of whom 618 were foreign-born, (1910 +census) 19,240. It is served by the Philadelphia & Reading, the Cornwall +and the Cornwall & Lebanon railways. About 5 m. S. of the city are the +Cornwall (magnetite) iron mines, from which about 18,000,000 tons of +iron ore were taken between 1740 and 1902, and 804,848 tons in 1906. The +ore yields about 46% of iron, and contains about 2.5% of sulphur, the +roasting of the ores being necessary--ore-roasting kilns are more +extensively used here than in any other place in the country. The area +of ore exposed is about 4000 ft. long and 400 to 800 ft. wide, and +includes three hills; it has been one of the most productive magnetite +deposits in the world. Limestone, brownstone and brick-clay also abound +in the vicinity; and besides mines and quarries, the city has extensive +manufactories of iron, steel, chains, and nuts and bolts. In 1905 its +factory products were valued at $6,978,458. The municipality owns and +operates its water-works. + + The first settlement in the locality was made about 1730, and twenty + years later a town was laid out by one of the landowners, George + Steitz, and named Steitztown in his honour. About 1760 the town became + known as Lebanon, and under this name it was incorporated as a borough + in 1821 and chartered as a city in 1885. + + + + +LE BARGY, CHARLES GUSTAVE AUGUSTE (1858- ), French actor, was born at +La Chapelle (Seine). His talent both as a comedian and a serious actor +was soon made evident, and he became a member of the Comédie Française, +his chief successes being in such plays as _Le Duel_, _L'Énigme_, _Le +Marquis de Priola_, _L'Autre Danger_ and _Le Dédale_. His wife, Simone +le Bargy née Benda, an accomplished actress, made her début at the +Gymnase in 1902, and in later years had a great success in _La Rafale_ +and other plays. In 1910 he had differences with the authorities of the +Comédie Française and ceased to be a _sociétaire_. + + + + +LE BEAU, CHARLES (1701-1778), French historical writer, was born at +Paris on the 15th of October 1701, and was educated at the Collège de +Sainte-Barbe and the Collège du Plessis; at the latter he remained as a +teacher until he obtained the chair of rhetoric in the Collège des +Grassins. In 1748 he was admitted a member of the Academy of +Inscriptions, and in 1752 he was nominated professor of eloquence in the +Collège de France. From 1755 he held the office of perpetual secretary +to the Academy of Inscriptions, in which capacity he edited fifteen +volumes (from the 25th to the 39th inclusive) of the _Histoire_ of that +institution. He died at Paris on the 13th of March 1778. + + The only work with which the name of Le Beau continues to be + associated is his _Histoire du Bas-Empire, en commençant à Constantin + le Grand_, in 22 vols. 12mo (Paris, 1756-1779), being a continuation + of C. Rollin's _Histoire Romaine_ and J. B. L. Crevier's _Histoire des + empereurs_. Its usefulness arises entirely from the fact of its being + a faithful résumé of the Byzantine historians, for Le Beau had no + originality or artistic power of his own. Five volumes were added by + H. P. Ameilhon (1781-1811), which brought the work down to the fall of + Constantinople. A later edition, under the care of M. de Saint-Martin + and afterwards of Brosset, has had the benefit of careful revision + throughout, and has received considerable additions from Oriental + sources. + + See his "Éloge" in vol. xlii. of the _Histoire de l'Académie des + Inscriptions_ (1786), pp. 190-207. + + + + +LEBEAU, JOSEPH (1794-1865), Belgian statesman, was born at Huy on the +3rd of January 1794. He received his early education from an uncle who +was parish priest of Hannut, and became a clerk. By dint of economy he +raised money to study law at Liége, and was called to the bar in 1819. +At Liége he formed a fast friendship with Charles Rogier and Paul +Devaux, in conjunction with whom he founded at Liége in 1824 the +_Mathieu Laensbergh_, afterwards _Le politique_, a journal which helped +to unite the Catholic party with the Liberals in their opposition to the +ministry, without manifesting any open disaffection to the Dutch +government. Lebeau had not contemplated the separation of Holland and +Belgium, but his hand was forced by the revolution. He was sent by his +native district to the National Congress, and became minister of foreign +affairs in March 1831 during the interim regency of Surlet de Chokier. +By proposing the election of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as king of the +Belgians he secured a benevolent attitude on the part of Great Britain, +but the restoration to Holland of part of the duchies of Limburg and +Luxemburg provoked a heated opposition to the treaty of London, and +Lebeau was accused of treachery to Belgian interests. He resigned the +direction of foreign affairs on the accession of King Leopold, but in +the next year became minister of justice. He was elected deputy for +Brussels in 1833, and retained his seat until 1848. Differences with the +king led to his retirement in 1834. He was subsequently governor of the +province of Namur (1838), ambassador to the Frankfort diet (1839), and +in 1840 he formed a short-lived Liberal ministry. From this time he held +no office of state, though he continued his energetic support of liberal +and anti-clerical measures. He died at Huy on the 19th of March 1865. + + Lebeau published _La Belgique depuis 1847_ (Brussels, 4 vols., 1852), + _Lettres aux électeurs belges_ (8 vols., Brussels, 1853-1856). His + _Souvenirs personnels et correspondance diplomatique 1824-1841_ + (Brussels, 1883) were edited by A. Fréson. See an article by A. Fréson + in the _Biographie nationale de Belgique_; and T. Juste, _Joseph + Lebeau_ (Brussels, 1865). + + + + +LEBEL, JEAN (d. 1370), Belgian chronicler, was born near the end of the +13th century. His father, Gilles le Beal des Changes, was an alderman of +Liége. Jean entered the church and became a canon of the cathedral +church, but he and his brother Henri followed Jean de Beaumont to +England in 1327, and took part in the border warfare against the Scots. +His will is dated 1369, and his epitaph gives the date of his death as +1370. Nothing more is known of his life, but Jacques de Hemricourt, +author of the _Miroir des nobles de Hesbaye_, has left a eulogy of his +character, and a description of the magnificence of his attire, his +retinue and his hospitality. Hemricourt asserts that he was eighty years +old or more when he died. For a long time Jean Lebel (or le Bel) was +only known as a chronicler through a reference by Froissart, who quotes +him in the prologue of his first book as one of his authorities. A +fragment of his work, in the MS. of Jean d'Outremeuse's _Mireur des +istores_, was discovered in 1847; and the whole of his chronicle, +preserved in the library of Châlons-sur-Marne, was edited in 1863 by L. +Polain. Jean Lebel gives as his reason for writing a desire to replace a +certain misleading rhymed chronicle of the wars of Edward III. by a true +relation of his enterprises down to the beginning of the Hundred Years' +War. In the matter of style Lebel has been placed by some critics on the +level of Froissart. His chief merit is his refusal to narrate events +unless either he himself or his informant had witnessed them. This +scrupulousness in the acceptance of evidence must be set against his +limitations. He takes on the whole a similar point of view to +Froissart's; he has no concern with national movements or politics; and, +writing for the public of chivalry, he preserves no general notion of a +campaign, which resolves itself in his narrative into a series of +exploits on the part of his heroes. Froissart was considerably indebted +to him, and seems to have borrowed from him some of his best-known +episodes, such as the death of Robert the Bruce, Edward III. and the +countess of Salisbury, and the devotion of the burghers of Calais. The +songs and virelais, in the art of writing which he was, according to +Hemricourt, an expert, have not come to light. + + See L. Polain, _Les Vraies Chroniques de messire Jehan le Bel_ (1863); + Kervyn de Lettenhove, _Bulletin de la société d'émulation de Bruges_, + series ii. vols. vii. and ix.; and H. Pirenne in _Biographie nationale + de Belgique_. + + + + +LEBER, JEAN MICHEL CONSTANT (1780-1859), French historian and +bibliophile, was born at Orléans on the 8th of May 1780. His first work +was a poem on Joan of Arc (1804); but he wrote at the same time a +_Grammaire général synthétique_, which attracted the attention of J. M. +de Gérando, then secretary-general to the ministry of the interior. The +latter found him a minor post in his department, which left him leisure +for his historical work. He even took him to Italy when Napoleon was +trying to organize, after French models, the Roman states which he had +taken from the pope in 1809. Leber however did not stay there long, for +he considered the attacks on the temporal property of the Holy See to be +sacrilegious. On his return to Paris he resumed his administrative work, +literary recreations and historical researches. While spending a part of +his time writing vaudevilles and comic operas, he began to collect old +essays and rare pamphlets by old French historians. His office was +preserved to him by the Restoration, and Leber put his literary gifts at +the service of the government. When the question of the coronation of +Louis XVIII. arose, he wrote, as an answer to Volney, a minute treatise +on the _Cérémonies du sacre_, which was published at the time of the +coronation of Charles X. Towards the end of Villèle's ministry, when +there was a movement of public opinion in favour of extending municipal +liberties, he undertook the defence of the threatened system of +centralization, and composed, in answer to Raynouard, an _Histoire +critique du pouvoir municipal depuis l'origine de la monarchie jusqu'à +nos jours_ (1828). He also wrote a treatise entitled _De l'état réel de +la presse et des pamphlets depuis François I^(er) jusqu'à Louis XIV_., +in which he refuted an empty paradox of Charles Nodier, who had tried to +prove that the press had never been, and could never be, so free as +under the Grand Monarch. A few years later, Leber retired (1839), and +sold to the library of Rouen the rich collection of books which he had +amassed during thirty years of research. The catalogue he made himself +(4 vols., 1839 to 1852). In 1840 he read at the Académie des +Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres two dissertations, an "Essai sur +l'appréciation de la fortune privée au moyen âge," followed by an +"Examen critique des tables de prix du marc d'argent depuis l'époque de +Saint Louis"; these essays were included by the Academy in its _Recueil +de mémoires présentés par divers savants_ (vol. i., 1844), and were also +revised and published by Leber (1847). They form his most considerable +work, and assure him a position of eminence in the economic history of +France. He also rendered good service to historians by the publication +of his _Collection des meilleures dissertations, notices et traités +relatifs à l'histoire de France_ (20 vols., 1826-1840); in the absence +of an index, since Leber did not give one, an analytical table of +contents is to be found in Alfred Franklin's _Sources de l'histoire de +France_ (1876, pp. 342 sqq.). In consequence of the revolution of 1848, +Leber decided to leave Paris. He retired to his native town, and spent +his last years in collecting old engravings. He died at Orléans on the +22nd of December 1859. + + In 1832 he had been elected as a member of the _Société des + Antiquaires de France_, and in the _Bulletin_ of this society (vol. + i., 1860) is to be found the most correct and detailed account of his + life's works. + + + + +LEBEUF, JEAN (1687-1760), French historian, was born on the 7th of March +1687 at Auxerre, where his father, a councillor in the parlement, was +_receveur des consignations_. He began his studies in his native town, +and continued them in Paris at the Collège Ste Barbe. He soon became +known as one of the most cultivated minds of his time. He made himself +master of practically every branch of medieval learning, and had a +thorough knowledge of the sources and the bibliography of his subject. +His learning was not drawn from books only; he was also an +archaeologist, and frequently went on expeditions in France, always on +foot, in the course of which he examined the monuments of architecture +and sculpture, as well as the libraries, and collected a number of notes +and sketches. He was in correspondence with all the most learned men of +the day. His correspondence with Président Bouhier was published in 1885 +by Ernest Petit; his other letters have been edited by the _Société des +sciences historiques et naturelles de l'Yonne_ (2 vols., 1866-1867). He +also wrote numerous articles, and, after his election as a member of the +Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1740), a number of +_Mémoires_ which appeared in the _Recueil_ of this society. He died at +Paris on the 10th of April 1760. His most important researches had Paris +as their subject. + + He published first a collection of _Dissertations sur l'histoire + civile et ecclésiastique de Paris_ (3 vols., 1739-1743), then an + _Histoire de la ville et de tout le diocèse de Paris_ (15 vols., + 1745-1760), which is a mine of information, mostly taken from the + original sources. In view of the advance made by scholarship in the + 19th century, it was found necessary to publish a second edition. The + work of reprinting it was undertaken by H. Cocheris, but was + interrupted (1863) before the completion of vol. iv. Adrien Augier + resumed the work, giving Lebeuf's text, though correcting the numerous + typographical errors of the original edition (5 vols., 1883), and + added a sixth volume containing an analytical table of contents. + Finally, Fernand Bournon completed the work by a volume of + _Rectifications et additions_ (1890), worthy to appear side by side + with the original work. + + The bibliography of Lebeuf's writings is, partly, in various numbers + of the _Bibliothèque des écrivains de Bourgogne_ (1716-1741). His + biography is given by Lebeau in the _Histoire de l'Académie royale des + Inscriptions_ (xxix., 372, published 1764), and by H. Cocheris, in the + preface to his edition. + + + + +LE BLANC, NICOLAS (1742-1806), French chemist, was born at Issoudun, +Indre, in 1742. He made medicine his profession and in 1780 became +surgeon to the duke of Orleans, but he also paid much attention to +chemistry. About 1787 he was attracted to the urgent problem of +manufacturing carbonate of soda from ordinary sea-salt. The suggestion +made in 1789 by Jean Claude de la Métherie (1743-1817), the editor of +the _Journal de physique_, that this might be done by calcining with +charcoal the sulphate of soda formed from salt by the action of oil of +vitriol, did not succeed in practice because the product was almost +entirely sulphide of soda, but it gave Le Blanc, as he himself +acknowledged, a basis upon which to work. He soon made the crucial +discovery--which proved the foundation of the huge industry of +artificial alkali manufacture--that the desired end was to be attained +by adding a proportion of chalk to the mixture of charcoal and sulphate +of soda. Having had the soundness of this method tested by Jean Darcet +(1725-1801), the professor of chemistry at the Collège de France, the +duke of Orleans in June 1791 agreed to furnish a sum of 200,000 francs +for the purpose of exploiting it. In the following September Le Blanc +was granted a patent for fifteen years, and shortly afterwards a factory +was started at Saint-Denis, near Paris. But it had not long been in +operation when the Revolution led to the confiscation of the duke's +property, including the factory, and about the same time the Committee +of Public Safety called upon all citizens who possessed soda-factories +to disclose their situation and capacity and the nature of the methods +employed. Le Blanc had no choice but to reveal the secrets of his +process, and he had the misfortune to see his factory dismantled and his +stocks of raw and finished materials sold. By way of compensation for +the loss of his rights, the works were handed back to him in 1800, but +all his efforts to obtain money enough to restore them and resume +manufacturing on a profitable scale were vain, and, worn out with +disappointment, he died by his own hand at Saint-Denis on the 16th of +January 1806. + + Four years after his death, Michel Jean Jacques Dizê (1764-1852), who + had been _préparateur_ to Darcet at the time he examined the process + and who was subsequently associated with Le Blanc in its exploitation, + published in the _Journal de physique_ a paper claiming that it was he + himself who had first suggested the addition of chalk; but a committee + of the French Academy, which reported fully on the question in 1856, + came to the conclusion that the merit was entirely Le Blanc's (_Com. + rend._, 1856, p. 553). + + + + +LE BLANC, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement, in the +department of Indre, 44 m. W.S.W, of Châteauroux on the Orléans railway +between Argenton and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 4719. The Creuse divides it +into a lower and an upper town. The church of St Génitour dates from the +12th, 13th and 15th centuries, and there is an old castle restored in +modern times. It is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of +first instance and a communal college. Wool-spinning, and the +manufacture of linen goods and edge-tools are among the industries. +There is trade in horses and in the agricultural and other products of +the surrounding region. + + Le Blanc, which is identified with the Roman _Oblincum_, was in the + middle ages a lordship belonging to the house of Naillac and a + frontier fortress of the province of Berry. + + + + +LEBOEUF, EDMOND (1809-1888), marshal of France, was born at Paris on the +5th of November 1809, passed through the École Polytechnique and the +school of Metz, and distinguished himself as an artillery officer in +Algerian warfare, becoming colonel in 1852. He commanded the artillery +of the 1st French corps at the siege of Sebastopol, and was promoted in +1854 to the rank of general of brigade, and in 1857 to that of general +of division. In the Italian War of 1859 he commanded the artillery, and +by his action at Solferino materially assisted in achieving the victory. +In September 1866, having in the meantime become aide-de-camp to +Napoleon III., he was despatched to Venetia to hand over that province +to Victor Emmanuel. In 1869, on the death of Marshal Niel, General +Leboeuf became minister of war, and earned public approbation by his +vigorous reorganization of the War Office and the civil departments of +the service. In the spring of 1870 he received the marshal's baton. On +the declaration of war with Germany Marshal Leboeuf delivered himself in +the Corps Législatif of the historic saying, "So ready are we, that if +the war lasts two years, not a gaiter button would be found wanting." It +may be that he intended this to mean that, given time, the +reorganization of the War Office would be perfected through experience, +but the result inevitably caused it to be regarded as a mere boast, +though it is now known that the administrative confusion on the frontier +in July 1870 was far less serious than was supposed at the time. Leboeuf +took part in the Lorraine campaign, at first as chief of staff +(major-general) of the Army of the Rhine, and afterwards, when Bazaine +became commander-in-chief, as chief of the III. corps, which he led in +the battles around Metz. He distinguished himself, whenever engaged, by +personal bravery and good leadership. Shut up with Bazaine in Metz, on +its fall he was confined as a prisoner in Germany. On the conclusion of +peace he returned to France and gave evidence before the commission of +inquiry into the surrender of that stronghold, when he strongly +denounced Bazaine. After this he retired into private life to the +Château du Moncel near Argentan, where he died on the 7th of June 1888. + + + + +LE BON, JOSEPH (1765-1795), French politician, was born at Arras on the +29th of September 1765. He became a priest in the order of the Oratory, +and professor of rhetoric at Beaune. He adopted revolutionary ideas, and +became a curé of the Constitutional Church in the department of +Pas-de-Calais, where he was later elected as a _député suppléant_ to the +Convention. He became _maire_ of Arras and _administrateur_ of +Pas-de-Calais, and on the 2nd of July 1793 took his seat in the +Convention. He was sent as a representative on missions into the +departments of the Somme and Pas-de-Calais, where he showed great +severity in dealing with offences against revolutionaries (8th Brumaire, +year II. to 22nd Messidor, year II.; i.e. 29th October 1793 to 10th July +1794). In consequence, during the reaction which followed the 9th +Thermidor (27th July 1794) he was arrested on the 22nd Messidor, year +III. (10th July 1795). He was tried before the criminal tribunal of the +Somme, condemned to death for abuse of his power during his mission, and +executed at Amiens on the 24th Vendémiaire in the year IV. (10th October +1795). Whatever Le Bon's offences, his condemnation was to a great +extent due to the violent attacks of one of his political enemies, +Armand Guffroy; and it is only just to remember that it was owing to his +courage that Cambrai was saved from falling into the hands of the +Austrians. + + His son, Émile le Bon, published a _Histoire de Joseph le Bon et des + tribunaux révolutionnaires d'Arras et de Cambrai_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., + Arras, 1864). + + + + +LEBRIJA, or LEBRIXA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of +Seville, near the left bank of the Guadalquivir, and on the eastern edge +of the marshes known as Las Marismas. Pop. (1900) 10,997. Lebrija is 44 +m. S. by W. of Seville, on the Seville-Cadiz railway. Its chief +buildings are a ruined Moorish castle and the parish church, an imposing +structure in a variety of styles--Moorish, Gothic, Romanesque--dating +from the 14th century to the 16th, and containing some early specimens +of the carving of Alonso Cano (1601-1667). There are manufactures of +bricks, tiles and earthenware, for which clay is found in the +neighbourhood; and some trade in grain, wine and oil. + +Lebrija is the _Nabrissa_ or _Nebrissa_, surnamed _Veneria_, of the +Romans; by Silius Italicus (iii. 393), who connects it with the worship +of Dionysus, the name is derived from the Greek [Greek: nebris] (a +"fawn-skin," associated with Dionysiac ritual). _Nebrishah_ was a strong +and populous place during the period of Moorish domination (from 711); +it was taken by St Ferdinand in 1249, but again lost, and became finally +subject to the Castilian crown only under Alphonso the Wise in 1264. It +was the birthplace of Elio Antonio de Lebrija or Nebrija (1444-1522), +better known as Nebrissensis, one of the most important leaders in the +revival of learning in Spain, the tutor of Queen Isabella, and a +collaborator with Cardinal Jimenes in the preparation of the +Complutensian Polyglot (see ALCALA DE HENARES). + + + + +LE BRUN, CHARLES (1619-1690), French painter, was born at Paris on the +24th of February 1619, and attracted the notice of Chancellor Séguier, +who placed him at the age of eleven in the studio of Vouet. At fifteen +he received commissions from Cardinal Richelieu, in the execution of +which he displayed an ability which obtained the generous commendations +of Poussin, in whose company Le Brun started for Rome in 1642. In Rome +he remained four years in the receipt of a pension due to the liberality +of the chancellor. On his return to Paris Le Brun found numerous +patrons, of whom Superintendent Fouquet was the most important. Employed +at Vaux le Vicomte, Le Brun ingratiated himself with Mazarin, then +secretly pitting Colbert against Fouquet. Colbert also promptly +recognized Le Brun's powers of organization, and attached him to his +interests. Together they founded the Academy of Painting and Sculpture +(1648), and the Academy of France at Rome (1666), and gave a new +development to the industrial arts. In 1660 they established the +Gobelins, which at first was a great school for the manufacture, not of +tapestries only, but of every class of furniture required in the royal +palaces. Commanding the industrial arts through the Gobelins--of which +he was director--and the whole artist world through the Academy--in +which he successively held every post--Le Brun imprinted his own +character on all that was produced in France during his lifetime, and +gave a direction to the national tendencies which endured after his +death. The nature of his emphatic and pompous talent was in harmony with +the taste of the king, who, full of admiration at the decorations +designed by Le Brun for his triumphal entry into Paris (1660), +commissioned him to execute a series of subjects from the history of +Alexander. The first of these, "Alexander and the Family of Darius," so +delighted Louis XIV. that he at once ennobled Le Brun (December, 1662), +who was also created first painter to his majesty with a pension of +12,000 livres, the same amount as he had yearly received in the service +of the magnificent Fouquet. From this date all that was done in the +royal palaces was directed by Le Brun. The works of the gallery of +Apollo in the Louvre were interrupted in 1677 when he accompanied the +king to Flanders (on his return from Lille he painted several +compositions in the Château of St Germains), and finally--for they +remained unfinished at his death--by the vast labours of Versailles, +where he reserved for himself the Halls of War and Peace, the +Ambassadors' Staircase, and the Great Gallery, other artists being +forced to accept the position of his assistants. At the death of +Colbert, Louvois, who succeeded him in the department of public works, +showed no favour to Le Brun, and in spite of the king's continued +support he felt a bitter change in his position. This contributed to the +illness which on the 22nd of February 1690 ended in his death in the +Gobelins. Besides his gigantic labours at Versailles and the Louvre, the +number of his works for religious corporations and private patrons is +enormous. He modelled and engraved with much facility, and, in spite of +the heaviness and poverty of drawing and colour, his extraordinary +activity and the vigour of his conceptions justify his claim to fame. +Nearly all his compositions have been reproduced by celebrated +engravers. + + + + +LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANÇOIS, duc de Plaisance (1739-1824), French +statesman, was born at St-Sauveur-Lendelin (Manche) on the 19th of March +1739, and in 1762 made his first appearance as a lawyer at Paris. He +filled the posts successively of _censeur royale_ (1766) and of +inspector general of the domains of the crown (1768); he was also one of +the chief advisers of the chancellor Maupeou, took part in his struggle +against the parlements, and shared in his downfall in 1774. He then +devoted himself to literature, translating Tasso's _Gerusalemme +liberata_ (1774), and the _Iliad_ (1776). At the outset of the +Revolution he foresaw its importance, and in the _Voix du citoyen_, +which he published in 1789, predicted the course which events would +take. In the Constituent Assembly, where he sat as deputy for Dourdan, +he professed liberal views, and was the proposer of various financial +laws. He then became president of the directory of Seine-et-Oise, and in +1795 was elected as a deputy to the Council of Ancients. After the _coup +d'état_ of the 18th Brumaire in the year VIII. (9th November 1799), +Lebrun was made third consul. In this capacity he took an active part in +the reorganization of finance and of the administration of the +departments of France. In 1804 he was appointed arch-treasurer of the +empire, and in 1805-1806 as governor-general of Liguria effected its +annexation to France. He opposed Napoleon's restoration of the noblesse, +and in 1808 only reluctantly accepted the title of duc de Plaisance +(Piacenza). He was next employed in organizing the departments which +were formed in Holland, of which he was governor-general from 1811 to +1813. Although to a certain extent opposed to the despotism of the +emperor, he was not in favour of his deposition, though he accepted the +_fait accompli_ of the Restoration in April 1814. Louis XVIII. made him +a peer of France; but during the Hundred Days he accepted from Napoleon +the post of Grand Master of the university. On the return of the +Bourbons in 1815 he was consequently suspended from the House of Peers, +but was recalled in 1819. He died at St Mesmes (Seine-et-Oise) on the +16th of June 1824. He had been made a member of the Académie des +Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1803. + + See M. de Caumont la Force, _L'Architrésorier Lebrun_ (Paris, 1907); + M. Marie du Mesnil, _Mémoire sur le prince Le Brun, duc de Plaisance_ + (Paris, 1828); _Opinions, rapports et choix d'écrits politiques de C. + F. Lebrun_ (1829), edited, with a biographical notice, by his son + Anne-Charles Lebrun. + + + + +LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE (1785-1873), French poet, was born in Paris on +the 29th of November 1785. An _Ode à la grande armée_, mistaken at the +time for the work of Écouchard Lebrun, attracted Napoleon's attention, +and secured for the author a pension of 1200 francs. Lebrun's plays, +once famous, are now forgotten. They are: _Ulysse_ (1814), _Marie +Stuart_ (1820), which obtained a great success, and _Le Cid +d'Andalousie_ (1825). Lebrun visited Greece in 1820, and on his return +to Paris he published in 1822 an ode on the death of Napoleon which cost +him his pension. In 1825 he was the guest of Sir Walter Scott at +Abbotsford. The coronation of Charles X. in that year inspired the +verses entitled _La Vallée de Champrosay_, which have, perhaps, done +more to secure his fame than his more ambitious attempts. In 1828 +appeared his most important poem, _La Grèce_, and in the same year he +was elected to the Academy. The revolution of 1830 opened up for him a +public career; in 1831 he was made director of the Imprimerie Royale, +and subsequently filled with distinction other public offices, becoming +senator in 1853. He died on the 27th of May 1873. + + See Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits contemporains_, vol. ii. + + + + +LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ÉCOUCHARD (1729-1807), French lyric poet, was born +in Paris on the 11th of August 1729, in the house of the prince de +Conti, to whom his father was valet. Young Lebrun had among his +schoolfellows a son of Louis Racine whose disciple he became. In 1755 he +published an _Ode sur les désastres de Lisbon_. In 1759 he married Marie +Anne de Surcourt, addressed in his _Élégies_ as Fanny. To the early +years of his marriage belongs his poem _Nature_. His wife suffered much +from his violent temper, and when in 1774 she brought an action against +him to obtain a separation, she was supported by Lebrun's own mother and +sister. He had been _secrétaire des commandements_ to the prince de +Conti, and on his patron's death was deprived of his occupation. He +suffered a further misfortune in the loss of his capital by the +bankruptcy of the prince de Guémené. To this period belongs a long poem, +the _Veillées des Muses_, which remained unfinished, and his ode to +Buffon, which ranks among his best works. Dependent on government +pensions he changed his politics with the times. Calonne he compared to +the great Sully, and Louis XVI. to Henry IV., but the Terror +nevertheless found in him its official poet. He occupied rooms in the +Louvre, and fulfilled his obligations by shameless attacks on the +unfortunate king and queen. His excellent ode on the _Vengeur_ and the +_Ode nationale contre Angleterre_ on the occasion of the projected +invasion of England are in honour of the power of Napoleon. This +"versatility" has so much injured Lebrun's reputation that it is +difficult to appreciate his real merit. He had a genius for epigram, and +the quatrains and dizaines directed against his many enemies have a +verve generally lacking in his odes. The one directed against La Harpe +is called by Sainte-Beuve the "queen of epigrams." La Harpe has said +that the poet, called by his friends, perhaps with a spice of irony, +Lebrun-Pindare, had written many fine strophes but not one good ode. The +critic exposed mercilessly the obscurities and unlucky images which +occur even in the ode to Buffon, and advised the author to imitate the +simplicity and energy that adorned Buffon's prose. Lebrun died in Paris +on the 31st of August 1807. + + His works were published by his friend P. L. Ginguené in 1811. The + best of them are included in Prosper Poitevin's "_Petits poètes + français_," which forms part of the "_Panthéon littéraire_." + + + + +LE CARON, HENRI (whose real name was THOMAS MILLER BEACH) (1841-1894), +British secret service agent, was born at Colchester, on the 26th of +September 1841. He was of an adventurous character, and when nineteen +years old went to Paris, where he found employment in business connected +with America. Infected with the excitement of the American Civil War, he +crossed the Atlantic in 1861 and enlisted in the Northern army, taking +the name of Henri Le Caron. In 1864 he married a young lady who had +helped him to escape from some Confederate marauders; and by the end of +the war he rose to be major. In 1865, through a companion in arms named +O'Neill, he was brought into contact with Fenianism, and having learnt +of the Fenian plot against Canada, he mentioned the designs when writing +home to his father. Mr Beach told his local M.P., who in turn told the +Home Secretary, and the latter asked Mr Beach to arrange for further +information. Le Caron, inspired (as all the evidence shows) by genuinely +patriotic feeling, from that time till 1889 acted for the British +government as a paid military spy. He was a proficient in medicine, +among other qualifications for this post, and he remained for years on +intimate terms with the most extreme men in the Fenian organization +under all its forms. His services enabled the British government to take +measures which led to the fiasco of the Canadian invasion of 1870 and +Riel's surrender in 1871, and he supplied full details concerning the +various Irish-American associations, in which he himself was a prominent +member. He was in the secrets of the "new departure" in 1879-1881, and +in the latter year had an interview with Parnell at the House of +Commons, when the Irish leader spoke sympathetically of an armed +revolution in Ireland. For twenty-five years he lived at Detroit and +other places in America, paying occasional visits to Europe, and all the +time carrying his life in his hand. The Parnell Commission of 1889 put +an end to this. Le Caron was subpoenaed by _The Times_, and in the +witness-box the whole story came out, all the efforts of Sir Charles +Russell in cross-examination failing to shake his testimony, or to +impair the impression of iron tenacity and absolute truthfulness which +his bearing conveyed. His career, however, for good or evil, was at an +end. He published the story of his life, _Twenty-five Years in the +Secret Service_, and it had an immense circulation. But he had to be +constantly guarded, his acquaintances were hampered from seeing him, and +he was the victim of a painful disease, of which he died on the 1st of +April 1894. The report of the Parnell Commission is his monument. + + + + +LE CATEAU, or CATEAU-CAMBRÉSIS, a town of northern France, in the +department of Nord, on the Selle, 15 m. E.S.E. of Cambrai by road. Pop. +(1906) 10,400. A church of the early 17th century and a town-hall in the +Renaissance style are its chief buildings. Its institutions include a +board of trade-arbitration and a communal college, and its most +important industries are wool-spinning and weaving. Formed by the union +of the two villages of Péronne and Vendelgies, under the protection of a +castle built by the bishop of Cambrai, Le Cateau became the seat of an +abbey in the 11th century. In the 15th it was frequently taken and +retaken, and in 1556 it was burned by the French, who in 1559 signed a +celebrated treaty with Spain in the town. It was finally ceded to France +by the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. + + + + +LECCE (anc. _Lupiae_), a town and archiepiscopal see of Apulia, Italy, +capital of the province of Lecce, 24 m. S.E. of Brindisi by rail. Pop. +(1906) 35,179. The town is remarkable for the number of buildings of the +17th century, in the rococo style, which it contains; among these are +the cathedral of S. Oronzo, and the churches of S. Chiara, S. Croce, S. +Domenico, &c., the Seminario, and the Prefettura (the latter contains a +museum, with a collection of Greek vases, &c.). Buildings of an earlier +period are not numerous, but the fine portal of the Romanesque church of +SS. Nicola e Cataldo, built by Tancred in 1180, may be noted. Another +old church is S. Maria di Cerrate, near the town. Lecce contains a large +government tobacco factory, and is the centre of a fertile agricultural +district. To the E. 7½ m. is the small harbour of S. Cataldo, reached by +electric tramway. Lecce is quite close to the site of the ancient +Lupiae, equidistant (25 m.) from Brundusium and Hydruntum, remains of +which are mentioned as existing up to the 15th century. A colony was +founded there in Roman times, and Hadrian made a harbour--no doubt at S. +Cataldo. Hardly a mile west was Rudiae, the birthplace of the poet +Ennius, spoken of by Silius Italicus as worthy of mention for that +reason alone. Its site was marked by the now deserted village of Rugge. +The name Lycea, or Lycia, begins to appear in the 6th century. The city +was for some time held by counts of Norman blood, among whom the most +noteworthy is Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard. It afterwards passed to +the Orsini. The rank of provincial capital was bestowed by Ferdinand of +Aragon in acknowledgment of the fidelity of Lecce to his cause. + (T. As.) + + See M. S. Briggs, _In the Heel of Italy_ (1910). + + + + +LECCO, a town of Lombardy, in the province of Como, 32 m. by rail N. by +E. of Milan, and reached by steamer from Como, 673 ft. above sea-level. +Pop. (1901) 10,352. It is situated near the southern extremity of the +eastern branch of the Lake of Como, which is frequently distinguished as +the Lake of Lecco. At Lecco begins the line (run by electricity) to +Colico, whence there are branches to Chiavenna and Sondrio; and another +line runs to Bergamo. To the south the Adda is crossed by a fine bridge +originally constructed in 1335, and rebuilt in 1609 by Fuentes. Lecco, +in spite of its antiquity, presents a modern appearance, almost the only +old building being its castle, of which a part remains. Its schools are +particularly good. Besides iron-works, there are copper-works, +brass-foundries, olive-oil mills and a manufacture of wax candles; and +silk-spinning, cotton-spinning and wood-carving. In the neighbourhood is +the villa of Caleotto, the residence of Alessandro Manzoni, who in his +_Promessi Sposi_, has left a full description of the district. A statue +has been erected to him. + +In the 11th century Lecco, previously the seat of a marquisate, was +presented to the bishops of Como by Otto II.; but in the 12th century it +passed to the archbishops of Milan, and in 1127 it assisted the Milanese +in the destruction of Como. During the 13th century it was struggling +for its existence with the metropolitan city; and its fate seemed to be +sealed when the Visconti drove its inhabitants across the lake to +Valmadrera, and forbade them to raise their town from its ashes. But in +a few years the people returned; Azzone Visconti made Lecco a strong +fortress, and in 1335 united it with the Milanese territory by a bridge +across the Adda. During the 15th and 16th centuries the citadel of Lecco +was an object of endless contention. In 1647 the town with its territory +was made a countship. Morone, Charles V.'s Italian chancellor, was born +in Lecco. + + See A. L. Apostolo, _Lecco ed il suo territorio_ (Lecco, 1855). + + + + +LECH (_Licus_), a river of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, 177 m. +long, with a drainage basin of 2550 sq. m. It rises in the Vorarlberg +Alps, at an altitude of 6120 ft. It winds out of the gloomy limestone +mountains, flows in a north-north-easterly direction, and enters the +plains at Füssen (2580 ft.), where it forms rapids and a fall, then +pursues a northerly course past Augsburg, where it receives the Wertach, +and joins the Danube from the right just below Donauwörth (1330 ft.). It +is not navigable, owing to its torrential character and the gravel beds +which choke its channel. More than once great historic events have been +decided upon its banks. On the Lechfeld, a stony waste some miles long, +between the Lech and the Wertach, the emperor Otto I. defeated the +Hungarians in August 955. Tilly, in attempting to defend the passage of +the stream at Rain against the forces of Gustavus Adolphus, was fatally +wounded, on the 5th of April 1632. The river was formerly the boundary +between Bavaria and Swabia. + + + + +LE CHAMBON, or LE CHAMBON-FEUGEROLLES, a town of east-central France in +the department of Loire, 7½ m. S.W. of St Étienne by rail, on the +Ondaine, a tributary of the Loire. Pop. (1906) town, 7525; commune, +12,011. Coal is mined in the neighbourhood, and there are forges, steel +works, manufactures of tools and other iron goods, and silk mills. The +feudal castle of Feugerolles on a hill to the south-east dates in part +from the 11th century. + +Between Le Chambon and St Étienne is La Ricamarie (pop. of town 5289) +also of importance for its coal-mines. Many of the galleries of a number +of these mines are on fire, probably from spontaneous combustion. +According to popular tradition these fires date from the time of the +Saracens; more authentically from the 15th century. + + + + +LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENÉ GUY (1754-1794), French politician, was born at +Rennes on the 12th of June 1754, his father being _bâtonnier_ of the +corporation of lawyers in that town. He entered his father's profession, +and had some success as an orator. In 1789 he was elected as a deputy to +the States General by the Tiers-État of the _sénéchaussée_ of Rennes. He +adopted advanced opinions, and was one of the founders of the Breton +Club (see JACOBIN CLUB); his influence in the Constituent Assembly was +considerable, and on the 3rd of August 1789 he was elected its +president. Thus he presided over the Assembly during the important +period following the 4th of August; he took an active part in the +debates, and was a leading member of the committee which drew up the new +constitution; he further presented a report on the liberty of theatres +and on literary copyright. He was also conspicuous as opposing +Robespierre when he proposed that members of the Constituent Assembly +should not be eligible for election to the proposed new Assembly. After +the flight of the king to Varennes (20th of June 1792), his opinions +became more moderate, and on the 29th of September he brought forward a +motion to restrict the action of the clubs. This, together with a visit +which he paid to England in 1792 made him suspect, and he was denounced +on his return for conspiring with foreign nations. He went into hiding, +but was discovered in consequence of a pamphlet which he published to +defend himself, arrested and condemned to death by the Revolutionary +Tribunal. He was executed at Paris on the 22nd of April 1794. + + See A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la constituante_ (2nd ed., Paris, + 1905); R. Kerviler, _Récherches et notices sur les députés de la + Bretagne aux états généraux_ (2 vols., Rennes, 1888-1889); P. J. + Levot, _Biographie bretonne_ (2 vols., 1853-1857). + + + + +LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR (1811-1888), German Lutheran theologian, was +born on the 18th of April 1811 at Kloster Reichenbach in Württemberg. He +studied at Tübingen under F. C. Baur, and became in 1858 pastor of the +church of St Thomas, professor Ordinarius of historical theology and +superintendent of the Lutheran church of Leipzig. He died on the 26th of +December 1888. A disciple of Neander, he belonged to the extreme right +of the school of mediating theologians. He is important as the historian +of early Christianity and of the pre-Reformation period. Although F. C. +Baur was his teacher, he did not attach himself to the Tübingen school; +in reply to the contention that there are traces of a sharp conflict +between two parties, Paulinists and Petrinists, he says that "we find +variety coupled with agreement, and unity with difference, between Paul +and the earlier apostles; we recognize the one spirit in the many +gifts." His _Das apostolische und das nachapostolische Zeitalter_ +(1851), which developed out of a prize essay (1849), passed through +three editions in Germany (3rd ed., 1885), and was translated into +English (2 vols., 1886). The work which in his own opinion was his +greatest, _Johann von Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation_ (2 +vols., 1873), appeared in English with the title _John Wiclif and his +English Precursors_ (1878, new ed., 1884). An earlier work, _Geschichte +des engl. Deïsmus_ (1841), is still regarded as a valuable contribution +to the study of religious thought in England. + + Lechler's other works include _Geschichte der Presbyterial- und + Synodal-verfassung_ (1854), _Urkundenfunde zur Geschichte des christl. + Altertums_ (1886), and biographies of Thomas Bradwardine (1862) and + Robert Grosseteste (1867). He wrote part of the commentary on the Acts + of the Apostles in J. P. Lange's _Bibelwerk_. From 1882 he edited with + F. W. Dibelius the _Beiträge zur sächsischen Kirchengeschichte_. + _Johannes Hus_ (1890) was published after his death. + + + + +LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE (1838-1903), Irish historian and +publicist, was born at Newtown Park, near Dublin, on the 26th of March +1838, being the eldest son of John Hartpole Lecky, whose family had for +many generations been landowners in Ireland. He was educated at +Kingstown, Armagh, and Cheltenham College, and at Trinity College, +Dublin, where he graduated B.A. in 1859 and M.A. in 1863, and where, +with a view to becoming a clergyman in the Irish Protestant Church, he +went through a course of divinity. In 1860 he published anonymously a +small book entitled _The Religious Tendencies of the Age_, but on +leaving college he abandoned his first intention and turned to +historical work. In 1861 he published _Leaders of Public Opinion in +Ireland_, a brief sketch of the lives and work of Swift, Flood, Grattan +and O'Connell, which gave decided promise of his later admirable work in +the same field. This book, originally published anonymously, was +republished in 1871; and the essay on Swift, rewritten and amplified, +appeared again in 1897 as an introduction to a new edition of Swift's +works. Two learned surveys of certain aspects of history followed: _A +History of the Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe_ (2 vols., +1865), and _A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_ +(2 vols., 1869). Some criticism was aroused by these books, especially +by the last named, with its opening dissertation on "the natural history +of morals," but both have been generally accepted as acute and +suggestive commentaries upon a wide range of facts. Lecky then devoted +himself to the chief work of his life, _A History of England during the +Eighteenth Century_, vols. i. and ii. of which appeared in 1878, and +vols. vii. and viii. (completing the work) in 1890. His object was "to +disengage from the great mass of facts those which relate to the +permanent forces of the nation, or which indicate some of the more +enduring features of national life," and in the carrying out of this +task Lecky displays many of the qualities of a great historian. The work +is distinguished by the lucidity of its style, but the fulness and +extent of the authorities referred to, and, above all, by the judicial +impartiality maintained by the author throughout. These qualities are +perhaps most conspicuous and most valuable in the chapters which deal +with the history of Ireland, and in the cabinet edition of 1892, in 12 +vols. (frequently reprinted) this part of the work is separated from the +rest, and occupies five volumes under the title of _A History of Ireland +in the Eighteenth Century_. A volume of _Poems_, published in 1891, was +characterized by a certain frigidity and by occasional lapses into +commonplace, objections which may also be fairly urged against much of +Lecky's prose-writing. In 1896 he published two volumes entitled +_Democracy and Liberty_, in which he considered, with special reference +to Great Britain, France and America, some of the tendencies of modern +democracies. The somewhat gloomy conclusions at which he arrived +provoked much criticism both in Great Britain and America, which was +renewed when he published in a new edition (1899) an elaborate and very +depreciatory estimate of Gladstone, then recently dead. This work, +though essentially different from the author's purely historical +writings, has many of their merits, though it was inevitable that other +minds should take a different view of the evidence. In _The Map of Life_ +(1900) he discussed in a popular style some of the ethical problems +which arise in everyday life. In 1903 he published a revised and greatly +enlarged edition of _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_, in two +volumes, from which the essay on Swift was omitted and that on O'Connell +was expanded into a complete biography of the great advocate of repeal +of the Union. Though always a keen sympathizer with the Irish people in +their misfortunes and aspirations, and though he had criticized severely +the methods by which the Act of Union was passed, Lecky, who grew up as +a moderate Liberal, was from the first strenuously opposed to +Gladstone's policy of Home Rule, and in 1895 he was returned to +parliament as Unionist member for Dublin University. In 1897 he was made +a privy councillor, and among the coronation honours in 1902 he was +nominated an original member of the new Order of Merit. His university +honours included the degree of LL.D. from Dublin, St Andrews and +Glasgow, the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford and the degree of Litt.D. from +Cambridge. In 1894 he was elected corresponding member of the Institute +of France. He contributed occasionally to periodical literature, and two +of his addresses, _The Political Value of History_ (1892) and _The +Empire, its Value and its Growth_ (1893), were published. He died in +London on the 22nd of October 1903. He married in 1871 Elizabeth, +baroness de Dedem, daughter of baron de Dedem, a general in the Dutch +service, but had no children. Mrs Lecky contributed to various reviews a +number of articles, chiefly on historical and political subjects. A +volume of Lecky's _Historical and Political Essays_ was published +posthumously (London, 1908). + + + + +LE CLERC [CLERICUS], JEAN (1657-1736), French Protestant theologian, was +born on the 19th of March 1657 at Geneva, where his father, Stephen Le +Clerc, was professor of Greek. The family originally belonged to the +neighbourhood of Beauvais in France, and several of its members acquired +some name in literature. Jean Le Clerc applied himself to the study of +philosophy under J. R. Chouet (1642-1731) the Cartesian, and attended +the theological lectures of P. Mestrezat, Franz Turretin and Louis +Tronchin (1629-1705). In 1678-1679 he spent some time at Grenoble as +tutor in a private family; on his return to Geneva he passed his +examinations and received ordination. Soon afterwards he went to Saumur, +where in 1679 were published _Liberii de Sancto Amore Epistolae +Theologicae_ (Irenopoli: Typis Philalethianis), usually attributed to +him; they deal with the doctrine of the Trinity, the hypostatic union of +the two natures in Jesus Christ, original sin, and the like, in a manner +sufficiently far removed from that of the conventional orthodoxy of the +period. In 1682 he went to London, where he remained six months, +preaching on alternate Sundays in the Walloon church and in the Savoy +chapel. Passing to Amsterdam he was introduced to John Locke and to +Philip v. Limborch, professor at the Remonstrant college; the +acquaintance with Limborch soon ripened into a close friendship, which +strengthened his preference for the Remonstrant theology, already +favourably known to him by the writings of his grand-uncle, Stephan +Curcellaeus (d. 1645) and by those of Simon Episcopius. A last attempt +to live at Geneva, made at the request of relatives there, satisfied him +that the theological atmosphere was uncongenial, and in 1684 he finally +settled at Amsterdam, first as a moderately successful preacher, until +ecclesiastical jealousy shut him out from that career, and afterwards as +professor of philosophy, belles-lettres and Hebrew in the Remonstrant +seminary. This appointment, which he owed to Limborch, he held from +1684, and in 1712 on the death of his friend he was called to occupy the +chair of church history also. His suspected Socinianism was the cause, +it is said, of his exclusion from the chair of dogmatic theology. Apart +from his literary labours, Le Clerc's life at Amsterdam was uneventful. +In 1691 he married a daughter of Gregorio Leti. From 1728 onward he was +subject to repeated strokes of paralysis, and he died on the 8th of +January 1736. + + A full catalogue of the publications of Le Clerc will be found, with + biographical material, in E. and E. Haag's _France Protestante_ (where + seventy-three works are enumerated), or in J. G. de Chauffepié's + Dictionnaire. Only the most important of these can be mentioned here. + In 1685 he published _Sentimens de quelques théologiens de Hollande + sur l'histoire critique du Vieux Testament composée par le P. Richard + Simon_, in which, while pointing out what he believed to be the faults + of that author, he undertook to make some positive contributions + towards a right understanding of the Bible. Among these last may be + noted his argument against the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, + his views as to the manner in which the five books were composed, his + opinions (singularly free for the time in which he lived) on the + subject of inspiration in general, and particularly as to the + inspiration of Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles. Richard Simon's + _Réponse_ (1686) elicited from Le Clerc a _Défense des sentimens_ in + the same year, which was followed by a new _Réponse_ (1687). In 1692 + appeared his _Logica sive Ars Ratiocinandi_, and also _Ontologia et + Pneumatologia_; these, with the _Physica_ (1695), are incorporated + with the _Opera Philosophica_, which have passed through several + editions. In 1693 his series of Biblical commentaries began with that + on Genesis; the series was not completed until 1731. The portion + relating to the New Testament books included the paraphrase and notes + of Henry Hammond (1605-1660). Le Clerc's commentary had a great + influence in breaking up traditional prejudices and showing the + necessity for a more scientific inquiry into the origin and meaning of + the biblical books. It was on all sides hotly attacked. His _Ars + Critica_ appeared in 1696, and, in continuation, _Epistolae Criticae + et Ecclesiasticae_ in 1700. Le Clerc's new edition of the _Apostolic + Fathers_ of Johann Cotelerius (1627-1686), published in 1698, marked + an advance in the critical study of these documents. But the greatest + literary influence of Le Clerc was probably that which he exercised + over his contemporaries by means of the serials, or, if one may so + call them, reviews, of which he was editor. These were the + _Bibliothèque universelle et historique_ (Amsterdam, 25 vols. 12 mo., + 1686-1693), begun with J. C. de la Croze; the _Bibliothèque choisie_ + (Amsterdam, 28 vols., 1703-1713); and the _Bibliothèque ancienne et + moderne_, (29 vols., 1714-1726). + + See Le Clerc's _Parrhasiana ou pensées sur des matières de critique, + d'histoire, de morale, et de politique: avec la défense de divers + ouvrages de M. L. C. par Théodore Parrhase_ (Amsterdam, 1699); and + _Vita et opera ad annum MDCCXI., amici ejus opusculum, philosophicis + Clerici operibus subjiciendum_, also attributed to himself. The + supplement to Hammond's notes was translated into English in 1699, + _Parrhasiana, or Thoughts on Several Subjects_, in 1700, the _Harmony + of the Gospels_ in 1701, and _Twelve Dissertations out of M. Le + Clerc's Genesis_ in 1696. + + + + +LECOCQ, ALEXANDRE CHARLES (1832- ), French musical composer, was born +in Paris, on the 3rd of June 1832. He was admitted into the +Conservatoire in 1849, being already an accomplished pianist. He studied +under Bazin, Halévy and Benoist, winning the first prize for harmony in +1850, and the second prize for fugue in 1852. He first gained notice by +dividing with Bizet the first prize for an operetta in a competition +instituted by Offenbach. His operetta, _Le Docteur miracle_, was +performed at the Bouffes Parisiens in 1857. After that he wrote +constantly for theatres, but produced nothing worthy of mention until +_Fleur de thé_ (1868), which ran for more than a hundred nights. _Les +Cent vierges_ (1872) was favourably received also, but all his previous +successes were cast into the shade by _La Fille de Madame Angot_ (Paris, +1873; London, 1873), which was performed for 400 nights consecutively, +and has since gained and retained enormous popularity. After 1873 Lecocq +produced a large number of comic operas, though he never equalled his +early triumph in _La Fille de Madame Angot_. Among the best of his +pieces are _Giroflé-Girofla_ (Paris and London, 1874); _Les Prés +Saint-Gervais_ (Paris and London, 1874); _La Petite Mariée_ (Paris, +1875; London, 1876, revived as _The Scarlet Feather_, 1897); _Le Petit +Duc_ (Paris, 1878; London, as _The Little Duke_, 1878); _La Petite +Mademoiselle_ (Paris, 1879; London, 1880); _Le Jour et la Nuit_ (Paris, +1881; London, as _Manola_, 1882); _Le Coeur et la main_ (Paris, 1882; +London, as _Incognita_, 1893); _La Princesse des Canaries_ (Paris, 1883; +London, as _Pepita_, 1888). In 1899 a ballet by Lecocq, entitled _Le +Cygne_, was staged at the Opéra Comique, Paris; and in 1903 _Yetta_ was +produced at Brussels. + + + + +LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU (1764-1827), French politician, was +born at Saint-Maixent (Deux-Sèvres) on the 13th of December 1764. Deputy +for his department to the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and to the +Convention in the same year, he voted for "the death of the tyrant." His +association with the Girondins nearly involved him in their fall, in +spite of his vigorous republicanism. He took part in the revolution of +Thermidor, but protested against the establishment of the Directory, and +continually pressed for severer measures against the _émigrés_, and even +their relations who had remained in France. He was secretary and then +president of the Council of Five Hundred, and under the Consulate a +member of the Tribunate. He took no part in public affairs under the +Empire, but was lieutenant-general of police for south-east France +during the Hundred Days. After Waterloo he took ship from Toulon, but +the ship was driven back by a storm and he narrowly escaped massacre at +Marseilles. After six weeks' imprisonment in the Château d'If he +returned to Paris, escaping, after the proscription of the regicides, to +Brussels, where he died on the 15th of January 1827. + + + + +LE CONTE, JOSEPH (1823-1901), American geologist, of Huguenot descent, +was born in Liberty county, Georgia, on the 26th of February 1823. He +was educated at Franklin College, Georgia, where he graduated (1841); he +afterwards studied medicine and received his degree at the New York +College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1845. After practising for three +or four years at Macon, Georgia, he entered Harvard, and studied natural +history under L. Agassiz. An excursion made with Professors J. Hall and +Agassiz to the Helderberg mountains of New York developed a keen +interest in geology. After graduating at Harvard, Le Conte in 1851 +accompanied Agassiz on an expedition to study the Florida reefs. On his +return he became professor of natural science in Oglethorpe University, +Georgia; and from 1852 to 1856 professor of natural history and geology +in Franklin College. From 1857 to 1869 he was professor of chemistry and +geology in South Carolina College, and he was then appointed professor +of geology and natural history in the university of California, a post +which he held until his death. He published a series of papers on +monocular and binocular vision, and also on psychology. His chief +contributions, however, related to geology, and in all he wrote he was +lucid and philosophical. He described the fissure-eruptions in western +America, discoursed on earth-crust movements and their causes and on the +great features of the earth's surface. As separate works he published +_Elements of Geology_ (1878, 5th ed. 1889); _Religion and Science_ +(1874); and _Evolution: its History, its Evidences, and its Relation +to Religious Thought_ (1888). He was president of the American +Association for the Advancement of Science in 1892, and of the +Geological Society of America in 1896. He died in the Yosemite Valley, +California, on the 6th of June 1901. + + See Obituary by J. J. Stevenson, _Annals of New York Acad. of + Sciences_, vol. xiv. (1902), p. 150. + + + + +LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE RENÉ (1818-1894), French poet, was born +in the island of Réunion on the 22nd of October 1818. His father, an +army surgeon, who brought him up with great severity, sent him to travel +in the East Indies with a view to preparing him for a commercial life. +After this voyage he went to Rennes to complete his education, studying +especially Greek, Italian and history. He returned once or twice to +Réunion, but in 1846 settled definitely in Paris. His first volume, _La +Vénus de Milo_, attracted to him a number of friends many of whom were +passionately devoted to classical literature. In 1873 he was made +assistant librarian at the Luxembourg; in 1886 he was elected to the +Academy in succession to Victor Hugo. His _Poèmes antiques_ appeared in +1852; _Poèmes et poésies_ in 1854; _Le Chemin de la croix_ in 1859; the +_Poèmes barbares_, in their first form, in 1862; _Les Erinnyes_, a +tragedy after the Greek model, in 1872; for which occasional music was +provided by Jules Massenet; the _Poèmes tragiques_ in 1884; +_L'Apollonide_, another classical tragedy, in 1888; and two posthumous +volumes, _Derniers poèmes_ in 1899, and _Premières poésies et lettres +intimes_ in 1902. In addition to his original work in verse, he +published a series of admirable prose translations of Theocritus, Homer, +Hesiod, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Horace. He died at Voisins, +near Louveciennes (Seine-et-Oise), on the 18th of July 1894. + +In Leconte de Lisle the Parnassian movement seems to crystallize. His +verse is clear, sonorous, dignified, deliberate in movement, classically +correct in rhythm, full of exotic local colour, of savage names, of +realistic rhetoric. It has its own kind of romance, in its "legend of +the ages," so different from Hugo's, so much fuller of scholarship and +the historic sense, yet with far less of human pity. Coldness cultivated +as a kind of artistic distinction seems to turn all his poetry to +marble, in spite of the fire at its heart. Most of Leconte de Lisle's +poems are little chill epics, in which legend is fossilized. They have +the lofty monotony of a single conception of life and of the universe. +He sees the world as what Byron called it, "a glorious blunder," and +desires only to stand a little apart from the throng, meditating +scornfully. Hope, with him, becomes no more than this desperate +certainty:-- + + "Tu te tairas, ô voix sinistre des vivants!" + +His only prayer is to Death, "divine Death," that it may gather its +children to its breast:-- + + "Affranchis-nous du temps, du nombre et de l'espace, + Et rends-nous le repos que la vie a troublé!" + +The interval which is his he accepts with something of the defiance of +his own Cain, refusing to fill it with the triviality of happiness, +waiting even upon beauty with a certain inflexible austerity. He listens +and watches, throughout the world, for echoes and glimpses of great +tragic passions, languid with fire in the East, a tumultuous +conflagration in the middle ages, a sombre darkness in the heroic ages +of the North. The burning emptiness of the desert attracts him, the +inexplicable melancholy of the dogs that bark at the moon; he would +interpret the jaguar's dreams, the sleep of the condor. He sees nature +with the same wrathful impatience as man, praising it for its +destructive energies, its haste to crush out human life before the stars +fall into chaos, and the world with them, as one of the least of stars. +He sings the "Dies Irae" exultingly; only seeming to desire an end of +God as well as of man, universal nothingness. He conceives that he does +well to be angry, and this anger is indeed the personal note of his +pessimism; but it leaves him somewhat apart from the philosophical +poets, too fierce for wisdom and not rapturous enough for poetry. (A. +Sy.) + + See J. Dornis, _Leconte de Lisle intime_ (1895); F. Calmette, _Un Demi + siècle littéraire, Leconte de Lisle et ses amis_ (1902); Paul Bourget, + _Nouveaux essais de psychologie contemporaine_ (1885); F. Brunetière, + _L'Évolution de la poésie lyrique en France au XIX^e siècle_ (1894); + Maurice Spronck, _Les Artistes littéraires_ (1889); J. Lemaître, _Les + Contemporains_ (2nd series, 1886); F. Brunetière, _Nouveaux essais sur + la litt. contemp._ (1895). + + + + +LE COQ, ROBERT (d. 1373), French bishop, was born at Montdidier, +although he belonged to a bourgeois family of Orléans, where he first +attended school before coming to Paris. In Paris he became advocate to +the parlement (1347); then King John appointed him master of requests, +and in 1351, a year during which he received many other honours, he +became bishop of Laon. At the opening of 1354 he was sent with the +cardinal of Boulogne, Pierre I., duke of Bourbon, and Jean VI., count of +Vendome, to Mantes to treat with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who +had caused the constable, Charles of Spain, to be assassinated, and from +this time dates his connexion with this king. At the meeting of the +estates which opened in Paris in October 1356 Le Coq played a leading +rôle and was one of the most outspoken of the orators, especially when +petitions were presented to the dauphin Charles, denouncing the bad +government of the realm and demanding the banishment of the royal +councillors. Soon, however, the credit of the estates having gone down, +he withdrew to his diocese, but at the request of the bourgeois of Paris +he speedily returned. The king of Navarre had succeeded in escaping from +prison and had entered Paris, where his party was in the ascendant; and +Robert le Coq became the most powerful person in his council. No one +dared to contradict him, and he brought into it whom he pleased. He did +not scruple to reveal to the king of Navarre secret deliberations, but +his fortune soon turned. He ran great danger at the estates of Compiègne +in May 1358, where his dismissal was demanded, and he had to flee to St +Denis, where Charles the Bad and Étienne Marcel came to find him. After +the death of Marcel, he tried, unsuccessfully, to deliver Laon, his +episcopal town, to the king of Navarre, and he was excluded from the +amnesty promised in the treaty of Calais (1360) by King John to the +partisans of Charles the Bad. His temporalities had been seized, and he +was obliged to flee from France. In 1363, thanks to the support of the +king of Navarre, he was given the bishopric of Calahorra in the kingdom +of Aragon, which he administered until his death in 1373. + + See L. C. Douët d'Arcq, "Acte d'accusation contre Robert le Coq, + évêque de Laon" in _Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, 1st series, + t. ii., pp. 350-387; and R. Delachenal, "La Bibliothèque d'un avocat + du XIV^e siècle, inventaire estimatif des livres de Robert le Coq," in + _Nouvelle revue historique de droit français et étranger_ (1887), pp. + 524-537. + + + + +LECOUVREUR, ADRIENNE (1692-1730), French actress, was born on the 5th of +April 1692, at Damery, Marne, the daughter of a hatter, Robert Couvreur. +She had an unhappy childhood in Paris. She showed a natural talent for +declamation and was instructed by La Grand, _sociétaire_ of the Comédie +Française, and with his help she obtained a provincial engagement. It +was not until 1717, after a long apprenticeship, that she made her Paris +début as Electre, in Crébillon's tragedy of that name, and Angélique in +Molière's _George Dandin_. Her success was so great that she was +immediately received into the Comédie Française, and for thirteen years +she was the queen of tragedy there, attaining a popularity never before +accorded an actress. She is said to have played no fewer than 1184 times +in a hundred rôles, of which she created twenty-two. She owed her +success largely to her courage in abandoning the stilted style of +elocution of her predecessors for a naturalness of delivery and a +touching simplicity of pathos that delighted and moved her public. In +Baron, who returned to the stage at the age of sixty-seven, she had an +able and powerful coadjutor in changing the stage traditions of +generations. The jealousy she aroused was partly due to her social +successes, which were many, in spite of the notorious freedom of her +manner of life. She was on visiting and dining terms with half the +court, and her _salon_ was frequented by Voltaire and all the other +notables and men of letters. She was the mistress of Maurice de Saxe +from 1721, and sold her plate and jewels to supply him with funds for +his ill-starred adventures as duke of Courland. By him she had a +daughter, her third, who was grandmother of the father of George Sand. +Adrienne Lecouvreur died on the 20th of March 1730. She was denied the +last rites of the Church, and her remains were refused burial in +consecrated ground. Voltaire, in a fine poem on her death, expressed his +indignation at the barbarous treatment accorded to the woman whose +"friend, admirer, lover" he was. + + Her life formed the subject of the well-known tragedy (1849), by + Eugène Scribe and Ernest Legouvé. + + + + +LE CREUSOT, a town of east-central France in the department of +Saône-et-Loire, 55 m. S.W. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. +(1906), town, 22,535; commune, 33,437. Situated at the foot of lofty +hills in a district rich in coal and iron, it has the most extensive +iron works in France. The coal bed of Le Creusot was discovered in the +13th century; but it was not till 1774 that the first workshops were +founded there. The royal crystal works were transferred from Sèvres to +Le Creusot in 1787, but this industry came to an end in 1831. Meanwhile +two or three enterprises for the manufacture of metal had ended in +failure, and it was only in 1836 that the foundation of iron works by +Adolphe and Eugène Schneider definitely inaugurated the industrial +prosperity of the place. The works supplied large quantities of war +material to the French armies during the Crimean and Franco-German wars. +Since that time they have continuously enlarged the scope of their +operations, which now embrace the manufacture of steel, armour-plate, +guns, ordnance-stores, locomotives, electrical machinery and engineering +material of every description. A network of railways about 37 m. in +length connects the various branches of the works with each other and +with the neighbouring Canal du Centre. Special attention is paid to the +welfare of the workers who, not including the miners, number about +12,000, and good schools have been established. In 1897 the +ordnance-manufacture of the Société des Forges et Chantiers de la +Méditerranée at Havre was acquired by the Company, which also has +important branches at Chalon-sur-Saône, where ship-building and +bridge-construction is carried on, and at Cette (Hérault). + + + + +LECTERN (through O. Fr. _leitrun_, from Late Lat. _lectrum_, or +_lectrinum_, _legere_, to read; the French equivalent is _lutrin_; Ital. +_leggio_; Ger. _Lesepult_), in the furniture of certain Christian +churches, a reading-desk, used more especially for the reading of the +lessons and in the Anglican Church practically confined to that purpose. +In the early Christian Church this was done from the ambo (q.v.), but in +the 15th century, when the books were often of great size, it became +necessary to provide a lectern to hold them. These were either in wood +or metal, and many fine examples still exist; one at Detling in wood, in +which there are shelves on all four sides to hold books, is perhaps the +most elaborate. Brass lecterns, as in the colleges of Oxford and +Cambridge, are common; in the usual type the book is supported on the +outspread wings of an eagle or pelican, which is raised on a moulded +stem, carried on three projecting ledges or feet with lions on them. In +the example in Norwich cathedral, the pelican supporting the book stands +on a rock enclosed with a rich cresting of Gothic tabernacle work; the +central stem or pillar, on which this rests, is supported by miniature +projecting buttresses, standing on a moulded base with lions on it. + + + + +LECTION, LECTIONARY. The custom of reading the books of Moses in the +synagogues on the Sabbath day was a very ancient one in the Jewish +Church. The addition of lections (i.e. readings) from the prophetic +books had been made afterwards and was in existence in our Lord's time, +as may be gathered from such passages as St Luke iv. 16-20, xvi. 29. +This element in synagogue worship was taken over with others into the +Christian divine service, additions being made to it from the writings +of the apostles and evangelists. We find traces of such additions within +the New Testament itself in such directions as are contained in Col. iv. +16; 1 Thess. v. 27. + +From the 2nd century onwards references multiply, though the earlier +references do not prove the existence of a fixed lectionary or order of +lessons, but rather point the other way. Justin Martyr, describing +divine worship in the middle of the 2nd century says: "On the day called +Sunday all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one +place, and the memoirs of the Apostles, or the writings of the Prophets +are read as long as time permits" (_Apol._ i. cap. 67). Tertullian about +half a century later makes frequent reference to the reading of Holy +Scripture in public worship (_Apol._ 39; _De praescript._ 36; _De +amina_, 9). + +In the canons of Hippolytus in the first half of the 3rd century we find +this direction: "Let presbyters, subdeacons and readers, and all the +people assemble daily in the church at time of cock-crow, and betake +themselves to prayers, to psalms and to the reading of the Scriptures, +according to the command of the Apostles, until I come attend to +reading" (canon xxi.). + +But there are traces of fixed lessons coming into existence in the +course of this century; Origen refers to the book of Job being read in +Holy Week (_Commentaries on Job_, lib. i.). Allusions of a similar kind +in the 4th century are frequent. John Cassian (c. 380) tells us that +throughout Egypt the Psalms were divided into groups of twelve, and that +after each group there followed two lessons, one from the Old, one from +the New Testament (_De caenob. inst._ ii. 4), implying but not +absolutely stating that there was a fixed order of such lessons just as +there was of the Psalms. St Basil the Great mentions fixed lessons on +certain occasions taken from Isaiah, Proverbs, St Matthew and Acts (Hom. +xiii. _De bapt._). From Chrysostom (Hom. lxiii _in Act._ &c.), and +Augustine (Tract. vi. _in Joann._ &c.) we learn that Genesis was read in +Lent, Job and Jonah in Passion Week, the Acts of the Apostles in +Eastertide, lessons on the Passion on Good Friday and on the +Resurrection on Easter Day. In the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (ii. 57) +the following service is described and enjoined. First come two lessons +from the Old Testament by a reader, the whole of the Old Testament being +made use of except the books of the Apocrypha. The Psalms of David are +then to be sung. Next the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of Paul +are to be read, and finally the four Gospels by a deacon or a priest. +Whether the selections were _ad libitum_ or according to a fixed table +of lessons we are not informed. Nothing in the shape of a lectionary is +extant older than the 8th century, though there is evidence that +Claudianus Mamercus made one for the church at Vienne in 450, and that +Musaeus made one for the church at Marseilles c. 458. The _Liber +comitis_ formerly attributed to St Jerome must be three, or nearly +three, centuries later than that saint, and the Luxeuil lectionary, or +_Lectionarium Gallicanum_, which Mabillon attributed to the 7th, cannot +be earlier than the 8th century; yet the oldest MSS. of the Gospels have +marginal marks, and sometimes actual interpolations, which can only be +accounted for as indicating the beginnings and endings of liturgical +lessons. The third council of Carthage in 397 forbade anything but Holy +Scripture to be read in church; this rule has been adhered to so far as +the liturgical epistle and gospel, and occasional additional lessons in +the Roman missal are concerned, but in the divine office, on feasts when +nine lessons are read at matins, only the first three lessons are taken +from Holy Scripture, the next three being taken from the sermons of +ecclesiastical writers, and the last three from expositions of the day's +gospel; but sometimes the lives or _Passions_ of the saints, or of some +particular saints, were substituted for any or all of these breviary +lessons. (F. E. W.) + + + + +LECTISTERNIUM (from Lat. _lectum sternere_, "to spread a couch"; [Greek: +strômnai] in Dion. Halic. xii. 9), in ancient Rome, a propitiatory +ceremony, consisting of a meal offered to gods and goddesses, +represented by their busts or statues, or by portable figures of wood, +with heads of bronze, wax or marble, and covered with drapery. Another +suggestion is that the symbols of the gods consisted of bundles of +sacred herbs, tied together in the form of a head, covered by a waxen +mask so as to resemble a kind of bust (cf. the straw puppets called +Argei). These symbols were laid upon a couch (_lectus_), the left arm +resting on a cushion (_pulvinus_, whence the couch itself was often +called _pulvinar_) in the attitude of reclining. In front of the couch, +which was placed in the open street, a meal was set out on a table. It +is definitely stated by Livy (v. 13) that the ceremony took place "for +the first time" in Rome in the year 399 B.C., after the Sibylline books +had been consulted by their keepers and interpreters (_duumviri sacris +faciendis_), on the occasion of a pestilence. Three couches were +prepared for three pairs of gods--Apollo and Latona, Hercules and Diana, +Mercury and Neptune. The feast, which on that occasion lasted for eight +(or seven) days, was also celebrated by private individuals; the +citizens kept open house, quarrels were forgotten, debtors and prisoners +were released, and everything done to banish sorrow. Similar honours +were paid to other divinities in subsequent times--Fortuna, Saturnus, +Juno Regina of the Aventine, the three Capitoline deities (Jupiter, +Juno, Minerva), and in 217, after the defeat of lake Trasimenus, a +lectisternium was held for three days to six pairs of gods, +corresponding to the twelve great gods of Olympus--Jupiter, Juno, +Neptune, Minerva, Mars, Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcan, Vesta, Mercury, +Ceres. In 205, alarmed by unfavourable prodigies, the Romans were +ordered to fetch the Great Mother of the gods from Pessinus in Phrygia; +in the following year the image was brought to Rome, and a lectisternium +held. In later times, the lectisternium became of constant (even daily) +occurrence, and was celebrated in the different temples. Such +celebrations must be distinguished from those which were ordered, like +the earlier lectisternia, by the Sibylline books in special emergencies. +Although undoubtedly offerings of food were made to the gods in very +early Roman times on such occasions as the ceremony of _confarreatio_, +and the _epulum Jovis_ (often confounded with the lectisternium), it is +generally agreed that the lectisternia were of Greek origin. In favour +of this may be mentioned: the similarity of the Greek [Greek: +Theoxenia], in which, however, the gods played the part of hosts; the +gods associated with it were either previously unknown to Roman +religion, though often concealed under Roman names, or were provided +with a new cult (thus Hercules was not worshipped as at the Ara Maxima, +where, according to Servius on _Aeneid_, viii. 176 and Cornelius Balbus, +_ap._ Macrobius, _Sat._ iii. 6, a lectisternium was forbidden); the +Sibylline books, which decided whether a lectisternium was to be held or +not, were of Greek origin; the custom of reclining at meals was Greek. +Some, however, assign an Etruscan origin to the ceremony, the Sibylline +books themselves being looked upon as old Italian "black books." A +probable explanation of the confusion between the lectisternia and +genuine old Italian ceremonies is that, as the lectisternia became an +almost everyday occurrence in Rome, people forgot their foreign origin +and the circumstances in which they were first introduced, and then the +word _pulvinar_ with its associations was transferred to times in which +it had no existence. In imperial times, according to Tacitus (_Annals_, +xv. 44), chairs were substituted for couches in the case of goddesses, +and the lectisternium in their case became a sellisternium (the reading, +however, is not certain). This was in accordance with Roman custom, +since in the earliest times all the members of a family sat at meals, +and in later times at least the women and children. This is a point of +distinction between the original practice at the lectisternium and the +epulum Jovis, the goddesses at the latter being provided with chairs, +whereas in the lectisternium they reclined. In Christian times the word +was used for a feast in memory of the dead (Sidonius Apollinaris, +_Epistulae_, iv. 15). + + See article by A. Bouché-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, + _Dictionnaire des antiquités_; Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, + iii. 45, 187 (1885); G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. + 355 seq.; monograph by Wackermann (Hanau, 1888); C. Pascal, _Studii di + antichità e mitologia_ (1896). + + + + +LECTOR, or READER, a minor office-bearer in the Christian Church. From +an early period men have been set apart, under the title of +_anagnostae_, _lectores_, or readers, for the purpose of reading Holy +Scripture in church. We do not know what the custom of the Church was in +the first two centuries, the earliest reference to readers, as an order, +occurring in the writings of Tertullian (_De praescript. haeret._ cap. +41); there are frequent allusions to them in the writings of St Cyprian +and afterwards. Cornelius, bishop of Rome in A.D. 251-252, in a +well-known letter mentions readers among the various church orders then +existing at Rome. In the _Apostolic Church Order_ (canon 19), mention +is made of the qualifications and duties of a reader, but no reference +is made to their method of ordination. In the _Apostolic Didascalia_ +there is recognition of three minor orders of men, subdeacons, readers +and singers, in addition to two orders of women, deaconesses and widows. +A century later, in the _Apostolic Constitutions_, we find not only a +recognition of readers, but also a form of admission provided for them, +consisting of the imposition of hands and prayer (lib. viii. cap. 22). +In Africa the imposition of hands was not in use, but a Bible was handed +to the newly appointed reader with words of commission to read it, +followed by a prayer and a benediction (Fourth Council of Carthage, can. +8). This is the ritual of the Roman Church of to-day. With regard to +age, the novels of Justinian (No. 123) forbade any one to be admitted to +the office of reader under the age of eighteen. (F. E. W.) + + + + +LECTOURE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Gers, 21 m. N. of Auch on the Southern railway +between that city and Agen. Pop. (1906), town, 2426; commune, 4310. It +stands on the right bank of the Gers, overlooking the river from the +summit of a steep plateau. The church of St Gervais and St Protais was +once a cathedral. The massive tower which flanks it on the north belongs +to the 15th century; the rest of the church dates from the 13th, 15th, +16th and 17th centuries. The hôtel de ville, the sous-préfecture and the +museum occupy the palace of the former bishops, which was once the +property of Marshal Jean Lannes, a native of the town. A recess in the +wall of an old house contains the Fontaine de Houndélie, a spring +sheltered by a double archway of the 13th century. At the bottom of the +hill a church of the 16th century marks the site of the monastery of St +Gény. Lectoure has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. +Its industries include distilling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and +biscuits, and market gardening; it has trade in grain, cattle, wine and +brandy. + + Lectoure, capital of the Iberian tribe of the _Lactorates_ and for a + short time of Novempopulania, became the seat of a bishopric in the + 4th century. In the 11th century the counts of Lomagne made it their + capital, and on the union of Lomagne with Armagnac, in 1325, it became + the capital of the counts of Armagnac. In 1473 Cardinal Jean de + Jouffroy besieged the town on behalf of Louis XI. and after its fall + put the whole population to the sword. In 1562 it again suffered + severely at the hands of the Catholics under Blaise de Montluc. + + + + +LEDA, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thestius, king of Aetolia, and +Eurythemis (her parentage is variously given). She was the wife of +Tyndareus and mother of Castor and Pollux, Clytaemnestra and Helen (see +CASTOR AND POLLUX). In another account Nemesis was the mother of Helen +(q.v.) whom Leda adopted as her daughter. This led to the identification +of Leda and Nemesis. In the usual later form of the story, Leda herself, +having been visited by Zeus in the form of a swan, produced two eggs, +from one of which came Helen, from the other Castor and Pollux. + + See Apollodorus iii. 10; Hyginus, _Fab._ 77; Homer, _Iliad_, iii. 426, + _Od._ xi. 298; Euripides, _Helena_, 17; Isocrates, _Helena_, 59; Ovid, + _Heroides_, xvii. 55; Horace, _Ars poetica_, 147; Stasinus in + Athenaeus viii. 334 c.; for the representations of Leda and the swan + in art, J. A. Overbeck, _Kunstmythologie_, i., and Atlas to the same; + also article in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_. + + + + +LE DAIM (or LE DAIN), OLIVIER (d. 1484), favourite of Louis XI. of +France, was born of humble parentage at Thielt near Courtrai in +Flanders. Seeking his fortune at Paris, he became court barber and valet +to Louis XI., and so ingratiated himself with the king that in 1474 he +was ennobled under the title Le Daim and in 1477 made comte de Meulant. +In the latter year he was sent to Burgundy to influence the young +heiress of Charles the Bold, but he was ridiculed and compelled to leave +Ghent. He thereupon seized and held Tournai for the French. Le Daim had +considerable talent for intrigue, and, according to his enemies, could +always be depended upon to execute the baser designs of the king. He +amassed a large fortune, largely by oppression and violence, and was +named gentleman-in-waiting, captain of Loches, and governor of +Saint-Quentin. He remained in favour until the death of Louis XI., when +the rebellious lords were able to avenge the slights and insults they +had suffered at the hands of the royal barber. He was arrested on +charges, the nature of which is uncertain, tried before the parlement of +Paris, and on the 21st of May 1484 hanged at Montfaucon without the +knowledge of Charles VIII., who might have heeded his father's request +and spared the favourite. Le Daim's property was given to the duke of +Orleans. + + See the memoirs of the time, especially those of Ph. de Commines (ed. + Mandrot, 1901-1903, Eng. trans. in Bohn Library); Robt. Gaguin, + _Compendium de origine et gestis Francorum_ (Paris, 1586)--it was + Gaguin who made the celebrated epigram concerning Le Daim: "Eras + judex, lector, et exitium"; De Reiffenberg, _Olivier le Dain_ + (Brussels, 1829); Delanone, _Le Barbier de Louis XI._ (Paris, 1832): + G. Picot, "Procès d'Olivier le Dain," in the _Comptes rendus de + l'Académie des sciences morales et politiques_, viii. (1877), 485-537. + The memoirs of the time are uniformly hostile to Le Daim. + + + + +LEDBURY, a market town in the Ross parliamentary division of +Herefordshire, England, 14½ m. E. of Hereford by the Great Western +railway, pleasantly situated on the south-western slope of the Malvern +Hills. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3259. Cider and agricultural +produce are the chief articles of trade, and there are limestone +quarries in the neighbouring hills. The town contains many picturesque +examples of timbered houses, characteristic of the district, the +principal being the Market House (1633) elevated on massive pillars of +oak. The fine church of St Michael exhibits all the Gothic styles, the +most noteworthy features being the Norman chancel and west door, and the +remarkable series of ornate Decorated windows on the north side. Among +several charities is the hospital of St Catherine, founded by Foliot, +bishop of Hereford, in 1232. Hope End, 2 m. N.E. of Ledbury, was the +residence of Elizabeth Barrett Browning during her early life. A +clock-tower in the town commemorates her. + + Wall Hills Camp, supposed to be of British origin, is the earliest + evidence of a settlement near Ledbury (Liedeburge, Lidebury). The + manor was given to the see of Hereford in the 11th century; but in + 1561-1562 became crown property. As early as 1170-1171 an episcopal + castle existed in Ledbury. The town was not incorporated, but was + early called a borough; and in 1295 and 1304-1305 returned two members + to parliament. A fair on the day of the decollation of John the + Baptist was granted to the bishop in 1249. Of fairs which survived in + 1792 those of the days of St Philip and St James and St Barnabas were + granted in 1584-1585; those held on the Monday before Easter and St + Thomas's day were reputed ancient, but not those of the 12th of May, + the 22nd of June, the 2nd of October and the 21st of December. + Existing fairs are on the second Tuesday in every month and in + October. A weekly market, granted to the bishop by Stephen, John and + Henry III., was obsolete in 1584-1585, when the present market of + Tuesday was authorized. The wool trade was considerable in the 14th + century; later Ledbury was inhabited by glovers and clothiers. The + town was deeply involved in the operations of the Civil Wars, being + occupied both by the royalist leader Prince Rupert and by the + Parliamentarian Colonel Birch. + + + + +LEDGER (from the English dialect forms _liggen_ or _leggen_, to lie or +lay; in sense adapted from the Dutch substantive _legger_), properly a +book remaining regularly in one place, and so used of the copies of the +Scriptures and service books kept in a church. The _New English +Dictionary_ quotes from Charles Wriothesley's _Chronicle_, 1538 (ed. +_Camden Soc._, 1875, by W. D. Hamilton), "the curates should provide a +booke of the bible in Englishe, of the largest volume, to be a lidger in +the same church for the parishioners to read on." It is an application +of this original meaning that is found in the commercial usage of the +term for the principal book of account in a business house (see +BOOK-KEEPING). Apart from these applications to various forms of books, +the word is used of the horizontal timbers in a scaffold (q.v.) lying +parallel to the face of a building, which support the "put logs"; of a +flat stone to cover a grave; and of a stationary form of tackle and bait +in angling. In the form "lieger" the term was formerly frequently +applied to a "resident," as distinguished from an "extraordinary" +ambassador. + + + + +LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECISLAUS JOHANN, COUNT (1822-1902), Polish cardinal, was +born on the 29th of October 1822 in Gorki (Russian Poland), and received +his early education at the gymnasium and seminary of Warsaw. After +finishing his studies at the Jesuit Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici +in Rome, which strongly influenced his religious development and his +attitude towards church affairs, he was ordained in 1845. From 1856 to +1858 he represented the Roman See in Columbia, but on the outbreak of +the Columbian revolution had to return to Rome. In 1861 Pope Pius IX. +made him his nuncio at Brussels, and in 1865 he was made archbishop of +Gnesen-Posen. His preconization followed on the 8th of January 1866. +This date marks the beginning of the second period in Ledochowski's +life; for during the Prussian and German _Kulturkampf_ he was one of the +most declared enemies of the state. It was only during the earliest +years of his appointment as archbishop that he entertained a different +view, invoking, for instance, an intervention of Prussia in favour of +the Roman Church, when it was oppressed by the house of Savoy. On the +12th of December 1870 he presented an effective memorandum on the +subject at the headquarters at Versailles. In 1872 the archbishop +protested against the demand of the government that religious teaching +should be given only in the German language, and in 1873 he addressed a +circular letter on this subject to the clergy of his diocese. The +government thereupon demanded a statement from the teachers of religion +as to whether they intended to obey it or the archbishop, and on their +declaring for the archbishop, dismissed them. The count himself was +called upon at the end of 1873 to lay aside his office. On his refusing +to do so, he was arrested between 3 and 4 o'clock in the morning on the +3rd of February 1874 by Standi the director of police, and taken to the +military prison of Ostrowo. The pope made him a cardinal on the 13th of +March, but it was not till the 3rd of February 1876 that he was released +from prison. Having been expelled from the eastern provinces of Prussia, +he betook himself to Cracow, where his presence was made the pretext for +anti-Prussian demonstrations. Upon this he was also expelled from +Austria, and went to Rome, whence, in spite of his removal from office, +which was decreed on the 15th of April 1874, he continued to direct the +affairs of his diocese, for which he was on several occasions from 1877 +to 1879 condemned _in absentia_ by the Prussian government for +"usurpation of episcopal rights." It was not till 1885 that Ledochowski +resolved to resign his archbishopric, in which he was succeeded by +Dinder at the end of the year. Ledochowski's return in 1884 was +forbidden by the Prussian government (although the _Kulturkampf_ had now +abated), on account of his having stirred up anew the Polish nationalist +agitation. He passed the closing years of his life in Rome. In 1892 he +became prefect of the Congregation of the Propaganda, and he died in +Rome on the 22nd of July 1902. + + See Ograbiszewski, _Deutschlands Episkopat in Lebensbildern_ (1876 and + following years); Holtzmann-Zöppfel, _Lexikon für Theologie und + Kirchenwesen_ (2nd ed., 1888); Vapereau, _Dictionnaire universel des + contemporains_ (6th ed., 1893); Brück, _Geschichte der katholischen + Kirche in Deutschland im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_ vol. 4 (1901 and + 1908); Lauchert, _Biographisches Jahrbuch_, vol. 7 (1905). (J. Hn.) + + + + +LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE (1807-1874), French politician, was the +grandson of Nicolas Philippe Ledru, the celebrated quack doctor known as +"Comus" under Louis XIV., and was born in a house that was once +Scarron's, at Fontenay-aux-Roses (Seine), on the 2nd of February 1807. +He had just begun to practise at the Parisian bar before the revolution +of July, and was retained for the Republican defence in most of the +great political trials of the next ten years. In 1838 he bought for +330,000 francs Desiré Dalloz's place in the Court of Cassation. He was +elected deputy for Le Mans in 1841 with hardly a dissentient voice; but +for the violence of his electoral speeches he was tried at Angers and +sentenced to four months' imprisonment and a fine, against which he +appealed successfully on a technical point. He made a rich and romantic +marriage in 1843, and in 1846 disposed of his charge at the Court of +Cassation to give his time entirely to politics. He was now the +recognized leader of the working-men of France. He had more authority in +the country than in the Chamber, where the violence of his oratory +diminished its effect. He asserted that the fortifications of Paris were +directed against liberty, not against foreign invasion, and he +stigmatized the law of regency (1842) as an audacious usurpation. +Neither from official Liberalism nor from the press did he receive +support; even the Republican _National_ was opposed to him because of +his championship of labour. He therefore founded _La Réforme_ in which +to advance his propaganda. Between Ledru-Rollin and Odilon Barrot with +the other chiefs of the "dynastic Left" there were acute differences, +hardly dissimulated even during the temporary alliance which produced +the campaign of the banquets. It was the speeches of Ledru-Rollin and +Louis Blanc at working-men's banquets in Lille, Dijon and Châlons that +really heralded the revolution. Ledru-Rollin prevented the appointment +of the duchess of Orleans as regent in 1848. He and Lamartine held the +tribune in the Chamber of Deputies until the Parisian populace stopped +serious discussion by invading the Chamber. He was minister of the +interior in the provisional government, and was also a member of the +executive committee[1] appointed by the Constituent Assembly, from which +Louis Blanc and the extremists were excluded. At the crisis of the 15th +of May he definitely sided with Lamartine and the party of order against +the proletariat. Henceforward his position was a difficult one. He never +regained his influence with the working classes, who considered they had +been betrayed; but to his short ministry belongs the credit of the +establishment of a working system of universal suffrage. At the +presidential election in December he was put forward as the Socialist +candidate, but secured only 370,000 votes. His opposition to the policy +of President Louis Napoleon, especially his Roman policy, led to his +moving the impeachment of the president and his ministers. The motion +was defeated, and next day (June 13, 1849) he headed what he called a +peaceful demonstration, and his enemies armed insurrection. He himself +escaped to London where he joined the executive of the revolutionary +committee of Europe, with Kossuth and Mazzini among his colleagues. He +was accused of complicity in an obscure attempt (1857) against the life +of Napoleon III., and condemned in his absence to deportation. Émile +Ollivier removed the exceptions from the general amnesty in 1870, and +Ledru-Rollin returned to France after twenty years of exile. Though +elected in 1871 in three departments he refused to sit in the National +Assembly, and took no serious part in politics until 1874 when he was +returned to the Assembly as member for Vaucluse. He died on the 31st of +December of that year. + + Under Louis Philippe he made large contributions to French + jurisprudence, editing the _Journal du palais, 1791-1837_ (27 vols., + 1837), and _1837-1847_ (17 vols.), with a commentary _Répertoire + général de la jurisprudence française_ (8 vols., 1843-1848), the + introduction to which was written by himself. His later writings were + political in character. See _Ledru-Rollin, ses discours et ses écrits + politiques_ (2 vols., Paris, 1879), edited by his widow. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Arago, Garnier-Pagès, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru-Rollin. + + + + +LEDYARD, JOHN (1751-1789), American traveller, was born in Groton, +Connecticut, U.S.A. After vainly trying law and theology, Ledyard +adopted a seaman's life, and, coming to London, was engaged as corporal +of marines by Captain Cook for his third voyage (1776). On his return +(1778) Ledyard had to give up to the Admiralty his copious journals, but +afterwards published, from memory, a meagre narrative of his +experiences--herein giving the only account of Cook's death by an +eye-witness (Hartford, U.S.A., 1783). He continued in the British +service till 1782, when he escaped, off Long Island. In 1784 he +revisited Europe, to organize an expedition to the American North-West. +Having failed in his attempts, he decided to reach his goal by +travelling across Europe and Asia. Baffled in his hopes of crossing the +Baltic on the ice (Stockholm to Abo), he walked right round from +Stockholm to St Petersburg, where he arrived barefoot and penniless +(March 1787). Here he made friends with Pallas and others, and +accompanied Dr Brown, a Scotch physician in the Russian service, to +Siberia. Ledyard left Dr Brown at Barnaul, went on to Tomsk and Irkutsk, +visited Lake Baikal, and descended the Lena to Yakutsk (18th of +September 1787). With Captain Joseph Billings, whom he had known on +Cook's "Resolution," he returned to Irkutsk, where he was arrested, +deported to the Polish frontier, and banished from Russia for ever. +Reaching London, he was engaged by Sir Joseph Banks and the African +Association to explore overland routes from Alexandria to the Niger, but +in Cairo he succumbed to a dose of vitriol (17th of January 1789). +Though a born explorer, little resulted from his immense but +ill-directed activities. + + See _Memoirs of the Life and Travels of John Ledyard_, by Jared Sparks + (1828). + + + + +LEE, ANN (1736-1784), English religious visionary, was born in +Manchester, where she was first a factory hand and afterwards a cook. +She is remembered by her connexion with the sect known as Shakers +(q.v.). She died at Watervliet, near Albany, New York. + + + + +LEE, ARTHUR (1740-1792), American diplomatist, brother of Richard Henry +Lee, was born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 20th +of December 1740. He was educated at Eton, studied medicine at +Edinburgh, practised as a physician in Williamsburg, Virginia, read law +at the Temple, London, in 1766-1770, and practised law in London in +1770-1776. He was an intimate of John Wilkes, whom he aided in one of +his London campaigns. In 1770-1775 he served as London agent for +Massachusetts, second to Benjamin Franklin, whom he succeeded in 1775. +At that time he had shown great ability as a pamphleteer, having +published in London _The Monitor_ (1768), seven essays previously +printed in Virginia; _The Political Detection: or the Treachery and +Tyranny of Administration, both at Home and Abroad_ (1770), signed +"Junius Americanus"; and _An Appeal to the Justice and Interests of the +People of Great Britain in the Present Disputes with America_ (1774), +signed "An Old Member of Parliament." In December 1775 the Committee of +Secret Correspondence of Congress chose him its European agent +principally for the purpose of ascertaining the views of France, Spain, +and other European countries regarding the war between the colonies and +Great Britain. In October 1776 he was appointed, upon the refusal of +Jefferson, on the commission with Franklin and Silas Deane to negotiate +a treaty of alliance, amity and commerce with France, and also to +negotiate with other European governments. His letters to Congress, in +which he expressed his suspicion of Deane's business integrity and +criticized his accounts, resulted in Deane's recall; and other letters +impaired the confidence of Congress in Franklin, of whom he was +especially jealous. Early in 1777 he went to Spain as American +commissioner, but received no official recognition, was not permitted to +proceed farther than Burgos, and accomplished nothing; until the +appointment of Jay, however, he continued to act as commissioner to +Spain, held various conferences with the Spanish minister in Paris, and +in January 1778 secured a promise of a loan of 3,000,000 livres, only a +small part of which (some 170,000 livres) was paid. In June 1777 he went +to Berlin, where, as in Spain, he was not officially recognized. +Although he had little to do with the negotiations, he signed with +Franklin and Deane in February 1778 the treaties between the United +States and France. Having become unpopular at the courts of France and +Spain, Lee was recalled in 1779, and returned to the United States in +September 1780. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in +1781 and a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782-1785. With +Oliver Wolcott and Richard Butler he negotiated a treaty with the Six +Nations, signed at Fort Stanwix on the 22nd of October 1784, and with +George Clark and Richard Butler a treaty with the Wyandot, Delaware, +Chippewa and Ottawa Indians, signed at Ft. McIntosh on the 21st of +January 1785. He was a member of the treasury board in 1784-1789. He +strongly opposed the constitution, and after its adoption retired to his +estate at Urbana, Virginia, where he died on the 12th of December 1792. + + See R. H. Lee, _Life of Arthur Lee_ (2 vols., Boston, 1829), and C. H. + Lee, _A Vindication of Arthur Lee_ (Richmond, Virginia, 1894), both + partisan. Much of Lee's correspondence is to be found in Wharton's + _Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence_ (Washington, 1889). Eight + volumes of Lee's MSS. in the Harvard University Library are described + and listed in _Library of Harvard University, Bibliographical + Contributions_, No. 8 (Cambridge, 1882). + + + + +LEE, FITZHUGH (1835-1905), American cavalry general, was born at +Clermont, in Fairfax county, Virginia, on the 19th of November 1835. He +was the grandson of "Light Horse Harry" Lee, and the nephew of Robert E. +Lee. His father, Sydney Smith Lee, was a fleet captain under Commodore +Perry in Japanese waters and rose to the rank of commodore; his mother +was a daughter of George Mason. Graduating from West Point in 1856, he +was appointed to the 2nd Cavalry, which was commanded by Colonel Albert +Sidney Johnston, and in which his uncle, Robert E. Lee, was +lieutenant-colonel. As a cavalry subaltern he distinguished himself by +his gallant conduct in actions with the Comanches in Texas, and was +severely wounded in 1859. In May 1860 he was appointed instructor of +cavalry at West Point, but resigned on the secession of Virginia. Lee +was at once employed in the organization of the forces of the South, and +served at first as a staff officer to General R. S. Ewell, and +afterwards, from September 1861, as lieutenant-colonel, and from April +1862 as colonel of the First Virginia Cavalry in the Army of Northern +Virginia. He became brigadier-general on General J. E. B. Stuart's +recommendation on the 25th of July 1862, and served under that general +throughout the Virginian campaigns of 1862 and 1863, becoming +major-general on the 3rd of September 1863. He conducted the cavalry +action of Beverly Ford (17th March 1863) with skill and success. In the +Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns he was constantly employed as a +divisional commander under Stuart, and, after Stuart's death, under +General Wade Hampton. He took part in Early's campaign against Sheridan +in the Shenandoah Valley, and at Winchester (19th Sept. 1864) three +horses were shot under him and he was severely wounded. On General +Hampton's being sent to assist General Joseph E. Johnston in North +Carolina, the command of the whole of General Lee's cavalry devolved +upon Fitzhugh Lee early in 1865, but the surrender of Appomattox +followed quickly upon the opening of the campaign. Fitzhugh Lee himself +led the last charge of the Confederates on the 9th of April that year at +Farmville. + +After the war he devoted himself to farming in Stafford county, +Virginia, and was conspicuous in his efforts to reconcile the Southern +people to the issue of the war, which he regarded as a final settlement +of the questions at issue. In 1875 he attended the Bunker Hill centenary +at Boston, Mass., and delivered a remarkable address. In 1885 he was a +member of the board of visitors of West Point, and from 1886 to 1890 was +governor of Virginia. In April 1896 he was appointed by President +Cleveland consul-general at Havana, with duties of a diplomatic and +military character added to the usual consular business. In this post +(in which he was retained by President McKinley) he was from the first +called upon to deal with a situation of great difficulty, which +culminated with the destruction of the "Maine" (see SPANISH-AMERICAN +WAR). Upon the declaration of war between Spain and the United States he +re-entered the army. He was one of the three ex-Confederate general +officers who were made major-generals of United States Volunteers. +Fitzhugh Lee commanded the VII. army corps, but took no part in the +actual operations in Cuba. He was military governor of Havana and Pinar +del Rio in 1899, subsequently commanded the department of the Missouri, +and retired as a brigadier-general U.S. Army in 1901. He died in +Washington on the 28th of April 1905. He wrote _Robert E. Lee_ (1894) in +the "Great Commanders" series, and _Cuba's Struggle Against Spain_ +(1899). + + + + +LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851), English musician, was born in London, +the son of Henry Lee, a pugilist and innkeeper. He became "tiger" to +Lord Barrymore, and his singing led to his being educated for the +musical profession. After appearing as a tenor at the theatres in Dublin +and London, he joined in producing opera at the Tottenham Street theatre +in 1829, and afterwards was connected with musical productions at Drury +Lane and Covent Garden. He married Mrs Waylett, a popular singer. Lee +composed music for a number of plays, and also many songs, including the +popular "Come where the Aspens quiver," and for a short time had a +music-selling business in the Quadrant. He died on the 8th of October +1851. + + + + +LEE, HENRY (1756-1818), American general, called "Light Horse Harry," +was born near Dumfries, Virginia, on the 29th of January 1756. His +father was first cousin to Richard Henry Lee. With a view to a legal +career he graduated (1773) at Princeton, but soon afterwards, on the +outbreak of the War of Independence, he became an officer in the patriot +forces. He served with great distinction under Washington, and in 1778 +was promoted major and given the command of a small irregular corps, +with which he won a great reputation as a leader of light troops. His +services on the outpost line of the army earned for him the soubriquet +of "Light Horse Harry." His greatest exploit was the brilliant surprise +of Paulus Hook, N.J., on the 19th of August 1779; for this feat he +received a gold medal, a reward given to no other officer below +general's rank in the whole war. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel +1780, and sent with a picked corps of dragoons to the southern theatre +of war. Here he rendered invaluable services in victory and defeat, +notably at Guilford Court House, Camden and Eutaw Springs. He was +present at Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown, and afterwards left the +army owing to ill-health. From 1786 to 1788 he was a delegate to the +Confederation Congress, and in the last-named year in the Virginia +convention he favoured the adoption of the Federal constitution. From +1789 to 1791 he served in the General Assembly, and from 1791 to 1794 +was governor of Virginia. In 1794 Washington sent him to help in the +suppression of the "Whisky Insurrection" in western Pennsylvania. A new +county of Virginia was named after him during his governorship. He was a +major-general in 1798-1800. From 1799 to 1801 he served in Congress. He +delivered the address on the death of Washington which contained the +famous phrase, "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of +his countrymen." Soon after the War of 1812 broke out, Lee, while +helping to resist the attack of a mob on his friend, A. C. Hanson, +editor of the Baltimore _Federal Republican_, which had opposed the war, +received grave injuries, from which he never recovered. He died at the +house of General Nathanael Greene on Cumberland Island, Georgia, on the +25th of March 1818. + + Lee wrote valuable _Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department_ + (1812; 3rd ed., with memoir by Robert E. Lee, 1869). + + + + +LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869), English divine, was born in London on the +28th of July 1804, and was educated at St Paul's school and at Trinity +College, Cambridge, where he displayed exceptional ability as a +classical scholar. After taking orders in 1830 he served under Thomas +Arnold at Rugby school, and in 1838 was appointed head-master of King +Edward's school, Birmingham, where he had among his pupils E. W. Benson, +J. B. Lightfoot and B. F. Westcott. In 1848 Lord John Russell nominated +him as first bishop of the newly-constituted see of Manchester. His +pedagogic manner bore somewhat irksomely on his clergy. He is best +remembered for his splendid work in church extension; during his +twenty-one years' tenure of the see he consecrated 130 churches. He took +a foremost part in founding the Manchester free library, and bequeathed +his own valuable collection of books to Owens College. He died on the +24th of December 1869. + + A memorial sermon was preached by Archbishop E. W. Benson, and was + published with biographical details by J. F. Wickenden and others. + + + + +LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-1692), English dramatist, son of Dr Richard Lee, +a Presbyterian divine, was born probably in 1653. His father was rector +of Hatfield, and held many preferments under the Commonwealth. He was +chaplain to General Monk, afterwards duke of Albemarle, and after the +Restoration he conformed to the Church of England, abjuring his former +opinions, especially his approval of Charles I.'s execution. Nathaniel +Lee was educated at Westminster school, and at Trinity College, +Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1668. Coming to London under the +patronage, it is said, of the duke of Buckingham, he tried to earn his +living as an actor, but though he was an admirable reader, his acute +stage fright made acting impossible. His earliest play, _Nero, Emperor +of Rome_, was acted in 1675 at Drury Lane. Two tragedies written in +rhymed heroic couplets, in imitation of Dryden, followed in +1676--_Sophonisba, or Hannibal's Overthrow and Gloriana, or the Court of +Augustus Caesar_. Both are extravagant in design and treatment. Lee made +his reputation in 1677 with a blank verse tragedy, _The Rival Queens, or +the Death of Alexander the Great_. The play, which treats of the +jealousy of Alexander's first wife, Roxana, for his second wife, +Statira, was, in spite of much bombast, a favourite on the English +stage down to the days of Edmund Kean. _Mithridates, King of Pontus_ +(acted 1678), _Theodosius, or the Force of Love_ (acted 1680), _Caesar +Borgia_ (acted 1680)--an imitation of the worst blood and thunder +Elizabethan tragedies--_Lucius Junius Brutus, Father of His Country_ +(acted 1681), and _Constantine the Great_ (acted 1684) followed. _The +Princess of Cleve_ (1681) is a gross adaptation of Madame de La +Fayette's exquisite novel of that name. _The Massacre of Paris_ +(published 1690) was written about this time. Lee had given offence at +court by his _Lucius Junius Brutus_, which had been suppressed after its +third representation for some lines on Tarquin's character that were +taken to be a reflection on Charles II. He therefore joined with Dryden, +who had already admitted him as a collaborator in an adaptation of +_Oedipus_, in _The Duke of Guise_ (1683), a play which directly +advocated the Tory point of view. In it part of the _Massacre of Paris_ +was incorporated. Lee was now thirty years of age, and had already +achieved a considerable reputation. But he had lived in the dissipated +society of the earl of Rochester and his associates, and imitated their +excesses. As he grew more disreputable, his patrons neglected him, and +in 1684 his mind was completely unhinged. He spent five years in +Bethlehem Hospital, and recovered his health. He died in a drunken fit +in 1692, and was buried in St Clement Danes, Strand, on the 6th of May. + + Lee's _Dramatic Works_ were published in 1784. In spite of their + extravagance, they contain many passages of great beauty. + + + + +LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794), American statesman and orator, was born +at Stratford, in Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 20th of January +1732, and was one of six distinguished sons of Thomas Lee (d. 1750), a +descendant of an old Cavalier family, the first representative of which +in America was Richard Lee, who was a member of the privy council, and +early in the reign of Charles I. emigrated to Virginia. Richard Henry +Lee received an academic education in England, then spent a little time +in travel, returned to Virginia in 1752, having come into possession of +a fine property left him by his father, and for several years applied +himself to varied studies. When twenty-five he was appointed justice of +the peace of Westmoreland county, and in the same year was chosen a +member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, in which he served from 1758 +to 1775. He kept a diffident silence during two sessions, his first +speech being in strong opposition to slavery, which he proposed to +discourage and eventually to abolish, by imposing a heavy tax on all +further importations. He early allied himself with the Patriot or Whig +element in Virginia, and in the years immediately preceding the War of +Independence was conspicuous as an opponent of the arbitrary measures of +the British ministry. In 1768, in a letter to John Dickinson of +Pennsylvania, he suggested a private correspondence among the friends of +liberty in the different colonies, and in 1773 he became a member of the +Virginia Committee of Correspondence. + +Lee was one of the delegates from Virginia to the first Continental +Congress at Philadelphia in 1774, and prepared the address to the people +of British America, and the second address to the people of Great +Britain, which are among the most effective papers of the time. In +accordance with instructions given by the Virginia House of Burgesses, +Lee introduced in Congress, on the 7th of June 1776, the following +famous resolutions: (1) "that these united colonies are, and of right +ought to be, free and independent states, that they are absolved from +all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connexion +between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally +dissolved"; (2) "that it is expedient to take the most effectual +measures for forming foreign alliances"; and (3) "that a plan of +confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective colonies for +their consideration and approbation." After debating the first of these +resolutions for three days, Congress resolved that the further +consideration of it should be postponed until the 1st of July, but that +a committee should be appointed to prepare a declaration of +independence. The illness of Lee's wife prevented him from being a +member of that committee, but his first resolution was adopted on the +2nd of July, and the Declaration of Independence, prepared principally +by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted two days later. Lee was in Congress +from 1774 to 1780, and was especially prominent in connexion with +foreign affairs. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in +1777, 1780-1784 and 1786-1787; was in Congress again from 1784 to 1787, +being president in 1784-1786; and was one of the first United States +senators chosen from Virginia after the adoption of the Federal +constitution. Though strongly opposed to the adoption of that +constitution, owing to what he regarded as its dangerous infringements +upon the independent power of the states, he accepted the place of +senator in hope of bringing about amendments, and proposed the Tenth +Amendment in substantially the form in which it was adopted. He became a +warm supporter of Washington's administration, and his prejudices +against the constitution were largely removed by its working in +practice. He retired from public life in 1792, and died at Chantilly, in +Westmoreland county, on the 19th of June 1794. + + See the _Life_ (Philadelphia, 1825), by his grandson, R. H. Lee; and + _Letters_ (New York, 1910), edited by J. C. Ballagh. + +His brother, WILLIAM LEE (1739-1795), was a diplomatist during the War +of Independence. He accompanied his brother, Arthur Lee (q.v.), to +England in 1766 to engage in mercantile pursuits, joined the Wilkes +faction, and in 1775 was elected an alderman of London, then a +life-position. In April 1777, however, he received notice of his +appointment by the Committee of Secret Correspondence in America to act +with Thomas Morris as commercial agent at Nantes. He went to Paris and +became involved in his brother's opposition to Franklin and Deane. In +May 1777 Congress chose William Lee commissioner to the courts of Vienna +and Berlin, but he gained recognition at neither. In September 1778, +however, while at Aix-la-Chapelle, he negotiated a plan of a treaty with +Jan de Neufville, who represented Van Berckel, pensionary of Amsterdam. +It was a copy of this proposed treaty which, on falling into the hands +of the British on the capture of Henry Laurens, the duly appointed +minister to the Netherlands, led to Great Britain's declaration of war +against the Netherlands in December 1780. Lee was recalled from his +mission to Vienna and Berlin in June 1779, without being required to +return to America. He resigned his post as an alderman of London in +January 1780, and returned to Virginia about 1784. + + See _Letters of William Lee_, edited by W. C. Ford (Brooklyn, 1891). + +Another brother, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE (1734-1797), was a member of the +Virginia House of Burgesses in 1770-1775. In 1775-1779 he was a delegate +to the Continental Congress, and as such signed the Declaration of +Independence. He served on the committee which drafted the Articles of +Confederation, and contended that there should be no treaty of peace +with Great Britain which did not grant to the United States both the +right to the Newfoundland fisheries and the free navigation of the +Mississippi. After retiring from Congress he served in 1780-1782 in the +Virginia Senate. + + + + +LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807-1870), American soldier, general in the +Confederate States army, was the youngest son of major-general Henry +Lee, called "Light Horse Harry." He was born at Stratford, Westmoreland +county, Virginia, on the 19th of January 1807, and entered West Point in +1825. Graduating four years later second in his class, he was given a +commission in the U.S. Engineer Corps. In 1831 he married Mary, daughter +of G. W. P. Custis, the adopted son of Washington and the grandson of +Mrs Washington. In 1836 he became first lieutenant, and in 1838 captain. +In this rank he took part in the Mexican War, repeatedly winning +distinction for conduct and bravery. He received the brevets of major +for Cerro Gordo, lieut.-colonel for Contreras-Churubusco and colonel for +Chapultepec. After the war he was employed in engineer work at +Washington and Baltimore, during which time, as before the war, he +resided on the great Arlington estate, near Washington, which had come +to him through his wife. In 1852 he was appointed superintendent of West +Point, and during his three years here he carried out many important +changes in the academy. Under him as cadets were his son G. W. Custis +Lee, his nephew, Fitzhugh Lee and J. E. B. Stuart, all of whom became +general officers in the Civil War. In 1855 he was appointed as +lieut.-colonel to the 2nd Cavalry, commanded by Colonel Sidney Johnston, +with whom he served against the Indians of the Texas border. In 1859, +while at Arlington on leave, he was summoned to command the United +States troops sent to deal with the John Brown raid on Harper's Ferry. +In March 1861 he was made colonel of the 1st U.S. Cavalry; but his +career in the old army ended with the secession of Virginia in the +following month. Lee was strongly averse to secession, but felt obliged +to conform to the action of his own state. The Federal authorities +offered Lee the command of the field army about to invade the South, +which he refused. Resigning his commission, he made his way to Richmond +and was at once made a major-general in the Virginian forces. A few +weeks later he became a brigadier-general (then the highest rank) in the +Confederate service. + +The military operations with which the great Civil War opened in 1861 +were directed by President Davis and General Lee. Lee was personally in +charge of the unsuccessful West Virginian operations in the autumn, and, +having been made a full general on the 31st of August, during the winter +he devoted his experience as an engineer to the fortification and +general defence of the Atlantic coast. Thence, when the well-drilled +Army of the Potomac was about to descend upon Richmond, he was hurriedly +recalled to Richmond. General Johnston was wounded at the battle of Fair +Oaks (Seven Pines) on the 31st of May 1862, and General Robert E. Lee +was assigned to the command of the famous Army of Northern Virginia +which for the next three years "carried the rebellion on its bayonets." +Little can be said of Lee's career as a commander-in-chief that is not +an integral part of the history of the Civil War. His first success was +the "Seven Days' Battle" (q.v.) in which he stopped McClellan's advance; +this was quickly followed up by the crushing defeat of the Federal army +under Pope, the invasion of Maryland and the sanguinary and indecisive +battle of the Antietam (q.v.). The year ended with another great victory +at Fredericksburg (q.v.). Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS), won against +odds of two to one, and the great three days' battle of Gettysburg +(q.v.), where for the first time fortune turned decisively against the +Confederates, were the chief events of 1863. In the autumn Lee fought a +war of manoeuvre against General Meade. The tremendous struggle of 1864 +between Lee and Grant included the battles of the Wilderness (q.v.), +Spottsylvania, North Anna, Cold Harbor and the long siege of Petersburg +(q.v.), in which, almost invariably, Lee was locally successful. But the +steady pressure of his unrelenting opponent slowly wore down his +strength. At last with not more than one man to oppose to Grant's three +he was compelled to break out of his Petersburg lines (April 1865). A +series of heavy combats revealed his purpose, and Grant pursued the +dwindling remnants of Lee's army to the westward. Headed off by the +Federal cavalry, and pressed closely in rear by Grant's main body, +General Lee had no alternative but to surrender. At Appomattox Court +House, on the 9th of April, the career of the Army of Northern Virginia +came to an end. Lee's farewell order was issued on the following day, +and within a few weeks the Confederacy was at an end. For a few months +Lee lived quietly in Powhatan county, making his formal submission to +the Federal authorities and urging on his own people acceptance of the +new conditions. In August he was offered, and accepted, the presidency +of Washington College, Lexington (now Washington and Lee University), a +post which he occupied until his death on the 12th of October 1870. He +was buried in the college grounds. + +For the events of Lee's military career briefly indicated in this notice +the reader is referred to the articles AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, &c. By his +achievements he won a high place amongst the great generals of history. +Though hampered by lack of materials and by political necessities, his +strategy was daring always, and he never hesitated to take the gravest +risks. On the field of battle he was as energetic in attack as he was +constant in defence, and his personal influence over the men whom he +led was extraordinary. No student of the American Civil War can fail to +notice how the influence of Lee dominated the course of the struggle, +and his surpassing ability was never more conspicuously shown than in +the last hopeless stages of the contest. The personal history of Lee is +lost in the history of the great crisis of America's national life; +friends and foes alike acknowledged the purity of his motives, the +virtues of his private life, his earnest Christianity and the unrepining +loyalty with which he accepted the ruin of his party. + + See A. L. Long, _Memoirs of Robert E. Lee_ (New York, 1886); Fitzhugh + Lee, _General Lee_ (New York, 1894, "Great Commanders" series); R. A. + Brock, _General Robert E. Lee_ (Washington, 1904); R. E. Lee, + _Recollections and Letters of General R. E. Lee_ (London, 1904); H. A. + White, _Lee_ ("Heroes of the Nations") (1897); P. A. Bruce, _Robert E. + Lee_ (1907); T. N. Page, _Lee_ (1909); W. H. Taylor, _Four Years with + General Lee_; J. W. Jones, _Personal Reminiscences of Robert E. Lee_ + (1874). + + + + +LEE (or LEGH) ROWLAND (d. 1543), English bishop, belonged to a +Northumberland family and was educated at Cambridge. Having entered the +Church he obtained several livings owing to the favour of Cardinal +Wolsey; after Wolsey's fall he rose high in the esteem of Henry VIII. +and of Thomas Cromwell, serving both king and minister in the business +of suppressing the monasteries, and he is said to have celebrated +Henry's secret marriage with Anne Boleyn in January 1533. Whether this +be so or not, Lee took part in preparing for the divorce proceedings +against Catherine of Aragon, and in January 1534 he was elected bishop +of Coventry and Lichfield, or Chester as the see was often called, +taking at his consecration the new oath to the king as head of the +English Church and not seeking confirmation from the pope. As bishop he +remained in Henry's personal service, endeavouring to establish the +legality of his marriage with Anne, until May 1534, when he was +appointed lord president of the council in the marches of Wales. At this +time the Welsh marches were in a very disorderly condition. Lee acted in +a stern and energetic fashion, holding courts, sentencing many offenders +to death and overcoming the hostility of the English border lords. After +some years of hard and successful work in this capacity, "the last +survivor of the old martial prelates, fitter for harness than for +bishops' robes, for a court of justice than a court of theology," died +at Shrewsbury in June 1543. Many letters from Lee to Cromwell are +preserved in the Record Office, London; these throw much light on the +bishop's career and on the lawless condition of the Welsh marches in his +time. + + One of his contemporaries was EDWARD LEE (c. 1482-1544) archbishop of + York, famous for his attack on Erasmus, who replied to him in his + _Epistolae aliquot eruditorum virorum_. Like Rowland, Edward was + useful to Henry VIII. in the matter of the divorce of Catherine of + Aragon, and was sent by the king on embassies to the emperor Charles + V. and to Pope Clement VII. In 1531 he became archbishop of York, but + he came under suspicion as one who disliked the king's new position as + head of the English Church. At Pontefract in 1536, during the + Pilgrimage of Grace, the archbishop was compelled to join the rebels, + but he did not sympathize with the rising and in 1539 he spoke in + parliament in favour of the six articles of religion. Lee, who was the + last archbishop of York to coin money, died on the 13th of September + 1544. + + + + +LEE, SIDNEY (1859- ), English man of letters, was born in London on +the 5th of December 1859. He was educated at the City of London school, +and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in modern history in +1882. In the next year he became assistant-editor of the _Dictionary of +National Biography_. In 1890 he was made joint-editor, and on the +retirement of Sir Leslie Stephen in 1891 succeeded him as editor. He was +himself a voluminous contributor to the work, writing some 800 articles, +mainly on Elizabethan authors or statesmen. While he was still at +Balliol he wrote two articles on Shakespearian questions, which were +printed in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, and in 1884 he published a book +on Stratford-on-Avon. His article on Shakespeare in the fifty-first +volume (1897) of the _Dictionary of National Biography_ formed the basis +of his _Life of William Shakespeare_ (1898), which reached its fifth +edition in 1905. Mr Lee edited in 1902 the Oxford facsimile edition of +the first folio of _Shakespeare's Comedies, Histories and Tragedies_, +followed in 1902 and 1904 by supplementary volumes giving details of +extant copies, and in 1906 by a complete edition of Shakespeare's +_Works_. Besides editions of English classics his works include a _Life +of Queen Victoria_ (1902), _Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century_ +(1904), based on his Lowell Institute lectures at Boston, Mass., in +1903, and _Shakespeare and the Modern Stage_ (1906). + + + + +LEE, SOPHIA (1750-1824), English novelist and dramatist, daughter of +John Lee (d. 1781), actor and theatrical manager, was born in London. +Her first piece, _The Chapter of Accidents_, a one-act-opera based on +Diderot's _Père de famille_, was produced by George Colman at the +Haymarket Theatre on the 5th of August 1780. The proceeds were spent in +establishing a school at Bath, where Miss Lee made a home for her +sisters. Her subsequent productions included _The Recess, or a Tale of +other Times_ (1785), a historical romance; and _Almeyda, Queen of +Grenada_ (1796), a tragedy in blank verse; she also contributed to her +sister's _Canterbury Tales_ (1797). She died at her house near Clifton +on the 13th of March 1824. + +Her sister, HARRIET LEE (1757-1851), published in 1786 a novel written +in letters, _The Errors of Innocence_. _Clara Lennox_ followed in 1797. +Her chief work is the _Canterbury Tales_ (1797-1805), a series of twelve +stories which became very popular. Lord Byron dramatized one of the +tales, "Kruitzner," as _Werner, or the Inheritance_. She died at Clifton +on the 1st of August 1851. + + + + +LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908), Confederate general in the American Civil +War, came of a family distinguished in the history of South Carolina, +and was born at Charleston, S.C., on the 22nd of September 1833. +Graduating from West Point in 1854, he served for seven years in the +United States army and resigned in 1861 on the secession of South +Carolina. He was aide de camp to General Beauregard in the attack on +Fort Sumter, and captain commanding a light battery in General +Johnston's army later in the year 1861. Thereafter, by successive steps, +each gained by distinguished conduct on the field of battle, he rose to +the rank of brigadier-general in November 1862, being ordered to take +command of defences at Vicksburg. He served at this place with great +credit until its surrender to General Grant in July 1863, and on +becoming a prisoner of war, he was immediately exchanged and promoted +major-general. His regimental service had been chiefly with artillery, +but he had generally worked with and at times commanded cavalry, and he +was now assigned to command the troops of that arm in the south-western +theatre of war. After harassing, as far as his limited numbers +permitted, the advance of Sherman's column on Meridian, he took General +Polk's place as commander of the department of Mississippi. In June +1864, on Hood's promotion to command the Army of Tennessee, S. D. Lee +was made a lieutenant-general and assigned to command Hood's old corps +in that army. He fought at Atlanta and Jonesboro and in the skirmishing +and manoeuvring along middle Tennessee which ended in the great crisis +of Nashville and the "March to the Sea." Lee's corps accompanied Hood in +the bold advance to Nashville, and fought in the battles of Franklin and +Nashville, after which, in the rout of the Confederate army Lee kept his +troops closed up and well in hand, and for three consecutive days formed +the fighting rearguard of the otherwise disintegrated army. Lee was +himself wounded, but did not give up the command until an organized +rearguard took over the post of danger. On recovery he joined General J. +E. Johnston in North Carolina, and he surrendered with Johnston in April +1865. After the war he settled in Mississippi, which was his wife's +state and during the greater part of the war his own territorial +command, and devoted himself to planting. He was president of the +Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mississippi from 1880 to 1899, +took some part in state politics and was an active member--at the time +of his death commander-in-chief--of the "United Confederate Veterans" +society. He died at Vicksburg on the 28th of May 1908. + + + + +LEE, a township of Berkshire county, in western Massachusetts, U.S.A. +Pop. (1900) 3596; (1905) 3972; (1910) 4106. The township is traversed by +the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, covers an area of 22½ sq. +m., and includes the village of Lee, 10 m. S. of Pittsfield, East Lee, +adjoining it on the S.E., and South Lee, about 3 m. to the S.W. Lee and +South Lee are on, and East Lee is near, the Housatonic river. The +eastern part of the township is generally hilly, reaching a maximum +altitude of about 2200 ft., and there are two considerable bodies of +water--Laurel Lake in the N.W. (partly in Lenox) and Goose Pond, in the +S.E. (partly in Tyringham). The region is healthy as well as beautiful, +and is much frequented as a summer resort. Memorial Hall was built in +memory of the soldiers from Lee who died during the Civil War. The chief +manufactures are paper and wire, and from the quarries near the village +of Lee is obtained an excellent quality of marble; these quarries +furnished the marble for the extension of the Capitol at Washington, for +St Patrick's cathedral in New York City and for the Lee High School and +the Lee Public Library (1908). Lime is quarried in the township. Lee was +formerly a paper-manufacturing place of great importance. The first +paper mill in the township was built in South Lee in 1806, and for a +time more paper was made in Lee than in any other place in the United +States; the Housatonic Mill in Lee was probably the first (1867) in the +United States to manufacture paper from wood pulp. + +The first settlement within the present township of Lee was made in +1760. The township was formed from parts of Great Barrington and +Washington, was incorporated in 1777 and was named in honour of General +Charles Lee (1731-1782). In the autumn of 1786 there was an encounter +near the village of East Lee between about 250 adherents of Daniel Shays +(many of them from Lee township) and a body of state troops under +General John Paterson, wherein the Shays contingent paraded a bogus +cannon (made of a yarn beam) with such effect that the state troops +fled. + + See Amory Gale, _History of the Town of Lee_ (Lee, 1854), and _Lee, + The Centennial Celebration and Centennial History of the Town of Lee_ + (Springfield, Mass., 1878), compiled by Charles M. Hyde and Alexander + Hyde. + + + + +LEE. (1) (In O. Eng. _hléo_; cf. the pronunciation _lew-ward_ of +"leeward"; the word appears in several Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch +_lij_, Dan. _lae_), properly a shelter or protection, chiefly used as a +nautical term for that side of a ship, land, &c., which is farthest from +the wind, hence a "lee shore," land under the lee of a ship, i.e. one on +which the wind blows directly and which is unsheltered. A ship is said +to make "leeway" when she drifts laterally away from her course. (2) A +word now always used in the plural "lees," meaning dregs, sediment, +particularly of wine. It comes through the O. Fr. _lie_ from a Gaulish +Lat. _lia_, and is probably of Celtic origin. + + + + +LEECH, JOHN (1817-1864), English caricaturist, was born in London on the +29th of August 1817. His father, a native of Ireland, was the landlord +of the London Coffee House on Ludgate Hill, "a man," on the testimony of +those who knew him, "of fine culture, a profound Shakespearian, and a +thorough gentleman." His mother was descended from the family of the +famous Richard Bentley. It was from his father that Leech inherited his +skill with the pencil, which he began to use at a very early age. When +he was only three, he was discovered by Flaxman, who had called on his +parents, seated on his mother's knee, drawing with much gravity. The +sculptor pronounced his sketch to be wonderful, adding, "Do not let him +be cramped with lessons in drawing; let his genius follow its own bent; +he will astonish the world"--an advice which was strictly followed. A +mail-coach, done when he was six years old, is already full of +surprising vigour and variety in its galloping horses. Leech was +educated at Charterhouse, where Thackeray, his lifelong friend, was his +schoolfellow, and at sixteen he began to study for the medical +profession at St Bartholomew's Hospital, where he won praise for the +accuracy and beauty of his anatomical drawings. He was then placed under +a Mr Whittle, an eccentric practitioner, the original of "Rawkins" in +Albert Smith's _Adventures of Mr Ledbury_, and afterwards under Dr John +Cockle; but gradually the true bent of the youth's mind asserted itself, +and he drifted into the artistic profession. He was eighteen when his +first designs were published, a quarto of four pages, entitled _Etchings +and Sketchings by A. Pen, Esq._, comic character studies from the +London streets. Then he drew some political lithographs, did rough +sketches for _Bell's Life_, produced an exceedingly popular parody on +Mulready's postal envelope, and, on the death of Seymour, applied +unsuccessfully to illustrate the _Pickwick Papers_. In 1840 Leech began +his contributions to the magazines with a series of etchings in +_Bentley's Miscellany_, where Cruikshank had published his splendid +plates to _Jack Sheppard_ and _Oliver Twist_, and was illustrating _Guy +Fawkes_ in sadly feebler fashion. In company with the elder master Leech +designed for the _Ingoldsby Legends_ and _Stanley Thorn_, and till 1847 +produced many independent series of etchings. These cannot be ranked +with his best work; their technique is exceedingly imperfect; they are +rudely bitten, with the light and shade out of relation; and we never +feel that they express the artist's individuality, the _Richard Savage_ +plates, for instance, being strongly reminiscent of Cruikshank, and "The +Dance at Stamford Hall" of Hablot Browne. In 1845 Leech illustrated _St +Giles and St James_ in Douglas Jerrold's newly started _Shilling +Magazine_, with plates more vigorous and accomplished than those in +_Bentley_, but it is in subjects of a somewhat later date, and +especially in those lightly etched and meant to be printed with colour, +that we see the artist's best powers with the needle and the acid. Among +such of his designs are four charming plates to Dickens's _Christmas +Carol_ (1844), the broadly humorous etchings in the _Comic History of +England_ (1847-1848), and the still finer illustrations to the _Comic +History of Rome_ (1852)--which last, particularly in its minor woodcuts, +shows some exquisitely graceful touches, as witness the fair faces that +rise from the surging water in "Cloelia and her Companions Escaping from +the Etruscan Camp." Among the other etchings which deserve very special +reference are those in _Young Master Troublesome or Master Jacky's +Holidays_, and the frontispiece to _Hints on Life, or How to Rise in +Society_ (1845)--a series of minute subjects linked gracefully together +by coils of smoke, illustrating the various ranks and conditions of men, +one of them--the doctor by his patient's bedside--almost equalling in +vivacity and precision the best of Cruikshank's similar scenes. Then in +the 'fifties we have the numerous etchings of sporting scenes, +contributed, together with woodcuts, to the _Handley Cross_ novels. + +Turning to Leech's lithographic work, we have, in 1841, the _Portraits +of the Children of the Mobility_, an important series dealing with the +humorous and pathetic aspects of London street Arabs, which were +afterwards so often and so effectively to employ the artist's pencil. +Amid all the squalor which they depict, they are full of individual +beauties in the delicate or touching expression of a face, in the +graceful turn of a limb. The book is scarce in its original form, but in +1875 two reproductions of the outline sketches for the designs were +published--a lithographic issue of the whole series, and a finer +photographic transcript of six of the subjects, which is more valuable +than even the finished illustrations of 1841, in which the added light +and shade is frequently spotty and ineffective, and the lining itself +has not the freedom which we find in some of Leech's other lithographs, +notably in the _Fly Leaves_, published at the _Punch_ office, and in the +inimitable subject of the nuptial couch of the Caudles, which also +appeared, in woodcut form, as a political cartoon, with Mrs Caudle, +personated by Brougham, disturbing by untimely loquacity the slumbers of +the lord chancellor, whose haggard cheek rests on the woolsack for +pillow. + +But it was in work for the wood-engravers that Leech was most prolific +and individual. Among the earlier of such designs are the illustrations +to the _Comic English_ and _Latin Grammars_ (1840), to _Written +Caricatures_ (1841), to Hood's _Comic Annual_, (1842), and to Albert +Smith's _Wassail Bowl_ (1843), subjects mainly of a small vignette size, +transcribed with the best skill of such woodcutters as Orrin Smith, and +not, like the larger and later _Punch_ illustrations, cut at speed by +several engravers working at once on the subdivided block. It was in +1841 that Leech's connexion with _Punch_ began, a connexion which +subsisted till his death on the 29th of October 1864, and resulted in +the production of the best-known and most admirable of his designs. His +first contribution appeared in the issue of the 7th of August, a +full-page illustration--entitled "Foreign Affairs"--of character studies +from the neighbourhood of Leicester Square. His cartoons deal at first +mainly with social subjects, and are rough and imperfect in execution, +but gradually their method gains in power and their subjects become more +distinctly political, and by 1849 the artist is strong enough to produce +the splendidly humorous national personification which appears in +"Disraeli Measuring the British Lion." About 1845 we have the first of +that long series of half-page and quarter-page pictures of life and +manners, executed with a hand as gentle as it was skilful, containing, +as Ruskin has said, "admittedly the finest definition and natural +history of the classes of our society, the kindest and subtlest analysis +of its foibles, the tenderest flattery of its pretty and well-bred +ways," which has yet appeared. In addition to his work for the weekly +issue of _Punch_, Leech contributed largely to the _Punch_ almanacks and +pocket-books, to _Once a Week_ from 1859 till 1862, to the _Illustrated +London News_, where some of his largest and best sporting scenes +appeared, and to innumerable novels and miscellaneous volumes besides, +of which it is only necessary to specify _A Little Tour in Ireland_ +(1859), which is noticeable as showing the artist's treatment of pure +landscape, though it also contains some of his daintiest figure-pieces, +like that of the wind-blown girl, standing on the summit of a pedestal, +with the swifts darting around her and the breadth of sea beyond. + +In 1862 Leech appealed to the public with a very successful exhibition +of some of the most remarkable of his _Punch_ drawings. These were +enlarged by a mechanical process, and coloured in oils by the artist +himself, with the assistance and under the direction of his friend J. E. +Millais. + + Leech was a singularly rapid and indefatigable worker. Dean Hole tells + us, when he was his guest, "I have known him send off from my house + three finished drawings on the wood, designed, traced, and rectified, + without much effort as it seemed, between breakfast and dinner." The + best technical qualities of Leech's art, his unerring precision, his + unfailing vivacity in the use of the line, are seen most clearly in + the first sketches for his woodcuts, and in the more finished drawings + made on tracing-paper from these first outlines, before the + chiaroscuro was added and the designs were transcribed by the + engraver. Turning to the mental qualities of his art, it would be a + mistaken criticism which ranked him as a comic draughtsman. Like + Hogarth he was a true humorist, a student of human life, though he + observed humanity mainly in its whimsical aspects, + + "Hitting all he saw with shafts + With gentle satire, kin to charity, + That harmed not." + + The earnestness and gravity of moral purpose which is so constant a + note in the work of Hogarth is indeed far less characteristic of + Leech, but there are touches of pathos and of tragedy in such of the + _Punch_ designs as the "Poor Man's Friend" (1845), and "General + Février turned Traitor" (1855), and in "The Queen of the Arena" in the + first volume of _Once a Week_, which are sufficient to prove that more + solemn powers, for which his daily work afforded no scope, lay dormant + in their artist. The purity and manliness of Leech's own character are + impressed on his art. We find in it little of the exaggeration and + grotesqueness, and none of the fierce political enthusiasm, of which + the designs of Gillray are so full. Compared with that of his great + contemporary George Cruikshank, his work is restricted both in compass + of subject and in artistic dexterity. + + Biographies of Leech have been written by John Brown (1882), and Frith + (1891); see also "John Leech's Pictures of Life and Character," by + Thackeray, _Quarterly Review_ (December 1854); letter by John Ruskin, + _Arrows of the Chace_, vol. i. p. 161; "Un Humoriste Anglais," by + Ernest Chesneau, _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (1875). (J. M. G.) + + + + +LEECH, the common name of members of the Hirudinea, a division of +Chaetopod worms. It is doubtful whether the medicinal leech, _Hirudo +medicinalis_, which is rarer in England than on the continent of Europe, +or the horse leech, _Aulastoma gulo_, often confused with it, has the +best right to the original possession of this name. But at present the +word "leech" is applied to every member of the group Hirudinea, for the +general structure and classification of which see CHAETOPODA. There are +many genera and species of leeches, the exact definitions of which are +still in need of a more complete survey. They occur in all parts of the +world and are mostly aquatic, though sometimes terrestrial, in habit. +The aquatic forms frequent streams, ponds and marshes, and the sea. The +members of this group are always carnivorous or parasitic, and prey +upon both vertebrates and invertebrates. In relation to their parasitic +habit one or two suckers are always developed, the one at the anterior +and the other at the posterior end of the body. In one subdivision of +the leeches, the _Gnathobdellidae_, the mouth has three chitinous jaws +which produce a triangular bite, though the action has been described as +like that of a circular saw. Leeches without biting jaws possess a +protrusible proboscis, and generally engulf their prey, as does the +horse leech when it attacks earthworms. But some of them are also +ectoparasites. The leech has been used in medicine from remote antiquity +as a moderate blood-letter; and it is still so used, though more rarely +than formerly. As unlicensed blood-letters, certain land-leeches are +among the most unpleasant of parasites that can be encountered in a +tropical jungle. A species of _Haemadipsa_ of Ceylon attaches itself to +the passer-by and draws blood with so little irritation that the +sufferer is said to be aware of its presence only by the trickling from +the wounds produced. Small leeches taken into the mouth with +drinking-water may give rise to serious symptoms by attaching themselves +to the fauces and neighbouring parts and thence sucking blood. The +effects of these parasites have been mistaken for those of disease. All +leeches are very extensile and can contract the body to a plump, +pear-shaped form, or extend it to a long and worm-like shape. They +frequently progress after the fashion of a "looper" caterpillar, +attaching themselves alternately by the anterior and the posterior +sucker. Others swim with eel-like curves through the water, while one +land-leech, at any rate, moves in a gliding way like a land Planarian, +and leaves, also like the Planarian, a slimy trail behind it. Leeches +are usually olive green to brown in colour, darker patches and spots +being scattered over a paler ground. The marine parasitic leech +_Pontobdella_ is of a bright green, as is also the land-leech +_Trocheta_. + +The term "leech," as an old English synonym for physician, is from a +Teutonic root meaning "heal," and is etymologically distinct from the +name (O. Eng. _lyce_) of the _Hirudo_, though the use of the one by the +other has helped to assimilate the two words. (F. E. B.) + + + + +LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE, 1st DUKE OF (1631-1712), English statesman, +commonly known also by his earlier title of EARL OF DANBY, son of Sir +Edward Osborne, Bart., of Kiveton, Yorkshire, was born in 1631. He was +great-grandson of Sir Edward Osborne (d. 1591), lord mayor of London, +who, according to the accepted account, while apprentice to Sir William +Hewett, cloth worker and lord mayor in 1559, made the fortunes of the +family by leaping from London Bridge into the river and rescuing Anne +(d. 1585), the daughter of his employer, whom he afterwards married.[1] +Thomas Osborne, the future lord treasurer, succeeded to the baronetcy +and estates in Yorkshire on his father's death in 1647, and after +unsuccessfully courting his cousin Dorothy Osborne, married Lady Bridget +Bertie, daughter of the earl of Lindsey. He was introduced to public +life and to court by his neighbour in Yorkshire, George, 2nd duke of +Buckingham, was elected M.P. for York in 1665, and gained the "first +step in his future rise" by joining Buckingham in his attack on +Clarendon in 1667. In 1668 he was appointed joint treasurer of the navy +with Sir Thomas Lyttelton, and subsequently sole treasurer. He succeeded +Sir William Coventry as commissioner for the state treasury in 1669, and +in 1673 was appointed a commissioner for the admiralty. He was created +Viscount Osborne in the Scottish peerage on the 2nd of February 1673, +and a privy councillor on the 3rd of May. On the 19th of June, on the +resignation of Lord Clifford, he was appointed lord treasurer and made +Baron Osborne of Kiveton and Viscount Latimer in the peerage of England, +while on the 27th of June 1674 he was created earl of Danby, when he +surrendered his Scottish peerage of Osborne to his second son Peregrine +Osborne. He was appointed the same year lord-lieutenant of the West +Riding of Yorkshire, and in 1677 received the Garter. + +Danby was a statesman of very different calibre from the leaders of the +Cabal ministry, Buckingham and Arlington. His principal aim was no doubt +the maintenance and increase of his own influence and party, but his +ambition corresponded with definite political views. A member of the old +cavalier party, a confidential friend and correspondent of the despotic +Lauderdale, he desired to strengthen the executive and the royal +authority. At the same time he was a keen partisan of the established +church, an enemy of both Roman Catholics and dissenters, and an opponent +of all toleration. In 1673 he opposed the Indulgence, supported the Test +Act, and spoke against the proposal for giving relief to the dissenters. +In June 1675 he signed the paper of advice drawn up by the bishops for +the king, urging the rigid enforcement of the laws against the Roman +Catholics, their complete banishment from the court, and the suppression +of conventicles,[2] and a bill introduced by him imposing special taxes +on recusants and subjecting Roman Catholic priests to imprisonment for +life was only thrown out as too lenient because it secured offenders +from the charge of treason. The same year he introduced a Test Oath by +which all holding office or seats in either House of Parliament were to +declare resistance to the royal power a crime, and promise to abstain +from all attempts to alter the government of either church or state; but +this extreme measure of retrograde toryism was successfully opposed by +wiser statesmen. The king himself as a Roman Catholic secretly opposed +and also doubted the wisdom and practicability of this "thorough" policy +of repression. Danby therefore ordered a return from every diocese of +the numbers of dissenters, both Romanist and Protestant, in order by a +proof of their insignificance to remove the royal scruples.[3] In +December 1676 he issued a proclamation for the suppression of +coffee-houses because of the "defamation of His Majesty's Government" +which took place in them, but this was soon withdrawn. In 1677, to +secure Protestantism in case of a Roman Catholic succession, he +introduced a bill by which ecclesiastical patronage and the care of the +royal children were entrusted to the bishops; but this measure, like the +other, was thrown out. + +In foreign affairs Danby showed a stronger grasp of essentials. He +desired to increase English trade, credit and power abroad. He was a +determined enemy both to Roman influence and to French ascendancy. He +terminated the war with Holland in 1674, and from that time maintained a +friendly correspondence with William; while in 1677, after two years of +tedious negotiations, he overcame all obstacles, and in spite of James's +opposition, and without the knowledge of Louis XIV., effected the +marriage between William and Mary that was the germ of the Revolution +and the Act of Settlement. This national policy, however, could only be +pursued, and the minister could only maintain himself in power, by +acquiescence in the king's personal relations with the king of France +settled by the disgraceful Treaty of Dover in 1670, which included +Charles's acceptance of a pension, and bound him to a policy exactly +opposite to Danby's, one furthering French and Roman ascendancy. Though +not a number of the Cabal ministry, and in spite of his own denial, +Danby must, it would seem, have known of these relations after becoming +lord treasurer. In any case, in 1676, together with Lauderdale alone, he +consented to a treaty between Charles and Louis according to which the +foreign policy of both kings was to be conducted in union, and Charles +received an annual subsidy of £100,000. In 1678 Charles, taking +advantage of the growing hostility to France in the nation and +parliament, raised his price, and Danby by his directions demanded +through Ralph Montagu (afterwards duke of Montagu) six million livres a +year (£300,000) for three years. Simultaneously Danby guided through +parliament a bill for raising money for a war against France; a league +was concluded with Holland, and troops were actually sent there. That +Danby, in spite of these compromising transactions, remained in +intention faithful to the national interests, appears clearly from the +hostility with which he was still regarded by France. In 1676 he is +described by Ruvigny to Louis XIV. as intensely antagonistic to France +and French interests, and as doing his utmost to prevent the treaty of +that year.[4] In 1678, on the rupture of relations between Charles and +Louis, a splendid opportunity was afforded Louis of paying off old +scores by disclosing Danby's participation in the king's demands for +French gold. + +Every circumstance now conspired to effect his fall. Although both +abroad and at home his policy had generally embodied the wishes of the +ascendant party in the state, Danby had never obtained the confidence of +the nation. His character inspired no respect, and he could not reckon +during the whole of his long career on the support of a single +individual. Charles is said to have told him when he made him treasurer +that he had only two friends in the world, himself and his own merit.[5] +He was described to Pepys on his acquiring office as "one of a broken +sort of people that have not much to lose and therefore will venture +all," and as "a beggar having £1100 or £1200 a year, but owes above +£10,000." His office brought him in £20,000 a year,[6] and he was known +to be making large profits by the sale of offices; he maintained his +power by corruption and by jealously excluding from office men of high +standing and ability. Burnet described him as "the most hated minister +that had ever been about the king." Worse men had been less detested, +but Danby had none of the amiable virtues which often counteract the +odium incurred by serious faults. Evelyn, who knew him intimately from +his youth, describes him as "a man of excellent natural parts but +nothing of generous or grateful." Shaftesbury, doubtless no friendly +witness, speaks of him as an inveterate liar, "proud, ambitious, +revengeful, false, prodigal and covetous to the highest degree,"[7] and +Burnet supports his unfavourable judgment to a great extent. His +corruption, his mean submission to a tyrant wife, his greed, his pale +face and lean person, which had succeeded to the handsome features and +comeliness of earlier days,[8] were the subject of ridicule, from the +witty sneers of Halifax to the coarse jests of the anonymous writers of +innumerable lampoons. By his championship of the national policy he had +raised up formidable foes abroad without securing a single friend or +supporter at home,[9] and his fidelity to the national interests was +now, through a very mean and ignoble act of personal spite, to be the +occasion of his downfall. + +Danby in appointing a new secretary of state had preferred Sir W. +Temple, a strong adherent of the anti-French policy, to Montagu. The +latter, after a quarrel with the duchess of Cleveland, was dismissed +from the king's employment. He immediately went over to the opposition, +and in concert with Louis XIV. and Barillon, the French ambassador, by +whom he was supplied with a large sum of money, arranged a plan for +effecting Danby's ruin. He obtained a seat in parliament; and in spite +of Danby's endeavour to seize his papers by an order in council, on the +20th of December 1678 caused two of the incriminating letters written by +Danby to him to be read aloud to the House of Commons by the Speaker. +The House immediately resolved on Danby's impeachment. At the foot of +each of the letters appeared the king's postscripts, "I approve of this +letter. C.R.," in his own handwriting; but they were not read by the +Speaker, and were entirely neglected in the proceedings against the +minister, thus emphasizing the constitutional principle that obedience +to the orders of the sovereign can be no bar to an impeachment. He was +charged with having encroached to himself royal powers by treating +matters of peace and war without the knowledge of the council, with +having promoted the raising of a standing army on pretence of a war with +France, with having obstructed the assembling of parliament, with +corruption and embezzlement in the treasury. Danby, while communicating +the "Popish Plot" to the parliament, had from the first expressed his +disbelief in the so-called revelations of Titus Oates, and his +backwardness in the matter now furnished an additional charge of having +"traitorously concealed the plot." He was voted guilty by the Commons; +but while the Lords were disputing whether the accused peer should have +bail, and whether the charges amounted to more than a misdemeanour, +parliament was prorogued on the 30th of December and dissolved three +weeks later. In March 1679 a new parliament hostile to Danby was +returned, and he was forced to resign the treasurership; but he received +a pardon from the king under the Great Seal, and a warrant for a +marquessate.[10] His proposed advancement in rank was severely reflected +upon in the Lords, Halifax declaring it in the king's presence the +recompense of treason, "not to be borne"; and in the Commons his +retirement from office by no means appeased his antagonists. The +proceedings against him were revived, a committee of privileges deciding +on the 19th of March 1679 that the dissolution of parliament was no +abatement of an impeachment. A motion was passed for his committal by +the Lords, who, as in Clarendon's case, voted his banishment. This was, +however, rejected by the Commons, who now passed an act of attainder. +Danby had removed to the country, but returned on the 21st of April to +avoid the threatened passing by the Lords of the attainder, and was sent +to the Tower. In his written defence he now pleaded the king's pardon, +but on the 5th of May 1679 it was pronounced illegal by the Commons. +This declaration was again repeated by the Commons in 1689 on the +occasion of another attack made upon Danby in that year, and was finally +embodied in the Act of Settlement in 1701. + +The Commons now demanded judgment against the prisoner from the Lords. +Further proceedings, however, were stopped by the dissolution of +parliament again in July; but for nearly five years Danby remained a +prisoner in the Tower. A number of pamphlets asserting the complicity of +the fallen minister in the Popish Plot, and even accusing him of the +murder of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, were published in 1679 and 1680; +they were answered by Danby's secretary, Edward Christian, in +_Reflections_; and in May 1681 Danby was actually indicted by the Grand +Jury of Middlesex for Godfrey's murder on the accusation of Edward +FitzHarris. His petition to the king for a trial by his peers on this +indictment was refused, and an attempt to prosecute the publishers of +the false evidence in the king's bench was unsuccessful. For some time +all appeals to the king, to parliament, and to the courts of justice +were unavailing; but on the 12th of February 1684 his application to +Chief Justice Jeffreys was at last successful, and he was set at liberty +on finding bail to the amount of £40,000, to appear in the House of +Lords in the following session. He visited the king at court the same +day; but took no part in public affairs for the rest of the reign. + +After James's accession Danby was discharged from his bail by the Lords +on the 19th of May 1685, and the order declaring a dissolution of +parliament to be no abatement of an impeachment was reversed. He again +took his seat in the Lords as a leader of the moderate Tory party. +Though a strong Tory and supporter of the hereditary principle, James's +attacks on Protestantism soon drove him into opposition. He was visited +by Dykvelt, William of Orange's agent; and in June 1687 he wrote to +William assuring him of his support. On the 30th of June 1688 he was one +of the seven leaders of the Revolution who signed the invitation to +William. In November he occupied York in the prince's interest, +returning to London to meet William on the 26th of December. He appears +to have thought that William would not claim the crown,[11] and at first +supported the theory that the throne having been vacated by James's +flight the succession fell as of right to Mary; but as this met with +little support, and was rejected both by William and by Mary herself, he +voted against the regency and joined with Halifax and the Commons in +declaring the prince and princess joint sovereigns. + +Danby had rendered extremely important services to William's cause. On +the 20th of April 1689 he was created marquess of Carmarthen and was +made lord-lieutenant of the three ridings of Yorkshire. He was, however, +still greatly disliked by the Whigs, and William, instead of reinstating +him in the lord treasurership, only appointed him president of the +council in February 1689. He did not conceal his vexation and +disappointment, which were increased by the appointment of Halifax to +the office of lord privy seal. The antagonism between the "black" and +the "white marquess" (the latter being the nickname given to Carmarthen +in allusion to his sickly appearance), which had been forgotten in their +common hatred to the French policy and to Rome, revived in all its +bitterness. He retired to the country and was seldom present at the +council. In June and July new motions were made in parliament for his +removal; but notwithstanding his great unpopularity, on the retirement +of Halifax in 1690 he again acquired the chief power in the state, which +he retained till 1695 by bribery in parliament and by the support of the +king and queen. In 1690, during William's absence in Ireland, he was +appointed Mary's chief adviser. In 1691, desiring to compromise Halifax, +he discredited himself by the patronage of an informer named Fuller, +soon proved an impostor. He was absent in 1692 when the Place Bill was +thrown out. In 1693 he presided in great state as lord high steward at +the trial of Lord Mohun; and on the 4th of May 1694 he was created duke +of Leeds.[12] The same year he supported the Triennial Bill, but opposed +the new treason bill as weakening the hands of the executive. Meanwhile +fresh attacks had been made upon him. He was accused unjustly of +Jacobitism. In April 1695 he was impeached once more by the Commons for +having received a bribe of 5000 guineas to procure the new charter for +the East India Company. In his defence, whilst denying that he had +received the money and appealing to his past services, he did not +attempt to conceal the fact that according to his experience bribery was +an acknowledged and universal custom in public business, and that he +himself had been instrumental in obtaining money for others. Meanwhile +his servant, who was said to have been the intermediary between the duke +and the Company in the transaction, fled the country; and no evidence +being obtainable to convict, the proceedings fell to the ground. In May +1695 he had been ordered to discontinue his attendance at the council. +He returned in October, but was not included among the lords justices +appointed regents during William's absence in this year. In November he +was created D.C.L. by the university of Oxford; in December he became a +commissioner of trade, and in December 1696 governor of the Royal +Fishery Company. He opposed the prosecution of Sir John Fenwick, but +supported the action taken by members of both Houses in defence of +William's rights in the same year. On the 23rd of April 1698 he +entertained the tsar, Peter the Great, at Wimbledon. He had for some +time lost the real direction of affairs, and in May 1699 he was +compelled to retire from office and from the lord-lieutenancy of +Yorkshire. + +In Queen Anne's reign, in his old age, he is described as "a gentleman +of admirable natural parts, great knowledge and experience in the +affairs of his own country, but of no reputation with any party. He hath +not been regarded, although he took his place at the council board."[13] +The veteran statesman, however, by no means acquiesced in his enforced +retirement, and continued to take an active part in politics. As a +zealous churchman and Protestant he still possessed a following. In 1705 +he supported a motion that the church was in danger, and in 1710 in +Sacheverell's case spoke in defence of hereditary right.[14] In November +of this year he obtained a renewal of his pension of £3500 a year from +the post office which he was holding in 1694,[15] and in 1711 at the +age of eighty was a competitor for the office of lord privy seal.[16] +His long and eventful career, however, terminated soon afterwards by his +death on the 26th of July 1712. + + In 1710 the duke had published _Copies and Extracts of some letters + written to and from the Earl of Danby ... in the years 1676, 1677 and + 1678_, in defence of his conduct, and this was accompanied by _Memoirs + relating to the Impeachment of Thomas, Earl of Danby_. The original + letters, however, of Danby to Montagu have now been published (by the + Historical MSS. Commission from the MSS. of J. Eliot Hodgkin), and are + seen to have been considerably garbled by Danby for the purposes of + publication, several passages being obliterated and others altered by + his own hand. + + See the lives, by Sidney Lee in the _Dict. Nat. Biography_ (1895); by + T. P. Courtenay in _Lardner's Encyclopaedia_, "Eminent British + Statesmen," vol. v. (1850); in Lodge's _Portraits_, vii.; and _Lives + and Characters of ... Illustrious Persons_, by J. le Neve (1714). + Further material for his biography exists in _Add. MSS._, 26040-95 (56 + vols., containing his papers); in the _Duke of Leeds MSS. at Hornby + Castle_, calendered in _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. pt. vii. pp. 1-43; + _MSS. of Earl of Lindsay and J. Eliot Hodgkin_; and _Calendars of + State Papers Dom_. See also _Add. MSS. 1894-1899_, Index and Calendar; + _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. pt. ii., _House of Lords MSS.; Gen. Cat. + British Museum_ for various pamphlets. (P. C. Y.) + + +_Later Dukes of Leeds._ + +The duke's only surviving son, Peregrine (1659-1729), who became 2nd +duke of Leeds on his father's death, had been a member of the House of +Lords as Baron Osborne since 1690, but he is better known as a naval +officer; in this service he attained the rank of a vice-admiral. He died +on the 25th of June 1729, when his son Peregrine Hyde (1691-1731) became +3rd duke. The 4th duke was the latter's son Thomas (1713-1789), who was +succeeded by his son Francis. + +Francis Osborne, 5th duke of Leeds (1751-1799), was born on the 29th of +January 1751 and was educated at Westminster school and at Christ +Church, Oxford. He was a member of parliament in 1774 and 1775; in 1776 +he became a peer as Baron Osborne, and in 1777 lord chamberlain of the +queen's household. In the House of Lords he was prominent as a +determined foe of the prime minister, Lord North, who, after he had +resigned his position as chamberlain, deprived him of the office of +lord-lieutenant of the East Riding of Yorkshire in 1780. He regained +this, however, two years later. Early in 1783 the marquess of +Carmarthen, as he was called, was selected as ambassador to France, but +he did not take up this appointment, becoming instead secretary for +foreign affairs under William Pitt in December of the same year. As +secretary he was little more than a cipher, and he left office in April +1791. Subsequently he took some slight part in politics, and he died in +London on the 31st of January 1799. His _Political Memoranda_ were +edited by Oscar Browning for the Camden Society in 1884, and there are +eight volumes of his official correspondence in the British Museum. His +first wife was Amelia (1754-1784), daughter of Robert Darcy, 4th earl of +Holdernesse, who became Baroness Conyers in her own right in 1778. Their +elder son, George William Frederick (1775-1838), succeeded his father as +duke of Leeds and his mother as Baron Conyers. These titles were, +however, separated when his son, Francis Godolphin Darcy, the 7th Duke +(1798-1859), died without sons in May 1859. The barony passed to his +nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling into abeyance on +his death in August 1888, and the dukedom passed to his cousin, George +Godolphin Osborne (1802-1872), a son of Francis Godolphin Osborne +(1777-1850), who was created Baron Godolphin in 1832. In 1895 George's +grandson George Godolphin Osborne (b. 1862) became 10th duke of Leeds. +The name of Godolphin, which is borne by many of the Osbornes, was +introduced into the family through the marriage of the 4th duke with +Mary (d. 1764), daughter and co-heiress of Francis Godolphin, 2nd earl +of Godolphin, and grand-daughter of the great duke of Marlborough. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Chronicles of London Bridge_, by R. Thomson (1827), 313, quoting + Stow. + + [2] _Cal. of St Pap. Dom._ (1673-1675), p. 449. + + [3] Letter of Morley, Bishop of Winchester, to Danby (June 10, 1676). + (_Hist. MSS. Com._ xi. Rep. pt. vii. 14.) + + [4] _Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland_, by Sir J. Dalrymple + (1773), i. app. 104. + + [5] _Letters to Sir Joseph Williamson_ (Camden Soc., 1874), i. 64. + + [6] Halifax note-book in Devonshire House collection, quoted in + Foxcroft's _Life of Halifax_, ii. 63, note. + + [7] _Life of Shaftesbury_, by W. D. Christie (1871), ii. 312. + + [8] Macky's _Memoirs_, 46; Pepys's _Diary_, viii. 143. + + [9] See the description of his position at this time by Sir W. Temple + in _Lives of Illustrious Persons_ (1714), 40. + + [10] Add. MSS. 28094, f. 47. + + [11] Boyer's _Annals_ (1722), 433. + + [12] The title was taken, not from Leeds in Yorkshire, but from Leeds + in Kent, 4½ m. from Maidstone, which in the 17th century was a more + important place than its Yorkshire namesake. + + [13] _Memoirs of Sir John Macky_ (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 46. + + [14] Boyer's _Annals_, 219, 433. + + [15] _Harleian MSS._ 2264, No. 239. + + [16] Boyer's _Annals_, 515. + + + + +LEEDS, a city and municipal county and parliamentary borough in the West +Riding of Yorkshire, England, 185 m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1891) +367,505; (1901) 428,968. It is served by the Great Northern railway +(Central station), the Midland (Wellington station), North-Eastern and +London & North-Western (New station), and Great Central and Lancashire & +Yorkshire railways (Central station). It lies nearly in the centre of +the Riding, in the valley of the river Aire. + +The plan of the city is in no way regular, and the numerous handsome +public buildings are distributed among several streets, principally on +the north side of the narrow river. The town hall is a fine building in +Grecian style, well placed in a square between Park Lane and Great +George Street. It is of oblong shape, with a handsome façade over which +rises a domed clock-tower. The principal apartment is the Victoria Hall, +a richly ornamented chamber measuring 161 ft. in length, 72 in breadth +and 75 in height. It was opened in 1858 by Queen Victoria. Immediately +adjacent to it are the municipal offices (1884) in Italian style. The +Royal Exchange (1872) in Boar Lane is an excellent Perpendicular +building. In ecclesiastical architecture Leeds is not rich. The church +of St John, however, is an interesting example of the junction of Gothic +traditions with Renaissance tendencies in architecture. It dates from +1634 and contains some fine contemporary woodwork. St Peter's parish +church occupies an ancient site, and preserves a very early cross from +the former building. The church was rebuilt in 1840 at the instance of +the vicar, Dr Walter Farquhar Hook (1798-1875), afterwards dean of +Chichester, whose work here in a poor and ill-educated parish brought +him fame. The church of All Souls (1880) commemorates him. It may be +noted that the vicarage of Leeds has in modern times commonly formed a +step to the episcopal bench. There are numerous other modern churches +and chapels, of which the Unitarian chapel in Park Row is noteworthy. +Leeds is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a pro-cathedral +dedicated to St Anne. There is a large free library in the municipal +offices, and numerous branch libraries are maintained. The Leeds old +library is a private institution founded in 1768 by Dr Priestley, who +was then minister of the Unitarian chapel. It occupies a building in +Commercial Street. The Philosophical and Literary Society, established +in 1820, possesses a handsome building in Park Row, known as the +Philosophical Hall, containing a laboratory, scientific library, lecture +room, and museum, with excellent natural history, geological and +archaeological collections. The City Art Gallery was completed in 1888, +and contains a fine permanent collection, while exhibitions are also +held. The University, incorporated in 1904, grew out of Yorkshire +College, established in 1875 for the purpose of supplying instruction in +the arts and sciences which are applicable to the manufactures, +engineering, mining and agriculture of the county. In 1887 it became one +of the constituent colleges of Victoria University, Manchester, and so +remained until its separate incorporation. The existing building was +completed in 1885, and contains a hall of residence, a central hall and +library, and complete equipments in all departments of instruction. New +departments have been opened in extension of the original scheme, such +as the medical department (1894). A day training college is a branch of +the institution. The Mechanics' Institute (1865) occupies a handsome +Italian building in Cookridge Street near the town hall. It comprises a +lecture room, library, reading and class rooms; and day and evening +classes and an art school are maintained. The grammar school, occupying +a Gothic building (1858) at Woodhouse Moor, dates its foundation from +1552. It is largely endowed, and possesses exhibitions tenable at +Oxford, Cambridge and Durham universities. There is a large training +college for the Wesleyan Methodist ministry in the suburb of Headingley. +The Yorkshire Ladies' Council of Education has as its object the +promotion of female education, and the instruction of girls and women of +the artisan class in domestic economy, &c. The general infirmary in +Great George Street is a Gothic building of brick with stone dressings +with a highly ornamental exterior by Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work +this is by no means the only good example in Leeds. The city possesses +further notable buildings in its market-halls, theatres, clubs, &c. + +Among open spaces devoted by the corporation to public use that of +Woodhouse Moor is the principal one within the city, but 3 m. N.E. of +the centre is Roundhay Park, a tract of 700 acres, beautifully laid out +and containing a picturesque lake. In 1889 there came into the +possession of the corporation the ground, lying 3 m. up the river from +the centre of the city, containing the celebrated ruins of Kirkstall +Abbey. The remains of this great foundation, of the middle of the 12th +century, are extensive, and so far typical of the usual arrangement of +Cistercian houses as to be described under the heading Abbey. The ruins +are carefully preserved, and form a remarkable contrast with the +surrounding industrial district. Apart from Kirkstall there are few +antiquarian remains in the locality. In Guildford Street, near the town +hall, is the Red Hall, where Charles I. lay during his enforced journey +under the charge of the army in 1647. + +For manufacturing and commercial purposes the situation of Leeds is +highly advantageous. It occupies a central position in the railway +system of England. It has communication with Liverpool by the Leeds and +Liverpool Canal, and with Goole and the Humber by the Aire and Calder +Navigation. It is moreover the centre of an important coal and iron +district. Though regarded as the capital of the great manufacturing +district of the West Riding, Leeds is not in its centre but on its +border. Eastward and northward the country is agricultural, but westward +and southward lies a mass of manufacturing towns. The characteristic +industry is the woollen manufacture. The industry is carried on in a +great number of neighbouring townships, but the cloth is commonly +finished or dressed in the city itself, this procedure differing from +that of the wool manufacturers in Gloucestershire and the west of +England, who carry out the entire process in one factory. Formerly much +of the business between manufacturer and merchant was transacted in the +cloth halls, which formed a kind of market, but merchants now order +goods directly from the manufacturers. Artificial silk is important +among the textile products. Subsidiary to these leading industries is +the production of machine-made clothing, hats and caps. The leather +trade of Leeds is the largest in England, though no sole leather is +tanned. The supply comes chiefly from British India. Boots and shoes are +extensively manufactured. The iron trade in its different branches +rivals the woollen trade in wealth, including the casting of metal, and +the manufacture of steam engines, steam wagons, steam ploughs, +machinery, tools, nails, &c. Leeds was formerly famed for the production +of artistic pottery, and specimens of old Leeds ware are highly prized. +The industry lapsed about the end of the 18th century, but has been +revived in modern times. Minor and less specialized industries are +numerous. + +The parliamentary borough is divided into five divisions (North, +Central, South, East and West), each returning one member. The county +borough was created in 1888. Leeds was raised to the rank of a city in +1893. The municipal borough is under a lord mayor (the title was +conferred in 1897 on the occasion of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee), +16 aldermen and 48 councillors. Area, 21,572 acres. + + Leeds (Loidis, Ledes) is mentioned by Bede as the district where the + Northumbrian kings had a royal vill in 627, and where Oswy, king of + Northumbria, defeated Penda, king of the Mercians, in 665. Before the + Norman Conquest seven thanes held it of Edward the Confessor as seven + manors, but William the Conqueror granted the whole to Ilbert de Lacy, + and at the time of the Domesday Survey it was held of him by Ralph + Paganel, who is said to have raised Leeds castle, possibly on the site + of an earlier fortification. In 1207 Maurice Paganel constituted the + inhabitants of Leeds free burgesses, granting them the same liberties + as Robert de Lacy had granted to Pontefract, including the right of + selling burgher land to whom they pleased except to religious houses, + and freedom from toll. He also appointed as the chief officer of the + town a reeve who was to be chosen by the lord of the manor, the + burgesses being "more eligible if only they would pay as much as + others for the office." The town was incorporated by Charles I. in + 1626 under the title of an alderman, 7 principal burgesses and 24 + assistants. A second charter granted by Charles II. in 1661 appointed + a mayor, 12 aldermen and 24 assistants, and is still the governing + charter of the borough. The woollen manufacture is said to have been + introduced into Leeds in the 14th century, and owing to the facilities + for trade afforded by its position on the river Aire soon became an + important industry. Camden, writing about 1590, says, "Leeds is + rendered wealthy by its woollen manufactures," and the incorporation + charter of 1626 recites that "the inhabitants have for a long time + exercised the art of making cloth." The cloth was then, as it is now, + made in the neighbouring villages and only finished and sold in the + town. A successful attempt was made in the beginning of the 19th + century by Mr William Hirst to introduce goods of a superior quality + which were made and finished in his own factory. Other manufacturers + followed his example, but their factories are now only used for the + finishing process. The worsted trade which was formerly carried on to + some extent has now almost disappeared. The spinning of flax by + machinery was introduced early in the 19th century by Mr John + Marshall, a Holbeck manufacturer, who was one of the first to apply + Sir Richard Arkwright's water frame, invented for cotton manufacture, + to the spinning of linen yarn. The burgesses were represented in + parliament by one member during the Commonwealth, but not again until + by the Reform Act of 1832 they were allowed to return two members. In + 1867 they were granted an additional member. + + See James Wardell, _The Municipal History of the Borough of Leeds_ + (1846); J. D. Whitaker, _Loidis and Elmete: or an Attempt to + illustrate the Districts described in these words by Bede_ (1816); D. + H. Atkinson, _Ralph Thoresby, the Topographer; his Town (Leeds) and + Times_ (1885-1887). + + + + +LEEK, a market town in the Leek parliamentary division of Staffordshire, +England, 157 m. N.W. from London, on the Churnet Valley branch of the +North Staffordshire railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 15,484. The +town lies high in a picturesque situation near the head of the river +Churnet. The church of St Edward the Confessor is mainly Decorated, and +stands in a churchyard commanding a beautiful view from an elevation of +some 640 ft. There is here a curious pillar of Danish work ornately +carved. An institute contains a free library, lecture hall, art gallery +and school of art. A grammar school was established in 1723. In the +vicinity are ruins of the Cistercian abbey De la Croix, or Dieulacresse, +erected in 1214 by Ralph de Blundevill, earl of Chester. The slight +remains are principally embodied in a farm-house. The silk manufacture +includes sewing silk, braids, silk buttons, &c. Cloud Hill, rising to +1190 ft. W. of the town, causes a curious phenomenon in the height of +summer, the sun sinking behind one flank to reappear beyond the other, +and thus appearing to set twice. + +Leek (Lee, Leike, Leeke) formed part of the great estates of Ælfgar, +earl of Mercia; it escheated to William the Conqueror who held it at the +time of the Domesday Survey. Later it passed to the earls Palatine of +Chester, remaining in their hands until Ralph de Blundevill, earl of +Chester, gave it to the abbey of Dieulacresse, which continued to hold +it until its dissolution. The same earl in a charter which he gave to +the town (_temp._ John) calls it a borough and grants to his free +burgesses various privileges, including freedom from toll throughout +Cheshire. These privileges were confirmed by Richard, abbot of +Dieulacresse, but the town received no royal charter and failed to +establish its burghal position. The Wednesday market which is still held +dates from a grant of John to the earl of Chester: in the 17th century +it was very considerable. A fair, also granted by John, beginning on the +third day before the Translation of Edward the Confessor is still held. +The silk manufacture which can be traced to the latter part of the 17th +century is thought to have been aided by the settlement in Leek of some +Huguenots after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In the 17th and +18th centuries the town was famous for its ale. Prince Charles Edward +passed through Leek on his march to Derby (1745) and again on his return +journey to Scotland. A story in connexion with the Civil Wars is told to +explain the expression "Now thus" occurring on the tombstone of a +citizen, who by this meaningless answer to all questions sought escape +on the plea of insanity. + + + + +LEEK, the _Allium Porrum_ of botanists, a plant now considered as a mere +variety of _Allium Ampeloprasum_, wild leek, produced by cultivation. +The plant is probably of Eastern origin, since it was commonly +cultivated in Egypt in the time of the Pharaohs, and is so to the +present day; while as regards its first appearance in England both +Tusser and Gerard--two of the earliest writers on this class of +subjects, the former of whom flourished in the early part and the latter +in the later part of the 16th century--speak of it as being then +commonly cultivated and used.[1] The Romans, it would appear, made +great use of the leek for savouring their dishes, as seems proved by the +number of recipes for its use referred to by Celsius. Hence it is more +than probable that it was brought to England by the Romans. Italy was +celebrated for leeks in the time of Pliny (_H.N._ xix. c. 6), according +to whom they were brought into great esteem through the emperor Nero, +derisively surnamed "Porrophagus," who used to eat them for several days +in every month to clear his voice. The leek is very generally cultivated +in Great Britain as an esculent, but more especially in Scotland and in +Wales, being esteemed as an excellent and wholesome vegetable, with +properties very similar to those of the onion, but of a milder +character. In America it is not much cultivated except by market +gardeners in the neighbourhood of large cities. The whole plant, with +the exception of the fibrous roots, is used in soups and stews. The +sheathing stalks of the leaves lap over each other, and form a thickish +stem-like base, which is blanched, and is the part chiefly preferred. +These blanched stems are much employed in French cookery. They form an +important ingredient in Scotch winter broth, and particularly in the +national dish _cock-a-leekie_, and are also largely used boiled, and +served with toasted bread and white sauce, as in the case of asparagus. +Leeks are sown in the spring, earlier or later according to the soil and +the season, and are planted out for the summer, being dropped into holes +made with a stout dibble and left unfilled in order to allow the stems +space to swell. When they are thus planted deeply the holes gradually +fill up, and the base of the stem becomes blanched and prepared for use, +a process aided by drawing up the earth round about the stems as they +elongate. The leek is one of the most useful vegetables the cottager can +grow, as it will supply him with a large amount of produce during the +winter and spring. It is extremely hardy, and presents no difficulty in +its cultivation, the chief point, as with all succulent esculents, being +that it should be grown quickly upon well-enriched soil. The plant is of +biennial duration, flowering the second year, and perishing after +perfecting its seeds. The leek is the national symbol or badge of the +Welsh, who wear it in their hats on St David's Day. The origin of this +custom has received various explanations, all of which are more or less +speculative. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Tusser, in his verse for the month of March, writes:-- + + "Now leckes are in season, for pottage ful good, + And spareth the milck cow, and purgeth the blood, + These hauving with peason, for pottage in Lent, + Thou spareth both otemel and bread to be spent." + + + + +LEER, a town and river port in the Prussian province of Hanover, lying +in a fertile plain on the right bank of the Leda near its confluence +with the Ems, and at the junction of railways to Bremen, Emden and +Münster. Pop. (1905) 12,347. The streets are broad, well paved, and +adorned with many elegant buildings, among which are Roman Catholic, +Lutheran and Calvinist churches, and a new town hall with a tower 165 +ft. high. Among its educational establishments are a classical school +and a school of navigation. Linen and woollen fabrics, hosiery, paper, +cigars, soap, vinegar and earthenware are manufactured, and there are +iron-foundries, distilleries, tanneries and shipbuilding yards. Many +markets for horses and cattle are held. The transit trade from the +regions traversed by the Westphalian and Oldenburg railways is +considerable. The principal exports are cattle, horses, cheese, butter, +honey, wax, flour, paper, hardware and Westphalian coal. Leer is one of +the principal ports for steamboat communication with the North Sea +watering-places of Borkum and Norderney. Leer is a very old place, +although it only obtained municipal privileges in 1823. Near the town is +the Plitenberg, formerly a heathen place of sacrifice. + + + + +LEEUWARDEN, the capital of the province of Friesland, Holland, on the +canal between Harlingen and Groningen, 33 m. by rail W. of Groningen. +Pop (1901) 32,203. It is one of the most prosperous towns in the +country. To the name of the Frisian Hague, it is entitled as well by +similarity of history as by similarity of appearance. As the Hague grew +up round the court of the counts of Holland, so Leeuwarden round the +court of the Frisian stadtholders; and, like the Hague, it is an +exceptionally clean and attractive town, with parks, pleasure grounds, +and drives. The old gates have been somewhat ruthlessly cleared away, +and the site of the town walls on the north and west competes with the +park called the Prince's Garden as a public pleasure ground. The +Prince's Garden was originally laid out by William Frederick of Nassau +in 1648, and was presented to the town by King William I. in 1819. The +royal palace, which was the seat of the Frisian court from 1603 to 1747, +is now the residence of the royal commissioner for Friesland. It was +restored in 1816 and contains a portrait gallery of the Frisian +stadtholders. The fine mansion called the Kanselary was begun in 1502 as +a residence for the chancellor of George of Saxony (1539), governor of +Friesland, but was only completed in 1571 and served as a court house +until 1811. It was restored at the end of the 19th century to contain +the important provincial library and national archives. Other noteworthy +buildings are the picturesque weigh-house (1595), the town hall (1715), +the provincial courts (1850), and the great church of St Jacob, once the +church of the Jacobins, and the largest monastic church in the +Netherlands. The splendid tombs of the Frisian stadtholders buried here +(Louis of Nassau, Anne of Orange, and others) were destroyed in the +revolution 1795. The unfinished tower of Oldehove dates from 1529-1532. +The museum of the Frisian Society is of modern foundation and contains a +collection of provincial antiquities, including two rooms from +Hindeloopen, an ancient village of Friesland, some 16th- and +17th-century portraits, some Frisian works in silver of the 17th and +18th centuries, and a collection of porcelain and faience. + +Leeuwarden is the centre of a flourishing trade, being easily accessible +from all parts of the province by road, rail and canal. The chief +business is in stock of every kind, dairy and agricultural produce and +fresh-water fish, a large quantity of which is exported to France. The +industries include boat-building and timber yards, iron-foundries, +copper and lead works, furniture, organ, tobacco and other factories, +and the manufacture of gold and silver wares. The town is first +mentioned in documents of the 13th century. + + + + +LEEUWENHOEK, or LEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN (1632-1723), Dutch microscopist, +was born at Delft on the 24th of October 1632. For a short time he was +in a merchant's office in Amsterdam, but early devoted himself to the +manufacture of microscopes and to the study of the minute structure of +organized bodies by their aid. He appears soon to have found that single +lenses of very short focus were preferable to the compound microscopes +then in use; and it is clear from the discoveries he made with these +that they must have been of very excellent quality. His discoveries were +for the most part made public in the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the +Royal Society, to the notice of which body he was introduced by R. de +Graaf in 1673, and of which he was elected a fellow in 1680. He was +chosen a corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1697. +He died at his native place on the 26th of August 1723. Though his +researches were not conducted on any definite scientific plan, his +powers of careful observation enabled him to make many interesting +discoveries in the minute anatomy of man, the higher animals and +insects. He confirmed and extended M. Malpighi's demonstration of the +blood capillaries in 1668, and six years later he gave the first +accurate description of the red blood corpuscles, which he found to be +circular in man but oval in frogs and fishes. In 1677 he described and +illustrated the spermatozoa in dogs and other animals, though in this +discovery Stephen Hamm had anticipated him by a few months; and he +investigated the structure of the teeth, crystalline lens, muscle, &c. +In 1680 he noticed that yeast consists of minute globular particles, and +he described the different structure of the stem in monocotyledonous and +dicotyledonous plants. + + His researches in the life-history of various of the lower forms of + animal life were in opposition to the doctrine that they could be + "produced spontaneously, or bred from corruption." Thus he showed that + the weevils of granaries, in his time commonly supposed to be bred + _from_ wheat, as well as _in_ it, are grubs hatched from eggs + deposited by winged insects. His chapter on the flea, in which he not + only describes its structure, but traces out the whole history of its + metamorphoses from its first emergence from the egg, is full of + interest--not so much for the exactness of his observations, as for + its incidental revelation of the extraordinary ignorance then + prevalent in regard to the origin and propagation of "this minute and + despised creature," which some asserted to be produced from sand, + others from dust, others from the dung of pigeons, and others from + urine, but which he showed to be "endowed with as great perfection in + its kind as any large animal," and proved to breed in the regular way + of winged insects. He even noted the fact that the pupa of the flea is + sometimes attacked and fed upon by a mite--an observation which + suggested the well known lines of Swift. His attention having been + drawn to the blighting of the young shoots of fruit-trees, which was + commonly attributed to the ants found upon them, he was the first to + find the _Aphides_ that really do the mischief; and, upon searching + into the history of their generation, he observed the young within the + bodies of their parents. He carefully studied also the history of the + ant and was the first to show that what had been commonly reputed to + be "ants' eggs" are really their pupae, containing the perfect insect + nearly ready for emersion, whilst the true eggs are far smaller, and + give origin to "maggots" or larvae. Of the sea-mussel, again, and + other shell-fish, he argued (in reply to a then recent defence of + Aristotle's doctrine by F. Buonanni, a learned Jesuit of Rome) that + they are not generated out of the mud or sand found on the seashore or + the beds of rivers at low water, but from spawn, by the regular course + of generation; and he maintained the same to be true of the + fresh-water mussel (_Unio_), whose ova he examined so carefully that + he saw in them the rotation of the embryo, a phenomenon supposed to + have been first discovered long afterwards. In the same spirit he + investigated the generation of eels, which were at that time supposed, + not only by the ignorant vulgar, but by "respectable and learned men," + to be produced from dew without the ordinary process of generation. + Not only was he the first discoverer of the rotifers, but he showed + "how wonderfully nature has provided for the preservation of their + species," by their tolerance of the drying-up of the water they + inhabit, and the resistance afforded to the evaporation of the fluids + of their bodies by the impermeability of the casing in which they then + become enclosed. "We can now easily conceive," he says, "that in all + rain-water which is collected from gutters in cisterns, and in all + waters exposed to the air, animalcules may be found; for they may be + carried thither by the particles of dust blown about by the winds." + + Leeuwenhoek's contributions to the _Philosophical Transactions_ + amounted to one hundred and twelve; he also published twenty-six + papers in the _Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences_. Two + collections of his works appeared during his life, one in Dutch + (Leiden and Delft, 1685-1718), and the other in Latin (_Opera omnia s. + Arcana naturae ope exactissimorum microscopiorum selecta_, Leiden, + 1715-1722); and a selection from them was translated by S. Hoole and + published in English (London, 1781-1798). + + + + +LEEWARD ISLANDS, a group in the West Indies. They derive their name from +being less exposed to the prevailing N.E. trade wind than the adjacent +Windward Islands. They are the most northerly of the Lesser Antilles, +and form a curved chain stretching S.W. from Puerto Rico to meet St +Lucia, the most northerly of the Windward Islands. They consist of the +Virgin Islands, with St Kitts, Antigua, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, +Dominica, Martinique and their various dependencies. The Virgin Islands +are owned by Great Britain and Denmark, Holland having St Eustatius, +with Saba, and part of St Martin. France possesses Guadeloupe, +Martinique, St Bartholomew and the remainder of St Martin. The rest of +the islands are British, and (with the exception of Sombrero, a small +island used only as a lighthouse-station) form, under one governor, a +colony divided into five presidencies, namely: Antigua (with Barbuda and +Redonda), St Kitts (with Nevis and Anguilla), Dominica, Montserrat and +the Virgin Islands. Total pop. (1901) 127,536. There is one federal +executive council nominated by the crown, and one federal legislative +council--ten nominated and ten elected members. Of the latter, four are +chosen by the unofficial members of the local legislative council of +Antigua, two by those of Dominica, and four by the non-official members +of the local legislative council of St Kitts-Nevis. The federal +legislative council meets once annually, usually at St John, Antigua. + + + + +LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN (1814-1873), Irish journalist and author, was +born of an old Huguenot family at Dublin on the 28th of August 1814. He +entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1833. At an early age he had given +proof of literary talent, and in 1837 he joined the staff of the _Dublin +University Magazine_, of which he became later editor and proprietor. In +1837 he produced the Irish ballad _Phaudhrig Croohore_, which was +shortly afterwards followed by a second, _Shamus O'Brien_, successfully +recited in the United States by Samuel Lover. In 1839 he became +proprietor of the _Warder_, a Dublin newspaper, and, after purchasing +the _Evening Packet_ and a large interest in the _Dublin Evening Mail_, +he combined the three papers under the title the _Evening Mail_, a +weekly reprint from which was issued as the _Warder_. After the death of +his wife in 1858 he lived in retirement, and his best work was produced +at this period of his life. He wrote some clever novels, of a +sensational order, in which his vigorous imagination and his Irish love +of the supernatural have full play. He died in Dublin on the 7th of +February 1873. His best-known novels are _The House by the Churchyard_ +(1863) and _Uncle Silas, a Tale of Bartram Haugh_ (1864). _The Purcell +Papers_, Irish stories dating from his college days, were edited with a +memoir of the author by A. P. Graves in 1880. + + + + +LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH, duke of Danzig (1755-1820), marshal of +France, was born at Rouffach in Alsace on the 20th of October 1755. At +the outbreak of the Revolution he was a sergeant in the Gardes +françaises, and with many of his comrades of this regiment took the +popular side. He distinguished himself by bravery and humanity in many +of the street fights in Paris, and becoming an officer and again +distinguishing himself--this time against foreign invaders--he was made +a general of division in 1794. He took part in the Revolutionary Wars +from Fleurus to Stokach, always resolute, strictly obedient and calm. At +Stokach (1799) he received a severe wound and had to return to France, +where he assisted Napoleon during the _coup d'état_ of 18 Brumaire. He +was one of the first generals of division to be made marshal at the +beginning of the First Empire. He commanded the guard infantry at Jena, +conducted the siege of Danzig 1806-1807 (from which town he received his +title in 1808), commanded a corps in the emperor's campaign of 1808-1809 +in Spain, and in 1809 was given the difficult task of commanding the +Bavarian contingent, which he led in the containing engagements of +Abensberg and Rohr and at the battle of Eckmühl. He commanded the +Imperial Guard in Russia, 1812, fought through the last campaign of the +Empire, and won fresh glory at Montmirail, Areis-sur-Aube and +Champaubert. He was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII. but joined +Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and was only amnestied and permitted +to resume his seat in the upper chamber in 1819. He died at Paris on the +14th of September 1820. Marshal Lefebvre was a simple soldier, whose +qualifications for high rank, great as they were, came from experience +and not from native genius. He was incapable of exercising a supreme +command, even of leading an important detachment, but he was absolutely +trustworthy as a subordinate, as brave as he was experienced, and +intensely loyal to his chief. He maintained to the end of his life a +rustic simplicity of speech and demeanour. Of his wife (formerly a +_blanchisseuse_ to the Gardes Françaises) many stories have been told, +but in so far as they are to her discredit they seem to be false, she +being, like the marshal, a plain "child of the people." + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 16, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41685 *** |