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diff --git a/41685.txt b/41685.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d0ce8b0..0000000 --- a/41685.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20342 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 3, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 3 - "Latin Language" to "Lefebvre, François-Joseph" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: December 21, 2012 [EBook #41685] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LATIN LANGUAGE: "... this is the most convenient place in - which to state briefly the very little that can be said as yet to - have been ascertained as to the general relations of Italic to its - sister groups." 'that' amended from 'than'. - - ARTICLE LATIN LANGUAGE: "... (which had been gradually noted, see - e.g. F. Skutsch in Kroll's Altertumswissenschaft im letzten - Vierteljahrhundert, 1905) their actual effect on the language." - 'im' amended from 'in'. - - ARTICLE LATIN LITERATURE: "... from the name of its greatest - literary representative, whose activity as a speaker and writer was - unremitting during nearly the whole period." 'speaker' amended from - 'peaker'. - - ARTICLE LATIUM: "See G. A. Colini in Bullettino di paletnologia - Italiana, xxxi. (1905)." 'paletnologia' amended from - 'palentologia'. - - ARTICLE LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, THEOPHILE MALO: "In 1784 he was - promoted captain, and in 1791 he received the cross of St Louis." - '1784' amended from '1748'. - - ARTICLE LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT: "... his collaborators in the - reformed system of chemical terminology set forth in 1787 in the - Methode de nomenclature chimique, were among the earliest French - converts ..." 'nomenclature' amended from 'momenclature'. - - ARTICLE LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT: "Under the head of 'oxidable or - acidifiable' substances, the combination of which with oxygen - yielded acids, were placed sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, and the - muriatic, fluoric and boracic radicals." 'radicals' amended from - 'radicles'. - - ARTICLE LEATHER: "... and thickly split, the poorer hides being - utilized for chamois; they are now re-split at the fatty strata so - that all fat may be easily removed, and while the grains are - dressed as skivers ..." 'utilized' amended from 'ultilized'. - - ARTICLE LEAVENWORTH: "The fort, from which the city took its name, - was built in 1827, in the Indian country, by Colonel Henry - Leavenworth (1783-1834) of the 3rd Infantry, for the protection of - traders plying between the Missouri river and Santa Fe." 'Santa' - amended from 'Sante'. - - ARTICLE LECTOURE: "In 1473 Cardinal Jean de Jouffroy besieged the - town on behalf of Louis XI. and after its fall put the whole - population to the sword." 'population' amended from 'pupulation'. - - ARTICLE LEEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN: "... and a selection from them - was translated by S. Hoole and published in English (London, - 1781-1798)." '1781-1798' amended from '1798-1781'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVI, SLICE III - - Latin Language to Lefebvre, Francois-Joseph - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - LATIN LANGUAGE LAZARITES - LATIN LITERATURE LAZARUS (New Testament) - LATINUS LAZARUS, EMMA - LATITUDE LAZARUS, HENRY - LATIUM LAZARUS, MORITZ - LATONA LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF - LATOUCHE, HYACINTHE JOSEPH DE LEA, HENRY CHARLES - LA TOUR, MAURICE QUENTIN DE LEAD (South Dakota, U.S.A.) - LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, MALO LEAD (chemical element) - LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRE LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS - LA TREMOILLE LEADHILLITE - LATROBE, CHARLES JOSEPH LEADHILLS - LATTEN LEAD POISONING - LATTICE LEAF PLANT LEADVILLE - LATUDE, JEAN HENRI LEAF - LATUKA LEAF-INSECT - LAUBAN LEAGUE - LAUBE, HEINRICH LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN - L'AUBESPINE LEAMINGTON - LAUCHSTADT LEANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN - LAUD, WILLIAM LEAP-YEAR - LAUD LEAR, EDWARD - LAUDANUM LEASE - LAUDER, SIR THOMAS DICK LEATHER - LAUDER, WILLIAM LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL - LAUDER (burgh of Scotland) LEATHERHEAD - LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND LEATHES, STANLEY - LAUENBURG LEAVEN - LAUFF, JOSEF LEAVENWORTH - LAUGHTER LEBANON (middle east) - LAUMONT, FRANCOIS GILLET DE LEBANON (Illinois, U.S.A.) - LAUNCESTON (Cornwall, England) LEBANON (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) - LAUNCESTON (Tasmania) LE BARGY, CHARLES GUSTAVE AUGUSTE - LAUNCH LE BEAU, CHARLES - LAUNDRY LEBEAU, JOSEPH - LA UNION (Salvador) LEBEL, JEAN - LA UNION (Spain) LEBER, JEAN MICHEL CONSTANT - LAURAHUTTE LEBEUF, JEAN - LAUREATE LE BLANC, NICOLAS - LAUREL LE BLANC - LAURENS, HENRY LEBOEUF, EDMOND - LAURENT, FRANCOIS LE BON, JOSEPH - LAURENTINA, VIA LEBRIJA - LAURENTIUS, PAUL LE BRUN, CHARLES - LAURIA ROGER DE LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANCOIS - LAURIA (Italy) LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE - LAURIER, SIR WILFRID LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ECOUCHARD - LAURISTON, JACQUES BERNARD LAW LE CARON, HENRI - LAURIUM (Greece) LE CATEAU - LAURIUM (Michigan, U.S.A.) LECCE - LAURUSTINUS LECCO - LAURVIK LECH - LAUSANNE LE CHAMBON - LAUTREC, ODET DE FOIX LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENE GUY - LAUZUN, ANTONIN NOMPAR DE CAUMONT LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR - LAVA LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE - LAVABO LE CLERC, JEAN - LAVAGNA LECOCQ, ALEXANDRE CHARLES - LAVAL, ANDRE DE, DE LOHEAC LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU - LAVAL (France) LE CONTE, JOSEPH - LA VALLIERE, LOUISE FRANCOISE DE LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE RENE - LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR LE COQ, ROBERT - LAVAUR LECOUVREUR, ADRIENNE - LAVEDAN, HENRI LEON EMILE LE CREUSOT - LAVELEYE, EMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE LECTERN - LAVENDER LECTION, LECTIONARY - LAVERDY, CLEMENT FRANCOIS DE LECTISTERNIUM - LAVERNA LECTOR - LAVERY, JOHN LECTOURE - LAVIGERIE, CHARLES ALLEMAND LEDA - LA VILLEMARQUE, CLAUDE HENRI LE DAIM, OLIVIER - LAVINIUM LEDBURY - LAVISSE, ERNEST LEDGER - LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECISLAUS JOHANN - LA VOISIN LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE - LAW, JOHN LEDYARD, JOHN - LAW, WILLIAM LEE, ANN - LAW LEE, ARTHUR - LAWES, HENRY LEE, FITZHUGH - LAWES, SIR JOHN BENNET LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER - LAW MERCHANT LEE, HENRY - LAWN LEE, JAMES PRINCE - LAWN-TENNIS LEE, NATHANIEL - LAWRENCE, ST LEE, RICHARD HENRY - LAWRENCE, AMOS (American merchant) LEE, ROBERT EDWARD - LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (junior) LEE ROWLAND - LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED LEE, SIDNEY - LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY LEE, SOPHIA - LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD LAWRENCE LEE, STEPHEN DILL - LAWRENCE, STRINGER LEE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) - LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS LEE (shelter or sediment) - LAWRENCE (Kansas, U.S.A.) LEECH, JOHN - LAWRENCE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) LEECH (Chaetopod worms) - LAWRENCEBURG LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE - LAWSON, CECIL GORDON LEEDS (England) - LAWSON, SIR JOHN LEEK (English town) - LAWSON, SIR WILFRID LEEK (plant) - LAY LEER - LAYA, JEAN LOUIS LEEUWARDEN - LAYAMON LEEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN - LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY LEEWARD ISLANDS - LAYMEN, HOUSES OF LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN - LAYNEZ, DIEGO LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH - LAZAR - - - - -LATIN LANGUAGE. 1. _Earliest Records of its Area._--Latin was the -language spoken in Rome and in the plain of Latium in the 6th or 7th -century B.C.--the earliest period from which we have any contemporary -record of its existence. But it is as yet impossible to determine -either, on the one hand, whether the archaic inscription of Praeneste -(see below), which is assigned with great probability to that epoch, -represents exactly the language then spoken in Rome; or, on the other, -over how much larger an area of the Italian peninsula, or even of the -lands to the north and west, the same language may at that date have -extended. In the 5th century B.C. we find its limits within the -peninsula fixed on the north-west and south-west by Etruscan (see -ETRURIA: _Language_); on the east, south-east, and probably north and -north-east, by Safine (Sabine) dialects (of the Marsi, Paeligni, -Samnites, Sabini and Picenum, qq.v.); but on the north we have no direct -record of Sabine speech, nor of any non-Latinian tongue nearer than -Tuder and Asculum or earlier than the 4th century B.C. (see UMBRIA, -IGUVIUM, PICENUM). We know however, both from tradition and from the -archaeological data, that the Safine tribes were in the 5th century B.C. -migrating, or at least sending off swarms of their younger folk, farther -and farther southward into the peninsula. Of the languages they were -then displacing we have no explicit record save in the case of Etruscan -in Campania, but it may be reasonably inferred from the evidence of -place-names and tribal names, combined with that of the Faliscan -inscriptions, that before the Safine invasion some idiom, not remote -from Latin, was spoken by the pre-Etruscan tribes down the length of the -west coast (see FALISCI; VOLSCI; also ROME: _History_; LIGURIA; SICULI). - -2. _Earliest Roman Inscriptions._--At Rome, at all events, it is clear -from the unwavering voice of tradition that Latin was spoken from the -beginning of the city. Of the earliest Latin inscriptions found in Rome -which were known in 1909, the oldest, the so-called "Forum inscription," -can hardly be referred with confidence to an earlier century than the -5th; the later, the well-known _Duenos_ (= later Latin _bonus_) -inscription, certainly belongs to the 4th; both of these are briefly -described below (SS 40, 41). At this date we have probably the period of -the narrowest extension of Latin; non-Latin idioms were spoken in -Etruria, Umbria, Picenum and in the Marsian and Volscian hills. But -almost directly the area begins to expand again, and after the war with -Pyrrhus the Roman arms had planted the language of Rome in her military -colonies throughout the peninsula. When we come to the 3rd century B.C. -the Latin inscriptions begin to be more numerous, and in them (e.g. the -oldest epitaphs of the Scipio family) the language is very little -removed from what it was in the time of Plautus. - -3. _The Italic Group of Languages._--For the characteristics and -affinities of the dialects that have just been mentioned, see the -article ITALY: _Ancient Languages and Peoples_, and to the separate -articles on the tribes. Here it is well to point out that the only one -of these languages which is not akin to Latin is Etruscan; on the other -hand, the only one very closely resembling Latin is Faliscan, which with -it forms what we may call the Latinian dialect of the Italic group of -the Indo-European family of languages. Since, however, we have a far -more complete knowledge of Latin than of any other member of the Italic -group, this is the most convenient place in which to state briefly the -very little that can be said as yet to have been ascertained as to the -general relations of Italic to its sister groups. Here, as in many -kindred questions, the work of Paul Kretschmer of Vienna (_Einleitung in -die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, Gottingen, 1896) marked an -important epoch in the historical aspects of linguistic study, as the -first scientific attempt to interpret critically the different kinds of -evidence which the Indo-European languages give us, not in vocabulary -merely, but in phonology, morphology, and especially in their mutual -borrowings, and to combine it with the non-linguistic data of tradition -and archaeology. A certain number of the results so obtained have met -with general acceptance and may be briefly treated here. It is, however, -extremely dangerous to draw merely from linguistic kinship deductions as -to racial identity, or even as to an original contiguity of habitation. -Close resemblances in any two languages, especially those in their inner -structure (morphology), may be due to identity of race, or to long -neighbourhood in the earliest period of their development; but they may -also be caused by temporary neighbourhood (for a longer or shorter -period), brought about by migrations at a later epoch (or epochs). A -particular change in sound or usage may spread over a whole chain of -dialects and be in the end exhibited alike by them all, although the -time at which it first began was long after their special and -distinctive characteristics had become clearly marked. For example, the -limitation of the word-accent to the last three syllables of a word in -Latin and Oscan (see below)--a phenomenon which has left deep marks on -all the Romance languages--demonstrably grew up between the 5th and 2nd -centuries B.C.; and it is a permissible conjecture that it started from -the influence of the Greek colonies in Italy (especially Cumae and -Naples), in whose language the same limitation (although with an accent -whose actual character was probably more largely musical) had been -established some centuries sooner. - -4. _Position of the Italic Group._--The Italic group, then, when -compared with the other seven main "families" of Indo-European speech, -in respect of their most significant differences, ranges itself thus: - - (i.) _Back-palatal and Velar Sounds._--In point of its treatment of - the Indo-European back-palatal and velar sounds, it belongs to the - western or _centum_ group, the name of which is, of course, taken from - Latin; that is to say, like German, Celtic and Greek, it did not - sibilate original _k_ and _g_, which in Indo-Iranian, Armenian, - Slavonic and Albanian have been converted into various types of - sibilants (Ind.-Eur.* _kmtom_ = Lat. _centum_, Gr. _[Greek: - (he)-katon]_, Welsh _cant_, Eng. _hund_-(_red_), but Sans. _satam_, - Zend _sat[schwa]m_); but, on the other hand, in company with just the - same three western groups, and in contrast to the eastern, the Italic - languages labialized the original velars (Ind.-Eur. * _qod_ = Lat. - _quod_, Osc. _pod_, Gr. _[Greek: pod-(apos)]_, Welsh _pwy_, Eng. - _what_, but Sans. _kas_, "who?"). - - (ii.) _Indo-European Aspirates._--Like Greek and Sanskrit, but in - contrast to all the other groups (even to Zend and Armenian), the - Italic group largely preserves a distinction between the Indo-European - _mediae aspiratae_ and _mediae_ (e.g. between Ind.-Eur. _dh_ and _d_, - the former when initial becoming initially regularly Lat. _f_ as in - Lat. _fec-i_ [cf. Umb. _feia_, "_faciat_"], beside Gr. [Greek: - he-thek-a] [cf. Sans. _da-dha-ti_, "he places"], the latter simply _d_ - as in _domus_, Gr. [Greek: domos]). But the _aspiratae_, even where - thus distinctly treated in Italic, became fricatives, not pure - aspirates, a character which they only retained in Greek and Sanskrit. - - (iii.) _Indo-European o._--With Greek and Celtic, Latin preserved the - Indo-European _o_, which in the more northerly groups (Germanic, - Balto-Slavonic), and also in Indo-Iranian, and, curiously, in - Messapian, was confused with _a_. The name for olive-oil, which spread - with the use of this commodity from Greek ([Greek: elaiwon]) to Italic - speakers and thence to the north, becoming by regular changes (see - below) in Latin first *_olaivom_, then *_oleivom_, and then taken into - Gothic and becoming _alev_, leaving its parent form to change further - (not later than 100 B.C.) in Latin to _oleum_, is a particularly - important example, because (a) of the chronological limits which are - implied, however roughly, in the process just described, and (b) of - the close association in time of the change of _o_ to _a_ with the - earlier stages of the "sound-shifting" (of the Indo-European plosives - and aspirates) in German; see Kretschmer, _Einleit_. p. 116, and the - authorities he cites. - - (iv.) _Accentuation._--One marked innovation common to the western - groups as compared with what Greek and Sanskrit show to have been an - earlier feature of the Indo-European parent speech was the development - of a strong expiratory (sometimes called stress) accent upon the first - syllable of all words. This appears early in the history of Italic, - Celtic, Lettish (probably, and at a still later period) in Germanic, - though at a period later than the beginning of the "sound-shifting." - This extinguished the complex system of Indo-European accentuation, - which is directly reflected in Sanskrit, and was itself replaced in - Latin and Oscan by another system already mentioned, but not in Latin - till it had produced marked effects upon the language (e.g. the - degradation of the vowels in compounds as in _conficio_ from - _con-facio_, _includo_ from _in-claudo_). This curious wave of - accentual change (first pointed out by Dieterich, _Kuhn's - Zeitschrift_, i., and later by Thurneysen, _Revue celtique_, vi. 312, - _Rheinisches Museum_, xliii. 349) needs and deserves to be more - closely investigated from a chronological standpoint. At present it is - not clear how far it was a really connected process in all the - languages. (See further Kretschmer, _op. cit._ p. 115, K. Brugmann, - _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (1902-1904), p. 57, and their - citations, especially Meyer-Lubke, _Die Betonung im Gallischen_ - (1901).) - -To these larger affinities may be added some important points in which -the Italic group shows marked resemblances to other groups. - -5. _Italic and Celtic._--It is now universally admitted that the Celtic -languages stand in a much closer relation than any other group to the -Italic. It may even be doubted whether there was any real frontier-line -at all between the two groups before the Etruscan invasion of Italy (see -ETRURIA: _Language_; LIGURIA). The number of morphological innovations -on the Indo-European system which the two groups share, and which are -almost if not wholly peculiar to them, is particularly striking. Of -these the chief are the following. - - (i.) Extension of the abstract-noun stems in -_ti_- (like Greek - [Greek: phatis] with Attic [Greek: basis], &c.) by an -_n_- suffix, as - in Lat. _mentio_ (stem _mention_-) = Ir. (_er_-)_mitiu_ (stem - _miti-n_-), contrasted with the same word without the _n_-suffix in - Sans. _mati_-, Lat. _mens_, Ind.-Eur. *_mn-ti_-. A similar extension - (shared also by Gothic) appears in Lat. _iuventu-t_-, O. Ir. _oitiu_ - (stem _oiliut_-) beside the simple -_tu_- in nouns like _senatus_. - - (ii.) Superlative formation in -_is-mmo_- as in Lat. _aegerrimus_ for - *_aegr-ismmos_, Gallic [Greek: Ouxisame] the name of a town meaning - "the highest." - - (iii.) Genitive singular of the _o_-stems (second declension) in -_i_ - Lat. _agri_, O. Ir. (Ogam inscriptions) _magi_, "of a son." - - (iv.) Passive and deponent formation in -_r_, Lat. _sequitur_ = Ir. - _sechedar_, "he follows." The originally active meaning of this - curious -_r_ suffix was first pointed out by Zimmer (_Kuhn's - Zeitschrift_, 1888, xxx. 224), who thus explained the use of the - accusative pronouns with these "passive" forms in Celtic; Ir. - -_m-berar_, "I am carried," literally "folk carry me"; Umb. _pir - ferar_, literally _ignem feratur_, though as _pir_ is a neuter word (= - Gr. [Greek: pyr]) this example was not so convincing. But within a - twelvemonth of the appearance of Zimmer's article, an Oscan - inscription (Conway, _Camb. Philol. Society's Proceedings_, 1890, p. - 16, and _Italic Dialects_, p. 113) was discovered containing the - phrase _ultiumam_ (_iuvilam_) _sakrafir_, "ultimam (imaginem) - consecraverint" (or "ultima consecretur") which demonstrated the - nature of the suffix in Italic also. This originally active meaning of - the -_r_ form (in the third person singular passive) is the cause of - the remarkable fondness for the "impersonal" use of the passive in - Latin (e.g., _itur in antiquam silvam_, instead of _eunt_), which was - naturally extended to all tenses of the passive (_ventum est_, &c.), - so soon as its origin was forgotten. Fuller details of the development - will be found in Conway, _op. cit._ p. 561, and the authorities there - cited (very little is added by K. Brugmann, _Kurze vergl. Gramm._ - 1904, p. 596). - - (v.) Formation of the perfect passive from the -_to_- past participle, - Lat. _monitus_ (_est_), &c., Ir. _leic-the_, "he was left," - _ro-leiced_, "he has been left." In Latin the participle maintains its - distinct adjectival character; in Irish (J. Strachan, _Old Irish - Paradigms_, 1905, p. 50) it has sunk into a purely verbal form, just - as the perfect participles in -_us_ in Umbrian have been absorbed into - the future perfect in -_ust_ (_entelust_, "intenderit"; _benust_, - "venerit") with its impersonal passive or third plural active - -_us_(_s_)_so_ (probably standing for -_ussor_) as in _benuso_, - "ventum erit" (or "venerint"). - - To these must be further added some striking peculiarities in - phonology. - - (vi.) Assimilation of _p_ to a _q^u_ in a following syllable as in - Lat. _quinque_ = Ir. _coic_, compared with Sans. _panca_, Gr. [Greek: - pente], Eng. _five_, Ind.-Eur. *_penqe_. - - (vii.) Finally--and perhaps this parallelism is the most important of - all from the historical standpoint--both Italic and Celtic are divided - into two sub-families which differ, and differ in the same way, in - their treatment of the Ind.-Eur. velar tenuis _q_. In both halves of - each group it was labialized to some extent; in one half of each group - it was labialized so far as to become _p_. This is the great line of - cleavage (i.) between Latinian (Lat. _quod_, _quando_, _quinque_; - Falisc. _cuando_) and Osco-Umbrian, better called Safine (Osc. _pod_, - Umb. _panu_- [for *_pando_], Osc.-Umb. _pompe_-, "five," in Osc. - _pumperias_ "nonae," Umb. _pumpedia_-, "fifth day of the month"); and - (ii.) between Goidelic (Gaelic) (O. Ir. _coic_, "five," _maq_, "son"; - modern Irish and Scotch _Mac_ as in _MacPherson_) and Brythonic - (Britannic) (Welsh _pump_, "five," _Ap_ for map, as in _Powel_ for _Ap - Howel_). - - The same distinction appears elsewhere; Germanic belongs, broadly - described, to the _q_-group, and Greek, broadly described, to the - _p_-group. The ethnological bearing of the distinction within Italy is - considered in the articles SABINI and VOLSCI; but the wider questions - which the facts suggest have as yet been only scantily discussed; see - the references for the "Sequanian" dialect of Gallic (in the - inscription of Coligny, whose language preserves _q_) in the article - CELTS: _Language_. - - From these primitive affinities we must clearly distinguish the - numerous words taken into Latin from the Celts of north Italy within - the historic period; for these see especially an interesting study by - J. Zwicker, _De vocabulis et rebus Gallicis sive Transpadanis apud - Vergilium_ (Leipzig dissertation, 1905). - -6. _Greek and Italic._--We have seen above (S 4, i., ii., iii.) certain -broad characteristics which the Greek and the Italic groups of language -have in common. The old question of the degree of their affinity may be -briefly noticed. There are deep-seated differences in morphology, -phonology and vocabulary between the two languages--such as (a) the loss -of the forms of the ablative in Greek and of the middle voice in Latin; -(b) the decay of the fricatives (_s_, _v_, _^i_) in Greek and the -cavalier treatment of the aspirates in Latin; and (c) the almost total -discrepancy of the vocabularies of law and religion in the two -languages--which altogether forbid the assumption that the two groups -can ever have been completely identical after their first dialectic -separation from the parent language. On the other hand, in the first -early periods of that dialectic development in the Indo-European family, -the precursors of Greek and Italic cannot have been separated by any -very wide boundary. To this primitive neighbourhood may be referred such -peculiarities as (a) the genitive plural feminine ending in -_asom_ (Gr. -[Greek: -aon], later in various dialects [Greek: -eon, -on, -an]; cf. -Osc. _egmazum_ "rerum"; Lat. _mensarum_, with -_r_- from -_s_-), (b) the -feminine gender of many nouns of the -_o_- declension, cf. Gr. [Greek: -he hodos], Lat. _haec fagus_; and some important and ancient -syntactical features, especially in the uses of the cases (e.g. (c) the -genitive of price) of the (d) infinitive and of the (e) participles -passive (though in each case the forms differ widely in the two -groups), and perhaps (f) of the dependent moods (though here again the -forms have been vigorously reshaped in Italic). These syntactic -parallels, which are hardly noticed by Kretschmer in his otherwise -careful discussion (_Einleit._ p. 155 seq.), serve to confirm his -general conclusion which has been here adopted; because syntactic -peculiarities have a long life and may survive not merely complete -revolutions in morphology, but even a complete change in the speaker's -language, e.g. such Celticisms in Irish-English as "What are you after -doing?" for "What have you done?" or in Welsh-English as "whatever" for -"anyhow." A few isolated correspondences in vocabulary, as in _remus_ -from *_ret-s-mo_-, with [Greek: eretmos] and in a few plant-names (e.g. -[Greek: prason] and _porrum_), cannot disturb the general conclusion, -though no doubt they have some historical significance, if it could be -determined. - -7. _Indo-Iranian and Italo-Celtic._--Only a brief reference can here be -made to the striking list of resemblances between the Indo-Iranian and -Italo-Celtic groups, especially in vocabulary, which Kretschmer has -collected (ibid. pp. 126-144). The most striking of these are _rex_, O. -Ir. _rig_-, Sans. _raj_-, and the political meaning of the same root in -the corresponding verb in both languages (contrast _regere_ with the -merely physical meaning of Gr. [Greek: oregnymi]); Lat. _flamen_ (for -*_flag-men_) exactly = Sans. _brahman_- (neuter), meaning probably -"sacrificing," "worshipping," and then "priesthood," "priest," from the -Ind.-Eur. root *_bhelgh_-, "blaze," "make to blaze"; _res_, _rem_ -exactly = Sans. _ras_, _ram_ in declension and especially in meaning; -and _Ario_-, "noble," in Gallic _Ariomanus_, &c., = Sans. _arya_-, -"noble" (whence "Aryan"). So _argentum_ exactly = Sans. _rajata_-, Zend -_erezata_-; contrast the different (though morphologically kindred) -suffix in Gr. [Greek: argyros]. Some forty-two other Latin or Celtic -words (among them _credere_, _caesaries_, _probus_, _castus_ (cf. Osc. -_kasit_, Lat. _caret_, Sans. _sista_-), _Volcanus_, _Neptunus_, _ensis_, -_erus_, _pruina_, _rus_, _novacula_) have precise Sanskrit or Iranian -equivalents, and none so near in any other of the eight groups of -languages. Finally the use of an -_r_ suffix in the third plural is -common to both Italo-Celtic (see above) and Indo-Iranian. These things -clearly point to a fairly close, and probably in part political, -intercourse between the two communities of speakers at some early epoch. -A shorter, but interesting, list of correspondences in vocabulary with -Balto-Slavonic (e.g. the words _mentiri_, _ros_, _ignis_ have close -equivalents in Balto-Slavonic) suggests that at the same period the -precursor of this dialect too was a not remote neighbour. - -8. _Date of the Separation of the Italic Group._--The date at which the -Italic group of languages began to have (so far as it had at all) a -separate development of its own is at present only a matter of -conjecture. But the combination of archaeological and linguistic -research which has already begun can have no more interesting object -than the approximate determination of this date (or group of dates); for -it will give us a point of cardinal importance in the early history of -Europe. The only consideration which can here be offered as a -starting-point for the inquiry is the chronological relation of the -Etruscan invasion, which is probably referable to the 12th century B.C. -(see ETRURIA), to the two strata of Indo-European population--the -CO- -folk (_Falisci_, _Marruci_, _Volsci_, _Hernici_ and others), to whom the -Tuscan invaders owe the names _Etrusci_ and _Tusci_, and the -NO- folk, -who, on the West coast, in the centre and south of Italy, appear at a -distinctly later epoch, in some places (as in the Bruttian peninsula, -see BRUTTII) only at the beginning of our historical record. If the view -of Latin as mainly the tongue of the -CO- folk prove to be correct (see -ROME: _History_; ITALY: _Ancient Languages and Peoples_; SABINI; VOLSCI) -we must regard it (a) as the southern or earlier half of the Italic -group, firmly rooted in Italy in the 12th century B.C., but (b) by no -means yet isolated from contact with the northern or later half; such is -at least the suggestion of the striking peculiarities in morphology -which it shares with not merely Oscan and Umbrian, but also, as we have -seen, with Celtic. The progress in time of this isolation ought before -long to be traced with some approach to certainty. - - -THE HISTORY OF LATIN - -9. We may now proceed to notice the chief changes that arose in Latin -after the (more or less) complete separation of the Italic group -whenever it came about. The contrasted features of Oscan and Umbrian, to -some of which, for special reasons, occasional reference will be here -made, are fully described under OSCA LINGUA and IGUVIUM respectively. - -It is rarely possible to fix with any precision the date at which a -particular change began or was completed, and the most serviceable form -for this conspectus of the development will be to present, under the -heads of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax, the chief characteristics of -Ciceronian Latin which we know to have been developed after Latin became -a separate language. Which of these changes, if any, can be assigned to -a particular period will be seen as we proceed. But it should be -remembered that an enormous increase of exact knowledge has accrued from -the scientific methods of research introduced by A. Leskien and K. -Brugmann in 1879, and finally established by Brugmann's great -_Grundriss_ in 1886, and that only a brief enumeration can be here -attempted. For adequate study reference must be made to the fuller -treatises quoted, and especially to the sections bearing on Latin in K. -Brugmann's _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (1902). - - -I. PHONOLOGY - - 10. _The Latin Accent._--It will be convenient to begin with some - account of the most important discovery made since the application of - scientific method to the study of Latin, for, though it is not - strictly a part of phonology, it is wrapped up with much of the - development both of the sounds and, by consequence, of the inflexions. - It has long been observed (as we have seen S 4, iv. above) that the - restriction of the word-accent in Latin to the last three syllables of - the word, and its attachment to a long syllable in the penult, were - certainly not its earliest traceable condition; between this, the - classical system, and the comparative freedom with which the - word-accent was placed in pro-ethnic Indo-European, there had - intervened a period of first-syllable accentuation to which were due - many of the characteristic contractions of Oscan and Umbrian, and in - Latin the degradation of the vowels in such forms as _accentus_ from - _ad_ + _cantus_ or _praecipitem_ from _prae_ + _caput_- (S 19 below). - R. von Planta (_Osk.-Umbr. Grammatik_, 1893, i. p. 594) pointed out - that in Oscan also, by the 3rd century B.C., this - first-syllable-accent had probably given way to a system which limited - the word-accent in some such way as in classical Latin. But it - remained for C. Exon, in a brilliant article (_Hermathena_ (1906), - xiv. 117, seq.), to deduce from the more precise stages of the change - (which had been gradually noted, see e.g. F. Skutsch in Kroll's - _Altertumswissenschaft im letzten Vierteljahrhundert_, 1905) their - actual effect on the language. - - 11. _Accent in Time of Plautus._--The rules which have been - established for the position of the accent in the time of Plautus are - these: - - (i.) The quantity of the final syllable had no effect on accent. - - (ii.) If the penult was long, it bore the accent (_amabamus_). - - (iii.) If the penult was short, then - - (a) if the ante-penult was long, it bore the accent (_amabimus_); - - (b) if the ante-penult was short, then - - (i.) if the ante-ante-penult was long, the accent was on the - ante-penult (_amicitia_); but - - (ii.) if the ante-ante-penult was also short, it bore the accent - (_columine, pueritia_). - - _Exon's Laws of Syncope._--With these facts are now linked what may be - called Exon's Laws, viz:-- - - _In pre-Plautine Latin_ in all words or word-groups of four or more - syllables whose chief accent is on one long syllable, a short - unaccented medial vowel was syncopated; thus *_quinquedecem_ became - *_quinqdecem_ and thence _quindecim_ (for the -_im_ see S 19), - *_sups-emere_ became *_supsmere_ and that _sumere_ (on -_psm- v. - inf._) *_surregere_, *_surregemus_, and the like became _surgere_, - _surgemus_, and the rest of the paradigm followed; so probably _valide - bonus_ became _valde bonus_, _extera viam_ became _extra viam_; so - *_supo-tendo_ became _subtendo_ (pronounced _sup-tendo_), *_aridere_, - *_avidere_ (from _aridus_, _avidus_) became _ardere_, _audere_. But - the influence of cognate forms often interfered; _posteri-die_ became - _postridie_, but in _posterorum_, _posterarum_ the short syllable was - restored by the influence of the trisyllabic cases, _posterus_, - _posteri_, &c., to which the law did not apply. Conversely, the nom. - *_aridor_ (more correctly at this period *_aridos_), which would not - have been contracted, followed the form of _ardorem_ (from - *_aridorem_), _ardere_, &c. - - The same change produced the monosyllabic forms _nec_, _ac_, _neu_, - _seu_, from _neque_, &c., before consonants, since they had no accent - of their own, but were always pronounced in one breath with the - following word, _neque tantum_ becoming _nec tantum_, and the like. So - in Plautus (and probably always in spoken Latin) the words _nemp(e)_, - _ind(e)_, _quipp(e)_, _ill(e)_, are regularly monosyllables. - - 12. _Syncope of Final Syllables._--It is possible that the frequent - but far from universal syncope of final syllables in Latin (especially - before -_s_, as in _mens_, which represents both Gr. [Greek: menos] - and Sans. matis = Ind.-Eur. _mntis_, Eng. _mind_) is due also to this - law operating on such combinations as _bona mens_ and the like, but - this has not yet been clearly shown. In any case the effects of any - such phonetic change have been very greatly modified by analogical - changes. The Oscan and Umbrian syncope of short vowels before final - _s_ seems to be an independent change, at all events in its detailed - working. The outbreak of the unconscious affection of slurring final - syllables may have been contemporaneous. - - 13. _In post-Plautine Latin_ words accented on the ante-antepenult:-- - - (i.) suffered syncope in the short syllable following the accented - syllable (_balineae_ became _balneae_, _pueritia_ became _puertia_ - (Horace), _columine_, _tegimine_, &c., became _culmine_, _tegmine_, - &c., beside the trisyllabic _columen_, _tegimen_) unless - - (ii.) that short vowel was _e_ or _i_, followed by another vowel (as - in _parietem_, _mulierem_, _Puteoli_), when, instead of contraction, - the accent shifted to the penult, which at a later stage of the - language became lengthened, _parietem_ giving Ital. _pareete_, Fr. - _paroi_, _Puteoli_ giving Ital. _Pozzuoli_. - - The restriction of the accent to the last three syllables was - completed by these changes, which did away with all the cases in which - it had stood on the fourth syllable. - - 14. _The Law of the Brevis Brevians._--Next must be mentioned another - great phonetic change, also dependent upon accent, which had come - about before the time of Plautus, the law long known to students as - the _Brevis Brevians_, which may be stated as follows (Exon, - _Hermathena_ (1903), xii. 491, following Skutsch in, e.g., - Vollmoller's _Jahresbericht fur romanische Sprachwissenschaft_, i. - 33): a syllable long by nature or position, and preceded by a short - syllable, was itself shortened if the word-accent fell immediately - before or immediately after it--that is, on the preceding short - syllable or on the next following syllable. The sequence of syllables - need not be in the same word, but must be as closely connected in - utterance as if it were. Thus _modo_ became _modo_, _voluptatem_ - became _volu(p)tatem_, _quid est?_ became _quid est?_ either the _s_ - or the _t_ or both being but faintly pronounced. - - It is clear that a great number of flexional syllables so shortened - would have their quantity immediately restored by the analogy of the - same inflexion occurring in words not of this particular shape; thus, - for instance, the long vowel of _ama_ and the like is due to that in - other verbs (_pulsa_, _agita_) not of iambic shape. So ablatives like - _modo_, _sono_ get back their -_o_, while in particles like _modo_, - "only," _quomodo_, "how," the shortened form remains. Conversely, the - shortening of the final -_a_ in the nom. sing. fem. of the - _a_-declension (contrast _luna_ with Gr. [Greek: chora]) was probably - partly due to the influence of common forms like _ea_, _bona_, _mala_, - which had come under the law. - - 15. _Effect on Verb Inflexion._--These processes had far-reaching - effects on Latin inflexion. The chief of these was the creation of the - type of conjugation known as the _capio_-class. All these verbs were - originally inflected like _audio_, but the accident of their short - root-syllable, (in such early forms as *_fugis_, *_fugiturus_, - *_fugisetis_, &c., becoming later _fugis_, _fugiturus_, _fugeretis_) - brought great parts of their paradigm under this law, and the rest - followed suit; but true forms like _fugire_, _cupire_, _moriri_, never - altogether died out of the spoken language. St Augustine, for - instance, confessed in 387 A.D. (_Epist._ iii. 5, quoted by Exon, - _Hermathena_ (1901), xi. 383,) that he does not know whether _cupi_ or - _cupiri_ is the pass. inf. of _cupio_. Hence we have Ital. _fuggire_, - _morire_, Fr. _fuir_, _mourir_. (See further on this conjugation, C. - Exon, _l.c._, and F. Skutsch, _Archiv fur lat. Lexicographie_, xii. - 210, two papers which were written independently.) - - 16. The question has been raised how far the true phonetic shortening - appears in Plautus, produced not by word-accent but by metrical - ictus--e.g. whether the reading is to be trusted in such lines as - _Amph._ 761, which gives us _dedisse_ as the first foot (tribrach) of - a trochaic line "because the metrical ictus fell on the syllable - _ded_-"--but this remarkable theory cannot be discussed here. See the - articles cited and also F. Skutsch, _Forschungen zu Latein. Grammatik - und Metrik_, i. (1892); C. Exon, _Hermathena_ (1903) xii. p. 492, W. - M. Lindsay, _Captivi_ (1900), appendix. - - In the history of the vowels and diphthongs in Latin we must - distinguish the changes which came about independently of accent and - those produced by the preponderance of accent in another syllable. - - 17. _Vowel Changes independent of Accent._--In the former category the - following are those of chief importance:-- - - (i.) _i_ became _e_ (a) when final, as in _ant-e_ beside Gr. [Greek: - anti], _triste_ besides _tristi-s_, contrasted with e.g., the Greek - neuter [Greek: idri] (the final -_e_ of the infinitive--_regere_, - &c.--is the -_i_ of the locative, just as in the so-called ablatives - _genere_, &c.); (b) before -_r_- which has arisen from -_s_-, as in - _cineris_ beside _cinis_, _cinisculus_; _sero_ beside Gr. [Greek: - i(s)emi] (Ind.-Eur. *_si-semi_, a reduplicated non-thematic present). - - (ii.) Final _o_ became _e_; imperative _sequere_ = Gr. [Greek: - epe(s)o]; Lat. _ille_ may contain the old pronoun *_so_, "he," Gr. - [Greek: ho], Sans. _sa_ (otherwise Skutsch, _Glotta_, i. Hefte 2-3). - - (iii.) _el_ became _ol_ when followed by any sound save _e_, _i_ or - _l_, as in _volo_, _volt_ beside _velle_; _colo_ beside Gr. [Greek: - tellomai, polein], Att. [Greek: telos]; _colonus_ for *_quelonus_, - beside _inquilinus_ for *_en-quelenus_. - - (iv.) _e_ became _i_ (i.) before a nasal followed by a palatal or - velar consonant (_tingo_, Gr. [Greek: teggo]; _in-cipio_ from - *_en-capio_); (ii.) under certain conditions not yet precisely - defined, one of which was _i_ in a following syllable (_nihil_, - _nisi_, _initium_). From these forms _in_- spread and banished _en_-, - the earlier form. - - (v.) The "neutral vowel" ("schwa Indo-Germanicum") which arose in - pro-ethnic Indo-European from the reduction of long _a_, _e_ or _o_ in - unaccented syllables (as in the -_tos_ participles of such roots as - _sta_-, _dhe_-, _do_-, *_st[schwa]tos_, *_dh[schwa]tos_, - *_d[schwa]tos_) became _a_ in Latin (_status con-ditus_ [from - *_con-dhatos_], _datus_), and it is the same sound which is - represented by _a_ in most of the forms of _do_ (_damus_, _dabo_, - &c.). - - (vi.) When a long vowel came to stand before another vowel in the same - word through loss of _^i_ or _^u_, it was always shortened; thus the - -_eo_ of intransitive verbs like _candeo_, _caleo_ is for -_e^io_ - (where the _e_ is identical with the [eta] in Gr. [Greek: ephanen, - emanen]) and was thus confused with the causative -_eio_ (as in - _moneo_, "I make to think," &c.), where the short _e_ is original. So - _audiui_ became _audii_ and thence _audii_ (the form audivi would have - disappeared altogether but for being restored from _audiveram_, &c.; - conversely _audieram_ is formed from _audii_). In certain cases the - vowels contracted, as in _tres_, _partes_, &c. with -_es_ from - _e^ies_, *_amo_ from _ama(^i)o_. - - 18. _Of the Diphthongs._ - - - Changes of the diphthongs independent of accent. - - (vii.) _eu_ became _ou_ in pro-ethnic Italic, Lat. _novus_: Gr. - [Greek: neos], Lat. _novem_, Umb. _nuviper_ (i.e. _noviper_), "usque - ad noviens": Gr. [Greek: (en-)nea]; in unaccented syllables this - -_ov_- sank to -_u(v)_- as in _denuo_ from _de novo_, _suus_ (which is - rarely anything but an enclitic word), Old Lat. _sovos_: Gr. [Greek: - he(w)os]. - - (viii.) _ou_, whether original or from _eu_, when in one syllable - became -_u_-, probably about 200 B.C., as in _duco_, Old Lat. _douco_, - Goth, _tiuhan_, Eng. _tow_, Ind.-Eur. *_de^uco_. - - (ix.) _ei_ became _i_ (as in _dico_, Old Lat. _deico_: Gr. [Greek: - deik-nymi], _fido_: Gr. [Greek: peithomai], Ind.-Eur. *_bheidho_) just - before the time of Lucilius, who prescribes the spellings _puerei_ - (nom. plur.) but _pueri_ (gen. sing.), which indicates that the two - forms were pronounced alike in his time, but that the traditional - distinction in spelling had been more or less preserved. But after his - time, since the sound of _ei_ was merely that of _i_, _ei_ is - continually used merely to denote a long _i_, even where, as in - _faxeis_ for faxis, there never had been any diphthongal sound at all. - - (x.) In rustic Latin (Volscian and Sabine) _au_ became _o_ as in the - vulgar terms _explodere_, _plostrum_. Hence arose interesting doublets - of meaning;--_lautus_ (the Roman form), "elegant," but _lotus_, - "washed"; _haustus_, "draught," but _hostus_ (Cato), "the season's - yield of fruit." - - (xi.) _oi_ became _oe_ and thence _u_ some time after Plautus, as in - _unus_, Old Lat. _oenus_: Gr. [Greek: oine] "ace." In Plautus the - forms have nearly all been modernized, save in special cases, e.g. in - _Trin._ i. 1, 2, _immoene facinus_, "a thankless task," has not been - changed to _immune_ because that meaning had died out of the adjective - so that _immune facinus_ would have made nonsense; but at the end of - the same line _utile_ has replaced _oetile_. Similarly in a small - group of words the old form was preserved through their frequent use - in legal or religious documents where tradition was strictly - preserved--_poena_, _foedus_ (neut.), _foedus_ (adj.), "ill-omened." - So the archaic and poetical _moenia_, "ramparts," beside the true - classical form _munia_, "duties"; the historic _Poeni_ beside the - living and frequently used _Punicum_ (_bellum_)--an example which - demonstrates conclusively (_pace_ Sommer) that the variation between - _u_ and _oe_ is not due to any difference in the surrounding sounds. - - (xii.) _ai_ became _ae_ and this in rustic and later Latin (2nd or 3rd - century A.D.) simple _e_, though of an open quality--Gr. [Greek: - aithos, aitho], Lat. _aedes_ (originally "the place for the fire"); - the country forms of _haedus_, _praetor_ were _edus_, _pretor_ (Varro, - _Ling. Lat._ v. 97, Lindsay, _Lat. Lang._ p. 44). - - 19. _Vowels and Diphthongs in unaccented Syllables._--The changes of - the short vowels and of the diphthongs in unaccented syllables are too - numerous and complex to be set forth here. Some took place under the - first-syllable system of accent, some later (SS 9, 10). Typical - examples are _pep_E_rci_ from *_peparcai_ and _onustus_ from - *_onostos_ (before two consonants); _concIno_ from *_concano_ and - _hosp_I_t_I_s_ from *_hostipotes_, _legImus_ beside Gr. [Greek: - legomen] (before one consonant); _Sic_U_li_ from *_Siceloi_ (before a - thick _l_, see S 17, 3); _dil_I_g_I_t_ from *_disleget_ (contrast, - however, the preservation of the second _e_ in _negl_E_g_I_t_); - _occ_U_pat_ from *_opcapat_ (contrast _accipit_ with _i_ in the - following syllable); the varying spelling in _monumentum_ and - _monimentum_, _maxumus_ and _maximus_, points to an intermediate sound - (_u_) between _u_ and _i_ (cf. Quint. i. 4. 8, reading _optumum_ and - _optimum_ [not _opimum_] with W. M. Lindsay, _Latin Language_ SS 14, - 16, seq.), which could not be correctly represented in spelling; this - difference may, however, be due merely to the effect of differences in - the neighbouring sounds, an effect greatly obscured by analogical - influences. - - Inscriptions of the 4th or 3rd century, B.C. which show original -_es_ - and -_os_ in final syllables (e.g. _Veneres_, gen. sing., _navebos_ - abl. pl.) compared with the usual forms in -_is_, -_us_ a century - later, give us roughly the date of these changes. But final -_os_, - -_om_, remained after -_u_- (and _v_) down to 50 B.C. as in _servos_. - - 20. Special mention should be made of the change of -_ri_- and -_ro_- - to -_er_- (_incertus_ from *_encritos_; _ager_, _acer_ from *_agros_, - *_acris_; the feminine _acris_ was restored in Latin (though not in - North Oscan) by the analogy of other adjectives, like _tristis_, while - the masculine _acer_ was protected by the parallel masculine forms of - the -_o_- declension, like _tener_, _niger_ [from *_teneros_, - *_nigros_]). - - 21. Long vowels generally remained unchanged, as in _compago_, - _condono_. - - 22. Of the diphthongs, _ai_ and _oi_ both sank to _ei_, and with - original _ei_ further to _i_, in unaccented syllables, as in _Achivi_ - from Gr. [Greek: Achaiwoi], _oliivom_, earlier *_oleivom_ (borrowed - into Gothic and there becoming _alev_) from Gr. [Greek: elaiwon]. This - gives us interesting chronological data, since the _el_- must have - changed to _ol_- (S 16. 3) before the change of -_ai_- to -_ei_-, and - that before the change of the accent from the first syllable to the - penultimate (S 9); and the borrowing took place after -_ai_- had - become -_ei_-, but before -_eivom_ had become -_eum_, as it regularly - did before the time of Plautus. - - But cases of _ai_, _ae_, which arose later than the change to _ei_, - _i_, were unaffected by it; thus the nom. plur. of the first - declension originally ended in -_as_ (as in Oscan), but was changed at - some period before Plautus to -_ae_ by the influence of the pronominal - nom. plur. ending -_ae_ in _quae?_ _hae_, &c., which was accented in - these monosyllables and had therefore been preserved. The history of - the -_ae_ of the dative, genitive and locative is hardly yet clear - (see Exon, _Hermathena_ (1905), xiii. 555; K. Brugmann, _Grundriss_, - 1st ed. ii. 571, 601). - - The diphthongs _au_, _ou_ in unaccented syllables sank to -_u_-, as in - _includo_ beside _claudo_; the form _cludo_, taken from the compounds, - superseded _claudo_ altogether after Cicero's time. So _cudo_, taken - from _incudo_, _excudo_, banished the older *_caudo_, "I cut, strike," - with which is probably connected _cauda_, "the striking member, tail," - and from which comes _caussa_, "a cutting, decision, legal case," - whose -_ss_- shows that it is derived from a root ending in a dental - (see S25 (b) below and Conway, _Verner's Law in Italy_, p. 72). - - _Consonants._--Passing now to the chief changes of the consonants we - may notice the following points:-- - - 23. Consonant _i_ (wrongly written _j_; there is no _g_-sound in the - letter), conveniently written _^i_ by phoneticians, - - (i.) was lost between vowels, as in _tres_ for *_tre^ies_, &c. (S 17. - 6); - - (ii.) in combination: -_m^i_- became -_ni_-, as in _venio_, from - Ind.-Eur. *[g]^u _m^io_, "I come," Sans. _gam_-, Eng. _come_; -_n^i_- - probably (under certain conditions at least) became -_nd_-, as in - _tendo_ beside Gr. [Greek: teino], _fendo_ = Gr. [Greek: theino], and - in the gerundive stem -_endus_, -_undus_, probably for -_en^ios_, - -_on^ios_; cf. the Sanskrit gerundive in -_an-iya-s_; -_g^i_-, -_d^i_- - became -_^i_- as in _maior_ from *_mag-ior_, _peior_ from *_ped-ior_; - - (iii.) otherwise -_^i_- after a consonant became generally syllabic - (-_i^i_-), as in _capio_ (trisyllabic) beside Goth. _hafya_. - - 24. Consonant _u_ (formerly represented by English _v_), conveniently - written _^u_, - - (i.) was lost between similar vowels when the first was accented, as - in _audiui_, which became _audii_ (S 17 [6]), but not in _amaui_, nor - in _avarus_. - - (ii.) in combination: _d^u_ became _b_, as in _bonus_, _bellum_, O. - Lat. _d^uonus_, *_d^uellum_ (though the poets finding this written - form in old literary sources treated it as trisyllabic); _p^u_-, - _f^u_-, _b^u_-, lost the _^u_, as in _ap-erio_, _op-erio_ beside Lith. - -_veriu_, "I open," Osc. _veru_, "gate," and in the verbal endings - -_bam_, -_bo_, from -_bh^u-am_, -_bh^uo_ (with the root of Lat. - _fui_), and _fio_, _du-bius_, _super-bus_, _vasta-bundus_, &c., from - the same; -_s^u_- between vowels (at least when the second was - accented) disappeared (see below S 25 (a), iv.), as in _pruina_ for - _prusuina_, cf. Eng. _fros-t_, Sans, _prusva_, "hoar-frost." Contrast - _Minerva_ from an earlier *_menes-^ua_, _s^ue_-, _s^uo_-, both became - so-, as in _soroor_(_em_) beside Sans. _svasar-am_, Ger. - _schwes-t-er_, Eng. _sister_, _sordes_, beside O. Ger. _swart-s_, mod. - _schwarz_. -_^uo_- in final syllables became -_u_-, as in _cum_ from - _quom_, _parum_ from _par^uom_; but in the declensional forms -_^uu_- - was commonly restored by the analogy of the other cases, thus (a) - _ser^uos_, _ser^uom_, _ser^ui_ became (b) *_serus_, *_serum_, - *_ser^ui_, but finally (c) _ser^uus_, _ser^uum_, _ser^ui_. - - (iii.) In the 2nd century A.D., Lat. _v_ (i.e. _^u_) had become a - voiced labio-dental fricative, like Eng. _v_; and the voiced labial - plosive _b_ had broken down (at least in certain positions) into the - same sound; hence they are frequently confused as in spellings like - _vene_ for _bene_, _Bictorinus_ for _Victorinus_. - - 25. (a) Latin _s_ - - (i.) became _r_ between vowels between 450 and 350 B.C. (for the date - see R. S. Conway, _Verner's Law in Italy_, pp. 61-64), as _ara_, - beside O. Lat. _asa_, _generis_ from *_geneses_, Gr. [Greek: geneos]; - _eram_, _ero_ for *_esam_, *_eso_, and so in the verbal endings - -_eram_, -_ero_, -_erim_. But a considerable number of words came into - Latin, partly from neighbouring dialects, with -_s_- between vowels, - after 350 B.C., when the change ceased, and so show -_s_-, as _rosa_ - (probably from S. Oscan for *_rod^ia_ "rose-bush" cf. Gr. [Greek: - rhodon]), _caseus_, "cheese," _miser_, a term of abuse, beside Gr. - [Greek: mysaros] (probably also borrowed from south Italy), and many - more, especially the participles in -_sus_ (_fusus_), where the -_s_- - was -_ss_- at the time of the change of -_s_- to -_r_- (so in _causa_, - see above). All attempts to explain the retention of the -_s_- - otherwise must be said to have failed (e.g. the theory of accentual - difference in _Verner's Law in Italy_, or that of dissimilation, given - by Brugmann, _Kurze vergl. Gram._ p. 242). - - (ii.) _sr_ became _thr_ (= Eng. _thr_ in _throw_) in pro-ethnic Italic, - and this became initially _fr_- as in _frigus_, Gr. [Greek: rhigos] - (Ind.-Eur. *_srigos_), but medially -_br_-, as in _funebris_, from - _funus_, stem _funes_-. - - (iii.) -_rs_-, _ls_- became -_rr_-, -_ll_-, as in _ferre_, _velle_, - for *_fer-se_, *_vel-se_ (cf. _es-se_). - - (iv.) Before _m_, _n_, _l_, and _v_, -_s_- vanished, having previously - caused the loss of any preceding plosive or -_n_-, and the preceding - vowel, if short, was lengthened as in - - _primus_ from *_prismos_, Paelig. _prismu_, "prima," beside - _pris-cus_. - - _iumentum_ from O. Lat. _iouxmentum_, older *_ieugsmentom_; cf. Gr. - [Greek: zeugma, zygon], Lat. _iugum_, _iungo_. - - _luna_ from *_leucsna_-, Praenest, _losna_, Zend _rao[chi]sna_-; cf. - Gr. [Greek: leukos], "white-ness" neut. e.g. [Greek: leukos], - "white," Lat. _luceo_. - - _telum_ from *_tens-lom_ or *_tends-lom_, _tranare_ from - *_trans-nare_. - - _seviri_ from *_sex-viri_, _eveho_ from *_ex-veho_, and so - _e-mitto_, _e-lido_, _e-numero_, and from these forms arose the - proposition _e_ instead of _ex_. - - (v.) Similarly -_sd_- became -_d_-, as in _idem_ from _is-dem_. - - (vi.) Before _n_-, _m_-, _l_-, initially _s_- disappeared, as in - _nubo_ beside Old Church Slavonic _snubiti_, "to love, pay court to"; - _miror_ beside Sans, _smayate_, "laughs," Eng. _smi-le_; _lubricus_ - beside Goth, _sliupan_, Eng. _slip_. - - (b) Latin -_ss_- arose from an original -_t_ + _t_-, -_d_ + _t_-, - -_dh_ + _t_- (except before -_r_), as in _missus_, earlier *_mit-tos_; - _tonsus_, earlier *_tond-tos_, but _tonstrix_ from *_tond-trix_. After - long vowels this -_ss_- became a single -_s_- some time before Cicero - (who wrote _caussa_ [see above], _divissio_, &c., but probably only - pronounced them with -_s_-, since the -_ss_- came to be written single - directly after his time). - - 26. Of the Indo-European velars the breathed _q_ was usually preserved - in Latin with a labial addition of -_u_- (as in _sequor_, Gr. [Greek: - epomai], Goth, _saihvan_, Eng. _see_; _quod_, Gr. [Greek: pod-(apos)], - Eng. _what_); but the voiced [g]^u remained (as -_gu_-) only after - -_n_- (_unguo_ beside Ir. _imb_, "butter") and (as _g_) before _r_, - _l_, and _u_ (as in _gravis_, Gr. [Greek: barys]; _glans_, Gr. [Greek: - balanos]; _legumen_, Gr. [Greek: lobos, lebinthos]). Elsewhere it - became _v_, as in _venio_ (see S 23, ii.), _nudus_ from *_novedos_, - Eng. _naked_. Hence _bos_ (Sans. _gaus_, Eng. _cow_) must be regarded - as a farmer's word borrowed from one of the country dialects (e.g. - Sabine); the pure Latin would be *_vos_, and its oblique cases, e.g. - acc. *_vovem_, would be inconveniently close in sound to the word for - sheep _ovem_. - - 27. The treatment of the Indo-European voiced aspirates (_bh_, _dh_, - _gh_, _[g]h_) in Latin is one of the most marked characteristics of the - language, which separates it from all the other Italic dialects, since - the fricative sounds, which represented the Indo-European aspirates in - pro-ethnic Italic, remained fricatives medially if they remained at - all in that position in Oscan and Umbrian, whereas in Latin they were - nearly always changed into voiced explosives. Thus-- - - Ind.-Eur. _bh_: initially Lat. _f_- (_fero_; Gr. [Greek: phero]). - - medially Lat. -_b_- (_tibi_; Umb. _tefe_; Sans, _tubhy_-(_am_), "to - thee"; the same suffix in Gr. [Greek: bie-phi], &c.). - - Ind.-Eur. _dh_: initially Lat. _f_- (_fa-c-ere_, _fe-c-i_; Gr. [Greek: - thetos] (instead of *[Greek: thatos]), [Greek: ethe-ka]). - - medially -_d_- (_medius_; Osc. _mefio_-; Gr. [Greek: messos, mesos] - from *[Greek: methios); except after _u_ (_iubere_ beside _iussus_ - for *_iudh-tos_; Sans. _yodhati_, "rouses to battle"); before _l_ - (_stabulum_, but Umb. _staflo_-, with the suffix of Gr. [Greek: - otergethron], &c.); before or after _r_ (_verbum_: Umb. _verfale_: - Eng. _word_. Lat. _glaber_ [v. inf].: Ger. _glatt_: Eng. _glad_). - - Ind.-Eur. _gh_: initially _h_- (_humi_: Gr. [Greek: chamai]); except - before -_u_- (_fundo_: Gr. [Greek: che(w)o, chutra]). - - medially -_h_- (_veho_: Gr. [Greek: echo, ochos]; cf. Eng. _wagon_); - except after -_n_- (_fingere_: Osc. _feiho_-, "wall": Gr. [Greek: - thingano]: Ind.-Eur. _dhei^gh_-, _dhin^gh_-); and before _l_ - (_fig(u)lus_, from the same root). - - Ind.-Eur _guh_: initially _f_- (_formus_ and _furnus_, "oven", Gr. - [Greek: thermos, therme], cf. Ligurian _Bormio_, "a place with hot - springs," _Bormanus_, "a god of hot springs"; _fendo_: Gr. [Greek: - theino, phonos, pros-phatos]). - - medially _v_, -_gu_- or -_g_- just as Ind.-Eur. [g]u (_ninguere_, - _nivem_ beside Gr. [Greek: nipha, neiphei]; _fragrare_ beside Gr. - [Greek: osphpainomai os]- for _ods_-, cf. Lat. _odor_], a - reduplicated verb from a root _[g]uhra_-). - - For the "non-labializing velars" (H_ostis_, _con_G_ius_, G_laber_) - reference must be made to the fuller accounts in the handbooks. - - 28. AUTHORITIES.--This summary account of the chief points in Latin - phonology may serve as an introduction to its principles, and give - some insight into the phonetic character of the language. For - systematic study reference must be made to the standard books, Karl - Brugmann, _Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der - Indo-Germanischen Sprachen_ (vol. i., _Lautlehre_, 2nd ed. Strassburg, - 1897; Eng. trans. of ed. 1 by Joseph Wright, Strassburg, 1888) and his - _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (Strassburg, 1902); these contain - still by far the best accounts of Latin; Max Niederman, _Precis de - phonetique du Latin_ (Paris, 1906), a very convenient handbook, - excellently planned; F. Sommer, _Lateinische Laut- und Flexionslehre_ - (Heidelberg, 1902), containing many new conjectures; W. M. Lindsay, - _The Latin Language_ (Oxford, 1894), translated into German (with - corrections) by Nohl (Leipzig, 1897), a most valuable collection of - material, especially from the ancient grammarians, but not always - accurate in phonology; F. Stolz, vol. i. of a joint _Historische - Grammatik d. lat. Sprache_ by Blase, Landgraf, Stolz and others - (Leipzig, 1894); Neue-Wagener, _Formenlehre d. lat. Sprache_ (3 vols., - 3rd ed. Leipzig, 1888, foll.); H. J. Roby's _Latin Grammar_ (from - Plautus to Suetonius; London, 7th ed., 1896) contains a masterly - collection of material, especially in morphology, which is still of - great value. W. G. Hale and C. D. Buck's _Latin Grammar_ (Boston, - 1903), though on a smaller scale, is of very great importance, as it - contains the fruit of much independent research on the part of both - authors; in the difficult questions of orthography it was, as late as - 1907, the only safe guide. - - - II. MORPHOLOGY - - In morphology the following are the most characteristic Latin - innovations:-- - - 29. _In nouns._ - - (i.) The complete loss of the dual number, save for a survival in the - dialect of Praeneste (_C.I.L._ xiv. 2891, = Conway, _Ital. Dial._ p. - 285, where _Q. k. Cestio Q. f._ seems to be nom. dual); so _C.I.L._ - xi. 6706_5, T. C. Vomanio, see W. Schulze, _Lat. Eigennamen_, p. 117. - - (ii.) The introduction of new forms in the gen. sing, of the -_o_- - stems (_domini_), of the -_a_- stems (_mensae_) and in the nom. plural - of the same two declensions; innovations mostly derived from the - pronominal declension. - - (iii.) The development of an adverbial formation out of what was - either an instrumental or a locative of the -_o_- stems, as in - _longe_. And here may be added the other adverbial developments, in - -_m_ (_palam_, _sensim_) probably accusative, and -_iter_, which is - simply the accusative of _iter_, "way," crystallized, as is shown - especially by the fact that though in the end it attached itself - particularly to adjectives of the third declension (_molliter_), it - appears also from adjectives of the second declension whose meaning - made their combination with _iter_ especially natural, such as - _longiter_, _firmiter_, _largiter_ (cf. English _straightway_, - _longways_). The only objections to this derivation which had any real - weight (see F. Skutsch, _De nominibus no- suffixi ope formatis_, 1890, - pp. 4-7) have been removed by Exon's Law (S 11), which supplies a - clear reason why the contracted type _constanter_ arose in and was - felt to be proper to Participial adverbs, while _firmiter_ and the - like set the type for those formed from adjectives. - - (iv.) The development of the so-called fifth declension by a - re-adjustment of the declension of the nouns formed with the suffix - -_ie_-: _ia_- (which appears, for instance, in all the Greek feminine - participles, and in a more abstract sense in words like _materies_) to - match the inflexion of two old root-nouns _res_ and _dies_, the stems - of which were originally _rei_- (Sans. _ras_, _rayas_, cf. Lat. - _reor_) and _dieu_-. - - (v.) The disuse of the -_ti_- suffix in an abstract sense. The great - number of nouns which Latin inherited formed with this suffix were - either (1) marked as abstract by the addition of the further suffix - -_on_- (as in _natio_ beside the Gr. [Greek: gnesi-os], &c.) or else - (2) confined to a concrete sense; thus _vectis_, properly "a carrying, - lifting," came to mean "pole, lever"; _ratis_, properly a "reckoning, - devising," came to mean "an (improvised) raft" (contrast _ratio_); - _postis_, a "placing," came to mean "post." - - (vi.) The confusion of the consonantal stems with stems ending in - -_i_-. This was probably due very largely to the forms assumed through - phonetic changes by the gen. sing. and the nom. and acc. plural. Thus - at say 300 B.C. the inflexions probably were: - - conson. stem -_i_- stem - Nom. plur. *_reg-es_ _host-es_ - Acc. plur. _reg-es_ _host-is_ - - The confusing difference of signification of the long -_es_ ending led - to a levelling of these and other forms in the two paradigms. - - (vii.) The disuse of the _u_ declension (Gr. [Greek: hedys, stachys]) - in adjectives; this group in Latin, thanks to its feminine form (Sans. - fem. _svadvi_, "sweet"), was transferred to the _i_ declension - (_suavis_, _gravis_, _levis_, _dulcis_). - - 30. _In verbs._ - - (i.) The disuse of the distinction between the personal endings of - primary and secondary tenses, the -_t_ and -_nt_, for instance, being - used for the third person singular and plural respectively in all - tenses and moods of the active. This change was completed after the - archaic period, since we find in the oldest inscriptions -_d_ - regularly used in the third person singular of past tenses, e.g. - _deded_, _feced_ in place of the later _dedit_, _fecit_; and since in - Oscan the distinction was preserved to the end, both in singular and - plural, e.g. _faamat_ (perhaps meaning "auctionatur"), but _deded_ - ("dedit"). It is commonly assumed from the evidence of Greek and - Sanskrit (Gr. [Greek: hesti], Sans. _asti_ beside Lat. est) that the - primary endings in Latin have lost a final -_i_, partly or wholly by - some phonetic change. - - (ii.) The non-thematic conjugation is almost wholly lost, surviving - only in a few forms of very common use, _est_, "is"; _est_, "eats"; - _volt_, "wills," &c. - - (iii.) The complete fusion of the aorist and perfect forms, and in the - same tense the fusion of active and middle endings; thus _tutudi_, - earlier *_tutudai_, is a true middle perfect; _dixi_ is an _s_ aorist - with the same ending attached; _dixit_ is an aorist active; - _tutudisti_ is a conflation of perfect and aorist with a middle - personal ending. - - (iv.) The development of perfects in -_ui_ and -_vi_, derived partly - from true perfects of roots ending in _v_ or _u_, e.g. _movi rui_. - For the origin of _monui_ see Exon, _Hermathena_ (1901), xi. 396 sq. - - (v.) The complete fusion of conjunctive and optative into a single - mood, the subjunctive; _regam_, &c., are conjunctive forms, whereas - _rexerim_, _rexissem_ are certainly and _regerem_ most probably - optative; the origin of _amem_ and the like is still doubtful. - Notice, however, that true conjunctive forms were often used as - futures, _reges_, _reget_, &c., and also the simple thematic - conjunctive in forms like _ero_, _rexero_, &c. - - (vi.) The development of the future in -_bo_ and imperfect in -_bam_ - by compounding some form of the verb, possibly the Present Participle - with forms from the root of _fui_, *_amans-fuo_ becoming _amabo_, - *_amans-fuam_ becoming _amabam_ at a very early period of Latin; see - F. Skutsch, _Atti d. Congresso Storico Intern._ (1903), vol. ii. p. - 191. - - (vii.) We have already noticed the rise of the passive in -_r_ (S 5 - (d)). Observe, however, that several middle forms have been pressed - into the service, partly because the -_r_- in them which had come from - -_s_- seemed to give them a passive colour (_legere_ = Gr. [Greek: - lege(s)o], Attic [Greek: legou]). The interesting forms in -_mini_ are - a confusion of two distinct inflexions, namely, an old infinitive in - -_menai_, used for the imperative, and the participial -_menoi_, - masculine, -_menai_, feminine, used with the verb "to be" in place of - the ordinary inflexions. Since these forms had all come to have the - same shape, through phonetic change, their meanings were fused; the - imperative forms being restricted to the plural, and the participial - forms being restricted to the second person. - - 31. _Past Participle Passive._--Next should be mentioned the great - development in the use of the participle in -_tos_ (_factus_, _fusus_, - &c.). This participle was taken with _sum_ to form the perfect tenses - of the passive, in which, thanks partly to the fusion of perfect and - aorist active, a past aorist sense was also evolved. This reacted on - the participle itself giving it a prevailingly past colour, but its - originally timeless use survives in many places, e.g. in the - participle _ratus_, which has as a rule no past sense, and more - definitely still in such passages as Vergil, _Georg._ i. 206 - (_vectis_), _Aen._ vi. 22 (_ductis_), both of which passages demand a - present sense. It is to be noticed also that in the earliest Latin, as - in Greek and Sanskrit, the _passive_ meaning, though the commonest, is - not universal. Many traces of this survive in classical Latin, of - which the chief are - - 1. The active meaning of deponent participles, in spite of the fact - that some of them (e.g. _adeptus_, _emensus_, _expertus_) have also - a passive sense, and - - 2. The familiar use of these participles by the Augustan poets with - an accusative attached (_galeam indutus_, _traiectus lora_). Here no - doubt the use of the Greek middle influenced the Latin poets, but no - doubt they thought also that they were reviving an old Latin idiom. - - 32. _Future Participle._--Finally may be mentioned together (a) the - development of the future participle active (in -_urus_, never so - freely used as the other participles, being rare in the ablative - absolute even in Tacitus) from an old infinitive in -_urum_ ("scio - inimicos meos hoc dicturum," C. Gracchus (and others) _apud_ Gell. 1. - 7, and Priscian ix. 864 (p. 475 Keil), which arose from combining the - dative or locative of the verbal noun in -_tu_ with an old infinitive - _esom_ "esse" which survives in Oscan, *_dictu esom_ becoming - _dicturum_. This was discovered by J. P. Postgate (_Class. Review_, v. - 301, and _Idg. Forschungen_ iv. 252). (b) From the same infinitival - accusative with the post-position -_do_, meaning "to," "for," "in" - (cf. _quando_ for *_quam-do_, and Eng. _to_, Germ, _zu_) was formed - the so-called gerund _agen-do_, "for doing," "in doing," which was - taken for a Case, and so gave rise to the accusative and genitive in - -_dum_ and -_di_. The form in -do still lives in Italian as an - indeclinable present participle. The modal and purposive meanings of - -_do_ appear in the uses of the gerund. - - The authorities giving a fuller account of Latin morphology are the - same as those cited in S 28 above, save that the reader must consult - the second volume of Brugmann's _Grundriss_, which in the English - translation (by Conway and Rouse, Strassburg, 1890-1896) is divided - into volumes ii, iii. and iv.; and that Niedermann does not deal with - morphology. - - - III. SYNTAX - - The chief innovations of syntax developed in Latin may now be briefly - noted. - - 33. _In nouns._ - - (i.) Latin restricted the various Cases to more sharply defined uses - than either Greek or Sanskrit; the free use of the internal accusative - in Greek (e.g. [Greek: habron bainein tuphlos ta ota]) is strange to - Latin, save in poetical imitations of Greek; and so is the freedom of - the Sanskrit instrumental, which often covers meanings expressed in - Latin by _cum_, _ab_, _inter_. - - (ii.) The syncretism of the so-called ablative case, which combines - the uses of (a) the true ablative which ended in -_d_ (O. Lat. - _praidad_); (b) the instrumental sociative (plural forms like - _dominis_, the ending being that of Sans. _civais_); and (c) the - locative (_noct-e_, "at night"; _itiner-e_, "on the road," with the - ending of Greek [Greek: elpid-i]). The so-called absolute construction - is mainly derived from the second of these, since it is regularly - attached fairly closely to the subject of the clause in which it - stands, and when accompanied by a passive participle most commonly - denotes an action performed by that subject. But the other two sources - cannot be altogether excluded (_orto sole_, "starting from sunrise"; - _campo patente_, "on, in sight of, the open plain"). - - 34. _In verbs._ - - (i.) The rich development and fine discrimination of the uses of the - subjunctive mood, especially (a) in indirect questions (based on - direct deliberative questions and not fully developed by the time of - Plautus, who constantly writes such phrases as _dic quis es_ for the - Ciceronian _dic quis sis_); (b) after the relative of essential - definition (_non is sum qui negem_) and the circumstantial _cum_ ("at - such a time as that"). The two uses (a) and (b) with (c) the common - Purpose and Consequence-clauses spring from the "prospective" or - "anticipatory" meaning of the mood. (d) Observe further its use in - subordinate oblique clauses (_irascitur quod abierim_, "he is angry - because, _as he asserts_, I went away"). This and all the uses of the - mood in oratio obliqua are derived partly from (a) and (b) and partly - from the (e) Unreal Jussive of past time (_Non illi argentum redderem? - Non redderes_, "Ought I not to have returned the money to him?" "You - certainly ought not to have," or, more literally, "You were not to"). - - On this interesting chapter of Latin syntax see W. G. Hale's - "Cum-constructions" (_Cornell University Studies in Classical - Philology_, No. 1, 1887-1889), and _The Anticipatory Subjunctive_ - (Chicago, 1894). - - (ii.) The complex system of oratio obliqua with the sequence of tenses - (on the growth of the latter see Conway, _Livy II._, Appendix ii., - Cambridge, 1901). - - (iii.) The curious construction of the gerundive (_ad capiendam - urbem_), originally a present (and future?) passive participle, but - restricted in its use by being linked with the so-called gerund (see S - 32, b). The use, but probably not the restriction, appears in Oscan - and Umbrian. - - (iv.) The favourite use of the impersonal passive has already been - mentioned (S 5, iv.). - - 35. The chief authorities for the study of Latin syntax are: - Brugmann's _Kurze vergl. Grammatik_, vol. ii. (see S 28); Landgraf's - _Historische lat. Syntax_ (vol. ii. of the joint _Hist. Gram._, see S - 28); Hale and Buck's _Latin Grammar_ (see S 28); Draeger's - _Historische lat. Syntax_, 2 vols. (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1878-1881), - useful but not always trustworthy; the Latin sections in Delbruck's - _Vergleichende Syntax_, being the third volume of Brugmann's - _Grundriss_ (S 28). - - -IV. IMPORTATION OF GREEK WORDS - -36. It is convenient, before proceeding to describe the development of -the language in its various epochs, to notice briefly the debt of its -vocabulary to Greek, since it affords an indication of the steadily -increasing influence of Greek life and literature upon the growth of the -younger idiom. Corssen (_Lat. Aussprache_, ii. 814) pointed out four -different stages in the process, and though they are by no means sharply -divided in time, they do correspond to different degrees and kinds of -intercourse. - - (a) The first represents the period of the early intercourse of Rome - with the Greek states, especially with the colonies in the south of - Italy and Sicily. To this stage belong many names of nations, - countries and towns, as _Siculi_, _Tarentum_, _Graeci_, _Achivi_, - _Poenus_; and also names of weights and measures, articles of industry - and terms connected with navigation, as _mina_, _talentum_, _purpura_, - _patina_, _ancora_, _aplustre_, _nausea_. Words like _amurca_, - _scutula_, _pessulus_, _balineum_, _tarpessita_ represent familiarity - with Greek customs and bear equally the mark of naturalization. To - these may be added names of gods or heroes, like _Apollo_, _Pollux_ - and perhaps _Hercules_. These all became naturalized Latin words and - were modified by the phonetic changes which took place in the Latin - language after they had come into it (cf. SS 9-27 _supra_). (b) The - second stage was probably the result of the closer intercourse - resulting from the conquest of southern Italy, and the wars in Sicily, - and of the contemporary introduction of imitations of Greek literature - into Rome, with its numerous references to Greek life and culture. It - is marked by the free use of hybrid forms, whether made by the - addition of Latin suffixes to Greek stems as _ballistarius_, - _hepatarius_, _subbasilicanus_, _sycophantiosus_, _comissari_ or of - Greek suffixes to Latin stems as _plagipatidas_, _pernonides_; or by - derivation, as _thermopotare_, _supparasitari_; or by composition as - _ineuscheme_, _thyrsigerae_, _flagritribae_, _scrophipasci_. The - character of many of these words shows that the comic poets who coined - them must have been able to calculate upon a fair knowledge of - colloquial Greek on the part of a considerable portion of their - audience. The most remarkable instance of this is supplied by the - burlesque lines in Plautus (_Pers._ 702 seq.), where Sagaristio - describes himself as - - Vaniloquidorus, Virginisvendonides, - Nugipiloquides, Argentumexterebronides, - Tedigniloquides, Nummosexpalponides, - Quodsemelarripides, Nunquameripides. - - During this period Greek words are still generally inflected according - to the Latin usage. - - (c) But with Accius (see below) begins a third stage, in which the - Greek inflexion is frequently preserved, e.g. _Hectora_, _Oresten_, - _Cithaeron_; and from this time forward the practice wavers. Cicero - generally prefers the Latin case-endings, defending, e.g., _Piraeeum_ - as against _Piraeea_ (_ad Att._ vii. 3, 7), but not without some - fluctuation, while Varro takes the opposite side, and prefers - _poemasin_ to the Ciceronian _poematis_. By this time also _y_ and _z_ - were introduced, and the representation of the Greek aspirates by - _th_, _ph_, _ch_, so that words newly borrowed from the Greek could be - more faithfully reproduced. This is equally true whatever was the - precise nature of the sound which at that period the Greek aspirates - had reached in their secular process of change from pure aspirates (as - in Eng. _ant-hill_, &c.) to fricatives (like Eng. _th_ in _thin_). - (See Arnold and Conway, _The Restored Pronunciation of Greek and - Latin_, 4th ed., Cambridge, 1908, p. 21.) - - (d) A fourth stage is marked by the practice of the Augustan poets, - who, especially when writing in imitation of Greek originals, freely - use the Greek inflexions, such as _Arcades_, _Tethy_, _Aegida_, - _Echus_, &c. Horace probably always used the Latin form in his - _Satires_ and _Epistles_, the Greek in his Odes. Later prose writers - for the most part followed the example of his _Odes_. It must be - added, however, in regard to these literary borrowings that it is not - quite clear whether in this fourth class, and even in the unmodified - forms in the preceding class, the words had really any living use in - spoken Latin. - - - V. PRONUNCIATION - - This appears the proper place for a rapid survey of the - pronunciation[1] of the Latin language, as spoken in its best days. - - 37. CONSONANTS.--(i.) _Back palatal._ Breathed plosive _c_, pronounced - always as _k_ (except that in some early inscriptions--probably none - much later, if at all later, than 300 B.C.--the character is used also - for _g_) until about the 7th century after Christ. _K_ went out of use - at an early period, except in a few old abbreviations for words in - which it had stood before _a_, e.g., _kal._ for _kalendae_. _Q_, - always followed by the consonantal _u_, except in a few old - inscriptions, in which it is used for _c_ before the vowel _u_, e.g. - _pequnia_. _X_, an abbreviation for _cs_; _xs_ is, however, sometimes - found. Voiced plosive _g_, pronounced as in English _gone_, but never - as in English _gem_ before about the 6th century after Christ. - Aspirate _h_, the rough breathing as in English. - - (ii.) _Palatal._--The consonantal _i_, like the English _y_; it is - only in late inscriptions that we find, in spellings like _Zanuario_, - _Giove_, any definite indication of a pronunciation like the English - _j_. The precise date of the change is difficult to determine (see - Lindsay's _Latin Lang._ p. 49), especially as we may, in isolated - cases, have before us merely a dialectic variation; see PAELIGNI. - - (iii.) _Lingual._--_r_ as in English, but probably produced more with - the point of the tongue. _l_ similarly more dental than in English. - _s_ always breathed (as Eng. _ce_ in _ice_). _z_, which is only found - in the transcription of Greek words in and after the time of Cicero, - as _dz_ or _zz_. - - (iv.) _Dental._--Breathed, _t_ as in English. Voiced, _d_ as in - English; but by the end of the 4th century _di_ before a vowel was - pronounced like our j (cf. _diurnal_ and _journal_). Nasal, _n_ as in - English; but also (like the English _n_) a guttural nasal (_ng_) - before a guttural. Apparently it was very lightly pronounced, and - easily fell away before _s_. - - (v.) _Labial._--Breathed, _p_ as in English. Voiced, _b_ as in - English; but occasionally in inscriptions of the later empire _v_ is - written for _b_, showing that in some cases _b_ had already acquired - the fricative sound of the contemporary [beta] (see S 24, iii.). _b_ - before a sharp _s_ was pronounced _p_, e.g. in _urbs_. Nasal, _m_ as - in English, but very slightly pronounced at the end of a word. - Spirant, _v_ like the _ou_ in French _oui_, but later approximating to - the _w_ heard in some parts of Germany, Ed. Sievers, _Grundzuge d. - Phonetik_, ed. 4, p. 117, i.e. a labial _v_, not (like the English - _v_) a labio-dental _v_. - - (vi.) _Labio-dental._--Breathed fricative, _f_ as in English. - - 38. VOWELS.--_a_, _u_, _i_, as the English _ah_, oo, _ee_; _o_, a - sound coming nearer to Eng. _aw_ than to Eng. _o_; _e_ a close Italian - _e_, nearly as the _a_ of Eng. _mate_, _ee_ of Fr. _passee_. The short - sound of the vowels was not always identical in quality with the long - sound. _a_ was pronounced as in the French _chatte_, _u_ nearly as in - Eng. _pull_, _i_ nearly as in _pit_, _o_ as in _dot_, _e_ nearly as in - _pet_. The diphthongs were produced by pronouncing in rapid succession - the vowels of which they were composed, according to the above scheme. - This gives, _au_ somewhat broader than _ou_ in house; _eu_ like _ow_ - in the "Yankee" pronunciation of _town_; _ae_ like the vowel in _hat_ - lengthened, with perhaps somewhat more approximation to the _i_ in - _wine_; _oe_, a diphthongal sound approximating to Eng. _oi_; _ui_, as - the French _oui_. - - To this it should be added that the Classical Association, acting on - the advice of a committee of Latin scholars, has recommended for the - diphthongs _ae_ and _oe_ the pronunciation of English _i_ (really - _ai_) in _wine_ and _oi_ in _boil_, sounds which they undoubtedly had - in the time of Plautus and probably much later, and which for - practical use in teaching have been proved far the best. - - -VI. THE LANGUAGE AS RECORDED - -39. Passing now to a survey of the condition of the language at various -epochs and in the different authors, we find the earliest monument of it -yet discovered in a donative inscription on a fibula or brooch found in -a tomb of the 7th century B.C. at Praeneste. It runs "Manios med -fhefhaked Numasioi," i.e. "Manios made me for Numasios." The use of _f_ -(_fh_) to denote the sound of Latin _f_ supplied the explanation of the -change of the symbol _f_ from its Greek value (= Eng. _w_) to its Latin -value _f_, and shows the Chalcidian Greek alphabet in process of -adaptation to the needs of Latin (see WRITING). The reduplicated -perfect, its 3rd sing. ending -_ed_, the dative masculine in -_oi_ (this -is one of the only two recorded examples in Latin), the -_s_- between -vowels (S 25, 1), and the -_a_- in what was then (see SS 9, 10) -certainly an unaccented syllable and the accusative _med_, are all -interesting marks of antiquity.[2] - -40. The next oldest fragment of continuous Latin is furnished by a -vessel dug up in the valley between the Quirinal and the Viminal early -in 1880. The vessel is of a dark brown clay, and consists of three small -round pots, the sides of which are connected together. All round this -vessel runs an inscription, in three clauses, two nearly continuous, the -third written below; the writing is from right to left, and is still -clearly legible; the characters include one sign not belonging to the -later Latin alphabet, namely [symbol] for R, while the M has five -strokes and the Q has the form of a Koppa. - -The inscription is as follows:-- - - "iovesat deivos qoi med mitat, nei ted endo cosmis virco sied, asted - noisi opetoitesiai pacari vois. - - dvenos med feced en manom einom duenoi ne med malo statod." - -The general style of the writing and the phonetic peculiarities make it -fairly certain that this work must have been produced not later than 300 -B.C. Some points in its interpretation are still open to doubt,[3] but -the probable interpretation is-- - - "Deos iurat ille (_or_ iurant illi) qui me mittat (_or_ mittant) ne in - te Virgo (i.e. Proserpina) comis sit, nisi quidem optimo (?) Theseae - (?) pacari vis. Duenos me fecit contra Manum, Dueno autem ne per me - malum stato (= imputetur, imponatur)." - -"He (or they) who dispatch me binds the gods (by his offering) that -Proserpine shall not be kind to thee unless thou wilt make terms with -(or "for") Opetos Thesias (?). Duenos made me against Manus, but let no -evil fall to Duenos on my account." - -41. Between these two inscriptions lies in point of date the famous -stele discovered in the Forum in 1899 (G. Boni, _Notiz. d. scavi_, May -1899). The upper half had been cut off in order to make way for a new -pavement or black stone blocks (known to archaeologists as the _niger -lapis_) on the site of the comitium, just to the north-east of the Forum -in front of the Senate House. The inscription was written lengthwise -along the (pyramidal) stele from foot to apex, but with the alternate -lines in reverse directions, and one line not on the full face of any -one of the four sides, but up a roughly-flattened fifth side made by -slightly broadening one of the angles. No single sentence is complete -and the mutilated fragments have given rise to a whole literature of -conjectural "restorations." - - R. S. Conway examined it _in situ_ in company with F. Skutsch in 1903 - (cf. his article in Vollmoller's _Jahresbericht_, vi. 453), and the - only words that can be regarded as reasonably certain are _regei_ - (_regi_) on face 2, _kalatorem_ and _iouxmenta_ on face 3, and - _iouestod_ (_iusto_) on face 4.[3] The date may be said to be fixed by - the variation of the sign for _m_ between [symbol] and [symbol] (with - [symbol] for _r_) and other alphabetic indications which suggest the - 5th century B.C. It has been suggested also that the reason for the - destruction of the stele and the repavement may have been either (1) - the pollution of the comitium by the Gallic invasion of 390 B.C., all - traces of which, on their departure, could be best removed by a - repaving; or (2) perhaps more probably, the Augustan restorations - (Studniczka, _Jahresheft d. Osterr. Institut_, 1903, vi. 129 ff.). - (R. S. C.) - - 42. Of the earlier long inscriptions the most important would be the - _Columna Rostrata_, or column of Gaius Duilius (q.v.), erected to - commemorate his victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C., but for - the extent to which it has suffered from the hands of restorers. The - shape of the letters plainly shows that the inscription, as we have - it, was cut in the time of the empire. Hence Ritschl and Mommsen - pointed out that the language was modified at the same time, and that, - although many archaisms have been retained, some were falsely - introduced, and others replaced by more modern forms. The most - noteworthy features in it are--C always written for G (CESET = - _gessit_), single for double consonants (_clases-classes_), _d_ - retained in the ablative (e.g., _in altod marid_), _o_ for _u_ in - inflexions (_primos_, _exfociont_ = _exfugiunt_), _e_ for _i_ - (_navebos_ = _navibus_, _exemet_ = _exemit_); of these the first is - probably an affected archaism, G having been introduced some time - before the assumed date of the inscription. On the other hand, we have - _praeda_ where we should have expected _praida_; no final consonants - are dropped; and the forms -_es_, -_eis_ and -_is_ for the accusative - plural are interchanged capriciously. The doubts hence arising - preclude the possibility of using it with confidence as evidence for - the state of the language in the 3rd century B.C. - - 43. Of unquestionable genuineness and the greatest value are the - _Scipionum Elogia_, inscribed on stone coffins, found in the monument - of the Scipios outside the Capene gate (_C.I.L._[1] i. 32). The - earliest of the family whose epitaph has been preserved is L. - Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (consul 298 B.C.), the latest C. Cornelius - Scipio Hispanus (praetor in 139 B.C.); but there are good reasons for - believing with Ritschl that the epitaph of the first was not - contemporary, but was somewhat later than that of his son (consul 259 - B.C.). This last may therefore be taken as the earliest specimen of - any length of Latin and it was written at Rome; it runs as follows:-- - - honcoino . ploirume . cosentiont . r[_omai_] - duonoro . optumo . fuise . uiro [_virorum_] - luciom . scipione . filios . barbati - _co_]nsol . censor . aidilis . hic . fuet a [_pud vos_] - _he_]c . cepit . corsica . aleriaque . urbe[_m_] - _de_]det . tempestatebus . aide . mereto[_d votam_]. - - The archaisms in this inscription are--(1) the retention of _o_ for - _u_ in the inflexion of both nouns and verbs; (2) the diphthongs _oi_ - (= later _u_) and _ai_ (= later _ae_); (3) -_et_ for -_it_, _hec_ for - _hic_, and -_ebus_ for -_ibus_; (4) _duon_- for _bon_; and (5) the - dropping of a final _m_ in every case except in _Luciom_, a variation - which is a marked characteristic of the language of this period. - - 44. The oldest specimen of the Latin language preserved to us in any - literary source is to be found in two fragments of the Carmina - Saliaria (Varro, _De ling. Lat._ vii. 26, 27), and one in Terentianus - Scaurus, but they are unfortunately so corrupt as to give us little - real information (see B. Maurenbrecher, _Carminum Saliarium - reliquiae_, Leipzig, 1894; G. Hempl, _American Philol. Assoc. - Transactions_, xxxi., 1900, 184). Rather better evidence is supplied - in the _Carmen Fratrum Arvalium_, which was found in 1778 engraved on - one of the numerous tablets recording the transactions of the college - of the Arval brothers, dug up on the site of their grove by the Tiber, - 5 m. from the city of Rome; but this also has been so corrupted in its - oral tradition that even its general meaning is by no means clear - (_C.I.L._^1 i. 28; Jordan, _Krit. Beitrage_, pp. 203-211). - -45. The text of the Twelve Tables (451-450 B.C.), if preserved in its -integrity, would have been invaluable as a record of antique Latin; but -it is known to us only in quotations. R. Schoell, whose edition and -commentary (Leipzig, 1866) is the most complete, notes the following -traces, among others, of an archaic syntax: (1) both the subject and the -object of the verb are often left to be understood from the context, -e.g. _ni it antestamino, igitur, em capito_; (2) the imperative is used -even for permissions, "si volet, plus dato," "if he choose, he may give -him more"; (3) the subjunctive is apparently never used in conditional, -only in final sentences, but the future perfect is common; (4) the -connexion between sentences is of the simplest kind, and conjunctions -are rare. There are, of course, numerous isolated archaisms of form and -meaning, such as _calvitur_, _pacunt_, _endo_, _escit_. Later and less -elaborate editions are contained in _Fontes Iuris Romani_, by -Bruns-Mommsen-Gradenwitz (1892); and P. Girard, _Textes de droit romain_ -(1895). - -46. Turning now to the language of literature we may group the Latin -authors as follows:--[5] - -I. _Ante-Classical_ (240-80 B.C.).--Naevius (? 269-204), Plautus -(254-184), Ennius (239-169), Cato the Elder (234-149), Terentius (? -195-159), Pacuvius (220-132), Accius (170-94), Lucilius (? 168-103). - -II. _Classical--Golden Age_ (80 B.C.-A.D. 14).--Varro (116-28), Cicero -(106-44), Lucretius (99-55), Caesar (102-44), Catullus (87-? 47), -Sallust (86-34), Virgil (70-19), Horace (65-8), Propertius (? 50- ?), -Tibullus (? 54-? 18), Ovid (43 B.C.-A.D. 18), Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 18). - -III. _Classical--Silver Age_ (A.D. 14-180).--Velleius (? 19 B.C.-? A.D. -31), M. Seneca (d. c. A.D. 30), Persius (34-62), Petronius (d. 66), -Lucan (39-65), L. Seneca (d. A.D. 65), Plinius major (23-A.D. 79), -Martial (40-101), Quintilian (42-118), Pliny the Younger (61-? 113), -Tacitus (? 60-? 118), Juvenal (? 47-? 138), Suetonius (75-160), Fronto -(c. 90-170). - -47. _Naevius and Plautus._--In Naevius we find archaisms proportionally -much more numerous than in Plautus, especially in the retention of the -original length of vowels, and early forms of inflexion, such as the -genitive in -_as_ and the ablative in -_d_. The number of archaic words -preserved is perhaps due to the fact that so large a proportion of his -fragments have been preserved only by the grammarians, who cited them -for the express purpose of explaining these. - -Of the language of Plautus important features have already been -mentioned (SS 10-16); for its more general characteristics see PLAUTUS. - -48. _Ennius._--The language of Ennius deserves especial study because of -the immense influence which he exerted in fixing the literary style. He -first established the rule that in hexameter verse all vowels followed -by two consonants (except in the case of a mute and a liquid), or a -double consonant, must be treated as lengthened by position. The number -of varying quantities is also much diminished, and the elision of final --_m_ becomes the rule, though not without exceptions. On the other hand -he very commonly retains the original length of verbal terminations -(_esset_, _faciet_) and of nominatives in _or_ and _a_, and elides final -_s_ before an initial consonant. In declension he never uses -_ae_ as -the genitive, but -_ai_ or -_as_; the older and shorter form of the gen. -plur. is -_um_ in common; obsolete forms of pronouns are used, as _mis_, -_olli_, _sum_ (= eum), _sas_, _sos_, _sapsa_; and in verbal inflexion -there are old forms like _morimur_ (S 15), _fuimus_ (S 17, vi.), -_potestur_ (cf. S 5, iv.). Some experiments in the way of tmesis (_saxo_ -cere _comminuit_-brum) and apocope (_divum domus altisonum_ cael, -_replet te laetificum_ gau) were happily regarded as failures, and never -came into real use. His syntax is simple and straightforward, with the -occasional pleonasms of a rude style, and conjunctions are comparatively -rare. From this time forward the literary language of Rome parted -company with the popular dialect. Even to the classical writers Latin -was in a certain sense a dead language. Its vocabulary was not identical -with that of ordinary life. Now and again a writer would lend new vigour -to his style by phrases and constructions drawn from homely speech. But -on the whole, and in ever-increasing measure, the language of literature -was the language of the schools, adapted to foreign models. The genuine -current of Italian speech is almost lost to view with Plautus and -Terence, and reappears clearly only in the semi-barbarous products of -the early Romance literature. - -49. _Pacuvius, Accius and Lucilius._--Pacuvius is noteworthy especially -for his attempt to introduce a free use of compounds after the fashion -of the Greek, which were felt in the classical times to be unsuited to -the genius of the Latin language, Quintilian censures severely his -line-- - - Nerei repandirostrum incurvicervicum pecus. - -Accius, though probably the greatest of the Roman tragedians, is only -preserved in comparatively unimportant fragments. We know that he paid -much attention to grammar and orthography; and his language is much more -finished than that of Ennius. It shows no marked archaisms of form, -unless the infinitive in -_ier_ is to be accounted as such. - -Lucilius furnishes a specimen of the language of the period, free from -the restraints of tragic diction and the imitation of Greek originals. -Unfortunately the greater part of his fragments are preserved only by a -grammarian whose text is exceptionally corrupt; but they leave no doubt -as to the justice of the criticism passed by Horace on his careless and -"muddy" diction. The _urbanitas_ which is with one accord conceded to -him by ancient critics seems to indicate that his style was free from -the taint of provincial Latinity, and it may be regarded as reproducing -the language of educated circles in ordinary life; the numerous -Graecisms and Greek quotations with which it abounds show the -familiarity of his readers with the Greek language and literature. Varro -ascribes to him the _gracile genus dicendi_, the distinguishing features -of which were _venustas_ and _subtilitas_. Hence it appears that his -numerous archaisms were regarded as in no way inconsistent with grace -and precision of diction. But it may be remembered that Varro was -himself something of an archaizer, and also that the grammarians' -quotations may bring this aspect too much into prominence. Lucilius -shares with the comic poets the use of many plebeian expressions, the -love for diminutives, abstract terms and words of abuse; but -occasionally he borrows from the more elevated style of Ennius forms -like _simitu_ (= simul), _noenu_ (= non), _facul_ (= facile), and the -genitive in -_ai_, and he ridicules the contemporary tragedians for -their _zetematia_, their high-flown diction and _sesquipedalia verba_, -which make the characters talk "not like men but like portents, flying -winged snakes." In his ninth book he discusses questions of grammar, and -gives some interesting facts as to the tendencies of the language. For -instance, when he ridicules a _praetor urbanus_ for calling himself -_pretor_, we see already the intrusion of the rustic degradation of _ae_ -into _e_, which afterwards became universal. He shows a great command of -technical language, and (partly owing to the nature of the fragments) -[Greek: hapax legomena] are very numerous. - -50. _Cato._--The treatise of Cato the elder, _De re rustica_, would have -afforded invaluable material, but it has unfortunately come down to us -in a text greatly modernized, which is more of interest from the point -of view of literature than of language. We find in it, however, -instances of the accusative with _uti_, of the old imperative -_praefamino_ and of the fut. sub. _servassis_, _prohibessis_ and such -interesting subjunctive constructions as _dato bubus bibant omnibus_, -"give all the oxen (water) to drink." - -51. _Growth of Latin Prose._--It is unfortunately impossible to trace -the growth of Latin prose diction through its several stages with the -same clearness as in the case of poetry. The fragments of the earlier -Latin prose writers are too scanty for us to be able to say with -certainty when and how a formed prose style was created. But the impulse -to it was undoubtedly given in the habitual practice of oratory. The -earliest orators, like Cato, were distinguished for strong common sense, -biting wit and vigorous language, rather than for any graces of style; -and probably personal _auctoritas_ was of far more account than rhetoric -both in the law courts and in the assemblies of the people. The first -public speaker, according to Cicero, who aimed at a polished style and -elaborate periods was M. Aemilius Lepidus Porcina, in the middle of the -2nd century B.C.[6] On his model the Gracchi and Carbo fashioned -themselves, and, if we may judge from the fragments of the orations of -C. Gracchus which are preserved, there were few traces of archaism -remaining. A more perfect example of the _urbanitas_ at which good -speakers aimed was supplied by a famous speech of C. Fannius against C. -Gracchus, which Cicero considered the best oration of the time. No -small part of the _urbanitas_ consisted in a correct urban -pronunciation; and the standard of this was found in the language of the -women of the upper classes, such as Laelia and Cornelia. - -In the earliest continuous prose work which remains to us the four books -_De Rhetorica ad Herennium_, we find the language already almost -indistinguishable from that of Cicero. There has been much discussion as -to the authorship of this work, now commonly, without very convincing -reasons, ascribed to Q. Cornificius; but, among the numerous arguments -which prove that it cannot have been the work of Cicero, none has been -adduced of any importance drawn from the character of the language. It -is worth while noticing that not only is the style in itself perfectly -finished, but the treatment of the subject of style, _elocutio_ (iv. 12. -17), shows the pains which had already been given to the question. The -writer lays down three chief requisites--(1) _elegantia_, (2) -_compositio_ and (3) _dignitas_. Under the first come _Latinitas_, a due -avoidance of solecisms and barbarisms, and _explanatio_, clearness, the -employment of familiar and appropriate expressions. The second demands a -proper arrangement; hiatus, alliteration, rhyme, the repetition or -displacement of words, and too long sentences are all to be eschewed. -Dignity depends upon the selection of language and of sentiments. - -52. _Characteristics of Latin Prose._--Hence we see that by the time of -Cicero Latin prose was fully developed. We may, therefore, pause here to -notice the characteristic qualities of the language at its most perfect -stage. The Latin critics were themselves fully conscious of the broad -distinction in character between their own language and the Greek. -Seneca dwells upon the stately and dignified movement of the Latin -period, and uses for Cicero the happy epithet of _gradarius_. He allows -to the Greeks _gratia_, but claims _potentia_ for his own countrymen. -Quintilian (xii. 10. 27 seq.) concedes to Greek more euphony and variety -both of vocalization and of accent; he admits that Latin words are -harsher in sound, and often less happily adapted to the expression of -varying shades of meaning. But he too claims "power" as the -distinguishing mark of his own language. Feeble thought may be carried -off by the exquisite harmony and subtleness of Greek diction; his -countrymen must aim at fulness and weight of ideas if they are not to be -beaten off the field. The Greek authors are like lightly moving skiffs; -the Romans spread wider sails and are wafted by stronger breezes; hence -the deeper waters suit them. It is not that the Latin language fails to -respond to the calls made upon it. Lucretius and Cicero concur, it is -true, in complaints of the poverty of their native language; but this -was only because they had had no predecessors in the task of adapting it -to philosophic utterance; and the long life of Latin technical terms -like _qualitas_, _species_, _genus_, _ratio_, shows how well the need -was met when it arose. H. A. J. Munro has said admirably of this very -period:-- - - "The living Latin for all the higher forms of composition, both prose - and verse, was a far nobler language than the living Greek. During the - long period of Grecian pre-eminence and literary glory, from Homer to - Demosthenes, all the manifold forms of poetry and prose which were - invented one after the other were brought to such exquisite perfection - that their beauty of form and grace of language were never afterwards - rivalled by Latin or any other people. But hardly had Demosthenes and - Aristotle ceased to live when that Attic which had been gradually - formed into such a noble instrument of thought in the hands of - Aristophanes, Euripides, Plato and the orators, and had superseded for - general use all the other dialects, became at the same time the - language of the civilized world and was stricken with a mortal - decay.... Epicurus, who was born in the same year as Menander, writes - a harsh jargon that does not deserve to be called a style; and others - of whose writings anything is left entire or in fragments, historians - and philosophers alike, Polybius, Chrysippus, Philodemus, are little - if any better. When Cicero deigns to translate any of their sentences, - see what grace and life he instils into their clumsily expressed - thoughts, how satisfying to the ear and taste are the periods of Livy - when he is putting into Latin the heavy and uncouth clauses of - Polybius! This may explain what Cicero means when at one time he gives - to Greek the preference over Latin, at another to Latin over Greek; in - reading Sophocles or Plato he could acknowledge their unrivalled - excellence; in translating Panaetius or Philodemus he would feel his - own immeasurable superiority." - -The greater number of long syllables, combined with the paucity of -diphthongs and the consequent monotony of vocalization, and the -uniformity of the accent, lent a weight and dignity of movement to the -language which well suited the national _gravitas_. The precision of -grammatical rules and the entire absence of dialectic forms from the -written literature contributed to maintain the character of unity which -marked the Roman republic as compared with the multiplicity of Greek -states. It was remarked by Francis Bacon that artistic and imaginative -nations indulge freely in verbal compounds, practical nations in simple -concrete terms. In this respect, too, Latin contrasts with Greek. The -attempts made by some of the earlier poets to indulge in novel compounds -was felt to be out of harmony with the genius of the language. -Composition, though necessarily employed, was kept within narrow limits, -and the words thus produced have a sharply defined meaning, wholly -unlike the poetical vagueness of some of the Greek compounds. The -vocabulary of the language, though receiving accessions from time to -time in accordance with practical needs, was rarely enriched by the -products of a spontaneous creativeness. In literature the taste of the -educated town circles gave the law; and these, trained in the study of -the Greek masters of style, required something which should reproduce -for them the harmony of the Greek period. Happily the orators who gave -form to Latin prose were able to meet the demand without departing from -the spirit of their own language.[7] - -53. _Cicero and Caesar._--To Cicero especially the Romans owed the -realization of what was possible to their language in the way of -artistic finish of style. He represents a protest at one and the same -time against the inroads of the _plebeius sermo_, vulgarized by the -constant influx of non-Italian provincials into Rome, and the "jargon of -spurious and partial culture" in vogue among the Roman pupils of the -Asiatic rhetoricians. His essential service was to have caught the tone -and style of the true Roman _urbanitas_, and to have fixed it in -extensive and widely read speeches and treatises as the final model of -classical prose. The influence of Caesar was wholly in the same -direction. His cardinal principle was that every new-fangled and -affected expression, from whatever quarter it might come, should be -avoided by the writer, as rocks by the mariner. His own style for -straightforward simplicity and purity has never been surpassed; and it -is not without full reason that Cicero and Caesar are regarded as the -models of classical prose. But, while they fixed the type of the best -Latin, they did not and could not alter its essential character. In -subtlety, in suggestiveness, in many-sided grace and versatility, it -remained far inferior to the Greek. But for dignity and force, for -cadence and rhythm, for clearness and precision, the best Latin prose -remains unrivalled. - -It is needless to dwell upon the grammar or vocabulary of Cicero. His -language is universally taken as the normal type of Latin; and, as -hitherto the history of the language has been traced by marking -differences from his usage, so the same method may be followed for what -remains. - -54. _Varro_, "the most learned of the ancients," a friend and -contemporary of Cicero, seems to have rejected the periodic rhythmical -style of Cicero, and to have fallen back upon a more archaic structure. -Mommsen says of one passage "the clauses of the sentence are arranged on -the thread of the relative like dead thrushes on a string." But, in -spite (some would say, because) of his old-fashioned tendencies, his -language shows great vigour and spirit. In his Menippean satires he -intentionally made free use of plebeian expressions, while rising at -times to a real grace and showing often fresh humour. His treatise _De -Re Rustica_, in the form of a dialogue, is the most agreeable of his -works, and where the nature of his subject allows it there is much -vivacity and dramatic picturesqueness, although the precepts are -necessarily given in a terse and abrupt form. His sentences are as a -rule co-ordinated, with but few connecting links; his diction contains -many antiquated or unique words. - -55. _Sallust._--In Sallust, a younger contemporary of Cicero, we have -the earliest complete specimen of historical narrative. It is probably -due to his subject-matter, at least in part, that his style is marked by -frequent archaisms; but something must be ascribed to intentional -imitation of the earlier chroniclers, which led him to be called -_priscorum Catonisque verborum ineruditissimus fur_. His archaisms -consist partly of words and phrases used in a sense for which we have -only early authorities, e.g. _cum animo habere_, &c., _animos tollere_, -_bene factum_, _consultor_, _prosapia_, _dolus_, _venenum_, _obsequela_, -_inquies_, _sallere_, _occipere_, _collibeo_, and the like, where we may -notice especially the fondness for frequentatives, which he shares with -the early comedy; partly in inflections which were growing obsolete, -such as _senati_, _solui_, _comperior_ (dep.), _neglegisset_, _vis_ -(acc. pl.) _nequitur_. In syntax his constructions are for the most part -those of the contemporary writers. - -56. _Lucretius_ is largely archaic in his style. We find _im_ for _eum_, -_endo_ for _in_, _illae_, _ullae_, _unae_ and _aliae_ as genitives, -_alid_ for _aliud_, _rabies_ as a genitive by the side of genitives in --_ai_, ablatives in -_i_ like _colli_, _orbi_, _parti_, nominatives in -_s_ for _r_, like _colos_, _vapos_, _humos_. In verbs there are -_scatit_, _fulgit_, _quaesit_, _confluxet_ = _confluxisset_, _recesse_ = -_recessisse_, _induiacere_ for _inicere_; simple forms like _fligere_, -_lacere_, _cedere_, _stinguere_ for the more usual compounds, the -infinitive passive in -_ier_, and archaic forms from _esse_ like _siet_, -_escit_, _fuat_. Sometimes he indulges in tmesis which reminds us of -Ennius: _inque pediri_, _disque supata_, _ordia prima_. But this archaic -tinge is adopted only for poetical purposes, and as a proof of his -devotion to the earlier masters of his art; it does not affect the -general substance of his style, which is of the freshest and most -vigorous stamp. But the purity of his idiom is not gained by any slavish -adherence to a recognized vocabulary: he coins words freely; Munro has -noted more than a hundred [Greek: hapax legomena], or words which he -alone among good writers uses. Many of these are formed on familiar -models, such as compounds and frequentatives; others are directly -borrowed from the Greek apparently with a view to sweetness of rhythm -(ii. 412, v. 334, 505); others again (forty or more in number) are -compounds of a kind which the classical language refused to adopt, such -as _silvifragus_, _terriloquus_, _perterricrepus_. He represents not so -much a stage in the history of the language as a protest against the -tendencies fashionable in his own time. But his influence was deep upon -Virgil, and through him upon all subsequent Latin literature. - -57. _Catullus_ gives us the type of the language of the cultivated -circles, lifted into poetry by the simple directness with which it is -used to express emotion. In his heroic and elegiac poems he did not -escape the influence of the Alexandrian school, and his genius is ill -suited for long-continued flights; but in his lyrical poems his language -is altogether perfect. As Macaulay says: "No Latin writer is so Greek. -The simplicity, the pathos, the perfect grace, which I find in the great -Athenian models are all in Catullus, and in him alone of the Romans." -The language of these poems comes nearest perhaps to that of Cicero's -more intimate letters. It is full of colloquial idioms and familiar -language, of the diminutives of affection or of playfulness. Greek words -are rare, especially in the lyrics, and those which are employed are -only such as had come to be current coin. Archaisms are but sparingly -introduced; but for metrical reasons he has four instances of the inf. -pass., in -_ier_, and several contracted forms; we find also _alis_ and -_alid_, _uni_ (gen.), and the antiquated _tetuli_ and _recepso_. There -are traces of the popular language in the shortened imperatives _cave_ -and _mane_, in the analytic perfect _paratam habes_, and in the use of -_unus_ approaching that of the indefinite article. - -58. _Horace._--The poets of the Augustan age mark the opening of a new -chapter in the history of the Latin language. The influence of Horace -was less than that of his friend and contemporary Virgil; for Horace -worked in a field of his own, and, although Statius imitated his -lyrics, and Persius and Juvenal, especially the former, his satires, on -the whole there are few traces of any deep marks left by him on the -language of later writers. In his _Satires_ and _Epistles_ the diction -is that of the contemporary _urbanitas_, differing hardly at all from -that of Cicero in his epistles and dialogues. The occasional archaisms, -such as the syncope in _erepsemus_, _evasse_, _surrexe_, the infinitives -in -ier, and the genitives _deum_, _divum_, may be explained as still -conversationally allowable, though ceasing to be current in literature; -and a similar explanation may account for plebeian terms, e.g. -_balatro_, _blatero_, _giarrio_, _mutto_, _vappa_, _caldus_, _soldus_, -_surpite_, for the numerous diminutives, and for such pronouns, adverbs, -conjunctions and turns of expression as were common in prose, but not -found, or found but rarely, in elevated poetry. Greek words are used -sparingly, not with the licence which he censures in Lucilius, and in -his hexameters are framed according to Latin rules. In the _Odes_, on -the other hand, the language is much more precisely limited. There are -practically no archaisms (_spargier_ in Carm. iv. 11. 8 is a doubtful -exception), or plebeian expressions; Greek inflections are employed, but -not with the licence of Catullus; there are no datives in _i_ or _sin_ -like _Tethyi_ or _Dryasin_; Greek constructions are fairly numerous, -e.g. the genitive with verbs like _regnare_, _abstinere_, _desinere_, -and with adjectives, as _integer vitae_, the so-called Greek accusative, -the dative with verbs of contest, like _luctari_, _decertare_, the -transitive use of many intransitive verbs in the past participle, as -_regnatus_, _triumphatus_; and finally there is a "prolative" use of the -infinitive after verbs and adjectives, where prose would have employed -other constructions, which, though not limited to Horace, is more common -with him than with other poets. Compounds are very sparingly employed, -and apparently only when sanctioned by authority. His own innovations in -vocabulary are not numerous. About eighty [Greek: hapax legomena] have -been noted. Like Virgil, he shows his exquisite skill in the use of -language rather in the selection from already existing stores, than in -the creation of new resources: _tantum series iuncturaque pollet_. But -both his diction and his syntax left much less marked traces upon -succeeding writers than did those of either Virgil or Ovid. - -59. _Virgil._--In Virgil the Latin language reached its full maturity. -What Cicero was to the period, Virgil was to the hexameter; indeed the -changes that he wrought were still more marked, inasmuch as the language -of verse admits of greater subtlety and finish than even the most -artistic prose. For the straightforward idiomatic simplicity of -Lucretius and Catullus he substituted a most exact and felicitous -diction, rich with the suggestion of the most varied sources of -inspiration. Sometimes it is a phrase of Homer's "conveyed" literally -with happy boldness, sometimes it is a line of Ennius, or again some -artistic Sophoclean combination. Virgil was equally familiar with the -great Greek models of style and with the earlier Latin poets. This -learning, guided by an unerring sense of fitness and harmony, enabled -him to give to his diction a music which recalls at once the fullest -tones of the Greek lyre and the lofty strains of the most genuinely -national song. His love of antiquarianism in language has often been -noticed, but it never passes into pedantry. His vocabulary and -constructions are often such as would have conveyed to his -contemporaries a grateful flavour of the past, but they would never have -been unintelligible. Forms like _iusso_, _olle_ or _admittier_ can have -delayed no one. - -In the details of syntax it is difficult to notice any peculiarly -Virgilian points, for the reason that his language, like that of Cicero, -became the canon, departures from which were accounted irregularities. -But we may notice as favourite constructions a free use of oblique cases -in the place of the more definite construction with prepositions usual -in prose, e.g. _it clamor caelo_, _flet noctem_, _rivis currentia vina_, -_bacchatam iugis Naxon_, and many similar phrases; the employment of -some substantives as adjectives, like _venator canis_, and vice versa, -as _plurimus volitans_; a proleptic use of adjectives, as _tristia -torquebit_; idioms involving _ille_, _atque_, _deinde_, _haud_, _quin_, -_vix_, and the frequent occurrence of passive verbs in their earlier -reflexive sense, as _induor_, _velor_, _pascor_. - -60. _Livy._--In the singularly varied and beautiful style of Livy we -find Latin prose in rich maturity. To a training in the rhetorical -schools, and perhaps professional experience as a teacher of rhetoric, -he added a thorough familiarity with contemporary poetry and with the -Greek language; and these attainments have all deeply coloured his -language. It is probable that the variety of style naturally suggested -by the wide range of his subject matter was increased by a -half-unconscious adoption of the phrases and constructions of the -different authorities whom he followed in different parts of his work; -and the industry of German critics has gone far to demonstrate a -conclusion likely enough in itself. Hence perhaps comes the fairly long -list of archaisms, especially in formulae (cf. Kuhnast, _Liv. Synt._ pp. -14-18). These are, however, purely isolated phenomena, which do not -affect the general tone. It is different with the poetical constructions -and Graecisms, which appear on every page. Of the latter we find -numerous instances in the use of the cases, e.g. in genitives like _via -praedae omissae_, _oppidum Antiochiae_, _aequum campi_; in datives like -_quibusdam volentibus erat_; in accusatives like _iurare calumniam_, -_certare multam_; an especially frequent use of transitive verbs -absolutely; and the constant omission of the reflexive pronoun as the -subject of an infinitive in reported speech. To the same source must be -assigned the very frequent pregnant construction with prepositions, an -attraction of relatives, and the great extension of the employment of -relative adverbs of place instead of relative pronouns, e.g. _quo_ = _in -quem_. Among his poetical characteristics we may place the extensive -list of words which are found for the first time in his works and in -those of Virgil or Ovid, and perhaps his common use of concrete words -for collective, e.g. _eques_ for _equitatus_, of abstract terms such as -_remigium_, _servitia_, _robora_, and of frequentative verbs, to say -nothing of poetical phrases like _haec ubi dicta dedit, adversum -montium_, &c. Indications of the extended use of the subjunctive, which -he shares with contemporary writers, especially poets, are found in the -construction of _ante quam_, _post quam_ with this mood, even when there -is no underlying notion of anticipation, of _donec_, and of _cum_ -meaning "whenever." On the other hand, _forsitan_ and _quamvis_, as in -the poets, are used with the indicative in forgetfulness of their -original force. Among his individual peculiarities may be noticed the -large number of verbal nouns in -_tus_ (for which Cicero prefers forms -in -_tio_) and in -_tor_, and the extensive use of the past passive -participle to replace an abstract substantive, e.g. _ex dictatorio -imperio concusso_. In the arrangement of words Livy is much more free -than any previous prose writer, aiming, like the poets, at the most -effective order. His periods are constructed with less regularity than -those of Cicero, but they gain at least as much in variety and energy as -they lose in uniformity of rhythm and artistic finish. His style cannot -be more fitly described than in the language of Quintilian, who speaks -of his _mira iucunditas_ and _lactea ubertas_. - -61. _Propertius._--The language of Propertius is too distinctly his own -to call for detailed examination here. It cannot be taken as a specimen -of the great current of the Latin language; it is rather a tributary -springing from a source apart, tinging to some slight extent the stream -into which it pours itself, but soon ceasing to affect it in any -perceptible fashion. "His obscurity, his indirectness and his -incoherence" (to adopt the words of J. P. Postgate) were too much out of -harmony with the Latin taste for him to be regarded as in any sense -representative; sometimes he seems to be hardly writing Latin at all. -Partly from his own strikingly independent genius, partly from his -profound and not always judicious study of the Alexandrian writers, his -poems abound in phrases and constructions which are without a parallel -in Latin poetry. His archaisms and Graecisms, both in diction and in -syntax, are very numerous; but frequently there is a freedom in the use -of cases and prepositions which can only be due to bold and independent -innovations. His style well deserves a careful study for its own sake -(cf. J. P. Postgate's _Introduction_, pp. lvii.-cxxv.); but it is of -comparatively little significance in the history of the language. - -62. _Ovid._--The brief and few poems of Tibullus supply only what is -given much more fully in the works of Ovid. In these we have the -language recognized as that best fitted for poetry by the fashionable -circles in the later years of Augustus. The style of Ovid bears many -traces of the imitation of Virgil, Horace and Propertius, but it is not -less deeply affected by the rhetoric of the schools. His never-failing -fertility of fancy and command of diction often lead him into a -diffuseness which mars the effect of his best works; according to -Quintilian it was only in his (lost) tragedy of _Medea_ that he showed -what real excellence he might have reached if he had chosen to control -his natural powers. His influence on later poets was largely for evil; -if he taught them smoothness of versification and polish of language, he -also co-operated powerfully with the practice of recitation to lead them -to aim at rhetorical point and striking turns of expression, instead of -a firm grasp of a subject as a whole, and due subordination of the -several parts to the general impression. Ovid's own influence on -language was not great; he took the diction of poetry as he found it, -formed by the labours of his predecessors; the conflict between the -archaistic and the Graecizing schools was already settled in favour of -the latter; and all that he did was to accept the generally accepted -models as supplying the material in moulding which his luxuriant fancy -could have free play. He has no deviations from classical syntax but -those which were coming into fashion in his time (e.g. _forsitan_ and -_quamvis_ with the indic., the dative of the agent with passive verbs, -the ablative for the accusative of time, the infinitive after adjectives -like _certus_, _aptus_, &c.), and but few peculiarities in his -vocabulary. It is only in the letters from the Pontus that laxities of -construction are detected, which show that the purity of his Latin was -impaired by his residence away from Rome, and perhaps by increasing -carelessness of composition. - -63. _The Latin of Daily Life._--While the leading writers of the -Ciceronian and Augustan eras enable us to trace the gradual development -of the Latin language to its utmost finish as an instrument of literary -expression, there are some less important authors who supply valuable -evidence of the character of the _sermo plebeius_. Among them may be -placed the authors of the _Bellum Africanum_ and the _Bellum -Hispaniense_ appended to Caesar's Commentaries. These are not only far -inferior to the exquisite _urbanitas_ of Caesar's own writings; they are -much rougher in style even than the less polished _Bellum Alexandrinum_ -and _De Bello Gallico Liber VIII._, which are now with justice ascribed -to Hirtius. There is sufficient difference between the two to justify us -in assuming two different authors; but both freely employ words and -constructions which are at once antiquated and vulgar. The writer of the -_Bellum Alexandrinum_ uses a larger number of diminutives within his -short treatise than Caesar in nearly ten times the space; _postquam_ and -_ubi_ are used with the pluperfect subjunctive; there are numerous forms -unknown to the best Latin, like _tristimonia_, _exporrigere_, -_cruciabiliter_ and _convulnero_; _potior_ is followed by the -accusative, a simple relative by the subjunctive. There is also a very -common use of the pluperfect for the imperfect, which seems a mark of -this _plebeius sermo_ (Nipperdey, _Quaest. Caes._ pp. 13-30). - - Another example of what we may call the Latin of business life is - supplied by Vitruvius. Besides the obscurity of many of his technical - expressions, there is a roughness and looseness in his language, far - removed from a literary style; he shares the incorrect use of the - pluperfect, and uses plebeian forms like _calefaciuntur_, _faciliter_, - _expertiones_ and such careless phrases as _rogavit Archimedem uti in - se sumeret sibi de eo cogitationem_. At a somewhat later stage we - have, not merely plebeian, but also provincial Latin represented in - the Satyricon of Petronius. The narrative and the poems which are - introduced into it are written in a style distinguished only by the - ordinary peculiarities of silver Latinity; but in the numerous - conversations the distinctions of language appropriate to the various - speakers are accurately preserved; and we have in the talk of the - slaves and provincials a perfect storehouse of words and constructions - of the greatest linguistic value. Among the unclassical forms and - constructions may be noticed masculines like _fatus_, _vinus_, - _balneus_, _fericulus_ and _lactem_ (for _lac_), _striga_ for _strix_, - _gaudimonium_ and _tristimonium_, _sanguen_, _manducare_, _nutricare_, - _molestare_, _nesapius_ (_sapius_ = Fr. _sage_), _rostrum_ (= _os_), - _ipsimus_ (= master), _scordalias_, _baro_, and numerous diminutives - like _camella_, _audaculus_, _potiuncula_, _savunculum_, _offla_, - _peduclus_, _corcillum_, with constructions such as _maledicere_ and - _persuadere_ with the accusative, and _adiutare_ with the dative, and - the deponent forms _pudeatur_ and _ridetur_. Of especial interest for - the Romance languages are _astrum_ (_desastre_), _berbex_ (_brebis_), - _botellus_ (_boyau_), _improperare_, _muttus_, _naufragare_. - - Suetonius (_Aug._ c. 87) gives an interesting selection of plebeian - words employed in conversation by Augustus, who for the rest was - something of a purist in his written utterances: _ponit assidue et pro - stulto baceolum, et pro pullo pulleiaceum, et pro cerrito vacerrosum, - et vapide se habere pro male, et betizare pro languere, quod vulgo - lachanizare dicitur_. - - The inscriptions, especially those of Pompeii, supply abundant - evidence of the corruptions both of forms and of pronunciation common - among the vulgar. It is not easy always to determine whether a - mutilated form is evidence of a letter omitted in pronunciation, or - only in writing; but it is clear that the ordinary man habitually - dropped final _m_, _s_, and _t_, omitted _n_ before _s_, and - pronounced _i_ like _e_. There are already signs of the decay of _ae_ - to _e_, which later on became almost universal. The additions to our - vocabulary are slight and unimportant (cf. _Corpus Inscr._ Lat. iv., - with Zangemeister's _Indices_). - -64. To turn to the language of literature. In the dark days of Tiberius -and the two succeeding emperors a paralysis seemed to have come upon -prose and poetry alike. With the one exception of oratory, literature -had long been the utterance of a narrow circle, not the expression of -the energies of national life; and now, while all free speech in the -popular assemblies was silenced, the nobles were living under a -suspicious despotism, which, whatever the advantage which it brought to -the poorer classes and to the provincials, was to them a reign of -terror. It is no wonder that the fifty years after the accession of -Tiberius are a blank as regards all higher literature. Velleius -Paterculus, Valerius Maximus, Celsus and Phaedrus give specimens of the -Latin of the time, but the style of no one of these, classical for the -most part in vocabulary, but occasionally approaching the later usages -in syntax, calls for special analysis. The elder Seneca in his -collection of _suasoriae_ and _controversiae_ supplies examples of the -barren quibblings by which the young Romans were trained in the -rhetorical schools. A course of instruction, which may have been of -service when its end was efficiency in active public life, though even -then not without its serious drawbacks, as is shown by Cicero in his -treatise _De Oratore_, became seriously injurious when its object was -merely idle display. Prose came to be overloaded with ornament, and -borrowed too often the language, though not the genius, of poetry; while -poetry in its turn, partly owing to the fashion of recitation, became a -string of rhetorical points. - -65. _Seneca, Persius and Lucan._--In the writers of Nero's age there are -already plain indications of the evil effects of the rhetorical schools -upon language as well as literature. The leading man of letters was -undoubtedly Seneca the younger, "the Ovid of prose"; and his style set -the model which it became the fashion to imitate. But it could not -commend itself to the judgment of sound critics like Quintilian, who -held firmly to the great masters of an earlier time. He admits its -brilliance, and the fertility of its pointed reflections, but charges -the author justly with want of self-restraint, jerkiness, frequent -repetitions and tawdry tricks of rhetoric. Seneca was the worst of -models, and pleased by his very faults. In his tragedies the rhetorical -elaboration of the style only serves to bring into prominence the -frigidity and frequent bad taste of the matter. But his diction is on -the whole fairly classical; he is, in the words of Muretus, _vetusti -sermonis diligentior quam quidam inepte fastidiosi suspicantur_. In -Persius there is a constant straining after rhetorical effect, which -fills his verses with harsh and obscure expressions. The careful choice -of diction by which his master Horace makes every word tell is -exaggerated into an endeavour to gain force and freshness by the most -contorted phrases. The sin of allusiveness is fostered by the fashion of -the day for epigram, till his lines are barely intelligible after -repeated reading. Conington happily suggested that this style was -assumed only for satiric purposes, and pointed out that when not writing -satire Persius was as simple and unaffected as Horace himself. This -view, while it relieves Persius of much of the censure which has been -directed against his want of judgment, makes him all the more typical a -representative of this stage of silver Latinity. In his contemporary -Lucan we have another example of the faults of a style especially -attractive to the young, handled by a youth of brilliant but -ill-disciplined powers. The _Pharsalia_ abounds in spirited rhetoric, in -striking epigram, in high sounding declamation; but there are no flights -of sustained imagination, no ripe wisdom, no self-control in avoiding -the exaggerated or the repulsive, no mature philosophy of life or human -destiny. Of all the Latin poets he is the least Virgilian. It has been -said of him that he corrupted the style of poetry, not less than Seneca -that of prose. - -66. _Pliny_, _Quintilian_, _Frontinus._--In the elder Pliny the same -tendencies are seen occasionally breaking out in the midst of the -prosaic and inartistic form in which he gives out the stores of his -cumbrous erudition. Wherever he attempts a loftier tone than that of the -mere compiler, he falls into the tricks of Seneca. The nature of his -encyclopaedic subject matter naturally makes his vocabulary very -extensive; but in syntax and general tone of language he does not differ -materially from contemporary writers. Quintilian is of interest -especially for the sound judgment which led him to a true appreciation -of the writers of Rome's golden age. He set himself strenuously to -resist the tawdry rhetoric fashionable in his own time, and to hold up -before his pupils purer and loftier models. His own criticisms are -marked by excellent taste, and often by great happiness of expression, -which is pointed without being unduly epigrammatic. But his own style -did not escape, as indeed it hardly could, the influences of his time; -and in many small points his language falls short of classical purity. -There is more approach to the simplicity of the best models in -Frontinus, who furnishes a striking proof that it was rather the -corruption of literary taste than any serious change in the language of -ordinary cultivated men to which the prevalent style was due. Writing on -practical matters--the art of war and the water-supply of Rome--he goes -straight to the point without rhetorical flourishes; and the ornaments -of style which he occasionally introduces serve to embellish but not to -distort his thought. - -67. _The Flavian Age._--The epic poets of the Flavian age present a -striking contrast to the writers of the Claudian period. As a strained -originality was the cardinal fault of the one school, so a tame and -slavish following of authority is the mark of the other. The general -_correctness_ of this period may perhaps be ascribed (with Merivale) -partly to the political conditions, partly to the establishment of -professional schools. Teachers like Quintilian must have done much to -repress extravagance of thought and language; but they could not kindle -the spark of genius. Valerius Flaccus, Silius Italicus and Papinius -Statius are all correct in diction and in rhythm, and abound in -learning; but their inspiration is drawn from books and not from nature -or the heart; details are elaborated to the injury of the impression of -the whole; every line is laboured, and overcharged with epigrammatic -rhetoric. Statius shows by far the greatest natural ability and -freshness; but he attempts to fill a broad canvas with drawing and -colouring suited only to a miniature. Juvenal exemplifies the tendencies -of the language of his time, as moulded by a singularly powerful mind. A -careful study of the earlier poets, especially Virgil and Lucan, has -kept his language up to a high standard of purity. His style is -eminently rhetorical; but it is rhetoric of real power. The concise -brevity by which it is marked seems to have been the result of a -deliberate attempt to mould his natural diffuseness into the form -recognized as most appropriate for satire. In his verses we notice a few -metrical peculiarities which represent the pronunciation of his age, -especially the shortening of the final -_o_ in verbs, but as a rule they -conform to the Virgilian standard. In Martial the tendency of this -period to witty epigram finds its most perfect embodiment, combined with -finished versification. - -68. _Pliny the Younger and Tacitus._--The typical prose-writers of this -time are Pliny the younger and Tacitus. Some features of the style of -Tacitus are peculiar to himself; but on the whole the following -statement represents the tendencies shared in greater or less degree by -all the writers of this period. The gains lie mainly in the direction of -a more varied and occasionally more effective syntax; its most striking -defect is a lack of harmony in the periods, of arrangements in words, of -variety in particles arising from the loose connexion of sentences. The -vocabulary is extended, but there are losses as well as gains. -Quintilian's remarks are fully borne out by the evidence of extant -authorities: on the one hand, _quid quod nihil iam proprium placet, dum -parum creditur disertum, quod et alius dixisset_ (viii. _prooem._ 24); -_a corruptissimo quoque poetarum figuras seu translationes mutuamur; tum -demum ingeniosi scilicet, si ad intelligendos nos opus sit ingenio_ (ib. -25); _sordet omne quod natura dictavit_ (ib. 26); on the other hand, -_nunc utique, cum haec exercitatio procul a veritate seiuncta laboret -incredibili verborum fastidio, ac sibi magnam partem sermonis -absciderit_ (viii. 3, 23), _multa cotidie ab antiquis ficta moriuntur_ -(ib. 6, 32). A writer like Suetonius therefore did good service in -introducing into his writings terms and phrases borrowed, not from the -rhetoricians, but from the usage of daily life. - - 69. In the vocabulary of Tacitus there are to be noted:-- - - 1. Words borrowed (consciously or unconsciously) from the classical - poets, especially Virgil, occurring for the most part also in - contemporary prose. Of these Drager gives a list of ninety-five - (_Syntax und Stil des Tacitus_, p. 96). - - 2. Words occurring only, or for the first time, in Tacitus. These are - for the most part new formations or compounds from stems already in - use, especially verbal substantives in -_tor_ and -_sor_, -_tus_ and - -_sus_, -_tura_ and -_mentum_, with new frequentatives. - - 3. Words used with a meaning (a) not found in earlier prose, but - sometimes borrowed from the poets, e.g. _componere_, "to bury"; - _scriptura_, "a writing"; _ferratus_ "armed with a sword"; (b) - peculiar to later writers, e.g. _numerosus_, "numerous"; _famosus_, - "famous"; _decollare_, "to behead"; _imputare_, "to take credit for," - &c.; (c) restricted to Tacitus himself, e.g. _dispergere_ = - _divolgare_. - - Generally speaking, Tacitus likes to use a simple verb instead of a - compound one, after the fashion of the poets, employs a pluperfect for - a perfect, and (like Livy and sometimes Caesar) aims at vividness and - variety by retaining the present and perfect subjunctive in indirect - speech even after historical tenses. Collective words are followed by - a plural far more commonly than in Cicero. The ellipse of a verb is - more frequent. The use of the cases approximates to that of the poets, - and is even more free. The accusative of limitation is common in - Tacitus, though never found in Quintilian. Compound verbs are - frequently followed by the accusative where the dative might have been - expected; and the Virgilian construction of an accusative with middle - and passive verbs is not unusual. The dative of purpose and the dative - with a substantive in place of a genitive are more common with Tacitus - than with any writer. The ablative of separation is used without a - preposition, even with names of countries and with common nouns; the - ablative of place is employed similarly without a preposition; the - ablative of time has sometimes the force of duration; the instrumental - ablative is employed even of persons. A large extension is given to - the use of the quantitative genitive after neuter adjectives and - pronouns, and even adverbs, and to the genitive with active - participles; and the genitive of relation after adjectives is - (probably by a Graecism) very freely employed. In regard to - prepositions, there are special uses of _citra_, _erga_, _iuxta_ and - _tenus_ to be noted, and a frequent tendency to interchange the use of - a preposition with that of a simple case in corresponding clauses. In - subordinate sentences _quod_ is used for "the fact that," and - sometimes approaches the later use of "that"; the infinitive follows - many verbs and adjectives that do not admit of this construction in - classical prose; the accusative and infinitive are used after negative - expressions of doubt, and even in modal and hypothetical clauses. - - Like Livy, the writers of this time freely employ the subjunctive of - repeated action with a relative, and extend its use to relative - conjunctions, which he does not. In clauses of comparison and - proportion there is frequently an ellipse of a verb (with _nihil aliud - quam_, _ut_, _tanquam_); _tanquam_, _quasi_ and _velut_ are used to - imply not comparison but alleged reason; _quin_ and _quominus_ are - interchanged at pleasure. _Quamquam_ and _quamvis_ are commonly - followed by the subjunctive, even when denoting facts. The free use of - the genitive and dative of the gerundive to denote purpose is common - in Tacitus, the former being almost limited to him. Livy's practice in - the use of participles is extended even beyond the limits to which he - restricts it. It has been calculated that where Caesar uses five - participial clauses, Livy has sixteen, Tacitus twenty-four. - - In his compressed brevity Tacitus may be said to be individual; but in - the poetical colouring of his diction, in the rhetorical cast of his - sentences, and in his love for picturesqueness and variety he is a - true representative of his time. - -70. _Suetonius._--The language of Suetonius is of interest as giving a -specimen of silver Latinity almost entirely free from personal -idiosyncrasies; his expressions are regular and straightforward, clear -and business-like; and, while in grammar he does not attain to -classical purity, he is comparatively free from rhetorical affectations. - -71. _The African Latinity._--A new era commences with the accession of -Hadrian (117). As the preceding half century had been marked by the -influence of Spanish Latinity (the Senecas, Lucan, Martial, Quintilian), -so in this the African style was paramount. This is the period of -affected archaisms and pedantic learning, combined at times with a -reckless love of innovation and experiment, resulting in the creation of -a large number of new formations and in the adoption of much of the -plebeian dialect. Fronto and Apuleius mark a strong reaction against the -culture of the preceding century, and for evil far more than for good -the chain of literary tradition was broken. The language which had been -unduly refined and elaborated now relapsed into a tasteless and confused -patch-work, without either harmony or brilliance of colouring. In the -case of the former the subject matter is no set-off against the -inferiority of the style. He deliberately attempts to go back to the -obsolete diction of writers like Cato and Ennius. We find compounds like -_altipendulus_, _nudiustertianus_, _tolutiloquentia_, diminutives such -as _matercella_, _anulla_, _passercula_, _studiolum_, forms like -_congarrire_, _disconcinnus_, _pedetemptius_, _desiderantissimus_ -(passive), _conticinium_; _gaudeo_, _oboedio_ and _perfungor_ are used -with an accusative, _modestus_ with a genitive. On the other hand he -actually attempts to revive the form _asa_ for _ara_. In Apuleius the -archaic element is only one element in the queer mixture which -constitutes his style, and it probably was not intended to give the tone -to the whole. Poetical and prosaic phrases, Graecisms, solecisms, -jingling assonances, quotations and coinages apparently on the spur of -the moment, all appear in this wonderful medley. There are found such -extraordinary genitives as _sitire beatitudinis_, _cenae pignerarer_, -_incoram omnium_, _foras corporis_, sometimes heaped one upon another as -_fluxos vestium Arsacidas et frugum pauperes Ityraeos et odorum divites -Arabas_. Diminutives are coined with reckless freedom, e.g. _diutule_, -_longule_, _mundule amicta el altiuscule sub ipsas papillas -succinctula_. He confesses himself that he is writing in a language not -familiar to him: _In urbe Latia advena studiorum Quiritium indigenam -sermonem aerumnabili labore, nullo magistro praeeunte, aggressus -excolui_; and the general impression of his style fully bears out his -confession. Melanchthon is hardly too severe when he says that Apuleius -brays like his own ass. The language of Aulus Gellius is much superior -in purity; but still it abounds in rare and archaic words, e.g. -_edulcare_, _recentari_, _aeruscator_, and in meaningless frequentatives -like _solitavisse_. He has some admirable remarks on the pedantry of -those who delighted in obsolete expressions (xi. 7) such as _apluda_, -_flocus_ and _bovinator_; but his practice falls far short of his -theory. - -72. _The Lawyers._--The style of the eminent lawyers of this period, -foremost among whom is Gaius, deserves especial notice as showing well -one of the characteristic excellences of the Latin language. It is for -the most part dry and unadorned, and in syntax departs occasionally from -classical usages, but it is clear, terse and exact. Technical terms may -cause difficulty to the ordinary reader, but their meaning is always -precisely defined; new compounds are employed whenever the subject -requires them, but the capacities of the language rise to the demands -made upon it; and the conceptions of jurisprudence have never been more -adequately expressed than by the great Romanist jurists. - (A. S. W.; R. S. C.) - - For the subsequent history of the language see ROMANCE LANGUAGES. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The grounds for this pronunciation will be found best stated in - Postgate, _How to pronounce Latin_ (1907), Arnold and Conway, _The - Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin_ (4th ed., Cambridge, - 1908); and in the grammars enumerated in S 28 above, especially the - preface to vol. i. of _Roby's Grammar_. The chief points about _c_ - may be briefly given as a specimen of the kind of evidence. (1) In - some words the letter following c varies in a manner which makes it - impossible to believe that the pronunciation of the _c_ depended upon - this, e.g. _decumus_ and _decimus_, _dic_ from Plaut. _dice_; (2) if - _c_ was pronounced before _e_ and _i_ otherwise than before _a_, _o_ - and _u_, it is hard to see why _k_ should not have been retained for - the latter use; (3) no ancient writer gives any hint of a varying - pronunciation of _c_; (4) a Greek [kappa] is always transliterated by - _c_, and _c_ by [kappa]; (5) Latin words containing _c_ borrowed by - Gothic and early High German are always spelt with _k_; (6) the - varying pronunciations of _ce_, _ci_ in the Romance languages are - inexplicable except as derived independently from an original _ke_, - _ki_. - - [2] The inscription was first published by Helbig and Dummler in - _Mittheilungen des deutschen archaol. Inst. Rom._ ii. 40; since in - _C.I.L._ xiv. 4123 and Conway, _Italic Dial._ 280, where other - references will be found. - - [3] This inscription was first published by Dressel, _Annali dell' - Inst. Archeol. Romano_ (1880), p. 158, and since then by a multitude - of commentators. The view of the inscription as a curse, translating - a Greek cursing-formula, which has been generally adopted, was first - put forward by R. S. Conway in the _American Journal of Philology_, - x. (1889), 453; see further his commentary _Italic Dialects_, p. 329, - and since then G. Hempl, _Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc._ xxxiii. - (1902), 150, whose interpretation of _iouesat = iurat_ and _Opetoi - Tesiai_ has been here adopted, and who gives other references. - - [4] The most important writings upon it are those of Domenico - Comparetti, _Iscriz. arcaica del Foro Romano_ (Florence-Rome, 1900); - Hulsen, _Berl. philolog. Wochenschrift_ (1899), No. 40; and - Thurneysen, _Rheinisches Museum_ (Neue Folge), iii. 2. Prof. G. - Tropea gives a _Cronaca della discussione_ in a series of very useful - articles in the _Rivista di storia antica_ (Messina, 1900 and 1901). - Skutsch's article already cited puts the trustworthy results in an - exceedingly brief compass. - - [5] For further information see special articles on these authors, - and LATIN LITERATURE. - - [6] Cicero also refers to certain _scripta dulcissima_ of the son of - Scipio Africanus Maior, which must have possessed some merits of - style. - - [7] The study of the rhythm of the _Clausulae_, i.e. of the last - dozen (or half-dozen) syllables of a period in different Latin - authors, has been remarkably developed in the last three years, and - is of the highest importance for the criticism of Latin prose. It is - only possible to refer to Th. Zielinski's _Das Clauselgesetz in - Cicero's Reden_ (St. Petersburg, 1904), reviewed by A. C. Clark in - _Classical Review_, 1905, p. 164, and to F. Skutsch's important - comments in Vollmoller's _Jahresberichten uber die Fortschritte der - romanischen Philologie_ (1905) and _Glotta_ (i. 1908, esp. p. 413), - also to A. C. Clark's _Fontes Prosae Numerosae_ (Oxford, 1909), _The - Cursus in Mediaeval and Vulgar Latin_ (ibid. 1910), and article - CICERO. - - - - -LATIN LITERATURE. The germs of an indigenous literature had existed at -an early period in Rome and in the country districts of Italy, and they -have an importance as indicating natural wants in the Italian race, -which were ultimately satisfied by regular literary forms. The art of -writing was first employed in the service of the state and of religion -for books of ritual, treaties with other states, the laws of the Twelve -Tables and the like. An approach to literature was made in the _Annales -Maximi_, records of private families, funeral orations and inscriptions -on busts and tombs such as those of the Scipios in the Appian Way. In -the satisfaction they afforded to the commemorative and patriotic -instincts they anticipated an office afterwards performed by the -national epics and the works of regular historians. A still nearer -approach to literature was probably made in oratory, as we learn from -Cicero that the famous speech delivered by Appius Claudius Caecus -against concluding peace with Pyrrhus (280 B.C.) was extant in his time. -Appius also published a collection of moral maxims and reflections in -verse. No other name associated with any form of literature belonging to -the pre-literary age has been preserved by tradition. - -But it was rather in the chants and litanies of the ancient religion, -such as those of the Salii and the Fratres Arvales, and the dirges for -the dead (_neniae_), and in certain extemporaneous effusions, that some -germs of a native poetry might have been detected; and finally in the -use of Saturnian verse, a metre of pure native origin, which by its -rapid and lively movement gave expression to the vivacity and quick -apprehension of the Italian race. This metre was employed in ritual -hymns, which seem to have assumed definite shapes out of the -exclamations of a primitive priesthood engaged in a rude ceremonial -dance. It was also used by a class of bards or itinerant soothsayers -known by the name of _vates_, of whom the most famous was one Marcius, -and in the "Fescennine verses," as sung at harvest-homes and weddings, -which gave expression to the coarse gaiety of the people and to their -strong tendency to personal raillery and satiric comment. The metre was -also employed in commemorative poems, accompanied with music, which were -sung at funeral banquets in celebration of the exploits and virtues of -distinguished men. These had their origin in the same impulse which -ultimately found its full gratification in Roman history, Roman epic -poetry, and that form of Roman oratory known as _laudationes_, and in -some of the _Odes_ of Horace. The latest and probably the most important -of these rude and inchoate forms was that of dramatic _saturae_ -(medleys), put together without any regular plot and consisting -apparently of contests of wit and satiric invective, and perhaps of -comments on current events, accompanied with music (Livy vii. 2). These -have a real bearing on the subsequent development of Latin literature. -They prepared the mind of the people for the reception of regular -comedy. They may have contributed to the formation of the style of -comedy which appears at the very outset much more mature than that of -serious poetry, tragic or epic. They gave the name and some of the -characteristics to that special literary product of the Roman soil, the -_satura_, addressed to readers, not to spectators, which ultimately was -developed into pure poetic satire in Lucilius, Horace, Persius and -Juvenal, into the prose and verse miscellany of Varro, and into -something approaching the prose novel in Petronius. - - -_First Period: from 240 to about 80 B.C._ - - Livius Andronicus. - -The historical event which brought about the greatest change in the -intellectual condition of the Romans, and thereby exercised a decisive -influence on the whole course of human culture, was the capture of -Tarentum in 272. After the capture many Greek slaves were brought to -Rome, and among them the young Livius Andronicus (c. 284-204), who was -employed in teaching Greek in the family of his master, a member of the -Livian gens. From that time to learn Greek became a regular part of the -education of a Roman noble. The capture of Tarentum was followed by the -complete Romanizing of all southern Italy. Soon after came the first -Punic war, the principal scene of which was Sicily, where, from common -hostility to the Carthaginian, Greek and Roman were brought into -friendly relations, and the Roman armies must have become familiar with -the spectacles and performances of the Greek theatre. In the year after -the war (240), when the armies had returned and the people were at -leisure to enjoy the fruits of victory, Livius Andronicus substituted at -one of the public festivals a regular drama, translated or adapted from -the Greek, for the musical medleys (_saturae_) hitherto in use. From -this time dramatic performances became a regular accompaniment of the -public games, and came more and more to encroach on the older kinds of -amusement, such as the chariot races. The dramatic work of Livius was -mainly of educative value. The same may be said of his translation of -the _Odyssey_, which was still used as a school-book in the days of -Horace, and the religious hymn which he was called upon to compose in -207 had no high literary pretensions. He was, however, the first to -familiarize the Romans with the forms of the Greek drama and the Greek -epic, and thus to determine the main lines which Latin literature -followed for more than a century afterwards. - - - Naevius. - -His immediate successor, Cn. Naevius (d. c. 200 B.C.), was not, like -Livius, a Greek, but either a Roman citizen or, more probably, a -Campanian who enjoyed the limited citizenship of a Latin and who had -served in the Roman army in the first Punic war. His first appearance as -a dramatic author was in 235. He adapted both tragedies and comedies -from the Greek, but the bent of his genius, the tastes of his audience, -and the condition of the language developed through the active -intercourse and business of life, gave a greater impulse to comedy than -to tragedy. Naevius tried to use the theatre, as it had been used by the -writers of the Old Comedy of Athens, for the purposes of political -warfare, and thus seems to have anticipated by a century the part played -by Lucilius. But his attacks upon the Roman aristocracy, especially the -Metelli, were resented by their objects; and Naevius, after being -imprisoned, had to retire in his old age into banishment. He was not -only the first in point of time, and according to ancient testimony one -of the first in point of merit, among the comic poets of Rome, and in -spirit, though not in form, the earliest of the line of Roman satirists, -but he was also the oldest of the national poets. Besides celebrating -the success of M. Claudius Marcellus in 222 over the Gauls in a play -called _Clastidium_, he gave the first specimen of the _fabula -praetexta_ in his _Alimonium Romuli et Remi_, based on the most national -of all Roman traditions. Still more important service was rendered by -him in his long Saturnian poem on the first Punic war, in which he not -only told the story of contemporary events but gave shape to the legend -of the settlement of Aeneas in Latium,--the theme ultimately adopted for -the great national epic of Rome. - - - Plautus. - -His younger contemporary T. Maccius Plautus (c. 254-184) was the -greatest comic dramatist of Rome. He lived and wrote only to amuse his -contemporaries, and thus, although more popular in his lifetime and more -fortunate than any of the older authors in the ultimate survival of a -large number of his works, he is less than any of the great writers of -Rome in sympathy with either the serious or the caustic spirit in Latin -literature. Yet he is the one extant witness to the humour and vivacity -of the Italian temperament at a stage between its early rudeness and -rigidity and its subsequent degeneracy. - - - Ennius. - -Thus far Latin literature, of which the predominant characteristics are -dignity, gravity and fervour of feeling, seemed likely to become a mere -vehicle of amusement adapted to all classes of the people in their -holiday mood. But a new spirit, which henceforth became predominant, -appeared in the time of Plautus. Latin literature ceased to be in close -sympathy with the popular spirit, either politically or as a form of -amusement, but became the expression of the ideas, sentiment and culture -of the aristocratic governing class. It was by Q. Ennius (239-169) of -Rudiae in Messapia, that a new direction was given to Latin literature. -Deriving from his birthplace the culture, literary and philosophical, of -Magna Graecia, and having gained the friendship of the greatest of the -Romans living in that great age, he was of all the early writers most -fitted to be the medium of conciliation between the serious genius of -ancient Greece and the serious genius of Rome. Alone among the older -writers he was endowed with the gifts of a poetical imagination and -animated with enthusiasm for a great ideal. - -First among his special services to Latin literature was the fresh -impulse which he gave to tragedy. He turned the eyes of his -contemporaries from the commonplace social humours of later Greek life -to the contemplation of the heroic age. But he did not thereby -denationalize the Roman drama. He animated the heroes of early Greece -with the martial spirit of Roman soldiers and the ideal magnanimity and -sagacity of Roman senators, and imparted weight and dignity to the -language and verse in which their sentiments and thoughts were -expressed. Although Rome wanted creative force to add a great series of -tragic dramas to the literature of the world, yet the spirit of -elevation and moral authority breathed into tragedy by Ennius passed -into the ethical and didactic writings and the oratory of a later time. - -Another work was the _Saturae_, written in various metres, but chiefly -in the trochaic tetrameter. He thus became the inventor of a new form of -literature; and, if in his hands the _satura_ was rude and indeterminate -in its scope, it became a vehicle by which to address a reading public -on matters of the day, or on the materials of his wide reading, in a -style not far removed from the language of common life. His greatest -work, which made the Romans regard him as the father of their -literature, was his epic poem, in eighteen books, the _Annales_, in -which the record of the whole career of Rome was unrolled with -idealizing enthusiasm and realistic detail. The idea which inspired -Ennius was ultimately realized in both the national epic of Virgil and -the national history of Livy. And the metrical vehicle which he -conceived as the only one adequate to his great theme was a rude -experiment, which was ultimately developed into the stately Virgilian -hexameter. Even as a grammarian he performed an important service to the -literary language of Rome, by fixing its prosody and arresting the -tendency to decay in its final syllables. Although of his writings only -fragments remain, these fragments are enough, along with what we know of -him from ancient testimony, to justify us in regarding him as the most -important among the makers of Latin literature before the age of Cicero. - - - Cato. - -There is still one other name belonging partly to this, partly to the -next generation, to be added to those of the men of original force of -mind and character who created Latin literature, that of M. Porcius Cato -the Censor (234-149), the younger contemporary of Ennius, whom he -brought to Rome. More than Naevius and Plautus he represented the pure -native element in that literature, the mind and character of Latium, the -plebeian pugnacity, which was one of the great forces in the Roman -state. His lack of imagination and his narrow patriotism made him the -natural leader of the reaction against the new Hellenic culture. He -strove to make literature ancillary to politics and to objects of -practical utility, and thus started prose literature on the chief lines -that it afterwards followed. Through his industry and vigorous -understanding he gave a great impulse to the creation of Roman oratory, -history and systematic didactic writing. He was one of the first to -publish his speeches and thus to bring them into the domain of -literature. Cicero, who speaks of 150 of these speeches as extant in his -day, praises them for their acuteness, their wit, their conciseness. He -speaks with emphasis of the impressiveness of Cato's eulogy and the -satiric bitterness of his invective. - -Cato was the first historical writer of Rome to use his native tongue. -His _Origines_, the work of his old age, was written with that -thoroughly Roman conception of history which regarded actions and events -solely as they affected the continuous and progressive life of a state. -Cato felt that the record of Roman glory could not be isolated from the -story of the other Italian communities, which, after fighting against -Rome for their own independence, shared with her the task of conquering -the world. To the wider national sympathies which stimulated the -researches of the old censor into the legendary history of the Italian -towns we owe some of the most truly national parts of Virgil's _Aeneid_. - - - Terence. - - Lucilius. - -In Naevius, Plautus, Ennius and Cato are represented the contending -forces which strove for ascendancy in determining what was to be the -character of the new literature. The work, begun by them, was carried on -by younger contemporaries and successors; by Statius Caecilius (c. -220-168), an Insubrian Gaul, in comedy; in tragedy by M. Pacuvius (c. -220-132), the nephew of Ennius, called by Cicero the greatest of Roman -tragedians; and, in the following generation, by L. Accius (c. 170-86), -who was more usually placed in this position. The impulse given to -oratory by Cato, Ser. Sulpicius Galba and others, and along with it the -development of prose composition, went on with increased momentum till -the age of Cicero. But the interval between the death of Ennius (169) -and the beginning of Cicero's career, while one of progressive advance -in the appreciation of literary form and style, was much less -distinguished by original force than the time immediately before and -after the end of the second Punic war. The one complete survival of the -generation after the death of Ennius, the comedy of P. Terentius Afer or -Terence (c. 185-159), exemplifies the gain in literary accomplishment -and the loss in literary freedom. Terence has nothing Roman or Italian -except his pure and idiomatic Latinity. His Athenian elegance affords -the strongest contrast to the Italian rudeness of Cato's _De Re -Rustica_. By looking at them together we understand how much the comedy -of Terence was able to do to refine and humanize the manners of Rome, -but at the same time what a solvent it was of the discipline and ideas -of the old republic. What makes Terence an important witness of the -culture of his time is that he wrote from the centre of the Scipionic -circle, in which what was most humane and liberal in Roman statesmanship -was combined with the appreciation of what was most vital in the Greek -thought and literature of the time. The comedies of Terence may -therefore be held to give some indication of the tastes of Scipio, -Laelius and their friends in their youth. The influence of Panaetius and -Polybius was more adapted to their maturity, when they led the state in -war, statesmanship and oratory, and when the humaner teaching of -Stoicism began to enlarge the sympathies of Roman jurists. But in the -last years during which this circle kept together a new spirit appeared -in Roman politics and a new power in Roman literature,--the -revolutionary spirit evoked by the Gracchi in opposition to the -long-continued ascendancy of the senate, and the new power of Roman -satire, which was exercised impartially and unsparingly against both the -excesses of the revolutionary spirit and the arrogance and incompetence -of the extreme party among the nobles. Roman satire, though in form a -legitimate development of the indigenous dramatic _satura_ through the -written _satura_ of Ennius and Pacuvius, is really a birth of this time, -and its author was the youngest of those admitted into the intimacy of -the Scipionic circle, C. Lucilius of Suessa Aurunca (c. 180-103). Among -the writers before the age of Cicero he alone deserves to be named with -Naevius, Plautus Ennius and Cato as a great originative force in -literature. For about thirty years the most important event in Roman -literature was the production of the satires of Lucilius, in which the -politics, morals, society and letters of the time were criticized with -the utmost freedom and pungency, and his own personality was brought -immediately and familiarly before his contemporaries. The years that -intervened between his death and the beginning of the Ciceronian age are -singularly barren in works of original value. But in one direction there -was some novelty. The tragic writers had occasionally taken their -subjects from Roman life (_fabulae praetextae_), and in comedy we find -the corresponding _togatae_ of Lucius Afranius and others, in which -comedy, while assuming a Roman dress, did not assume the virtue of a -Roman matron. - - - General results from 130 to 80. - -The general results of the last fifty years of the first period (130 to -80) may be thus summed up. In poetry we have the satires of Lucilius, -the tragedies of Accius and of a few successors among the Roman -aristocracy, who thus exemplified the affinity of the Roman stage to -Roman oratory; various annalistic poems intended to serve as -continuations of the great poem of Ennius; minor poems of an -epigrammatic and erotic character, unimportant anticipations of the -Alexandrian tendency operative in the following period; works of -criticism in trochaic tetrameters by Porcius Licinus and others, forming -part of the critical and grammatical movement which almost from the -first accompanied the creative movement in Latin literature, and which -may be regarded as rude precursors of the didactic epistles that Horace -devoted to literary criticism. - - - Oratory. - -The only extant prose work which may be assigned to the end of this -period is the treatise on rhetoric known by the title _Ad Herennium_ (c. -84) a work indicative of the attention bestowed on prose style and -rhetorical studies during the last century of the republic, and which -may be regarded as a precursor of the oratorical treatises of Cicero and -of the work of Quintilian. But the great literary product of this period -was oratory, developed indeed with the aid of these rhetorical studies, -but itself the immediate outcome of the imperial interests, the legal -conflicts, and the political passions of that time of agitation. The -speakers and writers of a later age looked back on Scipio and Laelius, -the Gracchi and their contemporaries, L. Crassus and M. Antonius, as -masters of their art. - - - History. - -In history, regarded as a great branch of prose literature, it is not -probable that much was accomplished, although, with the advance of -oratory and grammatical studies, there must have been not only greater -fluency of composition but the beginning of a richer and more ornate -style. Yet Cicero denies to Rome the existence, before his own time, of -any adequate historical literature. Nevertheless it was by the work of a -number of Roman chroniclers during this period that the materials of -early Roman history were systematized, and the record of the state, as -it was finally given to the world in the artistic work of Livy, was -extracted from the early annals, state documents and private memorials, -combined into a coherent unity, and supplemented by invention and -reflection. Amongst these chroniclers may be mentioned L. Calpurnius -Piso Frugi (consul 133, censor 108), C. Sempronius Tuditanus (consul -129), Cn. Gellius, C. Fannius (consul 122), L. Coelius Antipater, who -wrote a narrative of the second Punic war about 120, and Sempronius -Asellio, who wrote a history of his own times, have a better claim to be -considered historians. There were also special works on antiquities and -contemporary memoirs, and autobiographies such as those of M. Aemilius -Scaurus, the elder, Q. Lutatius Catulus (consul 102 B.C.), and P. -Rutilius Rufus, which formed the sources of future historians. (See -further ANNALES; and ROME: _History_, _Ancient_, S "Authorities.") - - - Summary of the period. - -Although the artistic product of the first period of Latin literature -which has reached us in a complete shape is limited to the comedies of -Plautus and Terence, the influence of the lost literature in determining -the spirit, form and style of the eras of more perfect accomplishment -which followed is unmistakable. While humour and vivacity characterize -the earlier, and urbanity of tone the later development of comedy, the -tendency of serious literature had been in the main practical, ethical, -commemorative and satirical. The higher poetical imagination had -appeared only in Ennius, and had been called forth in him by sympathy -with the grandeur of the national life and the great personal qualities -of its representative men. Some of the chief motives of the later -poetry, e.g. the pleasures and sorrows of private life, had as yet found -scarcely any expression in Latin literature. The fittest metrical -vehicle for epic, didactic, and satiric poetry had been discovered, but -its movement was as yet rude and inharmonious. The idiom of ordinary -life and social intercourse and the more fervid and elevated diction of -oratorical prose had made great progress, but the language of -imagination and poetical feeling was, if vivid and impressive in -isolated expressions, still incapable of being wrought into consecutive -passages of artistic composition. The influences of Greek literature to -which Latin literature owed its birth had not as yet spread beyond Rome -and Latium. The Sabellian races of central and eastern Italy and the -Italo-Celtic and Venetian races of the north, in whom the poetic -susceptibility of Italy was most manifest two generations later, were -not, until after the Social war, sufficiently in sympathy with Rome, and -were probably not as yet sufficiently educated to induce them to -contribute their share to the national literature. Hence the end of the -Social war, and of the Civil war, which arose out of it, is most clearly -a determining factor in Roman literature, and may most appropriately be -taken as marking the end of one period and the beginning of another. - - -_Second Period: from 80 to 42 B.C._ - -The last age of the republic coincides with the first half of the Golden -age of Roman literature. It is generally known as the Ciceronian age -from the name of its greatest literary representative, whose activity as -a speaker and writer was unremitting during nearly the whole period. It -is the age of purest excellence in prose, and of a new birth of poetry, -characterized rather by great original force and artistic promise than -by perfect accomplishment. The five chief representatives of this age -who still hold their rank among the great classical writers are Cicero, -Caesar and Sallust in prose, Lucretius and Catullus in verse. The works -of other prose writers, Varro and Cornelius Nepos, have been partially -preserved; but these writers have no claim to rank with those already -mentioned as creators and masters of literary style. Although literature -had not as yet become a trade or profession, an educated reading public -already existed, and books and intellectual intercourse filled a large -part of the leisure of men actively engaged in affairs. Even oratory was -intended quite as much for readers as for the audiences to which it was -immediately addressed; and some of the greatest speeches which have come -down from that great age of orators were never delivered at all, but -were published as manifestoes after the event with the view of -influencing educated opinion, and as works of art with the view of -giving pleasure to educated taste. - - - Cicero. - -Thus the speeches of M. Tullius Cicero (106-43) belong to the domain of -literature quite as much as to that of forensic or political oratory. -And, although Demosthenes is a master of style unrivalled even by -Cicero, the literary interest of most of Cicero's speeches is stronger -than that of the great mass of Greek oratory. It is urged with justice -that the greater part of Cicero's _Defence of Archias_ was irrelevant to -the issue and would not have been listened to by a Greek court of -justice or a modern jury. But it was fortunate for the interests of -literature that a court of educated Romans could be influenced by the -considerations there submitted to them. In this way a question of the -most temporary interest, concerning an individual of no particular -eminence or importance, has produced one of the most impressive -vindications of literature ever spoken or written. Oratory at Rome -assumed a new type from being cultivated as an art which endeavoured to -produce persuasion not so much by intellectual conviction, as by appeal -to general human sympathies. In oratory, as in every other intellectual -province, the Greeks had a truer sense of the limits and conditions of -their art. But command over form is only one element in the making of an -orator or poet. The largeness and dignity of the matter with which he -has to deal are at least as important. The Roman oratory of the law -courts had to deal not with petty questions of disputed property, of -fraud, or violence, but with great imperial questions, with matters -affecting the well-being of large provinces and the honour and safety of -the republic; and no man ever lived who, in these respects, was better -fitted than Cicero to be the representative of the type of oratory -demanded by the condition of the later republic. To his great artistic -accomplishment, perfected by practice and elaborate study, to the power -of his patriotic, his moral, and personal sympathies, and his passionate -emotional nature, must be added his vivid imagination and the rich and -copious stream of his language, in which he had no rival among Roman -writers or speakers. It has been said that Roman poetry has produced -few, if any, great types of character. But the Verres, Catiline, Antony -of Cicero are living and permanent types. The story told in the _Pro -Cluentio_ may be true or false, but the picture of provincial crime -which it presents is vividly dramatic. Had we only known Cicero in his -speeches we should have ranked him with Demosthenes as one who had -realized the highest literary ideal. We should think of him also as the -creator and master of Latin style--and, moreover, not only as a great -orator but as a just and appreciative critic of oratory. But to his -services to Roman oratory we have to add his services not indeed to -philosophy but to the literature of philosophy. Though not a philosopher -he is an admirable interpreter of those branches of philosophy which are -fitted for practical application, and he presents us with the results of -Greek reflection vivified by his own human sympathies and his large -experience of men. In giving a model of the style in which human -interest can best be imparted to abstract discussions, he used his great -oratorical gift and art to persuade the world to accept the most hopeful -opinions on human destiny and the principles of conduct most conducive -to elevation and integrity of character. - -The _Letters_ of Cicero are thoroughly natural--_colloquia absentium -amicorum_, to use his own phrase. Cicero's letters to Atticus, and to -the friends with whom he was completely at his ease, are the most -sincere and immediate expression of the thought and feeling of the -moment. They let us into the secret of his most serious thoughts and -cares, and they give a natural outlet to his vivacity of observation, -his wit and humour, his kindliness of nature. It shows how flexible an -instrument Latin prose had become in his hand, when it could do justice -at once to the ample and vehement volume of his oratory, to the calmer -and more rhythmical movement of his philosophical meditation, and to the -natural interchange of thought and feeling in the everyday intercourse -of life. - - - Caesar. - -Among the many rival orators of the age the most eminent were Quintus -Hortensius Ortalus and C. Julius Caesar. The former was the leading -representative of the Asiatic or florid style of oratory, and, like -other members of the aristocracy, such as C. Memmius and L. Manlius -Torquatus, and like Q. Catulus in the preceding generation, was a kind -of dilettante poet and a precursor of the poetry of pleasure, which -attained such prominence in the elegiac poets of the Augustan age. Of C. -Julius Caesar (102-44) as an orator we can judge only by his reputation -and by the testimony of his great rival and adversary Cicero; but we are -able to appreciate the special praise of perfect taste in the use of -language attributed to him.[1] In his _Commentaries_, by laying aside -the ornaments of oratory, he created the most admirable style of prose -narrative, the style which presents interesting events in their sequence -of time and dependence on the will of the actor, rapidly and vividly, -with scarcely any colouring of personal or moral feeling, any oratorical -passion, any pictorial illustration. While he shows the persuasive art -of an orator by presenting the subjugation of Gaul and his own action in -the Civil War in the light most favourable to his claim to rule the -Roman world, he is entirely free from the Roman fashion of -self-laudation or disparagement of an adversary. The character of the -man reveals itself especially in a perfect simplicity of style, the -result of the clearest intelligence and the strongest sense of personal -dignity. He avoids not only every unusual but every superfluous word; -and, although no writing can be more free from rhetorical colouring, yet -there may from time to time be detected a glow of sympathy, like the -glow of generous passion in Thucydides, the more effective from the -reserve with which it betrays itself whenever he is called on to record -any act of personal heroism or of devotion to military duty. - - - Sallust. - -In the simplicity of his style, the directness of his narrative, the -entire absence of any didactic tendency, Caesar presents a marked -contrast to another prose writer of that age--the historian C. -Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (c. 87-36). Like Varro, he survived Cicero -by some years, but the tone and spirit in which his works are written -assign him to the republican era. He was the first of the purely -artistic historians, as distinct from the annalists and the writers of -personal memoirs. He imitated the Greek historians in taking particular -actions--the _Jugurthan War_ and the _Catilinarian Conspiracy_--as the -subjects of artistic treatment. He wrote also a continuous work, -_Historiae_, treating of the events of the twelve years following the -death of Sulla, of which only fragments are preserved. His two extant -works are more valuable as artistic studies of the rival parties in the -state and of personal character than as trustworthy narratives of facts. -His style aims at effectiveness by pregnant expression, sententiousness, -archaism. He produces the impression of caring more for the manner of -saying a thing than for its truth. Yet he has great value as a painter -of historical portraits, some of them those of his contemporaries, and -as an author who had been a political partisan and had taken some part -in making history before undertaking to write it; and he gives us, from -the popular side, the views of a contemporary on the politics of the -time. Of the other historians, or rather annalists, who belong to this -period, such as Q. Claudius Quadrigarius, Q. Valerius Antias, and C. -Licinius Macer, the father of Calvus, we have only fragments remaining. - - - Varro. - -The period was also remarkable for the production of works which we -should class as technical or scientific rather than literary. The -activity of one of these writers was so great that he is entitled to a -separate mention. This was M. Terentius Varro, the most learned not only -of the Romans but of the Greeks, as he has been called. The list of -Varro's writings includes over seventy treatises and more than six -hundred books dealing with topics of every conceivable kind. His -_Menippeae Saturae_, miscellanies in prose and verse, of which -unfortunately only fragments are left, was a work of singular literary -interest. - - - Lucretius. - -Since the _Annals_ of Ennius no great and original poem had appeared. -The powerful poetical force which for half a century continued to be the -strongest force in literature, and which created masterpieces of art and -genius, first revealed itself in the latter part of the Ciceronian age. -The conditions which enabled the poetic genius of Italy to come to -maturity in the person of T. Lucretius Carus (96-55) were entire -seclusion from public life and absorption in the ideal pleasures of -contemplation and artistic production. This isolation from the familiar -ways of his contemporaries, while it was, according to tradition and the -internal evidence of his poem, destructive to his spirit's health, -resulted in a work of genius, unique in character, which still stands -forth as the greatest philosophical poem in any language. In the form of -his poem he followed a Greek original; and the stuff out of which the -texture of his philosophical argument is framed was derived from Greek -science; but all that is of deep human and poetical meaning in the poem -is his own. While we recognize in the _De Rerum Natura_ some of the most -powerful poetry in any language and feel that few poets have penetrated -with such passionate sincerity and courage into the secret of nature and -some of the deeper truths of human life, we must acknowledge that, as -compared with the great didactic poem of Virgil, it is crude and -unformed in artistic design, and often rough and unequal in artistic -execution. Yet, apart altogether from its independent value, by his -speculative power and enthusiasm, by his revelation of the life and -spectacle of nature, by the fresh creativeness of his diction and the -elevated movement of his rhythm, Lucretius exercised a more powerful -influence than any other on the art of his more perfect successors. - - - Catullus. - -While the imaginative and emotional side of Roman poetry was so -powerfully represented by Lucretius, attention was directed to its -artistic side by a younger generation, who moulded themselves in a great -degree on Alexandrian models. Such were Valerius Cato also a -distinguished literary critic, and C. Licinius Calvus, an eminent -orator. Of this small group of poets one only has survived, fortunately -the man of most genius among them, the bosom-friend of Calvus, C. -Valerius Catullus (84-54). He too was a new force in Roman literature. -He was a provincial by birth, although early brought into intimate -relations with members of the great Roman families. The subjects of his -best art are taken immediately from his own life--his loves, his -friendships, his travels, his animosities, personal and political. His -most original contribution to the substance of Roman literature was that -he first shaped into poetry the experience of his own heart, as it had -been shaped by Alcaeus and Sappho in the early days of Greek poetry. No -poet has surpassed him in the power of vitally reproducing the pleasure -and pain of the passing hour, not recalled by idealizing reflection as -in Horace, nor overlaid with mythological ornament as in Propertius, but -in all the keenness of immediate impression. He also introduced into -Roman literature that personal as distinct from political or social -satire which appears later in the _Epodes_ of Horace and the _Epigrams_ -of Martial. He anticipated Ovid in recalling the stories of Greek -mythology to a second poetical life. His greatest contribution to poetic -art consisted in the perfection which he attained in the phalaecian, the -pure iambic, and the scazon metres, and in the ease and grace with which -he used the language of familiar intercourse, as distinct from that of -the creative imagination, of the _rostra_, and of the schools, to give -at once a lifelike and an artistic expression to his feelings. He has -the interest of being the last poet of the free republic. In his life -and in his art he was the precursor of those poets who used their genius -as the interpreter and minister of pleasure; but he rises above them in -the spirit of personal independence, in his affection for his friends, -in his keen enjoyment of natural and simple pleasures, and in his power -of giving vital expression to these feelings. - - -_Third Period: Augustan Age, 42 B.C. to A.D. 17._ - - Influence of imperial institutions. - -The poetic impulse and culture communicated to Roman literature in the -last years of the republic passed on without any break of continuity -into the literature of the succeeding age. One or two of the circle of -Catullus survived into that age; but an entirely new spirit came over -the literature of the new period, and it is by new men, educated indeed -under the same literary influences, but living in an altered world and -belonging originally to a different order in the state, that the new -spirit was expressed. The literature of the later republic reflects the -sympathies and prejudices of an aristocratic class, sharing in the -conduct of national affairs and living on terms of equality with one -another; that of the Augustan age, first in its early serious -enthusiasm, and then in the licence and levity of its later development, -represents the hopes and aspirations with which the new monarchy was -ushered into the world, and the pursuit of pleasure and amusement, which -becomes the chief interest of a class cut off from the higher energies -of practical life, and moving in the refining and enervating atmosphere -of an imperial court. The great inspiring influence of the new -literature was the enthusiasm produced first by the hope and afterwards -by the fulfilment of the restoration of peace, order, national glory, -under the rule of Augustus. All that the age longed for seemed to be -embodied in a man who had both in his own person and by inheritance the -natural spell which sways the imagination of the world. The sentiment of -hero-worship was at all times strong in the Romans, and no one was ever -the object of more sincere as well as simulated hero-worship than -Augustus. It was not, however, by his equals in station that the first -feeling was likely to be entertained. The earliest to give expression to -it was Virgil; but the spell was soon acknowledged by the colder and -more worldly-wise Horace. The disgust aroused by the anti-national -policy of Antony, and the danger to the empire which was averted by the -result of the battle of Actium, combined with the confidence inspired by -the new ruler to reconcile the great families as well as the great body -of the people to the new order of things. - -While the establishment of the empire produced a revival of national and -imperial feeling, it suppressed all independent political thought and -action. Hence the two great forms of prose literature which drew their -nourishment from the struggles of political life, oratory and -contemporary history, were arrested in their development. The main -course of literature was thus for a time diverted into poetry. That -poetry in its most elevated form aimed at being the organ of the new -empire and of realizing the national ideals of life and character under -its auspices; and in carrying out this aim it sought to recall the great -memories of the past. It became also the organ of the pleasures and -interests of private life, the chief motives of which were the love of -nature and the passion of love. It sought also to make the art and -poetry of Greece live a new artistic life. Satire, debarred from comment -on political action, turned to social and individual life, and combined -with the newly-developed taste for ethical analysis and reflection -introduced by Cicero. One great work had still to be done in prose--a -retrospect of the past history of the state from an idealizing and -romanticizing point of view. For that work the Augustan age, as the end -of one great cycle of events and the beginning of another, was eminently -suited, and a writer who, by his gifts of imagination and sympathy, was -perhaps better fitted than any other man of antiquity for the task, and -who through the whole of this period lived a life of literary leisure, -was found to do justice to the subject. - -Although the age did not afford free scope and stimulus to individual -energy and enterprise, it furnished more material and social advantages -for the peaceful cultivation of letters. The new influence of patronage, -which in other times has chilled the genial current of literature, -become, in the person of Maecenas, the medium through which literature -and the imperial policy were brought into union. Poetry thus acquired -the tone of the world, kept in close connexion with the chief source of -national life, while it was cultivated to the highest pitch of artistic -perfection under the most favourable conditions of leisure and freedom -from the distractions and anxieties of life. - - - Virgil. - -The earliest in the order of time of the poets who adorn this age--P. -Vergilius Maro or Virgil (70-19)--is also the greatest in genius, the -most richly cultivated, and the most perfect in art. He is the -idealizing poet of the hopes and aspirations and of the purer and -happier life of which the age seemed to contain the promise. He elevates -the present by associating it with the past and future of the world, and -sanctifies it by seeing in it the fulfilment of a divine purpose. Virgil -is the true representative poet of Rome and Italy, of national glory and -of the beauty of nature, the artist in whom all the efforts of the past -were made perfect, and the unapproachable standard of excellence to -future times. While more richly endowed with sensibility to all native -influences, he was more deeply imbued than any of his contemporaries -with the poetry, the thought and the learning of Greece. The earliest -efforts of his art (the _Eclogues_) reproduce the cadences, the diction -and the pastoral fancies of Theocritus; but even in these imitative -poems of his youth Virgil shows a perfect mastery of his materials. The -Latin hexameter, which in Ennius and Lucretius was the organ of the more -dignified and majestic emotions, became in his hands the most perfect -measure in which the softer and more luxurious sentiment of nature has -been expressed. The sentiment of Italian scenery and the love which the -Italian peasant has for the familiar sights and sounds of his home found -a voice which never can pass away. - -In the _Georgics_ we are struck by the great advance in the originality -and self-dependence of the artist, in the mature perfection of his -workmanship, in the deepening and strengthening of all his sympathies -and convictions. His genius still works under forms prescribed by Greek -art, and under the disadvantage of having a practical and utilitarian -aim imposed on it. But he has ever in form so far surpassed his -originals that he alone has gained for the pure didactic poem a place -among the highest forms of serious poetry, while he has so transmuted -his material that, without violation of truth, he has made the whole -poem alive with poetic feeling. The homeliest details of the farmer's -work are transfigured through the poet's love of nature; through his -religious feeling and his pious sympathy with the sanctities of human -affection; through his patriotic sympathy with the national greatness; -and through the rich allusiveness of his art to everything in poetry and -legend which can illustrate and glorify his theme. - -In the _Eclogues_ and _Georgics_ Virgil is the idealizing poet of the -old simple and hardy life of Italy, as the imagination could conceive of -it in an altered world. In the _Aeneid_ he is the idealizing poet of -national glory, as manifested in the person of Augustus. The epic of -national life, vividly conceived but rudely executed by Ennius, was -perfected in the years that followed the decisive victory at Actium. To -do justice to his idea Virgil enters into rivalry with a greater poet -than those whom he had equalled or surpassed in his previous works. And, -though he cannot unroll before us the page of heroic action with the -power and majesty of Homer, yet by the sympathy with which he realizes -the idea of Rome, and by the power with which he has used the details of -tradition, of local scenes, of religious usage, to embody it, he has -built up in the form of an epic poem the most enduring and the most -artistically constructed monument of national grandeur. - - - Horace. - -The second great poet of the time--Q. Horatius Flaccus or Horace (68-8) -is both the realist and the idealist of his age. If we want to know the -actual lives, manners and ways of thinking of the Romans of the -generation succeeding the overthrow of the republic it is in the -_Satires_ and partially in the _Epistles_ of Horace that we shall find -them. If we ask what that time provided to stir the fancy and move the -mood of imaginative reflection, it is in the lyrical poems of Horace -that we shall find the most varied and trustworthy answer. His literary -activity extends over about thirty years and naturally divides itself -into three periods, each marked by a distinct character. The -first--extending from about 40 to 29--is that of the _Epodes_ and -_Satires_. In the former he imitates the Greek poet Archilochus, but -takes his subjects from the men, women and incidents of the day. -Personality is the essence of his _Epodes_; in the _Satires_ it is used -merely as illustrative of general tendencies. In the _Satires_ we find -realistic pictures of social life, and the conduct and opinions of the -world submitted to the standard of good feeling and common sense. The -style of the _Epodes_ is pointed and epigrammatic, that of the _Satires_ -natural and familiar. The hexameter no longer, as in Lucilius, moves -awkwardly as if in fetters, but, like the language of Terence, of -Catullus in his lighter pieces, of Cicero in his letters to Atticus, -adapts itself to the everyday intercourse of life. The next period is -the meridian of his genius, the time of his greatest lyrical -inspiration, which he himself associates with the peace and leisure -secured to him by his Sabine farm. The life of pleasure which he had -lived in his youth comes back to him, not as it was in its actual -distractions and disappointments, but in the idealizing light of -meditative retrospect. He had not only become reconciled to the new -order of things, but was moved by his intimate friendship with Maecenas -to aid in raising the world to sympathy with the imperial rule through -the medium of his lyrical inspiration, as Virgil had through the glory -of his epic art. With the completion of the three books of _Odes_ he -cast aside for a time the office of the _vates_, and resumed that of the -critical spectator of human life, but in the spirit of a moralist rather -than a satirist. He feels the increasing languor of the time as well as -the languor of advancing years, and seeks to encourage younger men to -take up the role of lyrical poetry, while he devotes himself to the -contemplation of the true art of living. Self-culture rather than the -fulfilment of public or social duty, as in the moral teaching of Cicero, -is the aim of his teaching; and in this we recognize the influence of -the empire in throwing the individual back on himself. As Cicero tones -down his oratory in his moral treatises, so Horace tones down the -fervour of his lyrical utterances in his _Epistles_, and thus produces a -style combining the ease of the best epistolary style with the grace and -concentration of poetry--the style, as it has been called, of "idealized -common sense," that of the _urbanus_ and cultivated man of the world who -is also in his hours of inspiration a genuine poet. In the last ten -years of his life Horace resumed his lyrical function for a time, under -pressure of the imperial command, and produced some of the most -exquisite and mature products of his art. But his chief activity is -devoted to criticism. He first vindicates the claims of his own age to -literary pre-eminence, and then seeks to stimulate the younger writers -of the day to what he regarded as the manlier forms of poetry, and -especially to the tragic drama, which seemed for a short time to give -promise of an artistic revival. - -But the poetry of the latter half of the Augustan age destined to -survive did not follow the lines either of lyrical or of dramatic art -marked out by Horace. The latest form of poetry adopted from Greece and -destined to gain and permanently to hold the ear of the world was the -_elegy_. From the time of Mimnermus this form seems to have presented -itself as the most natural vehicle for the poetry of pleasure in an age -of luxury, refinement and incipient decay. Its facile flow and rhythm -seem to adapt it to the expression and illustration of personal feeling. -It goes to the mind of the reader through a medium of sentiment rather -than of continuous thought or imaginative illustration. The greatest -masters of this kind of poetry are the elegiac poets of the Augustan -age--Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid. - - - Tibullus - -Of the ill-fated C. Cornelius Gallus, their predecessor, we have but a -single pentameter remaining. Of the three Tibullus (c. 54-19) is the -most refined and tender. As the poet of love he gives utterance to the -pensive melancholy rather than to the pleasures associated with it. In -his sympathy with the life and beliefs of the country people he shows an -affinity both to the idyllic spirit and to the piety of Virgil. There is -something, too, in his fastidious refinement and in his shrinking from -the rough contact of life that reminds us of the English poet Gray. - - - Propertius. - -A poet of more strength and more powerful imagination, but of less -refinement in his life and less exquisite taste in his art, is Sextus -Propertius (c. 50-c. 15). His youth was a more stormy one than that of -Tibullus, and was passed, not like his, among the "healthy woods" of his -country estate, but amid all the licence of the capital. His passion for -Cynthia, the theme of his most finished poetry, is second only in -interest to that of Catullus for Lesbia; and Cynthia in her fascination -and caprices seems a more real and intelligible personage than the -idealized object first of the idolatry and afterwards of the malediction -of Catullus. Propertius is a less accomplished artist and a less equably -pleasing writer than either Tibullus or Ovid, but he shows more power of -dealing gravely with a great or tragic situation than either of them, -and his diction and rhythm give frequent proof of a concentrated force -of conception and a corresponding movement of imaginative feeling which -remind us of Lucretius. - - - Ovid. - -The most facile and brilliant of the elegiac poets and the least serious -in tone and spirit is P. Ovidius Naso or Ovid (43 B.C.-A.D. 18). As an -amatory poet he is the poet of pleasure and intrigue rather than of -tender sentiment or absorbing passion. Though he treated his subject in -relation to himself with more levity and irony than real feeling, yet by -his sparkling wit and fancy he created a literature of sentiment and -adventure adapted to amuse the idle and luxurious society of which the -elder Julia was the centre. His power of continuous narrative is best -seen in the _Metamorphoses_, written in hexameters to which he has -imparted a rapidity and precision of movement more suited to romantic -and picturesque narrative than the weighty self-restrained verse of -Virgil. In his _Fasti_ he treats a subject of national interest; it is -not, however, through the strength of Roman sentiment but through the -power of vividly conceiving and narrating stories of strong human -interest that the poem lives. In his latest works--the _Tristia_ and _Ex -Ponto_--he imparts the interest of personal confessions to the record of -a unique experience. Latin poetry is more rich in the expression of -personal feeling than of dramatic realism. In Ovid we have both. We know -him in the intense liveliness of his feeling and the human weakness of -his nature more intimately than any other writer of antiquity, except -perhaps Cicero. As Virgil marks the point of maturest excellence in -poetic diction and rhythm, Ovid marks that of the greatest facility. - - - Livy. - -The Augustan age was one of those great eras in the world like the era -succeeding the Persian War in Greece, the Elizabethan age in England, -and the beginning of the 19th century in Europe, in which what seems a -new spring of national and individual life calls out an idealizing -retrospect of the past. As the present seems full of new life, the past -seems rich in glory and the future in hope. The past of Rome had always -a peculiar fascination for Roman writers. Virgil in a supreme degree, -and Horace, Propertius and Ovid in a less degree, had expressed in their -poetry the romance of the past. But it was in the great historical work -of T. Livius or Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17) that the record of the national -life received its most systematic exposition. Its execution was the -work of a life prolonged through the languor and dissolution following -so soon upon the promise of the new era, during which time the past -became glorified by contrast with the disheartening aspect of the -present. The value of the work consists not in any power of critical -investigation or weighing of historical evidence but in the intense -sympathy of the writer with the national ideal, and the vivid -imagination with which under the influence of this sympathy he gives -life to the events and personages, the wars and political struggles, of -times remote from his own. He makes us feel more than any one the -majesty of the Roman state, of its great magistracies, and of the august -council by which its policy was guided. And, while he makes the words -_senatus populusque Romanus_ full of significance for all times, no one -realizes with more enthusiasm all that is implied in the words _imperium -Romanum_, and the great military qualities of head and heart by which -that empire was acquired and maintained. The vast scale on which the -work was conceived and the thoroughness of artistic execution with which -the details are finished are characteristically Roman. The prose style -of Rome, as a vehicle for the continuous narration of events coloured by -a rich and picturesque imagination and instinct with dignified emotion, -attained its perfection in Livy. - - -_Fourth Period: The Silver Age, from A.D. 17 to about 130_. - - Characteristics of post-Augustan age. - -For more than a century after the death of Augustus Roman literature -continues to flow in the old channels. Though drawing from the -provinces, Rome remains the centre of the literary movement. The -characteristics of the great writers are essentially national, not -provincial nor cosmopolitan. In prose the old forms--oratory, history, -the epistle, treatises or dialogues on ethical and literary -questions--continue to be cultivated. Scientific and practical subjects, -such as natural history, architecture, medicine, agriculture, are -treated in more elaborate literary style. The old Roman _satura_ is -developed into something like the modern prose novel. In the various -provinces of poetry, while there is little novelty or inspiration, there -is abundance of industry and ambitious effort. The national love of -works of large compass shows itself in the production of long epic -poems, both of the historic and of the imitative Alexandrian type. The -imitative and rhetorical tastes of Rome showed themselves in the -composition of exotic tragedies, as remote in spirit and character from -Greek as from Roman life, of which the only extant specimens are those -attributed to the younger Seneca. The composition of didactic, lyrical -and elegiac poetry also was the accomplishment and pastime of an -educated dilettante class, the only extant specimens of any interest -being some of the _Silvae_ of Statius. The only voice with which the -poet of this age can express himself with force and sincerity is that of -satire and satiric epigram. We find now only imitative echoes of the old -music created by Virgil and others, as in Statius, or powerful -declamation, as in Lucan and Juvenal. There is a deterioration in the -diction as well as in the music of poetry. The elaborate literary -culture of the Augustan age has done something to impair the native -force of the Latin idiom. The language of literature, in the most -elaborate kind of prose as well as poetry, loses all ring of popular -speech. The old oratorical tastes and aptitudes find their outlet in -public recitations and the practice of declamation. Forced and distorted -expression, exaggerated emphasis, point and antithesis, an affected -prettiness, are studied with the view of gaining the applause of -audiences who thronged the lecture and recitation rooms in search of -temporary excitement. Education is more widely diffused, but is less -thorough, less leisurely in its method, derived less than before from -the purer sources of culture. The precocious immaturity of Lucan's -career affords a marked contrast to the long preparation of Virgil and -Horace for their high office. Although there are some works of this -so-called Silver Age of considerable and one at least of supreme -interest, from the insight they afford into the experience of a century -of organized despotism and its effect on the spiritual life of the -ancient world, it cannot be doubted that the steady literary decline -which characterized the last centuries of paganism was beginning before -the death of Ovid and Livy. - -The influences which had inspired republican and Augustan literature -were the artistic impulse derived from a familiarity with the great -works of Greek genius, becoming more intimate with every new generation, -the spell of Rome over the imagination of the kindred Italian races, the -charm of Italy, and the vivid sensibility of the Italian temperament. -These influences were certainly much less operative in the first century -of the empire. The imitative impulse, which had much of the character of -a creative impulse, and had resulted in the appropriation of the forms -of poetry suited to the Roman and Italian character and of the metres -suited to the genius of the Latin language, no longer stimulated to -artistic effort. The great sources of Greek poetry were no longer -regarded, as they were by Lucretius and Virgil, as sacred, untasted -springs, to be approached in a spirit of enthusiasm tempered with -reverence. We have the testimony of two men of shrewd common sense and -masculine understanding--Martial and Juvenal--to the stale and lifeless -character of the art of the Silver Age, which sought to reproduce in the -form of epics, tragedies and elegies the bright fancies of the Greek -mythology. - -The idea of Rome, owing to the antagonism between the policy of the -government and the sympathies of the class by which literature was -favoured and cultivated, could no longer be an inspiring motive, as it -had been in the literature of the republic and of the Augustan age. The -spirit of Rome appears only as animating the protest of Lucan, the -satire of Persius and Juvenal, the sombre picture which Tacitus paints -of the annals of the empire. Oratory is no longer an independent voice -appealing to sentiments of Roman dignity, but the weapon of the -"informers" (_delatores_), wielded for their own advancement and the -destruction of that class which, even in their degeneracy, retained most -sympathy with the national traditions. Roman history was no longer a -record of national glory, stimulating the patriotism and flattering the -pride of all Roman citizens, but a personal eulogy or a personal -invective, according as servility to a present or hatred of a recent -ruler was the motive which animated it. - -The charm of Italian scenes still remained the same, but the fresh and -inspiring feeling cf nature gave place to the mere sensuous -gratification derived from the luxurious and artificial beauty of the -country villa. The idealizing poetry of passion, which found a genuine -voice in Catullus and the elegiac poets, could not prolong itself -through the exhausting licence of successive generations. The vigorous -vitality which gives interest to the personality of Catullus, Propertius -and Ovid no longer characterizes their successors. The pathos of natural -affection is occasionally recognized in Statius and more rarely in -Martial, but it has not the depth of tenderness found in Lucretius and -Virgil. The wealth and luxury of successive generations, the monotonous -routine of life, the separation of the educated class from the higher -work of the world, have produced their enervating and paralysing effect -on the mainsprings of poetic and imaginative feeling. - - - New literary elements. - -New elements, however, appear in the literature of this period. As the -result of the severance from the active interests of life, a new -interest is awakened in the inner life of the individual. The immorality -of Roman society not only affords abundant material to the satirist, but -deepens the consciousness of moral evil in purer and more thoughtful -minds. To these causes we attribute the pathological observation of -Seneca and Tacitus, the new sense of purity in Persius called out by -contrast with the impurity around him, the glowing if somewhat -sensational exaggeration of Juvenal, the vivid characterization of -Martial. The literature of no time presents so powerfully the contrast -between moral good and evil. In this respect it is truly representative -of the life of the age. Another new element is the influence of a new -race. In the two preceding periods the rapid diffusion of literary -culture following the Social War and the first Civil War was seen to -awaken into new life the elements of original genius in Italy and -Cisalpine Gaul. In the first century of the empire a similar result was -produced by the diffusion of that culture in the Latinized districts of -Spain. The fervid temperament of a fresh and vigorous race, which -received the Latin discipline just as Latium had two or three centuries -previously received the Greek discipline, revealed itself in the -writings of the Senecas, Lucan, Quintilian, Martial and others, who in -their own time added literary distinction to the Spanish towns from -which they came. The new extraneous element introduced into Roman -literature draws into greater prominence the characteristics of the last -great representatives of the genuine Roman and Italian spirit--the -historian Tacitus and the satirist Juvenal. - -On the whole this century shows, in form, language and substance, the -signs of literary decay. But it is still capable of producing men of -original force; it still maintains the traditions of a happier time; it -is still alive to the value of literary culture, and endeavours by -minute attention to style to produce new effects. Though it was not one -of the great eras in the annals of literature, yet the century which -produced Martial, Juvenal and Tacitus cannot be pronounced barren in -literary originality, nor that which produced Seneca and Quintilian -devoid of culture and literary taste. - -This fourth period is itself subdivided into three divisions: (1) from -the accession of Tiberius to the death of Nero, 68--the most important -part of it being the Neronian age, 54 to 68; (2) the Flavian era, from -the death of Nero to the death of Domitian, 96; (3) the reigns of Nerva -and Trajan and part of the reign of Hadrian. - - - Period from Tiberius to Nero. - -1. For a generation after the death of Augustus no new original literary -force appeared. The later poetry of the Augustan age had ended in -trifling dilettantism, for the continuance of which the atmosphere of -the court was no longer favourable. The class by which literature was -encouraged had become both enervated and terrorized. The most remarkable -poetical product of the time is the long-neglected astrological poem of -Manilius which was written at the beginning of Tiberius's reign. Its -vigour and originality have had scanty justice done to them owing to the -difficulty of the subject-matter and the style, and the corruptions -which still disfigure its text. Very different has been the fate of the -_Fables_ of Phaedrus. This slight work of a Macedonian freedman, -destitute of national significance and representative in its morality -only of the spirit of cosmopolitan individualism, owes its vogue to its -easy Latinity and popular subject-matter. Of the prose writers C. -Velleius Paterculus, the historian, and Valerius Maximus, the collector -of anecdotes, are the most important. A. Cornelius Celsus composed a -series of technical handbooks, one of which, upon medicine, has -survived. Its purity of style and the fact that it was long a standard -work entitle it to a mention here. The traditional culture was still, -however, maintained, and the age was rich in grammarians and -rhetoricians. The new profession of the _delator_ must have given a -stimulus to oratory. A high ideal of culture, literary as well as -practical, was realized in Germanicus, which seems to have been -transmitted to his daughter Agrippina, whose patronage of Seneca had -important results in the next generation. The reign of Claudius was a -time in which antiquarian learning, grammatical studies, and -jurisprudence were cultivated, but no important additions were made to -literature. A fresh impulse was given to letters on the accession of -Nero, and this was partly due to the theatrical and artistic tastes of -the young emperor. Four writers of the Neronian age still possess -considerable interest,--L. Annaeus Seneca, M. Annaeus Lucanus, A. -Persius Flaccus and Petronius Arbiter. The first three represent the -spirit of their age by exhibiting the power of the Stoic philosophy as a -moral, political and religious force; the last is the most cynical -exponent of the depravity of the time. Seneca (c. 5 B.C.-A.D. 65) is -less than Persius a pure Stoic, and more of a moralist and pathological -observer of man's inner life. He makes the commonplaces of a -cosmopolitan philosophy interesting by his abundant illustration drawn -from the private and social life of his contemporaries. He has knowledge -of the world, the suppleness of a courtier, Spanish vivacity, and the -_ingenium amoenum_ attributed to him by Tacitus, the fruit of which is -sometimes seen in the "honeyed phrases" mentioned by Petronius--pure -aspirations combined with inconsistency of purpose--the inconsistency of -one who tries to make the best of two worlds, the ideal inner life and -the successful real life in the atmosphere of a most corrupt court. The -_Pharsalia_ of Lucan (39-65), with Cato as its hero, is essentially a -Stoic manifesto of the opposition. It is written with the force and -fervour of extreme youth and with the literary ambition of a race as yet -new to the discipline of intellectual culture, and is characterized by -rhetorical rather than poetical imagination. The six short _Satires_ of -Persius (34-62) are the purest product of Stoicism--a Stoicism that had -found in a contemporary, Thrasea, a more rational and practical hero -than Cato. But no important writer of antiquity has less literary charm -than Persius. In avoiding the literary conceits and fopperies which he -satirizes he has recourse to the most unnatural contortions of -expression. Of hardly greater length are the seven eclogues of T. -Calpurnius Siculus, written at the beginning of the reign of Nero, which -are not without grace and facility of diction. Of the works of the time -that which from a human point of view is perhaps the most detestable in -ancient literature has the most genuine literary quality, the fragment -of a prose novel--the _Satyricon_--of Petronius (d. 66). It is most -sincere in its representation, least artificial in diction, most -penetrating in its satire, most just in its criticism of art and style. - - - Age of Domitian. - -2. A greater sobriety of tone was introduced both into life and -literature with the accession of Vespasian. The time was, however, -characterized rather by good sense and industry than by original genius. -Under Vespasian C. Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the elder (compiler of the -_Natural History_, an encyclopaedic treatise, 23-79), is the most -important prose writer, and C. Valerius Flaccus Setinus Balbus, author -of the _Argonautica_ (d. c. 90), the most important among the writers of -poetry. The reign of Domitian, although it silenced the more independent -spirits of the time, Tacitus and Juvenal, witnessed more important -contributions to Roman literature than any age since the -Augustan,--among them the _Institutes_ of Quintilian, the _Punic War_ of -Silius Italicus, the epics and the _Silvae_ of Statius, and the -_Epigrams_ of Martial. M. Fabius Quintilianus, or Quintilian (c. 35-95), -is brought forward by Juvenal as a unique instance of a thoroughly -successful man of letters, of one not belonging by birth to the rich or -official class, who had risen to wealth and honours through literature. -He was well adapted to his time by his good sense and sobriety of -judgment. His criticism is just and true rather than subtle or -ingenious, and has thus stood the test of the judgment of after-times. -The poem of Ti. Catius Silius Italicus (25-101) is a proof of the -industry and literary ambition of members of the rich official class. Of -the epic poets of the Silver Age P. Papinius Statius (c. 45-96) shows -the greatest technical skill and the richest pictorial fancy in the -execution of detail; but his epics have no true inspiring motive, and, -although the recitation of the _Thebaid_ could attract and charm an -audience in the days of Juvenal, it really belongs to the class of poems -so unsparingly condemned both by him and Martial. In the _Silvae_, -though many of them have little root in the deeper feelings of human -nature, we find occasionally more than in any poetry after the Augustan -age something of the purer charm and pathos of life. But it is not in -the _Silvae_, nor in the epics and tragedies of the time, nor in the -cultivated criticism of Quintilian that the age of Domitian lives for -us. It is in the _Epigrams_ of M. Valerius Martialis or Martial (c. -41-104) that we have a true image of the average sensual frivolous life -of Rome at the end of the 1st century, seen through a medium of wit and -humour, but undistorted by the exaggeration which moral indignation and -the love of effect add to the representation of Juvenal. Martial -represents his age in his _Epigrams_, as Horace does his in his -_Satires_ and _Odes_, with more variety and incisive force in his -sketches, though with much less poetic charm and serious meaning. We -know the daily life, the familiar personages, the outward aspect of Rome -in the age of Domitian better than at any other period of Roman -history, and this knowledge we owe to Martial. - - - Period of Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian. - -3. But it was under Nerva and Trajan that the greatest and most truly -representative works of the empire were written. The _Annals_ and -_Histories_ of Cornelius Tacitus (54-119), with the supplementary _Life -of Agricola_ and the _Germania_, and the _Satires_ of D. Iunius -Iuvenalis or Juvenal (c. 47-130), sum up for posterity the moral -experience of the Roman world from the accession of Tiberius to the -death of Domitian. The generous scorn and pathos of the historian acting -on extraordinary gifts of imaginative insight and characterization, and -the fierce indignation of the satirist finding its vent in exaggerating -realism, doubtless to some extent warped their impressions; nevertheless -their works are the last voices expressive of the freedom and manly -virtue of the ancient world. In them alone among the writers of the -empire the spirit of the Roman republic seems to revive. The _Letters_ -of C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus or Pliny the Younger (61-c. 115), -though they do not contradict the representation of Tacitus and Juvenal -regarded as an exposure of the political degradation and moral -corruption of prominent individuals and classes, do much to modify the -pervadingly tragic and sombre character of their representation. - -With the death of Juvenal, the most important part of whose activity -falls in the reign of Trajan, Latin literature as an original and -national expression of the experience, character, and sentiment of the -Roman state and empire, and as one of the great literatures of the -world, may be considered closed. - - -_Later Writers._ - - Claudian. - -What remains to describe is little but death and decay. Poetry died -first; the paucity of writings in verse is matched by their -insignificance. For two centuries after Juvenal there are no names but -those of Q. Serenus Sammonicus, with his pharmacopoeia in verse (c. -225), and M. Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus, who wrote a few feeble -eclogues and (283) a dull piece on the training of dogs for the chase. -Towards the middle of the 4th century we have Decimus Magnus Ausonius, a -professor of Bordeaux and afterwards consul (379), whose style is as -little like that of classical poetry as is his prosody. His _Mosella_, a -detailed description of the river Moselle, is the least unattractive of -his works. A little better is his contemporary, Rufius Festus Avienus, -who made some free translations of astronomical and geographical poems -in Greek. A generation later, in what might be called the expiring -effort of Latin poetry, appeared two writers of much greater merit. The -first is Claudius Claudianus (c. 400), a native of Alexandria and the -court poet of the emperor Honorius and his minister Stilicho. Claudian -may be properly styled the last of the poets of Rome. He breathes the -old national spirit, and his mastery of classical idiom and -versification is for his age extraordinary. Something of the same may be -seen in Rutilius Namatianus, a Gaul by birth, who wrote in 416 a -description of his voyage from the capital to his native land, which -contains the most glowing eulogy of Rome ever penned by an ancient hand. -Of the Christian "poets" only Aurelius Prudentius Clemens (c. 348-410) -need be mentioned. He was well read in the ancient literature; but the -task of embodying the Christian spirit in the classical form was one far -beyond his powers. - - - Suetonius. - - Apuleius. - -The vitality of the prose literature was not much greater though its -complete extinction was from the nature of the case impossible. The most -important writer in the age succeeding Juvenal was the biographer C. -Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 75-160), whose work is more valuable for its -matter than its manner. His style is simple and direct, but has hardly -any other merit. A little later the rise of M. Cornelius Fronto (c. -100-175), a native of Cirta, marks the beginning of an African -influence. Fronto, a distinguished orator and intimate friend of the -emperor M. Aurelius, broke away from the traditional Latin of the Silver -and Golden ages, and took as his models the pre-classical authors. The -reaction was short-lived; but the same affectation of antiquity is seen -in the writings of Apuleius, also an African, who lived a little later -than Fronto and was a man of much greater natural parts. In his -_Metamorphoses_, which were based upon a Greek original, he takes the -wonderful story of the adventures of Lucius of Madaura, and interweaves -the famous legend of Cupid and Psyche. His bizarre and mystical style -has a strange fascination for the reader; but there is nothing Roman or -Italian about it. Two epitomists of previous histories may be mentioned: -Justinus (of uncertain date) who abridged the history of Pompeius -Trogus, an Augustan writer; and P. Annius Florus, who wrote in the reign -of Hadrian a rhetorical sketch based upon Livy. The _Historia Augusta_, -which includes the lives of the emperors from Hadrian to Numerianus -(117-284), is the work of six writers, four of whom wrote under -Diocletian and two under Constantine. It is a collection of personal -memoirs of little historical importance, and marked by puerility and -poverty of style. Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330-400) had a higher -conception of the historian's function. His narrative of the years -353-378 (all that now remains) is honest and straightforward, but his -diction is awkward and obscure. The last pagan prose writer who need be -mentioned is Q. Aurelius Symmachus (c. 350-410), the author of some -speeches and a collection of letters. All the art of his ornate and -courtly periods cannot disguise the fact that there was nothing now for -paganism to say. - - - Christian writers. - -It is in Christian writers alone that we find the vigour of life. The -earliest work of Christian apologetics is the _Octavius_ or Minucius -Felix, a contemporary of Fronto. It is written in pure Latin and is -strongly tinged by classical influences. Quite different is the work of -"the fierce Tertullian," Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus (c. 150-230), -a native of Carthage, the most vigorous of the Latin champions of the -new faith. His style shows the African revolt of which we have already -spoken, and in its medley of archaisms, Graecisms and Hebraisms reveals -the strength of the disintegrating forces at work upon the Latin -language. A more commanding figure is that of Aurelius Augustinus or St -Augustine (354-430), bishop of Hippo, who for comprehensiveness and -dialectical power stands out in the same way as Hieronymus or St Jerome -(c. 331 or 340-420), a native of Stridon in Dalmatia, does for -many-sided learning and scholarship. - - - Grammarians. - -The decline of literature proper was attended by an increased output of -grammatical and critical studies. From the time of L. Aelius Stilo -Praeconinus, who was the teacher of Varro and Cicero, much interest had -been taken in literary and linguistic problems at Rome. Varro under the -republic, and M. Verrius Flaccus in the Augustan age, had busied -themselves with lexicography and etymology. The grammarian M. Valerius -Probus (c. A.D. 60) was the first critical editor of Latin texts. In the -next century we have Velius Longus's treatise _De Orthographia_, and -then a much more important work, the _Noctes Atticae_ of Aulus Gellius, -and (c. 200) a treatise in verse by Terentianus, an African, upon Latin -pronunciation, prosody and metre. Somewhat later are the commentators on -Terence and Horace, Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio. The tradition -was continued in the 4th century by Nonius Marcellus and C. Marius -Victorinus, both Africans; Aelius Donatus, the grammarian and -commentator on Terence and Virgil, Flavius Sosipater Charisius and -Diomedes, and Servius, the author of a valuable commentary on Virgil. -Ambrosius Macrobius Theodosius (c. 400) wrote a treatise on Cicero's -_Somnium Scipionis_ and seven books of miscellanies (_Saturnalia_); and -Martianus Capella (c. 430), a native of Africa, published a compendium -of the seven liberal arts, written in a mixture of prose and verse, with -some literary pretensions. The last grammarian who need be named is the -most widely known of all, the celebrated Priscianus, who published his -text-book at Constantinople probably in the middle of the 5th century. - - - Jurists. - -In jurisprudence, which may be regarded as one of the outlying regions -of literature, Roman genius had had some of its greatest triumphs, and, -if we take account of the "codes," was active to the end. The most -distinguished of the early jurists (whose works are lost) were Q. -Mucius Scaevola, who died in 82 B.C., and following him Ser. Sulpicius -Rufus, who died in 43 B.C. In the Augustan age M. Antistius Labeo and C. -Ateius Capito headed two opposing schools in jurisprudence, Labeo being -an advocate of method and reform, and Capito being a conservative and -empiricist. The strife, which reflects the controversy between the -"analogists" and the "anomalists" in philology, continued long after -their death. Salvius Julianus was entrusted by Hadrian with the task of -reducing into shape the immense mass of law which had grown up in the -edicts of successive praetors--thus taking the first step towards a -code. Sex. Pomponius, a contemporary, wrote an important legal manual of -which fragments are preserved. The most celebrated handbook, however, is -the _Institutiones_ of Gaius, who lived under Antonius Pius--a model of -what such treatises should be. The most eminent of all the Roman jurists -was Aemilius Papinianus, the intimate friend of Septimius Severus; of -his works only fragments remain. Other considerable writers were the -prolific Domitius Ulpianus (c. 215) and Julius Paulus, his contemporary. -The last juristical writer of note was Herennius Modestinus (c. 240). -But though the line of great lawyers had ceased, the effects of their -work remained and are clearly visible long after in the "codes"--the -code of Theodosius (438) and the still more famous code of Justinian -(529 and 533), with which is associated the name of Tribonianus. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most full and satisfactory modern account of Latin - literature is M. Schanz's _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur._ The - best in English is the translation by C. C. Warr of W. S. Teuffel and - L. Schwabe's _History of Roman Literature_. J. W. Mackail's short - _History of Latin Literature_ is full of excellent literary and - aesthetic criticisms on the writers. C. Lamarre's _Histoire de la - litterature latine_ (1901, with specimens) only deals with the writers - of the republic. W. Y. Sellar's _Roman Poets of the Republic and Poets - of the Augustan Age_, and R. Y. Tyrrell's _Lectures on Latin Poetry_, - will also be found of service. A concise account of the various Latin - writers and their works, together with bibliographies, is given in J. - E. B. Mayor's _Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature_ (1879), which - is based on a German work by E. Hubner. See also the separate - bibliographies to the articles on individual writers. - (W. Y. S.; J. P. P.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Latine loqui elegantissime_. - - - - -LATINUS, in Roman legend, king of the aborigines in Latium, and -eponymous hero of the Latin race. In Hesiod (_Theogony_, 1013) he is the -son of Odysseus and Circe, and ruler of the Tyrsenians; in Virgil, the -son of Faunus and the nymph Marica, a national genealogy being -substituted for the Hesiodic, which probably originated from a Greek -source. Latinus was a shadowy personality, invented to explain the -origin of Rome and its relations with Latium, and only obtained -importance in later times through his legendary connexion with Aeneas -and the foundation of Rome. According to Virgil (_Aeneid_, vii.-xii.), -Aeneas, on landing at the mouth of the Tiber, was welcomed by Latinus, -the peaceful ruler whose seat of government was Laurentum, and -ultimately married his daughter Lavinia. - - Other accounts of Latinus, differing considerably in detail, are to be - found in the fragments of Cato's _Origines_ (in Servius's commentary - on Virgil) and in Dionysius of Halicarnassus; see further authorities - in the article by J. A. Hild, in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire - des antiquites_. - - - - -LATITUDE (Lat. _latitudo_, _latus_, broad), a word meaning breadth or -width, hence, figuratively, freedom from restriction, but more generally -used in the geographical and astronomical sense here treated. The -latitude of a point on the earth's surface is its angular distance from -the equator, measured on the curved surface of the earth. The direct -measure of this distance being impracticable, it has to be determined by -astronomical observations. As thus determined it is the angle between -the direction of the plumb-line at the place and the plane of the -equator. This is identical with the angle between the horizontal planes -at the place and at the equator, and also with the elevation of the -celestial pole above the horizon (see ASTRONOMY). Latitude thus -determined by the plumb-line is termed _astronomical_. The _geocentric -latitude_ of a place is the angle which the line from the earth's centre -to the place makes with the plane of the equator. _Geographical -latitude_, which is used in mapping, is based on the supposition that -the earth is an elliptic spheroid of known compression, and is the -angle which the normal to this spheroid makes with the equator. It -differs from the astronomical latitude only in being corrected for local -deviation of the plumb-line. - -The latitude of a celestial object is the angle which the line drawn -from some fixed point of reference to the object makes with the plane of -the ecliptic. - -_Variability of Terrestrial Latitudes._--The latitude of a point on the -earth's surface, as above defined, is measured from the equator. The -latter is defined by the condition that its plane makes a right angle -with the earth's axis of rotation. It follows that if the points in -which this axis intersects the earth's surface, _i.e_. the poles of the -earth, change their positions on the earth's surface, the position of -the equator will also change, and therefore the latitudes of places will -change also. About the end of the 19th century research showed that -there actually was a very minute but measurable periodic change of this -kind. The north and south poles, instead of being fixed points on the -earth's surface, wander round within a circle about 50 ft. in diameter. -The result is a variability of terrestrial latitudes generally. - -[Illustration] - - To show the cause of this motion, let BQ represent a section of an - oblate spheroid through its shortest axis, PP. We may consider this - spheroid to be that of the earth, the ellipticity being greatly - exaggerated. If set in rotation around its axis of figure PP, it will - continue to rotate around that axis for an indefinite time. But if, - instead of rotating around PP, it rotates around some other axis, RR, - making a small angle, POR, with the axis of figure PP; then it has - been known since the time of Euler that the axis of rotation RR, if - referred to the spheroid regarded as fixed, will gradually rotate - round the axis of figure PP in a period defined in the following - way:--If we put C = the moment of momentum of the spheroid around the - axis of figure, and A = the corresponding moment around an axis - passing through the equator EQ, then, calling one day the period of - rotation of the spheroid, the axis RR will make a revolution around PP - in a number of days represented by the fraction C/(C - A). In the case - of the earth, this ratio is 1/0.0032813 or 305. It follows that the - period in question is 305 days. - -Up to 1890 the most careful observations and researches failed to -establish the periodicity of such a rotation, though there was strong -evidence of a variation of latitude. Then S. C. Chandler, from an -elaborate discussion of a great number of observations, showed that -there was really a variation of the latitude of the points of -observation; but, instead of the period being 305 days, it was about 428 -days. At first sight this period seemed to be inconsistent with -dynamical theory. But a defect was soon found in the latter, the -correction of which reconciled the divergence. In deriving a period of -305 days the earth is regarded as an absolutely rigid body, and no -account is taken either of its elasticity or of the mobility of the -ocean. A study of the figure will show that the centrifugal force round -the axis RR will act on the equatorial protuberance of the rotating -earth so as to make it tend in the direction of the arrows. A slight -deformation of the earth will thus result; and the axis of figure of the -distorted spheroid will no longer be PP, but a line P'P' between PP and -RR. As the latter moves round, P'P' will continually follow it through -the incessant change of figure produced by the change in the direction -of the centrifugal force. Now the rate of motion of RR is determined by -the actual figure at the moment. It is therefore less than the motion in -an absolutely rigid spheroid in the proportion RP' : RP. It is found -that, even though the earth were no more elastic than steel, its -yielding combined with the mobility of the ocean would make this ratio -about 2 : 3, resulting in an increase of the period by one-half, making -it about 457 days. Thus this small flexibility is even greater than -that necessary to the reconciliation of observation with theory, and the -earth is shown to be more rigid than steel--a conclusion long since -announced by Kelvin for other reasons. - -Chandler afterwards made an important addition to the subject by showing -that the motion was represented by the superposition of two harmonic -terms, the first having a period of about 430 days, the other of one -year. The result of this superposition is a seven-year period, which -makes 6 periods of the 428-day term (428^d X 6 = 2568^d = 7 years, -nearly), and 7 periods of the annual term. Near one phase of this -combined period the two component motions nearly annul each other, so -that the variation is then small, while at the opposite phase, 3 to 4 -years later, the two motions are in the same direction and the range of -variation is at its maximum. The coefficient of the 428-day term seems -to be between 0.12" and 0.16"; that of the annual term between 0.06" -and 0.11". Recent observations give smaller values of both than those -made between 1890 and 1900, and there is no reason to suppose either to -be constant. - -The present state of the theory may be summed up as follows:-- - -1. The fourteen-month term is an immediate result of the fact that the -axes of rotation and figure of the earth do not strictly coincide, but -make with each other a small angle of which the mean value is about -0.15". If the earth remained invariable, without any motion of matter on -its surface, the result of this non-coincidence would be the revolution -of the one pole round the other in a circle of radius 0.15", or about 15 -ft., in a period of about 429 days. This revolution is called the -_Eulerian motion_, after the mathematician who discovered it. But owing -to meteorological causes the motion in question is subject to annual -changes. These changes arise from two causes--the one statical, the -other dynamical. - -2. The statical causes are deposits of snow or ice slowly changing the -position of the pole of figure of the earth. For example, a deposit of -snow in Siberia would bring the equator of figure of the earth a little -nearer to Siberia and throw the pole a little way from it, while a -deposit on the American continent would have the opposite effect. Owing -to the approximate symmetry of the American and Asiatic continents it -does not seem likely that the inequality of snowfall would produce an -appreciable effect. - -3. The dynamical causes are atmospheric and oceanic currents. Were these -currents invariable their only effect would be that the Eulerian motion -would not take place exactly round the mean pole of figure, but round a -point slightly separated from it. But, as a matter of fact, they are -subject to an annual variation. Hence the motion of the pole of rotation -is also subject to a similar variation. The annual term in the latitude -is thus accounted for. - -Besides Chandler, Albrecht of Berlin has investigated the motion of the -pole P. The methods of the two astronomers are in some points different. -Chandler has constructed empirical formulae representing the motion, -with the results already given, while Albrecht has determined the motion -of the pole from observation simply, without trying to represent it -either by a formula or by theory. It is noteworthy that the difference -between Albrecht's numerical results and Chandler's formulae is -generally less than 0.05". - -When the fluctuation in the position of the pole was fully confirmed, -its importance in astronomy and geodesy led the International Geodetic -Association to establish a series of stations round the globe, as nearly -as possible on the same parallel of latitude, for the purpose of -observing the fluctuation with a greater degree of precision than could -be attained by the miscellaneous observations before available. The same -stars were to be observed from month to month at each station with -zenith-telescopes of similar approved construction. This secures a -double observation of each component of the polar motion, from which -most of the systematic errors are eliminated. The principal stations -are: Carloforte, Italy; Mizusawa, Japan; Gaithersburg, Maryland; and -Ukiah, California, all nearly on the same parallel of latitude, 39 deg. -8'. - -The fluctuations derived from this international work during the last -seven years deviate but slightly from Chandler's formulae though they -show a markedly smaller value of the annual term. In consequence, the -change in the amplitude of the fluctuation through the seven-year period -is not so well marked as before 1900. - - Chandler's investigations are found in a series of papers published in - the _Astronomical Journal_, vols. xi. to xv. and xviii. Newcomb's - explanation of the lengthening of the Eulerian period is found in the - _Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ for March 1892. - Later volumes of the _Astronomical Journal_ contain discussions of the - causes which may produce the annual fluctuation. An elaborate - mathematical discussion of the theory is by Vito Volterra: "Sulla - teoria dei movimenti del Polo terrestre" in the _Astronomische - Nachrichten_, vol. 138; also, more fully in his memoir "Sur la theorie - des variations des latitudes," _Acta Mathematica_, vol. xxii. The - results of the international observations are discussed from time to - time by Albrecht in the publications of the International Geodetic - Association, and in the _Astronomische Nachrichten_ (see also EARTH, - FIGURE OF). (S. N.) - - - - -LATIUM,[1] in ancient geography, the name given to the portion of -central Italy which was bounded on the N.W. by Etruria, on the S.W. by -the Tyrrhenian Sea, on the S.E. by Campania, on the E. by Samnium and on -the N.E. by the mountainous district inhabited by the Sabini, Aequi and -Marsi. The name was, however, applied very differently at different -times. Latium originally means the land of the Latini, and in this -sense, which alone is in use historically, it was a tract of limited -extent; but after the overthrow of the Latin confederacy, when the -neighbouring tribes of the Rutuli, Hernici, Volsci and Aurunci, as well -as the Latini properly so called, were reduced to the condition of -subjects and citizens of Rome, the name of Latium was extended to -comprise them all. It thus denoted the whole country from the Tiber to -the mouth of the Savo, and just included the Mons Massicus, though the -boundary was not very precisely fixed (see below). The change thus -introduced, though already manifest in the composition of the Latin -league (see below) was not formally established till the reign of -Augustus, who formed of this larger Latium and Campania taken together -the first region of Italy; but it is already recognized by Strabo (v. 3. -2. p. 228), as well as by Pliny, who terms the additional territory thus -incorporated _Latium Adjectum_, while he designates the original Latium, -extending from the Tiber to Circeii, as _Latium Antiquum_. - -1. LATIUM ANTIQUUM consisted principally of an extensive plain, now -known as the Campagna di Roma, bounded towards the interior by the -Apennines, which rise very abruptly from the plains to a height of -between 4000 and 5000 ft. Several of the Latin cities, including Tibur -and Praeneste, were situated on the terrace-like underfalls of these -mountains,[2] while Cora, Norba and Setia were placed in like manner on -the slopes of the Volscian mountains (Monti Lepini), a rugged and lofty -limestone range, which runs parallel to the main mass of the Apennines, -being separated from them, however, by the valley of the Trerus (Sacco), -and forms a continuous barrier from there to Terracina. No volcanic -eruptions are known to have taken place in these mountains within the -historic period, though Livy sometimes speaks of it "raining stones in -the Alban hills" (i. 31, xxxv. 9--on the latter occasion it even did so -on the Aventine). It is asserted, too, that some of the earliest tombs -of the necropolis of Alba Longa (q.v.) were found beneath a stratum of -peperino. Earthquakes (not of a violent character within recent -centuries, though the ruin of the Colosseum is probably to be ascribed -to this cause) are not unknown even at the present day in Rome and in -the Alban Hills, and a seismograph has been established at Rocca di -Papa. The surface is by no means a uniform plain, but is a broad -undulating tract, furrowed throughout by numerous depressions, with -precipitous banks, serving as water-courses, though rarely traversed by -any considerable stream. As the general level of the plain rises -gradually, though almost imperceptibly, to the foot of the Apennines, -these channels by degrees assume the character of ravines of a -formidable description. - - - Geology. - - Four main periods may be distinguished in the geological history of - Rome and the surrounding district. The hills on the right bank of the - Tiber culminating in Monte Mario (455 ft.) belong to the first of - these, being of the Pliocene formation; they consist of a lower - bluish-grey clay and an upper group of yellow sands and gravels. This - clay since Roman times has supplied the material for brick-making, and - the valleys which now separate the different summits (Janiculum, - Vatican, Monte Mario) are in considerable measure artificial. On the - left bank this clay has been reached at a lower level, at the foot of - the Pincian Hill, while in the Campagna it has been found to extend - below the later volcanic formations. The latter may be divided into - two groups, corresponding to the second and third periods. In the - second period volcanic activity occurred at the bottom of the Pliocene - sea, and the tufa, which extends over the whole Campagna to a - thickness of 300 ft. or more, was formed. At the same time, hot - springs, containing abundant carbonate of lime in solution, produced - deposits of travertine at various points. In the third, after the - Campagna, by a great general uplift, had become a land surface, - volcanic energy found an outlet in comparatively few large craters, - which emitted streams of hard lava as well as fragmentary materials, - the latter forming sperone (_lapis Gabinus_) and peperino (_lapis - Albanus_), while upon one of the former, which runs from the Alban - Hills to within 2 m. of Rome, the Via Appia was carried. The two main - areas near Rome are formed by the group of craters on the north - (Bracciano, Bolsena, &c.) and the Alban Hills on the south, the latter - consisting of one great crater with a base about 12 m. in diameter, in - the centre of which a smaller crater was later on built up (the basin - is now known as the Campo di Annibale) with several lateral vents (the - Lake of Albano, the Lake of Nemi, &c.). The Alban Mount (Monte Cavo) - is almost the highest point on the rim of the inner crater, while - Mount Algidus and Tusculum are on the outer ring wall of the larger - (earlier) crater. - - The fourth period is that in which the various subaerial agencies of - abrasion, and especially the streams which drain the mountain chain of - the Apennines, have produced the present features of the Campagna, a - plain furrowed by gullies and ravines. The communities which inhabited - the detached hills and projecting ridges which later on formed the - city of Rome were in a specially favourable position. These hills - (especially the Palatine, the site of the original settlement) with - their naturally steep sides, partly surrounded at the base by marshes - and situated not far from the confluence of the Anio with the Tiber, - possessed natural advantages not shared by the other primitive - settlements of the district; and their proximity to one another - rendered it easy to bring them into a larger whole. The volcanic - materials available in Rome and its neighbourhood were especially - useful in building. The tufa, sperone and peperino were easy to - quarry, and could be employed by those who possessed comparatively - elementary tools, while travertine, which came into use later, was an - excellent building stone, and the lava (_selce_) served for paving - stones and as material for concrete. The strength of the renowned - Roman concrete is largely due to the use of pozzolana (see PUTEOLI), - which also is found in plenty in the Campagna. - - Between the volcanic tract of the Campagna and the sea there is a - broad strip of sandy plain, evidently formed merely by the - accumulation of sand from the sea, and constituting a barren tract, - still covered almost entirely with wood as it was in ancient times, - except for the almost uninterrupted line of villas along the ancient - coast-line, which is now marked by a line of sand-hills, some 1/2 m. - or more inland (see LAVINIUM, TIBER). This long belt of sandy shore - extends without a break for a distance of above 30 m. from the mouth - of the Tiber to the promontory of Antium (Porto d'Anzio); a low rocky - headland, projecting out into the sea, and forming the only - considerable angle in this line of coast. Thence again a low sandy - shore of similar character, but with extensive shore lagoons which - served in Roman times and serve still for fish-breeding, extends for - about 24 m. to the foot of the Monte Circeo (_Circeius Mons_, q.v.). - The region of the Pomptine Marshes (q.v.) occupies almost the whole - tract between the sandy belt on the seashore and the Volscian - mountains, extending from the southern foot of the Alban Hills below - Velletri to the sea near Terracina. - - - Drainage. - - The district sloping down from Velletri to the dead level of the - Pontine (Pomptine) Marshes has not, like the western and northern - slopes of the Alban Hills, drainage towards the Tiber. The subsoil too - is differently formed: the surface consists of very absorbent - materials, then comes a stratum of less permeable tufa or peperino - (sometimes clay is present), and below that again more permeable - materials. In ancient, and probably pre-Roman, times this district was - drained by an elaborate system of _cuniculi_, small drainage tunnels, - about 5 ft. high and 2 ft. wide, which ran, not at the bottom of the - valleys, where there were sometimes streams already, and where, in any - case, erosion would have broken through their roofs, but along their - slopes, through the less permeable tufa, their object being to drain - the hills on each side of the valleys. They had probably much to do - with the relative healthiness of this district in early times. Some of - them have been observed to be earlier in date than the Via Appia (312 - B.C.). They were studied in detail by R. de la Blanchere. When they - fell into desuetude, malaria gained the upper hand, the lack of - drainage providing breeding-places for the malarial mosquito. Remains - of similar drainage channels exist in many parts of the Campagna - Romana and of southern Etruria at points where the natural drainage - was not sufficient, and especially in cultivated or inhabited hills - (though it was not necessary here, as in the neighbourhood of - Velletri, to create a drainage system, as streams and rivers were - already present as natural collectors) and streams very frequently - pass through them at the present day. The drainage channels which were - dug for the various crater lakes in the neighbourhood of Rome are also - interesting in this regard. That of the Alban Lake is the most famous; - but all the other crater lakes are similarly provided. As the drainage - by _cuniculi_ removed the moisture in the subsoil, so the drainage of - the lakes by _emissaria_, outlet channels at a low level, prevented - the permeable strata below the tufa from becoming impregnated with - moisture which they would otherwise have derived from the lakes of the - Alban Hills. The slopes below Velletri, on the other hand, derive much - of their moisture from the space between the inner and outer ring of - the Alban volcano, which it was impossible to drain: and this in turn - receives much moisture from the basin of the extinct inner crater.[3] - - - Pre-historic remains. - - Numerous isolated palaeolithic objects of the Mousterian type have - been found in the neighbourhood of Rome in the quaternary gravels of - the Tiber and Anio; but no certain traces of the neolithic period have - come to light, as the many flint implements found sporadically round - Rome probably belong to the period which succeeded neolithic (called - by Italian archaeologists the eneolithic period) inasmuch as both - stone and metal (not, however, bronze, but copper) were in use.[4] At - Sgurgola, in the valley of the Sacco, a skeleton was found in a - rock-cut tomb of this period which still bears traces of painting with - cinnabar. A similar rock-cut tomb was found at Mandela, in the Anio - valley. Both are outside the limits of the Campagna in the narrower - sense; but similar tombs were found (though less accurately observed) - in travertine quarries between Rome and Tivoli. Objects of the Bronze - age too have only been found sporadically. The earliest cemeteries and - hut foundations of the Alban Hills belong to the Iron age, and - cemeteries and objects of a similar character have been found in Rome - itself and in southern Etruria, especially the characteristic - hut-urns. The objects found in these cemeteries show close affinity - with those found in the terremare of Emilia, these last being of - earlier date, and hence Pigorini and Helbig consider that the Latini - were close descendants of the inhabitants of the terremare. On the - other hand, the ossuaries of the Villanova type, while they occur as - far south as Veii and Caere, have never so far been found on the left - bank of the Tiber, in Latium proper (see L. Pigorini in _Rendiconti - dei Lincei_, ser. v. vol. xvi., 1907, p. 676, and xviii., 1909). We - thus have at the beginning of the Iron age two distinct currents of - civilization in central Italy, the Latin and that of Villanova. As to - the dates to which these are to be attributed, there is not as yet - complete accord, _e.g_. some archaeologists assign to the 11th, others - (and with far better reasons) to the 8th century B.C., the earliest - tombs of the Alban necropolis and the coeval tombs of the necropolis - recently discovered in the Forum at Rome. In this last necropolis - cremation seems slightly to precede inhumation in date. - - For the prehistoric period see _Bullettino di paleontologia Italiana, - passim_, B. Modestov, _Introduction a l'histoire romaine_ (Paris, - 1907), and T. E. Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy_ (Oxford, - 1909). - - - Latin League. - -It is uncertain to what extent reliance can be placed upon the -traditional accounts of the gradual spread of the supremacy of Rome in -Latium, and the question cannot be discussed here.[5] The list of the -thirty communities belonging to the Latin league, given by Dionysius of -Halicarnassus (v. 61), is, however, of great importance. It is -considered by Th. Mommsen (_Roman History_, i. 448) that it dates from -about the year 370 B.C., to which period belong the closing of the -confederacy, no fresh communities being afterwards admitted to it, and -the consequent fixing of the boundaries of Latium. The list is as -follows: Ardeates, Aricini, Bovillani,[6] Bubentani, Cabani, Carventani, -Circeiates, Coriolani, Corbintes, Corni (probably Corani), Fortinei (?), -Gabini, Laurentini, Lavinates, Labicani, Lanuvini, Nomentani, Norbani, -Praenestini, Pedani, Querquetulani, Satricani, Scaptini, Setini, -Tellenii, Tiburtini, Tolerini, Tusculani, Veliterni. - - These communities may be briefly described according to their - geographical arrangement. Laurentum and Lavinium, names so conspicuous - in the legendary history of Aeneas, were situated in the sandy strip - near the sea-coast--the former only 8 m. S.E. of Ostia, which was from - the first merely the port of Rome, and never figured as an independent - city. Farther S.E. again lay Ardea, the ancient capital of the Rutuli, - and some distance beyond that Antium, situated on the sea-coast, which - does not occur in the list of Dionysius, and is, in the early annals - of Rome, called a Volscian town--even their chief city. On the - southern underfalls of the Alban mountains, commanding the plain at - the foot, stood Lanuvium and Velitrae; Aricia rose on a neighbouring - hill, and Corioli was probably situated on the lower slopes. The - village of the Cabani (probably identical with the Cabenses) is - possibly to be sought on the site of the modern Rocca di Papa, N. of - Monte Cavo. The more important city of Tusculum occupied one of the - northern summits of the same group; while opposite to it, in a - commanding situation on a lofty offshoot of the Apennines, rose - Praeneste, now Palestrina. Bola and Pedum were probably in the same - neighbourhood, Labici on an outlying summit (Monte Compatri) of the - Alban Hills below Tusculum, and Corbio (probably at Rocca Priora) on a - rocky summit east of the same city. Tibur (Tivoli) occupied a height - commanding the outlet of the river Anio. Corniculum, farther west, - stood on the summit of one of three conical hills that rise abruptly - out of the plain at the distance of a few miles from Monte Gennaro, - the nearest of the Apennines, and which were thence known as the - Montes Corniculani. Nomentum was a few miles farther north, between - the Apennines and the Tiber, and close to the Sabine frontier. The - boundary between the two nations was indeed in this part very - fluctuating. Nearly in the centre of the plain of the Campagna stood - Gabii; Bovillae was also in the plain, but close to the Appian Way, - where it begins to ascend the Alban Hills. Several other - cities--Tellenae, Scaptia and Querquetulum--mentioned in the list of - Dionysius were probably situated in the Campagna, but the site cannot - be determined. Satricum, on the other hand, was certainly south of the - Alban Hills, between Velitrae and Antium; while Cora, Norba and Setia - (all of which retain their ancient names with little modification) - crowned the rocky heights which form advanced posts from the Volscian - mountains towards the Pontine Marshes. Carventum possibly occupied the - site of Rocca Massima N. of Cori, and Tolerium was very likely at - Valmontone in the valley of the Sacco (anc. Trerus or Tolerus). The - cities of the Bubentani and Fortinei are quite unknown. - -A considerable number of the Latin cities had before 370 B.C. either -been utterly destroyed or reduced to subjection by Rome, and had thus -lost their independent existence. Such were Antemnae and Caenina, both -of them situated within a few miles of Rome to the N., the conquest of -which was ascribed to Romulus; Fidenae, about 5 m. N. of the city, and -close to the Tiber; and Crustumerium, in the hilly tract farther north -towards the Sabine frontier. Suessa Pometia also, on the borders of the -Pontine Marshes, to which it was said to have given name, was a city of -importance, the destruction of which was ascribed to Tarquinius -Superbus. In any case it had disappeared before 370 B.C., as it does not -occur in the list of the Latin league attributable to that date. It is -probably to be sought between Velletri and Cisterna. But by far the most -important of these extinct cities was Alba, on the lake to which it gave -its name, which was, according to universally received tradition, the -parent of Rome, as well as of numerous other cities within the limits of -Latium, including Gabii, Fidenae, Collatia, Nomentum and other -well-known towns. Whether or not this tradition deserves to rank as -historical, it appears certain that at a still earlier period there -existed a confederacy of thirty towns, of which Alba was the supreme -head. A list of those who were wont to participate in the sacrifices on -the Alban Mount is given us by Pliny (_N.H._ iii. 5. 69) under the name -of _populi albenses_, which includes only six or at most eight of those -found in the list of Dionysius;[7] and these for the most part among the -more obscure and least known of the names given by him. Many of the rest -are unknown; while the more powerful cities of Aricia, Lanuvium and -Tusculum, though situated immediately on the Alban Hills, are not -included, and appear to have maintained a wholly independent position. -This earlier league was doubtless broken up by the fall of Alba; it was -probably the increasing power of the Volsci and Aequi that led to the -formation of the later league, including all the more powerful cities of -Latium, as well as to the alliance concluded by them with the Romans in -the consulship of Spurius Cassius (493 B.C.). Other cities of the Latin -league had already (according to the traditional dates) received Latin -colonies--Velitrae (494 B.C.), Norba (492), Ardea (442), Labici (418), -Circei (393), Satricum (385), Setia (382). - -The cities of the Latin league continued to hold general meetings or -assemblies from time to time at the grove of the Aqua Ferentina, a -sanctuary at the foot of the Alban Hills, perhaps in a valley below -Marino, while they had also a common place of worship on the summit of -the Alban Mount (Monte Cavo), where stood the celebrated temple of -Jupiter Latiaris. The participation in the annual sacrifices at this -sanctuary was regarded as typical of a Latin city (hence the name -"prisci Latini" given to the participating peoples); and they continued -to be celebrated long after the Latins had lost their independence and -been incorporated in the Roman state.[8] - - - Roman supremacy. - -We are on firmer ground in dealing with the spread of the supremacy of -Rome in Latium when we take account of the foundation of new colonies -and of the formation of new tribes, processes which as a rule go -together. The information that we have as to the districts in which the -sixteen earliest clans (_tribus rusticae_)[9] were settled shows us -that, except along the Tiber, Rome's dominion extended hardly more than -5 m. beyond the city gates (Mommsen, _History of Rome_, i. 58). Thus, -towards the N. and E. we find the towns of Antemnae, Fidenae, Caenina -and Gabii;[10] on the S.E., towards Alba, the boundary of Roman -territory was at the Fossae Cluiliae, 5 m. from Rome, where Coriolanus -encamped (Livy ii. 39), and, on the S., towards Laurentum at the 6th -mile, where sacrifice to Terminus was made (Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 681): the -Ambarvalia too were celebrated even in Strabo's day (v. 3. 3. p. 230) at -a place called [Greek: Phestoi] between the 5th and 6th mile. The -identification (cf. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, vi. -2223) of this locality with the grove of the Arval brothers at the 5th -mile of the Via Portuensis, to the W. of Rome, and of the Ambarvalia -with the festival celebrated by this brotherhood in May of each year, is -now generally accepted. But Roman sway must either from the first, or -very soon, have extended to Ostia, the port of Rome at the mouth of the -Tiber: and it was as the emporium of Latium that Rome acquired her first -importance.[11] - - - The primitive tribes. - -The boundary of the _Ager Romanus antiquus_ towards the north-west is -similarly fixed by the festival of the Robigalia at the 5th milestone of -the Via Clodia. Within this area fall the districts inhabited by the -earliest tribes, so far as these are known to us. The _tribus Romilia_ -was settled on the right bank of the Tiber near the sanctuary of the -Arvales, the _Galeria_ perhaps a little farther west on the lower course -of the stream now known as Galera, and the _Fabia_ perhaps on the -Cremera towards Veii. We know that the _pagus Lemonius_ was on the Via -Latina, and that the _tribus Pupinia_ dwelt between Tusculum and the -city, while the territory of the _Papiria_ possibly lay nearer Tusculum, -as it was to this tribe that the Roman citizens in Tusculum belonged in -later days. It is possible that the _Camilia_ was situated in the -direction of Tibur, inasmuch as this town was afterwards enrolled in -this tribe. The _tribus Claudia_, probably the last of the 16 older -_tribus rusticae_, was according to tradition founded in 504 B.C. Its -territory lay beyond the Anio, between Fidenae and Ficulea (Liv. ii. 16; -Dion. Hal. v. 40). The locality of the _pagi_ round which the other -tribes were grouped is not known to us. - - - Road system. - - With the earliest extensions of the Roman territory coincided the - first beginnings of the Roman road system. The road to Ostia may have - existed from the first: but after the Latin communities on the lower - Anio had fallen under the dominion of Rome, we may well believe that - the first portion of the Via Salaria, leading to Antemnae, Fidenae - (the fall of which is placed by tradition in 428 B.C.) and - Crustumerium, came into existence. The formation (according to the - traditional dating in 495 or 471 B.C.) of the _tribus Clustumina_ (the - only one of the earlier twenty-one tribes which bears a local name) is - both a consequence of an extension of territory and of the - establishment of the assembly of the plebs by tribes, for which an - inequality of the total number of divisions was desirable (Mommsen, - _History of Rome_, i. 360). The correlative of the Via Salaria was the - Via Campana, so called because it led past the grove of the Arvales - along the right bank of the Tiber to the Campus Salinarum - Romanarum,[12] the salt marshes, from which the Via Salaria took its - name, inasmuch as it was the route by which Sabine traders came from - the interior to fetch the salt. To this period would also belong the - Via Ficulensis, leading to Ficulea, and afterwards prolonged to - Nomentum, and the Via Collatina, which led to Collatia. Gabii became - Roman in fairly early times, though at what period is uncertain, and - with its subjugation must have originated the Via Gabina, afterwards - prolonged to Praeneste. The Via Latina too must be of very early - origin; and tradition places the foundation of the Latin colony at - Signia (to which it led) as early as 495 B.C. Not long after the - capture of Fidenae, the main outpost of Veii, the chief city itself - fell (396 B.C.) and a road (still traceable) was probably made - thither. There was also probably a road to Caere in early times, - inasmuch as we hear of the flight of the Vestals thither in 389 B.C. - The origin of the rest of the roads is no doubt to be connected with - the gradual establishment of the Latin league. We find that while the - later (long distance) roads bear as a rule the name of their - constructor, all the short distance roads on the left bank of the - Tiber bear the names of towns which belonged to the league--Nomentum, - Tibur, Praeneste, Labici, Ardea, Laurentum--while Ficulea and Collatia - do not appear. The Via Pedana, leading to Pedum, is known to us only - from an inscription (_Bull. Soc. Antiquaires de France_, 1905, p. 177) - discovered in Tunisia in 1905, and may be of much later origin; it was - a branch of the Via Praenestina. - - There must too have been a road, along the line of the later Via - Appia, to Bovillae, Aricia, Lanuvium and Velitrae, going thence to - Cora, Norba and Setia along the foot of the Volscian Mountains; while - nameless roads, which can still be traced, led direct from Rome to - Satricum and to Lavinium. - -We can trace the advance of the Roman supremacy with greater ease after -387 B.C., inasmuch as from this year (adopting the traditional dating -for what it is worth) until 299 B.C. every accession of territory is -marked by the foundation of a group of new tribes; the limit of 35 in -all was reached in the latter year. In 387, after the departure of the -Gauls, southern Etruria was conquered, and four new tribes were formed: -_Arnensis_ (probably derived from Aro, mod. Arrone--though the ancient -name does not occur in literature--the stream which forms the outlet to -the lake of Bracciano, anc. _Lacus Sabatinus_),[13] _Sabatina_ (called -after this lake), _Stellatina_ (named from the Campus Stellatinus, near -Capena; cf. Festus p. 343 Mull.) and _Tromentina_ (which, Festus tells -us, was so called from the Campus Tromentus, the situation of which we -do not know). Four years later were founded the Latin colonies of -Sutrium and Nepet. In 358 B.C. Roman preponderance in the Pomptine -territory was shown by the formation of the _tribus Pomptina_ and -_Publilia_, while in 338 and 329 respectively Antium and Tarracina -became colonies of Roman citizens, the former having been founded as a -Latin colony in 494 B.C. - -After the dissolution of the Latin league which followed upon the defeat -of the united forces of the Samnites and of those Latin and Volscian -cities which had revolted against Rome, two new tribes, _Maecia and -Scaptia_,[14] were created in 332 B.C. in connexion with the -distribution of the newly acquired lands (Mommsen, _History_, i. 462). A -further advance in the same direction ending in the capture of Privernum -in 329 B.C. is marked by the establishment in 318 B.C. of the _tribus -Oufentina_ (from the river Ufens which runs below Setia, mod. _Sezze_, -and Privernum, mod. _Piperno_, and the _tribus Falerna_ (in the Ager -Falernus), while the foundation of the colonies of Cales (334) and -Fregellae (328) secured the newly won south Volscian and Campanian -territories and led no doubt to a prolongation of the Via Latina. The -moment had now come for the pushing forward of another line of -communication, which had no doubt reached Tarracina in 329 B.C. but was -now definitely constructed (_munita_) as a permanent military highway as -far as Capua in 312 B.C. by Appius Claudius, after whom it was named. To -him no doubt is due the direct line of road through the Pontine Marshes -from Velitrae to Terracina. Its construction may fairly be taken to mark -the period at which the roads of which we have spoken, hitherto probably -mere tracks, began to be transformed into real highways. In the same -year (312) the colony of Interamna Lirenas was founded, while Luceria, -Suessa (Aurunca) and Saticula had been established a year or two -previously. Sora followed nine years later. In 299 B.C. further -successes led to the establishment of two new tribes--the _Teretina_ in -the upper valley of the Trerus (Sacco) and the _Aniensis_, in the upper -valley of the Anio--while to about the same time we must attribute the -construction of two new military roads, both secured by fortresses. The -southern road, the Via Valeria led to Carsioli and Alba Fucens (founded -as Latin colonies respectively in 298 and 303 B.C.), and the northern -(afterwards the Via Flaminia[15]) to Narnia (founded as a Latin colony -in 299 B.C.). There is little doubt that the formation of the _tribus -Quirina_ (deriving its name possibly from the town of Cures) and the -_tribus Velina_ (from the river Velinus, which forms the well-known -waterfalls near Terni) is to be connected with the construction of the -latter high road, though its date is not certainly known. The further -history of Roman supremacy in Italy will be found in the article ROME: -_History_. We notice, however, that the continual warfare in which the -Roman state was engaged led to the decadence of the free population of -Latium, and that the extension of the empire of Rome was fatal to the -prosperity of the territory which immediately surrounded the city.[16] - - - Causes of depopulation. - -What had previously, it seems, been a well-peopled region, with peasant -proprietors, kept healthy by careful drainage, became in the 4th and 3rd -centuries B.C. a district consisting in large measure of huge estates -(_latifundia_) owned by the Roman aristocracy, cultivated by gangs of -slaves. This led to the disappearance of the agricultural population, to -a decline in public safety, and to the spread of malaria in many parts; -indeed, it is quite possible that it was not introduced into Latium -before the 4th century B.C. The evil increased in the later period of -the Republic, and many of the old towns of Latium sank into a very -decayed condition; with this the continual competition of the provinces -as sources of food-supply no doubt had a good deal to do. Cicero speaks -of Gabii, Labici and Bovillae as places that had fallen into abject -poverty, while Horace refers to Gabii and Fidenae as mere "deserted -villages," and Strabo as "once fortified towns, but now villages, -belonging to private individuals." Many of the smaller places mentioned -in the list of Dionysius, or the early wars of the Romans, had -altogether ceased to exist, but the statement of Pliny that fifty-three -communities (_populi_) had thus perished within the boundaries of Old -Latium is perhaps exaggerated. By the end of the Republic a good many -parts of Latium were infected, and Rome itself was highly malarious in -the warm months (see W. H. S. Jones in _Annals of Archaeology and -Anthropology_, ii. 97, Liverpool, 1909). The emperors Claudius, Nerva -and Trajan turned their attention to the district, and under their -example and exhortation the Roman aristocracy erected numerous villas -within its boundaries, and used them at least for summer residences. -During the 2nd century the Campagna seems to have entered on a new era -of prosperity. The system of roads radiating in all directions from Rome -(see ITALY: _History_, S B) belonged to a much earlier period; but they -were connected by a network of crossroads (now mostly abandoned, while -the main lines are still almost all in use) leading to the very numerous -villas with which the Campagna was strewn (even in districts which till -recently were devastated by malaria), and which seem in large measure to -belong to this period. Some of these are of enormous extent, _e.g._ the -villa of the Quintilii on the Via Appia, that known as Setta Bassi on -the Via Latina, and that of Hadrian near Tibur, the largest of all. - -When the land tax was introduced into Italy in 292, the first region of -Augustus obtained the name of _provincia Campania_. Later on the name -Latium entirely disappeared, and the name Campania extended as far as -Veii and the Via Aurelia, whence the medieval and modern name Campagna -di Roma. The donation made by Constantine to various churches of Rome of -numerous estates belonging to the _patrimonium Caesaris_ in the -neighbourhood of Rome was of great historical importance, as being the -origin of the territorial dominion of the papacy. His example was -followed by others, so that the church property in the Campagna soon -became considerable; and, owing to the immunities and privileges which -it enjoyed, a certain revival of prosperity ensued. The invasions of the -barbarian hordes did great harm, but the formation of centres -(_domuscultae_) in the 8th and 9th centuries was a fact of great -importance: the inhabitants, indeed, formed the medieval militia of the -papacy. Smaller centres (the _colonia_--often formed in the remains of -an ancient villa--the _curtis_ or _curia_, the _castrum_, the _casale_) -grew up later. We may note that, owing to the growth of the temporal -power of the popes, there was never a _dux Romae_ dependent on the -exarchate of Ravenna, similar to those established by Narses in the -other districts of Italy. - - - Under the commune. - - Modern conditions - -The papal influence was also retained by means of the suburban -bishoprics, which took their rise as early as the 4th and 5th centuries. -The rise of the democratic commune of Rome[17] about 1143 and of the -various trade corporations which we already find in the early 11th -century led to struggles with the papacy; the commune of Rome made -various attempts to exercise supremacy in the Campagna and levied -various taxes from the 12th century until the 15th. The commune also -tried to restrict the power of the barons, who, in the 13th century -especially, though we find them feudatories of the holy see from the -10th century onwards, threatened to become masters of the whole -territory, which is still dotted over with the baronial castles and -lofty solitary towers of the rival families of Rome--Orsini, Colonna, -Savelli, Conti, Caetani--who ruthlessly destroyed the remains of earlier -edifices to obtain materials for their own, and whose castles, often -placed upon the high roads, thus following a strategic line to a -stronghold in the country, did not contribute to the undisturbed -security of traffic upon them, but rather led to their abandonment. On a -list of the inhabited centres of the Campagna of the 14th century with -the amount of salt (which was a monopoly of the commune of Rome) -consumed by each, Tomassetti bases an estimate of the population: this -was about equal to that of our own times, but differently distributed, -some of the smaller centres having disappeared at the expense of the -towns. Several of the popes, as Sixtus IV. and Julius III., made -unsuccessful attempts to improve the condition of the Campagna, the -former making a serious attempt to revive agriculture as against -pasture, while in the latter part of the 16th century a line of -watch-towers was erected along the coast. In the Renaissance, it is -true, falls the erection of many fine villas in the neighbourhood of -Rome--not only in the hills round the Campagna, but even in certain -places in the lower ground, e.g. those of Julius II. at La Magliana and -of Cardinal Trivulzio at Salone,--and these continued to be frequented -until the end of the 18th century, when the French Revolution dealt a -fatal blow to the prosperity of the Roman nobility. The 17th and 18th -centuries, however, mark the worst period of depopulation in the more -malarious parts of the Campagna, which seems to have begun in the 15th -century, though we hear of malaria throughout the middle ages. The most -healthy portions of the territory are in the north and east, embracing -the slopes of the Apennines which are watered by the Teverone and Sacco; -and the most pestilential is the stretch between the Monti Lepini and -the sea. The Pontine Marshes (_q.v_.) included in the latter division, -were drained, according to the plan of Bolognini, by Pius VI., who -restored the ancient Via Appia to traffic; but though they have returned -to pasture and cultivation, their insalubrity is still notorious. The -soil in many parts is very fertile and springs are plentiful and -abundant: the water is in some cases sulphureous or ferruginous. In -summer, indeed, the vast expanse is little better than an arid steppe; -but in the winter it furnishes abundant pasture to flocks of sheep from -the Apennines and herds of silver-grey oxen and shaggy black horses, and -sheep passing in the summer to the mountain pastures. A certain amount -of horse-breeding is done, and the government has, as elsewhere in -Italy, a certain number of stallions. Efforts have been made since 1882 -to cure the waterlogged condition of the marshy grounds. The methods -employed have been three--(i.) the cutting of drainage channels and -clearing the marshes by pumping, the method principally employed; (ii.) -the system of warping, i.e. directing a river so that it may deposit its -sedimentary matter in the lower-lying parts, thus levelling them up and -consolidating them, and then leading the water away again by drainage; -(iii.) the planting of firs and eucalyptus trees, e.g. at Tre Fontane -and elsewhere. These efforts have not been without success, though it -cannot be affirmed that the malarial Campagna is anything like healthy -yet. The regulation of the rivers, more especially of the Tiber, is -probably the most efficient method for coping with the problem. Since -1884 the Italian Government have been systematically enclosing, pumping -dry and generally draining the marshes of the Agro Romano, that is, the -tracts around Ostia; the Isola Sacra, at the mouth of the Tiber; and -Maccarese. Of the whole of the Campagna less than one-tenth comes -annually under the plough. In its picturesque desolation, contrasting so -strongly with its prosperity in Roman times, immediately surrounding a -city of over half a million inhabitants, and with lofty mountains in -view from all parts of it, it is one of the most interesting districts -in the world, and has a peculiar and indefinable charm. The modern -province of Rome (forming the _compartimento_ of Lazio) includes also -considerable mountain districts, extending as far N.W. as the Lake of -Bolsena, and being divided on the N.E. from Umbria by the Tiber, while -on the E. it includes a considerable part of the Sabine mountains and -Apennines. The ancient district of the Hernicans, of which Alatri is -regarded as the centre, is known as the Ciociaria, from a kind of -sandals (_cioce_) worn by the peasants. On the S.E. too a considerable -proportion of the group of the Lepini belongs to the province. The land -is for the most part let by the proprietors to _mercanti di Campagna_, -who employ a subordinate class of factors (_fattori_) to manage their -affairs on the spot. - - - Malaria. - -The recent discovery that the malaria which has hitherto rendered parts -of the Campagna almost uninhabitable during the summer is propagated by -the mosquito (_Anopheles claviger_) marks a new epoch; the most diverse -theories as to its origin had hitherto been propounded, but it is now -possible to combat it on a definite plan, by draining the marshes, -protecting the houses by fine mosquito-proof wire netting (for -_Anopheles_ is not active by day), improving the water supply, &c., -while for those who have fever, quinine (now sold cheaply by the state) -is a great specific. A great improvement is already apparent; and a law -carried in 1903 for the _Bonifica dell' Agro Romano_ compels the -proprietors within a radius of some 6 m. of Rome to cultivate their -lands in a more productive way than has often hitherto been the case, -exemption from taxes for ten years and loans at 2-1/2% from the -government being granted to those who carry on improvements, and those -who refuse being expropriated compulsorily. The government further -resolved to open roads and schools and provide twelve additional -doctors. Much is done in contending against malaria by the Italian Red -Cross Society. In 1900 31% of the inhabitants of the Agro Romano had -been fever-stricken; since then the figure has rapidly decreased (5.1% -in 1905). - - - Produce. - -The wheat crop in 1906 in the Agro Romano was 8,108,500 bushels, the -Indian corn 3,314,000 bushels, the wine 12,100,000 gallons and the olive -oil 1,980,000 gallons,--these last two from the hill districts. The wine -production had declined by one-half from the previous year, exportation -having fallen off in the whole country. 1907, however, was a year of -great overproduction all over Italy. The wine of the Alban hills is -famous in modern as in ancient times, but will not as a rule bear -exportation. The forests of the Alban hills and near the coast produce -much charcoal and light timber, while the Sabine and Volscian hills have -been largely deforested and are now bare limestone rocks. Much of the -labour in the winter and spring is furnished by peasants who come down -from the Volscian and Hernican mountains, and from Abruzzi, and occupy -sometimes caves, but more often the straw or wicker huts which are so -characteristic a feature of the Campagna. The fixed population of the -Campagna in the narrower sense (as distinct from the hills) is less than -1000. Emigration to America, especially from the Volscian and Hernican -towns, is now considerable. - - 2. LATIUM NOVUM OR ADJECTUM, as it is termed by Pliny, comprised the - territories occupied in earlier times by the Volsci and Hernici. It - was for the most part a rugged and mountainous country, extending at - the back of Latium proper, from the frontier of the Sabines to the - sea-coast between Terracina and Sinuessa. But it was not separated - from the adjacent territories by any natural frontier or physical - boundaries, and it is only by the enumeration of the towns in Pliny - according to the division of Italy by Augustus that we can determine - its limits. It included the Hernican cities of Anagnia, Ferentinum, - Alatrium and Verulae--a group of mountain strongholds on the north - side of the valley of the Trerus (Sacco); together with the Volscian - cities on the south of the same valley, and in that of the Liris, the - whole of which, with the exception of its extreme upper end, was - included in the Volscian territory. Here were situated Signia, - Frusino, Fabrateria, Fregellae, Sora, Arpinum, Atina, Aquinum, Casinum - and Interamna; Anxur (Terracina) was the only seaport that properly - belonged to the Volscians, the coast from thence to the mouth of the - Liris being included in the territory of the Aurunci, or Ausones as - they were termed by Greek writers, who possessed the maritime towns of - Fundi, Formiae, Caieta and Minturnae, together with Suessa in the - interior, which had replaced their more ancient capital of Aurunca. - Sinuessa, on the sea-coast between the Liris (Garigliano) and the - Vulturnus, at the foot of the Monte Massico, was the last town in - Latium according to the official use of the term and was sometimes - assigned to Campania, while Suessa was more assigned to Latium. On the - other hand, as Nissen points out (_Italische Landeskunde_, ii. 554), - the Pons Campanus, by which the Via Appia crossed the Savo some 9 m. - S.E. of Sinuessa, indicates by its name the position of the old - Campanian frontier. In the interior the boundary fell between Casinum - and Teanum Sidicinum, at about the 100th milestone of the Via - Latina--a fact which led later to the jurisdiction of the Roman courts - being extended on every side to the 100th mile from the city, and to - this being the limit beyond which banishment from Rome was considered - to begin. - - Though the Apennines comprised within the boundaries of Latium do not - rise to a height approaching that of the loftiest summits of the - central range, they attain to a considerable altitude, and form steep - and rugged mountain masses from 4000 to 5000 ft. high. They are - traversed by three principal valleys: (1) that of the Anio, now called - Teverone, which descends from above Subiaco to Tivoli, where it enters - the plain of the Campagna; (2) that of the Trerus (Sacco), which has - its source below Palestrina (Praeneste), and flows through a - comparatively broad valley that separates the main mass of the - Apennines from the Volscian mountains or Monti Lepini, till it joins - the Liris below Ceprano; (3) that of the Liris (Garigliano), which - enters the confines of New Latium about 20 m. from its source, flows - past the town of Sora, and has a very tortuous course from thence to - the sea at Minturnae; its lower valley is for the most part of - considerable width, and forms a fertile tract of considerable extent, - bordered on both sides by hills covered with vines, olives and fruit - trees, and thickly studded with towns and villages. - - It may be observed that, long after the Latins had ceased to exist as - a separate people we meet in Roman writers with the phrase of _nomen - Latinum_, used not in an ethnical but a purely political sense, to - designate the inhabitants of all those cities on which the Romans had - conferred "Latin rights" (_jus Latinum_)--an inferior form of the - Roman franchise, which had been granted in the first instance to - certain cities of the Latins, when they became subjects of Rome, and - was afterwards bestowed upon many other cities of Italy, especially - the so-called Latin colonies. At a later period the same privileges - were extended to places in other countries also--as for instance to - most of the cities in Sicily and Spain. All persons enjoying these - rights were termed in legal phraseology _Latini_ or _Latinae - conditionis_. - - AUTHORITIES.--For the topography of Latium, and the local history of - its more important cities, the reader may consult Sir W. Gell's - _Topography of Rome and its Vicinity_ (2nd ed., 1 vol., London, 1846); - A. Nibby, _Analisi storico-topografico-antiquaria della carta dei - dintorni di Roma_ (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1848); J. Westphal, _Die romische - Kampagne_ (Berlin, 1829); A. Bormann, _Alt-lateinische Chorographie - und Stadte-Geschichte_ (Halle, 1852); M. Zoeller, _Latium und Rom_ - (Leipzig, 1878); R. Burn's _Rome and the Campagna_ (London, 1871); H. - Dessau, _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v. xiv. (Berlin, 1887) (Latium); Th. - Mommsen, _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vol. x. pp. 498-675 (Berlin, 1883); G. - Tomassetti, "Della Campagna Romana nel medio evo," published in the - _Archivio della Societa Romana di Storia Patria_ (Rome, 1874-1907), - and separately (a work dealing with the medieval history and - topography of the Campagna in great detail, containing also valuable - notices of the classical period); by the same author, _La Campagna - romana_ (Rome, 1910 foll.); R. A. Lanciani, "I Comentari di Frontino - intorno agli acquedotti," _Memorie dei Lincei_ (Rome, 1880), serie - iii. vol. v. p. 215 sqq. (and separately), also many articles, and - _Wanderings in the Roman Campagna_ (London, 1909); E. Abbate, _Guida - della provincia di Roma_ (Rome, 1894, 2 vols.); H. Nissen, _Italische - Landeskunde_, ii. (Berlin, 1902), 557 sqq.; T. Ashby, "The Classical - Topography of the Roman Campagna," in _Papers of the British School at - Rome_, i. iii.-v. (London, 1902 foll.). (T. As.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Latium_, from the same root as _latus_, side; _later_, brick; - [Greek: platys], flat; Sans. _prath_: not connected with _latus_, - wide. - - [2] In the time of Augustus the boundary of Latium extended as far E. - as Treba (Trevi), 12 m. S.E. of Sublaqueum (Subiaco). - - [3] See R. de la Blanchere in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des - antiquites_, s.vv. _Cuniculus, Emissarium_, and the same author's - _Chapitre d'histoire pontine_ (Paris, 1889). - - [4] See G. A. Colini in _Bullettino di paletnologia Italiana_, xxxi. - (1905). - - [5] The most important results will be found stated at the outset of - the articles ROME: _History_ (the chief being that the Plebeians of - Rome probably consisted of Latins and the Patricians of Sabines), - LIGURIA, SICULI and ARICIA. For the Etruscan dominion in the Latin - plain see ETRURIA. Special mention may here be made of one or two - points of importance. The legends represent the Latins of the - historical period as a fusion of different races, Ligures, Veneti and - Siculi among them; the story of the alliance of the Trojan settler - Aeneas with the daughter of Latinus, king of the aborigines, and the - consequent enmity of the Rutulian prince Turnus, well known to - readers of Virgil, is thoroughly typical of the reflection of these - distant ethnical phenomena in the surviving traditions. In view of - the historical significance of the NO- ethnicon (see SABINI) it is - important to observe that the original form of the ethnic adjective - no doubt appears in the title of _Juppiter Latiaris_ (not _Latinus_); - and that Virgil's description of the descent of the noble Drances at - Latinus's court (Aen. xi. 340)--_genus huic materna superbum - Nobilitas dabat, incertum de patre ferebat_--indicates a very - different system of family ties from the famous _patria potestas_ and - agnation of the Patrician and Sabine clans. (R. S. C.) - - [6] The MSS. read [Greek: boillanon] or [Greek: boilanon]: the Latin - translation has Bolanorum. It is difficult to say which is to be - preferred. The list gives only twenty-nine names, and Mommsen - proposes to insert Signini. - - [7] Albani, Aesolani (probably E. of Tibur), Accienses, Abolani, - Bubetani, Bolani, Cusuetani (Carventani?), Coriolani, Fidenates, - Foreti (Fortinei?), Hortenses (near Corbio), Latinienses (near Rome - itself), Longani, Manates, Macrales, Munienses (Castrimoenienses?), - Numinienses, Olliculani, Octulani, Pedani, Poletaurini, - Querquetulani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tolerienses, Tutienses (not, one - would think, connected with the small stream called Tutia at the 6th - mile of the Via Salaria; Liv. xxvi. 11), Vimitellari, Velienses, - Venetulani, Vitellenses (not far from Corbio). - - [8] To an earlier stage of the Latin league, perhaps to about 430 - B.C. (Mommsen, _op. cit._ 445 n. 2) belongs the dedication of the - grove of Diana by a dictator Latinus, in the name of the people of - Tusculum, Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurentum, Cora, Tibur, Suessa Pometia - and Ardea. - - [9] Of the _gentes_ from which these tribes took their names, six - entirely disappeared in later days, while the other ten can be traced - as patrician--a proof that the patricians were not noble families in - origin (Mommsen, _Romische Forschungen_, i. 106). For the tribes see - W. Kubitschek, _De Romanarum tribuum origine_ (Vienna, 1882). - - [10] We have various traces of the early antagonism to Gabii, e.g. - the opposition between _ager Romanus_ and _ager Gabinus_ in the - augural law. - - [11] For the early extension of Roman territory towards the sea, cf. - Festus, p. 213, Mull., _s.v._ "Pectuscum:" _Pectuscum Palati dicta - est ea regio urbis, quam Romulus obversam posuit, ea parte, in qua - plurimum erat agri Romani ad mare versus et qua mollissime adibatur - Urbo, cum Etruscorum agrum a Romano Tiberis discluderet, ceterae - vicinae civitates colles aliquos haberent oppositos_. - - [12] The ancient name is known from an inscription discovered in - 1888. - - [13] So Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 1204. - - [14] Festus tells us (p. 136 Mull.) that the Maecia derived its name - "a quodam castro." Scaptia was the only member of the Latin league - that gave its name to a tribe. - - [15] See FLAMINIA, VIA and VALERIA, VIA. - - [16] L. Caetani indeed (_Nineteenth Century and After_, 1908) - attributes the economic decadence of the Roman Campagna to the - existence of free trade throughout the Roman empire. - - [17] The commune of Rome as such seems to have been in existence in - 999 at least. - - - - -LATONA (Lat. form of Gr. [Greek: Leto], Leto), daughter of Coeus and -Phoebe, mother of Apollo and Artemis. The chief seats of her legend are -Delos and Delphi, and the generally accepted tradition is a union of the -legends of these two places. Leto, pregnant by Zeus, seeks for a place -of refuge to be delivered. After long wandering she reaches the barren -isle of Delos, which, according to Pindar (Frag. 87, 88), was a -wandering rock borne about by the waves till it was fixed to the bottom -of the sea for the birth of Apollo and Artemis. In the oldest forms of -the legend Hera is not mentioned; but afterwards the wanderings of Leto -are ascribed to the jealousy of that goddess, enraged at her amour with -Zeus. The foundation of Delphi follows immediately on the birth of the -god; and on the sacred way between Tempe and Delphi the giant Tityus -offers violence to Leto, and is immediately slain by the arrows of -Apollo and Artemis (_Odyssey_, xi. 576-581; Apollodorus i. 4). Such are -the main facts of the Leto legend in its common literary form, which is -due especially to the two Homeric hymns to Apollo. But Leto is a real -goddess, not a mere mythological figure. The honour paid to her in -Delphi and Delos might be explained as part of the cult of her son -Apollo; but temples to her existed in Argos, in Mantineia and in Xanthus -in Lycia; her sacred grove was on the coast of Crete. In Lycia graves -are frequently placed under her protection, and she is also known as a -goddess of fertility and as [Greek: kourotrophos]. It is to be observed -that she appears far more conspicuously in the Apolline myths than in -those which grew round the great centres of Artemis worship, the reason -being that the idea of Apollo and Artemis as twins is one of later -growth on Greek soil. Lycia, one of the chief seats of the cult of -Apollo, where most frequent traces are found of the worship of Leto as -the great goddess, was probably the earlier home of her religion. - - In Greek art Leto usually appears carrying her children in her arms, - pursued by the dragon sent by the jealous Hera, which is slain by the - infant Apollo; in vase paintings especially she is often represented - with Apollo and Artemis. The statue of Leto in the Letoon at Argos was - the work of Praxiteles. - - - - -LATOUCHE, HYACINTHE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE THABAUD DE [known as HENRI] -(1785-1851), French poet and novelist, was born at La Chatre (Indre) on -the 2nd of February 1785. Among his works may be distinguished his -comedies: _Projets de sagesse_ (1811), and, in collaboration with Emile -Deschamps, _Selmours de Florian_ (1818), which ran for a hundred nights; -also _La Reine d'Espagne_ (1831), which proved too indecent for the -public taste; a novel, _Fragoletta: Naples et Paris en 1799_ (1829), -which attained a success of notoriety; _La Vallee aux coups_ (1833), a -volume of prose essays and verse; and two volumes of poems, _Les Adieux_ -(1843) and _Les Agrestes_ (1844). Latouche's chief claim to remembrance -is that he revealed to the world the genius of Andre Chenier, then only -known to a limited few. The remains of the poet's work had passed from -the hands of Daunou to Latouche, who had sufficient critical insight -instantly to recognize their value. In editing the first selection of -Chenier's poems (1819) he made some trifling emendations, but did not, -as Beranger afterwards asserted, make radical and unnecessary changes. -Latouche was guilty of more than one literary fraud. He caused a -licentious story of his own to be attributed to the duchesse de Duras, -the irreproachable author of _Ourika_. He made many enemies by malicious -attacks on his contemporaries. The _Constitutionnel_ was suppressed in -1817 by the government for an obscure political allusion in an article -by Latouche. He then undertook the management of the _Mercure du XIX^e -siecle_, and began a bitter warfare against the monarchy. After 1830 he -edited the _Figaro_, and spared neither the liberal politicians nor the -romanticists who triumphed under the monarchy of July. In his turn he -was violently attacked by Gustave Planche in the _Revue des deux mondes_ -for November 1831. But it must be remembered to the credit of Latouche -that he did much to encourage George Sand at the beginning of her -career. The last twenty years of his life were spent in retirement at -Aulnay, where he died on the 9th of March 1851. - - Sainte-Beuve, in the _Causeries du lundi_, vol. 3, gives a not too - sympathetic portrait of Latouche. See also George Sand in the _Siecle_ - for the 18th, 19th and 20th of July 1851. - - - - -LA TOUR, MAURICE QUENTIN DE (1704-1788), French pastellist, was born at -St Quentin on the 5th of September 1704. After leaving Picardy for Paris -in 1727 he entered the studio of Spoede--an upright man, but a poor -master, rector of the academy of St Luke, who still continued, in the -teeth of the Royal Academy, the traditions of the old gild of the master -painters of Paris. This possibly contributed to the adoption by La Tour -of a line of work foreign to that imposed by an academical training; for -pastels, though occasionally used, were not a principal and distinct -branch of work until 1720, when Rosalba Carriera brought them into -fashion with the Parisian world. In 1737 La Tour exhibited the first of -that splendid series of a hundred and fifty portraits which formed the -glory of the Salon for the succeeding thirty-seven years. In 1746 he was -received into the academy; and in 1751, the following year to that in -which he received the title of painter to the king, he was promoted by -that body to the grade of councillor. His work had the rare merit of -satisfying at once both the taste of his fashionable models and the -judgment of his brother artists. His art, consummate of its kind, -achieved the task of flattering his sitters, whilst hiding that flattery -behind the just and striking likeness which, says Pierre Jean Mariette, -he hardly ever missed. His portraits of Rousseau, of Voltaire, of Louis -XV., of his queen, of the dauphin and dauphiness, are at once documents -and masterpieces unsurpassed except by his life-size portrait of Madame -de Pompadour, which, exhibited at the Salon of 1755, became the chief -ornament of the cabinet of pastels in the Louvre. The museum of St -Quentin also possesses a magnificent collection of works which at his -death were in his own hands. La Tour retired to St Quentin at the age of -80, and there he died on the 18th of February 1788. The riches amassed -during his long life were freely bestowed by him in great part before -his death; he founded prizes at the school of fine arts in Paris and for -the town of Amiens, and endowed St Quentin with a great number of useful -and charitable institutions. He never married, but lived on terms of -warm affection with his brother (who survived him, and left to the town -the drawings now in the museum); and his relations to Mlle Marie Fel -(1713-1789), the celebrated singer, were distinguished by a strength and -depth of feeling not common to the loves of the 18th century. - - See, in addition to the general works on French art, C. Desmeze, _M. - Q. de La Tour, peintre du roi_ (1854); Champfleury, _Les Peintres de - Laon et de St Quentin_ (1855); and "La Tour" in the _Collection des - artistes celebres_ (1886); E. and J. de Goncourt, _La Tour_ (1867); - Guiffrey and M. Tourneux, _Correspondance inedite de M. G. de la Tour_ - (1885); Tourneux, _La Tour, biographie critique_ (1904); and _Patoux, - L'Oeuvre de M. Quentin de la Tour au musee de St Quentin_ (St Quentin, - 1882). - - - - -LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, THEOPHILE MALO (1743-1800), French soldier, was born -at Carhaix in Brittany on the 23rd of December 1743, the son of an -advocate named Corret. His desire for a military career being strongly -marked, he was enabled, by the not uncommon device of producing a -certificate of nobility signed by his friends, first to be nominally -enlisted in the Maison du Roi, and soon afterwards to receive a -commission in the line, under the name of Corret de Kerbaufret. Four -years after joining, in 1771, he assumed by leave of the duke of -Bouillon the surname of La Tour d'Auvergne, being in fact descended from -an illegitimate half-brother of the great Turenne. Many years of routine -service with his regiment were broken only by his participation as a -volunteer in the duc de Crillon's Franco-Spanish expedition to Minorca -in 1781. This led to an offer of promotion into the Spanish army, but he -refused to change his allegiance. In 1784 he was promoted captain, and -in 1791 he received the cross of St Louis. In the early part of the -Revolution his patriotism was still more conspicuously displayed in his -resolute opposition to the proposals of many of his brother officers in -the Angoumois regiment to emigrate rather than to swear to the -constitution. In 1792 his lifelong interest in numismatics and questions -of language was shown by a work which he published on the Bretons. At -this time he was serving under Montesquiou in the Alps, and although -there was only outpost fighting he distinguished himself by his courage -and audacity, qualities which were displayed in more serious fighting in -the Pyrenees the next year. He declined well-earned promotion to -colonel, and, being broken in health and compelled, owing to the loss of -his teeth, to live on milk, he left the army in 1795. On his return by -sea to Brittany he was captured by the English and held prisoner for two -years. When released, he settled at Passy and published _Origines -gauloises_, but in 1797, on the appeal of an old friend whose son had -been taken as a conscript, he volunteered as the youth's substitute, and -served on the Rhine (1797) and in Switzerland (1798-1799) as a captain. -In recognition of his singular bravery and modesty Carnot obtained a -decree from the first consul naming La Tour d'Auvergne "first grenadier -of France" (27th of April 1800). This led him to volunteer again, and he -was killed in action at Oberhausen, near Donauworth, on the 27th of June -1800. - -La Tour d'Auvergne's almost legendary courage had captivated the -imagination of the French soldier, and his memory was not suffered to -die. It was customary for the French troops and their allies of the -Rhine Confederation under Napoleon to march at attention when passing -his burial-place on the battlefield. His heart was long carried by the -grenadier company of his regiment, the 46th; after being in the -possession of Garibaldi for many years, it was finally deposited in the -keeping of the city of Paris in 1883. But the most striking tribute to -his memory is paid to-day as it was by order of the first consul in -1800. "His name is to be kept on the pay list and roll of his company. -It will be called at all parades and a non-commissioned officer will -reply, _Mort au champ d'honneur_." This custom, with little variation, -is still observed in the 46th regiment on all occasions when the colour -is taken on parade. - - - - -LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRE (1762-1833), French naturalist, was born in -humble circumstances at Brives-la-Gaillarde (Correze), on the 20th of -November 1762. In 1778 he entered the college Lemoine at Paris, and on -his admission to priestly orders in 1786 he retired to Brives, where he -devoted all the leisure which the discharge of his professional duties -allowed to the study of entomology. In 1788 he returned to Paris and -found means of making himself known to the leading naturalists there. -His "Memoire sur les mutilles decouvertes en France," contributed to the -_Proceedings_ of the Society of Natural History in Paris, procured for -him admission to that body. At the Revolution he was compelled to quit -Paris, and as a priest of conservative sympathies suffered considerable -hardship, being imprisoned for some time at Bordeaux. His _Precis des -caracteres generiques des insectes, disposes dans un ordre naturel_, -appeared at Brives in 1796. In 1798 he became a corresponding member of -the Institute, and at the same time was entrusted with the task of -arranging the entomological collection at the recently organized Museum -d'Histoire Naturelle (Jardin des Plantes); in 1814 he succeeded G. A. -Olivier as member of the Academie des Sciences, and in 1821 he was made -a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. For some time he acted as professor -of zoology in the veterinary school at Alfort near Paris, and in 1830, -when the chair of zoology of invertebrates at the Museum was divided -after the death of Lamarck, Latreille was appointed professor of zoology -of crustaceans, arachnids and insects, the chair of molluscs, worms and -zoophytes being assigned to H. M. D. de Blainville. "On me donne du pain -quand je n'ai plus de dents," said Latreille, who was then in his -sixty-eighth year. He died in Paris on the 6th of February 1833. - - In addition to the works already mentioned, the numerous works of - Latreille include: _Histoire naturelle generale et particuliere des - crustaces et insectes_ (14 vols., 1802-1805), forming part of C. N. S. - Sonnini's edition of Buffon; _Genera crustaceorum et insectorum, - secundum ordinem naturalem in familias disposita_ (4 vols., - 1806-1807); _Considerations generales sur l'ordre naturel des animaux - composant les classes des crustaces, des arachnides, et des insectes_ - (1810); _Familles naturelles du regne animal, exposees succinctement - et dans un ordre analytique_ (1825); _Cours d'entomologie_ (of which - only the first volume appeared, 1831); the whole of the section - "Crustaces, Arachnides, Insectes," in G. Cuvier's _Regne animal_; - besides many papers in the _Annales du Museum_, the _Encyclopedie - methodique_, the _Dictionnaire classique d'histoire naturelle_ and - elsewhere. - - - - -LA TREMOILLE, an old French family which derives its name from a village -(the modern La Trimouille) in the department of Vienne. The family has -been known since the middle of the 11th century, and since the 14th -century its members have been conspicuous in French history. Guy, sire -de la Tremoille, standard-bearer of France, was taken prisoner at the -battle of Nicopolis (1396), and Georges, the favourite of King Charles -VII., was captured at Agincourt (1415). Louis (2), called the _chevalier -sans reproche_, defeated and captured the duke of Orleans at the battle -of Saint Aubin-du-Cormier (1488), distinguished himself in the wars in -Italy, and was killed at Pavia (1525). In 1521 Francois (2) acquired a -claim on the kingdom of Naples by his marriage with Anne de Laval, -daughter of Charlotte of Aragon. Louis (3) became duke of Thouars in -1563, and his son Claude turned Protestant, was created a peer of France -in 1595, and married a daughter of William the Silent in 1598. To this -family belonged the lines of the counts of Joigny, the marquises of -Royan and counts of Olonne, and the marquises and dukes of Noirmoutier. - - - - -LATROBE, CHARLES JOSEPH (1801-1875), Australian governor, was born in -London on the 20th of March 1801. The Latrobes were of Huguenot -extraction, and belonged to the Moravian community, of which the father -and grandfather of C. J. Latrobe were ministers. His father, Christian -Ignatius Latrobe (1758-1836), a musician of some note, did good service -in the direction of popularizing classical music in England by his -_Selection of Sacred Music from the Works of the most Eminent Composers -of Germany and Italy_ (6 vols., 1806-1825). C. J. Latrobe was an -excellent mountaineer, and made some important ascents in Switzerland in -1824-1826. In 1832 he went to America with Count Albert Pourtales, and -in 1834 crossed the prairies from New Orleans to Mexico with Washington -Irving. In 1837 he was invested with a government commission in the West -Indies, and two years later was made superintendent of the Port Philip -district of New South Wales. When Port Philip was erected into a -separate colony as Victoria in 1851, Latrobe became lieutenant-governor. -The discovery of gold in that year attracted enormous numbers of -immigrants annually. Latrobe discharged the difficult duties of -government at this critical period with tact and success. He retired in -1854, became C.B. in 1858 and died in London on the 2nd of December -1875. Beside some volumes of travel he published a volume of poems, _The -Solace of Song_ (1837). - - See _Brief Notices of the Latrobe Family_ (1864), a privately printed - translation of an article revised by members of the family in the - Moravian _Bruderbote_ (November 1864). - - - - -LATTEN (from O. Fr. _laton_, mod. Fr. _laiton_, possibly connected with -Span. _lata_, Ital. _latta_, a lath), a mixed metal like brass, composed -of copper and zinc, generally made in thin sheets, and used especially -for monumental brasses and effigies. A fine example is in the screen of -Henry VII.'s tomb in Westminster Abbey. There are three forms of latten, -"black latten," unpolished and rolled, "shaven latten," of extreme -thinness, and "roll latten," of the thickness either of black or shaven -latten, but with both sides polished. - - - - -LATTICE LEAF PLANT, in botany, the common name for _Ouvirandra -fenestralis_, an aquatic monocotyledonous plant belonging to the small -natural order Aponogetonaceae and a native of Madagascar. It has a -singular appearance from the structure of the leaves, which are oblong -in shape, from 6 to 18 in. long and from 2 to 4 in. broad; they spread -horizontally beneath the surface of the water, and are reduced to little -more than a lattice-like network of veins. The tuberculate roots are -edible. The plant is grown in cultivation as a stove-aquatic. - - - - -LATUDE, JEAN HENRI, often called DANRY or MASERS DE LATUDE (1725-1805), -prisoner of the Bastille, was born at Montagnac in Gascony on the 23rd -of March 1725. He received a military education and went to Paris in -1748 to study mathematics. He led a dissipated life and endeavoured to -curry favour with the marquise de Pompadour by secretly sending her a -box of poison and then informing her of the supposed plot against her -life. The ruse was discovered, and Mme de Pompadour, not appreciating -the humour of the situation, had Latude put in the Bastille on the 1st -of May 1749. He was later transferred to Vincennes, whence he escaped in -1750. Retaken and reimprisoned in the Bastille, he made a second brief -escape in 1756. He was transferred to Vincennes in 1764, and the next -year made a third escape and was a third time recaptured. He was put in -a madhouse by Malesherbes in 1775, and discharged in 1777 on condition -that he should retire to his native town. He remained in Paris and was -again imprisoned. A certain Mme Legros became interested in him through -chance reading of one of his memoirs, and, by a vigorous agitation in -his behalf, secured his definite release in 1784. He exploited his long -captivity with considerable ability, posing as a brave officer, a son of -the marquis de la Tude, and a victim of Pompadour's intrigues. He was -extolled and pensioned during the Revolution, and in 1793 the convention -compelled the heirs of Mme de Pompadour to pay him 60,000 francs -damages. He died in obscurity at Paris on the 1st of January 1805. - - The principal work of Latude is the account of his imprisonment, - written in collaboration with an advocate named Thiery, and entitled - _Le Despotisme devoile, ou Memoires de Henri Masers de la Tude, detenu - pendant trente-cinq ans dans les diverses prisons d'etat_ (Amsterdam, - 1787, ed. Paris, 1889). An Eng. trans. of a portion was published in - 1787. The work is full of lies and misrepresentations, but had great - vogue at the time of the French Revolution. Latude also wrote essays - on all sorts of subjects. - - See J. F. Barriere, _Memoires de Linguet et de Latude_ (1884); G. - Bertin, _Notice_ in edition of the _Memoires_ (1889); F. - Funck-Brentano, "Latude," in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (1st October - 1889). - - - - -LATUKA, a tribe of negroid stock inhabiting the mountainous country E. -of Gondokoro on the upper Nile. They have received a tinge of Hamitic -blood from the Galla people, and have high foreheads, large eyes, -straight noses and thick but not pouting lips. They are believed by Sir -H. H. Johnston to be the original and purest type of the great Masai -people, and are assimilated to the Nilotic negro races in customs. Like -their neighbours the Bari and Shilluk tribes, they despise clothing, -though the important chiefs have adopted Arab attire. Their country is -fertile, and they cultivate tobacco, durra and other crops. Their -villages are numerous, and some are of considerable size. Tarangole, for -instance, on the Khor Kohs, has upwards of three thousand huts, and -sheds for many thousands of cattle. The Latuka are industrious and -especially noted for skill as smiths. Emin Pasha stated that the lion -was so little dreaded by the Latuka that on one being caught in a -leopard trap they hastily set it free. - - - - -LAUBAN, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of Silesia, is -situated in a picturesque valley, at the junction of the lines of -railway from Gorlitz and Sorau, 16 m. E. of the former. Pop. (1905) -14,624. Lauban has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a town -hall, dating from 1541, a conventual house of the order of St Magdalene, -dating from the 14th century, a municipal library and museum, two -hospitals, an orphanage and several schools. Its industrial -establishments comprise tobacco, yarn, thread, linen and woollen cloth -manufactories, bleaching and dyeing works, breweries and oil and flour -mills. - -Lauban was founded in the 10th and fortified in the 13th century; in -1427 and 1431 it was devastated by the Hussites, and in 1640 by the -Swedes. In 1761 it was the headquarters of Frederick the Great, and in -1813 it was the last Saxon town that made its submission to Prussia. - - See Berkel, _Geschichte der Stadt Lauban_ (Lauban, 1896). - - - - -LAUBE, HEINRICH (1806-1884), German dramatist, novelist and -theatre-director, was born at Sprottau in Silesia on the 18th of -September 1806. He studied theology at Halle and Breslau (1826-1829), -and settled in Leipzig in 1832. Here he at once came into prominence -with his political essays, collected under the title _Das neue -Jahrhundert_, in two parts--_Polen_ (1833) and _Politische Briefe_ -(1833)--and with the novel _Das junge Europa_, in three parts--_Die -Poeten_, _Die Krieger_, _Die Burger_--(1833-1837). These writings, in -which, after the fashion of Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Borne, he severely -criticized the political regime in Germany, together with the part he -played in the literary movement known as _Das junge Deutschland_, led to -his being subjected to police surveillance and his works confiscated. On -his return, in 1834, from a journey to Italy, undertaken in the company -of Karl Gutzkow, Laube was expelled from Saxony and imprisoned for nine -months in Berlin. In 1836 he married the widow of Professor Hanel of -Leipzig; almost immediately afterwards he suffered a year's imprisonment -for his revolutionary sympathies. In 1839 he again settled in Leipzig -and began a literary activity as a playwright. Chief among his earlier -productions are the tragedies _Monaldeschi_ (1845) and _Struensee_ -(1847); the comedies _Rokoko, oder die alten Herren_ (1846); _Gottsched -und Gellert_ (1847); and _Die Karlsschuler_ (1847), of which the -youthful Schiller is the hero. In 1848 Laube was elected to the national -assembly at Frankfort-on-Main for the district of Elbogen, but resigned -in the spring of 1849, when he was appointed artistic director of the -Hofburg theatre in Vienna. This office he held until 1867, and in this -period fall his finest dramatic productions, notably the tragedies _Graf -Essex_ (1856) and _Montrose_ (1859), and his historical romance _Der -deutsche Krieg_ (1865-1866, 9 vols.), which graphically pictures a -period in the Thirty Years' War. In 1869 he became director of the -Leipzig Stadttheater, but returned to Vienna in 1870, where in 1872 he -was placed at the head of the new Stadttheater; with the exception of a -short interval he managed this theatre with brilliant success until his -retirement from public life in 1880. He has left a valuable record of -his work in Vienna and Leipzig in the three volumes _Das Burgtheater_ -(1868), _Das norddeutsche Theater_ (1872) and _Das Wiener Stadttheater_ -(1875). His pen was still active after his retirement, and in the five -years preceding his death, which took place at Vienna on the 1st of -August 1884, he wrote the romances and novels _Die Bohminger_ (1880), -_Louison_ (1881), _Der Schatten-Wilhelm_ (1883), and published an -interesting volume of reminiscences, _Erinnerungen, 1841-1881_ (1882). -Laube's dramas are not remarkable for originality or for poetical -beauty; their real and great merit lies in their stage-craft. As a -theatre-manager he has had no equal in Germany, and his services in this -capacity have assured him a more lasting name in German literary history -than his writings. - - His _Gesammelte Schriften_ (excluding his dramas) were published in 16 - vols. (1879-1882); his _Dramatische Werke_, in 13 vols. (1845-1875); a - popular edition of the latter in 12 vols. (1880-1892). An edition of - Laube's _Ausgewahlte Werke_ in 10 vols. appeared in 1906 with an - introduction by H. H. Houben. See also J. Proelss, _Das junge - Deutschland_ (1892); and H. Bulthaupt, _Dramaturgie des Schauspiels_ - (vol. iii., 6th ed., 1901). - - - - -L'AUBESPINE, a French family which sprang from Claude de l'Aubespine, a -lawyer of Orleans and bailiff of the abbey of St Euverte in the -beginning of the 16th century, and rapidly acquired distinction in -offices connected with the law. Sebastien de l'Aubespine (d. 1582), -abbot of Bassefontaine, bishop of Vannes and afterwards of Limoges, -fulfilled important diplomatic missions in Germany, Hungary, England, -the Low Countries and Switzerland under Francis I. and his successors. -Claude (c. 1500-1567), baron of Chateauneuf-sur-Cher, Sebastien's -brother, was a secretary of finance; he had charge of negotiations with -England in 1555 and 1559, and was several times commissioned to treat -with the Huguenots in the king's name. His son Guillaume was a -councillor of state and ambassador to England. Charles de l'Aubespine -(1580-1653) was ambassador to Germany, the Low Countries, Venice and -England, besides twice holding the office of keeper of the seals of -France, from 1630 to 1633, and from 1650 to 1651. The family fell into -poor circumstances and became extinct in the 19th century. (M. P.*) - - - - -LAUCHSTADT, a town of Germany in the province of Prussian Saxony, on the -Laucha, 6 m. N.W. of Merseburg by the railway to Schafstadt. Pop. (1905) -2034. It contains an Evangelical church, a theatre, a hydropathic -establishment and several educational institutions, among which is an -agricultural school affiliated to the university of Halle. Its -industries include malting, vinegar-making and brewing. Lauchstadt was a -popular watering-place in the 18th century, the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg -often making it their summer residence. From 1789 to 1811 the Weimar -court theatrical company gave performances here of the plays of Schiller -and Goethe, an attraction which greatly contributed to the well-being of -the town. - - See Maak, _Das Goethetheater in Lauchstadt_ (Lauchstadt, 1905); and - Nasemann, _Bad Lauchstadt_ (Halle, 1885). - - - - -LAUD, WILLIAM (1573-1645), English archbishop, only son of William Laud, -a clothier, was born at Reading on the 7th of October 1573. He was -educated at Reading free school, matriculated at St John's college, -Oxford, in 1589, gained a scholarship in 1590, a fellowship in 1593, and -graduated B.A. in 1594, proceeding to D.D. in 1608. In 1601 he took -orders, in 1603 becoming chaplain to Charles Blount, earl of Devonshire. -Laud early took up a position of antagonism to the Calvinistic party in -the church, and in 1604 was reproved by the authorities for maintaining -in his thesis for the degree of B.D. "that there could be no true church -without bishops," and again in 1606 for advocating "popish" opinions in -a sermon at St Mary's. If high-church doctrines, however, met with -opposition at Oxford, they were relished elsewhere, and Laud obtained -rapid advancement. In 1607 he was made vicar of Stanford in -Northamptonshire, and in 1608 he became chaplain to Bishop Neile, who in -1610 presented him to the living of Cuxton, when he resigned his -fellowship. In 1611, in spite of the influence of Archbishop Abbot and -Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, Laud was made president of St John's, and in -1614 obtained in addition the prebend of Buckden, in 1615 the -archdeaconry of Huntingdon, and in 1616 the deanery of Gloucester. Here -he repaired the fabric and changed the position of the communion table, -a matter which aroused great religious controversy, from the centre of -the choir to the east end, by a characteristic tactless exercise of -power offending the bishop, who henceforth refused to enter the -cathedral. In 1617 he went with the king to Scotland, and aroused -hostility by wearing the surplice. In 1621 he became bishop of St -David's, when he resigned the presidentship of St John's. - -In April 1622 Laud, by the king's orders, took part in a controversy -with Percy, a Jesuit, known as Fisher, the aim of which was to prevent -the conversion of the countess of Buckingham, the favourite's mother, to -Romanism, and his opinions expressed on that occasion show considerable -breadth and comprehension. While refusing to acknowledge the Roman -Church as _the_ true church, he allowed it to be _a_ true church and a -branch of the Catholic body, at the same time emphasizing the perils of -knowingly associating with error; and with regard to the English Church -he denied that the acceptance of all its articles was necessary. The -foundation of belief was the Bible, not any one branch of the Catholic -church arrogating to itself infallibility, and when dispute on matters -of faith arose, "a lawful and free council, determining according to -Scripture, is the best judge on earth." A close and somewhat strange -intimacy, considering the difference in the characters and ideals of the -two men, between Laud and Buckingham now began, and proved the chief -instrument of Laud's advancement. The opportunity came with the old -king's death in 1625, for James, with all his pedantry, was too wise and -cautious to embark in Laud's rash undertakings, and had already shown a -prudent moderation, after setting up bishops in Scotland, in going no -further in opposition to the religious feelings of the people. On the -accession of Charles, Laud's ambitious activities were allowed free -scope. A list of the clergy was immediately prepared by him for the -king, in which each name was labelled with an O or a P, distinguishing -the Orthodox to be promoted from the Puritans to be suppressed. Laud -defended Richard Montague, who had aroused the wrath of the parliament -by his pamphlet against Calvinism. His influence soon extended into the -domain of the state. He supported the king's prerogative throughout the -conflict with the parliament, preached in favour of it before Charles's -second parliament in 1626, and assisted in Buckingham's defence. In 1626 -he was nominated bishop of Bath and Wells, and in July 1628 bishop of -London. On the 12th of April 1629 he was made chancellor of Oxford -University. - -In the patronage of learning and in the exercise of authority over the -morals and education of youth Laud was in his proper sphere, many -valuable reforms at Oxford being due to his activity, including the -codification of the statutes, the statute by which public examinations -were rendered obligatory for university degrees, and the ordinance for -the election of proctors, the revival of the college system, of moral -and religious discipline and order, and of academic dress. He founded or -endowed various professorships, including those of Hebrew and Arabic, -and the office of public orator, encouraged English and foreign -scholars, such as Voss, Selden and Jeremy Taylor, founded the university -printing press, procuring in 1633 the royal patent for Oxford, and -obtained for the Bodleian library over 1300 MSS., adding a new wing to -the building to contain his gifts. His rule at Oxford was marked by a -great increase in the number of students. In his own college he erected -the new buildings, and was its second founder. Of his chancellorship he -himself wrote a history, and the Laudian tradition long remained the -great standard of order and good government in the university. Elsewhere -he showed his liberality and his zeal for reform. He was an active -visitor of Eton and Winchester, and endowed the grammar school at -Reading, where he was himself educated. In London he procured funds for -the restoration of the dilapidated cathedral of St Paul's. - -He was far less great as a ruler in the state, showing as a judge a -tyrannical spirit both in the star chamber and high-commission court, -threatening Felton, the assassin of Buckingham, with the rack, and -showing special activity in procuring a cruel sentence in the former -court against Alexander Leighton in June 1630 and against Henry -Sherfield in 1634. His power was greatly increased after his return from -Scotland, whither he had accompanied the king, by his promotion to the -archbishopric of Canterbury in August 1633. "As for the state indeed," -he wrote to Wentworth on this occasion, "I am for _Thorough_." In 1636 -the privy council decided in his favour his claim of jurisdiction as -visitor over both universities. Soon afterwards he was placed on the -commission of the treasury and on the committee of the privy council for -foreign affairs. He was all-powerful both in church and state. He -proceeded to impose by authority the religious ceremonies and usages to -which he attached so much importance. His vicar-general, Sir Nathaniel -Brent, went through the dioceses of his province, noting every -dilapidation and every irregularity. The pulpit was no longer to be the -chief feature in the church, but the communion table. The Puritan -lecturers were suppressed. He showed great hostility to the Puritan -sabbath and supported the reissue of the _Book of Sports_, especially -odious to that party, and severely reprimanded Chief Justice Richardson -for his interference with the Somerset wakes. He insisted on the use of -the prayer-book among the English soldiers in the service of Holland, -and forced strict conformity on the church of the merchant adventurers -at Delft, endeavouring even to reach the colonists in New England. He -tried to compel the Dutch and French refugees in England to unite with -the Church of England, advising double taxation and other forms of -persecution. In 1634 the justices of the peace were ordered to enter -houses to search for persons holding conventicles and bring them before -the commissioners. He took pleasure in displaying his power over the -great, and in punishing them in the spiritual courts for moral offences. -In 1637 he took part in the sentence of the star chamber on Prynne, -Bastwick and Burton, and in the same year in the prosecution of Bishop -Williams. He urged Strafford in Ireland to carry out the same reforms -and severities. - -He was now to extend his ecclesiastical system to Scotland, where during -his visits the appearance of the churches had greatly displeased him. -The new prayer-book and canons were drawn up by the Scottish bishops -with his assistance and enforced in the country, and, though not -officially connected with the work, he was rightly regarded as its real -author. The attack not only on the national religion, but on the -national independence of Scotland, proved to be the point at which the -system, already strained, broke and collapsed. Laud continued to support -Strafford's and the king's arbitrary measures to the last, and spoke in -favour of the vigorous continuation of the war on Strafford's side in -the memorable meeting of the committee of eight on the 5th of May 1640, -and for the employment of any means for carrying it on. "Tried all -ways," so ran the notes of his speech, "and refused all ways. By the law -of God and man you should have subsistence and lawful to take it." -Though at first opposed to the sitting of convocation, after the -dissolution of parliament, as an independent body, on account of the -opposition it would arouse, he yet caused to be passed in it the new -canons which both enforced his ecclesiastical system and assisted the -king's divine right, resistance to his power entailing "damnation." -Laud's infatuated policy could go no further, and the _etcetera_ oath, -according to which whole classes of men were to be forced to swear -perpetual allegiance to the "government of this church by archbishops, -bishops, deans and archdeacons, &c.," was long remembered and derided. -His power now quickly abandoned him. He was attacked and reviled as the -chief author of the troubles on all sides. In October he was ordered by -Charles to suspend the _etcetera_ oath. The same month, when the high -commission court was sacked by the mob, he was unable to persuade the -star chamber to punish the offenders. On the 18th of December he was -impeached by the Long Parliament, and on the 1st of March imprisoned in -the tower. On the 12th of May, at Strafford's request, the archbishop -appeared at the window of his cell to give him his blessing on his way -to execution, and fainted as he passed by. For some time he was left -unnoticed in confinement. On the 31st of May 1643, however, Prynne -received orders from the parliament to search his papers, and published -a mutilated edition of his diary. The articles of impeachment were sent -up to the Lords in October, the trial beginning on the 12th of March -1644, but the attempt to bring his conduct under a charge of high -treason proving hopeless, an attainder was substituted and sent up to -the Lords on the 22nd of November. In these proceedings there was no -semblance of respect for law or justice, the Lords yielding (4th of -January 1645) to the menaces of the Commons, who arrogated to themselves -the right to declare any crimes they pleased high treason. Laud now -tendered the king's pardon, which had been granted to him in April 1643. -This was rejected, and it was with some difficulty that his petition to -be executed with the axe, instead of undergoing the ordinary brutal -punishment for high treason, was granted. He suffered death on the 10th -of January on Tower Hill, asserting his innocence of any offence known -to the law, repudiating the charge of "popery," and declaring that he -had always lived in the Protestant Church of England. He was buried in -the chancel of All Hallows, Barking, whence his body was removed on the -24th of July 1663 to the chapel of St John's College, Oxford. - -Laud never married. He is described by Fuller as "low of stature, little -in bulk, cheerful in countenance (wherein gravity and quickness were all -compounded), of a sharp and piercing eye, clear judgment and (abating -the influence of age) firm memory." His personality, on account of the -sharp religious antagonisms with which his name is inevitably -associated, has rarely been judged with impartiality. His severities -were the result of a narrow mind and not of a vindictive spirit, and -their number has certainly been exaggerated. His career was -distinguished by uprightness, by piety, by a devotion to duty, by -courage and consistency. In particular it is clear that the charge of -partiality for Rome is unfounded. At the same time the circumstances of -the period, the fact that various schemes of union with Rome were -abroad, that the missions of Panzani and later of Conn were gathering -into the Church of Rome numbers of members of the Church of England who, -like Laud himself, were dissatisfied with the Puritan bias which then -characterized it, the incident mentioned by Laud himself of his being -twice offered the cardinalate, the movement carried on at the court in -favour of Romanism, and the fact that Laud's changes in ritual, however -clearly defined and restricted in his own intention, all tended towards -Roman practice, fully warranted the suspicions and fears of his -contemporaries. Laud's complete neglect of the national sentiment, in -his belief that the exercise of mere power was sufficient to suppress -it, is a principal proof of his total lack of true statesmanship. The -hostility to "innovations in religion," it is generally allowed, was a -far stronger incentive to the rebellion against the arbitrary power of -the crown, than even the violation of constitutional liberties; and to -Laud, therefore, more than to Strafford, to Buckingham, or even perhaps -to Charles himself, is especially due the responsibility for the -catastrophe. He held fast to the great idea of the catholicity of the -English Church, to that conception of it which regards it as a branch of -the whole Christian church, and emphasizes its historical continuity and -identity from the time of the apostles, but here again his policy was at -fault; for his despotic administration not only excited and exaggerated -the tendencies to separatism and independentism which finally prevailed, -but excluded large bodies of faithful churchmen from communion with -their church and from their country. The emigration to Massachusetts in -1629, which continued in a stream till 1640, was not composed of -separatists but of episcopalians. Thus what Laud grasped with one hand -he destroyed with the other. - -Passing to the more indirect influence of Laud on his times, we can -observe a narrowness of mind and aim which separates him from a man of -such high imagination and idealism as Strafford, however closely -identified their policies may have been for the moment. The chief -feature of Laud's administration is attention to countless details, to -the most trivial of which he attached excessive importance, and which -are uninspired by any great underlying principle. His view was always -essentially material. The one element in the church which to him was all -essential was its visibility. This was the source of his intense dislike -of the Puritan and Nonconformist conception of the church, which -afforded no tangible or definite form. Hence the necessity for outward -conformity, and the importance attached to ritual and ceremony, unity in -which must be established at all costs, in contrast to dogma and -doctrine, in which he showed himself lenient and large-minded, winning -over Hales by friendly discussion, and encouraging the publication of -Chillingworth's _Religion of Protestants_. He was not a bigot, but a -martinet. The external form was with him the essential feature of -religion, preceding the spiritual conception, and in Laud's opinion -being the real foundation of it. In his last words on the scaffold he -alludes to the dangers and slanders he had endured labouring to keep an -uniformity in the external service of God; and Bacon's conception of a -spiritual union founded on variety and liberty was one completely beyond -his comprehension. - -This narrow materialism was the true cause of his fatal influence both -in church and state. In his own character it produced the somewhat -blunted moral sense which led to the few incidents in his career which -need moral defence, his performance of the marriage ceremony between his -first patron Lord Devonshire and the latter's mistress, the divorced -wife of Lord Rich, an act completely at variance with his principles; -his strange intimacy with Buckingham; his love of power and place. -Indistinguishable from his personal ambition was his passion for the -aggrandisement of the church and its predominance in the state. He was -greatly delighted at the foolish appointment of Bishop Juxon as lord -treasurer in 1636. "No churchman had it," he cries exultingly, "since -Henry VII.'s time, ... and now if the church will not hold up themselves -under God, I can do no more." Spiritual influence, in Laud's opinion, -was not enough for the church. The church as the guide of the nation in -duty and godliness, even extending its activity into state affairs as a -mediator and a moderator, was not sufficient. Its power must be material -and visible, embodied in great places of secular administration and -enthroned in high offices of state. Thus the church, descending into the -political arena, became identified with the doctrines of one political -party in the state--doctrines odious to the majority of the nation--and -at the same time became associated with acts of violence and injustice, -losing at once its influence and its reputation. Equally disastrous to -the state was the identification of the king's administration with one -party in the church, and that with the party in an immense minority not -only in the nation but even among the clergy themselves. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--All Laud's works are to be found in the _Library of - Anglo-Catholic Theology_ (7 vols.), including his sermons (of no great - merit), letters, history of the chancellorship, history of his - troubles and trial, and his remarkable diary, the MSS. of the last two - works being the property of St John's College. Various modern opinions - of Laud's career can be studied in T. Longueville's _Life of Laud, by - a Romish Recusant_ (1894); _Congregational Union Jubilee Lectures_, - vol. i. (1882); J. B. Mozley's _Essay on Laud; Archbishop Laud_, by A. - C. Benson (1887); _Wm. Laud_, by W. H. Hutton (1895); _Archbishop Laud - Commemoration_, ed. by W. F. Collins (lectures, bibliography, - catalogue of exhibits, 1895); Hook's _Lives of the Archbishops of - Canterbury_; and H. Bell, _Archbishop Laud and Priestly Government_ - (1907). (P. C. Y.) - - - - -LAUD (Lat. _laus_), a term meaning praise, now rarely found in this -sense except in poetry or hymns. Lauds is the name for the second of the -offices of the canonical hours in the Roman breviary, so called from the -three _laudes_ or psalms of praise, cxlviii.-cl. which form part of the -service (see BREVIARY and HOURS, CANONICAL). - - - - -LAUDANUM, originally the name given by Paracelsus to a famous medical -preparation of his own composed of gold, pearls, &c. (_Opera_, 1658, i. -492/2), but containing opium as its chief ingredient. The term is now -only used for the alcoholic tincture of opium (_q.v._). The name was -either invented by Paracelsus from Lat. _laudare_ to praise, or was a -corrupted form of "ladanum" (Gr. [Greek: ledanon], from Pers. _ladan_), -a resinous juice or gum obtained from various kinds of the _Cistus_ -shrub, formerly used medicinally in external applications and as a -stomachic, but now only in perfumery and in making fumigating pastilles, -&c. - - - - -LAUDER, SIR THOMAS DICK, Bart. (1784-1848), Scottish author, only son of -Sir Andrew Lauder, 6th baronet, was born at Edinburgh in 1784. He -succeeded to the baronetcy in 1820. His first contribution to -_Blackwood's Magazine_ in 1817, entitled "Simon Roy, Gardener at -Dunphail," was by some ascribed to Sir Walter Scott. His paper (1818) on -"The Parallel Roads of Glenroy," printed in vol. ix. of the -_Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, first drew attention -to the phenomenon in question. In 1825 and 1827 he published two -romances, _Lochandhu_ and the _Wolf of Badenoch_. He became a frequent -contributor to _Blackwood_ and also to _Tait's Magazine_, and in 1830 he -published _An Account of the Great Floods of August 1829 in the Province -of Moray and adjoining Districts_. Subsequent works were _Highland -Rambles, with Long Tales to Shorten the Way_ (2 vols. 8vo, 1837), -_Legendary Tales of the Highlands_ (3 vols, 12mo, 1841), _Tour round the -Coasts of Scotland_ (1842) and _Memorial of the Royal Progress in -Scotland_ (1843). Vol. i. of a _Miscellany of Natural History_, -published in 1833, was also partly prepared by Lauder. He was a Liberal, -and took an active interest in politics; he held the office of secretary -to the Board of Scottish Manufactures. He died on the 29th of May 1848. -An unfinished series of papers, written for _Tait's Magazine_ shortly -before his death, was published under the title _Scottish Rivers_, with -a preface by John Brown, M.D., in 1874. - - - - -LAUDER, WILLIAM (d. 1771), Scottish literary forger, was born in the -latter part of the 17th century, and was educated at Edinburgh -university, where he graduated in 1695. He applied unsuccessfully for -the post of professor of humanity there, in succession to Adam Watt, -whose assistant he had been for a time, and also for the keepership of -the university library. He was a good scholar, and in 1739, published -_Poetarum Scotorum Musae Sacrae_, a collection of poems by various -writers, mostly paraphrased from the Bible. In 1742 Lauder came to -London. In 1747 he wrote an article for the _Gentleman's Magazine_ to -prove that Milton's _Paradise Lost_ was largely a plagiarism from the -_Adamus Exul_ (1601) of Hugo Grotius, the _Sarcotis_ (1654) of J. Masen -(Masenius, 1606-1681), and the _Poemata Sacra_ (1633) of Andrew Ramsay -(1574-1659). Lauder expounded his case in a series of articles, and in a -book (1753) increased the list of plundered authors to nearly a hundred. -But his success was short-lived. Several scholars, who had independently -studied the alleged sources of Milton's inspiration, proved conclusively -that Lauder had not only garbled most of his quotations, but had even -inserted amongst them extracts from a Latin rendering of _Paradise -Lost_. This led to his exposure, and he was obliged to write a complete -confession at the dictation of his former friend Samuel Johnson. After -several vain endeavours to clear his character he emigrated to -Barbadoes, where he died in 1771. - - - - -LAUDER, a royal and police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) -719. It is situated on the Leader, 29 m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North -British railway's branch line from Fountainhall, of which it is the -terminus. The burgh is said to date from the reign of William the Lion -(1165-1214); its charter was granted in 1502. In 1482 James III. with -his court and army rested here on the way to raise the siege of Berwick. -While the nobles were in the church considering grievances, Robert -Cochrane, recently created earl of Mar, one of the king's favourites, -whose "removal" was at the very moment under discussion, demanded -admittance. Archibald Douglas, earl of Angus, opened the door and seized -Mar, who was forthwith dragged to Lauder Bridge and there, along with -six other obnoxious favourites, hanged in sight of his royal master. It -was in connexion with this exploit that Angus acquired the nickname of -"Bell-the-cat." The public buildings include a town-hall and a library. -The parish church was built in 1673 by the earl of Lauderdale, in -exchange for the older edifice, the site of which was required for the -enlargement of Thirlestane castle, which, originally a fortress, was -then remodelled for a residence. The town is a favourite with anglers. - - - - -LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND, DUKE OF (1616-1682), eldest surviving son of -John Maitland, 2nd Lord Maitland of Thirlestane (d. 1645), who was -created earl of Lauderdale in 1624, and of Lady Isabel Seton, daughter -of Alexander, earl of Dunfermline, and great-grandson of Sir Richard -Maitland (q.v.), the poet, a member of an ancient family of -Berwickshire, was born on the 24th of May 1616, at Lethington. He began -public life as a zealous adherent of the Presbyterian cause, took the -covenant, sat as an elder in the assembly at St Andrews in July 1643, -and was sent to England as a commissioner for the covenant in August, -and to attend the Westminster assembly in November. In February 1644 he -was a member of the committee of both kingdoms, and on the 20th of -November was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king -at Uxbridge, when he made efforts to persuade Charles to agree to the -establishment of Presbyterianism. In 1645 he advised Charles to reject -the proposals of the Independents, and in 1647 approved of the king's -surrender to the Scots. At this period Lauderdale veered round -completely to the king's cause, had several interviews with him, and -engaged in various projects for his restoration, offering the aid of the -Scots, on the condition of Charles's consent to the establishment of -Presbyterianism, and on the 26th of December he obtained from Charles at -Carisbrooke "the engagement" by which Presbyterianism was to be -established for three years, schismatics were to be suppressed, and the -acts of the Scottish parliament ratified, the king in addition promising -to admit the Scottish nobles into public employment in England and to -reside frequently in Scotland. Returning to Scotland, in the spring of -1648, Lauderdale joined the party of Hamilton in alliance with the -English royalists. Their defeat at Preston postponed the arrival of the -prince of Wales, but Lauderdale had an interview with the prince in the -Downs in August, and from this period obtained supreme influence over -the future king. He persuaded him later to accept the invitation to -Scotland from the Argyll faction, accompanied him thither in 1650 and in -the expedition into England, and was taken prisoner at Worcester in -1651, remaining in confinement till March 1660. He joined Charles in May -1660 at Breda, and, in spite of the opposition of Clarendon and Monk, -was appointed secretary of state. From this time onwards he kept his -hold upon the king, was lodged at Whitehall, was "never from the king's -ear nor council,"[1] and maintained his position against his numerous -adversaries by a crafty dexterity in dealing with men, a fearless -unscrupulousness, and a robust strength of will, which overcame all -opposition. Though a man of considerable learning and intellectual -attainment, his character was exceptionally and grossly licentious, and -his base and ignoble career was henceforward unrelieved by a single -redeeming feature. He abandoned Argyll to his fate, permitted, if he did -not assist in, the restoration of episcopacy in Scotland, and after -triumphing over all his opponents in Scotland drew into his own hands -the whole administration of that kingdom, and proceeded to impose upon -it the absolute supremacy of the crown in church and state, restoring -the nomination of the lords of the articles to the king and initiating -severe measures against the Covenanters. In 1669 he was able to boast -with truth that "the king is now master here in all causes and over all -persons." - -His own power was now at its height, and his position as the favourite -of Charles, controlled by no considerations of patriotism or -statesmanship, and completely independent of the English parliament, -recalled the worst scandals and abuses of the Stuart administration -before the Civil War. He was a member of the cabal ministry, but took -little part in English affairs, and was not entrusted with the first -secret treaty of Dover, but gave personal support to Charles in his -degrading demands for pensions from Louis XIV. On the 2nd of May 1672 he -was created duke of Lauderdale and earl of March, and on the 3rd of June -knight of the garter. In 1673, on the resignation of James in -consequence of the Test Act, he was appointed a commissioner for the -admiralty. In October he visited Scotland to suppress the dissenters and -obtain money for the Dutch War, and the intrigues organized by -Shaftesbury against his power in his absence, and the attacks made upon -him in the House of Commons in January 1674 and April 1675, were alike -rendered futile by the steady support of Charles and James. On the 25th -of June 1674 he was created earl of Guilford and Baron Petersham in the -peerage of England. His ferocious measures having failed to suppress the -conventicles in Scotland, he summoned to his aid in 1677 a band of -Highlanders, who were sent into the western country. In consequence, a -large party of Scottish nobles came to London, made common cause with -the English country faction, and compelled Charles to order the -disbandment of the marauders. In May 1678 another demand by the Commons -for Lauderdale's removal was thrown out by court influence by one vote. -He maintained his triumphs almost to the end. In Scotland, which he -visited immediately after this victory in parliament, he overbore all -opposition to the king's demands for money. Another address for his -removal from the Commons in England was suppressed by the dissolution of -parliament on the 26th of May 1679, and a renewed attack upon him, by -the Scottish party and Shaftesbury's faction combined, also failed. On -the 22nd of June 1679 the last attempt of the unfortunate Covenanters -was suppressed at Bothwell Brig. In 1680, however, failing health -obliged Lauderdale to resign the place and power for which he had so -long successfully struggled. His vote given for the execution of Lord -Stafford on the 29th of November is said also to have incurred the -displeasure of James. In 1682 he was stripped of all his offices, and he -died in August. Lauderdale married (1) Lady Anne Home, daughter of the -1st earl of Home, by whom he had one daughter; and (2) Lady Elizabeth -Murray, daughter of the 1st earl of Dysart and widow of Sir Lionel -Tollemache. He left no male issue, consequently his dukedom and his -English titles became extinct, but he was succeeded in the earldom by -his brother Charles (see below). - - See _Lauderdale Papers Add._ MSS. in Brit. Mus., 30 vols., a small - selection of which, entitled _The Lauderdale Papers_, were edited by - Osmond Airy for the Camden Society in 1884-1885; _Hamilton Papers_ - published by the same society; "Lauderdale Correspondence with - Archbishop Sharp," _Scottish Hist. Soc. Publications_, vol. 15 (1893); - Burnet's _Lives of the Hamiltons_ and _History of his Own Time_; R. - Baillie's Letters; S. R. Gardiner's _Hist. of the Civil War and of the - Commonwealth_; Clarendon's _Hist. of the Rebellion_; and the - _Quarterly Review_, clvii. 407. Several speeches of Lauderdal are - extant. (P. C. Y.) - - - _Earls of Lauderdale._ - - Charles Maitland, 3rd earl of Lauderdale (d. 1691), became an ordinary - lord of session as Lord Halton in 1669, afterwards assisting his - brother, the duke, in the management of public business in Scotland. - His eldest son, Richard (1653-1695), became the 4th earl. As Lord - Maitland he was lord-justice-general from 1681 to 1684; he was an - adherent of James II. and after fighting at the battle of the Boyne he - was an exile in France until his death. This earl made a verse - translation of Virgil (published 1737). He left no sons, and his - brother John (c. 1655-1710) became the 5th earl. John, a supporter of - William III. and of the union of England and Scotland, was succeeded - by his son Charles (c. 1688-1744), who was the grandfather of James, - the 8th earl. - - James Maitland, 8th earl of Lauderdale (1759-1839), was a member of - parliament from 1780 until August 1789 when he succeeded his father in - the earldom. In the House of Commons he took an active part in debate, - and in the House of Lords, where he was a representative peer for - Scotland, he was prominent as an opponent of the policy of Pitt and - the English government with regard to France, a country he had visited - in 1792. In 1806 he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron - Lauderdale of Thirlestane and for a short time he was keeper of the - great seal of Scotland. By this time the earl, who had helped to found - the Society of the Friends of the People in 1792, had somewhat - modified his political views; this process was continued, and after - acting as the leader of the Whigs in Scotland, Lauderdale became a - Tory and voted against the Reform Bill of 1832. He died on the 13th of - September 1839. He wrote an _Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of - Public Wealth_ (1804 and 1819), a work which has been translated into - French and Italian and which produced a controversy between the author - and Lord Brougham; _The Depreciation of the Paper-currency of Great - Britain Proved_ (1812); and other writings of a similar nature. He was - succeeded by his sons James (1784-1860) and Anthony (1785-1863) as 9th - and 10th earls. Anthony, a naval officer, died unmarried in March - 1863, when his barony of the United Kingdom became extinct, but his - Scottish earldom devolved upon a cousin, Thomas Maitland (1803-1878), - a grandson of the 7th earl, who became 11th earl of Lauderdale. - Thomas, who was an admiral of the fleet, died without sons, and the - title passed to Charles Barclay-Maitland (1822-1884), a descendant of - the 6th earl. When Charles died unmarried, another of the 6th earl's - descendants, Frederick Henry Maitland (b. 1840), became 13th earl of - Lauderdale. - - The earls of Lauderdale are hereditary standard bearers for Scotland. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Pepys's Diary_, 2nd of March 1664. - - - - -LAUENBURG, a duchy of Germany, formerly belonging with Holstein to -Denmark, but from 1865 to Prussia, and now included in the Prussian -province of Schleswig-Holstein. It lies on the right bank of the Elbe, -is bounded by the territories of Hamburg, Lubeck, Mecklenburg-Strelitz -and the province of Hanover, and comprises an area of 453 sq. m. The -surface is a slightly undulating plain. The soil, chiefly alluvial, -though in some places arenaceous, is generally fertile and well -cultivated, but a great portion is covered with forests, interspersed -with lakes. By means of the Stecknitz canal, the Elbe, the principal -river, is connected with the Trave. The chief agricultural products are -timber, fruit, grain, hemp, flax and vegetables. Cattle-breeding affords -employment for many of the inhabitants. The railroad from Hamburg to -Berlin traverses the country. The capital is Ratzeburg, and there are -two other towns, Molln and Lauenburg. - -The earliest inhabitants of Lauenburg were a Slav tribe, the Polabes, -who were gradually replaced by colonists from Saxony. About the middle -of the 12th century the country was subdued by the duke of Saxony, Henry -the Lion, who founded a bishopric at Ratzeburg, and after Henry's fall -in 1180 it formed part of the smaller duchy of Saxony, which was -governed by Duke Bernhard. In 1203 it was conquered by Waldemar II., -king of Denmark, but in 1227 it reverted to Albert, a son of its former -duke. When Albert died in 1260 Saxony was divided. Lauenburg, or -Saxe-Lauenburg, as it is generally called, became a separate duchy ruled -by his son John, and had its own lines of dukes for over 400 years, one -of them, Magnus I. (d. 1543), being responsible for the introduction of -the reformed teaching into the land. The reigning family, however, -became extinct when Duke Julius Francis died in September 1689, and -there were at least eight claimants for his duchy, chief among them -being John George III., elector of Saxony, and George William, duke of -Brunswick-Luneburg-Celle, the ancestors of both these princes having -made treaties of mutual succession with former dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg. -Both entered the country, but George William proved himself the stronger -and occupied Ratzeburg; having paid a substantial sum of money to the -elector, he was recognized by the inhabitants as their duke. When he -died three years later Lauenburg passed to his nephew, George Louis, -elector of Hanover, afterwards king of Great Britain as George I., whose -rights were recognized by the emperor Charles VI. in 1728. In 1803 the -duchy was occupied by the French, and in 1810 it was incorporated with -France. It reverted to Hanover after the battle of Leipzig in 1813, and -in 1816 was ceded to Prussia, the greater part of it being at once -transferred by her to Denmark in exchange for Swedish Pomerania. In -1848, when Prussia made war on Denmark, Lauenburg was occupied at her -own request by some Hanoverian troops, and was then administered for -three years under the authority of the German confederation, being -restored to Denmark in 1851. Definitely incorporated with this country -in 1853, it experienced another change of fortune after the short war of -1864 between Denmark on the one side and Prussia and Austria on the -other, as by the peace of Vienna (30th of October 1864) it was ceded -with Schleswig and Holstein to the two German powers. By the convention -of Gastein (14th of August 1865) Austria surrendered her claim to -Prussia in return for the payment of nearly L300,000 and in September -1865 King William I. took formal possession of the duchy. Lauenburg -entered the North German confederation in 1866 and the new German empire -in 1870. It retained its constitution and its special privileges until -the 1st of July 1876, when it was incorporated with the kingdom of -Prussia. In 1890 Prince Bismarck received the title of duke of -Lauenburg. - - See P. von Kobbe, _Geschichte und Landesbeschreibung des Herzogtums - Lauenburg_ (Altona, 1836-1837); Duve, _Mitteilungen zur Kunde der - Staatsgeschichte Lauenburgs_ (Ratzeburg, 1852-1857), and the _Archiv - des Vereins fur die Geschichte des Herzogtums Lauenburg_ (Ratzeburg, - 1884 seq.). - - - - -LAUFF, JOSEF (1855- ), German poet and dramatist, was born at Cologne -on the 16th of November 1855, the son of a jurist. He was educated at -Munster in Westphalia, and entering the army served as a lieutenant of -artillery at Thorn and subsequently at Cologne, where he attained the -rank of captain in 1890. In 1898 he was summoned by the German emperor, -William II., to Wiesbaden, being at the same time promoted to major's -rank, in order that he might devote his great dramatic talents to the -royal theatre. His literary career began with the epic poems _Jan van -Calker, ein Malerlied vom Niederrhein_ (1887, 3rd ed., 1892) and _Der -Helfensteiner, ein Sang aus dem Bauernkriege_ (3rd ed., 1896). These -were followed by _Die Overstolzin_ (5th ed., 1900), _Herodias_ (2nd ed., -1898) and the _Geislerin_ (4th ed., 1902). He also wrote the novels _Die -Hexe_ (6th ed., 1900), _Regina coeli_ (a story of the fall of the Dutch -Republic) (7th ed., 1904), _Die Hauptmannsfrau_ (8th ed., 1903) and -_Marie Verwahnen_ (1903). But he is best known as a dramatist. Beginning -with the tragedy _Ignez de Castro_ (1894), he proceeded to dramatize the -great monarchs of his country, and, in a Hohenzollern tetralogy, issued -_Der Burggraf_ (1897, 6th ed. 1900) and _Der Eisenzahn_ (1900), to be -followed by _Der grosse Kurfurst_ (The Great Elector) and _Friedrich der -Grosse_ (Frederick the Great). - - See A. Schroeter, _Josef Lauff, Ein litterarisches Zeitbild_ (1899), - and B. Sturm, _Josef Lauff_ (1903). - - - - -LAUGHTER, the visible and audible expression of mirth, pleasure or the -sense of the ridiculous by movements of the facial muscles and -inarticulate sounds (see COMEDY, PLAY and HUMOUR). The O. Eng. -_hleahtor_ is formed from _hleahhan_, to laugh, a common Teutonic word; -cf. Ger. _lachen_, Goth. _hlahjan_, Icel. _hlaeja_, &c. These are in -origin echoic or imitative words, to be referred to a Teut. base -_hlah_-, Indo-Eur. _kark_-, to make a noise; Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) -connects ultimately Gr. [Greek: klossein], to cluck like a hen, [Greek: -krazein], to croak, &c. A gentle and inaudible form of laughter -expressed by a movement of the lips and by the eyes is a "smile." This -is a comparatively late word in English, and is due to Scandinavian -influence; cf. Swed. _smila_; it is ultimately connected with Lat. -_mirari_, to wonder, and probably with Gr. [Greek: meidos]. - - - - -LAUMONT, FRANCOIS PIERRE NICHOLAS GILLET DE (1747-1834), French -mineralogist, was born in Paris on the 28th of May 1747. He was educated -at a military school, and served in the army from 1772-1784, when he was -appointed inspector of mines. His attention in his leisure time was -wholly given to mineralogy, and he assisted in organizing the new Ecole -des Mines in Paris. He was author of numerous mineralogical papers in -the _Journal_ and _Annales des Mines_. The mineral laumontite was named -after him by Hauy. He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1834. - - - - -LAUNCESTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Launceston -parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 35(1/2) m. N.W. of -Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western and the London & -South-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 4053. It lies in a hilly district by -and above the river Kensey, an affluent of the Tamar, the houses -standing picturesquely on the southern slope of the narrow valley, with -the keep of the ancient castle crowning the summit. On the northern -slope lies the parish of St Stephen. The castle, the ruins of which are -in part of Norman date, was the seat of the earls of Cornwall, and was -frequently besieged during the civil wars of the 17th century. In 1656 -George Fox the Quaker was imprisoned in the north-east tower for -disturbing the peace at St Ives by distributing tracts. Fragments of the -old town walls and the south gateway, of the Decorated period, are -standing. The church of St Mary Magdalen, built of granite, and richly -ornamented without, was erected early in the 16th century, but possesses -a detached tower dated 1380. A fine Norman doorway, now appearing as the -entrance to a hotel, is preserved from an Augustinian priory founded in -the reign of Henry I. The parish church of St Stephen is Early English, -and later, with a Perpendicular tower. The trade of Launceston is -chiefly agricultural, but there are tanneries and iron foundries. The -borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2189 -acres. - -A silver penny of Aethelred II. witnesses to the fact that the privilege -of coining money was exercised by Launceston (Dunheved, Lanscaveton, -Lanstone) more than half a century before the Norman conquest. At the -time of the Domesday survey the canons of St Stephen held Launceston, -and the count of Mortain held Dunheved. The number of families settled -on the former is not given, but attention is called to the market which -had been removed thence by the count to the neighbouring castle of -Dunheved, which had two mills, one villein and thirteen bordars. A spot -more favoured by nature could not have been chosen either for settlement -or for defence than the rich lands near the confluence of the Kensey and -Tamar, out of which there rises abruptly the gigantic mound upon which -the castle is built. It is not known when the canons settled here nor -whether the count's castle, then newly erected, replaced some earlier -fortification. Reginald, earl of Cornwall (1140-1175), granted to the -canons rights of jurisdiction in all their lands and exemption from suit -of court in the shire and hundred courts. Richard (1225-1272), king of -the Romans, constituted Dunheved a free borough, and granted to the -burgesses freedom from pontage, stallage and suillage, liberty to elect -their own reeves, exemption from all pleas outside the borough except -pleas of the crown, and a site for a gild-hall. The farm of the borough -was fixed at 100s. payable to the earl, 65s. to the prior and 100s. 10d. -to the lepers of St Leonard's. In 1205 the market which had been held on -Sunday was changed to Thursday. An inquisition held in 1383 discloses -two markets, a merchant gild, pillory and tumbrel. In 1555 Dunheved, -otherwise Launceston, received a charter of incorporation, the common -council to consist of a mayor, 8 aldermen and a recorder. By its -provisions the borough was governed until 1835. The parliamentary -franchise which had been conferred in 1294 was confined to the -corporation and a number of free burgesses. In 1832 Launceston was shorn -of one of its members, and in 1885 merged in the county. Separated from -it by a small bridge over the Kensey lies the hamlet of Newport which, -from 1547 until 1832, also returned two members. These were swept away -when the Reform Bill became law. Launceston was the assize town until -Earl Richard, having built a palace at Restormel, removed the assize to -Lostwithiel. In 1386 Launceston regained the privilege by royal charter. -From 1715 until 1837, eleven years only excepted, the assize was held -alternately here and at Bodmin. Since that time Bodmin has enjoyed the -distinction. Launceston has never had a staple industry. The manufacture -of serge was considerable early in the 19th century. Its market on -Saturdays is well attended, and an ancient fair on the Feast of St -Thomas is among those which survive. - - See A. F. Robbins, _Launceston Past and Present_. - - - - -LAUNCESTON, the second city of Tasmania, in the county of Cornwall, on -the river Tamar, 40 m. from the N. coast of the island, and 133 m. by -rail N. by W. of Hobart. The city lies amid surroundings of great -natural beauty in a valley enclosed by lofty hills. Cora Linn, about 6 -m. distant, a deep gorge of the North Esk river, the Punch Bowl and -Cataract Gorge, over which the South Esk falls in a magnificent cascade, -joining the North Esk to form the Tamar, are spots famed throughout the -Australian commonwealth for their romantic beauty. The city is the -commercial capital of northern Tasmania, the river Tamar being navigable -up to the town for vessels of 4000 tons. The larger ships lie in -midstream and discharge into lighters, while vessels of 2000 tons can -berth alongside the wharves on to which the railway runs. Launceston is -a well-planned, pleasant town, lighted by electricity, with numerous -parks and squares and many fine buildings. The post office, the custom -house, the post office savings bank and the Launceston bank form an -attractive group; the town hall is used exclusively for civic purposes, -public meetings and social functions being held in an elegant building -called the Albert hall. There are also a good art gallery, a theatre and -a number of fine churches, one of which, the Anglican church of St John, -dates from 1824. The city, which attained that rank in 1889, has two -attractive suburbs, Invermay and Trevallyn; it has a racecourse at -Mowbray 2 m. distant, and is the centre and port of an important -fruit-growing district. Pop. of the city proper (1901) 18,022, of the -city and suburbs 21,180. - - - - -LAUNCH. (1) A verb meaning originally to hurl, discharge a missile or -other object, also to rush or shoot out suddenly or rapidly. It is -particularly used of the setting afloat a vessel from the stocks on -which she has been built. The word is an adaptation of O. Fr. _lancher_, -_lancier_, to hurl, throw, Lat. _lanceare_, from _lancea_, a lance or -spear. (2) The name of a particular type of boat, usually applied to one -of the largest size of ships' boats, or to a large boat moved by -electricity, steam or other power. The word is an adaptation of the -Span. _lancha_, pinnace, which is usually connected with _lanchara_, the -Portuguese name, common in 16th and 17th century histories, for a -fast-moving small vessel. This word is of Malay origin and is derived -from _lanchar_, quick, speedy. - - - - -LAUNDRY, a place or establishment where soiled linen, &c., is washed. -The word is a contraction of an earlier form _lavendry_, from Lat. -_lavanda_, things to be washed, _lavare_, to wash. "Launder," a similar -contraction of _lavender_, was one (of either sex) who washes linen; -from its use as a verb came the form "launderer," employed as both -masculine and feminine in America, and the feminine form "laundress," -which is also applied to a female caretaker of chambers in the Inns of -Court, London. - -Laundry-work has become an important industry, organized on a scale -which requires elaborate mechanical plant very different from the simple -appliances that once sufficed for domestic needs. For the actual -cleansing of the articles, instead of being rubbed by the hand or -trodden by the foot of the washerwoman, or stirred and beaten with a -"dolly" in the wash-tub, they are very commonly treated in rotary -washing machines driven by power. These machines consist of an outer -casing containing an inner horizontal cylindrical cage, in which the -clothes are placed. By the rotation of this cage, which is reversed by -automatic gearing every few turns, they are rubbed and tumbled on each -other in the soap and water which is contained in the outer casing and -enters the inner cylinder through perforations. The outer casing is -provided with inlet valves for hot and cold water, and with discharge -valves; and often also arrangements are made for the admission of steam -under pressure, so that the contents can be boiled. Thus the operations -of washing, boiling, rinsing and blueing (this last being the addition -of a blue colouring matter to mask the yellow tint and thus give the -linen the appearance of whiteness) can be performed without removing the -articles from the machine. For drying, the old methods of wringing by -hand, or by machines in which the clothes were squeezed between rollers -of wood or india-rubber, have been largely superseded by -"hydro-extractors" or "centrifugals." In these the wet garments are -placed in a perforated cage or basket, supported on vertical bearings, -which is rotated at a high speed (1000 to 1500 times a minute) and in a -short time as much as 85% of the moisture may thus be removed. The -drying is often completed in an apartment through which dry air is -forced by fans. In the process of finishing linen the old-fashioned -laundress made use of the mangle, about the only piece of mechanism at -her disposal. In the box-mangle the articles were pressed on a flat -surface by rollers which were weighted with a box full of stones, moved -to and fro by a rack and pinion. In a later and less cumbrous form of -the machine they were passed between wooden rollers or "bowls" held -close together by weighted levers. An important advance was marked by -the introduction of machines which not only smooth and press the linen -like the mangle, but also give it the glazed finish obtained by hot -ironing. Machines of this kind are essentially the same as the calenders -used in paper and textile manufacture. They are made in a great variety -of forms, to enable them to deal with articles of different shapes, but -they may be described generally as consisting either of a polished metal -roller, heated by steam or gas, which works against a blanketted or -felted surface in the form of another roller or a flat table, or, as in -the Decoudun type, of a felted metal roller rotating against a heated -concave bed of polished metal. In cases where hand-ironing is resorted -to, time is economized by the employment of irons which are continuously -heated by gas or electricity. - - - - -LA UNION, a seaport and the capital of the department of La Union, -Salvador, 144 m. E.S.E. of San Salvador. Pop. (1905) about 4000. La -Union is situated at the foot of a lofty volcano, variously known as -Conchagua, Pinos and Meanguera, and on a broad indentation in the -western shore of Fonseca Bay. Its harbour, the best in the republic, is -secure in all weathers and affords good anchorage to large ships. La -Union is the port of shipment for the exports of San Miguel and other -centres of production in eastern Salvador. - - - - -LA UNION, a town of eastern Spain in the province of Murcia, 5 m. by -rail E. of Cartagena and close to the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) -30,275, of whom little more than half inhabit the town itself. The rest -are scattered among the numerous metal works and mines of iron, -manganese, calamine, sulphur and lead, which are included within the -municipal boundaries. La Union is quite a modern town, having sprung up -in the second half of the 19th century. It has good modern municipal -buildings, schools, hospital, town hall and large factories. - - - - -LAURAHUTTE, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 5 -m. S.E. of Beuthen, on the railway Tarnowitz-Emanuelsegen. It has an -Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, but is especially noteworthy -for its huge iron works, which employ about 6000 hands. Pop. (1900) -13,571. - - - - -LAUREATE (Lat. _laureatus_, from _laurea_, the laurel tree). The laurel, -in ancient Greece, was sacred to Apollo, and as such was used to form a -crown or wreath of honour for poets and heroes; and this usage has been -widespread. The word "laureate" or "laureated" thus came in English to -signify eminent, or associated with glory, literary or military. -"Laureate letters" in old times meant the despatches announcing a -victory; and the epithet was given, even officially (e.g. to John -Skelton) by universities, to distinguished poets. The name of -"bacca-laureate" for the university degree of bachelor shows a confusion -with a supposed etymology from Lat. _bacca lauri_ (the laurel berry), -which though incorrect (see BACHELOR) involves the same idea. From the -more general use of the term "poet laureate" arose its restriction in -England to the office of the poet attached to the royal household, first -held by Ben Jonson, for whom the position was, in its essentials, -created by Charles I. in 1617. (Jonson's appointment does not seem to -have been formally made as poet-laureate, but his position was -equivalent to that). The office was really a development of the practice -of earlier times, when minstrels and versifiers were part of the retinue -of the King; it is recorded that Richard Coeur de Lion had a -_versificator regis_ (Gulielmus Peregrinus), and Henry III. had a -versificator (Master Henry); in the 15th century John Kay, also a -"versifier," described himself as Edward IV.'s "humble poet laureate." -Moreover, the crown had shown its patronage in various ways; Chaucer had -been given a pension and a perquisite of wine by Edward III., and -Spenser a pension by Queen Elizabeth. W. Hamilton classes Chaucer, -Gower, Kay, Andrew Bernard, Skelton, Robert Whittington, Richard -Edwards, Spenser and Samuel Daniel, as "volunteer Laureates." Sir -William Davenant succeeded Jonson in 1638, and the title of poet -laureate was conferred by letters patent on Dryden in 1670, two years -after Davenant's death, coupled with a pension of L300 and a butt of -Canary wine. The post then became a regular institution, though the -emoluments varied, Dryden's successors being T. Shadwell (who originated -annual birthday and New Year odes), Nahum Tate, Nicholas Rowe, Laurence -Eusden, Colley Cibber, William Whitehead, Thomas Warton, H. J. Pye, -Southey, Wordsworth, Tennyson and, four years after Tennyson's death, -Alfred Austin. The office took on a new lustre from the personal -distinction of Southey, Wordsworth and Tennyson; it had fallen into -contempt before Southey, and on Tennyson's death there was a -considerable feeling that no possible successor was acceptable (William -Morris and Swinburne being hardly court poets). Eventually, however, the -undesirability of breaking with tradition for temporary reasons, and -thus severing the one official link between literature and the state, -prevailed over the protests against following Tennyson by any one of -inferior genius. It may be noted that abolition was similarly advocated -when Warton and Wordsworth died. - -The poet laureate, being a court official, was considered responsible -for producing formal and appropriate verses on birthdays and state -occasions; but his activity in this respect has varied, according to -circumstances, and the custom ceased to be obligatory after Pye's death. -Wordsworth stipulated, before accepting the honour, that no formal -effusions from him should be considered a necessity; but Tennyson was -generally happy in his numerous poems of this class. The emoluments of -the post have varied; Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, -and later an annual "terse of Canary wine." To Pye an allowance of L27 -was made instead of the wine. Tennyson drew L72 a year from the lord -chamberlain's department, and L27 from the lord steward's in lieu of the -"butt of sack." - - See Walter Hamilton's _Poets Laureate of England_ (1879), and his - contributions to _Notes and Queries_ (Feb. 4, 1893). - - - - -LAUREL. At least four shrubs or small trees are called by this name in -Great Britain, viz. the common or cherry laurel (_Prunus Laurocerasus_), -the Portugal laurel (_P. lusitanica_), the bay or sweet laurel (_Laurus -nobilis_) and the spurge laurel (_Daphne Laureola_). The first two -belong to the rose family (_Rosaceae_), to the section _Cerasus_ (to -which also belongs the cherry) of the genus _Prunus_. - -The common laurel is a native of the woody and sub-alpine regions of the -Caucasus, of the mountains of northern Persia, of north-western Asia -Minor and of the Crimea. It was received into Europe in 1576, and -flowered for the first time in 1583. Ray in 1688 relates that it was -first brought from Trebizonde to Constantinople, thence to Italy, -France, Germany and England. Parkinson in his _Paradisus_ records it as -growing in a garden at Highgate in 1629; and in Johnson's edition of -Gerard's _Herbal_ (1633) it is recorded that the plant "is now got into -many of our choice English gardens, where it is well respected for the -beauty of the leaues and their lasting or continuall greennesse" (see -Loudon's _Arboretum_, ii. 717). The leaves of this plant are rather -large, broadly lance-shaped and of a leathery consistence, the margin -being somewhat serrated. They are remarkable for their poisonous -properties, giving off the odour of bitter almonds when bruised; the -vapour thus issuing is sufficient to kill small insects by the prussic -acid which it contains. The leaves when cut up finely and distilled -yield oil of bitter almonds and hydrocyanic (prussic) acid. Sweetmeats, -custards, cream, &c., are often flavoured with laurel-leaf water, as it -imparts the same flavour as bitter almonds; but it should be used -sparingly, as it is a dangerous poison, having several times proved -fatal. The first case occurred in 1731, which induced a careful -investigation to be made of its nature; Schrader in 1802 discovered it -to contain hydrocyanic acid. The effects of the distilled laurel-leaf -water on living vegetables is to destroy them like ordinary prussic -acid; while a few drops act on animals as a powerful poison. It was -introduced into the British pharmacopoeia in 1839, but is generally -superseded by the use of prussic acid. The _aqua laurocerasi_, or cherry -laurel water, is now standardized to contain 0.1% of hydrocyanic acid. -It must not be given in doses larger than 2 drachms. It contains benzole -hydrate, which is antiseptic, and is therefore suitable for hypodermic -injection; but the drug is of inconsistent strength, owing to the -volatility of prussic acid. - -The following varieties of the common laurel are in cultivation: the -Caucasian (_Prunus Laurocerasus_, var. _caucasica_), which is hardier -and bears very rich dark-green glossy foliage; the Versailles laurel -(var. _latifolia_), which has larger leaves; the Colchican (var. -_colchica_), which is a dwarf-spreading bush with narrow sharply -serrated pale-green leaves. There is also the variety _rotundifolia_ -with short broad leaves, the Grecian with narrow leaves and the -Alexandrian with very small leaves. - -The Portugal laurel is a native of Portugal and Madeira. It was -introduced into England about the year 1648, when it was cultivated in -the Oxford Botanic Gardens. During the first half of the 18th century -this plant, the common laurel and the holly were almost the only hardy -evergreen shrubs procurable in British nurseries. They are all three -tender about Paris, and consequently much less seen in the neighbourhood -of that city than in England, where they stand the ordinary winters but -not very severe ones. There is a variety (_myrtifolia_) of compact habit -with smaller narrow leaves, also a variegated variety. - -The evergreen glossy foliage of the common and Portugal laurels render -them well adapted for shrubberies, while the racemes of white flowers -are not devoid of beauty. The former often ripens its insipid drupes, -but the Portugal rarely does so. It appears to be less able to -accommodate itself to the English climate, as the wood does not usually -"ripen" so satisfactorily. Hence it is rather more liable to be cut by -the frost. It is grown in the open air in the southern United States. - -The bay or sweet laurel (_Laurus nobilis_) belongs to the family -Lauraceae, which contains sassafras, benzoin, camphor and other trees -remarkable for their aromatic properties. It is a large evergreen shrub, -sometimes reaching the height of 60 ft., but rarely assuming a truly -tree-like character. The leaves are smaller than those of the preceding -laurels, possessing an aromatic and slightly bitter flavour, and are -quite devoid of the poisonous properties of the cherry laurel. The small -yellowish-green flowers are produced in axillary clusters, are male or -female, and consist of a simple 4-leaved perianth which encloses nine -stamens in the male, the anthers of which dehisce by valves which lift -upwards as in the common barberry, and carry glandular processes at the -base of the filament. The fruit consists of a succulent berry surrounded -by the persistent base of the perianth. The bay laurel is a native of -Italy, Greece and North Africa, and is abundantly grown in the British -Isles as an evergreen shrub, as it stands most winters. The date of its -introduction is unknown, but must have been previous to 1562, as it is -mentioned in Turner's _Herbal_ published in that year. A full -description also occurs in Gerard's _Herball_ (1597, p. 1222). It was -used for strewing the floors of houses of distinguished persons in the -reign of Elizabeth. Several varieties have been cultivated, differing in -the character of their foliage, as the _undulata_ or wave-leafed, -_salicifolia_ or willow-leafed, the variegated, the broad-leafed and the -curled; there is also the double-flowered variety. The bay laurel was -carried to North America by the early colonists. - -This laurel is generally held to be the _Daphne_ of the ancients, though -Lindley, following Gerard (_Herball_, 1597, p. 761), asserted that the -Greek _Daphne_ was _Ruscus racemosus_. Among the Greeks the laurel was -sacred to Apollo, especially in connexion with Tempe, in whose laurel -groves the god himself obtained purification from the blood of the -Python. This legend was dramatically represented at the Pythian festival -once in eight years, a boy fleeing from Delphi to Tempe, and after a -time being led back with song, crowned and adorned with laurel. Similar -[Greek: daphnephoriai] were known elsewhere in Greece. Apollo, himself -purified, was the author of purification and atonement to other -penitents, and the laurel was the symbol of this power, which came to be -generally associated with his person and sanctuaries. The relation of -Apollo to the laurel was expressed in the legend of Daphne (q.v.). The -victors in the Pythian games were crowned with the laurels of Apollo, -and thus the laurel became the symbol of triumph in Rome as well as in -Greece. As Apollo was the god of poets, the _Laurea Apollinaris_ -naturally belonged to poetic merit (see LAUREATE). The various -prerogatives of the laurel among the ancients are collected by Pliny -(_Hist. Nat._ xv. 30). It was a sign of truce, like the olive branch; -letters announcing victory and the arms of the victorious soldiery were -garnished with it; it was thought that lightning could not strike it, -and the emperor Tiberius always wore a laurel wreath during -thunderstorms. From its association with the divine power of -purification and protection, it was often set before the door of Greek -houses, and among the Romans it was the guardian of the gates of the -Caesars (Ovid, _Met._ i. 562 sq.). The laurel worn by Augustus and his -successors had a miraculous history: the laurel grove at the imperial -villa by the ninth milestone on the Flaminian way sprang from a shoot -sent from heaven to Livia Drusilla (Sueton. _Galba_, i.). Like the -olive, the laurel was forbidden to profane use. It was employed in -divination; the crackling of its leaves in the sacred flame was a good -omen (Tibull. ii. 5. 81), and their silence unlucky (Propert. ii. 21); -and the leaves when chewed excited a prophetic afflatus ([Greek: -daphnephagoi], cf. Tibull. ii. 5. 63). There is a poem enumerating the -ancient virtues of the laurel by J. Passeratius (1594). - -The last of the plants mentioned above under the name of laurel is the -so-called spurge laurel (_Daphne Laureola_). This and one other species -(_D. Mezereum_), the mezereon, are the sole representatives of the -family Thymelaeaceae in Great Britain. The spurge laurel is a small -evergreen shrub, with alternate somewhat lanceolate leaves with entire -margins. The green flowers are produced in early spring, and form -drooping clusters at the base of the leaves. The calyx is four-cleft, -and carries eight stamens in two circles of four each within the tube. -The pistil forms a berry, green at first, but finally black. The -mezereon differs in blossoming before the leaves are produced, while the -flowers are lilac instead of green. The bark furnishes the drug _Cortex -Mezerei_, for which that of the spurge laurel is often substituted. Both -are powerfully acrid, but the latter is less so than the bark of -mezereon. It is now only used as an ingredient of the _liquor sarsae -compositus concentratus_. Of other species in cultivation there are _D. -Fortunei_ from China, which has lilac flowers; _D. pontica_, a native of -Asia Minor; _D. alpina_, from the Italian Alps; _D. collina_, south -European; and _D. Cneorum_, the garland flower or trailing daphne, the -handsomest of the hardy species. - - See Hemsley's _Handbook of Hardy Trees_, &c. - - - - -LAURENS, HENRY (1724-1792), American statesman, was born in Charleston, -South Carolina, on the 24th of February 1724, of Huguenot ancestry. When -sixteen he became a clerk in a counting-house in London, and later -engaged in commercial pursuits with great success at Charleston until -1771, when he retired from active business. He spent the next three -years travelling in Europe and superintending the education of his sons -in England. In spite of his strong attachment to England, and although -he had defended the Stamp Act, in 1774, in the hope of averting war, he -united with thirty-seven other Americans in a petition to parliament -against the passing of the Boston Port Bill. Becoming convinced that a -peaceful settlement was impracticable, he returned to Charleston at the -close of 1774, and there allied himself with the conservative element of -the Whig party. He was soon made president of the South Carolina council -of safety, and in 1776 vice-president of the state; in the same year he -was sent as a delegate from South Carolina to the general continental -congress at Philadelphia, of which body he was president from November -1777 until December 1778. In August 1780 he started on a mission to -negotiate on behalf of congress a loan of ten million dollars in -Holland; but he was captured on the 3rd of September off the Banks of -Newfoundland by the British frigate "Vestal," taken to London and -closely imprisoned in the Tower. His papers were found to contain a -sketch of a treaty between the United States and Holland projected by -William Lee, in the service of Congress, and Jan de Neufville, acting on -behalf of Mynheer Van Berckel, pensionary of Amsterdam, and this -discovery eventually led to war between Great Britain and the United -Provinces. During his imprisonment his health became greatly impaired. -On the 31st of December 1781 he was released on parole, and he was -finally exchanged for Cornwallis. In June 1782 he was appointed one of -the American commissioners for negotiating peace with Great Britain, but -he did not reach Paris until the 28th of November 1782, only two days -before the preliminaries of peace were signed by himself, John Adams, -Franklin and Jay. On the day of signing, however, he procured the -insertion of a clause prohibiting the British from "carrying away any -negroes or other property of American inhabitants"; and this -subsequently led to considerable friction between the British and -American governments. On account of failing health he did not remain for -the signing of the definitive treaty, but returned to Charleston, where -he died on the 8th of December 1792. - -His son, JOHN LAURENS (1754-1782), American revolutionary officer, was -born at Charleston, South Carolina, on the 28th of October 1754. He was -educated in England, and on his return to America in 1777, in the height -of the revolutionary struggle, he joined Washington's staff. He soon -gained his commander's confidence, which he reciprocated with the most -devoted attachment, and was entrusted with the delicate duties of a -confidential secretary, which he performed with much tact and skill. He -was present in all Washington's battles, from Brandywine to Yorktown, -and his gallantry on every occasion has gained him the title of "the -Bayard of the Revolution." Laurens displayed bravery even to rashness in -the storming of the Chew mansion at Germantown; at Monmouth, where he -saved Washington's life, and was himself severely wounded; and at -Coosahatchie, where, with a handful of men, he defended a pass against a -large English force under General Augustine Prevost, and was again -wounded. He fought a duel against General Charles Lee, and wounded him, -on account of that officer's disrespectful conduct towards Washington. -Laurens distinguished himself further at Savannah, and at the siege of -Charleston in 1780. After the capture of Charleston by the English, he -rejoined Washington, and was selected by him as a special envoy to -appeal to the king of France for supplies for the relief of the American -armies, which had been brought by prolonged service and scanty pay to -the verge of dissolution. The more active co-operation of the French -fleets with the land forces in Virginia, which was one result of his -mission, brought about the disaster of Cornwallis at Yorktown. Laurens -lost no time in rejoining the army, and at Yorktown was at the head of -an American storming party which captured an advanced redoubt. Laurens -was designated with the vicomte de Noailles to arrange the terms of the -surrender, which virtually ended the war, although desultory -skirmishing, especially in the South, attended the months of delay -before peace was formally concluded. In one of these trifling affairs on -the 27th of August 1782, on the Combahee river, Laurens exposed himself -needlessly and was killed. Washington lamented deeply the death of -Laurens, saying of him, "He had not a fault that I could discover, -unless it were intrepidity bordering upon rashness." - - The most valuable of Henry Laurens's papers and pamphlets including - the important "Narrative of the Capture of Henry Laurens, of his - Confinement in the Tower of London, &c., 1780, 1781, 1782," in vol. i. - (Charleston, 1857) of the Society's _Collections_, have been published - by the South Carolina Historical Society. John Laurens's military - correspondence, with a brief memoir by W. G. Simms, was privately - printed by the Bradford Club, New York, in 1867. - - - - -LAURENT, FRANCOIS (1810-1887), Belgian historian and jurisconsult, was -born at Luxemburg on the 8th of July 1810. He held a high appointment in -the ministry of justice for some time before he became professor of -civil law in the university of Ghent in 1836. His advocacy of liberal -and anti-clerical principles both from his chair and in the press made -him bitter enemies, but he retained his position until his death on the -11th of February 1887. He treated the relations of church and state in -_L'Eglise et l'etat_ (Brussels, 3 vols., 1858-1862; new and revised -edition, 1865), and the same subject occupied a large proportion of the -eighteen volumes of his chief historical work, _Etudes sur l'histoire de -l'humanite_ (Ghent and Brussels, 1855-1870), which aroused considerable -interest beyond the boundaries of Belgium. His fame as a lawyer rests on -his authoritative exposition of the Code Napoleon in his _Principes de -droit civil_ (Brussels, 33 vols., 1869-1878), and his _Droit civil -international_ (Brussels, 8 vols., 1880-1881). He was charged in 1879 by -the minister of justice with the preparation of a report on the proposed -revision of the civil code. Besides his anti-clerical pamphlets his -minor writings include much discussion of social questions, of the -organization of savings banks, asylums, &c., and he founded the _Societe -Callier_ for the encouragement of thrift among the working classes. With -Gustave Callier, whose funeral in 1863 was made the occasion of a -display of clerical intolerance, Laurent had much in common, and the -efforts of the society were directed to the continuation of Callier's -philanthropic schemes. - - For a complete list of his works, see G. Koninck, _Bibliographie - nationale_ (Brussels, vol. ii., 1892). - - - - -LAURENTINA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading southwards from Rome. -The question of the nomenclature of the group of roads between the Via -Ardeatina and the Via Ostiensis is somewhat difficult, and much depends -on the view taken as to the site of Laurentum. It seems probable, -however, that the Via Laurentina proper is that which led out of the -Porta Ardeatina of the Aurelian wall and went direct to Tor Paterno, -while the road branching from the Via Ostiensis at the third mile, and -leading past Decimo to Lavinium (Pratica), which crosses the other road -at right angles not far from its destination (the Laurentina there -running S.W. and that to Lavinium S.E.) may for convenience be called -Lavinatis, though this name does not occur in ancient times. On this -latter road, beyond Decimo, two milestones, one of Tiberius, the other -of Maxentius, each bearing the number 11, have been found; and farther -on, at Capocotta, traces of ancient buildings, and an important -sepulchral inscription of a Jewish ruler of a synagogue have come to -light. That the Via Laurentina was near the Via Ardeatina is clear from -the fact that the same contractor was responsible for both roads. -Laurentum was also accessible by a branch from the Via Ostiensis at the -eighth mile (at Malafede) leading past Castel Porziano, the royal -hunting-lodge, which is identical with the ancient Ager Solonius (in -which, Festus tells us, was situated the Pomonal or sacred grove of -Pomona) and which later belonged to Marius. - - See R. Lanciani in articles quoted under LAVINIUM. (T. As.) - - - - -LAURENTIUS, PAUL (1554-1624), Lutheran divine, was born on the 30th of -March 1554 at Ober Wierau, where his father, of the same names, was -pastor. From a school at Zwickau he entered (1573) the university of -Leipzig, graduating in 1577. In 1578 he became rector of the Martin -school at Halberstadt; in 1583 he was appointed town's preacher at -Plauen-im-Vogtland, and in 1586 superintendent at Oelnitz. On the 20th -of October 1595 he took his doctorate in theology at Jena, his thesis on -the _Symbolum Athanasii_ (1597), gaining him similar honours at -Wittenberg and Leipzig. He was promoted (1605) to be pastor and -superintendent at Dresden, and transferred (1616) to the superintendence -at Meissen, where he died on the 24th of February 1624. His works -consist chiefly of commentaries and expository discourses on prophetic -books of the Old Testament, parts of the Psalter, the Lord's Prayer and -the history of the Passion. In two orations he compared Luther to -Elijah. Besides theological works he was the author of a _Spicilegium -Gnomonologicum_ (1612). - - The main authority is C. Schlegel, the historian of the Dresden - superintendents (1698), summarized by H. W. Rotermund, in the - additions (1810) to Jocher, _Gelehrten-Lexicon_ (1750). (A. Go.*) - - - - -LAURIA (LURIA or LORIA) ROGER DE (d. 1305), admiral of Aragon and -Sicily, was the most prominent figure in the naval war which arose -directly from the Sicilian Vespers. Nothing is really known of his life -before he was named admiral in 1283. His father was a supporter of the -Hohenstaufen, and his mother came to Spain with Costanza, the daughter -of Manfred of Beneventum, when she married Peter, the eldest son and -heir of James the Conqueror of Aragon. According to one account Bella of -Lauria, the admiral's mother, had been the foster mother of Costanza. -Roger, who accompanied his mother, was bred at the court of Aragon and -endowed with lands in the newly conquered kingdom of Valencia. When the -misrule of Charles of Anjou's French followers had produced the famous -revolt known as the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, Roger de Lauria -accompanied King Peter III. of Aragon on the expedition which under the -cover of an attack on the Moorish kingdom of Tunis was designed to be an -attempt to obtain possession of all or at least part of the Hohenstaufen -dominions in Naples and Sicily which the king claimed by right of his -wife as the heiress of Manfred. In 1283, when the island had put itself -under the protection of Peter III. and had crowned him king, he gave the -command of his fleet to Roger de Lauria. The commission speaks of him in -the most laudatory terms, but makes no reference to previous military -services. - -From this time forward till the peace of Calatabellota in 1303, Roger -de Lauria was the ever victorious leader of fleets in the service of -Aragon, both in the waters of southern Italy and on the coast of -Catalonia. In the year of his appointment he defeated a French naval -force in the service of Charles of Anjou, off Malta. The main object -before him was to repel the efforts of the Angevine party to reconquer -Sicily and then to carry the war into their dominions in Naples. -Although Roger de Lauria did incidental fighting on shore, he was as -much a naval officer as any modern admiral, and his victories were won -by good manoeuvring and by discipline. The Catalan squadron, on which -the Sicilian was moulded, was in a state of high and intelligent -efficiency. Its chiefs relied not on merely boarding, and the use of the -sword, as the French forces of Charles of Anjou did, but on the use of -the ram, and of the powerful cross-bows used by the Catalans either by -hand or, in case of the larger ones, mounted on the bulwarks, with great -skill. The conflict was in fact the equivalent on the water of the -battles between the English bowmen and the disorderly chivalry of France -in the Hundred Years' War. In 1284 Roger defeated the Angevine fleet in -the Bay of Naples, taking prisoner the heir to the kingdom, Charles of -Salerno, who remained a prisoner in the hands of the Aragonese in -Sicily, and later in Spain, for years. In 1285 he fought on the coast of -Catalonia one of the most brilliant campaigns in all naval history. The -French king Philippe le Hardi had invaded Catalonia with a large army to -which the pope gave the character of crusaders, in order to support his -cousin of Anjou in his conflict with the Aragonese. The king, Peter -III., had offended his nobles by his vigorous exercise of the royal -authority, and received little support from them, but the outrages -perpetrated by the French invaders raised the towns and country against -them. The invaders advanced slowly, taking the obstinately defended -towns one by one, and relying on the co-operation of a large number of -allies, who were stationed in squadrons along the coast, and who brought -stores and provisions from Narbonne and Aigues Mortes. They relied in -fact wholly on their fleet for their existence. A successful blow struck -at that would force them to retreat. King Peter was compelled to risk -Sicily for a time, and he recalled Roger de Lauria from Palermo to the -coast of Catalonia. The admiral reached Barcelona on the 24th of August, -and was informed of the disposition of the French. He saw that if he -could break the centre of their line of squadrons, stretched as it was -so far that its general superiority of numbers was lost in the attempt -to occupy the whole of the coast, he could then dispose of the -extremities in detail. On the night of the 9th of September he fell on -the central squadron of the French fleet near the Hormigas. The Catalan -and Sicilian squadrons doubled on the end of the enemies' line, and by a -vigorous employment of the ram, as well as by the destructive shower of -bolts from the cross-bows, which cleared the decks of the French, gained -a complete victory. The defeat of the enemy was followed, as usually in -medieval naval wars, by a wholesale massacre. Roger then made for Rosas, -and tempted out the French squadron stationed there by approaching under -French colours. In the open it was beaten in its turn. The result was -the capture of the town, and of the stores collected there by King -Philippe for the support of his army. Within a short time he was forced -to retreat amid sufferings from hunger, and the incessant attacks of the -Catalan mountaineers, by which his army was nearly annihilated. This -campaign, which was followed up by destructive attacks on the French -coast, saved Catalonia from the invaders, and completely ruined the -French naval power for the time being. No medieval admiral of any nation -displayed an equal combination of intellect and energy, and none of -modern times has surpassed it. The work had been so effectually done on -the coast of Catalonia that Roger de Lauria was able to return to -Sicily, and resume his command in the struggle of Aragonese and Angevine -to gain, or to hold, the possession of Naples. - -He maintained his reputation and was uniformly successful in his battles -at sea, but they were not always fought for the defence of Sicily. The -death of Peter III. in 1286 and of his eldest son Alphonso in the -following year caused a division among the members of the house of -Aragon. The new king, James, would have given up Sicily to the Angevine -line with which he made peace and alliance, but his younger brother -Fadrique accepted the crown offered him by the Sicilians, and fought for -his own hand against both the Angevines and his senior. King James tried -to force him to submission without success. Roger de Lauria adhered for -a time to Fadrique, but his arrogant temper made him an intolerable -supporter, and he appears, moreover, to have thought that he was bound -to obey the king of Aragon. His large estates in Valencia gave him a -strong reason for not offending that sovereign. He therefore left -Fadrique, who confiscated his estates in Sicily and put one of his -nephews to death as a traitor. For this Roger de Lauria took a ferocious -revenge in two successive victories at sea over the Sicilians. When the -war, which had become a ravening of wild beasts, was at last ended by -the peace of Calatabellota, Roger de Lauria retired to Valencia, where -he died on the 2nd of January 1305, and was buried, by his express -orders, in the church of Santas Creus, a now deserted monastery of the -Cistercians, at the feet of his old master Peter III. In his ferocity, -and his combination of loyalty to his feudal lord with utter want of -scruple to all other men, Roger belonged to his age. As a captain he was -far above his contemporaries and his successors for many generations. - - Signor Amari's _Guerra del Vespro Siciliano_ gives a general picture - of these wars, but the portrait of Roger de Lauria must be sought in - the _Chronicle_ of the Catalan Ramon de Muntaner who knew him and was - formed in his school. There is a very fair and well "documented" - account of the masterly campaign of 1285 in Charles de la Ronciere's - _Histoire de la marine francaise_, i. 189-217. (D. H.) - - - - -LAURIA, or LORIA, a city of Basilicata, Italy, in the province of -Potenza, situated near the borders of Calabria, 7(1/2) m. by road S. of -Lagonegro. Pop. (1901) 10,470. It is a walled town on the steep side of -a hill with another portion in the plain below, 1821 ft. above -sea-level. The castle was the birthplace of Ruggiero di Loria, the great -Italian admiral of the 13th century. It was destroyed by the French -under Massena in 1806. - - - - -LAURIER, SIR WILFRID (1841- ), Canadian statesman, was born on the -20th of November 1841, at St Lin in the province of Quebec. The child of -French Roman Catholic parents, he attended the elementary school of his -native parish and for eight or nine months was a pupil of the Protestant -elementary school at New Glasgow in order to learn English; his -association with the Presbyterian family with whom he lived during this -period had a permanent influence on his mind. At twelve years of age he -entered L'Assomption college, and was there for seven years. The -college, like all the secondary schools in Quebec then available for -Roman Catholics, was under direct ecclesiastical control. On leaving it -he entered a law office at Montreal and took the law course at McGill -University. At graduation he delivered the valedictory address for his -class. This, like so many of his later utterances, closed with an appeal -for sympathy and union between the French and English races as the -secret of the future of Canada. He began to practise law in Montreal, -but owing to ill-health soon removed to Athabaska, where he opened a law -office and undertook also to edit _Le Defricheur_, a newspaper then on -the eve of collapse. At Athabaska, the seat of one of the superior -courts of Quebec, the population of the district was fairly divided -between French- and English-speaking people, and Laurier's career was -undoubtedly influenced by his constant association with English-speaking -people and his intimate acquaintance with their views and aspirations. - -While at Montreal he had joined the Institut Canadien, a literary and -scientific society which, owing to its liberal discussions and the fact -that certain books upon its shelves were on the _Index expurgatorius_, -was finally condemned by the Roman Catholic authorities. _Le Defricheur_ -was an organ of extreme French sentiment, opposed to confederation, and -also under ecclesiastical censure. One of its few surviving copies -contains an article by Laurier opposing confederation as a scheme -designed in the interest of the English colonies in North America, and -certain to prove the tomb of the French race and the ruin of Lower -Canada. The Liberals of Quebec under the leadership of Sir Antoine -Dorion were hostile to confederation, or at least to the terms of union -agreed upon at the Quebec conference, and Laurier in editorials and -speeches maintained the position of Dorion and his allies. He was -elected to the Quebec legislature in 1871, and his first speech in the -provincial assembly excited great interest, on account of its literary -qualities and the attractive manner and logical method of the speaker. -He was not less successful in the Dominion House of Commons, to which he -was elected in 1874. During his first two years in the federal -parliament his chief speeches were made in defence of Riel and the -French halfbreeds who were concerned in the Red River rebellion, and on -fiscal questions. Sir John Macdonald, then in opposition, had committed -his party to a protectionist policy, and Laurier, notwithstanding that -the Liberal party stood for a low tariff, avowed himself to be "a -moderate protectionist." He declared that if he were in Great Britain he -would be a free trader, but that free trade or protection must be -applied according to the necessities of a country, and that which -protection necessarily involved taxation it was the price a young and -vigorous nation must pay for its development. But the Liberal -government, to which Laurier was admitted as minister of inland revenue -in 1877, made only a slight increase in duties, raising the general -tariff from 15% to 17(1/2)%; and against the political judgment of -Alexander Mackenzie, Sir Richard Cartwright, George Brown, Laurier and -other of the more influential leaders of the party, it adhered to a low -tariff platform. In the bye-election which followed Laurier's admission -to the cabinet he was defeated--the only personal defeat he ever -sustained; but a few weeks later he was returned for Quebec East, a -constituency which he held thenceforth by enormous majorities. In 1878 -his party went out of office and Sir John Macdonald entered upon a long -term of power, with protection as the chief feature of his policy, to -which was afterwards added the construction of the Canadian Pacific -railway. - -After the defeat of the Mackenzie government, Laurier sat in Parliament -as the leader of the Quebec Liberals and first lieutenant to the Hon. -Edward Blake, who succeeded Mackenzie in the leadership of the party. He -was associated with Blake in his sustained opposition to high tariff, -and to the Conservative plan for the construction of the Canadian -Pacific railway, and was a conspicuous figure in the long struggle -between Sir John Macdonald and the leaders of the Liberal party to -settle the territorial limits of the province of Ontario and the -legislative rights of the provinces under the constitution. He was -forced also to maintain a long conflict with the ultramontane element of -the Roman Catholic church in Quebec, which for many years had a close -working alliance with the Conservative politicians of the province and -even employed spiritual coercion in order to detach votes from the -Liberal party. Notwithstanding that Quebec was almost solidly Roman -Catholic the Rouges sternly resisted clerical pressure; they appealed to -the courts and had certain elections voided on the ground of undue -clerical influence, and at length persuaded the pope to send out a -delegate to Canada, through whose inquiry into the circumstances the -abuses were checked and the zeal of the ultramontanes restrained. - -In 1887, upon the resignation of Blake on the ground of ill-health, -Laurier became leader of the Liberal party, although he and many of the -more influential men in the party doubted the wisdom of the proceeding. -He was the first French Canadian to lead a federal party in Canada since -confederation. Apart from the natural fear that he would arouse -prejudice in the English-speaking provinces, the second Riel rebellion -was then still fresh in the public mind, and the fierce nationalist -agitation which Riel's execution had excited in Quebec had hardly -subsided. Laurier could hardly have come to the leadership at a more -inopportune moment, and probably he would not have accepted the office -at all if he had not believed that Blake could be persuaded to resume -the leadership when his health was restored. But from the first he won -great popularity even in the English-speaking provinces, and showed -unusual capacity for leadership. His party was beaten in the first -general election held after he became leader (1891), but even with its -policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States, and with Sir -John Macdonald still at the head of the Conservative party, it was -beaten by only a small majority. Five years later, with unrestricted -reciprocity relegated to the background, and with a platform which -demanded tariff revision so adjusted as not to endanger established -interests, and which opposed the federal measure designed to restore in -Manitoba the separate or Roman Catholic schools which the provincial -government had abolished, Laurier carried the country, and in July 1896 -he was called by Lord Aberdeen, then governor-general, to form a -government. - -He was the first French-Canadian to occupy the office of premier; and -his personal supremacy was shown by his long continuance in power. -During the years from 1896 to 1910, he came to hold a position within -the British Empire which was in its way unique, and in this period he -had seen Canadian prosperity advance progressively by leaps and bounds. -The chief features of his administration were the fiscal preference of -33(1/3)% in favour of goods imported into Canada from Great Britain, the -despatch of Canadian contingents to South Africa during the Boer war, -the contract with the Grand Trunk railway for the construction of a -second transcontinental road from ocean to ocean, the assumption by -Canada of the imperial fortresses at Halifax and Esquimault, the -appointment of a federal railway commission with power to regulate -freight charges, express rates and telephone rates, and the relations -between competing companies, the reduction of the postal rate to Great -Britain from 5 cents to 2 cents and of the domestic rate from 3 cents to -2 cents, a substantial contribution to the Pacific cable, a practical -and courageous policy of settlement and development in the Western -territories, the division of the North-West territories into the -provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and the enactment of the -legislation necessary to give them provincial status, and finally -(1910), a tariff arrangement with the United States, which, if not all -that Canada might claim in the way of reciprocity, showed how entirely -the course of events had changed the balance of commercial interests in -North America. - -Laurier made his first visit to Great Britain on the occasion of Queen -Victoria's diamond jubilee (1897), when he received the grand cross of -the Bath; he then secured the denunciation of the Belgian and German -treaties and thus obtained for the colonies the right to make -preferential trade arrangements with the mother country. His personality -made a powerful impression in Great Britain and also in France, which he -visited before his return to Canada. His strong facial resemblance both -to Lord Beaconsfield and to Sir John Macdonald marked him out in the -public eye, and he captured attention by his charm of manner, fine -command of scholarly English and genuine eloquence. Some of his speeches -in Great Britain, coming as they did from a French-Canadian, and -revealing delicate appreciation of British sentiment and thorough -comprehension of the genius of British institutions, excited great -interest and enthusiasm, while one or two impassioned speeches in the -Canadian parliament during the Boer war profoundly influenced opinion in -Canada and had a pronounced effect throughout the empire. - -A skilful party-leader, Laurier kept from the first not only the -affection of his political friends but the respect of his opponents; -while enforcing the orderly conduct of public business, he was careful -as first minister to maintain the dignity of parliament. In office he -proved more of an opportunist than his career in opposition would have -indicated, but his political courage and personal integrity remained -beyond suspicion. His jealousy for the political autonomy of Canada was -noticeable in his attitude at the Colonial conference held at the time -of King Edward's coronation, and marked all his diplomatic dealings with -the mother country. But he strove for sympathetic relations between -Canadian and imperial authorities, and favoured general legislative and -fiscal co-operation between the two countries. He strove also for good -relations between the two races in Canada, and between Canada and the -United States. Although he was classed in Canada as a Liberal, his -tendencies would in England have been considered strongly conservative; -an individualist rather than a collectivist, he opposed the intrusion -of the state into the sphere of private enterprise, and showed no -sympathy with the movement for state operation of railways, telegraphs -and telephones, or with any kindred proposal looking to the extension of -the obligations of the central government. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. S. Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal - Party; a Political History_ (Toronto, 1903); L. O. David, _Laurier et - son temps_ (Montreal, 1905); see also Henri Moreau, _Sir Wilfrid - Laurier, Premier Ministre du Canada_ (Paris, 1902); and the collection - of Laurier's speeches from 1871 to 1890, compiled by Ulric Barthe - (Quebec, 1890). (J. S. W.) - - - - -LAURISTON, JACQUES ALEXANDRE BERNARD LAW, MARQUIS DE (1768-1828), French -soldier and diplomatist, was the son of Jacques Francois Law de -Lauriston (1724-1785), a general officer in the French army, and was -born at Pondicherry on the 1st of February 1768. He obtained his first -commission about 1786, served with the artillery and on the staff in the -earlier Revolutionary campaigns, and became brigadier of artillery in -1795. Resigning in 1796, he was brought back into the service in 1800 as -aide-de-camp to Napoleon, with whom as a cadet Lauriston had been on -friendly terms. In the years immediately preceding the first empire -Lauriston was successively director of the Le Fere artillery school and -special envoy to Denmark, and he was selected to convey to England the -ratification of the peace of Amiens (1802). In 1805, having risen to the -rank of general of division, he took part in the war against Austria. He -occupied Venice and Ragusa in 1806, was made governor-general of Venice -in 1807, took part in the Erfurt negotiations of 1808, was made a count, -served with the emperor in Spain in 1808-1809 and held commands under -the viceroy Eugene Beauharnais in the Italian campaign and the advance -to Vienna in the same year. At the battle of Wagram he commanded the -guard artillery in the famous "artillery preparation" which decided the -battle. In 1811 he was made ambassador to Russia; in 1812 he held a -command in the _Grande Armee_ and won distinction by his firmness in -covering the retreat from Moscow. He commanded the V. army corps at -Lutzen and Bautzen and the V. and XI. in the autumn campaign, falling -into the hands of the enemy in the disastrous retreat from Leipzig. He -was held a prisoner of war until the fall of the empire, and then joined -Louis XVIII., to whom he remained faithful in the Hundred Days. His -reward was a seat in the house of peers and a command in the royal -guard. In 1817 he was created marquis and in 1823 marshal of France. -During the Spanish War he commanded the corps which besieged and took -Pamplona. He died at Paris on the 12th of June 1828. - - - - -LAURIUM ([Greek: Laurion], mod. ERGASTIRI), a mining town in Attica, -Greece, famous for the silver mines which were one of the chief sources -of revenue of the Athenian state, and were employed for coinage. After -the battle of Marathon, Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to devote -the revenue derived from the mines to shipbuilding, and thus laid the -foundation of the Athenian naval power, and made possible the victory of -Salamis. The mines, which were the property of the state, were usually -farmed out for a certain fixed sum and a percentage on the working; -slave labour was exclusively employed. Towards the end of the 5th -century the output was diminished, partly owing to the Spartan -occupation of Decelea. But the mines continued to be worked, though -Strabo records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and -Pausanias speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient -workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and -pans and other arrangements for extracting the metal, may still be seen. -The mines are still worked at the present day by French and Greek -companies, but mainly for lead, manganese and cadmium. The population of -the modern town was 10,007 in 1907. - - See E. Ardaillon, "Les Mines du Laurion dans l'antiquite," No. lxxvii. - of the _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_. - - - - -LAURIUM, a village of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A., near the centre -of Keweenaw peninsula, the northern extremity of the state. Pop. (1890) -1159; (1900) 5643, of whom 2286 were foreign-born; (1904) 7653; (1910) -8537. It is served by the Mineral Range and the Mohawk and Copper Range -railways. It is in one of the most productive copper districts in the -United States, and copper mining is its chief industry. Immediately W. -of Laurium is the famous Calumet and Hecla mine. The village was -formerly named Calumet, and was incorporated under that name in 1889, -but in 1895 its name was changed by the legislature to Laurium, in -allusion to the mineral wealth of Laurium in Greece. The name Calumet is -now applied to the post office in the village of Red Jacket -(incorporated 1875; pop. 1900, 4668; 1904, 3784; 1910, 4211), W. of the -Calumet and Hecla mine; and Laurium, the mining property and Red Jacket -are all in the township of Calumet (pop. 1904, state census, 28,587). - - - - -LAURUSTINUS, in botany, the popular name of a common hardy evergreen -garden shrub known botanically as _Viburnum Tinus_, with rather -dark-green ovate leaves in pairs and flat-topped clusters (or corymbs) -of white flowers, which are rose-coloured before expansion, and appear -very early in the year. It is a native of the Mediterranean region, and -was in cultivation in Britain at the end of the 16th century. _Viburnum_ -belongs to the natural order Caprifoliaceae and includes the common -wayfaring tree (_V. Lantana_) and the guelder rose (_V. Opulus_). - - - - -LAURVIK, LARVIK or LAURVIG, a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg and -Laurvik _amt_ (county), at the head of a short fjord near the mouth of -the Laagen river, 98 m. S.S.W. of Christiania by the Skien railway. Pop. -(1900) 10,664. It has various industries, including saw and planing -mills, shipbuilding, glassworks and factories for wood-pulp, barrels and -potato flour; and an active trade in exporting timber, ice, wood-pulp -and granite, chiefly to Great Britain, and in importing from the same -country coal and salt. The port has a depth of 18 to 24 ft. beside the -quays. Four miles south is Fredriksvaern, formerly a station of the -Norwegian fleet and the seat of a naval academy. Laurviks Bad is a -favourite spa, with mineral and sulphur springs and mud-baths. - - - - -LAUSANNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of Vaud. It is the junction of -the railway lines from Geneva, from Brieg and the Simplon, from Fribourg -and Bern, and from Vallorbe (for Paris). A funicular railway connects -the upper town with the central railway station and with Ouchy, the port -of Lausanne on the lake of Geneva. Lausanne takes its name from the Flon -stream flowing through it, which was formerly called Laus (water). The -older or upper portion of the town is built on the crest and slopes of -five hillocks and in the hollows between them, all forming part of the -Jorat range. It has a picturesque appearance from the surface of the -lake, above which the cathedral rises some 500 ft., while from the town -there is a fine view across the lake towards the mountains of Savoy and -of the Valais. The quaint characteristics of the hilly site of the old -town have largely been destroyed by modern improvements, which began in -1836 and were not quite completed in 1910. The Grand Pont, designed by -the cantonal engineer, Adrien Pichard (1790-1841), was built 1839-1844, -while the Barre tunnel was pierced 1851-1855 and the bridge of Chauderon -was built in 1905. The valleys and lower portions of the town were -gradually filled up so as to form a series of squares, of which those of -Riponne and of St Francois are the finest, the latter now being the real -centre of the town. The railways were built between 1856 and 1862, while -the opening of the Simplon tunnel (1906) greatly increased the -commercial importance of Lausanne, which is now on the great -international highway from Paris to Milan. From 1896 onwards a -well-planned set of tramways within the town was constructed. The town -is still rapidly extending, especially towards the south and west. Since -the days of Gibbon (resident here for three periods, 1753-1758, -1763-1764 and 1783-1793), whose praises of the town have been often -repeated, Lausanne has become a favourite place of residence for -foreigners (including many English), who are especially attracted by the -excellent establishments for secondary and higher education. Hence in -1900 there were 9501 foreign residents (of whom 628 were British -subjects) out of a total population of 46,732 inhabitants; in 1905 it -was reckoned that these numbers had risen respectively to 10,625, 818 -and 53,577. In 1709 it is said that the inhabitants numbered but 7432 -and 9965 in 1803, while the numbers were 20,515 in 1860 and 33,340 in -1888. Of the population in 1900 the great majority was French-speaking -(only 6627 German-speaking and 3146 Italian-speaking) and Protestant -(9364 Romanists and 473 Jews). - -The principal building is the cathedral church (now Protestant) of Notre -Dame, which with the castle occupies the highest position. It is the -finest medieval ecclesiastical building in Switzerland. Earlier -buildings were more or less completely destroyed by fire, but the -present edifice was consecrated in 1275 by Pope Gregory X. in the -presence of the emperor Rudolf of Habsburg. It was sacked after the -Bernese conquest (1536) and the introduction of Protestantism, but many -ancient tapestries and other precious objects are still preserved in the -Historical Museum at Bern. The church was well restored at great cost -from 1873 onwards, as it is the great pride of the citizens. Close by is -the castle, built in the early 15th century by the bishops, later the -residence of the Bernese bailiffs and now the seat of the various -branches of the administration of the canton of Vaud. Near both is the -splendid Palais de Rumine (on the Place de la Riponne), opened in 1906 -and now housing the university as well as the cantonal library, the -cantonal picture gallery (or Musee Arlaud, founded 1841) and the -cantonal collections of archaeology, natural history, &c. The university -was raised to that rank in 1890, but, as an academy, dates from 1537. -Among its former teachers may be mentioned Theodore Beza, Conrad Gesner, -J. P. de Crousaz, Charles Monnard, Alexandre Vinet, Eugene Rambert, -Juste Olivier and several members of the Secretan family. On the -Montbenon heights to the south-west of the cathedral group is the -federal palace of justice, the seat (since 1886) of the federal court of -justice, which, erected by the federal constitution of 29th May 1874, -was fixed at Lausanne by a federal resolution of 26th June 1874. The -house, La Grotte, which Gibbon inhabited 1783-1793, and on the terrace -of which he completed (1787) his famous history, was demolished in 1896 -to make room for the new post office that stands on the Place St -Francois. The asylum for the blind was mainly founded (1845) by the -generosity of W. Haldimand, an Englishman of Swiss descent. The first -book printed in Lausanne was the missal of the cathedral church (1493), -while the _Gazette de Lausanne_ (founded 1798) took that name in 1804. -Lausanne has been the birthplace of many distinguished men, such as -Benjamin Constant, the Secretans, Vinet and Rambert. It is the seat of -many benevolent, scientific and literary societies and establishments. - -The original town (mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary) was on the shore -of the lake, near Vidy, south-west of the present city. It was burnt in -the 4th century by the Alamanni. Some of the inhabitants took refuge in -the hills above and there founded a new town, which acquired more -importance when Bishop Marius about 590 chose it as his see city -(perhaps transferring it from Avenches). Here rose the cathedral church, -the bishop's palace, &c. Across the Flon was a Burgundian settlement, -later known as the Bourg, while to the west was a third colony around -the church of St Laurent. These three elements joined together to form -the present city. The bishops obtained little by little great temporal -powers (the diocese extended to the left bank of the Aar) and riches, -becoming in 1125 princes of the empire, while their chapter was -recruited only from the noblest families. But in 1368 the bishop was -forced to recognize various liberties and customs that had been -gradually won by the citizens, the _Plaid General_ of that year showing -that there was already some kind of municipal government, save for the -_cite_, which was not united with the _ville inferieure_ or the other -four _quartiers_ (Bourg, St Laurent, La Palud and Le Pont) in 1481. In -1525 the city made an alliance with Bern and Fribourg. But in 1536 the -territory of the bishop (as well as the Savoyard barony of Vaud) was -forcibly conquered by the Bernese, who at once introduced Protestantism. -The Bernese occupation lasted till 1798, though in 1723 an attempt was -made to put an end to it by Major Davel, who lost his life in -consequence. In 1798 Lausanne became a simple prefecture of the canton -Leman of the Helvetic republic. But in 1803, on the creation of the -canton of Vaud by the Act of Mediation, it became its capital. The -bishop of Lausanne resided after 1663 at Fribourg, while from 1821 -onwards he added "and of Geneva" to his title. - - Besides the general works dealing with the canton of Vaud (q.v.), the - following books refer specially to Lausanne: A. Bernus, _L'Imprimerie - a Lausanne et a Morges jusqu'a la fin du 16^(ieme) siecle_ (Lausanne, - 1904); M. Besson, _Recherches sur les origines des eveches de Geneve, - Lausanne, Sion_ (Fribourg, 1906); A. Bonnard, "Lausanne au 18^(ieme) - siecle," in the work entitled _Chez nos aieux_ (Lausanne, 1902); E. - Dupraz, _La Cathedrale de Lausanne ... etude historique_ (Lausanne, - 1906); E. Gibbon, _Autobiography and Letters_ (3 vols., 1896); F. - Gingins and F. Forel, _Documents concernant l'ancien eveche de - Lausanne_, 2 parts (Lausanne, 1846-1847); J. H. Lewis and F. Gribble, - _Lausanne_ (1909); E. van Muyden and others, _Lausanne a travers les - ages_ (Lausanne, 1906); Meredith Read, _Historic Studies in Vaud, - Berne and Savoy_ (2 vols., 1897); M. Schmitt, _Memoires hist. sur le - diocese de Lausanne_ (2 vols., Fribourg, 1859); J. Stammler - (afterwards bishop of Lausanne), _Le Tresor de la cathedrale de - Lausanne_ (Lausanne, 1902; trans. of a German book of 1894). - (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LAUTREC, ODET DE FOIX, VICOMTE DE (1488-1528), French soldier. The -branch of the viscounts of Lautrec originated with Pierre, the grandson -of Archambaud de Grailly, captal de Buch, who came into possession of -the county of Foix in 1401. Odet de Foix and his two brothers, the -seigneur de Lescun and the seigneur de l'Esparre or Asparros, served -Francis I. as captains; and the influence of their sister, Francoise de -Chateaubriant, who became the king' mistress, gained them high offices. -In 1515 Lautrec took part in the campaign of Marignano. In 1516 he -received the government of the Milanese, and by his severity made the -French domination insupportable. In 1521 he succeeded in defending the -duchy against the Spanish army, but in 1522 he was completely defeated -at the battle of the Bicocca, and was forced to evacuate the Milanese. -The mutiny of his Swiss troops had compelled him, against his wish, to -engage in the battle. Created marshal of France, he received again, in -1527, the command of the army of Italy, occupied the Milanese, and was -then sent to undertake the conquest of the kingdom of Naples. The -defection of Andrea Doria and the plague which broke out in the French -camp brought on a fresh disaster. Lautrec himself caught the infection, -and died on the 15th of August 1528. He had the reputation of a gallant -and able soldier, but this reputation scarcely seems to be justified by -the facts; though he was always badly used by fortune. - - There is abundant MS. correspondence in the Bibliotheque Nationale, - Paris. See the Works of Brantome (Coll. Societe d'Histoire de France, - vol. iii., 1867); _Memoirs_ of Martin du Bellay (Coll. Michaud and - Poujoulat, vol. v., 1838). - - - - -LAUZUN, ANTONIN NOMPAR DE CAUMONT, MARQUIS DE PUYGUILHEM, DUC DE -(1632-1723), French courtier and soldier, was the son of Gabriel, comte -de Lauzun, and his wife Charlotte, daughter of the duc de La Force. He -was brought up with the children of his kinsman, the marechal de -Gramont, of whom the comte de Guiche became the lover of Henrietta of -England, duchess of Orleans, while Catherine Charlotte, afterwards -princess of Monaco, was the object of the one passion of Lauzun's life. -He entered the army, and served under Turenne, also his kinsman, and in -1655 succeeded his father as commander of the _cent gentilshommes de la -maison du roi_. Puyguilhem (or Peguilin, as contemporaries simplified -his name) rapidly rose in Louis XIV.'s favour, became colonel of the -royal regiment of dragoons, and was gazetted _marechal de camp_. He and -Mme de Monaco belonged to the coterie of the young duchess of Orleans. -His rough wit and skill in practical jokes pleased Louis XIV., but his -jealousy and violence were the causes of his undoing. He prevented a -meeting between Louis XIV. and Mme de Monaco, and it was jealousy in -this matter, rather than hostility to Louise de la Valliere, which led -him to promote Mme de Montespan's intrigues with the king. He asked this -lady to secure for him the post of grand-master of the artillery, and on -Louis's refusal to give him the appointment he turned his back on the -king, broke his sword, and swore that never again would he serve a -monarch who had broken his word. The result was a short sojourn in the -Bastille, but he soon returned to his functions of court buffoon. -Meanwhile, the duchess of Montpensier (La Grande Mademoiselle) had -fallen in love with the little man, whose ugliness seems to have -exercised a certain fascination over many women. He naturally encouraged -one of the greatest heiresses in Europe, and the wedding was fixed for -the 20th of December 1670, when on the 18th Louis sent for his cousin -and forbade the marriage. Mme de Montespan had never forgiven his fury -when she failed to procure the grand-mastership of the artillery, and -now, with Louvois, secured his arrest. He was removed in November 1671 -from the Bastille to Pignerol, where excessive precautions were taken to -ensure his safety. He was eventually allowed free intercourse with -Fouquet, but before that time he managed to find a way through the -chimney into Fouquet's room, and on another occasion succeeded in -reaching the courtyard in safety. Another fellow-prisoner, from -communication with whom he was supposed to be rigorously excluded, was -Eustache Dauger (see IRON MASK). - -It was now intimated to Mademoiselle that Lauzun's restoration to -liberty depended on her immediate settlement of the principality of -Dombes, the county of Eu and the duchy of Aumale--three properties -assigned by her to Lauzun--on the little duc de Maine, eldest son of -Louis XIV. and Mme de Montespan. She gave way, but Lauzun, even after -ten years of imprisonment, refused to sign the documents, when he was -brought to Bourbon for the purpose. A short term of imprisonment at -Chalon-sur-Saone made him change his mind, but when he was set free -Louis XIV. was still set against the marriage, which is supposed to have -taken place secretly (see MONTPENSIER). Married or not, Lauzun was -openly courting Fouquet's daughter, whom he had seen at Pignerol. He was -to be restored to his place at court, and to marry Mlle Fouquet, who, -however, became Mme d'Uzes in 1683. In 1685 Lauzun went to England to -seek his fortune under James II., whom he had served as duke of York in -Flanders. He rapidly gained great influence at the English court. In -1688 he was again in England, and arranged the flight of Mary of Modena -and the infant prince, whom he accompanied to Calais, where he received -strict instructions from Louis to bring them "on any pretext" to -Vincennes. In the late autumn of 1689 he was put in command of the -expedition fitted out at Brest for service in Ireland, and he sailed in -the following year. Lauzun was honest, a quality not too common in James -II.'s officials in Ireland, but had no experience of the field, and he -blindly followed Richard Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel. After the battle of -the Boyne they fled to Limerick, and thence to the west, leaving Patrick -Sarsfield to show a brave front. In September they sailed for France, -and on their arrival at Versailles Lauzun found that his failure had -destroyed any prospect of a return of Louis XIV.'s favour. Mademoiselle -died in 1693, and two years later Lauzun married Genevieve de Durfort, a -child of fourteen, daughter of the marechal de Lorges. Mary of Modena, -through whose interest Lauzun secured his dukedom, retained her faith in -him, and it was he who in 1715, more than a quarter of a century after -the flight from Whitehall, brought her the news of the disaster of -Sheriffmuir. Lauzun died on the 19th of November 1723. The duchy fell to -his nephew, Armand de Gontaut, comte de Biron. - - See the letters of Mme de Sevigne, the memoirs of Saint-Simon, who was - Lauzun's wife's brother-in-law; also J. Lair, _Nicolas Fouquet_, vol. - ii. (1890); Martin Hailes, _Mary of Modena_ (1905), and M. F. Sandars, - _Lauzun, Courtier and Adventurer_ (1908). - - - - -LAVA, an Italian word (from Lat. _lavare_, to wash) applied to the -liquid products of volcanic activity. Streams of rain-water, formed by -condensation of exhaled steam often mingled with volcanic ashes so as to -produce mud, are known as _lava d'acqua_, whilst the streams of molten -matter are called _lava di fuoco_. The term lava is applied by -geologists to all matter of volcanic origin, which is, or has been, in a -molten state. The magma, or molten lava in the interior of the earth, -may be regarded as a mutual solution of various mineral silicates, -charged with highly-heated vapour, sometimes to the extent of -super-saturation. According to the proportion of silica, the lava is -distinguished as "acid" or "basic." The basic lavas are usually darker -and denser than lavas of acid type, and when fused they tend to flow to -great distances, and may thus form far-spreading sheets, whilst the acid -lavas, being more viscous, rapidly consolidate after extrusion. The lava -is emitted from the volcanic vent at a high temperature, but on exposure -to the air it rapidly consolidates superficially, forming a crust which -in many cases is soon broken up by the continued flow of the subjacent -liquid lava, so that the surface becomes rugged with clinkers. J. D. -Dana introduced the term "aa" for this rough kind of lava-stream, whilst -he applied the term "pahoehoe" to those flows which have a smooth -surface, or are simply wrinkled and ropy; these terms being used in this -sense in Hawaii, in relation to the local lavas. The different kinds of -lava are more fully described in the article VOLCANO. - - - - -LAVABO (Lat. "I will wash"; the Fr. equivalent is lavoir), in -ecclesiastical usage, the term for the washing of the priests' hands, at -the celebration of the Mass, at the offertory. The words of Psalm xxvi. -6, _Lavabo inter innocentes manus meas_, are said during the rite. The -word is also used for the basin employed in the ritual washing, and also -for the lavatories, generally erected in the cloisters of monasteries. -Those at Gloucester, Norwich and Lincoln are best known. A very curious -example at Fontenay, surrounding a pillar, is given by Viollet-le-Duc. -In general the lavabo is a sort of trough; in some places it has an -almery for towels, &c. - - - - -LAVAGNA, a seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, from -which it is 25(1/2) m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7005. It has a small -shipbuilding trade, and exports great quantities of slate (_lavagna_, -taking its name from the town). It also has a large cotton-mill. It was -the seat of the Fieschi family, independent counts, who, at the end of -the 12th century, were obliged to recognize the supremacy of Genoa. -Sinibaldo Fieschi became Pope Innocent IV. (1243-1254), and Hadrian V. -(1276) was also a Fieschi. - - - - -LAVAL, ANDRE DE, SEIGNEUR DE LOHEAC (c. 1408-1485), French soldier. In -1423 he served in the French army against England, and in 1428 was taken -prisoner by John Talbot, 1st earl of Shrewsbury, after the capitulation -of Laval, which he was defending. After paying his ransom he was present -with Joan of Arc at the siege of Orleans, at the battle of Patay, and at -the coronation of Charles VII. He was made admiral of France in 1437 and -marshal in 1439. He served Charles VII. faithfully in all his wars, even -against the dauphin (1456), and when the latter became king as Louis -XI., Laval was dismissed from the marshal's office. After the War of the -Public Weal he was restored to favour, and recovered the marshal's -baton, the king also granting him the offices of lieutenant-general to -the government of Paris and governor of Picardy, and conferring upon him -the collar of the order of St Michael. In 1472 Laval was successful in -resisting the attacks of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, on -Beauvais. - - - - -LAVAL, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of -Mayenne, on the Mayenne river, 188 m. W.S.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. -(1906) 24,874. On the right bank of the river stands the old feudal -city, with its ancient castle and its irregularly built houses whose -slate roofs and pointed gables peep from the groves of trees which -clothe the hill. On the left bank the regularly built new town extends -far into the plain. The river, here 80 yds. broad, is crossed by the -handsome railway viaduct, a beautiful stone bridge called Pont Neuf, and -the Pont Vieux with three pointed arches, built in the 16th century. -There is communication by steamer as far as Angers. Laval may justly -claim to be one of the loveliest of French towns. Its most curious and -interesting monument is the sombre old castle of the counts (now a -prison) with a donjon of the 12th century, the roof of which presents a -fine example of the timberwork superseded afterwards by stone -machicolation. The "new castle," dating partly from the Renaissance, -serves as court-house. Laval possesses several churches of different -periods: in that of the Trinity, which serves as the cathedral, the -transept and nave are of the 12th century while the choir is of the -16th; St Venerand (15th century) has good stained glass; Notre-Dame des -Cordeliers, which dates from the end of the 14th century or the -beginning of the 15th, has some fine marble altars. Half-a-mile below -the Pont Vieux is the beautiful 12th-century church of Avenieres, with -an ornamental spire of 1534. The finest remaining relic of the ancient -fortifications is the Beucheresse gate near the cathedral. The narrow -streets around the castle are bordered by many old houses of the 15th -and 16th century, chief among which is that known as the "Maison du -Grand Veneur." There are an art-museum, a museum of natural history and -archaeology and a library. The town is embellished by fine promenades, -at the entrance of one of which, facing the mairie, stands the statue of -the celebrated surgeon Ambroise Pare (1517-1590). Laval is the seat of a -prefect, a bishopric created in 1855, and a court of assizes, and has -tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a -board of trade-arbitrators, training colleges, an ecclesiastical -seminary and a lycee for boys. The principal industry of the town is the -cloth manufacture, introduced from Flanders in the 14th century. The -production of fabrics of linen, of cotton or of mixtures of both, -occupies some 10,000 hands in the town and suburbs. Among the numerous -other industries are metal-founding, flour-milling, tanning, dyeing, the -making of boots and shoes, and the sawing of the marble quarried in the -vicinity. There is trade in grain. - -Laval is not known to have existed before the 9th century. It was taken -by John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in 1428, changed hands several times -during the wars of the League, and played an important part at the end -of the 18th century in the war of La Vendee. - -SEIGNEURS AND COUNTS OF LAVAL. The castle of Laval was founded at the -beginning of the 11th century by a lord of the name of Guy, and remained -in the possession of his male descendants until the 13th century. In -1218 the lordship passed to the house of Montmorency by the marriage of -Emma, daughter of Guy VI. of Laval, to Mathieu de Montmorency, the hero -of the battle of Bouvines. Of this union was born Guy VII. seigneur of -Laval, the ancestor of the second house of Laval. Anne of Laval (d. -1466), the heiress of the second family, married John de Montfort, who -took the name of Guy (XIII.) of Laval. At Charles VII.'s coronation -(1429) Guy XIV., who was afterwards son-in-law of John V., duke of -Brittany, and father-in-law of King Rene of Anjou, was created count of -Laval, and the countship remained in the possession of Guy's male -descendants until 1547. After the Montforts, the countship of Laval -passed by inheritance to the families of Rieux and Sainte Maure, to the -Colignys, and finally to the La Tremoilles, who held it until the -Revolution. - - See Bertrand de Broussillon, _La Maison de Laval_ (3 vols., - 1895-1900). - - - - -LA VALLIERE, LOUISE FRANCOISE DE (1644-1710), mistress of Louis XIV., -was born at Tours on the 6th of August 1644, the daughter of an officer, -Laurent de la Baume le Blanc, who took the name of La Valliere from a -small property near Amboise. Laurent de la Valliere died in 1651; his -widow, who soon married again, joined the court of Gaston d'Orleans at -Blois. Louise was brought up with the younger princesses, the -step-sisters of La Grande Mademoiselle. After Gaston's death his widow -moved with her daughters to the palace of the Luxembourg in Paris, and -with them went Louise, who was now a girl of sixteen. Through the -influence of a distant kinswoman, Mme de Choisy, she was named maid of -honour to Henrietta of England, who was about her own age and had just -married Philip of Orleans, the king's brother. Henrietta joined the -court at Fontainebleau, and was soon on the friendliest terms with her -brother-in-law, so friendly indeed that there was some scandal, to avoid -which it was determined that Louis should pay marked attentions -elsewhere. The person selected was Madame's maid of honour, Louise. She -had been only two months in Fontainebleau before she became the king's -mistress. The affair, begun on Louis's part as a blind, immediately -developed into real passion on both sides. It was Louis's first serious -attachment, and Louise was an innocent, religious-minded girl, who -brought neither coquetry nor self-interest to their relation, which was -sedulously concealed. Nicolas Fouquet's curiosity in the matter was one -of the causes of his disgrace. In February 1662 there was a storm when -Louise refused to tell her lover the relations between Madame -(Henrietta) and the comte de Guiche. She fled to an obscure convent at -Chaillot, where Louis rapidly followed her. Her enemies, chief of whom -was Olympe Mancini, comtesse de Soissons, Mazarin's niece, sought her -downfall by bringing her liaison to the ears of Queen Maria Theresa. She -was presently removed from the service of Madame, and established in a -small building in the Palais Royal, where in December 1663 she gave -birth to a son Charles, who was given in charge to two faithful servants -of Colbert. Concealment was practically abandoned after her return to -court, and within a week of Anne of Austria's death in January 1666, La -Valliere appeared at mass side by side with Maria Theresa. But her -favour was already waning. She had given birth to a second child in -January 1665, but both children were dead before the autumn of 1666. A -daughter born at Vincennes in October 1666, who received the name of -Marie Anne and was known as Mlle de Blois, was publicly recognized by -Louis as his daughter in letters-patent making the mother a duchess in -May 1667 and conferring on her the estate of Vaujours. In October of -that year she bore a son, but by this time her place in Louis's -affections was definitely usurped by Athenais de Montespan (q.v.), who -had long been plotting against her. She was compelled to remain at court -as the king's official mistress, and even to share Mme de Montespan's -apartments at the Tuileries. She made an attempt at escape in 1671, when -she fled to the convent of Ste Marie de Chaillot, only to be compelled -to return. In 1674 she was finally permitted to enter the Carmelite -convent in the Rue d'Enfer. She took the final vows a year later, when -Bossuet pronounced the allocution. - -Her daughter married Armand de Bourbon, prince of Conti, in 1680. The -count of Vermandois, her youngest born, died on his first campaign at -Courtrai in 1683. - - La Valliere's _Reflexions sur la misericorde de Dieu_, written after - her retreat, were printed by Lequeux in 1767, and in 1860 _Reflexions, - lettres et sermons_, by M. P. Clement (2 vols.). Some apocryphal - _Memoires_ appeared in 1829, and the _Lettres de Mme la duchesse de la - Valliere_ (1767) are a corrupt version of her correspondence with the - marechal de Bellefonds. Of modern works on the subject see Arsene - Houssaye, _Mlle de la Valliere et Mme de Montespan_ (1860); Jules - Lair, _Louise de la Valliere_ (3rd ed., 1902, Eng. trans., 1908); and - C. Bonnet, _Documents inedits sur Mme de la Valliere_ (1904). - - - - -LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR (1741-1801), German poet and physiognomist, was -born at Zurich on the 15th of November 1741. He was educated at the -gymnasium of his native town, where J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger -were among his teachers. When barely one-and-twenty he greatly -distinguished himself by denouncing, in conjunction with his friend, the -painter H. Fuseli, an iniquitous magistrate, who was compelled to make -restitution of his ill-gotten gains. In 1769 Lavater took orders, and -officiated till his death as deacon or pastor in various churches in his -native city. His oratorical fervour and genuine depth of conviction gave -him great personal influence; he was extensively consulted as a casuist, -and was welcomed with demonstrative enthusiasm in his numerous journeys -through Germany. His mystical writings were also widely popular. -Scarcely a trace of this influence has remained, and Lavater's name -would be forgotten but for his work on physiognomy, _Physiognomische -Fragmente zur Beforderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe_ -(1775-1778). The fame even of this book, which found enthusiastic -admirers in France and England, as well as in Germany, rests to a great -extent upon the handsome style of publication and the accompanying -illustrations. It left, however, the study of physiognomy (q.v.), as -desultory and unscientific as it found it. As a poet, Lavater published -_Christliche Lieder_ (1776-1780) and two epics, _Jesus Messias_ (1780) -and _Joseph von Arimathia_ (1794), in the style of Klopstock. More -important and characteristic of the religious temperament of Lavater's -age are his introspective _Aussichten in die Ewigkeit_ (4 vols., -1768-1778); _Geheimes Tagebuch von einem Beobachter seiner selbst_ (2 -vols., 1772-1773) and _Pontius Pilatus, oder der Mensch in allen -Gestalten_ (4 vols., 1782-1785). From 1774 on, Goethe was intimately -acquainted with Lavater, but at a later period he became estranged from -him, somewhat abruptly accusing him of superstition and hypocrisy. -Lavater had a mystic's indifference to historical Christianity, and, -although esteemed by himself and others a champion of orthodoxy, was in -fact only an antagonist of rationalism. During the later years of his -life his influence waned, and he incurred ridicule by some exhibitions -of vanity. He redeemed himself by his patriotic conduct during the -French occupation of Switzerland, which brought about his tragical -death. On the taking of Zurich by the French in 1799, Lavater, while -endeavouring to appease the soldiery, was shot through the body by an -infuriated grenadier; he died after long sufferings borne with great -fortitude, on the 2nd of January 1801. - - Lavater himself published two collections of his writings, _Vermischte - Schriften_ (2 vols., 1774-1781), and _Kleinere prosaische Schriften_ - (3 vols., 1784-1785). His _Nachgelassene Schriften_ were edited by G. - Gessner (5 vols., 1801-1802); _Samtliche Werke_ (but only poems) (6 - vols., 1836-1838); _Ausgewahlte Schriften_ (8 vols., 1841-1844). See - G. Gessner, _Lavaters Lebensbeschreibung_ (3 vols., 1802-1803); U. - Hegner, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis Lavaters_ (1836); F. W. Bodemann, - _Lavater nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken_ (1856; 2nd ed., 1877); - F. Muncker, _J. K. Lavater_ (1883); H. Waser, _J. K. Lavater nach - Hegners Aufzeichnungen_ (1894); _J. K. Lavater, Denkschrift zum 100. - Todestag_ (1902). - - - - -LAVAUR, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in -the department of Tarn, 37 m. S.E. of Montauban by rail. Pop. (1906), -town 4069; commune 6388. Lavaur stands on the left bank of the Agout, -which is here crossed by a railway-bridge and a fine stone bridge of the -late 18th century. From 1317 till the Revolution Lavaur was the seat of -a bishopric, and there is a cathedral dating from the 13th, 14th and -15th centuries, with an octagonal bell-tower; a second smaller square -tower contains a _jaquemart_ (a statue which strikes the hours with a -hammer) of the 16th century. In the bishop's garden is the statue of -Emmanuel Augustin, marquis de Las Cases, one of the companions of -Napoleon at St Helena. The town carries on distilling and flour-milling -and the manufacture of brushes, plaster and wooden shoes. There are a -subprefecture and tribunal of first instance. Lavaur was taken in 1211 -by Simon de Montfort during the wars of the Albigenses, and several -times during the religious wars of the 16th century. - - - - -LAVEDAN, HENRI LEON EMILE (1859- ), French dramatist and man of letters, -was born at Orleans, the son of Hubert Leon Lavedan, a well-known -Catholic and liberal journalist. He contributed to various Parisian -papers a series of witty tales and dialogues of Parisian life, many of -which were collected in volume form. In 1891 he produced at the Theatre -Francais _Une Famille_, followed at the Vaudeville in 1894 by _Le Prince -d'Aurec_, a satire on the nobility, afterwards re-named _Les -Descendants_. Later brilliant and witty pieces were _Les Deux noblesses_ -(1897), _Catherine_ (1897), _Le Nouveau jeu_ (1898), _Le Vieux marcheur_ -(1899), _Le Marquis de Priola_ (1902), and _Varennes_ (1904), written in -collaboration with G. Lenotre. He had a great success with _Le Duel_ -(Comedie Francaise, 1905), a powerful psychological study of the -relations of two brothers. Lavedan was admitted to the French Academy in -1898. - - - - -LAVELEYE, EMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE (1822-1892), Belgian economist, was born -at Bruges on the 5th of April 1822, and educated there and at the -College Stanislas in Paris, a celebrated establishment in the hands of -the Oratorians. He continued his studies at the Catholic university of -Louvain and afterwards at Ghent, where he came under the influence of -Francois Huet, the philosopher and Christian Socialist. In 1844 he won a -prize with an essay on the language and literature of Provence. In 1847 -he published _L'Histoire des rois francs_, and in 1861 a French version -of the _Nibelungen_, but though he never lost his interest in literature -and history, his most important work was in the domain of economics. He -was one of a group of young lawyers, doctors and critics, all old pupils -of Huet, who met once a week to discuss social and economic questions, -and was thus led to publish his views on these subjects. In 1859 some -articles by him in the _Revue des deux mondes_ laid the foundation of -his reputation as an economist. In 1864 he was elected to the chair of -political economy at the state university of Liege. Here he wrote his -most important works: _La Russie et l'Autriche depuis Sadowa_ (1870), -_Essai sur les formes de gouvernement dans les societes modernes_ -(1872), _Des Causes actuelles de guerre en Europe et de l'arbitrage_ and -_De la propriete et de ses formes primitives_ (1874), dedicated to the -memory of John Stuart Mill and Francois Huet. He died at Doyon, near -Liege, on the 3rd of January 1892. Laveleye's name is particularly -connected with bimetallism and primitive property, and he took a special -interest in the revival and preservation of small nationalities. But his -activity included the whole realm of political science, political -economy, monetary questions, international law, foreign and Belgian -politics, questions of education, religion and morality, travel and -literature. He had the art of popularizing even the most technical -subjects, owing to the clearness of his view and his firm grasp of the -matter in hand. He was especially attracted to England, where he thought -he saw many of his ideals of social, political and religious progress -realized. He was a frequent contributor to the English newspapers and -leading reviews. The most widely circulated of his works was a pamphlet -on _Le Parti clerical en Belgique_, of which 2,000,000 copies were -circulated in ten languages. - - - - -LAVENDER, botanically _Lavandula_, a genus of the natural order Labiatae -distinguished by an ovate tubular calyx, a two-lipped corolla, of which -the upper lip has two and the lower three lobes, and four stamens bent -downwards. - -The plant to which the name of lavender is commonly applied, _Lavandula -vera_, is a native of the mountainous districts of the countries -bordering on the western half of the Mediterranean, extending from the -eastern coast of Spain to Calabria and northern Africa, growing in some -places at a height of 4500 ft. above the sea-level, and preferring stony -declivities in open sunny situations. It is cultivated in the open air -as far north as Norway and Livonia. Lavender forms an evergreen -under-shrub about 2 ft. high, with greyish-green hoary linear leaves, -rolled under at the edges when young; the branches are erect and give a -bushy appearance to the plant. The flowers are borne on a terminal spike -at the summit of a long naked stalk, the spike being composed of 6-10 -dense clusters in the axils of small, brownish, rhomboidal, tapering, -opposite bracts, the clusters being more widely separated towards the -base of the spike. The calyx is tubular, contracted towards the mouth, -marked with 13 ribs and 5-toothed, the posterior tooth being the -largest. The corolla is of a pale violet colour, but darker on its inner -surface, tubular, two-lipped, the upper lip with two and the lower with -three lobes. Both corolla and calyx are covered with stellate hairs, -amongst which are imbedded shining oil glands to which the fragrance of -the plant is due. The leaves and flowers of lavender are said to have -been used by the ancients to perfume their baths; hence the Med. Lat. -name _Lavandula_ or _Lavendula_ is supposed to have been derived from -_lavare_, to wash. This derivation is considered doubtful and a -connexion has been suggested with Lat. _livere_, to be of a bluish, pale -or livid colour. - -Although _L. Stoechas_ was well known to the ancients, no allusion -unquestionably referring to _L. vera_ has been found in the writings of -classical authors, the earliest mention of the latter plant being in the -12th century by the abbess Hildegard, who lived near Bingen on the -Rhine. Under the name of _llafant_ or _llafantly_ it was known to the -Welsh physicians as a medicine in the 13th century. The dried flowers -have long been used in England, the United States and other countries -for perfuming linen, and the characteristic cry of "Lavender! sweet -lavender!" was still to be heard in London streets at the beginning of -the 20th century. In England lavender is cultivated chiefly for the -distillation of its essential oil, of which it yields on an average -1(1/2)% when freed from the stalks, but in the south of Europe the -flowers form an object of trade, being exported to the Barbary states, -Turkey and America. - - In Great Britain lavender is grown in the parishes of Mitcham, - Carshalton and Beddington in Surrey, and in Hertfordshire in the - parish of Hitchin. The most suitable soil seems to be a sandy loam - with a calcareous substratum, and the most favourable position a sunny - slope in localities elevated above the level of fogs, where the plant - is not in danger of early frost and is freely exposed to air and - light. At Hitchin lavender is said to have been grown as early as - 1568, but as a commercial speculation its cultivation dates back only - to 1823. The plants at present in cultivation do not produce seed, and - the propagation is always made by slips or by dividing the roots. The - latter plan has only been followed since 1860, when a large number of - lavender plants were killed by a severe frost. Since that date the - plants have been subject to the attack of a fungus, in consequence of - which the price of the oil has been considerably enhanced. - - The flowers are collected in the beginning of August, and taken direct - to the still. The yield of oil depends in great measure upon the - weather. After a wet and dull June and July the yield is sometimes - only half as much as when the weather has been bright and sunshiny. - From 12 to 30 lb. of oil per acre is the average amount obtained. The - oil contained in the stem has a more rank odour and is less volatile - than that of the flowers; consequently the portion that distils over - after the first hour and a half is collected separately. - - [Illustration: Lavender (_Lavandula vera_). - - 1. Flower, side view. - 2. Flower, front view. - 3. Calyx opened and spread flat. - 4. Corolla opened and spread flat. - 5. Pistil.] - - The finest oil is obtained by the distillation of the flowers, without - the stalks, but the labour spent upon this adds about 10s. per lb. to - the expense of the oil, and the same end is practically attained by - fractional distillation. The oil mellows by keeping three years, after - which it deteriorates unless mixed with alcohol; it is also improved - by redistillation. Oil of lavender is distilled from the wild plants - in Piedmont and the South of France, especially in the villages about - Mont Ventoux near Avignon, and in those some leagues west of - Montpellier. The best French oil realizes scarcely one-sixth of the - price of the English oil. Cheaper varieties are made by distilling the - entire plant. - - Oil of lavender is a mobile liquid having a specific gravity from 0.85 - to 0.89. Its chief constituents are linalool acetate, which also - occurs in oil of bergamot, and linalool, C10H17OH, an alcohol derived - by oxidation from myrcene, C10H16, which is one of the terpenes. The - dose is (1/2)-3 minims. The British pharmacopeia contains a spiritus - lavandulae, dose 5-20 minims: and a compound tincture, dose (1/2)-1 - drachm. This is contained in liquor arsenicalis, and its - characteristic odour may thus be of great practical importance, - medico-legally and otherwise. The pharmacology of oil of lavender is - simply that of an exceptionally pleasant and mild volatile oil. It is - largely used as a carminative and as a colouring and flavouring agent. - Its adulteration with alcohol may be detected by chloride of calcium - dissolving in it and forming a separate layer of liquid at the bottom - of the vessel. Glycerine acts in the same way. If it contain - turpentine it will not dissolve in three volumes of alcohol, in which - quantity the pure oil is perfectly soluble. - - Lavender flowers were formerly considered good for "all disorders of - the head and nerves"; a spirit prepared with them was known under the - name of palsy drops. - - Lavender water consists of a solution of the volatile oil in spirit - of wine with the addition of the essences of musk, rose, bergamot and - ambergris, but is very rarely prepared by distillation of the flowers - with spirit. - - In the climate of New York lavender is scarcely hardy, but in the - vicinity of Philadelphia considerable quantities are grown for the - market. In American gardens sweet basil (_Ocimum basilicum_) is - frequently called lavender. - - _Lavandula Spica_, a species which differs from _L. vera_ chiefly in - its smaller size, more crowded leaves and linear bracts, is also used - for the distillation of an essential oil, which is known in England as - oil of spike and in France under the name of _essence d'aspic_. It is - used in painting on porcelain and in veterinary medicine. The oil as - met with in commerce is less fragrant than that of _L. vera_--probably - because the whole plant is distilled, for the flowers of the two - species are scarcely distinguishable in fragrance. _L. Spica_ does not - extend so far north, nor ascend the mountains beyond 2000 ft. It - cannot be cultivated in Britain except in sheltered situations. A - nearly allied species, _L. lanata_, a native of Spain, with broader - leaves, is also very fragrant, but does not appear to be distilled for - oil. - - _Lavandula Stoechas_, a species extending from the Canaries to Asia - Minor, is distinguished from the above plants by its blackish purple - flowers, and shortly stalked spikes crowned by conspicuous purplish - sterile bracts. The flowers were official in the London pharmacopoeia - as late as 1746. They are still used by the Arabs as an expectorant - and antispasmodic. The Stoechades (now called the isles of Hyeres near - Toulon) owed their name to the abundance of the plant growing there. - - Other species of lavender are known, some of which extend as far east - as to India. A few which differ from the above in having divided - leaves, as _L. dentata_, _L. abrotanoides_, _L. multifolia_, _L. - pinnata_ and _L. viridis_, have been cultivated in greenhouses, &c., - in England. - - Sea lavender is a name applied in England to several species of - _Statice_, a genus of littoral plants belonging to the order _Plumba - gineae_. Lavender cotton is a species of the genus _Santolina_, small, - yellow-flowered, evergreen undershrubs of the Composite order. - - - - -LAVERDY, CLEMENT CHARLES FRANCOIS DE (1723-1793), French statesman, was -a member of the parlement of Paris when the case against the Jesuits -came before that body in August 1761. He demanded the suppression of the -order and thus acquired popularity. Louis XV. named him -controller-general of the finances in December 1763, but the burden was -great and Laverdy knew nothing of finance. Three months after his -nomination he forbade anything of any kind whatever to be printed -concerning his administration, thus refusing advice as well as censure. -He used all sorts of expedients, sometimes dishonest, to replenish the -treasury, and was even accused of having himself profited from the -commerce in wheat. A court intrigue led to his sudden dismissal on the -1st of October 1768. Henceforward he lived in retirement until, during -the Revolution, he was involved in the charges against the financiers of -the old regime. The Revolutionary tribunal condemned him to death, and -he was guillotined on the 24th of November 1793. - - See A. Jobez, _La France sous Louis XV_ (1869). - - - - -LAVERNA, an old Italian divinity, originally one of the spirits of the -underworld. A cup found in an Etruscan tomb bears the inscription -"Lavernai Pocolom," and in a fragment of Septimius Serenus Laverna is -expressly mentioned in connexion with the _di inferi_. By an easy -transition, she came to be regarded as the protectress of thieves, whose -operations were associated with darkness. She had an altar on the -Aventine hill, near the gate called after her Lavernalis, and a grove on -the Via Salaria. Her aid was invoked by thieves to enable them to carry -out their plans successfully without forfeiting their reputation for -piety and honesty (Horace, _Ep._ i. 16, 60). Many explanations have been -given of the name: (1) from _latere_ (Schol. on Horace, who gives -_laternio_ as another form of _lavernio_ or robber); (2) from _lavare_ -(Acron on Horace, according to whom thieves were called _lavatores_, -perhaps referring to bath thieves); (3) from _levare_ (cf. -shop-lifters). Modern etymologists connect it with _lu-crum_, and -explain it as meaning the goddess of gain. - - - - -LAVERY, JOHN (1857- ), British painter, was born in Belfast, and -received his art training in Glasgow, London and Paris. He was elected -associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1892 and academician in 1896, -having won a considerable reputation as a painter of portraits and -figure subjects, and as a facile and vigorous executant. He became also -vice-president of the International Society of sculptors, painters and -gravers. Many of his paintings have been acquired for public -collections, and he is represented in the National Galleries at -Brussels, Berlin and Edinburgh, in the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg, -the Philadelphia Gallery, the New South Wales Gallery, the Modern -Gallery, Venice, the Pinakothek, Munich, the Glasgow Corporation -Gallery, and the Luxembourg. - - - - -LAVIGERIE, CHARLES MARTIAL ALLEMAND (1825-1892), French divine, cardinal -archbishop of Carthage and Algiers and primate of Africa, was born at -Bayonne on the 31st of October 1825, and was educated at St Sulpice, -Paris. He was ordained priest in 1849, and was professor of -ecclesiastical history at the Sorbonne from 1854 to 1856. In 1856 he -accepted the direction of the schools of the East, and was thus for the -first time brought into contact with the Mahommedan world. "C'est la," -he wrote, "que j'ai connu enfin ma vocation." Activity in missionary -work, especially in alleviating the distresses of the victims of the -Druses, soon brought him prominently into notice; he was made a -chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in October 1861, shortly after -his return to Europe, was appointed French auditor at Rome. Two years -later he was raised to the see of Nancy, where he remained for four -years, during which the diocese became one of the best administered in -France. While bishop of Nancy he met Marshal MacMahon, then -governor-general of Algeria, who in 1866 offered him the see of Algiers, -just raised to an archbishopric. Lavigerie landed in Africa on the 11th -of May 1868, when the great famine was already making itself felt, and -he began in November to collect the orphans into villages. This action, -however, did not meet with the approval of MacMahon, who feared that the -Arabs would resent it as an infraction of the religious peace, and -thought that the Mahommedan church, being a state institution in -Algeria, ought to be protected from proselytism; so it was intimated to -the prelate that his sole duty was to minister to the colonists. -Lavigerie, however, continued his self-imposed task, refused the -archbishopric of Lyons, which was offered to him by the emperor, and won -his point. Contact with the natives during the famine caused Lavigerie -to entertain exaggerated hopes for their general conversion, and his -enthusiasm was such that he offered to resign his archbishopric in order -to devote himself entirely to the missions. Pius IX. refused this, but -granted him a coadjutor, and placed the whole of equatorial Africa under -his charge. In 1870 Lavigerie warmly supported papal infallibility. In -1871 he was twice a candidate for the National Assembly, but was -defeated. In 1874 he founded the Sahara and Sudan mission, and sent -missionaries to Tunis, Tripoli, East Africa and the Congo. The order of -African missionaries thus founded, for which Lavigerie himself drew up -the rule, has since become famous as the _Peres Blancs_. From 1881 to -1884 his activity in Tunisia so raised the prestige of France that it -drew from Gambetta the celebrated declaration, _L'Anticlericalisme n'est -pas un article d'exportation_, and led to the exemption of Algeria from -the application of the decrees concerning the religious orders. On the -27th of March 1882 the dignity of cardinal was conferred upon Lavigerie, -but the great object of his ambition was to restore the see of St -Cyprian; and in that also he was successful, for by a bull of 10th -November 1884 the metropolitan see of Carthage was re-erected, and -Lavigerie received the pallium on the 25th of January 1885. The later -years of his life were spent in ardent anti-slavery propaganda, and his -eloquence moved large audiences in London, as well as in Paris, Brussels -and other parts of the continent. He hoped, by organizing a fraternity -of armed laymen as pioneers, to restore fertility to the Sahara; but -this community did not succeed, and was dissolved before his death. In -1890 Lavigerie appeared in the new character of a politician, and -arranged with Pope Leo XIII. to make an attempt to reconcile the church -with the republic. He invited the officers of the Mediterranean squadron -to lunch at Algiers, and, practically renouncing his monarchical -sympathies, to which he clung as long as the comte de Chambord was -alive, expressed his support of the republic. and emphasized it by -having the Marseillaise played by a band of his _Peres Blancs_. The -further steps in this evolution emanated from the pope, and Lavigerie, -whose health now began to fail, receded comparatively into the -background. He died at Algiers on the 26th of November 1892. - (G. F. B.) - - - - -LA VILLEMARQUE, THEODORE CLAUDE HENRI, VICOMTE HERSART DE (1815-1895), -French philologist and man of letters, was born at Keransker, near -Quimperle, on the 6th of July 1815. He was descended from an old Breton -family, which counted among its members a Hersart who had followed Saint -Louis to the Crusade, and another who was a companion in arms of Du -Guesclin. La Villemarque devoted himself to the elucidation of the -monuments of Breton literature. Introduced in 1851 by Jacob Grimm as -correspondent to the Academy of Berlin, he became in 1858 a member of -the Academy of Inscriptions. His works include: _Contes populaires des -anciens Bretons_ (1842), to which was prefixed an essay on the origin of -the romances of the Round Table; _Essai sur l'histoire de la langue -bretonne_ (1837); _Poemes des bardes bretons du sixieme siecle_ (1850); -_La Legende celtique en Irelande, en Cambrie et en Bretagne_ (1859). The -popular Breton songs published by him in 1839 as _Barzaz Breiz_ were -considerably retouched. La Villemarque's work has been superseded by the -work of later scholars, but he has the merit of having done much to -arouse popular interest in his subject. He died at Keransker on the 8th -of December 1895. - - On the subject of the doubtful authenticity of Barzaz Breiz, see - Luzel's Preface to his _Chansons populaires de la Basse-Bretagne_, - and, for a list of works on the subject, the _Revue Celtique_ (vol. - v.). - - - - -LAVINIUM, an ancient town of Latium, on the so-called Via Lavinatis (see -LAURENTINA, VIA), 19 m. S. of Rome, the modern PRATICA, situated 300 ft. -above sea-level and 2(1/2) m. N.E. from the sea-coast. Its foundation is -attributed to Aeneas (whereas Laurentum was the primitive city of King -Latinus), who named it after his wife Lavinia. It is rarely mentioned in -Roman history and often confused with Lanuvium or Lanivium in the text -both of authors and of inscriptions. The custom by which the consuls and -praetors or dictators sacrificed on the Alban Mount and at Lavinium to -the Penates and to Vesta, before they entered upon office or departed -for their province, seems to have been one of great antiquity. There is -no trace of its having continued into imperial times, but the cults of -Lavinium were kept up, largely by the imperial appointment of honorary -non-resident citizens to hold the priesthoods. The citizens of Lavinium -were known under the empire as Laurentes Lavinates, and the place itself -at a late period as Laurolavinium. It was deserted or forgotten not long -after the time of Theodosius. - -Lavinium was preceded by a more ancient town, LAURENTUM, the city of -Latinus (Verg. _Aen._ viii.); of this the site is uncertain, but it is -probably to be sought at the modern Tor Paterno, close to the sea-coast -and 5 m. N. by W. of Lavinium. Here the name of Laurentum is preserved -by the modern name Pantan di Lauro. Even in ancient times it was famous -for its groves of bay-trees (_laurus_) from which its name was perhaps -derived, and which in imperial times gave the villas of its territory a -name for salubrity, so that both Vitellius and Commodus resorted there. -The exact date of the abandonment of the town itself and the -incorporation of its territory with that of Lavinium is uncertain, but -it may be placed in the latter part of the republic. Under the empire a -portion of it must have been imperial domain and forest. We hear of an -imperial, procurator in charge of the elephants at Laurentum; and the -imperial villa may perhaps be identified with the extensive ruins at Tor -Paterno itself. The remains of numerous other villas lie along the -ancient coast-line (which was half a mile inland of the modern, being -now marked by a row of sand-hills, and was followed by the Via -Severiana), both north-west and south-east of Tor Paterno: they extended -as a fact in an almost unbroken line along the low sandy coast--now -entirely deserted and largely occupied by the low scrub which serves as -cover for the wild boars of the king of Italy's preserves--from the -mouth of the Tiber to Antium, and thence again to Astura; but there are -no traces of any buildings previous to the imperial period. In one of -these villas, excavated by the king of Italy in 1906, was found a fine -replica of the famous discobolus of Myron. The plan of the building is -interesting, as it diverges entirely from the normal type and adapts -itself to the site. Some way to the N.W. was situated the village of -Vicus Augustanus Laurentium, taking its name probably from Augustus -himself, and probably identical with the village mentioned by Pliny the -younger as separated by only one villa from his own. This village was -brought to light by excavation in 1874, and its forum and curia are -still visible. The remains of the villa of Pliny, too, were excavated in -1713 and in 1802-1819, and it is noteworthy that the place bears the -name Villa di Pino (sic) on the staff map; how old the name is, is -uncertain. It is impossible without further excavation to reconcile the -remains--mainly of substructions--with the elaborate description of his -villa given by Pliny (cf. H. Winnefeld in _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, -1891, 200 seq.). - -The site of the ancient Lavinium, no less than 300 ft. above sea-level -and 2(1/2) m. inland, is far healthier than the low-lying Laurentum, -where, except in the immediate vicinity of the coast, malaria must have -been a dreadful scourge. It possesses considerable natural strength, and -consists of a small hill, the original acropolis, occupied by the modern -castle and the village surrounding it, and a larger one, now given over -to cultivation, where the city stood. On the former there are now no -traces of antiquity, but on the latter are scanty remains of the city -walls, in small blocks of the grey-green tufa (_cappellaccio_) which is -used in the earliest buildings of Rome, and traces of the streets. The -necropolis, too, has been discovered, but not systematically excavated; -but objects of the first Iron age, including a sword of Aegean type -(thus confirming the tradition), have been found; also remains of a -building with Doric columns of an archaistic type, remains of later -buildings in brick, and inscriptions, some of them of considerable -interest. - - See R. Lanciani in _Monumenti dei Lincei_, xiii. (1903), 133 seq.; - xvi. (1906), 241 seq. (T. As.) - - - - -LAVISSE, ERNEST (1842- ), French historian, was born at -Nouvion-en-Thierache, Aisne, on the 17th of December 1842. In 1865 he -obtained a fellowship in history, and in 1875 became a doctor of -letters; he was appointed _maitre de conference_ (1876) at the ecole -normale superieure, succeeding Fustel de Coulanges, and then professor -of modern history at the Sorbonne (1888), in the place of Henri Wallon. -He was an eloquent professor and very fond of young people, and played -an important part in the revival of higher studies in France after 1871. -His knowledge of pedagogy was displayed in his public lectures and his -addresses, in his private lessons, where he taught a small number of -pupils the historical method, and in his books, where he wrote _ad -probandum_ at least as much as _ad narrandum_: class-books, collections -of articles, intermingled with personal reminiscences (_Questions -d'enseignement national_, 1885; _Etudes et etudiants_, 1890; _A propos -de nos ecoles_, 1895), rough historical sketches (_Vue generale de -l'histoire politique de l'Europe_, 1890), &c. Even his works of -learning, written without a trace of pedantry, are remarkable for their -lucidity and vividness. - -After the Franco-Prussian War Lavisse studied the development of Prussia -and wrote _Etude sur l'une des origines de la monarchie prussienne, ou -la Marche de Brandebourg sous la dynastie ascanienne_, which was his -thesis for his doctor's degree in 1875, and _Etudes sur l'histoire de la -Prusse_ (1879). In connexion with his study of the Holy Roman Empire, -and the cause of its decline, he wrote a number of articles which were -published in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_; and he wrote _Trois empereurs -d'Allemagne_ (1888), _La Jeunesse du grand Frederic_ (1891) and -_Frederic II. avant son avenement_ (1893) when studying the modern -German empire and the grounds for its strength. With his friend Alfred -Rambaud he conceived the plan of _L'Histoire generale du IV^e siecle -jusqu'a nos jours_, to which, however, he contributed nothing. He edited -the _Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu'a la Revolution_ -(1901- ), in which he carefully revised the work of his numerous -assistants, reserving the greatest part of the reign of Louis XIV. for -himself. This section occupies the whole of volume vii. It is a -remarkable piece of work, and the sketch of absolute government in -France during this period has never before been traced with an equal -amount of insight and brilliance. Lavisse was admitted to the Academie -Francaise on the death of Admiral Jurien de la Graviere in 1892, and -after the death of James Darmesteter became editor of the _Revue de -Paris_. He is, however, chiefly a master of pedagogy. When the ecole -normale was joined to the university of Paris, Lavisse was appointed -director of the new organization, which he had helped more than any one -to bring about. - - - - -LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794), French chemist, was born in -Paris on the 26th of August 1743. His father, an _avocat au parlement_, -gave him an excellent education at the college Mazarin, and encouraged -his taste for natural science; and he studied mathematics and astronomy -with N. L. de Lacaille, chemistry with the elder Rouelle and botany with -Bernard de Jussieu. In 1766 he received a gold medal from the Academy of -Sciences for an essay on the best means of lighting a large town; and -among his early work were papers on the analysis of gypsum, on thunder, -on the aurora and on congelation, and a refutation of the prevalent -belief that water by repeated distillation is converted into earth. He -also assisted J. E. Guettard (1715-1786) in preparing his mineralogical -atlas of France. In 1768, recognized as a man who had both the ability -and the means for a scientific career, he was nominated _adjoint -chimiste_ to the Academy, and in that capacity made numerous reports on -the most diverse subjects, from the theory of colours to water-supply -and from invalid chairs to mesmerism and the divining rod. The same year -he obtained the position of _adjoint_ to Baudon, one of the -farmers-general of the revenue, subsequently becoming a full titular -member of the body. This was the first of a series of posts in which his -administrative abilities found full scope. Appointed _regisseur des -poudres_ in 1775, he not only abolished the vexatious search for -saltpetre in the cellars of private houses, but increased the production -of the salt and improved the manufacture of gunpowder. In 1785 he was -nominated to the committee on agriculture, and as its secretary drew up -reports and instructions on the cultivation of various crops, and -promulgated schemes for the establishment of experimental agricultural -stations, the distribution of agricultural implements and the adjustment -of rights of pasturage. Seven years before he had started a model farm -at Frechine, where he demonstrated the advantages of scientific methods -of cultivation and of the introduction of good breeds of cattle and -sheep. Chosen a member of the provincial assembly of Orleans in 1787, he -busied himself with plans for the improvement of the social and economic -conditions of the community by means of savings banks, insurance -societies, canals, workhouses, &c.; and he showed the sincerity of his -philanthropical work by advancing money out of his own pocket, without -interest, to the towns of Blois and Romorantin, for the purchase of -barley during the famine of 1788. Attached in this same year to the -_caisse d'escompte_, he presented the report of its operations to the -national assembly in 1789, and as commissary of the treasury in 1791 he -established a system of accounts of unexampled punctuality. He was also -asked by the national assembly to draw up a new scheme of taxation in -connexion with which he produced a report _De la richesse territoriale -de la France_, and he was further associated with committees on hygiene, -coinage, the casting of cannon, &c., and was secretary and treasurer of -the commission appointed in 1790 to secure uniformity of weights and -measures. - -In 1791, when Lavoisier was in the middle of all this official activity, -the suppression of the farmers-general marked the beginning of troubles -which brought about his death. His membership of that body was alone -sufficient to make him an object of suspicion; his administration at the -_regie des poudres_ was attacked; and Marat accused him in the _Ami du -Peuple_ of putting Paris in prison and of stopping the circulation of -air in the city by the _mur d'octroi_ erected at his suggestion in 1787. -The Academy, of which as treasurer at the time he was a conspicuous -member, was regarded by the convention with no friendly eyes as being -tainted with "incivism," and in the spring of 1792 A. F. Fourcroy -endeavoured to persuade it to purge itself of suspected members. The -attempt was unsuccessful, but in August of the same year Lavoisier had -to leave his house and laboratory at the Arsenal, and in November the -Academy was forbidden until further orders to fill up the vacancies in -its numbers. Next year, on the 1st of August, the convention passed a -decree for the uniformity of weights and measures, and requested the -Academy to take measures for carrying it out, but a week later Fourcroy -persuaded the same convention to suppress the Academy together with -other literary societies _patentees et dotees_ by the nation. In -November it ordered the arrest of the ex-farmers-general, and on the -advice of the committee of public instruction, of which Guyton de -Morveau and Fourcroy were members, the names of Lavoisier and others -were struck off from the commission of weights and measures. The fate of -the ex-farmers-general was sealed on the 2nd of May 1794, when, on the -proposal of Antoine Dupin, one of their former officials, the convention -sent them for trial by the Revolutionary tribunal. Within a week -Lavoisier and 27 others were condemned to death. A petition in his -favour addressed to Coffinhal, the president of the tribunal, is said to -have been met with the reply _La Republique n'a pas besoin de savants_, -and on the 8th of the month Lavoisier and his companions were -guillotined at the Place de la Revolution. He died fourth, and was -preceded by his colleague Jacques Paulze, whose daughter he had married -in 1771. "_Il ne leur a fallu_," Lagrange remarked, "_qu'un moment pour -faire tomber cette tete, et cent annees peut-etre ne suffiront pas pour -en reproduire une semblable_." - -Lavoisier's name is indissolubly associated with the overthrow of the -phlogistic doctrine that had dominated the development of chemistry for -over a century, and with the establishment of the foundations upon which -the modern science reposes. "He discovered," says Justus von Liebig -(_Letters on Chemistry_, No. 3), "no new body, no new property, no -natural phenomenon previously unknown; but all the facts established by -him were the necessary consequences of the labours of those who preceded -him. His merit, his immortal glory, consists in this--that he infused -into the body of the science a new spirit; but all the members of that -body were already in existence, and rightly joined together." Realizing -that the total weight of all the products of a chemical reaction must be -exactly equal to the total weight of the reacting substances, he made -the balance the _ultima ratio_ of the laboratory, and he was able to -draw correct inferences from his weighings because, unlike many of the -phlogistonists, he looked upon heat as imponderable. It was by weighing -that in 1770 he proved that water is not converted into earth by -distillation, for he showed that the total weight of a sealed glass -vessel and the water it contained remained constant, however long the -water was boiled, but that the glass vessel lost weight to an extent -equal to the weight of earth produced, his inference being that the -earth came from the glass, not from the water. On the 1st of November -1772 he deposited with the Academy a sealed note which stated that -sulphur and phosphorus when burnt increased in weight because they -absorbed "air," while the metallic lead formed from litharge by -reduction with charcoal weighed less than the original litharge because -it had lost "air." The exact nature of the airs concerned in the -processes he did not explain until after the preparation of -"dephlogisticated air" (oxygen) by Priestley in 1774. Then, perceiving -that in combustion and the calcination of metals only a portion of a -given volume of common air was used up, he concluded that Priestley's -new air, _air eminemment pur_, was what was absorbed by burning -phosphorus, &c., "non-vital air," azote, or nitrogen remaining behind. -The gas given off in the reduction of metallic calces by charcoal he at -first supposed to be merely that contained in the calx, but he soon came -to understand that it was a product formed by the union of the charcoal -with the "dephlogisticated air" in the calx. In a memoir presented to -the Academy in 1777, but not published till 1782, he assigned to -dephlogisticated air the name oxygen, or "acid-producer," on the -supposition that all acids were formed by its union with a simple, -usually non-metallic, body; and having verified this notion for -phosphorus, sulphur, charcoal, &c., and even extended it to the -vegetable acids, he naturally asked himself what was formed by the -combustion of "inflammable air" (hydrogen). This problem he had attacked -in 1774, and in subsequent years he made various attempts to discover -the acid which, under the influence of his oxygen theory, he expected -would be formed. It was not till the 25th of June 1783 that in -conjunction with Laplace he announced to the Academy that water was the -product formed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, but by that -time he had been anticipated by Cavendish, to whose prior work, however, -as to that of several other investigators in other matters, it is to be -regretted that he did not render due acknowledgment. But a knowledge of -the composition of water enabled him to storm the last defences of the -phlogistonists. Hydrogen they held to be the phlogiston of metals, and -they supported this view by pointing out that it was liberated when -metals were dissolved in acids. Considerations of weight had long -prevented Lavoisier from accepting this doctrine, but he was now able to -explain the process fully, showing that the hydrogen evolved did not -come from the metal itself, but was one product of the decomposition of -the water of the dilute acid, the other product, oxygen, combining with -the metal to form an oxide which in turn united with the acid. A little -later this same knowledge led him to the beginnings of quantitative -organic analysis. Knowing that the water produced by the combustion of -alcohol was not pre-existent in that substance but was formed by the -combination of its hydrogen with the oxygen of the air, he burnt alcohol -and other combustible organic substances, such as wax and oil, in a -known volume of oxygen, and, from the weight of the water and carbon -dioxide produced and his knowledge of their composition, was able to -calculate the amounts of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen present in the -substance. - -Up to about this time Lavoisier's work, mainly quantitative in -character, had appealed most strongly to physicists, but it now began to -win conviction from chemists also. C. L. Berthollet, L. B. Guyton de -Morveau and A. F. Fourcroy, his collaborators in the reformed system of -chemical terminology set forth in 1787 in the _Methode de nomenclature -chimique_, were among the earliest French converts, and they were -followed by M. H. Klaproth and the German Academy, and by most English -chemists except Cavendish, who rather suspended his judgment, and -Priestley, who stubbornly clung to the opposite view. Indeed, though the -partisans of phlogiston did not surrender without a struggle, the -history of science scarcely presents a second instance of a change so -fundamental accomplished with such ease. The spread of Lavoisier's -doctrines was greatly facilitated by the defined and logical form in -which he presented them in his _Traite elementaire de chimie_ (_presente -dans un ordre nouveau et d'apres les decouvertes modernes_) (1789). The -list of simple substances contained in the first volume of this work -includes light and caloric with oxygen, azote and hydrogen. Under the -head of "oxidable or acidifiable" substances, the combination of which -with oxygen yielded acids, were placed sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, and -the muriatic, fluoric and boracic radicals. The metals, which by -combination with oxygen became oxides, were antimony, silver, arsenic, -bismuth, cobalt, copper, tin, iron, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, -nickel, gold, platinum, lead, tungsten and zinc; and the "simple earthy -salifiable substances" were lime, baryta, magnesia, alumina and silica. -The simple nature of the alkalies Lavoisier considered so doubtful that -he did not class them as elements, which he conceived as substances -which could not be further decomposed by any known process of -analysis--_les molecules simples et indivisibles qui composent les -corps_. The union of any two of the elements gave rise to binary -compounds, such as oxides, acids, sulphides, &c. A substance containing -three elements was a binary compound of the second order; thus salts, -the most important compounds of this class, were formed by the union of -acids and oxides, iron sulphate, for instance, being a compound of iron -oxide with sulphuric acid. - -In addition to his purely chemical work, Lavoisier, mostly in -conjunction with Laplace, devoted considerable attention to physical -problems, especially those connected with heat. The two carried out some -of the earliest thermochemical investigations, devised apparatus for -measuring linear and cubical expansions, and employed a modification of -Joseph Black's ice calorimeter in a series of determinations of specific -heats. Regarding heat (_matiere de feu_ or _fluide igne_) as a peculiar -kind of imponderable matter, Lavoisier held that the three states of -aggregation--solid, liquid and gas--were modes of matter, each depending -on the amount of _matiere de feu_ with which the ponderable substances -concerned were interpenetrated and combined; and this view enabled him -correctly to anticipate that gases would be reduced to liquids and -solids by the influence of cold and pressure. He also worked at -fermentation, respiration and animal heat, looking upon the processes -concerned as essentially chemical in nature. A paper discovered many -years after his death showed that he had anticipated later thinkers in -explaining the cyclical process of animal and vegetable life, for he -pointed out that plants derive their food from the air, from water, and -in general from the mineral kingdom, and animals in turn feed on plants -or on other animals fed by plants, while the materials thus taken up by -plants and animals are restored to the mineral kingdom by the -breaking-down processes of fermentation, putrefaction and combustion. - - A complete edition of the writings of Lavoisier, _Oeuvres de - Lavoisier, publiees par les soins du ministre de l'instruction - publique_, was issued at Paris in six volumes from 1864-1893. This - publication comprises his _Opuscules physiques et chimiques_ (1774), - many memoirs from the Academy volumes, and numerous letters, notes and - reports relating to the various matters on which he was engaged. At - the time of his death he was preparing an edition of his collected - works, and the portions ready for the press were published in two - volumes as _Memoires de chimie_ in 1805 by his widow (in that year - married to Count Rumford), who had drawn and engraved the plates in - his _Traite elementaire de chimie_ (1789). - - Sec E. Grimaux, _Lavoisier 1743-1794, d'apres sa correspondance, ses - manuscripts_, &c. (1888), which gives a list of his works; P. E. M. - Berthelot, _La Revolution chimique: Lavoisier_ (1890), which contains - an analysis of and extracts from his laboratory notebooks. - - - - -LA VOISIN. CATHERINE MONVOISIN, known as "La Voisin" (d. 1680), French -sorceress, whose maiden name was Catherine Deshayes, was one of the -chief personages in the famous _affaire des poisons_, which disgraced -the reign of Louis XIV. Her husband, Monvoisin, was an unsuccessful -jeweller, and she practised chiromancy and face-reading to retrieve -their fortunes. She gradually added the practice of witchcraft, in which -she had the help of a renegade priest, Etienne Guibourg, whose part was -the celebration of the "black mass," an abominable parody in which the -host was compounded of the blood of a little child mixed with horrible -ingredients. She practised medicine, especially midwifery, procured -abortion and provided love powders and poisons. Her chief accomplice was -one of her lovers, the magician Lesage, whose real name was Adam -Coeuret. The great ladies of Paris flocked to La Voisin, who accumulated -enormous wealth. Among her clients were Olympe Mancini, comtesse de -Soissons, who sought the death of the king's mistress, Louise de la -Valliere; Mme de Montespan, Mme de Gramont (_la belle_ Hamilton) and -others. The bones of toads, the teeth of moles, cantharides, iron -filings, human blood and human dust were among the ingredients of the -love powders concocted by La Voisin. Her knowledge of poisons was not -apparently so thorough as that of less well-known sorcerers, or it would -be difficult to account for La Valliere's immunity. The art of poisoning -had become a regular science. The death of Henrietta, duchess of -Orleans, was attributed, falsely it is true, to poison, and the crimes -of Marie Madeleine de Brinvilliers (executed in 1676) and her -accomplices were still fresh in the public mind. In April 1679 a -commission appointed to inquire into the subject and to prosecute the -offenders met for the first time. Its proceedings, including some -suppressed in the official records, are preserved in the notes of one of -the official _rapporteurs_, Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie. The revelation -of the treacherous intention of Mme de Montespan to poison Louis XIV. -and of other crimes, planned by personages who could not be attacked -without scandal which touched the throne, caused Louis XIV. to close the -_chambre ardente_, as the court was called, on the 1st of October 1680. -It was reopened on the 19th of May 1681 and sat until the 21st of July -1682. Many of the culprits escaped through private influence. Among -these were Marie Anne Mancini, duchesse de Bouillon, who had sought to -get rid of her husband in order to marry the duke of Vendome, though -Louis XIV. banished her to Nerac. Mme de Montespan was not openly -disgraced, because the preservation of Louis's own dignity was -essential, and some hundred prisoners, among them the infamous Guibourg -and Lesage, escaped the scaffold through the suppression of evidence -insisted on by Louis XIV. and Louvois. Some of these were imprisoned in -various fortresses, with instructions from Louvois to the respective -commandants to flog them if they sought to impart what they knew. Some -innocent persons were imprisoned for life because they had knowledge of -the facts. La Voisin herself was executed at an early stage of the -proceedings, on the 20th of February 1680, after a perfunctory -application of torture. The authorities had every reason to avoid -further revelations. Thirty-five other prisoners were executed; five -were sent to the galleys and twenty-three were banished. Their crimes -had furnished one of the most extraordinary trials known to history. - - See F. Ravaisson, _Archives de la Bastille_, vols. iv.-vii. - (1870-1874); the notes of La Reynie, preserved in the Bibliotheque - Nationale; F. Funck-Brentano, _Le Drame des poisons_ (1899); A. - Masson, _La Sorcellerie et la science des poisons au XVII^e siecle_ - (1904). Sardou made the affair a background for his _Affaire des - poisons_ (1907). There is a portrait of La Voisin by Antoine Coypel, - which has been often reproduced. - - - - -LAW, JOHN (1671-1729), Scots economist, best known as the originator of -the "Mississippi scheme," was born at Edinburgh in April 1671. His -father, a goldsmith and banker, bought shortly before his death, which -took place in his son's youth, the lands of Lauriston near Edinburgh. -John lived at home till he was twenty, and then went to London. He had -already studied mathematics, and the theory of commerce and political -economy, with much interest; but he was known rather as fop than -scholar. In London he gambled, drank and flirted till in April 1694 a -love intrigue resulted in a duel with Beau Wilson in Bloomsbury Square. -Law killed his antagonist, and was condemned to death. His life was -spared, but he was detained in prison. He found means to escape to -Holland, then the greatest commercial country in Europe. Here he -observed with close attention the practical working of banking and -financial business, and conceived the first ideas of his celebrated -"system." After a few years spent in foreign travel, he returned to -Scotland, then exhausted and enraged by the failure of the Darien -expedition (1695-1701). He propounded plans for the relief of his -country in a work[1] entitled _Money and Trade Considered, with a -Proposal for supplying the Nation with Money_ (1705). This attracted -some notice, but had no practical effect, and Law again betook himself -to travel. He visited Brussels, Paris, Vienna, Genoa, Rome, making large -sums by gambling and speculation, and spending them lavishly. He was in -Paris in 1708, and made some proposals to the government as to their -financial difficulties, but Louis XIV. declined to treat with a -"Huguenot," and d'Argenson, chief of the police, had Law expelled as a -suspicious character. He had, however, become intimately acquainted -with the duke of Orleans, and when in 1715 that prince became regent, -Law at once returned to Paris. - -The extravagant expenditure of the late monarch had plunged the kingdom -into apparently inextricable financial confusion. The debt was 3000 -million livres, the estimated annual expenditure, exclusive of interest -payments, 148 million livres, and the income about the same. The -advisability of declaring a national bankruptcy was seriously discussed, -and though this plan was rejected, measures hardly less violent were -carried. By a _visa_, or examination of the state liabilities by a -committee with full powers of quashing claims, the debt was reduced -nearly a half, the coin in circulation was ordered to be called in and -reissued at the rate of 120 for 100--a measure by which foreign coiners -profited greatly, and a chamber of justice was established to punish -speculators, to whom the difficulties of the state were ascribed. These -measures had so little success that the _billets d'etat_ which were -issued as part security for the new debt at once sank 75% below their -nominal value. At this crisis Law unfolded a vast scheme to the -perplexed regent. A royal bank was to manage the trade and currency of -the kingdom, to collect the taxes, and to free the country from debt. -The council of finance, then under the duc de Noailles, opposed the -plan, but the regent allowed Law to take some tentative steps. By an -edict of 2nd May 1716, a private institution called _La Banque -generale_, and managed by Law, was founded. The capital was 6 million -livres, divided into 1200 shares of 5000 livres, payable in four -instalments, one-fourth in cash, three-fourths in _billets d'etat_. It -was to perform the ordinary functions of a bank, and had power to issue -notes payable at sight in the weight and value of the money mentioned at -day of issue. The bank was a great and immediate success. By providing -for the absorption of part of the state paper it raised the credit of -the government. The notes were a most desirable medium of exchange, for -they had the element of fixity of value, which, owing to the arbitrary -mint decrees of the government, was wanting in the coin of the realm. -They proved the most convenient instruments of remittance between the -capital and the provinces, and they thus developed the industries of the -latter. The rate of interest, previously enormous and uncertain, fell -first to 6 and then to 4%; and when another decree (10th April 1717) -ordered collectors of taxes to receive notes as payments, and to change -them for coin at request, the bank so rose in favour that it soon had a -note-issue of 60 million livres. Law now gained the full confidence of -the regent, and was allowed to proceed with the development of the -"system." - -The trade of the region about the Mississippi had been granted to a -speculator named Crozat. He found the undertaking too large, and was -glad to give it up. By a decree of August 1717 Law was allowed to -establish the _Compagnie de la Louisiane ou d'Occident_, and to endow it -with privileges practically amounting to sovereignty over the most -fertile region of North America. The capital was 100 million livres -divided into 200,000 shares of 500 livres. The payments were to be -one-fourth in coin and three-fourths in _billets d'etat_. On these last -the government was to pay 3 million livres interest yearly to the -company. As the state paper was depreciated the shares fell much below -par. The rapid rise of Law had made him many enemies, and they took -advantage of this to attack the system. D'Argenson, now head of the -council of finance, with the brothers Paris of Grenoble, famous tax -farmers of the day, formed what was called the "anti-system." The -farming of the taxes was let to them, under an assumed name, for 48(1/2) -million livres yearly. A company was formed, the exact counterpart of -the Mississippi company. The capital was the same, divided in the same -manner, but the payments were to be entirely in money. The returns from -the public revenue were sure; those from the Mississippi scheme were -not. Hence the shares of the latter were for some time out of favour. -Law proceeded unmoved with the development of his plans. On the 4th of -December 1718 the bank became a government institution under the name of -_La Banque royale_. Law was director, and the king guaranteed the notes. -The shareholders were repaid in coin, and, to widen the influence of -the new institution, the transport of money between towns where it had -branches was forbidden. The paper-issue now reached 110 millions. Law -had such confidence in the success of his plans that he agreed to take -over shares in the Mississippi company at par at a near date. The shares -began rapidly to rise. The next move was to unite the companies _Des -Indes Orientales_ and _De Chine_, founded in 1664 and 1713 respectively, -but now dwindled away to a shadow, to his company. The united -association, _La Compagnie des Indes_, had a practical monopoly of the -foreign trade of France. These proceedings necessitated the creation of -new capital to the nominal amount of 25 million livres. The payment was -spread over 20 months. Every holder of four original shares (_meres_) -could purchase one of the new shares (_filles_) at a premium of 50 -livres. All these 500-livre shares rapidly rose to 750, or 50% above -par. Law now turned his attention to obtaining additional powers within -France itself. On the 25th of July 1719 an edict was issued granting the -company for nine years the management of the mint and the coin-issue. -For this privilege the company paid 5 million livres, and the money was -raised by a new issue of shares of the nominal value of 500 livres, but -with a premium of other 500. The list was only open for twenty days, and -it was necessary to present four _meres_ and one _fille_ in order to -obtain one of the new shares (_petites filles_). At the same time two -dividends per annum of 6% each were promised. Again there was an attempt -to ruin the bank by the commonplace expedient of making a run on it for -coin; but the conspirators had to meet absolute power managed with -fearlessness and skill. An edict appeared reducing, at a given date, the -value of money, and those who had withdrawn coin from the bank hastened -again to exchange it for the more stable notes. Public confidence in Law -was increased, and he was enabled rapidly to proceed with the completion -of the system. A decree of 27th August 1719 deprived the rival company -of the farming of the revenue, and gave it to the _Compagnie des Indes_ -for nine years in return for an annual payment of 52 million livres. -Thus at one blow the "anti-system" was crushed. One thing yet remained; -Law proposed to take over the national debt, and manage it on terms -advantageous to the state. The mode of transfer was this. The debt was -over 1500 million livres. Notes were to be issued to that amount, and -with these the state creditors must be paid in a certain order. Shares -were to be issued at intervals corresponding to the payments, and it was -expected that the notes would be used in buying them. The government was -to pay 3% for the loan. It had formerly been bound to pay 80 millions, -it would now pay under 50, a clear gain of over 30. As the shares of the -company were almost the only medium for investment, the transfer would -be surely effected. The creditors would now look to the government -payments and the commercial gains of the company for their annual -returns. Indeed the creditors were often not able to procure the shares, -for each succeeding issue was immediately seized upon, though the -500-livre share was now issued at a premium of 4500 livres. After the -third issue, on the 2nd of October, the shares immediately resold at -8000 livres in the Rue Quincampoix, then used as a bourse. They went on -rapidly rising as new privileges were still granted to the company. Law -had now more than regal power. The exiled Stuarts paid him court; the -proudest aristocracy in Europe humbled themselves before him; and his -liberality made him the idol of the populace. After, as a necessary -preliminary, becoming a Catholic, he was made controller-general of the -finances in place of d'Argenson. Finally, in February 1720, the bank was -in name as well as in reality united to the company. - -The system was now complete; but it had already begun to decay. In -December 1719 it was at its height. The shares had then amounted to -20,000 livres, forty times their nominal price. A sort of madness -possessed the nation. Men sold their all and hastened to Paris to -speculate. The population of the capital was increased by an enormous -influx of provincials and foreigners. Trade received a vast though -unnatural impulse. Everybody seemed to be getting richer, no one poorer. -Those who could still reflect saw that this prosperity was not real. -The whole issue of shares at the extreme market-price valued 12,000 -million livres. It would require 600 million annual revenue to give a 5% -dividend on this. Now, the whole income of the company as yet was hardly -sufficient to pay 5% on the original capital of 1677 million livres. The -receipts from the taxes, &c., could be precisely calculated, and it -would be many years before the commercial undertakings of the -company--with which only some trifling beginning had been made--would -yield any considerable return. People began to sell their shares, and to -buy coin, houses, land--anything that had a stable element of value in -it. There was a rapid fall in the shares, a rapid rise in all kinds of -property, and consequently a rapid depreciation of the paper money. Law -met these new tendencies by a succession of the most violent edicts. The -notes were to bear a premium over specie. Coin was only to be used in -small payments, and only a small amount was to be kept in the possession -of private parties. The use of diamonds, the fabrication of gold and -silver plate, was forbidden. A dividend of 40% on the original capital -was promised. By several ingenious but fallaciously reasoned pamphlets -Law endeavoured to restore public confidence. The shares still fell. At -last, on the 5th of March 1720, an edict appeared fixing their price at -9000 livres, and ordering the bank to buy and sell them at that price. -The fall now was transferred to the notes, of which there were soon over -2500 million livres in circulation. A large proportion of the coined -money was removed from the kingdom. Prices rose enormously. There was -everywhere distress and complete financial confusion. Law became an -object of popular hatred. He lost his court influence, and was obliged -to consent to a decree (21st May 1720) by which the notes and -consequently the shares were reduced to half their nominal value. This -created such a commotion that its promoters were forced to recall it, -but the mischief was done. What confidence could there be in the -depreciated paper after such a measure? Law was removed from his office, -and his enemies proceeded to demolish the "system." A vast number of -shares had been deposited in the bank. These were destroyed. The notes -were reconverted into government debt, but there was first a _visa_ -which reduced that debt to the same size as before it was taken over by -the company. The rate of interest was lowered, and the government now -only pledged itself to pay 37 instead of 80 millions annually. Finally -the bank was abolished, and the company reduced to a mere trading -association. By November the "system" had disappeared. With these last -measures Law, it may well be believed, had nothing to do. He left France -secretly in December 1720, resumed his wandering life, and died at -Venice, poor and forgotten, on the 21st of March 1729. - - Of Law's writings the most important for the comprehension of the - "system" is his _Money and Trade Considered_. In this work he says - that national power and wealth consist in numbers of people, and - magazines of home and foreign goods. These depend on trade, and that - on money, of which a greater quantity employs more people; but credit, - if the credit have a circulation, has all the beneficial effects of - money. To create and increase instruments of credit is the function of - a bank. Let such be created then, and let its notes be only given in - return for land sold or pledged. Such a currency would supply the - nation with abundance of money; and it would have many advantages, - which Law points out in detail, over silver. The bank or commission - was to be a government institution, and its profits were to be spent - in encouraging the export and manufacture of the nation. A very - evident error lies at the root of the "system." Money is not the - result but the cause of wealth, he thought. To increase it then must - be beneficial, and the best way is by a properly secured paper - currency. This is the motive force; but it is to be applied in a - particular way. Law had a profound belief in the omnipotence of - government. He saw the evils of minor monopolies, and of private - farming of taxes. He proposed to centre foreign trade and internal - finance in one huge monopoly managed by the state for the people, and - carrying on business through a plentiful supply of paper money. He did - not see that trade and commerce are best left to private enterprise, - and that such a scheme would simply result in the profits of - speculators and favourites. The "system" was never so far developed as - to exhibit its inherent faults. The madness of speculators ruined the - plan when only its foundations were laid. One part indeed might have - been saved. The bank was not necessarily bound to the company, and had - its note-issue been retrenched it might have become a permanent - institution. As Thiers points out, the edict of the 5th of March - 1720, which made the shares convertible into notes, ruined the bank - without saving the company. The shares had risen to an unnatural - height, and they should have been allowed to fall to their natural - level. Perhaps Law felt this to be impossible. He had friends at court - whose interests were involved in the shares, and he had enemies eager - for his overthrow. It was necessary to succeed completely or not at - all; so Law, a gambler to the core, risked and lost everything. - Notwithstanding the faults of the "system," its author was a financial - genius of the first order. He had the errors of his time; but he - propounded many truths as to the nature of currency and banking then - unknown to his contemporaries. The marvellous skill which he displayed - in adapting the theory of the "system" to the actual condition of - things in France, and in carrying out the various financial - transactions rendered necessary by its development, is absolutely - without parallel. His profound self-confidence and belief in the truth - of his own theories were the reasons alike of his success and his - ruin. He never hesitated to employ the whole force of a despotic - government for the definite ends which he saw before him. He left - France poorer than he entered it, yet he was not perceptibly changed - by his sudden transitions of fortune. Montesquieu visited him at - Venice after his fall, and has left a description of him touched with - a certain pathos. Law, he tells us, was still the same in character, - perpetually planning and scheming, and, though in poverty, revolving - vast projects to restore himself to power, and France to commercial - prosperity. - - The fullest account of the Mississippi scheme is that of Thiers, _Law - et son systeme des finances_ (1826, American trans. 1859). See also - Heymann, _Law und sein System_ (1853); Pierre Bonnassieux, _Les - Grandes Compagnies de commerce_ (1892); S. Alexi, _John Law und sein - System_ (1885); E. Levasseur, _Recherches historiques sur le systeme - de Law_ (1854); and Jobez, _Une Preface au socialisme, ou le systeme - de Law et la chasse aux capitalistes_ (1848). Full biographical - details are given in Wood's _Life of Law_ (Edinburgh, 1824). All Law's - later writings are to be found in Daire, _Collection des principaux - economistes_, vol. i. (1843). Other works on Law are: A. W. - Wiston-Glynn, _John Law of Lauriston_ (1908); P. A. Cachut, _The - Financier Law, his Scheme and Times_ (1856); A. Macf. Davis, _An - Historical Study of Law's System_ (Boston, 1887); A. Beljame, _La - Pronunciation du nom de Jean Law le financier_ (1891). See also E. A. - Benians in _Camb. Mod. Hist._ vi. 6 (1909). For minor notices see - Poole's _Index to Periodicals_. There is a portrait of Law by A. S. - Belle in the National Portrait Gallery, London. (F. Wa.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A work entitled _Proposals and Reasons for constituting a Council - of Trade in Scotland_ was published anonymously at Edinburgh in 1701. - It was republished at Glasgow in 1751 with Law's name attached; but - several references in the state papers of the time mention William - Paterson (1658-1719), founder of the Bank of England, as the author - of the plan therein propounded. Even if Law had nothing to do with - the composition of the work, he must have read it and been influenced - by it. This may explain how it contains the germs of many of the - developments of the "system." Certainly the suggestion of a central - board, to manage great commercial undertakings, to furnish occupation - for the poor, to encourage mining, fishing and manufactures, and to - bring about a reduction in the rate of interest, was largely realized - in the Mississippi scheme. See Bannister's Life of William Paterson - (ed. 1858), and _Writings of William Paterson_ (2nd ed., 3 vols., - 1859). - - - - -LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761), English divine, was born at King's Cliffe, -Northamptonshire. In 1705 he entered as a sizar at Emmanuel College, -Cambridge; in 1711 he was elected fellow of his college and was -ordained. He resided at Cambridge, teaching and taking occasional duty -until the accession of George I., when his conscience forbade him to -take the oaths of allegiance to the new government and of abjuration of -the Stuarts. His Jacobitism had already been betrayed in a tripos speech -which brought him into trouble; and he was now deprived of his -fellowship and became a non-juror. For the next few years he is said to -have been a curate in London. By 1727 he was domiciled with Edward -Gibbon (1666-1736) at Putney as tutor to his son Edward, father of the -historian, who says that Law became "the much honoured friend and -spiritual director of the whole family." In the same year he accompanied -his pupil to Cambridge, and resided with him as governor, in term time, -for the next four years. His pupil then went abroad, but Law was left at -Putney, where he remained in Gibbon's house for more than ten years, -acting as a religious guide not only to the family but to a number of -earnest-minded folk who came to consult him. The most eminent of these -were the two brothers John and Charles Wesley, John Byrom the poet, -George Cheyne the physician and Archibald Hutcheson, M.P. for Hastings. -The household was dispersed in 1737. Law was parted from his friends, -and in 1740 retired to King's Cliffe, where he had inherited from his -father a house and a small property. There he was presently joined by -two ladies: Mrs Hutcheson, the rich widow of his old friend, who -recommended her on his death-bed to place herself under Law's spiritual -guidance, and Miss Hester Gibbon, sister to his late pupil. This curious -trio lived for twenty-one years a life wholly given to devotion, study -and charity, until the death of Law on the 9th of April 1761. - - Law was a busy writer under three heads:-- - - 1. _Controversy._--In this field he had no contemporary peer save - perhaps Richard Bentley. The first of his controversial works was - _Three Letters to the Bishop of Bangor_ (1717), which were considered - by friend and foe alike as one of the most powerful contributions to - the Bangorian controversy on the high church side. Thomas Sherlock - declared that "Mr Law was a writer so considerable that he knew but - one good reason why his lordship did not answer him." Law's next - controversial work was _Remarks on Mandeville's Fable of the Bees_ - (1723), in which he vindicates morality on the highest grounds; for - pure style, caustic wit and lucid argument this work is remarkable; it - was enthusiastically praised by John Sterling, and republished by F. - D. Maurice. Law's _Case of Reason_ (1732), in answer to Tindal's - _Christianity as old as the Creation_ is to a great extent an - anticipation of Bishop Butler's famous argument in the _Analogy_. In - this work Law shows himself at least the equal of the ablest champion - of Deism. His _Letters to a Lady inclined to enter the Church of Rome_ - are excellent specimens of the attitude of a high Anglican towards - Romanism. His controversial writings have not received due - recognition, partly because they were opposed to the drift of his - times, partly because of his success in other fields. - - 2. _Practical Divinity._--The _Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life_ - (1728), together with its predecessor, _A Treatise of Christian - Perfection_ (1726), deeply influenced the chief actors in the great - Evangelical revival. The Wesleys, George Whitefield, Henry Venn, - Thomas Scott and Thomas Adam all express their deep obligation to the - author. The _Serious Call_ affected others quite as deeply. Samuel - Johnson, Gibbon, Lord Lyttelton and Bishop Horne all spoke - enthusiastically of its merits; and it is still the only work by which - its author is popularly known. It has high merits of style, being - lucid and pointed to a degree. In a tract entitled _The Absolute - Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments_ (1726) Law was tempted by the - corruptions of the stage of the period to use unreasonable language, - and incurred some effective criticism from John Dennis in _The Stage - Defended_. - - 3. _Mysticism._--Though the least popular, by far the most - interesting, original and suggestive of all Law's works are those - which he wrote in his later years, after he had become an enthusiastic - admirer (not a disciple) of Jacob Boehme, the Teutonic theosophist. - From his earliest years he had been deeply impressed with the piety, - beauty and thoughtfulness of the writings of the Christian mystics, - but it was not till after his accidental meeting with the works of - Boehme, about 1734, that pronounced mysticism appeared in his works. - Law's mystic tendencies divorced him from the practical-minded Wesley, - but in spite of occasional wild fancies the books are worth reading. - They are _A Demonstration of the Gross and Fundamental Errors of a - late Book called a "Plain Account, &c., of the Lord's Supper_" (1737); - _The Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Regeneration_ (1739); _An - Appeal to all that Doubt and Disbelieve the Truths of Revelation_ - (1740); _An Earnest and Serious Answer to Dr Trapp's Sermon on being - Righteous Overmuch_ (1740); _The Spirit of Prayer_ (1749, 1752); _The - Way to Divine Knowledge_ (1752); _The Spirit of Love_ (1752, 1754); _A - Short but Sufficient Confutation of Dr Warburton's Projected Defence - (as he calls it) of Christianity in his "Divine Legation of Moses"_ - (1757); _A Series of Letters_ (1760); a _Dialogue between a Methodist - and a Churchman_ (1760); and _An Humble, Earnest and Affectionate - Address to the Clergy_ (1761). - - Richard Tighe wrote a short account of Law's life in 1813. See also - Christopher Walton, _Notes and Materials for a Complete Biography of - W. Law_ (1848); Sir Leslie Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th - century_, and in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (xxxii. 236); W. H. Lecky, - _History of England in the 18th Century_; C. J. Abbey, _The English - Church in the 18th Century_; and J. H. Overton, _William Law, Nonjuror - and Mystic_ (1881). - - - - -LAW (O. Eng. _lagu_, M. Eng. _lawe_; from an old Teutonic root _lag_, -"lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. _lex_, Fr. _loi_), a word -used in English in two main senses--(1) as a rule prescribed by -authority for human action, and (2) in scientific and philosophic -phraseology, as a uniform order of sequence (e.g. "laws" of motion). In -the first sense the word is used either in the abstract, for -jurisprudence generally or for a state of things in which the laws of a -country are duly observed ("law and order"), or in the concrete for some -particular rule or body of rules. It is usual to distinguish further -between "law" and "equity" (q.v.). The scientific and philosophic usage -has grown out of an early conception of jurisprudence, and is really -metaphorical, derived from the phrase "natural law" or "law of nature," -which presumed that commands were laid on matter by God (see T. E. -Holland, _Elements of Jurisprudence_, ch. ii.). The adjective "legal" is -only used in the first sense, never in the second. In the case of the -"moral law" (see ETHICS) the term is employed somewhat ambiguously -because of its connexion with both meanings. There is also an Old -English use of the word "law" in a more or less sporting sense ("to give -law" or "allow so much law"), meaning a start or fair allowance in time -or distance. Presumably this originated simply in the liberty-loving -Briton's respect for proper legal procedure; instead of the brute -exercise of tyrannous force he demanded "law," or a fair opportunity -and trial. But it may simply be an extension of the meaning of "right," -or of the sense of "leave" which is found in early uses of the French -_loi_. - -In this work the laws or uniformities of the physical universe are dealt -with in the articles on the various sciences. The general principles of -law in the legal sense are discussed under JURISPRUDENCE. What may be -described as "national systems" of law are dealt with historically and -generally under ENGLISH LAW, AMERICAN LAW, ROMAN LAW, GREEK LAW, -MAHOMMEDAN LAW, INDIAN LAW, &c. Certain broad divisions of law are -treated under CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW, CANON LAW, CIVIL LAW, -COMMON LAW, CRIMINAL LAW, ECCLESIASTICAL LAW, EQUITY, INTERNATIONAL LAW, -MILITARY LAW, &c. And the particular laws of different countries on -special subjects are stated under the headings for those subjects -(BANKRUPTCY, &c.). For courts (q.v.) of law, and procedure, see -JURISPRUDENCE, APPEAL, TRIAL, KING'S BENCH, &c. - - AUTHORITIES.--The various legal articles have bibliographies attached, - but it may be convenient here to mention such general works on law, - apart from the science of jurisprudence, as (for English law) Lord - Halsbury's _Laws of England_ (vol. i., 1907), _The Encyclopaedia of - the Laws of England_, ed. Wood Renton (1907), Stephen's _Commentaries - on the Laws of England_ (1908), Brett's _Commentaries on the present - Laws of England_ (1896), Broom's _Commentaries on the Common Law_ - (1896) and Brodie-Innes's _Comparative Principles of the Laws of - England and Scotland_ (vol. i., 1903); and, for America, Bouvier's - _Law Dictionary_, and Kent's _Commentaries on American Law_. - - - - -LAWES, HENRY (1595-1662), English musician, was born at Dinton in -Wiltshire in December 1595, and received his musical education from John -Cooper, better known under his Italian pseudonym Giovanni Coperario (d. -1627), a famous composer of the day. In 1626 he was received as one of -the gentlemen of the chapel royal, which place he held till the -Commonwealth put a stop to church music. But even during that songless -time Lawes continued his work as a composer, and the famous collection -of his vocal pieces, _Ayres and Dialogues for One, Two and Three -Voyces_, was published in 1653, being followed by two other books under -the same title in 1655 and 1658 respectively. When in 1660 the king -returned, Lawes once more entered the royal chapel, and composed an -anthem for the coronation of Charles II. He died on the 21st of October -1662, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Lawes's name has become known -beyond musical circles by his friendship with Milton, whose _Comus_ he -supplied with incidental music for the performance of the masque in -1634. The poet in return immortalized his friend in the famous sonnet in -which Milton, with a musical perception not common amongst poets, -exactly indicates the great merit of Lawes. His careful attention to the -words of the poet, the manner in which his music seems to grow from -those words, the perfect coincidence of the musical with the metrical -accent, all put Lawes's songs on a level with those of Schumann or Liszt -or any modern composer. At the same time he is by no means wanting in -genuine melodic invention, and his concerted music shows the learned -contrapuntist. - - - - -LAWES, SIR JOHN BENNET, BART. (1814-1900), English agriculturist, was -born at Rothamsted on the 28th of December 1814. Even before leaving -Oxford, where he matriculated in 1832, he had begun to interest himself -in growing various medicinal plants on the Rothamsted estates, which he -inherited on his father's death in 1822. About 1837 he began to -experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots, -and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the -field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure -formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus initiated -the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the -services of Sir J. H. Gilbert, with whom he carried on for more than -half a century those experiments in raising crops and feeding animals -which have rendered Rothamsted famous in the eyes of scientific -agriculturists all over the world (see AGRICULTURE). In 1854 he was -elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, which in 1867 bestowed a Royal -medal on Lawes and Gilbert jointly, and in 1882 he was created a -baronet. In the year before his death, which happened on the 31st of -August 1900, he took measures to ensure the continued existence of the -Rothamsted experimental farm by setting aside L100,000 for that purpose -and constituting the Lawes Agricultural Trust, composed of four members -from the Royal Society, two from the Royal Agricultural Society, one -each from the Chemical and Linnaean Societies, and the owner of -Rothamsted mansion-house for the time being. - - - - -LAW MERCHANT or LEX MERCATORIA, originally a body of rules and -principles relating to merchants and mercantile transactions, laid down -by merchants themselves for the purpose of regulating their dealings. It -was composed of such usages and customs as were common to merchants and -traders in all parts of Europe, varied slightly in different localities -by special peculiarities. The law merchant owed its origin to the fact -that the civil law was not sufficiently responsive to the growing -demands of commerce, as well as to the fact that trade in pre-medieval -times was practically in the hands of those who might be termed -cosmopolitan merchants, who wanted a prompt and effective jurisdiction. -It was administered for the most part in special courts, such as those -of the gilds in Italy, or the fair courts of Germany and France, or as -in England, in courts of the staple or piepowder (see also SEA LAWS). -The history of the law merchant in England is divided into three stages: -the first prior to the time of Coke, when it was a special kind of -law--as distinct from the common law--administered in special courts for -a special class of the community (i.e. the mercantile); the second stage -was one of transition, the law merchant being administered in the common -law courts, but as a body of customs, to be proved as a fact in each -individual case of doubt; the third stage, which has continued to the -present day, dates from the presidency over the king's bench of Lord -Mansfield (q.v.), under whom it was moulded into the mercantile law of -to-day. To the law merchant modern English law owes the fundamental -principles in the law of partnership, negotiable instruments and trade -marks. - - See G. Malynes, _Consuetudo vel lex mercatoria_ (London, 1622); W. - Mitchell, _The Early History of the Law Merchant_ (Cambridge, 1904); - J. W. Smith, _Mercantile Law_ (ed. Hart and Simey, 1905). - - - - -LAWN, a very thin fabric made from level linen or cotton yarns. It is -used for light dresses and trimmings, also for handkerchiefs. The terms -lawn and cambric (q.v.) are often intended to indicate the same fabric. -The word "lawn" was formerly derived from the French name for the fabric -_linon_, from _lin_, flax, linen, but Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898, -Addenda) and A. Thomas (_Romania_, xxix. 182, 1900) have shown that the -real source of the word is to be found in the name of the French town -Laon. Skeat quotes from Palsgrave, _Les claircissement de la langue -Francoyse_ (1530), showing that the early name of the fabric was _Laune -lynen_. An early form of the word was "laund," probably due to an -adaptation to "laund," lawn, glade or clearing in a forest, now used of -a closely-mown expanse of grass in a garden, park, &c. (see GRASS and -HORTICULTURE). This word comes from O. Fr. _launde_, mod. _lande___, -wild, heathy or sandy ground, covered with scrub or brushwood, a word of -Celtic origin; cf. Irish and Breton _lann_, heathy ground, also -enclosure, land; Welsh _llan_, enclosure. It is cognate with "land," -common to Teutonic languages. In the original sense of clearing in a -forest, glade, Lat. _saltus_, "lawn," still survives in the New Forest, -where it is used of the feeding-places of cattle. - - - - -LAWN-TENNIS, a game played with racquet and ball on a court traversed by -a net, but without enclosing walls. It is a modern adaptation of the -ancient game of tennis (q.v.), with which it is identical as regards the -scoring of the game and "set." Lawn-tennis is essentially a summer game, -played in the open air, either on courts marked with whitewash on -close-cut grass like a cricket pitch, or on asphalt, cinders, gravel, -wood, earth or other substance which can be so prepared as to afford a -firm, level and smooth surface. In winter, however, the game is often -played on the floor of gymnasiums, drill sheds or other buildings, when -it is called "covered-court lawn-tennis"; but there is no difference in -the game itself corresponding to these varieties of court. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -The lawn-tennis court for the single-handed game, one player against one -("singles"), is shown in fig. 1, and that for the four-handed game -("doubles") in fig. 2. The net stretched across the middle of the court -is attached to the tops of two posts which stand 3 ft. outside the court -on each side. The height of the net is 3 ft. 6 in. at the posts and 3 -ft. at the centre. The court is bisected longitudinally by the -half-court-line, which, however, is marked only between the two -service-lines and at the points of junction with the base-lines. The -divisions of the court on each side of the half-court-line are called -respectively the right-hand and left-hand courts; and the portion of -these divisions between the service-lines and the net are the right-hand -service-court and left-hand service-court respectively. The balls, which -are made of hollow india-rubber, tightly covered with white flannel, are -2(1/2) in. in diameter, and from 1(7/8) to 2 oz. in weight. The racquets -(fig. 3), for which there are no regulation dimensions, are broader and -lighter than those used in tennis. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -Before play begins, a racquet is spun as in tennis, and the winner of -the spin elects either to take first service or to take choice of -courts. If he takes choice of courts, he and his partner (if the game be -doubles) take their position on the selected side of the net, one -stationing himself in the right-hand court and the other in the left, -which positions are retained throughout the set. If the winner of the -spin takes choice of courts, his opponent has first service; and vice -versa. The players change sides of the net at the end of the first, -third and every subsequent alternate game, and at the end of each set; -but they may agree not to change during any set except the last. Service -is delivered by each player in turn, who retains it for one game -irrespective of the winning or losing of points. In doubles the partner -of the server in the first game serves in the third, and the partner of -the server in the second game serves in the fourth; the same order being -preserved till the end of the set; but each pair of partners decide for -themselves before their first turn of service which of the two shall -serve first. The server delivers the service from the right- and -left-hand courts alternately, beginning in each of his service games -from the right-hand court, even though odds be given or owed; he must -stand behind (i.e. farther from the net than) the base-line, and must -serve the ball so that it drops in the opponent's service-court -diagonally opposite to the court served from, or upon one of the lines -enclosing that service-court. If in a serve, otherwise good, the ball -touches the net, it is a "let" whether the serve be "taken" or not by -striker-out; a "let" does not annul a previous "fault." (For the meaning -of "let," "rest," "striker-out" and other technical terms used in the -game, see TENNIS and RACQUETS.) The serve is a fault (1) if it be not -delivered by the server from the proper court, and from behind the -base-line; (2) if the ball drops into the net or out-of-court, or into -any part of the court other than the proper service-court. The -striker-out cannot, as in racquets, "take," and thereby condone, a -fault. When a fault has been served, the server must serve again from -the same court, unless it was a fault because served from the wrong -court, in which case the server crosses to the proper court before -serving again. Two consecutive faults score a point against the side of -the server. Lawn-tennis differs from tennis and racquets in that the -service may not be taken on the volley by striker-out. After the serve -has been returned the play proceeds until the "rest" (or "rally") ends -by one side or the other failing to make a "good return"; a good return -in lawn-tennis meaning a stroke by which the ball, having been hit with -the racquet before its second bound, is sent over the net, even if it -touches the net, so as to fall within the limits of the court on the -opposite side. A point is scored by the player, or side, whose opponent -fails to return the serve or to make a good return in the rest. A player -also loses a point if the ball when in play touches him or his partner, -or their clothes; or if he or his racquet touches the net or any of its -supports while the ball is in play; or if he leaps over the net to avoid -touching it; or if he volley the ball before it has passed the net. - - For him who would excel in lawn-tennis a strong fast service is hardly - less necessary than a heavily "cut" service to the tennis player and - the racquet player. High overhand service, by which alone any great - pace can be obtained, was first perfected by the brothers Renshaw - between 1880 and 1890, and is now universal even among players far - below the first rank. The service in vogue among the best players in - America, and from this circumstance known as the "American service," - has less pace than the English but is "cut" in such a way that it - swerves in the air and "drags" off the ground, the advantage being - that it gives the server more time to "run in" after his serve, so as - to volley his opponent's return from a position within a yard or two - of the net. Both in singles and doubles the best players often make it - their aim to get up comparatively near the net as soon as possible, - whether they are serving or receiving the serve, the object being to - volley the ball whenever possible before it begins to fall. The - server's partner, in doubles, stands about a yard and a half from the - net, and rather nearer the side-line than the half-court-line; the - receiver of the service, not being allowed to volley the serve, must - take his stand according to the nature of the service, which, if very - fast, will require him to stand outside the base-line; the receiver's - partner usually stands between the net and the service-line. All four - players, if the rest lasts beyond a stroke or two, are generally found - nearer to the net than the service-lines; and the game, assuming the - players to be of the championship class, consists chiefly of rapid low - volleying, varied by attempts on one side or the other to place the - ball out of the opponents' reach by "lobbing" it over their heads into - the back part of the court. Good "lobbing" demands great skill, to - avoid on the one hand sending the ball out of court beyond the - base-line, and on the other allowing it to drop short enough for the - adversary to kill it with a "smashing" volley. Of "lobbing" it has - been laid down by the brothers Doherty that "the higher it is the - better, so long as the length is good"; and as regards returning lobs - the same authorities say, "you must get them if you can before they - drop, for it is usually fatal to let them drop when playing against a - good pair." The reason for this is that if the lob be allowed to drop - before being returned, so much time is given to the striker of it to - gain position that he is almost certain to be able to kill the return, - unless the lob be returned by an equally good and very high lob, - dropping within a foot or so of the base-line in the opposite court, a - stroke that requires the utmost accuracy of strength to accomplish - safely. The game in the hands of first-class players consists largely - in manoeuvring for favourable position in the court while driving the - opponent into a less favourable position on his side of the net; the - player who gains the advantage of position in this way being generally - able to finish the rest by a smashing volley impossible to return. - Ability to play this "smash" stroke is essential to strong - lawn-tennis. "To be good overhead," say the Dohertys, "is the sign of - a first-class player, even if a few have managed to get on without - it." The smash stroke is played very much in the same way as the - overhand service, except that it is not from a defined position of - known distance from the net; and therefore when making it the player - must realize almost instinctively what his precise position is in - relation to the net and the side-lines, for it is of the last - importance that he should not take his eye off the ball "even for the - hundredth part of a second." By drawing the racquet across the ball at - the moment of impact spin may be imparted to it as in tennis, or as - "side" is imparted to a billiard ball, and the direction of this spin - and the consequent behaviour of the ball after the stroke may be - greatly varied by a skilful player. Perhaps the most generally useful - form of spin, though by no means the only one commonly used, is that - known as "top" or "lift," a vertical rotatory motion of the ball in - the same direction as its flight, which is imparted to it by an upward - draw of the racquet at the moment of making the stroke, and the effect - of which is to make it drop more suddenly than it would ordinarily do, - and in an unexpected curve. A drive made with plenty of "top" can be - hit much harder than would otherwise be possible without sending the - ball out of court, and it is therefore extensively employed by the - best players. While the volleying game is almost universally the - practice of first-class players--A. W. Gore, M. J. G. Ritchie and S. - H. Smith being almost alone among those of championship rank in modern - days to use the volley comparatively little--its difficulty places it - beyond the reach of the less skilful. In lawn-tennis as played at the - ordinary country house or local club the real "smash" of a Renshaw or - a Doherty is seldom to be seen, and the high lob is almost equally - rare. Players of moderate calibre are content to take the ball on the - bound and to return it with some pace along the side-lines or across - the court, with the aim of placing it as artfully as possible beyond - the reach of the adversary; and if now and again they venture to - imitate a stroke employed with killing effect at Wimbledon, they think - themselves fortunate if they occasionally succeed in making it without - disaster to themselves. - - Before 1890 the method of handicapping at lawn-tennis was the same as - in tennis so far as it was applicable to a game played in an open - court. In 1890 bisques were abolished, and in 1894 an elaborate system - was introduced by which fractional parts of "fifteen" could be - conceded by way of handicap, in accordance with tables inserted in the - laws of the game. The system is a development of the tennis - handicapping by which a finer graduation of odds may be given. - "One-sixth of fifteen" is one stroke given in every six games of a - set; and similarly two-sixths, three-sixths, four-sixths and - five-sixths of fifteen, are respectively two, three, four and five - strokes given in every six games of a set; the particular game in the - set in which the stroke in each case must be given being specified in - the tables. - -_History._--Lawn-tennis cannot be said to have existed prior to the year -1874. It is, indeed, true that outdoor games based on tennis were from -time to time improvised by lovers of that game who found themselves out -of reach of a tennis-court. Lord Arthur Hervey, sometime bishop of Bath -and Wells, had thus devised a game which he and his friends played on -the lawn of his rectory in Suffolk; and even so early as the end of the -18th century "field tennis" was mentioned by the _Sporting Magazine_ as -a game that rivalled the popularity of cricket. But, however much or -little this game may have resembled lawn-tennis, it had long ceased to -exist; and even to be remembered, when in 1874 Major Wingfield took out -a patent for a game called Sphairistike, which the specification -described as "a new and improved portable court for playing the ancient -game of tennis." The court for this game was wider at the base-lines -than at the net, giving the whole court the shape of an hour-glass; one -side of the net only was divided into service-courts, service being -always delivered from a fixed mark in the centre of the opposite court; -and from the net-posts side-nets were fixed which tapered down to the -ground at about the middle of the side-lines, thus enclosing nearly half -the courts on each side of the net. The possibilities of Sphairistike -were quickly perceived; and under the new name of lawn-tennis its -popularity grew so quickly that in 1875 a meeting of those interested in -the game was held at Lord's cricket-ground, where a committee of the -Marylebone Club (M.C.C.) was appointed to draw up a code of rules. The -hour-glass shape of the court was retained by this code (issued in May -1875), and the scoring of the game followed in the main the racquets -instead of the tennis model. It was at the suggestion of J. M. -Heathcote, the amateur tennis champion, that balls covered with white -flannel were substituted for the uncovered balls used at first. In 1875, -through the influence of Henry Jones ("Cavendish"), lawn-tennis was -included in the programme of the All England Croquet Club, which in 1877 -became the All England Croquet and Lawn-Tennis Club, on whose ground at -Wimbledon the All England championships have been annually played since -that date. In the same year, in anticipation of the first championship -meeting, the club appointed a committee consisting of Henry Jones, -Julian Marshall and C. G. Heathcote to revise the M.C.C. code of rules; -the result of their labours being the introduction of the tennis in -place of the racquets scoring, the substitution of a rectangular for the -"hour-glass" court, and the enactment of the modern rule as regards the -"fault." The height of the net, which under the M.C.C. rules had been 4 -ft. in the centre, was reduced to 3 ft. 3 in.; and regulations as to the -size and weight of the ball were also made. Some controversy had already -taken place in the columns of the _Field_ as to whether volleying the -ball, at all events within a certain distance of the net, should not be -prohibited. Spencer Gore, the first to win the championship in 1877, -used the volley with great skill and judgment, and in principle -anticipated the tactics afterwards brought to perfection by the -Renshaws, which aimed at forcing the adversary back to the base-line and -killing his return with a volley from a position near the net. P. F. -Hadow, champion in 1878, showed how the volley might be defeated by -skilful use of the lob; but the question of placing some check on the -volley continued to be agitated among lovers of the game. The rapidly -growing popularity of lawn-tennis was proved in 1879 by the inauguration -at Oxford of the four-handed championship, and at Dublin of the Irish -championship, and by the fact that there were forty-five competitors for -the All England single championship at Wimbledon, won by J. T. Hartley, -a player who chiefly relied on the accuracy of his return without -frequent resort to the volley. It was in the autumn of the same year, in -a tournament at Cheltenham, that W. Renshaw made his first successful -appearance in public. The year 1880 saw the foundation of the Northern -Lawn-Tennis Association, whose tournaments have long been regarded as -inferior in importance only to the championship meetings at Wimbledon -and Dublin, and a revision of the rules which substantially made them -what they have ever since remained. This year is also memorable for the -first championship doubles won by the twin brothers William and Ernest -Renshaw, a success which the former followed up by winning the Irish -championship, beating among others H. F. Lawford for the first time. - -The Renshaws had already developed the volleying game at the net, and -had shown what could be done with the "smash" stroke (which became known -by their name as the "Renshaw smash"), but their service had not as yet -become very severe. In 1881 the distinctive features of their style were -more marked, and the brothers first established firmly the supremacy -which they maintained almost without interruption for the next eight -years. In the doubles they discarded the older tactics of one partner -standing back and the other near the net; the two Renshaws stood about -the same level, just inside the service-line, and from there volleyed -with relentless severity and with an accuracy never before equalled, and -seldom if ever since; while their service also acquired an immense -increase of pace. Their chief rival, and the leading exponent of the -non-volleying game for several years, was H. F. Lawford. After a year or -two it became evident that neither the volleying tactics of Renshaw nor -the strong back play of Lawford would be adopted to the exclusion of the -other, and both players began to combine the two styles. Thus the -permanent features of lawn-tennis may be said to have been firmly -established by about the year 1885; and the players who have since then -come to the front have for the most part followed the principles laid -down by the Renshaws and Lawford. One of the greatest performances at -lawn-tennis was in the championship competition in 1886 when W. Renshaw -beat Lawford a love set in 9(1/2) minutes. The longest rest in -first-class lawn-tennis occurred in a match between Lawford and E. -Lubbock in 1880, when eighty-one strokes were played. Among players in -the first class who were contemporaries of the Renshaws, mention should -be made of E. de S. Browne, a powerful imitator of the Renshaw style; C. -W. Grinstead, R. T. Richardson, V. Goold (who played under the _nom de -plume_ "St Leger"), J. T. Hartley, E. W. Lewis, E. L. Williams, H. Grove -and W. J. Hamilton; while among the most prominent lady players of the -period were Miss M. Langrishe, Miss Bradley, Miss Maud Watson, Miss L. -Dod, Miss Martin and Miss Bingley (afterwards Mrs Hillyard). In 1888 the -Lawn-Tennis Association was established; and the All England Mixed -Doubles Championship (four-handed matches for ladies and gentlemen in -partnership) was added to the existing annual competitions. Since 1881 -lawn-tennis matches between Oxford and Cambridge universities have been -played annually; and almost every county in England, besides Scotland, -Wales and districts such as "Midland Counties," "South of England," &c., -have their own championship meetings. Tournaments are also played in -winter at Nice, Monte Carlo and other Mediterranean resorts where most -of the competitors are English visitors. - - The results of the All England championships have been as follows:-- - - Year. Gentlemen's | Year. Gentlemen's - Singles. | Singles. - | - 1877 S. W. Gore | 1894 J. Pim - 1878 P. F. Hadow | 1895 W. Baddeley - 1879 J. T. Hartley | 1896 H. S. Mahony - 1880 J. T. Hartley | 1897 R. F. Doherty - 1881 W. Renshaw | 1898 R. F. Doherty - 1882 W. Renshaw | 1899 R. F. Doherty - 1883 W. Renshaw | 1900 R. F. Doherty - 1884 W. Renshaw | 1901 A. W. Gore - 1885 W. Renshaw | 1902 H. L. Doherty - 1886 W. Renshaw | 1903 H. L. Doherty - 1887 H. F. Lawford | 1904 H. L. Doherty - 1888 E. Renshaw | 1905 H. L. Doherty - 1889 W. Renshaw | 1906 H. L. Doherty - 1890 W. J. Hamilton | 1907 N. E. Brookes - 1891 W. Baddeley | 1908 A. W. Gore - 1892 W. Baddeley | 1909 A. W. Gore - 1893 J. Pim | 1910 A. F. Wilding - - - Year. Gentlemen's Doubles. - - 1879 L. R. Erskine and H. F. Lawford - 1880 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw - 1881 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw - 1882 J. T. Hartley " R. T. Richardson - 1883 C. W. Grinstead " C. E. Welldon - 1884 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw - 1885 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw - 1886 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw - 1887 P. B. Lyon " H. W. W. Wilberforce - 1888 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw - 1889 W. Renshaw " E. Renshaw - 1890 J. Pim " F. O. Stoker - 1891 W. Baddeley " H. Baddeley - 1892 H. S. Barlow " E. W. Lewis - 1893 J. Pim " F. O. Stoker - 1894 W. Baddeley " H. Baddeley - 1895 W. Baddeley " H. Baddeley - 1896 W. Baddeley " H. Baddeley - 1897 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1898 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1899 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1900 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1901 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1902 S. H. Smith " F. L. Riseley - 1903 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1904 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1905 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1906 S. H. Smith " F. L. Riseley - 1907 N. E. Brookes " A. F. Wilding - 1908 M. J. G. Ritchie " A. F. Wilding - 1909 A. W. Gore " H. Roper Barrett - 1910 M. J. G. Ritchie " A. F. Wilding - - - Year. Ladies' Singles. Year. Ladies' Singles. - - 1884 Miss M. Watson | 1898 Miss C. Cooper - 1885 Miss M. Watson | 1899 Mrs Hillyard - 1886 Miss Bingley | 1900 Mrs Hillyard - 1887 Miss Dod | 1901 Mrs Sterry (Miss C. - 1888 Miss Dod | Cooper) - 1889 Mrs Hillyard | 1902 Miss M. E. Robb - (Miss Bingley) | 1903 Miss D. K. Douglass - 1890 Miss Rice | 1904 Miss D. K. Douglass - 1891 Miss Dod | 1905 Miss M. Sutton - 1892 Miss Dod | 1906 Miss D. K. Douglass - 1893 Miss Dod | 1907 Miss M. Sutton - 1894 Mrs Hillyard | 1908 Mrs Sterry - 1895 Miss C. Cooper | 1909 Miss D. Boothby - 1896 Miss C. Cooper | 1910 Mrs Lambert Chambers - 1897 Mrs Hillyard | (Miss Douglass) - - - Year. Ladies' and Gentlemen's Doubles. - - 1888 E. Renshaw and Mrs Hillyard - 1889 J. C. Kay " Miss Dod - 1890 J. Baldwin " Miss K. Hill - 1891 J. C. Kay " Miss Jackson - 1892 A. Dod " Miss Dod - 1893 W. Baddeley " Mrs Hillyard. - 1894 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper - 1895 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper - 1896 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper - 1897 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper - 1898 H. S. Mahony " Miss C. Cooper - 1899 C. H. L. Cazelet " Miss Robb - 1900 H. L. Doherty " Miss C. Cooper - 1901 S. H. Smith " Miss Martin - 1902 S. H. Smith " Miss Martin - 1903 F. L. Riseley " Miss D. K. Douglass - 1904 S. H. Smith " Miss E. W. Thompson - 1905 S. H. Smith " Miss E. W. Thompson - 1906 F. L. Riseley " Miss D. K. Douglass - 1907 N. E. Brookes " Mrs Hillyard - 1908 A. F. Wilding " Mrs Lambert Chambers (Miss - D. K. Douglass) - 1909 H. Roper Barrett " Miss Morton - 1910 S. N. Doust " Mrs Lambert Chambers - -In the United States lawn-tennis was played at Nahant, near Boston, -within a year of its invention in England, Dr James Dwight and the -brothers F. R. and R. D. Sears being mainly instrumental in making it -known to their countrymen. In 1881 at a meeting in New York of -representatives of thirty-three clubs the United States National -Lawn-Tennis Association was formed; and the adoption of the English -rules put an end to the absence of uniformity in the size of the ball -and height of the net which had hindered the progress of the game. The -association decided to hold matches for championship of the United -States at Newport, Rhode Island; and, by a curious coincidence, in the -same year in which W. Renshaw first won the English championship, R. D. -Sears won the first American championship by playing a volleying game at -the net which entirely disconcerted his opponents, and he successfully -defended his title for the next six years, winning the doubles -throughout the same period in partnership with Dwight. In 1887, Sears -being unable to play through ill-health, the championship went to H. W. -Slocum. Other prominent players of the period were the brothers C. M. -and J. S. Clark, who in 1883 came to England and were decisively beaten -at Wimbledon by the two Renshaws. To a later generation belong the -strongest single players, M. D. Whitman, Holcombe Ward, W. A. Larned and -Karl Behr. Holcombe Ward and Dwight Davis, who have the credit of -introducing the peculiar "American twist service," were an exceedingly -strong pair in doubles; but after winning the American doubles -championship for three years in succession, they were defeated in 1902 -by the English brothers R. F. and H. L. Doherty. The championship -singles in 1904 and 1905 was won by H. Ward and B. C. Wright, the latter -being one of the finest players America has produced; and these two in -partnership won the doubles for three years in succession, until they -were displaced by F. B. Alexander and H. H. Hackett, who in their turn -held the doubles championship for a like period. In 1909 two young -Californians, Long and McLoughlin, unexpectedly came to the front, and, -although beaten in the final round for the championship doubles, they -represented the United States in the contest for the Davis cup (see -below) in Australia in that year; McLoughlin having acquired a service -of extraordinary power and a smashing stroke with a reverse spin which -was sufficient by itself to place him in the highest rank of lawn-tennis -players. - - _Winners of United States Championships._ - - Year. Gentlemen's | Year. Gentlemen's - Singles. | Singles. - | - 1881 R. D. Sears | 1896 R. D. Wrenn - 1882 R. D. Sears | 1897 R. D. Wrenn - 1883 R. D. Sears | 1898 M. D. Whitman - 1884 R. D. Sears | 1899 M. D. Whitman - 1885 R. D. Sears | 1900 M. D. Whitman - 1886 R. D. Sears | 1901 W. A. Larned - 1887 R. D. Sears | 1902 W. A. Larned - 1888 H. W. Slocum | 1903 H. L. Doherty - 1889 H. W. Slocum | 1904 H. Ward - 1890 O. S. Campbell | 1905 B. C. Wright - 1891 O. S. Campbell | 1906 W. J. Clothier - 1892 O. S. Campbell | 1907 W. A. Larned - 1893 R. D. Wrenn | 1908 W. A. Larned - 1894 R. D. Wrenn | 1909 W. A. Larned - 1895 F. H. Hovey | 1910 W. A. Larned - - - Year. Gentlemen's Doubles. - - 1882 J. Dwight and R. D. Sears - 1883 J. Dwight " R. D. Sears - 1884 J. Dwight " R. D. Sears - 1885 J. S. Clark " R. D. Sears - 1886 J. Dwight " R. D. Sears - 1887 J. Dwight " R. D. Sears - 1888 V. G. Hall " O. S. Campbell - 1889 H. W. Slocum " H. A. Taylor - 1890 V. G. Hall " C. Hobart - 1891 O. S. Campbell " R. P. Huntingdon - 1892 O. S. Campbell " R. P. Huntingdon - 1893 C. Hobart " F. H. Hovey - 1894 C. Hobart " F. H. Hovey - 1895 R. D. Wrenn " M. G. Chase - 1896 C. B. Neel " S. R. Neel - 1897 L. E. Ware " G. P. Sheldon - 1898 L. E. Ware " G. P. Sheldon - 1899 D. F. Davis " H. Ward - 1900 D. F. Davis " H. Ward - 1901 D. F. Davis " H. Ward - 1902 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1903 R. F. Doherty " H. L. Doherty - 1904 H. Ward " B. C. Wright - 1905 H. Ward " B. C. Wright - 1906 H. Ward " B. C. Wright - 1907 F. B. Alexander " H. H. Hackett - 1908 F. B. Alexander " H. H. Hackett - 1909 F. B. Alexander " H. H Hackett - 1910 F. B. Alexander " H. H. Hackett - - - Year. Ladies' Singles. Year. Ladies' Singles. - - 1890 Miss E. C. Roosevelt | 1901 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore - 1891 Miss Mabel E. Cahill | 1902 Miss Marion Jones - 1892 Miss Mabel E. Cahill | 1903 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore - 1893 Miss Aline M. Terry | 1904 Miss May Sutton - 1894 Miss Helen R. Helwig | 1905 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore - 1895 Miss J. P. Atkinson | 1906 Miss Helen H. Homans - 1896 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore | 1907 Miss Evelyn Sears - 1897 Miss J. P. Atkinson | 1908 Mrs Barger Wallach - 1898 Miss J. P. Atkinson | 1909 Miss Hazel Hotchkiss - 1899 Miss Marion Jones | 1910 Miss Hazel Hotchkiss - 1900 Miss Myrtle McAteer | - - - Year. Ladies' and Gentlemen's Doubles. - - 1894 E. P. Fischer and Miss J. P. Atkinson - 1895 E. P. Fischer " Miss J. P. Atkinson - 1896 E. P. Fischer " Miss J. P. Atkinson - 1897 D. L. Magruder " Miss Laura Henson - 1898 E. P. Fischer " Miss Carrie Neely - 1899 A. L. Hoskins " Miss Edith Rastall - 1900 Alfred Codman " Miss M. Hunnewell - 1901 R. D. Little " Miss Marion Jones - 1902 W. C. Grant " Miss E. H. Moore - 1903 Harry Allen " Miss Chapman - 1904 W. C. Grant " Miss E. H. Moore - 1905 Clarence Hobart " Mrs Clarence Hobart - 1906 E. B. Dewhurst " Miss Coffin - 1907 W. F. Johnson " Miss Sayres - 1908 N. W. Niles " Miss E. Rotch - 1909 W. F. Johnson " Miss H. Hotchkiss - 1910 J. R. Carpenter " Miss H. Hotchkiss - -In 1900 an international challenge cup was presented by the American D. -F. Davis, to be competed for in the country of the holders. In the -summer of that year a British team, consisting of A. W. Gore, E. D. -Black and H. R. Barrett, challenged for the cup but were defeated by the -Americans, Whitman, Larned, Davis and Ward. In 1902 a more -representative British team, the two Dohertys and Pim, were again -defeated by the same representatives of the United States; but in the -following year the Dohertys brought the Davis cup to England by beating -Larned and the brothers Wrenn at Longwood. In 1904 the cup was played -for at Wimbledon, when representatives of Belgium, Austria and France -entered, but failed to defeat the Dohertys and F. L. Riseley, who -represented Great Britain. In 1905 the entries included France, Austria, -Australasia, Belgium and the United States; in 1906 the same countries, -except Belgium, competed; but in both years the British players -withstood the attack. In 1907, however, when the contest was confined to -England, the United States and Australasia, the latter was successful in -winning the cup, which was then for the first time taken to the -colonies, where it was retained in the following year when the -Australians N. E. Brookes and A. F. Wilding defeated the representatives -of the United States, who had previously beaten the English challengers -in America. In 1909 England was not represented in the competition, and -the Australians again retained the cup, beating the Americans McLoughlin -and Long both in singles and doubles. - - See "The Badminton Library," _Tennis: Lawn-Tennis: Racquets: Fives_, - new and revised edition (1903); R. F. and H. L. Doherty, _On - Lawn-Tennis_ (1903); E. H. Miles, _Lessons in Lawn-Tennis_ (1899); E. - de Nanteuil, _La Paume et le lawn-tennis_ (1898); J. Dwight, "Form in - Lawn-Tennis," in _Scribner's Magazine_, vol. vi.; A. Wallis Myers, - _The Complete Lawn-Tennis Player_ (1908). (R. J. M.) - - - - -LAWRENCE (LAURENTIUS, LORENZO), ST, Christian martyr, whose name appears -in the canon of the mass, and whose festival is on the 10th of August. -The basilica reared over his tomb at Rome is still visited by pilgrims. -His legend is very popular. Deacon of the pope (St) Sixtus (Xystus) II., -he was called upon by the judge to bring forth the treasures of the -church which had been committed to his keeping. He thereupon produced -the church's poor people. Seeing his bishop, Sixtus, being led to -punishment, he cried: "Father! whither goest thou without thy son? Holy -priest! whither goest thou without thy deacon?" Sixtus prophesied that -Lawrence would follow him in three days. The prophecy was fulfilled, and -Lawrence was sentenced to be burnt alive on a gridiron. In the midst of -his torments he addressed the judge ironically with the words: _Assum -est, versa et manduca_ ("I am roasted enough on this side; turn me -round, and eat"). All these details of the well-known legend are already -related by St Ambrose (_De Offic._ i. 41, ii. 28). The punishment of the -gridiron and the speech of the martyr are probably a reminiscence of the -Phrygian martyrs, as related by Socrates (iii. 15) and Sozomen (v. 11). -But the fact of the martyrdom is unquestionable. The date is usually put -at the persecution of Valerian in 258. - -The cult of St Lawrence has spread throughout Christendom, and there are -numerous churches dedicated to him, especially in England, where 228 -have been counted. The Escurial was built in honour of St Lawrence by -Philip II. of Spain, in memory of the battle of St Quentin, which was -won in 1557 on the day of the martyr's festival. The meteorites which -appear annually on or about the 10th of August are popularly known as -"the tears of St Lawrence." - - See _Acta sanctorum_, Augusti ii. 485-532; P. Franchi de' Cavalieri, - _S. Lorenzo e il supplicio della graticola_ (Rome, 1900); _Analecta - Bollandiana_, xix. 452 and 453; Fr. Arnold-Forster, _Studies in Church - Dedications or England's Patron Saints_, i. 508-515, iii. 18, 389-390 - (1899). (H. De.) - - - - -LAWRENCE, AMOS (1786-1852), American merchant and philanthropist, was -born in Groton, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 22nd of April 1786, a -descendant of John Lawrence of Wisset, Suffolk, England, who was one of -the first settlers of Groton. Leaving Groton academy (founded by his -father, Samuel Lawrence, and others) in 1799, he became a clerk in a -country store in Groton, whence after his apprenticeship he went, with -$20 in his pocket, to Boston and there set up in business for himself in -December 1807. In the next year he took into his employ his brother, -Abbott (see below), whom he made his partner in 1814, the firm name -being at first A. & A. Lawrence, and afterwards A. & A. Lawrence & Co. -In 1831 when his health failed, Amos Lawrence retired from active -business, and Abbott Lawrence was thereafter the head of the firm. The -firm became the greatest American mercantile house of the day, was -successful even in the hard times of 1812-1815, afterwards engaged -particularly in selling woollen and cotton goods on commission, and did -much for the establishment of the cotton textile industry in New -England: in 1830 by coming to the aid of the financially distressed -mills of Lowell, Massachusetts, where in that year the Suffolk, Tremont -and Lawrence companies were established, and where Luther Lawrence, the -eldest brother, represented the firm's interests; and in 1845-1847 by -establishing and building up Lawrence, Massachusetts, named in honour of -Abbott Lawrence, who was a director of the Essex company, which -controlled the water power of Lawrence, and afterwards was president of -the Atlantic Cotton Mills and Pacific Mills there. In 1842 Amos Lawrence -decided not to allow his property to increase any further, and in the -last eleven years of his life he spent in charity at least $525,000, a -large sum in those days. He gave to Williams college, to Bowdoin -college, to the Bangor theological seminary, to Wabash college, to -Kenyon college and to Groton academy, which was re-named Lawrence -academy in honour of the family, and especially in recognition of the -gifts of William Lawrence, Amos's brother; to the Boston children's -infirmary, which he established, and ($10,000) to the Bunker Hill -monument fund; and, besides, he gave to many good causes on a smaller -scale, taking especial delight in giving books, occasionally from a -bundle of books in his sleigh or carriage as he drove. He died in Boston -on the 31st of December 1852. - - See _Extracts from the Diary and Correspondence of the late Amos - Lawrence, with a Brief Account of Some Incidents in his Life_ (Boston, - 1856), edited by his son William R. Lawrence. - -His brother, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1792-1855), was born in Groton, -Massachusetts, on the 16th of December 1792. Besides being a partner in -the firm established by his brother, and long its head, he promoted -various New England railways, notably the Boston & Albany. He was a Whig -representative in Congress in 1835-1837 and in 1839-1840 (resigning in -September 1840 because of ill-health); and in 1842 was one of the -commissioners for Massachusetts, who with commissioners from Maine and -with Daniel Webster, secretary of state and plenipotentiary of the -United States, settled with Lord Ashburton, the British plenipotentiary, -the question of the north-eastern boundary. In 1842 he was presiding -officer in the Massachusetts Whig convention; he broke with President -Tyler, tacitly rebuked Daniel Webster for remaining in Tyler's cabinet -after his colleagues had resigned, and recommended Henry Clay and John -Davis as the nominees of the Whig party in 1844--an action that aroused -Webster to make his famous Faneuil Hall address. In 1848 Lawrence was a -prominent candidate for the Whig nomination for the vice-presidency, but -was defeated by Webster's followers. He refused the portfolios of the -navy and of the interior in President Taylor's cabinet, and in 1849-1852 -was United States minister to Great Britain, where he was greatly aided -by his wealth and his generous hospitality. He was an ardent -protectionist, and represented Massachusetts at the Harrisburg -convention in 1827. He died in Boston on the 18th of August 1855, -leaving as his greatest memorial the Lawrence scientific school of -Harvard university, which he had established by a gift of $50,000 in -1847 and to which he bequeathed another $50,000; in 1907-1908 this -school was practically abolished as a distinct department of the -university. He made large gifts to the Boston public library, and he -left $50,000 for the erection of model lodging-houses, thus carrying on -the work of an Association for building model lodging-houses for the -poor, organized in Boston in 1857. - - See Hamilton A. Hill, _Memoir of Abbott Lawrence_ (Boston, 1884). - Randolph Anders' _Der Weg zum Gluck, oder die Kunst Millionar zu - werden_ (Berlin, 1856) is a pretended translation of moral maxims from - a supposititious manuscript bequeathed to Abbott Lawrence by a rich - uncle. - - - - -LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (1814-1886), American philanthropist, son of Amos -Lawrence, was born in Groton, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 31st of July -1814. He graduated at Harvard in 1835, went into business in Lowell, and -in 1837 established in Boston his own counting-house, which from 1843 to -1858 was the firm of Lawrence & Mason, and which was a selling agent for -the Cocheco mills of Dover, New Hampshire, and for other textile -factories. Lawrence established a hosiery and knitting mill at -Ipswich--the first of importance in the country--and was a director in -many large corporations. He was greatly interested in the claims of -Eleazer Williams of Green Bay, Wisconsin, and through loans to this -"lost dauphin" came into possession of much land in Wisconsin; in 1849 -he founded at Appleton, Wisconsin, a school named in his honour Lawrence -university (now Lawrence college). He also contributed to funds for the -colonization of free negroes in Liberia. In 1854 he became treasurer of -the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company (reorganized in 1855 as the New -England Emigrant Aid Company), which sent 1300 settlers to Kansas, where -the city of Lawrence was named in his honour. He contributed personally -for the famous Sharp rifles, which, packed as "books" and "primers," -were shipped to Kansas and afterwards came into the hands of John Brown, -who had been a _protege_ of Lawrence. During the contest in Kansas, -Lawrence wrote frequently to President Pierce (his mother's nephew) in -behalf of the free-state settlers; and when John Brown was arrested he -appealed to the governor of Virginia to secure for him a lawful trial. -On Robinson and others in Kansas he repeatedly urged the necessity of -offering no armed resistance to the Federal government; and he deplored -Brown's fanaticism. In 1858 and in 1860 he was the Whig candidate for -governor of Massachusetts. Till the very outbreak of the Civil War he -was a "law and order" man, and he did his best to secure the adoption of -the Crittenden compromise; but he took an active part in drilling -troops, and in 1862 he raised a battalion of cavalry which became the -2nd Massachusetts Regiment of Cavalry, of which Charles Russell Lowell -was colonel. Lawrence was a member of the Protestant Episcopal Church -and built (1873-1880) Lawrence hall, Cambridge, for the Episcopal -theological school, of which he was treasurer. In 1857-1862 he was -treasurer of Harvard college, and in 1879-1885 was an overseer. He died -in Nahant, Mass., on the 22nd of August 1886. - - See William Lawrence, _Life of Amos A. Lawrence, with Extracts from - his Diary and Correspondence_ (Boston, 1888). - -His son, WILLIAM LAWRENCE (1850- ), graduated in 1871 at Harvard, and -in 1875 at the Episcopal theological school, where, after being rector -of Grace Church, Lawrence, Mass., in 1876-1884, he was professor of -homiletics and natural theology in 1884-1893 and dean in 1888-1893. In -1893 he succeeded Phillips Brooks as Protestant Episcopal bishop of -Massachusetts. He wrote _A Life of Roger Wolcott, Governor of -Massachusetts_ (1902). - - - - -LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827-1876), English novelist, was born at -Braxted, Essex, on the 25th of March 1827, and was educated at Rugby and -at Balliol college, Oxford. He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple -in 1852, but soon abandoned the law for literature. In 1857 he -published, anonymously, his first novel, _Guy Livingstone, or Thorough_. -The book achieved a very large sale, and had nine or ten successors of a -similar type, the best perhaps being _Sword and Gown_ (1859). Lawrence -may be regarded as the originator in English fiction of the _beau -sabreur_ type of hero, great in sport and love and war. He died at -Edinburgh on the 23rd of September 1876. - - - - -LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY (1806-1857), British soldier and -statesman in India, brother of the 1st Lord Lawrence (q.v.), was born at -Matara, Ceylon, on the 28th of June 1806. He inherited his father's -stern devotion to duty and Celtic impulsiveness, tempered by his -mother's gentleness and power of organization. Early in 1823 he joined -the Bengal Artillery at the Calcutta suburb of Dum Dum, where also Henry -Havelock was stationed about the same time. The two officers pursued a -very similar career, and developed the same Puritan character up to the -time that both died at Lucknow in 1857. In the first Burmese War Henry -Lawrence and his battery formed part of the Chittagong column which -General Morrison led over the jungle-covered hills of Arakan, till fever -decimated the officers and men, and Lawrence found himself at home -again, wasted by a disease which never left him. On his return to India -with his younger brother John in 1829 he was appointed revenue surveyor -by Lord William Bentinck. At Gorakhpur the wonderful personal influence -which radiated from the young officer formed a school of attached -friends and subordinates who were always eager to serve under him. After -some years spent in camp, during which he had married his cousin Honoria -Marshall, and had surveyed every village in four districts, each larger -than Yorkshire, he was recalled to a brigade by the outbreak of the -first Afghan War towards the close of 1838. As assistant to Sir George -Clerk, he now added to his knowledge of the people political experience -in the management of the district of Ferozepore; and when disaster came -he was sent to Peshawar in order to push up supports for the relief of -Sale and the garrison of Jalalabad. The war had been begun under the -tripartite treaty signed at Lahore on the 20th of June 1838. But the -Sikhs were slow to play their part after the calamities in Afghanistan. -No one but Henry Lawrence could manage the disorderly contingent which -they reluctantly supplied to Pollock's avenging army in 1842. He helped -to force the Khyber Pass on the 5th of April, playing his guns from the -heights, for 8 and 20 m. In recognition of his services Lord -Ellenborough appointed him to the charge of the valley of Dehra Dun and -its hill stations, Mussoorie and Landour, where he first formed the idea -of asylums for the children of European soldiers. After a month's -experience there it was discovered that the appointment, was the legal -right of the civil service, and he was transferred, as assistant to the -envoy at Lahore, to Umballa, where he reduced to order the lapsed -territory of Kaithal. Soon he received the office of resident at the -protected court of Nepal, where, assisted by his wife, he began a series -of contributions to the _Calcutta Review_, a selected volume of which -forms an Anglo-Indian classic. There, too, he elaborated his plans which -resulted in the erection and endowment of the noblest philanthropic -establishments in the East--the Lawrence military asylums at Sanawar (on -the road to Simla), at Murree in the Punjab, at Mount Abu in Rajputana, -and at Lovedale on the Madras Nilgiris. From 1844 to his death he -devoted all his income, above a modest pittance for his children, to -this and other forms of charity. - -The _Review_ articles led the new governor-general, Lord Hardinge, to -summon Lawrence to his side during the first Sikh War; and not these -articles only. He had published the results of his experience of Sikh -rule and soldiering in a vivid work, the _Adventures of an Officer in -the Service of Ranjit Singh_ (1845), in which he vainly attempted to -disguise his own personality and exploits. After the doubtful triumphs -of Moodkee and Ferozshah Lawrence was summoned from Nepal to take the -place of Major George Broadfoot, who had fallen. Aliwal came; then the -guns of Sobraon chased the demoralized Sikhs across the Sutlej. All -through the smoke Lawrence was at the side of the governor-general. He -gave his voice, not for the rescue of the people from anarchy by -annexation, but for the reconstruction of the Sikh government, and was -himself appointed resident at Lahore, with power "over every department -and to any extent" as president of the council of regency till the -maharaja Dhuleep Singh should come of age. Soon disgusted by the "venal -and selfish durbar" who formed his Sikh colleagues, he summoned to his -side assistants like Nicholson, James Abbott and Edwardes, till they all -did too much for the people, as he regretfully confessed. But "my chief -confidence was in my brother John, ... who gave me always such help as -only a brother could." Wearied out he went home with Lord Hardinge, and -was made K.C.B., when the second Sikh War summoned him back at the end -of 1848 to see the whole edifice of Sikh "reconstruction" collapse. It -fell to Lord Dalhousie to proclaim the Punjab up to the Khyber British -territory on the 29th of March 1849. But still another compromise was -tried. As the best man to reconcile the Sikh chiefs to the inevitable, -Henry Lawrence was made president of the new board of administration -with charge of the political duties, and his brother John was entrusted -with the finances. John could not find the revenue necessary for the -rapid civilization of the new province so long as Henry would, for -political reasons, insist on granting life pensions and alienating large -estates to the needy remnants of Ranjit Singh's court. Lord Dalhousie -delicately but firmly removed Sir Henry Lawrence to the charge of the -great nobles of Rajputana, and installed John as chief commissioner. If -resentment burned in Henry's heart, it was not against his younger -brother, who would fain have retired. To him he said, "If you preserve -the peace of the country and make the people high and low happy, I shall -have no regrets that I vacated the field for you." - -In the comparative rest of Rajputana he once more took up the pen as an -army reformer. In March and September 1856 he published two articles, -called forth by conversations with Lord Dalhousie at Calcutta, whither -he had gone as the hero of a public banquet. The governor-general had -vainly warned the home authorities against reducing below 40,000 the -British garrison of India even for the Crimean War, and had sought to -improve the position of the sepoys. Lawrence pointed out the latent -causes of mutiny, and uttered warnings to be too soon justified. In -March 1857 he yielded to Lord Canning's request that he should then take -the helm at Lucknow, but it was too late. In ten days his magic rule put -down administrative difficulties indeed, as he had done at Lahore. But -what could even he effect with only 700 European soldiers, when the -epidemic spread after the Meerut outbreak of mutiny on the 10th of May? -In one week he had completed those preparations which made the defence -of the Lucknow residency for ever memorable. Amid the deepening gloom -Lord Canning ever wrote home of him as "a tower of strength," and he was -appointed provisional governor-general. On the 30th of May mutiny burst -forth in Oudh, and he was ready. On the 29th of June, pressed by fretful -colleagues, and wasted by unceasing toil, he led 336 British soldiers -with 11 guns and 220 natives out of Chinhat to reconnoitre the -insurgents, when the natives joined the enemy and the residency was -besieged. On the 2nd of July, as he lay exhausted by the day's work and -the terrific heat in an exposed room, a shell struck him, and in -forty-eight hours he was no more. A baronetcy was conferred on his son. -A marble statue was placed in St Paul's as the national memorial of one -who has been declared to be the noblest man that has lived and died for -the good of India. - - His biography was begun by Sir Herbert Edwardes, and completed (2 - vols. 1872) by Herman Merivale. See also J. J. McLeod Innes, _Sir - Henry Lawrence_ ("Rulers of India" series), 1898. - - - - -LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD MAIR LAWRENCE, 1ST BARON (1811-1879), viceroy and -governor-general of India, was born at Richmond, Yorkshire, on the 24th -of March 1811. His father, Colonel Alexander Lawrence, volunteered for -the forlorn hope at Seringapatam in presence of Baird and of Wellington, -whose friend he became. His mother, Letitia Knox, was a collateral -descendant of John Knox. To this couple were born twelve children, of -whom three became famous in India, Sir George St Patrick, Sir Henry -(q.v.) and Lord Lawrence. Irish Protestants, the boys were trained at -Foyle college, Derry, and at Clifton, and received Indian appointments -from their mother's cousin, John Hudleston, who had been the friend of -Schwartz in Tanjore. In 1829, when only seventeen, John Lawrence landed -at Calcutta as a civilian; he mastered the Persian language at the -college of Fort William, and was sent to Delhi, on his own application, -as assistant to the collector. The position was the most dangerous and -difficult to which a Bengal civilian could be appointed at that time. -The titular court of the pensioner who represented the Great Mogul was -the centre of that disaffection and sensuality which found their -opportunity in 1857. A Mussulman rabble filled the city. The district -around, stretching from the desert of Rajputana to the Jumna, was slowly -recovering from the anarchy to which Lord Lake had given the first blow. -When not administering justice in the city courts or under the village -tree, John Lawrence was scouring the country after the marauding Meos -and Mahommedan freebooters. His keen insight and sleepless energy at -once detected the murderer of his official superior, William Fraser, in -1835, in the person of Shams-uddin Khan, the nawab of Loharu, whose -father had been raised to the principality by Lake, and the assassin was -executed. The first twenty years, from 1829 to 1849, during which John -Lawrence acted as the magistrate and land revenue collector of the most -turbulent and backward portion of the Indian empire as it then was, -formed the period of the reforms of Lord William Bentinck. To what -became the lieutenant-governorship of the North-Western (now part of the -United) Provinces Lord Wellesley had promised the same permanent -settlement of the land-tax which Lord Cornwallis had made with the large -landholders or zemindars of Bengal. The court of directors, going to the -opposite extreme, had sanctioned leases for only five years, so that -agricultural progress was arrested. In 1833 Merttins Bird and James -Thomason introduced the system of thirty years' leases based on a -careful survey of every estate by trained civilians, and on the mapping -of every village holding by native subordinates. These two revenue -officers created a school of enthusiastic economists who rapidly -registered and assessed an area as large as that of Great Britain, with -a rural population of twenty-three millions. Of that school John -Lawrence proved the most ardent and the most renowned. Intermitting his -work at Delhi, he became land revenue settlement officer in the district -of Etawah, and there began, by buying out or getting rid of the -talukdars, to realize the ideal which he did much to create throughout -the rest of his career--a country "thickly cultivated by a fat contented -yeomanry, each man riding his own horse, sitting under his own fig-tree, -and enjoying his rude family comforts." This and a quiet persistent -hostility to the oppression of the people by their chiefs formed the two -features of his administrative policy throughout life. - -It was fortunate for the British power that, when the first Sikh War -broke out, John Lawrence was still collector of Delhi. The critical -engagements at Ferozeshah, following Moodkee, and hardly redeemed by -Aliwal, left the British army somewhat exhausted at the gate of the -Punjab, in front of the Sikh entrenchments on the Sutlej. For the first -seven weeks of 1846 there poured into camp, day by day, the supplies and -munitions of war which this one man raised and pushed forward, with all -the influence acquired during fifteen years of an iron yet sympathetic -rule in the land between the Jumna and the Sutlej. The crowning victory -of Sobraon was the result, and at thirty-five Lawrence became -commissioner of the Jullundur Doab, the fertile belt of hill and dale -stretching from the Sutlej north to the Indus. The still youthful -civilian did for the newly annexed territory what he had long before -accomplished in and around Delhi. He restored it to order, without one -regular soldier. By the fascination of his personal influence he -organized levies of the Sikhs who had just been defeated, led them now -against a chief in the upper hills and now to storm the fort of a raja -in the lower, till he so welded the people into a loyal mass that he was -ready to repeat the service of 1846 when, three years after, the second -Sikh War ended in the conversion of the Punjab up to Peshawar into a -British province. - -Lord Dalhousie had to devise a government for a warlike population now -numbering twenty-three millions, and covering an area little less than -that of the United Kingdom. The first results were not hopeful; and it -was not till John Lawrence became chief commissioner, and stood alone -face to face with the chiefs and people and ring fence of still untamed -border tribes, that there became possible the most successful experiment -in the art of civilizing turbulent millions which history presents. The -province was mapped out into districts, now numbering thirty-two, in -addition to thirty-six tributary states, small and great. To each the -thirty years' leases of the north-west settlement were applied, after a -patient survey and assessment by skilled officials ever in the saddle or -the tent. The revenue was raised on principles so fair to the peasantry -that Ranjit Singh's exactions were reduced by a fourth, while -agricultural improvements were encouraged. For the first time in its -history since the earliest Aryan settlers had been overwhelmed by -successive waves of invaders, the soil of the Punjab came to have a -marketable value, which every year of British rule has increased. A -stalwart police was organized; roads were cut through every district, -and canals were constructed. Commerce followed on increasing cultivation -and communications, courts brought justice to every man's door, and -crime hid its head. The adventurous and warlike spirits, Sikh and -Mahommedan, found a career in the new force of irregulars directed by -the chief commissioner himself, while the Afghan, Dost Mahommed, kept -within his own fastnesses, and the long extent of frontier at the foot -of the passes was patrolled. - -Seven years of such work prepared the lately hostile and always anarchic -Punjab under such a pilot as John Lawrence not only to weather the storm -of 1857 but to lead the older provinces into port. On the 12th of May -the news of the tragedies at Meerut and Delhi reached him at Rawalpindi. -The position was critical in the last degree, for of 50,000 native -soldiers 38,000 were Hindustanis of the very class that had mutinied -elsewhere, and the British troops were few and scattered. For five days -the fate of the Punjab hung upon a thread, for the question was, "Could -the 12,000 Punjabis be trusted and the 38,000 Hindustanis be disarmed?" -Not an hour was lost in beginning the disarming at Lahore; and, as one -by one the Hindustani corps succumbed to the epidemic of mutiny, the -sepoys were deported or disappeared, or swelled the military rabble in -and around the city of Delhi. The remembrance of the ten years' war -which had closed only in 1849, a bountiful harvest, the old love of -battle, the offer of good pay, but, above all, the personality of -Lawrence and his officers, raised the Punjabi force into a new army of -59,000 men, and induced the non-combatant classes to subscribe to a 6% -loan. Delhi was invested, but for three months the rebel city did not -fall. Under John Nicholson, Lawrence sent on still more men to the -siege, till every available European and faithful native soldier was -there, while a movable column swept the country, and the border was kept -by an improvised militia. At length, when even in the Punjab confidence -became doubt, and doubt distrust, and that was passing into -disaffection, John Lawrence was ready to consider whether we should not -give up the Peshawar valley to the Afghans as a last resource, and send -its garrison to recruit the force around Delhi. Another week and that -alternative must have been faced. But on the 20th of September the city -and palace of Delhi were again in British hands, and the chief -commissioner and his officers united in ascribing "to the Lord our God -all the praise due for nerving the hearts of our statesmen and the arms -of our soldiers." As Sir John Lawrence, Bart., G.C.B., with the thanks -of parliament, the gratitude of his country, and a life pension of L2000 -a year in addition to his ordinary pension of L1000, the "saviour of -India" returned home in 1859. After guarding the interests of India and -its people as a member of the secretary of state's council, he was sent -out again in 1864 as viceroy and governor-general on the death of Lord -Elgin. If no great crisis enabled Lawrence to increase his reputation, -his five years' administration of the whole Indian empire was worthy of -the ruler of the Punjab. His foreign policy has become a subject of -imperial interest, his name being associated with the "close border" as -opposed to the "forward" policy; while his internal administration was -remarkable for financial prudence, a jealous regard for the good of the -masses of the people and of the British soldiers, and a generous -interest in education, especially in its Christian aspects. - -When in 1854 Dost Mahommed, weakened by the antagonism of his brothers -in Kandahar, and by the interference of Persia, sent his son to Peshawar -to make a treaty, Sir John Lawrence was opposed to any entangling -relation with the Afghans after the experience of 1838-1842, but he -obeyed Lord Dalhousie so far as to sign a treaty of perpetual peace and -friendship. His ruling idea, the fruit of long and sad experience, was -that _de facto_ powers only should be recognized beyond the frontier. -When in 1863 Dost Mahommed's death let loose the factions of Afghanistan -he acted on this policy to such an extent that he recognized both the -sons, Afzul Khan and Shere Ali, at different times, and the latter fully -only when he had made himself master of all his father's kingdom. The -steady advance of Russia from the north, notwithstanding the Gortchakov -circular of 1864, led to severe criticism of this cautious "buffer" -policy which he justified under the term of "masterly inactivity." But -he was ready to receive Shere Ali in conference, and to aid him in -consolidating his power after it had been established and maintained for -a time, when his term of office came to an end and it fell to Lord Mayo, -his successor, to hold the Umballa conference in 1869. When, nine years -after, the second Afghan War was precipitated, the retired viceroy gave -the last days of his life to an unsparing exposure, in the House of -Lords and in the press, of a policy which he had striven to prevent in -its inception, and which he did not cease to denounce in its course and -consequences. - -On his final return to England early in 1869, after forty years' -service in and for India, "the great proconsul of our English Christian -empire" was created Baron Lawrence of the Punjab, and of Grately, Hants. -He assumed the same arms and crest as those of his brother Henry, with a -Pathan and a Sikh trooper as supporters, and took as his motto "Be -ready," his brother's being "Never give in." For ten years he gave -himself to the work of the London school board, of which he was the -first chairman, and of the Church missionary society. Towards the end -his eyesight failed, and on the 27th of June 1879 he died at the age of -sixty-eight. He was buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey, beside -Clyde, Outram and Livingstone. He had married the daughter of the Rev. -Richard Hamilton, Harriette-Katherine, who survived him, and he was -succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest son, John Hamilton Lawrence (b. -1846). - - See Bosworth Smith, _Life of Lord Lawrence_ (1885); Sir Charles - Aitchison, _Lord Lawrence_ ("Rulers of India" series, 1892); L. J. - Trotter, _Lord Lawrence_ (1880); and F. M. Holmes, _Four Heroes of - India_. - - - - -LAWRENCE, STRINGER (1697-1775), English soldier, was born at Hereford on -the 6th of March 1697. He seems to have entered the army in 1727 and -served in Gibraltar and Flanders, subsequently taking part in the battle -of Culloden. In 1748, with the rank of major and the reputation of an -experienced soldier, he went out to India to command the East India -Company's troops. Dupleix's schemes for the French conquest of southern -India were on the point of taking effect, and not long after his arrival -at Fort St David, Stringer Lawrence was actively engaged. He -successfully foiled an attempted French surprise at Cuddalore, but -subsequently was captured by a French cavalry patrol at Ariancopang near -Pondicherry and kept prisoner till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1749 -he was in command at the capture of Devicota. On this occasion Clive -served under him and a life-long friendship began. On one occasion, when -Clive had become famous, he honoured the creator of the Indian army by -refusing to accept a sword of honour unless one was voted to Lawrence -also. In 1750 Lawrence returned to England, but in 1752 he was back in -India. Here he found Clive in command of a force intended for the relief -of Trichinopoly. As senior officer Lawrence took over the command, but -was careful to allow Clive every credit for his share in the subsequent -operations, which included the relief of Trichinopoly and the surrender -of the entire French besieging force. In 1752 with an inferior force he -defeated the French at Bahur (Behoor) and in 1753 again relieved -Trichinopoly. For the next seventeen months he fought a series of -actions in defence of this place, finally arranging a three months' -armistice, which was afterwards converted into a conditional treaty. He -had commanded in chief up to the arrival of the first detachment of -regular forces of the crown. In 1757 he served in the operations against -Wandiwash, and in 1758-1759 was in command of Fort St George during the -siege by the French under Lally. In 1759 failing health compelled him to -return to England. He resumed his command in 1761 as major-general and -commander-in-chief. Clive supplemented his old friend's inconsiderable -income by settling on him an annuity of L500 a year. In 1765 he presided -over the board charged with arranging the reorganization of the Madras -army, and he finally retired the following year. He died in London on -the 10th of January 1775. The East India Company erected a monument to -his memory in Westminster Abbey. - - See Biddulph, _Stringer Lawrence_ (1901). - - - - -LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS (1769-1830), English painter, was born at Bristol -on the 4th of May 1769. His father was an innkeeper, first at Bristol -and afterwards at Devizes, and at the age of six Thomas was already -shown off to the guests of the Black Boar as an infant prodigy who could -sketch their likenesses and declaim speeches from Milton. In 1779 the -elder Lawrence had to leave Devizes, having failed in business, and the -precocious talent of the son, who had gained a sort of reputation along -the Bath road, became the support of the family. His debut as a crayon -portrait painter was made at Oxford, where he was well patronized, and -in 1782 the family settled in Bath, where the young artist soon found -himself fully employed in taking crayon likenesses of the fashionables -of the place at a guinea or a guinea and a half a head. In 1784 he -gained the prize and silver-gilt palette of the Society of Arts for a -crayon drawing after Raphael's "Transfiguration," and presently -beginning to paint in oil. Throwing aside the idea of going on the stage -which he had for a short time entertained, he came to London in 1787, -was kindly received by Reynolds, and entered as a student at the Royal -Academy. He began to exhibit almost immediately, and his reputation -increased so rapidly that he became an associate of the Academy in 1791. -The death of Sir Joshua in 1792 opened the way to further successes. He -was at once appointed painter to the Dilettanti society, and principal -painter to the king in room of Reynolds. In 1794 he was a Royal -Academician, and he became the fashionable portrait painter of the age, -having as his sitters all the rank, fashion and talent of England, and -ultimately most of the crowned heads of Europe. In 1815 he was knighted; -in 1818 he went to Aix-la-Chapelle to paint the sovereigns and -diplomatists gathered there, and visited Vienna and Rome, everywhere -receiving flattering marks of distinction from princes, due as much to -his courtly manners as to his merits as an artist. After eighteen months -he returned to England, and on the very day of his arrival was chosen -president of the Academy in room of West, who had died a few days -before. This office he held from 1820 to his death on the 7th of January -1830. He was never married. - -Sir Thomas Lawrence had all the qualities of personal manner and -artistic style necessary to make a fashionable painter, and among -English portrait painters he takes a high place, though not as high as -that given to him in his lifetime. His more ambitious works, in the -classical style, such as his once celebrated "Satan," are practically -forgotten. - - The best display of Lawrence's work is in the Waterloo Gallery of - Windsor, a collection of much historical interest. "Master Lambton," - painted for Lord Durham at the price of 600 guineas, is regarded as - one of his best portraits, and a fine head in the National Gallery, - London, shows his power to advantage. The _Life and Correspondence of - Sir T. Lawrence_, by D. E. Williams, appeared in 1831. - - - - -LAWRENCE, a city and the county-seat of Douglas county, Kansas, U.S.A., -situated on both banks of the Kansas river, about 40 m. W. of Kansas -City. Pop. (1890) 9997, (1900) 10,862, of whom 2032 were negroes, (1910 -census) 12,374. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the -Union Pacific railways, both having tributary lines extending N. and S. -Lawrence is surrounded by a good farming region, and is itself a -thriving educational and commercial centre. Its site slopes up from the -plateau that borders the river to the heights above, from which there is -a view of rare beauty. Among the city's principal public buildings are -the court house and the Y.M.C.A. building. The university of Kansas, -situated on Mount Oread, overlooking the city, was first opened in 1866, -and in 1907-1908 had a faculty of 105 and 2063 students, including 702 -women (see KANSAS). Just S. of the city of Lawrence is Haskell institute -(1884), one of the largest Indian schools in the country, maintained for -children of the tribal Indians by the national government. In 1907 the -school had 813 students, of whom 313 were girls; it has an academic -department, a business school and courses in domestic science, in -farming, dairying and gardening, and in masonry, carpentry, painting, -blacksmithing, waggon-making, shoemaking, steam-fitting, printing and -other trades. Among the city's manufactures are flour and grist mill -products, pianos and cement plaster. Lawrence, named in honour of Amos -A. Lawrence, was founded by agents of the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid -Company in July 1854, and during the Territorial period was the -political centre of the free-state cause and the principal point against -which the assaults of the pro-slavery party were directed. It was first -known as Wakarusa, from the creek by which it lies. A town association -was organized in September 1854 before any Territorial government had -been established. In the next month some pro-slavery men presented -claims to a part of the land, projected a rival town to be called -Excelsior on the same site, and threatened violence; but when Lawrence -had organized its "regulators" the pro-slavery men retired and later -agreed to a compromise by which the town site was limited to 640 acres. -In December 1855 occurred the "Wakarusa war." A free-state man having -been murdered for his opinions, a friend who threatened retaliation was -arrested by the pro-slavery sheriff, S. J. Jones; he was rescued and -taken to Lawrence; the city disclaimed complicity, but Jones persuaded -Governor Wilson Shannon that there was rebellion, and Shannon authorized -a posse; Missouri responded, and a pro-slavery force marched on -Lawrence. The governor found that Lawrence had not resisted and would -not resist the service of writs; by a written "agreement" with the -free-state leaders he therefore withdrew his sanction from the -Missourians and averted battle. The retreating Missourians committed -some homicides. It was during this "war" that John Brown first took up -arms with the free-state men. Preparations for another attack continued, -particularly after Sheriff Jones, while serving writs in Lawrence, was -wounded. On the 21st of May 1856, at the head of several hundred -Missourians, he occupied the city without resistance, destroyed its -printing offices and the free-state headquarters and pillaged private -houses. In 1855 and again in 1857 the pro-slavery Territorial -legislature passed an Act giving Lawrence a charter, but the people of -Lawrence would not recognize that "bogus" government, and on the 13th of -July 1857, after an application to the Topeka free-state legislature for -a charter had been denied, adopted a city charter of their own. Governor -Walker proclaimed this rebellion against the United States, appeared -before the town in command of 400 United States dragoons and declared it -under martial law; as perfect order prevailed, and there was no overt -resistance to Territorial law, the troops were withdrawn after a few -weeks by order of President Buchanan, and in February 1858 the -legislature passed an Act legalizing the city charter of July 1857. On -the 21st of August 1863 William C. Quantrell and some 400 mounted -Missouri bushrangers surprised the sleeping town and murdered 150 -citizens. The city's arms were in storage and no resistance was -possible. This was the most distressing episode in all the turbulence of -territorial days and border warfare in Kansas. A monument erected in -1895 commemorates the dead. After the free-state men gained control of -the Territorial legislature in 1857 the legislature regularly adjourned -from Lecompton, the legal capital, to Lawrence, which was practically -the capital until the choice of Topeka under the Wyandotte constitution. -The first railway to reach Lawrence was the Union Pacific in 1864. - - See F. W. Blackmar, "The Annals of an Historic Town," in the _Annual - Report_ of the American Historical Association for 1893 (Washington, - 1894). - - - - -LAWRENCE, a city, and one of the three county-seats (Salem and -Newburyport are the others) of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on -both sides of the Merrimac river, about 30 m. from its mouth and about -26 m. N.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 44,654, (1900) 62,559, of whom -28,577 were foreign-born (7058 being Irish, 6999 French Canadians, 5131 -English, 2465 German, 1683 English Canadian), and (1910 census) 85,892. -It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad and by electric railways to -Andover, Boston, Lowell, Haverhill and Salem, Massachusetts, and to -Nashua and Salem, New Hampshire. The city's area of 6.54 sq. m. is about -equally divided by the Merrimac, which is here crossed by a great stone -dam 900 ft. long, and, with a fall of 28 ft., supplies about 12,000 -horsepower. Water from the river is carried to factories by a canal on -each side of the river and parallel to it; the first canal was built on -the north side in 1845-1847 and is 1 m. long; the canal on the south -side is about 3/4 m. long, and was built several years later. There are -large and well-kept public parks, a common (17 acres) with a soldiers' -monument, a free public library, with more than 50,000 volumes in 1907, -a city hall, county and municipal court-houses, a county gaol and house -of correction, a county industrial school and a state armoury. - -The value of the city's factory product was $48,036,593 in 1905, -$41,741,980 in 1900. The manufacture of textiles is the most important -industry; in 1905 the city produced worsteds valued at $30,926,964 and -cotton goods worth $5,745,611, the worsted product being greater than -that of any other American city. The Wood worsted mill here is said to -be the largest single mill in the world. The history of Lawrence is -largely the history of its textile mills. The town was formed in 1845 -from parts of Andover (S. of the Merrimac) and of Methuen (N. of the -river), and it was incorporated as a town in 1847, being named in honour -of Abbott Lawrence, a director of the Essex company, organized in 1845 -(on the same day as the formation of the town) for the control of the -water power and for the construction of the great dam across the -Merrimac. The Bay State woollen mills, which in 1858 became the -Washington mills, and the Atlantic cotton mills were both chartered in -1846. The Pacific mills (1853) introduced from England in 1854 Lister -combs for worsted manufacture; and the Washington mills soon afterward -began to make worsted dress goods. Worsted cloths for men's wear seem to -have been made first about 1870 at nearly the same time in the -Washington mills here, in the Hockanum mills of Rockville, Connecticut, -and in Wanskuck mills, Providence, Rhode Island. The Pemberton mills, -built in 1853, collapsed and afterwards took fire on the 10th of January -1860; 90 were killed and hundreds severely injured. Lawrence was -chartered as a city in 1853, and annexed a small part of Methuen in 1854 -and parts of Andover and North Andover in 1879. - - See H. A. Wadsworth, _History of Lawrence, Massachusetts_ (Lawrence, - 1880). - - - - -LAWRENCEBURG, a city and the county-seat of Dearborn county, Indiana, -U.S.A., on the Ohio river, in the S.E. part of the state, 22 m. (by -rail) W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4284, (1900) 4326 (413 -foreign-born); (1910) 3930. Lawrenceburg is served by the Baltimore & -Ohio South-Western and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis -railways, by the Cincinnati, Lawrenceburg & Aurora electric street -railroad, and by river packets to Louisville and Cincinnati. The city -lies along the river and on higher land rising 100 ft. above -river-level. It formerly had an important river trade with New Orleans, -beginning about 1820 and growing in volume after the city became the -terminus of the Whitewater canal, begun in 1836. The place was laid out -in 1802. In 1846 an "old" and a "new" settlement were united, and -Lawrenceburg was chartered as a city. Lawrenceburg was the birthplace of -James B. Eads, the famous engineer, and of John Coit Spooner (b. 1843), -a prominent Republican member of the United States Senate from Wisconsin -in 1885-1891 and in 1897-1907; and the Presbyterian Church of -Lawrenceburg was the first charge (1837-1839) of Henry Ward Beecher. - - - - -LAWSON, CECIL GORDON (1851-1882), English landscape painter, was the -youngest son of William Lawson of Edinburgh, esteemed as a portrait -painter. His mother also was known for her flower pieces. He was born -near Shrewsbury on the 3rd of December 1851. Two of his brothers (one of -them, Malcolm, a clever musician and song-writer) were trained as -artists, and Cecil was from childhood devoted to art with the intensity -of a serious nature. Soon after his birth the Lawsons moved to London. -Lawson's first works were studies of fruit, flowers, &c., in the manner -of W. Hunt; followed by riverside Chelsea subjects. His first exhibit at -the Royal Academy (1870) was "Cheyne Walk," and in 1871 he sent two -other Chelsea subjects. These gained full recognition from -fellow-artists, if not from the public. Among his friends were now -numbered Fred Walker, G. J. Pinwell and their associates. Following -them, he made a certain number of drawings for wood-engraving. Lawson's -Chelsea pictures had been painted in somewhat low and sombre tones; in -the "Hymn to Spring" of 1872 (rejected by the Academy) he turned to a -more joyous play of colour, helped by work in more romantic scenes in -North Wales and Ireland. Early in 1874 he made a short tour in Holland, -Belgium and Paris; and in the summer he painted his large "Hop Gardens -of England." This was much praised at the Academy of 1876. But Lawson's -triumph was with the great luxuriant canvas "The Minister's Garden," -exhibited in 1878 at the Grosvenor Gallery, and now in the Manchester -Art Gallery. This was followed by several works conceived in a new and -tragic mood. His health began to fail, but he worked on. He married in -1879 the daughter of Birnie Philip, and settled at Haslemere. His later -subjects are from this neighbourhood (the most famous being "The August -Moon," now in the National Gallery of British Art) or from Yorkshire. -Towards the end of 1881 he went to the Riviera, returned in the spring, -and died at Haslemere on the 10th of June 1882. Lawson may be said to -have restored to English landscape the tradition of Gainsborough, Crome -and Constable, infused with an imaginative intensity of his own. Among -English landscape painters of the latter part of the 19th century his is -in many respects the most interesting name. - - See E. W. Gosse, _Cecil Lawson, a Memoir_ (1883); Heseltine Owen, "In - Memoriam: Cecil Gordon Lawson," _Magazine of Art_ (1894). (L. B.) - - - - -LAWSON, SIR JOHN (d. 1665), British sailor, was born at Scarborough. -Joining the parliamentary navy in 1642, he accompanied Penn to the -Mediterranean in 1650, where he served for some time. In 1652 he served -under Blake in the Dutch War and was present at the first action in the -Downs and the battle of the Kentish Knock. At Portland, early in 1653, -he was vice-admiral of the red, and his ship was severely handled. -Lawson took part in the battles of June and July in the following -summer. In 1654-1655 he commanded in the North Sea and the Channel. -Appointed in January 1655-1656 as Blake's second-in-command, Lawson was -a few weeks later summarily dismissed from his command, probably for -political reasons. He was a Republican and Anabaptist, and therefore an -enemy to Cromwell. It is not improbable that like Penn and others he was -detected in correspondence with the exiled Charles II., who certainly -hoped for his support. In 1657, along with Harrison and others, he was -arrested and, for a short time, imprisoned for conspiring against -Cromwell. Afterwards he lived at Scarborough until the fall of Richard -Cromwell's government. During the troubled months which succeeded that -event Lawson, flying his flag as admiral of the Channel fleet, played a -marked political role. His ships escorted Charles to England, and he was -soon afterwards knighted. Sent out in 1661 with Montagu, earl of -Sandwich, to the Mediterranean, Lawson conducted a series of campaigns -against the piratical states of the Algerian coast. Thence summoned to a -command in the Dutch War, he was mortally wounded at Lowestoft. He died -on the 29th of June 1665. - - See Charnock, _Biographia navalis_, i. 20; Campbell, _Lives of the - Admirals_, ii. 251; Penn, _Life of Sir William Penn_; Pepys, _Diary_. - - - - -LAWSON, SIR WILFRID, Bart. (1829-1906), English politician and -temperance leader, son of the 1st baronet (d. 1867), was born on the 4th -of September 1829. He was always an enthusiast in the cause of total -abstinence, and in parliament, to which he was first elected in 1859 for -Carlisle, he became its leading spokesman. In 1864 he first introduced -his Permissive Bill, giving to a two-thirds majority in any district a -veto upon the granting of licences for the sale of intoxicating liquors; -and though this principle failed to be embodied in any act, he had the -satisfaction of seeing a resolution on its lines accepted by a majority -in the House of Commons in 1880, 1881 and 1883. He lost his seat for -Carlisle in 1865, but in 1868 was again returned as a supporter of Mr -Gladstone, and was member till 1885; though defeated for the new -Cockermouth division of Cumberland in 1885, he won that seat in 1886, -and he held it till the election of 1900, when his violent opposition to -the Boer War caused his defeat, but in 1903 he was returned for the -Camborne division of Cornwall and at the general election of 1906 was -once more elected for his old constituency in Cumberland. During all -these years he was the champion of the United Kingdom Alliance (founded -1853), of which he became president. An extreme Radical, he also -supported disestablishment, abolition of the House of Lords, and -disarmament. Though violent in the expression of his opinions, Sir -Wilfrid Lawson remained very popular for his own sake both in and out of -the House of Commons; he became well known for his humorous vein, his -faculty for composing topical doggerel being often exercised on -questions of the day. He died on the 1st of July 1906. - - - - -LAY, a word of several meanings. Apart from obsolete and dialectical -usages, such as the East Anglian word meaning "pond," possibly cognate -with Lat. _lacus_, pool or lake, or its use in weaving for the batten of -a loom, where it is a variant form of "lath," the chief uses are as -follows: (1) A song or, more accurately, a short poem, lyrical or -narrative, which could be sung or accompanied by music; such were the -romances sung by minstrels. Such an expression as the "Lay of the -Nibelungen" is due to mistaken association of the word with Ger. _Lied_, -song, which appears in Anglo-Saxon as _leoeth_. "Lay" comes from O. Fr. -_lai_, of which the derivation is doubtful. The _New English Dictionary_ -rejects Celtic origins sometimes put forward, such as Ir. _laoidh_, -Welsh _llais_, and takes O. Mid. and High Ger. _leich_ as the probable -source. (2) "Non-clerical" or "unlearned." In this sense "lay" comes -directly from Fr. _lai_ (_laique_, the learned form nearer to the Latin, -is now used) from Lat. _laicus_, Gr. [Greek: laikos], of or belonging to -the people ([Greek: laos], Attic [Greek: leos]). The word is now -specially applied to persons who are not in orders, and more widely to -those who do not belong to other learned professions, particularly the -law and medicine. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes two examples from -versions of the Bible. In the Douai version of 1 Sam. xxi. 4, Ahimelech -tells David that he has "no lay bread at hand but only holy bread"; here -the Authorized Version has "common bread," the Vulgate _laicos panes_. -In Coverdale's version of Acts iv. 13, the high priest and his kindred -marvel at Peter and John as being "unlearned and lay people"; the -Authorized Version has "unlearned and ignorant men." In a cathedral of -the Church of England "lay clerks" and "lay vicars" sing such portions -of the service as may be performed by laymen and clergy in minor orders. -"Lay readers" are persons who are granted a commission by the bishop to -perform certain religious duties in a particular parish. The commission -remains in force until it is revoked by the bishop or his successors, or -till there is a new incumbent in the parish, when it has to be renewed. -In a religious order a "lay brother" is freed from duties at religious -services performed by the other members, and from their studies, but is -bound by vows of obedience and chastity and serves the order by manual -labour. For "lay impropriator" see APPROPRIATION, and for "lay rector" -see RECTOR and TITHES; see further LAYMEN, HOUSE OF. (3) "Lay" as a verb -means "to make to lie down," "to place upon the ground," &c. The past -tense is "laid"; it is vulgarly confused with the verb "to lie," of -which the past is "lay." The common root of both "lie" and "lay" is -represented by O. Teut. _leg_; cf. Dutch _leggen_, Ger. _legen_, and -Eng. "ledge."[1] (4) "Lay-figure" is the name commonly given to -articulated figures of human beings or animals, made of wood, -papier-mache or other materials; draped and posed, such figures serve as -models for artists (see MODELS, ARTISTS). The word has no connexion with -"to lay," to place in position, but is an adaptation of the word -"layman," commonly used with this meaning in the 18th century. This was -adapted from Dutch _leeman_ (the older form is _ledenman_) and meant an -"articulated or jointed man" from _led_, now _lid_, a joint; cf. Ger. -_Gliedermann_. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The verb "to lie," to speak falsely, to tell a falsehood, is in - O. Eng. _leogan_; it appears in most Teutonic languages, e.g. Dutch - _lugen_, Ger. _lugen_. - - - - -LAYA, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1833), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the -4th of December 1761 and died in August 1833. He wrote his first comedy -in collaboration with Gabriel M. J. B. Legouve in 1785, but the piece, -though accepted by the Comedie Francaise, was never represented. In 1789 -he produced a plea for religious toleration in the form of a five-act -tragedy in verse, _Jean Calas_; the injustice of the disgrace cast on a -family by the crime of one of its members formed the theme of _Les -Dangers de l'opinion_ (1790); but it is by his _Ami des lois_ (1793) -that Laya is remembered. This energetic protest against mob-rule, with -its scarcely veiled characterizations of Robespierre as Nomophage and of -Marat as Duricrane, was an act of the highest courage, for the play was -produced at the Theatre Francais (temporarily Theatre de la Nation) only -nineteen days before the execution of Louis XVI. Ten days after its -first production the piece was prohibited by the commune, but the public -demanded its representation; the mayor of Paris was compelled to appeal -to the convention, and the piece was played while some 30,000 Parisians -guarded the hall. Laya went into hiding, and several persons convicted -of having a copy of the obnoxious play in their possession were -guillotined. At the end of the Terror Laya returned to Paris. In 1813 he -replaced Delille in the Paris chair of literary history and French -poetry; he was admitted to the Academy in 1817. Laya produced in 1797 -_Les Deux Stuarts_, and in 1799 _Falkland_, the title-role of which -provided Talma with one of his finest opportunities. Laya's works, which -chiefly owe their interest to the circumstances attending their -production, were collected in 1836-1837. - - See _Notice biographique sur J. L. Laya_ (1833); Ch. Nodier, _Discours - de reception_, 26th December (1833); Welschinger, _Theatre de la - revolution_ (1880). - - - - -LAYAMON, early English poet, was the author of a chronicle of Britain -entitled _Brut_, a paraphrase of the _Brut d'Angleterre_ by Wace, a -native of Jersey, who is also known as the author of the _Roman de Rou_. -The excellent edition of Layamon by Sir F. Madden (Society of -Antiquaries, London, 1847) should be consulted. All that is known -concerning Layamon is derived from two extant MSS., which present texts -that often vary considerably, and it is necessary to understand their -comparative value before any conclusions can be drawn. The older text -(here called the A-text) lies very near the original text, which is -unfortunately lost, though it now and then omits lines which are -absolutely necessary to the sense. The later text (here called the -B-text) represents a later recension of the original version by another -writer who frequently omits couplets, and alters the language by the -substitution of better-known words for such as seemed to be obsolescent; -e.g. _harme_ (harm) in place of _balewe_ (bale), and _dead_ in place of -_feie_ (fated to die, or dead). Hence little reliance can be placed on -the B-text, its chief merit being that it sometimes preserves couplets -which seem to have been accidentally omitted in A; besides which, it -affords a valuable commentary on the original version. - -We learn from the brief prologue that Layamon was a priest among the -people, and was the son of Leovenath (a late spelling of A.-S. -Leofnoth); also, that he lived at Ernley, at a noble church on Severn -bank, close by Radstone. This is certainly Areley Regis, or Areley -Kings, close by Redstone rock and ferry, 1 m. to the S. of Stourport in -Worcestershire. The B-text turns Layamon into the later form Laweman, -i.e. Law-man, correctly answering to Chaucer's "Man of Lawe," though -here apparently used as a mere name. It also turns Leovenath into Leuca, -i.e. Leofeca, a diminutive of Leofa, which is itself a pet-name for -Leofnoth; so that there is no real contradiction. But it absurdly -substitutes "with the good knight," which is practically meaningless, -for "at a noble church." - -We know no more about Layamon except that he was a great lover of books; -and that he procured three books in particular which he prized above -others, "turning over the leaves, and beholding them lovingly." These -were: the English book that St Beda made; another in Latin that St Albin -and St Austin made; whilst the third was made by a French clerk named -Wace, who (in 1155) gave a copy to the noble Eleanor, who was queen of -the high king Henry (i.e. Henry II.). - -The first of these really means the Anglo-Saxon translation of Beda's -_Ecclesiastical History_, which begins with the words: "Ic Beda, Cristes -theow," i.e. "I, Beda, Christ's servant." The second is a strange -description of the original of the translation, i.e. Albinus Beda's own -Latin book, the second paragraph of which begins with the words: "Auctor -ante omnes atque adiutor opusculi huius Albinus Abba reverentissimus vir -per omnia doctissimus extitit"; which Layamon evidently misunderstood. -As to the share of St Augustine in this work, see Book I., chapters -23-34, and Book II., chapters 1 and 2, which are practically all -concerned with him and occupy more than a tenth of the whole work. The -third book was Wace's poem, _Brut d'Angleterre_. But we find that -although Layamon had ready access to all three of these works, he soon -settled down to the translation of the third, without troubling much -about the others. His chief obligation to Beda is for the well-known -story about Pope Gregory and the English captives at Rome; see Layamon, -vol. iii. 180. - -It is impossible to enter here upon a discussion of the numerous points -of interest which a proper examination of this vast and important work -would present to any careful inquirer. Only a few bare results can be -here enumerated. The A-text may be dated about 1205, and the B-text -(practically by another writer) about 1275. Both texts, the former -especially, are remarkably free from admixture with words of French -origin; the lists that have been given hitherto are inexact, but it may -be said that the number of French words in the A-text can hardly exceed -100, or in the B-text 160. Layamon's work is largely original; Wace's -_Brut_ contains 15,300 lines, and Layamon's 32,240 lines of a similar -length; and many of Layamon's additions to Wace are notable, such as his -story "regarding the fairy elves at Arthur's birth, and his -transportation by them after death in a boat to Avalon, the abode of -Argante, their queen"; see Sir F. Madden's pref. p. xv. Wace's _Brut_ is -almost wholly a translation of the Latin chronicle concerning the early -history of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth, who said that he obtained -his materials from a manuscript written in Welsh. The name Brut is the -French form of Brutus, who was the fabulous grandson of Ascanius, and -great-grandson of Aeneas of Troy, the hero of Virgil's _Aeneid_. After -many adventures, this Brutus arrived in England, founded Troynovant or -New Troy (better known as London), and was the progenitor of a long line -of British kings, among whom were Locrine, Bladud, Leir, Gorboduc, -Ferrex and Porrex, Lud, Cymbeline, Constantine, Vortigern, Uther and -Arthur; and from this mythical Brutus the name Brut was transferred so -as to denote the entire chronicle of this British history. Layamon gives -the whole story, from the time of Brutus to that of Cadwalader, who may -be identified with the Caedwalla of the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, -baptized by Pope Sergius in the year 688. Both texts of Layamon are in a -south-western dialect; the A-text in particular shows the Wessex dialect -of earlier times (commonly called Anglo-Saxon) in a much later form, and -we can hardly doubt that the author, as he intimates, could read the old -version of Beda intelligently. The remarks upon the B-text in Sir F. -Madden's preface are not to the point; the peculiar spellings to which -he refers (such as _same_ for _shame_) are by no means due to any -confusion with the Northumbrian dialect, but rather to the usual -vagaries of a scribe who knew French better than English, and had some -difficulty in acquiring the English pronunciation and in representing it -accurately. At the same time, he was not strong in English grammar, and -was apt to confuse the plural form with the singular in the tenses of -verbs; and this is the simple explanation of most of the examples of -so-called "nunnation" in this poem (such as the use of _wolden_ for -_wolde_), which only existed in writing and must not be seriously -considered as representing real spoken sounds. The full proof of this -would occupy too much space; but it should be noticed that, in many -instances, "this pleonastic _n_ has been struck out or erased by a -second hand." In other instances it has escaped notice, and that is all -that need be said. The peculiar metre of the poem has been sufficiently -treated by J. Schipper. An abstract of the poem has been given by Henry -Morley; and good general criticisms of it by B. ten Brink and others. - - See _Layamon's Brut, or a Chronicle of Britain; a Poetical Semi-Saxon - Paraphrase of the Brut of Wace; ..._ by Sir F. Madden (1847); B. ten - Brink, _Early English Literature_, trans. by H. M. Kennedy (in Bonn's - Standard Library, 1885); H. Morley, _English Writers_, vol. iii. - (1888); J. Schipper, _Englische Metrik_, i. (Bonn, 1882), E. Guest, _A - History of English Rhythms_ (new ed. by W. W. Skeat, 1882), Article - "Layamon," in the _Dict. Nat. Biog.; Six Old English Chronicles_, - including Gildas, Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth (in Bohn's - Antiquarian Library); _Le Roux de Lincy, Le Roman de Brut, par Wace, - avec un commentaire et des notes_ (Rouen, 1836-1838), E. Matzner, - _Altenglische Sprachproben_ (Berlin, 1867). (W. W. S.) - - - - -LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY (1817-1894), British author and diplomatist, -the excavator of Nineveh, was born in Paris on the 5th of March 1817. -The Layards were of Huguenot descent. His father, Henry P. J. Layard, of -the Ceylon Civil Service, was the son of Charles Peter Layard, dean of -Bristol, and grandson of Daniel Peter Layard, the physician. Through his -mother, a daughter of Nathaniel Austen, banker, of Ramsgate, he -inherited Spanish blood. This strain of cosmopolitanism must have been -greatly strengthened by the circumstances of his education. Much of his -boyhood was spent in Italy, where he received part of his schooling, and -acquired a taste for the fine arts and a love of travel; but he was at -school also in England, France and Switzerland. After spending nearly -six years in the office of his uncle, Benjamin Austen, a solicitor, he -was tempted to leave England for Ceylon by the prospect of obtaining an -appointment in the civil service, and he started in 1839 with the -intention of making an overland journey across Asia. After wandering for -many months, chiefly in Persia, and having abandoned his intention of -proceeding to Ceylon, he returned in 1842 to Constantinople, where he -made the acquaintance of Sir Stratford Canning, the British ambassador, -who employed him in various unofficial diplomatic missions in European -Turkey. In 1845, encouraged and assisted by Canning, Layard left -Constantinople to make those explorations among the ruins of Assyria -with which his name is chiefly associated. This expedition was in -fulfilment of a design which he had formed, when, during his former -travels in the East, his curiosity had been greatly excited by the ruins -of Nimrud on the Tigris, and by the great mound of Kuyunjik, near Mosul, -already partly excavated by Botta. Layard remained in the neighbourhood -of Mosul, carrying on excavations at Kuyunjik and Nimrud, and -investigating the condition of various tribes, until 1847; and, -returning to England in 1848, published _Nineveh and its Remains: with -an Account of a Visit to the Chaldaean Christians of Kurdistan, and the -Yezidis, or Devil-worshippers; and an Inquiry into the Manners and Arts -of the Ancient Assyrians_ (2 vols., 1848-1849). To illustrate the -antiquities described in this work he published a large folio volume of -_Illustrations of the Monuments of Nineveh_ (1849). After spending a few -months in England, and receiving the degree of D.C.L. from the -university of Oxford, Layard returned to Constantinople as attache to -the British embassy, and, in August 1849, started on a second -expedition, in the course of which he extended his investigations to the -ruins of Babylon and the mounds of southern Mesopotamia. His record of -this expedition, _Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon_, -which was illustrated by another folio volume, called _A Second Series -of the Monuments of Nineveh_, was published in 1853. During these -expeditions, often in circumstances of great difficulty, Layard -despatched to England the splendid specimens which now form the greater -part of the collection of Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum. -Apart from the archaeological value of his work in identifying Kuyunjik -as the site of Nineveh, and in providing a great mass of materials for -scholars to work upon, these two books of Layard's are among the -best-written books of travel in the language. - -Layard now turned to politics. Elected as a Liberal member for Aylesbury -in 1852, he was for a few weeks under-secretary for foreign affairs, but -afterwards freely criticized the government, especially in connexion -with army administration. He was present in the Crimea during the war, -and was a member of the committee appointed to inquire into the conduct -of the expedition. In 1855 he refused from Lord Palmerston an office not -connected with foreign affairs, was elected lord rector of Aberdeen -university, and on 15th June moved a resolution in the House of Commons -(defeated by a large majority) declaring that in public appointments -merit had been sacrificed to private influence and an adherence to -routine. After being defeated at Aylesbury in 1857, he visited India to -investigate the causes of the Mutiny. He unsuccessfully contested York -in 1859, but was elected for Southwark in 1860, and from 1861 to 1866 -was under-secretary for foreign affairs in the successive -administrations of Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell. In 1866 he -was appointed a trustee of the British Museum, and in 1868 chief -commissioner of works in W. E. Gladstone's government and a member of -the Privy Council. He retired from parliament in 1869, on being sent as -envoy extraordinary to Madrid. In 1877 he was appointed by Lord -Beaconsfield ambassador at Constantinople, where he remained until -Gladstone's return to power in 1880, when he finally retired from public -life. In 1878, on the occasion of the Berlin conference, he received the -grand cross of the Bath. Layard's political life was somewhat stormy. -His manner was brusque, and his advocacy of the causes which he had at -heart, though always perfectly sincere, was vehement to the point -sometimes of recklessness. Layard retired to Venice, where he devoted -much of his time to collecting pictures of the Venetian school, and to -writing on Italian art. On this subject he was a disciple of his friend -G. Morelli, whose views he embodied in his revision of F. Kugler's -_Handbook of Painting, Italian Schools_ (1887). He wrote also an -introduction to Miss Ffoulkes's translation of Morelli's _Italian -Painters_ (1892-1893), and edited that part of Murray's _Handbook of -Rome_ (1894) which deals with pictures. In 1887 he published, from notes -taken at the time, a record of his first journey to the East, entitled -_Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Babylonia_. An abbreviation of -this work, which as a book of travel is even more delightful than its -predecessors, was published in 1894, shortly after the author's death, -with a brief introductory notice by Lord Aberdare. Layard also from time -to time contributed papers to various learned societies, including the -Huguenot Society, of which he was first president. He died in London on -the 5th of July 1894. (A. Gl.) - - - - -LAYMEN, HOUSES OF, deliberative assemblies of the laity of the Church of -England, one for the province of Canterbury, and the other for the -province of York. That of Canterbury was formed in 1886, and that of -York shortly afterwards. They are merely consultative bodies, and the -primary intention of their foundation was to associate the laity in the -deliberations of convocation. They have no legal status. The members are -elected by the various diocesan conferences, which are in turn elected -by the laity of their respective parishes or rural deaneries. Ten -members are appointed for the diocese of London, six for each of the -dioceses of Winchester, Rochester, Lichfield and Worcester; and four for -each of the remaining dioceses. The president of each house has the -discretionary power of appointing additional laymen, not exceeding ten -in number. - - - - -LAYNEZ (or LAINEZ), DIEGO (1512-1565), the second general of the Society -of Jesus, was born in Castile, and after studying at Alcala joined -Ignatius of Loyola in Paris, being one of the six who with Loyola in -August 1534 took the vow of missionary work in Palestine in the -Montmartre church. This plan fell through, and Laynez became professor -of scholastic theology at Sapienza. After the order had been definitely -established (1540) Laynez was sent to Germany. He was one of the pope's -theologians at the council of Trent (q.v.), where he played a weighty -and decisive part. When Loyola died in 1556 Laynez acted as vicar of the -society, and two years later became general. Before his death at Rome, -on the 19th of January 1565, he had immensely strengthened the despotic -constitution of the order and developed its educational activities (see -JESUITS). - - His _Disputationes Tridentinae_ were published in 2 volumes in 1886. - Lives by Michel d'Esne (Douai, 1597) and Pet. Ribadeneira (Madrid, - 1592; Lat. trans. by A. Schott, Antwerp, 1598). See also H. Muller, - _Les Origines de la Compagnie de Jesus: Ignace et Lainez_ (1898). - - - - -LAZAR, one afflicted with the disease of leprosy (q.v.). The term is an -adaptation in medieval Latin of the name of Lazarus (q.v.), in Luke xvi. -20, who was supposed to be a leper. The word was not confined to persons -suffering from leprosy; thus Caxton (_The Life of Charles the Great_, -37), "there atte laste were guarysshed and heled viij lazars of the -palesey." - -LAZARETTO or LAZAR-HOUSE is a hospital for the reception of poor persons -suffering from the plague, leprosy or other infectious or contagious -diseases. A peculiar use of "lazaretto" is found in the application of -the term, now obsolete, to a place in the after-part of a merchant -vessel for the storage of provisions, &c. _Lazzarone_, a name now often -applied generally to beggars, is an Italian term, particularly used of -the poorest class of Neapolitans, who, without any fixed abode, live by -odd jobs and fishing, but chiefly by begging. - - - - -LAZARITES (LAZARISTS or LAZARIANS), the popular names of the -"Congregation of Priests of the Mission" in the Roman Catholic Church. -It had its origin in the successful mission to the common people -conducted by St Vincent de Paul (q.v.) and five other priests on the -estates of the Gondi family. More immediately it dates from 1624, when -the little community acquired a permanent settlement in the college des -Bons Enfans in Paris. Archiepiscopal recognition was obtained in 1626; -by a papal bull of the 12th of January 1632, the society was constituted -a congregation, with St Vincent de Paul at its head. About the same time -the canons regular of St Victor handed over to the congregation the -priory of St Lazarus (formerly a lazar-house) in Paris, whence the name -of Lazarites or Lazarists. Within a few years they had acquired another -house in Paris and set up other establishments throughout France; -missions were also sent to Italy (1638), Tunis (1643), Algiers and -Ireland (1646), Madagascar (1648) and Poland (1651). A fresh bull of -Alexander VII. in April 1655 further confirmed the society; this was -followed by a brief in September of the same year, regulating its -constitution. The rules then adopted, which were framed on the model of -those of the Jesuits, were published at Paris in 1668 under the title -_Regulae seu constitutiones communes congregationis missionis_. The -special objects contemplated were the religious instruction of the lower -classes, the training of the clergy and foreign missions. During the -French Revolution the congregation was suppressed and St Lazare -plundered by the mob; it was restored by Napoleon in 1804 at the desire -of Pius VII., abolished by him in 1809 in consequence of a quarrel with -the pope, and again restored in 1816. The Lazarites were expelled from -Italy in 1871 and from Germany in 1873. The Lazarite province of Poland -was singularly prosperous; at the date of its suppression in 1796 it -possessed thirty-five establishments. The order was permitted to return -in 1816, but is now extinct there. In Madagascar it had a mission from -1648 till 1674. In 1783 Lazarites were appointed to take the place of -the Jesuits in the Levantine and Chinese missions; they still have some -footing in China, and in 1874 their establishments throughout the -Turkish empire numbered sixteen. In addition, they established branches -in Persia, Abyssinia, Mexico, the South American republics, Portugal, -Spain and Russia, some of which have been suppressed. In the same year -they had fourteen establishments in the United States of America. The -total number of Lazarites throughout the world is computed at about -3000. Amongst distinguished members of the congregation may be -mentioned: P. Collet (1693-1770), writer on theology and ethics; J. de -la Grive (1689-1757), geographer; E. Bore (d. 1878), orientalist; P. -Bertholon (1689-1757), physician; and Armand David, Chinese missionary -and traveller. - - See _Regulae seu constitutiones communes congregationis missionis_ - (Paris, 1668); _Memoires de la congregation de la mission_ (1863); - _Congregation de la mission. Repertoire historique_ (1900); _Notices - bibliographiques sur les ecrivains de la congregation de la mission_ - (Angouleme, 1878); P. Helyot, _Dict. des ordres religieux_, viii. - 64-77; M. Heimbrecher, _Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholischen - Kirche_, ii. (1897); C. Stork in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ - (Catholic), vii.; E. Bougaud, _History of St Vincent de Paul_ (1908). - - - - -LAZARUS (a contracted form of the Heb. name Eleazar, "God has helped," -Gr. [Greek: Lazaros]), a name which occurs in the New Testament in two -connexions. - -1. LAZARUS OF BETHANY, brother of Martha and Mary. The story that he -died and after four days was raised from the dead is told by John (xi., -xii.) only, and is not mentioned by the Synoptists. By many this is -regarded as the greatest of Christ's miracles. It produced a great -effect upon many Jews; the _Acta Pilati_ says that Pilate trembled when -he heard of it, and, according to Bayle's _Dictionary_, Spinoza declared -that if he were persuaded of its truth he would become a Christian. The -story has been attacked more vigorously than any other portion of the -Fourth Gospel, mainly on two grounds, (i.) the fact that, in spite of -its striking character, it is omitted by the Synoptists, and (ii.) its -unique significance. The personality of Lazarus in John's account, his -relation to Martha and Mary, and the possibility that John reconstructed -the story by the aid of inferences from the story of the supper in Luke -x. 40, and that of the anointing of Christ in Bethany given by Mark and -Matthew, are among the chief problems. The controversy has given rise to -a great mass of literature, discussions of which will be found in the -lives of Christ, the biblical encyclopaedias and the commentaries on St -John. - -2. LAZARUS is also the name given by Luke (xvi. 20) to the beggar in the -parable known as that of "Lazarus and Dives,"[1] illustrating the misuse -of wealth. There is little doubt that the name is introduced simply as -part of the parable, and not with any idea of identifying the beggar -with Lazarus of Bethany. It is curious, not only that Luke's story does -not appear in the other gospels, but also that in no other of Christ's -parables is a name given to the central character. Hence it was in early -times thought that the story was historical, not allegorical (see -LAZAR). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The English Bible does not use Lat. _Dives_ (rich) as a proper - name, saying merely "a certain rich man." The idea that Dives was a - proper name arose from the Vulgate _quidam dives_, whence it became a - conventional name for a rich man. - - - - -LAZARUS, EMMA (1849-1887), American Jewish poetess, was born in New -York. When the Civil War broke out she was soon inspired to lyric -expression. Her first book (1867) included poems and translations which -she wrote between the ages of fourteen and seventeen. As yet her models -were classic and romantic. At the age of twenty-one she published -_Admetus and other Poems_ (1871). _Admetus_ is inscribed to Emerson, who -greatly influenced her, and with whom she maintained a regular -correspondence for several years. She led a retired life, and had a -modest conception of her own powers. Much of her next work appeared in -_Lippincott's Magazine_, but in 1874 she published a prose romance -(_Alide_) based on Goethe's autobiography, and received a generous -letter of admiration from Turgeniev. Two years later she visited Concord -and made the acquaintance of the Emerson circle, and while there read -the proof-sheets of her tragedy _The Spagnoletto_. In 1881 she published -her excellent translations of Heine's poems. Meanwhile events were -occurring which appealed to her Jewish sympathies and gave a new turn to -her feeling. The Russian massacres of 1880-1881 were a trumpet-call to -her. So far her Judaism had been latent. She belonged to the oldest -Jewish congregation of New York, but she had not for some years taken a -personal part in the observances of the synagogue. But from this time -she took up the cause of her race, and "her verse rang out as it had -never rung before, a clarion note, calling a people to heroic action and -unity; to the consciousness and fulfilment of a grand destiny." Her -poems, "The Crowing of the Red Cock" and "The Banner of the Jew" (1882) -stirred the Jewish consciousness and helped to produce the new Zionism -(q.v.). She now wrote another drama, the _Dance to Death_, the scene of -which is laid in Nordhausen in the 14th century; it is based on the -accusation brought against the Jews of poisoning the wells and thus -causing the Black Death. The _Dance to Death_ was included (with some -translations of medieval Hebrew poems) in _Songs of a Semite_ (1882), -which she dedicated to George Eliot. In 1885 she visited Europe. She -devoted much of the short remainder of her life to the cause of Jewish -nationalism. In 1887 appeared _By the waters of Babylon_, which consists -of a series of "prose poems," full of prophetic fire. She died in New -York on the 19th of November 1887. A sonnet by Emma Lazarus is engraved -on a memorial tablet on the colossal Bartholdi statue of Liberty, New -York. - - See article in the _Century Magazine_, New Series, xiv. 875 (portrait - p. 803), afterwards prefixed as a _Memoir_ to the collected edition of - _The poems of Emma Lazarus_ (2 vols., 1889). (I. A.) - - - - -LAZARUS, HENRY (1815-1895), British clarinettist, was born in London on -the 1st of January 1815, and was a pupil of Blizard, bandmaster of the -Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea, and subsequently of Charles Godfrey, -senior, bandmaster of the Coldstream Guards. He made his first -appearance as a soloist at a concert of Mme Dulcken's, in April 1838, -and in that year he was appointed as second clarinet to the Sacred -Harmonic Society. From Willman's death in 1840 Lazarus was principal -clarinet at the opera, and all the chief festivals and orchestral -concerts. His beautiful tone, excellent phrasing and accurate execution -were greatly admired. He was professor of the clarinet at the Royal -Academy of Music from 1854 until within a short time of his death, and -was appointed to teach his instrument at the Military School of Music, -Kneller Hall, in 1858. His last public appearance was at a concert for -his benefit in St James's Hall, in June 1892, and he died on the 6th of -March 1895. - - - - -LAZARUS, MORITZ (1824-1903), German philosopher, was born on the 15th of -September 1824 at Filehne, Posen. The son of a rabbinical scholar, he -was educated in Hebrew literature and history, and subsequently in law -and philosophy at the university of Berlin. From 1860 to 1866 he was -professor in the university of Berne, and subsequently returned to -Berlin as professor of philosophy in the kriegsakademie (1868) and later -in the university of Berlin (1873). On the occasion of his seventieth -birthday he was honoured with the title of _Geheimrath_. The fundamental -principle of his philosophy was that truth must be sought not in -metaphysical or a priori abstractions but in psychological -investigation, and further that this investigation cannot confine itself -successfully to the individual consciousness, but must be devoted -primarily to society as a whole. The psychologist must study mankind -from the historical or comparative standpoint, analysing the elements -which constitute the fabric of society, with its customs, its -conventions and the main tendencies of its evolution. This -_Volkerpsychologie_ (folk- or comparative psychology) is one of the -chief developments of the Herbartian theory of philosophy; it is a -protest not only against the so-called scientific standpoint of natural -philosophers, but also against the individualism of the positivists. In -support of his theory he founded, in combination with H. Steinthal, the -_Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft_ (1859). His -own contributions to this periodical were numerous and important. His -chief work was _Das Leben der Seele_ (Berlin, 1855-1857; 3rd edition, -1883). Other philosophical works were:--_Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten_ -(1860 and 1867), _Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte_ (1865 and 1872); -_Zur Lehre von den Sinnestauschungen_ (1867); _Ideale Fragen_ (1875 and -1885), _Erziehung und Geschichte_ (1881); _Unser Standpunkt_ (1881); -_Ueber die Reize des Spiels_ (1883). Apart from the great interest of -his philosophical work, Lazarus was pre-eminent among the Jews of the -so-called Semitic domination in Germany. Like Heine, Auerbach and -Steinthal, he rose superior to the narrower ideals of the German Jews, -and took a leading place in German literature and thought. He protested -against the violent anti-Semitism of the time, and, in spite of the -moderate tone of his publications, drew upon himself unqualified -censure. He wrote in this connexion a number of articles collected in -1887 under the title _Treu und Frei. Reden und Vortrage uber Juden und -Judenthum_. In 1869 and 1871 he was president of the first and second -Jewish Synods at Leipzig and Augsburg. - - See R. Flint, _The Philosophy of History in Europe_; M. Brasch, - _Gesammelte Essays und Characterkopfe zur neuen Philos. und - Literatur_; E. Berliner, _Lazarus und die offentliche Meinung_; M. - Brasch, "Der Begrunder de Volkerpsychologie," in _Nord et Sud_, - (September 1894). - - - - -LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF, a religious and military order founded in -Jerusalem about the middle of the 12th century. Its primary object was -the tending of the sick, especially lepers, of whom Lazarus (see LAZAR) -was regarded as the patron. From the 13th century, the order made its -way into various countries of Europe--Sicily, Lower Italy and Germany -(Thuringia); but its chief centre of activity was France, where Louis -IX. (1253) gave the members the lands of Boigny near Orleans and a -building at the gates of Paris, which they turned into a lazar-house for -the use of the lepers of the city. A papal confirmation was obtained -from Alexander IV. in 1255. The knights were one hundred in number, and -possessed the right of marrying and receiving pensions charged on -ecclesiastical benefices. An eight-pointed cross was the insignia of -both the French and Italian orders. The gradual disappearance of -leprosy combined with other causes to secularize the order more and -more. In Savoy in 1572 it was merged by Gregory XIII. (at the instance -of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy) in the order of St Maurice (see -KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY: _Orders of Knighthood, Italy_). The chief task -of this branch was the defence of the Catholic faith, especially against -the Protestantism of Geneva. It continued to exist till the second half -of the 19th century. In 1608 it was in France united by Henry IV. with -the order of Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel. It was treated with especial -favour by Louis XIV., and the most brilliant period of its existence was -from 1673 to 1691, under the marquis de Louvois. From that time it began -to decay. It was abolished at the Revolution, reintroduced during the -Restoration, and formally abolished by a state decree of 1830. - - See L. Mainbourg, _Hist. des croisades_ (1682; Eng. trans. by Nalson, - 1686); P. Helyot, _Hist. des ordres monastiques_ (1714), pp. 257, 386; - J. G. Uhlhorn, _Die christliche Liebesthatigkeit im Mittelalter_ - (Stuttgart, 1884); articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie fur - protestantische Theologie_, xi. (1902) and Wetzer and Welte's - (Catholic) _Kirchenlexikon_, vii. (1891). - - - - -LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825-1909), American historian, was born at -Philadelphia on the 19th of September 1825. His father was a publisher, -whom in 1843 he joined in business, and he retained his connexion with -the firm till 1880. Weak health, however, caused him from early days to -devote himself to research, mainly on church history in the later middle -ages, and his literary reputation rests on the important books he -produced on this subject. These are: _Superstition and Force_ -(Philadelphia, 1866, new ed. 1892); _Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal -Celibacy_ (Philadelphia, 1867); _History of the Inquisition of the -Middle Ages_ (New York, 1888); _Chapters from the religious history of -Spain connected with the Inquisition_ (Philadelphia, 1890); _History of -auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church_ (3 vols., -London, 1896); _The Moriscos of Spain_ (Philadelphia, 1901), and -_History of the Inquisition of Spain_ (4 vols., New York and London, -1906-1907). He also edited a _Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the -13th century_ (Philadelphia, 1892), and in 1908 was published his -_Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies_. As an authority on the -Inquisition he stood in the highest rank of modern historians, and -distinctions were conferred on him by the universities of Harvard, -Princeton, Pennsylvania, Giessen and Moscow. He died at Philadelphia on -the 24th of October 1909. - - - - -LEAD (pronounced _leed_), a city of Lawrence county, South Dakota, -U.S.A., situated in the Black Hills, at an altitude of about 5300 ft., 3 -m. S.W. of Deadwood. Pop. (1890) 2581, (1900) 6210, of whom 2145 were -foreign-born, (1905) 8217, (1910) 8392. In 1905 it was second in -population among the cities of the state. It is served by the Chicago, -Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, -Milwaukee & St Paul railways. Lead has a hospital, the Hearst Free -Library and the Hearst Free Kindergarten, and is the see of a Roman -Catholic bishopric. It is the centre of the mining interests of the -Black Hills, and the Homestake Gold Mine here contains perhaps the -largest and most easily worked mass of low-grade ore and one of the -largest mining plants (1000 stamps) in the world; it has also three -cyanide mills. From 1878 to 1906 the value of the gold taken from this -mine amounted to about $58,000,000, and the net value of the product of -1906 alone was approximately $5,313,516. For two months in the spring of -1907 the mine was rendered idle by a fire (March 25), which was so -severe that it was necessary to flood the entire mine. Mining tools and -gold jewelry are manufactured. The first settlement was made here by -mining prospectors in July 1876. Lead was chartered as a city in 1890 -and became a city of the first class in 1904. - - - - -LEAD, a metallic chemical element; its symbol is Pb (from the Lat. -_plumbum_), and atomic weight 207.10 (O = 16). This metal was known to -the ancients, and is mentioned in the Old Testament. The Romans used it -largely, as it is still used, for the making of water pipes, and -soldered these with an alloy of lead and tin. Pliny treats of these two -metals as _plumbum nigrum_ and _plumbum album_ respectively, which seems -to show that at his time they were looked upon as being only two -varieties of the same species. In regard to the ancients' knowledge of -lead compounds, we may state that the substance described by Dioscorides -as [Greek: molybdaina] was undoubtedly litharge, that Pliny uses the -word minium in its present sense of red lead, and that white lead was -well known to Geber in the 8th century. The alchemists designated it by -the sign of Saturn [symbol]. - -_Occurrence._--Metallic lead occurs in nature but very rarely and then -only in minute amount. The chief lead ores are galena and cerussite; of -minor importance are anglesite, pyromorphite and mimetesite (qq.v.). -Galena (q.v.), the principal lead ore, has a world-wide distribution, -and is always contaminated with silver sulphide, the proportion of noble -metal varying from about 0.01 or less to 0.3%, and in rare cases coming -up to 1/2 or 1%. Fine-grained galena is usually richer in silver than the -coarse-grained. Galena occurs in veins in the Cambrian clay-slate, -accompanied by copper and iron pyrites, zinc-blende, quartz, calc-spar, -iron-spar, &c.; also in beds or nests within sandstones and rudimentary -limestones, and in a great many other geological formations. It is -pretty widely diffused throughout the earth's crust. The principal -English lead mines are in Derbyshire; but there are also mines at -Allandale and other parts of western Northumberland, at Alston Moor and -other parts of Cumberland, in the western parts of Durham, in Swaledale -and Arkendale and other parts of Yorkshire, in Salop, in Cornwall, in -the Mendip Hills in Somersetshire, and in the Isle of Man. The Welsh -mines are chiefly in Flint, Cardigan and Montgomery shires; the Scottish -in Dumfries, Lanark and Argyll; and the Irish in Wicklow, Waterford and -Down. Of continental mines we may mention those in Saxony and in the -Harz, Germany; those of Carinthia, Austria; and especially those of the -southern provinces of Spain. It is widely distributed in the United -States, and occurs in Mexico and Brazil; it is found in Tunisia and -Algeria, in the Altai Mountains and India, and in New South Wales, -Queensland, and in Tasmania. - -The native carbonate or cerussite (q.v.) occasionally occurs in the pure -form, but more frequently in a state of intimate intermixture with clay -("lead earth," _Bleierde_), limestone, iron oxides, &c. (as in the ores -of Nevada and Colorado), and some times also with coal ("black lead -ore"). All native carbonate of lead seems to be derived from what was -originally galena, which is always present in it as an admixture. This -ore, metallurgically, was not reckoned of much value, until immense -quantities of it were discovered in Nevada and in Colorado (U.S.). The -Nevada mines are mostly grouped around the city of Eureka, where the ore -occurs in "pockets" disseminated at random through limestone. The crude -ore contains about 30% lead and 0.2 to 0.3% silver. The Colorado lead -district is in the Rocky Mountains, a few miles from the source of the -Arkansas river. It forms gigantic deposits of almost constant thickness, -embedded between a floor of limestone and a roof of porphyry. Stephens's -discovery of the ore in 1877 was the making of the city of Leadville, -which, in 1878, within a year of its foundation, had over 10,000 -inhabitants. The Leadville ore contains from 24 to 42% lead and 0.1 to -2% silver. In Nevada and Colorado the ore is worked chiefly for the sake -of the silver. Deposits are also worked at Broken Hill, New South Wales. - -Anglesite, or lead sulphate, PbSO4, is poor in silver, and is only -exceptionally mined by itself; it occurs in quantity in France, Spain, -Sardinia and Australia. Of other lead minerals we may mention the basic -sulphate lanarkite, PbO.PbSO4; leadhillite, PbSO4.3PbCO3; the basic -chlorides matlockite, PbO.PbCl2, and mendipite, PbCl2.2PbO; the -chloro-phosphate pyromorphite, PbCl2.3Pb3(PO4)2, the chloro-arsenate -mimetesite, PbCl2.3Pb3(AsO4)2; the molybdate wulfenite, PbMoO4; the -chromate crocoite or crocoisite, PbCrO4; the tungstate stolzite, PbWO4. - - _Production._--At the beginning of the 19th century the bulk of the - world's supply of lead was obtained from England and Spain, the former - contributing about 17,000 tons and the latter 10,000 tons annually. - Germany, Austria, Hungary, France, Russia and the United States began - to rank as producers during the second and third decades; Belgium - entered in about 1840; Italy in the 'sixties; Mexico, Canada, Japan - and Greece in the 'eighties; while Australia assumed importance in - 1888 with a production of about 18,000 tons, although it had - contributed small and varying amounts for many preceding decades. In - 1850 England headed the list of producers with about 66,000 tons; this - amount had declined in 1872 to 61,000 tons. Since this date, it has, - on the whole, diminished, although large outputs occurred in isolated - years, for instance, a production of 40,000 tons in 1893 was followed - by 60,000 tons in 1896 and 40,000 in 1897. The output in 1900 was - 35,000 tons, and in 1905, 25,000 tons. Spain ranked second in 1850 - with about 47,000 tons; this was increased in 1863, 1876 and in 1888 - to 84,000, 127,000 and 187,000 tons respectively; but the maximum - outputs mentioned were preceded and succeeded by periods of - depression. In 1900 the production was 176,000 tons, and in 1905, - 179,000 tons. The United States, which ranked third with a production - of 20,000 tons in 1850, maintained this annual yield, until 1870, when - it began to increase; the United States now ranks as the chief - producer; in 1900 the output was 253,000 tons, and in 1905, 319,744 - tons. Germany has likewise made headway; an output of 12,000 tons in - 1850 being increased to 120,000 tons in 1900 and to 152,590 in 1905. - This country now ranks third, having passed England in 1873. Mexico - increased its production from 18,000 tons in 1883 to 83,000 tons in - 1900 and about 88,000 tons in 1905. The Australian production of - 18,000 tons in 1888 was increased to 58,000 tons in 1891, a value - maintained until 1893, when a depression set in, only 21,000 tons - being produced in 1897; prosperity then returned, and in 1898 the - yield was 68,000 tons, and in 1905, 120,000 tons. Canada became - important in 1895 with a production of 10,000 tons; this increased to - 28,654 tons in 1900; and in 1905 the yield was 25,391 tons. Italy has - been a fairly steady producer; the output in 1896 was 20,000 tons, and - in 1905, 25,000 tons. - - -_Metallurgy._ - -The extraction of the metal from pure (or nearly pure) galena is the -simplest of all metallurgical operations. The ore is roasted (i.e. -heated in the presence of atmospheric oxygen) until all the sulphur is -burned away and the lead left. This simple statement, however, correctly -formulates only the final result. The first effect of the roasting is -the elimination of sulphur as sulphur-dioxide, with formation of oxide -and sulphate of lead. In practice this oxidation process is continued -until the whole of the oxygen is as nearly as possible equal in weight -to the sulphur present as sulphide or as sulphate, i.e. in the ratio S : -O2. The heat is then raised in (relative) absence of air, when the two -elements named unite into sulphur-dioxide, while a regulus of molten -lead remains. Lead ores are smelted in the reverberatory furnace, the -ore-hearth, and the blast-furnace. The use of the first two is -restricted, as they are suited only for galena ores or mixtures of -galena and carbonate, which contain not less than 58% lead and not more -than 4% silica; further, ores to be treated in the ore-hearth should run -low in or be free from silver, as the loss in the fumes is excessive. In -the blast-furnace all lead ores are successfully smelted. Blast-furnace -treatment has therefore become more general than any other. - - Three types of reverberatory practice are in vogue--the English, - Carinthian and Silesian. In Wales and the south of England the process - is conducted in a reverberatory furnace, the sole of which is paved - with slags from previous operations, and has a depression in the - middle where the metal formed collects to be let off by a tap-hole. - The dressed ore is introduced through a "hopper" at the top, and - exposed to a moderate oxidizing flame until a certain proportion of - ore is oxidized, openings at the side enabling the workmen to stir up - the ore so as to constantly renew the surface exposed to the air. At - this stage as a rule some rich slags of a former operation are added - and a quantity of quicklime is incorporated, the chief object of which - is to diminish the fluidity of the mass in the next stage, which - consists in this, that, with closed air-holes, the heat is raised so - as to cause the oxide and sulphate on the one hand and the sulphide on - the other to reduce each other to metal. The lead produced runs into - the hollow and is tapped off. The roasting process is then resumed, to - be followed by another reduction, and so on. - - A similar process is used in Carinthia; only the furnaces are smaller - and of a somewhat different form. They are long and narrow; the sole - is plane, but slopes from the fire-bridge towards the flue, so that - the metal runs to the latter end to collect in pots placed _outside_ - the furnace. In Carinthia the oxidizing process from the first is - pushed on so far that metallic lead begins to show, and the oxygen - introduced predominates over the sulphur left. The mass is then - stirred to liberate the lead, which is removed as _Ruhrblei_. Charcoal - is now added, and the heat urged on to obtain _Pressblei_, an inferior - metal formed partly by the action of the charcoal on the oxide of - lead. The fuel used is fir-wood. - - The Silesian furnace has an oblong hearth sloping from the fire-bridge - to the flue-bridge. This causes the lead to collect at the coolest - part of the hearth, whence it is tapped, &c., as in the English - furnace. While by the English and Carinthian processes as much lead as - possible is extracted in the furnace, with the Silesian method a very - low temperature is used, thus taking out about one-half of the lead - and leaving very rich slags (50% lead) to be smelted in the - blast-furnace, the ultimate result being a very much higher yield than - by either of the other processes. The loss in lead by the combined - reverberatory and blast-furnace treatment is only 3.2%. - - In Cumberland, Northumberland, Durham and latterly the United States, - the reverberatory furnace is used only for roasting the ore, and the - oxidized ore is then reduced by fusion in a low, square blast-furnace - (a "Scottish hearth furnace") lined with cast iron, as is also the - inclined sole-plate which is made to project beyond the furnace, the - outside portion (the "work-stone") being provided with grooves guiding - any molten metal that may be placed on the "stone" into a cast iron - pot; the "tuyere" for the introduction of the wind was, in the earlier - types, about half way down the furnace. - - As a preliminary to the melting process, the "browse" left in the - preceding operation (half-fused and imperfectly reduced ore) is - introduced with some peat and coal, and heated with the help of the - blast. It is then raked out on the work-stone and divided into a very - poor "grey" slag which is put aside, and a richer portion, which goes - back into the furnace. Some of the roasted ore is strewed upon it, - and, after a quarter of an hour's working, the whole is taken out on - the work-stone, where the lead produced runs off. The "browse," after - removal of the "grey" slag, is reintroduced, ore added, and, after a - quarter of an hour's heating, the mass again placed on the work-stone, - &c. - - In the more recent form of the hearth process the blocks of cast iron - forming the sides and back of the Scottish furnace are now generally - replaced in the United States by water-cooled shells (water-jackets) - of cast iron. In this way continuous working has been rendered - possible, whereas formerly operations had to be stopped every twelve - or fifteen hours to allow the over-heated blocks and furnace to cool - down. A later improvement (which somewhat changes the mode of working) - is that by Moffett. While he also prevents interruption of the - operation by means of water-jackets, he uses hot-blast, and produces, - besides metallic lead, large volumes of lead fumes which are drawn off - by fans through long cooling tubes, and then forced through suspended - bags which filter off the dust, called "blue powder." Thus, a mixture - of lead sulphate (45%) and oxide (44%) with some sulphide (8%), zinc - and carbonaceous matter, is agglomerated by a heap-roast and then - smelted in a slag-eye furnace with grey slag from the ore-hearth. The - furnace has, in addition to the usual tuyeres near the bottom, a - second set near the throat in order to effect a complete oxidation of - all combustible matter. Much fume is thus produced. This is drawn off, - cooled and filtered, and forms a white paint of good body, consisting - of about 65% lead sulphate, 26% lead oxide, 6% zinc oxide and 3% other - substances. Thus in the Moffett method it is immaterial whether metal - or fume is produced, as in either case it is saved and the price is - about the same. - - In smelting at once in the same blast-furnace ores of different - character, the old use of separate processes of precipitation, - roasting and reduction, and general reduction prevailing in the Harz - Mountains, Freiberg and other places, to suit local conditions, has - been abandoned. Ores are smelted raw if the fall of matte (metallic - sulphide) does not exceed 5%; otherwise they are subjected to a - preliminary oxidizing roast to expel the sulphur, unless they run too - high in silver, say 100 oz. to the ton, when they are smelted raw. The - leading reverberatory furnace for roasting lead-bearing sulphide ores - has a level hearth 14-16 ft. wide and 60-80 ft. long. It puts through - 9-12 tons of ore in twenty-four hours, reducing the percentage of - sulphur to 2-4%, and requires four to six men and about 2 tons of - coal. In many instances it has been replaced by mechanical furnaces, - which are now common in roasting sulphide copper ores (see SULPHURIC - ACID). A modern blast-furnace is oblong in horizontal section and - about 24 ft. high from furnace floor to feed floor. The shaft, resting - upon arches supported by four cast iron columns about 9 ft. high, is - usually of brick, red brick on the outside, fire-brick on the inside; - sometimes it is made of wrought iron water-jackets. The smelting zone - always has a bosh and a contracted tuyere section. It is enclosed by - water-jackets, which are usually cast iron, sometimes mild steel. The - hearth always has an Arents siphon tap. This is an inclined channel - running through the side-wall, beginning near the bottom of the - crucible and ending at the top of the hearth, where it is enlarged - into a basin. The crucible and the channel form the two limbs of an - inverted siphon. While the furnace is running the crucible and channel - remain filled with lead; all the lead reduced to the metallic state in - smelting collects in the crucible, and rising in the channel, - overflows into the basin, whence it is removed. The slag and matte - formed float upon the lead in the crucible and are tapped, usually - together, at intervals into slag-pots, where the heavy matter settles - on the bottom and the light slag on the top. When cold they are - readily separated by a blow from a hammer. The following table gives - the dimensions of some well-known American lead-furnaces. - - _Lead Blast-Furnace._ - - +----------------------+------+----------+--------------+ - | Locality. | Year.| Tuyere |Height, Tuyere| - | | | Section. | to Throat. | - +----------------------+------+----------+--------------+ - | | | In. | Ft. | - | Leadville, Colorado | 1880 | 33 X 84 | 14 | - | Denver, " | 1880 | 36 X 100 | 17 | - | Durango, " | 1882 | 36 X 96 | 12.6 | - | Denver, " | 1892 | 42 X 100 | 16 | - | Leadville, " | 1892 | 42 X 120 | 18 | - | Salt Lake City, Utah | 1895 | 45 X 140 | 20 | - +----------------------+------+----------+--------------+ - - A furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyeres, with a working height of - 17-20 ft., will put through in twenty-four hours, with twelve men, 12% - coke and 2 lb. blast-pressure, 85-100 tons average charge, i.e. one - that is a medium coarse, contains 12-15% lead, not over 5% zinc, and - makes under 5% matte. In making up a charge, the ores and fluxes, - whose chemical compositions have been determined, are mixed so as to - form out of the components not to be reduced to the metallic or - sulphide state, typical slags (silicates of ferrous and calcium - oxides, incidentally of aluminium oxide, which have been found to do - successful work). Such slags contain SiO2 = 30-33%, Fe(Mn)O = 27-50%, - Ca(Mg, Ba)O = 12-28%, and retain less than 1% lead and 1 oz. silver to - the ton. The leading products of the blast-furnace are argentiferous - lead (base bullion), matte, slag and flue-dust (fine particles of - charge and volatilized metal carried out of the furnace by the - ascending gas current). The base bullion (assaying 300 [+-] oz. per ton) - is desilverized (see below); the matte (Pb = 8-12%, Cu = 3-4%, Ag = - (1/3)-(1/5) of the assay-value of the base bullion, rest Fe and S) is - roasted and resmelted, when part of the argentiferous lead is - recovered as base bullion, while the rest remains with the copper, - which becomes concentrated in a copper-matte (60% copper) to be worked - up by separate processes. The slag is a waste product, and the - flue-dust, collected by special devices in dust-chambers, is - briquetted by machinery, with lime as a bond, and then resmelted with - the ore-charge. The yield in lead is over 90%, in silver over 97% and - in gold 100%. The cost of smelting a ton of ore in Colorado in a - single furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyeres, is about $3. - - - Refining. - - The lead produced in the reverberatory furnace and the ore-hearth is - of a higher grade than that produced in the blast-furnace, as the ores - treated are purer and richer, and the reducing action is less - powerful. The following analysis of blast-furnace lead of Freiberg, - Saxony, is from an exceptionally impure lead: Pb = 95.088, Ag = 0.470, - Bi = 0.019, Cu = 0.225, As = 1.826, Sb = 0.958, Sn = 1.354, Fe = - 0.007, Zn = 0.002, S = 0.051. Of the impurities, most of the copper, - nickel and copper, considerable arsenic, some antimony and small - amounts of silver are removed by liquation. The lead is melted down - slowly, when the impurities separate in the form of a scum (dross), - which is easily removed. The purification by liquation is assisted by - poling the lead when it is below redness. A stick of green wood is - forced into it, and the vapours and gases set free expose new surfaces - to the air, which at this temperature has only a mildly oxidizing - effect. The pole, the use of which is awkward, has been replaced by - dry stream, which has a similar effect. To remove tin, arsenic and - antimony, the lead has to be brought up to a bright-red heat, when the - air has a strongly oxidizing effect. Tin is removed mainly as a - powdery mixture of stannate of lead and lead oxide, arsenic and - antimony as a slagged mixture of arsenate and antimonate of lead and - lead oxide. They are readily withdrawn from the surface of the lead, - and are worked up into antimony (arsenic)--tin-lead and antimony-lead - alloys. Liquation, if not followed by poling, is carried on as a rule - in a reverberatory furnace with an oblong, slightly trough-shaped - inclined hearth; if the lead is to be poled it is usually melted down - in a cast-iron kettle. If the lead is to be liquated and then brought - to a bright-red heat, both operations are carried on in the same - reverberatory furnace. This has an oblong, dish-shaped hearth of acid - or basic fire-brick built into a wrought-iron pan, which rests on - transverse rails supported by longitudinal walls. The lead is melted - down at a low temperature and drossed. The temperature is then raised, - and the scum which forms on the surface is withdrawn until pure - litharge forms, which only takes place after all the tin, arsenic and - antimony have been eliminated. - - - Desilverizing. - - Silver is extracted from lead by means of the process of cupellation. - Formerly all argentiferous lead had to be cupelled, and the resulting - litharge then reduced to metallic lead. In 1833 Pattinson invented his - process by means of which practically all the silver is concentrated - in 13% of the original lead to be cupelled, while the rest becomes - market lead. In 1842 Karsten discovered that lead could be - desilverized by means of zinc. His invention, however, only took - practical form in 1850-1852 through the researches of Parkes, who - showed how the zinc-silver-lead alloy formed could be worked and the - desilverized lead freed from the zinc it had taken up. In the Parkes - process only 5% of the original lead need be cupelled. Thus, while - cupellation still furnishes the only means for the final separation of - lead and silver, it has become an auxiliary process to the two methods - of concentration given. Of these the Pattinson process has become - subordinate to the Parkes process, as it is more expensive and leaves - more silver and impurities in the market lead. It holds its own, - however, when base bullion contains bismuth in appreciable amounts, as - in the Pattinson process bismuth follows the lead to be cupelled, - while in the Parkes process it remains with the desilverized lead - which goes to market, and lead of commerce should contain little - bismuth. At Freiberg, Saxony, the two processes have been combined. - The base bullion is imperfectly Pattinsonized, giving lead rich in - silver and bismuth, which is cupelled, and lead low in silver, and - especially so in bismuth, which is further desilverized by the Parkes - process. - - The effect of the two processes on the purity of the market lead is - clearly shown by the two following analyses by Hampe, which represent - lead from Lautenthal in the Harz Mountains, where the Parkes process - replaced that of Pattinson, the ores and smelting process remaining - practically the same:-- - - +----------+-----------+----------+----------+------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ - | Process. | Pb. | Cu. | Sb. | As. | Bi. | Ag. | Fe. | Zn. | Ni. | - +----------+-----------+----------+----------+------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ - | Pattinson| 99.966200 | 0.015000 | 1.010000 | none | 0.000600 | 0.002200 | 0.004000 | 0.001000 | 1.001000 | - | Parkes | 99.983139 | 0.001413 | 0.005698 | none | 0.005487 | 0.000460 | 0.002289 | 0.000834 | 0.000680 | - +----------+-----------+----------+----------+------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ - - - Cupelling. - - The reverberatory furnace commonly used for cupelling goes by the name - of the English cupelling furnace. It is oblong, and has a fixed roof - and a movable iron hearth (test). Formerly the test was lined with - bone-ash; at present the hearth material is a mixture of crushed - limestone and clay (3:1) or Portland cement, either alone or mixed - with crushed fire-brick; in a few instances the lining has been made - of burnt magnesite. In the beginning of the operation enough - argentiferous lead is charged to fill the cavity of the test. After it - has been melted down and brought to a red heat, the blast, admitted at - the back, oxidizes the lead and drives the litharge formed towards the - front, where it is run off. At the same time small bars of - argentiferous lead, inserted at the back, are slowly pushed forward, - so that in melting down they may replace the oxidized lead. Thus the - level of the lead is kept approximately constant, and the silver - becomes concentrated in the lead. In large works the silver-lead alloy - is removed when it contains 60-80% silver, and the cupellation of the - rich bullion from several concentration furnaces is finished in a - second furnace. At the same time the silver is brought to the required - degree of fineness, usually by the use of nitre. In small works the - cupellation is finished in one furnace, and the resulting low-grade - silver fined in a plumbago crucible, either by overheating in the - presence of air, or by the addition of silver sulphate to the melted - silver, when air or sulphur trioxide and oxygen oxidize the - impurities. The lead charged contains about 1.5% lead if it comes from - a Pattinson plant, from 5-10% if from a Parkes plant. In a test 7 ft. - by 4 ft. 10 in. and 4 in. deep, about 6 tons of lead are cupelled in - twenty-four hours. A furnace is served by three men, working in - eight-hour shifts, and requires about 2 tons of coal, which - corresponds to about 110 gallons reduced oil, air being used as - atomizer. The loss in lead is about 5%. The latest cupelling furnaces - have the general form of a reverberatory copper-smelting furnace. The - working door through which the litharge is run off lies under the flue - which carries off the products of combustion and the lead fumes, the - lead is charged and the blast is admitted near the fire-bridge. - - - Pattinson process. - - In the _Pattinson_ process the argentiferous lead is melted down in - the central cast iron kettle of a series 8-15, placed one next to the - other, each having a capacity of 9-15 tons and a separate fire-place. - The crystals of impoverished lead which fall to the bottom, upon - coaling the charge, are taken out with a skimmer and discharged into - the neighbouring kettle (say to the right) until about two-thirds of - the original charge has been removed; then the liquid enriched lead is - ladled into the kettle on the opposite side. To the kettle, two-thirds - full of crystals of lead, is now added lead of the same tenor in - silver, the whole is liquefied, and the cooling, crystallizing, - skimming and ladling are repeated. The same is done with the kettle - one-third filled with liquid lead, and so on until the first kettle - contains market lead, the last cupelling lead. The intervening kettles - contain leads with silver contents ranging from above market to below - cupelling lead. The original Pattinson process has been in many cases - replaced by the Luce-Rozan process (1870), which does away with - arduous labour and attains a more satisfactory crystallization. The - plant consists of two tilting oval metal pans (capacity 7 tons), one - cylindrical crystallizing pot (capacity 22 tons), with two discharging - spouts and one steam inlet opening, two lead moulds (capacity 3(1/2) - tons), and a steam crane. Pans and pot are heated from separate - fire-places. Supposing the pot to be filled with melted lead to be - treated, the fire is withdrawn beneath and steam introduced. This - cools and stirs the lead when crystals begin to form. As soon as - two-thirds of the lead has separated in the form of crystals, the - steam is shut off and the liquid lead drained off through the two - spouts into the moulds. The fire underneath the pot is again started, - the crystals are liquefied, and one of the two pans, filled with - melted lead, is tilted by means of the crane and its contents poured - into the pot. In the meantime the lead in the moulds, which has - solidified, is removed with the crane and stacked to one side, until - its turn comes to be raised and charged into one of the pans. The - crystallization proper lasts one hour, the working of a charge four - hours, six charges being run in twenty-four hours. - - - Parkes process. - - It is absolutely necessary for the success of the _Parkes_ process - that the zinc and lead should contain only a small amount of impurity. - The spelter used must therefore be of a good grade, and the lead is - usually first refined in a reverberatory furnace (the softening - furnace). The capacity of the furnace must be 10% greater than that of - the kettle into which the softened lead is tapped, as the dross and - skimmings formed amount to about 10% of the weight of the lead - charged. The kettle is spherical, and is suspended over a fire-place - by a broad rim resting on a wall; it is usually of cast iron. Most - kettles at present hold 30 tons of lead; some, however, have double - that capacity. When zinc is placed on the lead (heated to above the - melting-point of zinc), liquefied and brought into intimate contact - with the lead by stirring, gold, copper, silver and lead will combine - with the zinc in the order given. By beginning with a small amount of - zinc, all the gold and copper and some silver and lead will be alloyed - with the zinc to a so-called gold--or copper--crust, and the residual - lead saturated with zinc. By removing from the surface of the lead - this first crust and working it up separately (liquating, retorting - and cupelling), dore silver is obtained. By the second addition of - zinc most of the silver will be collected in a saturated - zinc-silver-lead crust, which, when worked up, gives fine silver. A - third addition becomes necessary to remove the rest of the silver, - when the lead will assay only 0.1 oz. silver per ton. As this complete - desilverization is only possible by the use of an excess of zinc, the - unsaturated zinc-silver-lead alloy is put aside to form part of the - second zincking of the next following charge. In skimming the crust - from the surface of the lead some unalloyed lead is also drawn off, - and has to be separated by an additional operation (liquation), as, - running lower in silver than the crust, it would otherwise reduce its - silver content and increase the amount of lead to be cupelled. A - zincking takes 5-6 hours; 1.5-2.5% zinc is required for desilverizing. - The liquated zinc-silver-lead crust contains 5-10% silver, 30-40% zinc - and 65-50% lead. Before it can be cupelled it has to be freed from - most of the zinc, which is accomplished by distilling in a retort made - of a mixture similar to that of the plumbago crucible. The retort is - pear-shaped, and holds 1000-1500 lb of charge, consisting of liquated - crust mixed with 1-3% of charcoal. The condenser commonly used is an - old retort. The distillation of 1000 lb. charge lasts 5-6 hours, - requires 500-600 lb. coke or 30[+-] gallons reduced oil, and yields about - 10% metallic zinc and 1% blue powder--a mixture of finely-divided - metallic zinc and zinc oxide. About 60% of the zinc used in - desilverizing is recovered in a form to be used again. One man serves - 2-4 retorts. The desilverized lead, which retains 0.6-0.7% zinc, has - to be refined before it is suited for industrial use. The operation is - carried on in a reverberatory furnace or in a kettle. In the - reverberatory furnace, similar to the one used in softening, the lead - is brought to a bright-red heat and air allowed to have free access. - The zinc and some lead are oxidized; part of the zinc passes off with - the fumes, part is dissolved by the litharge, forming a melted mixture - which is skimmed off and reduced in a blast-furnace or a reverberatory - smelting furnace. In the kettle covered with a hood the zinc is - oxidized by means of dry steam, and incidentally some lead by the air - which cannot be completely excluded. A yellowish powdery mixture of - zinc and lead oxides collects on the lead; it is skimmed off and sold - as paint. From the reverberatory furnace or the kettle the refined - lead is siphoned off into a storage (market) kettle after it has - cooled somewhat, and from this it is siphoned off into moulds placed - in a semi-circle on the floor. In the process the yield in metal, - based upon the charge in the kettle, is lead 99%, silver 100+%, gold - 98-100%. The plus-silver is due to the fact that in assaying the base - bullion by cupellation, the silver lost by volatilization and - cupel-absorption is neglected. In the United States the cost of - desilverizing a ton base bullion is about $6. - -_Properties of Lead._--Pure lead is a feebly lustrous bluish-white -metal, endowed with a characteristically high degree of softness and -plasticity, and almost entirely devoid of elasticity. Its breaking -strain is very small: a wire (1/10)th in. thick is ruptured by a charge -of about 30 lb. The specific gravity is 11.352 for ingot, and from -11.354 to 11.365 for sheet lead (water of 4 deg.C. = 1). The expansion -of unit-length from 0 deg.C. to to 100 deg.C. is .002948 (Fizeau). The -conductivity for heat (Wiedemann and Franz) or electricity is 8.5, that -of silver being taken as 100. It melts at 327.7 deg.C. (H. L. -Callendar); at a bright-red heat it perceptibly vapourizes, and boils at -a temperature between 1450 deg. and 1600 deg. The specific heat is .0314 -(Regnault). Lead exposed to ordinary air is rapidly tarnished, but the -thin dark film formed is very slow in increasing. When kept fused in the -presence of air lead readily takes up oxygen, with the formation at -first of a dark-coloured scum, and then of monoxide PbO, the rate of -oxidation increasing with the temperature. - -Water when absolutely pure has no action on lead, but in the presence of -air the lead is quickly attacked, with formation of the hydrate, -Pb(OH)2, which is appreciably soluble in water forming an alkaline -liquid. When carbonic acid is present the dissolved oxide is soon -precipitated as basic carbonate, so that the corrosion of the lead -becomes continuous. Since all soluble lead compounds are strong -cumulative poisons, danger is involved in using lead cisterns or pipes -in the distribution of _pure_ waters. The word "pure" is emphasized -because experience shows that the presence in a water of even small -proportions of calcium bicarbonate or sulphate prevents its action on -lead. All impurities do not act in a similar way. Ammonium nitrate and -nitrite, for instance, intensify the action of a water on lead. Even -pure waters, however, such as that of Loch Katrine (which forms the -Glasgow supply), act so slowly, at least on such lead pipes as have -already been in use for some time, that there is no danger in using -short lead service pipes even for them, if the taps are being constantly -used. Lead cisterns must be unhesitatingly condemned. - -The presence of carbonic acid in a water does not affect its action on -lead. Aqueous non-oxidizing acids generally have little or no action on -lead in the absence of air. Dilute sulphuric acid (say an acid of 20% -H2SO4 or less) has no action on lead even when air is present, nor on -boiling. Strong acid does act, the more so the greater its concentration -and the higher its temperature. Pure lead is far more readily corroded -than a metal contaminated with 1% or even less of antimony or copper. -Boiling concentrated sulphuric acid converts lead into sulphate, with -evolution of sulphur dioxide. Dilute nitric acid readily dissolves the -metal, with formation of nitrate Pb(NO3)2. - -_Lead Alloys._--Lead, unites readily with almost all other metals; -hence, and on account of its being used for the extraction of (for -instance) silver, its alchemistic name of _saturnus_. Of the alloys the -following may be named:-- - - _With Antimony._--Lead contaminated with small proportions of antimony - is more highly proof against sulphuric acid than the pure metal. An - alloy of 83 parts of lead and 17 of antimony is used as type metal; - other proportions are used, however, and other metals added besides - antimony (e.g. tin, bismuth) to give the alloy certain properties. - - _Arsenic_ renders lead harder. An alloy made by addition of about - (1/56)th of arsenic has been used for making shot. - - _Bismuth and Antimony._--An alloy consisting of 9 parts of lead, 2 of - antimony and 2 of bismuth is used for stereotype plates. - - _Bismuth and Tin._--These triple alloys are noted for their low fusing - points. An alloy of 5 of lead, 8 of bismuth and 3 of tin fuses at 94.4 - deg.C, i.e. below the boiling-point of water (Rose's metal). An alloy - of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium (Wood's - alloy) melts below 70 deg.C. - - _Tin_ unites with lead in any proportion with slight expansion, the - alloy fusing at a lower temperature than either component. It is used - largely for soldering. - - "Pewter" (q.v.) may be said to be substantially an alloy of the same - two metals, but small quantities of copper, antimony and zinc are - frequently added. - - -_Compounds of Lead._ - -Lead generally functions as a divalent element of distinctly metallic -character, yielding a definite series of salts derived from the oxide -PbO. At the same time, however, it forms a number of compounds in which -it is most decidedly tetravalent; and thus it shows relations to carbon, -silicon, germanium and tin. - - _Oxides._--Lead combines with oxygen to form five oxides, viz. Pb2O, - PbO, PbO2, Pb2O3 and Pb3O4. The _suboxide_, Pb2O, is the first product - of the oxidation of lead, and is also obtained as a black powder by - heating lead oxalate to 300 deg. out of contact with air. It ignites - when heated in air with the formation of the monoxide; dilute acids - convert it into metallic lead and lead monoxide, the latter dissolving - in the acid. The _monoxide_, PbO, occurs in nature as the mineral - _lead ochre_. This oxide is produced by heating lead in contact with - air and removing the film of oxide as formed. It is manufactured in - two forms, known as "massicot" and "litharge." The former is produced - at temperatures below, the latter at temperatures above the - fusing-point of the oxide. The liquid litharge when allowed to cool - solidifies into a hard stone-like mass, which, however, when left to - itself, soon crumbles up into a heap of resplendent dark yellow scales - known as "flake litharge." "Buff" or "levigated litharge" is prepared - by grinding the larger pieces under water. Litharge is much used for - the preparation of lead salts, for the manufacture of oil varnishes, - of certain cements, and of lead plaster, and for other purposes. - Massicot is the raw material for the manufacture of "red lead" or - "minium." - - Lead monoxide is dimorphous, occurring as cubical dodecahedra and as - rhombic octahedra. Its specific gravity is about 9; it is sparingly - soluble in water, but readily dissolves in acids and molten alkalis. A - yellow and red modification have been described (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._, - 1906, 50, p. 265). The corresponding _hydrate_, Pb(OH)2, is obtained - as a white crystalline precipitate by adding ammonia to a solution of - lead nitrate or acetate. It dissolves in an excess of alkali to form - _plumbites_ of the general formula Pb(OM)2. It absorbs carbon dioxide - from the air when moist. A hydrated oxide, 2PbO.H2O, is obtained when - a solution of the monoxide in potash is treated with carbon dioxide. - - _Lead dioxide_, PbO2, also known as "puce oxide," occurs in nature as - the mineral plattnerite, and may be most conveniently prepared by - heating mixed solutions of lead acetate and bleaching powder until the - original precipitate blackens. The solution is filtered, the - precipitate well washed, and, generally, is put up in the form of a - paste in well-closed vessels. It is also obtained by passing chlorine - into a suspension of lead oxide or carbonate, or of magnesia and lead - sulphate, in water; or by treating the sesquioxide or red oxide with - nitric acid. The formation of lead dioxide by the electrolysis of a - lead solution, the anode being a lead plate coated with lead oxide or - sulphate and the cathode a lead plate, is the fundamental principle of - the storage cell (see ACCUMULATOR). Heating or exposure to sunlight - reduces it to the red oxide; it fires when ground with sulphur, and - oxidizes ammonia to nitric acid, with the simultaneous formation of - ammonium nitrate. It oxidizes a manganese salt (free from chlorine) in - the presence of nitric acid to a permanganate; this is a very delicate - test for manganese. It forms crystallizable salts with potassium and - calcium hydrates, and functions as a weak acid forming salts named - plumbates. The Kassner process for the manufacture of oxygen depends - upon the formation of calcium plumbate, Ca2PbO4, by heating a mixture - of lime and litharge in a current of air, decomposing this substance - into calcium carbonate and lead dioxide by heating in a current of - carbon dioxide, and then decomposing these compounds with the - evolution of carbon dioxide and oxygen by raising the temperature. - _Plumbic acid_, PbO(OH)2, is obtained as a bluish-black, lustrous body - of electrolysing an alkaline solution of lead sodium tartrate. - - _Tetravalent Lead._--If a suspension of lead dichloride in - hydrochloric acid be treated with chlorine gas, a solution of lead - tetrachloride is obtained; by adding ammonium chloride ammonium - plumbichloride, (NH4)2PbCl6, is precipitated, which on treatment with - strong sulphuric acid yields _lead tetrachloride_, PbCl4, as a - translucent, yellow, highly refractive liquid. It freezes at -15 deg. - to a yellowish crystalline mass; on heating it loses chlorine and - forms lead dichloride. With water it forms a hydrate, and ultimately - decomposes into lead dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It combines with - alkaline chlorides--potassium, rubidium and caesium--to form - crystalline _plumbichlorides_; it also forms a crystalline compound - with quinoline. By dissolving red lead, Pb3O4, in glacial acetic acid - and crystallizing the filtrate, colourless monoclinic prisms of lead - tetracetate, Pb(C2H3O2)4, are obtained. This salt gives the - corresponding chloride and fluoride with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric - acids, and the phosphate, Pb(HPO4)2, with phosphoric acid. - - These salts are like those of tin; and the resemblance to this metal - is clearly enhanced by the study of the alkyl compounds. Here - compounds of divalent lead have not yet been obtained; by acting with - zinc ethide on lead chloride, _lead tetraethide_, Pb(C2H3)4, is - obtained, with the separation of metallic lead. - - _Lead sesquioxide_, Pb2O3, is obtained as a reddish-yellow amorphous - powder by carefully adding sodium hypochlorite to a cold potash - solution of lead oxide, or by adding very dilute ammonia to a solution - of red lead in acetic acid. It is decomposed by acids into a mixture - of lead monoxide and dioxide, and may thus be regarded as lead - metaplumbate, PbPbO3. _Red lead_ or _triplumbic tetroxide_, Pb3O4, is - a scarlet crystalline powder of specific gravity 8.6-9.1, obtained by - roasting very finely divided pure massicot or lead carbonate; the - brightness of the colour depends in a great measure on the roasting. - Pliny mentions it under the name of _minium_, but it was confused with - cinnabar and the red arsenic sulphide; Dioscorides mentions its - preparation from white lead or lead carbonate. On heating it assumes a - finer colour, but then turns violet and finally black; regaining, - however, its original colour on cooling. On ignition, it loses oxygen - and forms litharge. Commercial red lead is frequently contaminated - with this oxide, which may, however, be removed by repeated digestion - with lead acetate. Its common adulterants are iron oxides, powdered - barytes and brick dust. Acids decompose it into lead dioxide and - monoxide, and the latter may or may not dissolve to form a salt; red - lead may, therefore, be regarded as _lead orthoplumbate_, Pb2PbO4. It - is chiefly used as a pigment and in the manufacture of flint glass. - - _Lead chloride_, PbCl2, occurs in nature as the mineral cotunnite, - which crystallizes in the rhombic system, and is found in the - neighbourhood of volcanic craters. It is artificially obtained by - adding hydrochloric acid to a solution of lead salt, as a white - precipitate, little soluble in cold water, less so in dilute - hydrochloric acid, more so in the strong acid, and readily soluble in - hot water, from which on cooling, the excess of dissolved salt - separates out in silky rhombic needles. It melts at 485 deg. and - solidifies on cooling to a translucent, horn-like mass; an early name - for it was _plumbum corneum_, horn lead. A basic chloride, Pb(OH)Cl, - was introduced in 1849 by Pattinson as a substitute for white lead. - Powdered galena is dissolved in hot hydrochloric acid, the solution - allowed to cool and the deposit of impure lead chloride washed with - cold water to remove iron and copper. The residue is then dissolved in - hot water, filtered, and the clear solution is mixed with very thin - milk of lime so adjusted that it takes out one-half of the chlorine of - the PbCl2. The oxychloride comes down as an amorphous white - precipitate. Another oxychloride, PbCl2.7PbO, known as "Cassel - yellow," was prepared by Vauquelin by fusing pure oxide, PbO, with - one-tenth of its weight of sal ammoniac. "Turner's yellow" or "patent - yellow" is another artificially prepared oxychloride, used as a - pigment. Mendipite and matlockite are mineral oxychlorides. - - _Lead, fluoride_, PbF2, is a white powder obtained by precipitating a - lead salt with a soluble fluoride; it is sparingly soluble in water - but readily dissolves in hydrochloric and nitric acids. A - chloro-fluoride, PbClF, is obtained by adding sodium fluoride to a - solution of lead chloride. Lead bromide, PbBr2, a white solid, and - lead iodide, PbI2, a yellow solid, are prepared by precipitating a - lead salt with a soluble bromide or iodide; they resemble the chloride - in solubility. - - _Lead carbonate_, PbCO3, occurs in nature as the mineral cerussite - (q.v.). It is produced by the addition of a solution of lead salt to - an excess of ammonium carbonate, as an almost insoluble white - precipitate. Of greater practical importance is a basic carbonate, - substantially 2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2, largely used as a white pigment under - the name of "white lead." This pigment is of great antiquity; - Theophrastus called it [Greek: psimythion], and prepared it by acting - on lead with vinegar, and Pliny, who called it _cerussa_, obtained it - by dissolving lead in vinegar and evaporating to dryness. It thus - appears that white lead and sugar of lead were undifferentiated. Geber - gave the preparation in a correct form, and T. O. Bergman proved its - composition. This pigment is manufactured by several methods. In the - old Dutch method, pieces of sheet lead are suspended in stoneware pots - so as to occupy the upper two-thirds of the vessels. A little vinegar - is poured into each pot; they are then covered with plates of sheet - lead, buried in horse-dung or spent tanner's bark, and left to - themselves for a considerable time. By the action of the acetic acid - and atmospheric oxygen, the lead is converted superficially into a - basic acetate, which is at once decomposed by the carbon dioxide, with - formation of white lead and acetic acid, which latter then acts _de - novo_. After a month or so the plates are converted to a more or less - considerable depth into crusts of white lead. These are knocked off, - ground up with water, freed from metal-particles by elutriation, and - the paste of white lead is allowed to set and dry in small conical - forms. The German method differs from the Dutch inasmuch as the lead - is suspended in a large chamber heated by ordinary means, and there - exposed to the simultaneous action of vapour of aqueous acetic acid - and of carbon dioxide. Another process depends upon the formation of - lead chloride by grinding together litharge with salt and water, and - then treating the alkaline fluid with carbon dioxide until it is - neutral. White lead is an earthy, amorphous powder. The inferior - varieties of commercial "white lead" are produced by mixing the - genuine article with more or less of finely powdered heavy spar or - occasionally zinc-white (ZnO). Venetian white, Hamburg white and Dutch - white are mixtures of one part of white lead with one, two and three - parts of barium sulphate respectively. - - _Lead sulphide_, PbS, occurs in nature as the mineral galena (q.v.), - and constitutes the most valuable ore of lead. It may be artificially - prepared by leading sulphur vapour over lead, by fusing litharge with - sulphur, or, as a black precipitate, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen - into a solution of a lead salt. It dissolves in strong nitric acid - with the formation of the nitrate and sulphate, and also in hot - concentrated hydrochloric acid. - - _Lead sulphate_, PbSO4, occurs in nature as the mineral anglesite - (q.v.), and may be prepared by the addition of sulphuric acid to - solutions of lead salts, as a white precipitate almost insoluble in - water (1 in 21,739), less soluble still in dilute sulphuric acid (1 in - 36,504) and insoluble in alcohol. Ammonium sulphide blackens it, and - it is coluble in solution of ammonium acetate, which distinguishes it - from barium sulphate. Strong sulphuric acid dissolves it, forming an - acid salt, Pb(HSO4)2, which is hydrolysed by adding water, the normal - sulphate being precipitated; hence the milkiness exhibited by samples - of oil of vitriol on dilution. - - _Lead nitrate_, Pb(NO3)2, is obtained by dissolving the metal or oxide - in aqueous nitric acid; it forms white crystals, difficultly soluble - in cold water, readily in hot water and almost insoluble in strong - nitric acid. It was mentioned by Libavius, who named it _calx plumb - dulcis_. It is decomposed by heat into oxide, nitrogen peroxide and - oxygen; and is used for the manufacture of fusees and other - deflagrating compounds, and also for preparing mordants in the dyeing - and calico-printing industries. Basic nitrates, e.g. Pb(NO3)OH, - Pb3O(OH)2(NO3)2, Pb3O2(OH)NO3, &c., have been described. - - _Lead Phosphates._--The normal ortho-phosphate, Pb3(PO4)2, is a white - precipitate obtained by adding sodium phosphate to lead acetate; the - acid phosphate, PbHPO4, is produced by precipitating a boiling - solution of lead nitrate with phosphoric acid; the pyrophosphate and - meta-phosphate are similar white precipitates. - - _Lead Borates._--By fusing litharge with boron trioxide, glasses of a - composition varying with the proportions of the mixture are obtained; - some of these are used in the manufacture of glass. The borate, - Pb2B6O11.4H2O, is obtained as a white precipitate by adding borax to a - lead salt; this on heating with strong ammonia gives PbB2O4.H2.O, - which, in turn, when boiled with a solution of boric acid, gives - PbB4O7.4H2O. - - _Lead silicates_ are obtained as glasses by fusing litharge with - silica; they play a considerable part in the manufacture of the lead - glasses (see GLASS). - - _Lead chromate_, PbCrO4, is prepared industrially as a yellow pigment, - chrome yellow, by precipitating sugar of lead solution with potassium - bichromate. The beautiful yellow precipitate is little soluble in - dilute nitric acid, but soluble in caustic potash. The vermilion-like - pigment which occurs in commerce as "chrome-red" is a basic chromate, - Pb2CrO5, prepared by treating recently precipitated normal chromate - with a properly adjusted proportion of caustic soda, or by boiling it - with normal (yellow) potassium chromate. - - _Lead acetate_, Pb(C2H3O2)2.3H2O (called "sugar" of lead, on account - of its sweetish taste), is manufactured by dissolving massicot in - aqueous acetic acid. It forms colourless transparent crystals, soluble - in one and a half parts of cold water and in eight parts of alcohol, - which on exposure to ordinary air become opaque through absorption of - carbonic acid, which forms a crust of basic carbonate. An aqueous - solution readily dissolves lead oxide, with formation of a strongly - alkaline solution containing basic acetates (_Acetum Plumbi_ or - _Saturni_). When carbon dioxide is passed into this solution the whole - of the added oxide, and even part of the oxide of the normal salt, is - precipitated as a basic carbonate chemically similar, but not quite - equivalent as a pigment, to white lead. - -_Analysis._--When mixed with sodium carbonate and heated on charcoal in -the reducing flame lead salts yield malleable globules of metal and a -yellow oxide-ring. Solutions of lead salts (colourless in the absence of -coloured acids) are characterized by their behaviour to hydrochloric -acid, sulphuric acid and potassium chromate. But the most delicate -precipitant for lead is sulphuretted hydrogen, which produces a black -precipitate of lead sulphide, insoluble in cold dilute nitric acid, less -so in cold hydrochloric, and easily decomposed by hot hydrochloric acid -with formation of the characteristic chloride. The atomic weight, -determined by G. P. Baxter and J. H. Wilson (_J. Amer. Chem. Soc._, -1908, 30, p. 187) by analysing the chloride, is 270.190 (O = 16). - - -_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._ - -The metal itself is not used in medicine. The chief pharmacopoeial salts -are: (1) _Plumbi oxidum_ (lead oxide), litharge. It is not used -internally, but from it is made _Emplastrum Plumbi_ (diachylon plaster), -which is an oleate of lead and is contained in emplastrum hydrargeri, -emplastrum plumbi iodidi, emplastrum resinae, emplastrum saponis. (2) -_Plumbi Acetas_ (sugar of lead), dose 1 to 5 grains. From this salt are -made the following preparations: (a) _Pilula Plumbi cum Opio_, the -strength of the opium in it being 1 in 8, dose 2 to 4 grains; (b) -_Suppositoria Plumbi composita_, containing lead acetate, opium and oil -of theobroma, there being one grain of opium in each suppository; (c) -_Unguentum Plumbi Acetatis_; (d) _Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Fortior_, -Goulard's extract, strength 24% of the subacetate; this again has a -sub-preparation, the _Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutis_, called -Goulard's water or Goulard's lotion, containing 1 part in 80 of the -strong extract; (e) _Glycerinum Plumbi Subacetatis_, from which is made -the _Unguentum Glycerini Plumbi Subacetatis_. (3) _Plumbi Carbonas_, -white lead, a mixture of the carbonate and the hydrate, a heavy white -powder insoluble in water; it is not used internally, but from it is -made _Unguentum Plumbi Carbonatis_, strength 1 in 10 parts of paraffin -ointment. (4) _Plumbi Iodidium_, a heavy bright yellow powder not used -internally. From it are made (a) _Emplastrum Plumbi Iodidi_, and (b) -_Unguentum Plumbi Iodidi_. The strength of each is 1 in 10. - -Applied externally lead salts have practically no action upon the -unbroken skin, but applied to sores, ulcers or any exposed mucous -membranes they coagulate the albumen in the tissues themselves and -contract the small vessels. They are very astringent, haemostatic and -sedative; the strong solution of the subacetate is powerfully caustic -and is rarely used undiluted. Lead salts are applied as lotions in -conditions where a sedative astringent effect is desired, as in weeping -eczema; in many varieties of chronic ulceration; and as an injection for -various inflammatory discharges from the vagina, ear and urethra, the -Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutum being the one employed. The sedative -effect of lead lotion in pruritus is well known. Internally lead has an -astringent action on the mucous membranes, causing a sensation of -dryness; the dilute solution of the subacetate forms an effective gargle -in tonsillitis. The chief use of the preparations of lead, however, is -as an astringent in acute diarrhoea, particularly if ulceration be -present, when it is usefully given in combination with opium in the form -of the Pilula Plumbi cum Opio. It is useful in haemorrhage from a -gastric ulcer or in haemorrhage from the intestine. Lead salts usually -produce constipation, and lead is an active ecbolic. Lead is said to -enter the blood as an albuminate in which form it is deposited in the -tissues. As a rule the soluble salts if taken in sufficient quantities -produce acute poisoning, and the insoluble salts chronic plumbism. The -symptoms of acute poisoning are pain and diarrhoea, owing to the setting -up of an active gastro-enteritis, the foeces being black (due to the -formation of a sulphide of lead), thirst, cramps in the legs and -muscular twitchings, with torpor, collapse, convulsions and coma. The -treatment is the prompt use of emetics, or the stomach should be washed -out, and large doses of sodium or magnesium sulphate given in order to -form an insoluble sulphate. Stimulants, warmth and opium may be -required. For an account of chronic plumbism see LEAD POISONING. - - AUTHORITIES.--For the history of lead see W. H. Pulsifer, _Notes for a - History of Lead_ (1888); B. Neumann, _Die Metalle_ (1904); A. Rossing, - _Geschichte der Metalle_ (1901). For the chemistry see H. Roscoe and - C. Schorlemmer, _Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry_, vol. ii. (1897); H. - Moissan, _Traite de chimie minerale_; O. Dammer, _Handbuch der - anorganischen Chemie_. For the metallurgy see J. Percy, _The - Metallurgy of Lead_ (London, 1870); H. F. Collins, _The Metallurgy of - Lead and Silver_ (London, 1899), part i. "Lead"; H. O. Hofmann, _The - Metallurgy of Lead_ (6th ed., New York, 1901); W. R. Ingalls, _Lead - Smelting and Refining_ (1906); A. G. Betts, _Lead Refining by - Electrolysis_ (1908); M. Eissler, _The Metallurgy of Argentiferous - Silver_. _The Mineral Industry_, begun in 1892, annually records the - progress made in lead smelting. - - - - -LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831- ), English painter, the son of E. -Leader Williams, an engineer, received his art education first at the -Worcester School of Design and later in the schools of the Royal -Academy. He began to exhibit at the Academy in 1854, was elected A.R.A. -in 1883 and R.A. in 1898, and became exceedingly popular as a painter of -landscape. His subjects are attractive and skilfully composed. He was -awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition in 1889, and was made a -knight of the Legion of Honour. One of his pictures, "The Valley of the -Llugwy," is in the National Gallery of British Art. - - See _The Life and Work of B. W. Leader, R.A._, by Lewis Lusk, _Art - Journal_ Office (1901). - - - - -LEADHILLITE, a rare mineral consisting of basic lead sulphato-carbonate, -Pb4SO4(CO3)2(OH)2. Crystals have usually the form of six-sided plates -(fig. 1) or sometimes of acute rhombohedra (fig. 2); they have a perfect -basal cleavage (parallel to P in fig. 1) on which the lustre is strongly -pearly; they are usually white and translucent. The hardness is 2.5 and -the sp. gr. 6.26-6.44. The crystallographic and optical characters point -to the existence of three distinct kinds of leadhillite, which are, -however, identical in external appearance and may even occur intergrown -together in the same crystal: (a) monoclinic with an optic axial angle -of 20 deg.; (b) rhombohedral (fig. 2) and optically uniaxial; (c) -orthorhombic (fig. 1) with an optic axial angle of 72(3/4) deg. The -first of these is the more common kind, and the second has long been -known under the name susannite. The fact that the published analyses of -leadhillite vary somewhat from the formula given above suggests that -these three kinds may also be chemically distinct. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -Leadhillite is a mineral of secondary origin, occurring with cerussite, -anglesite, &c., in the oxidized portions of lead-bearing lodes; it has -also been found in weathered lead slags left by the Romans. It has been -found most abundantly in the Susanna mine at Leadhills in Scotland -(hence the names leadhillite and susannite). Good crystals have also -been found at Red Gill in Cumberland and at Granby in Missouri. Crystals -from Sardinia have been called maxite. (L. J. S.) - - - - -LEADHILLS, a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland, 5(3/4) m. W.S.W. of -Elvanfoot station on the Caledonian Railway Company's main line from -Glasgow to the south. Pop. (1901) 835. It is the highest village in -Scotland, lying 1301 ft. above sea-level, near the source of Glengonner -Water, an affluent of the Clyde. It is served by a light railway. Lead -and silver have been mined here and at Wanlockhead, 1(1/2) m. S.W., for -many centuries--according to some authorities even in Roman days. Gold -was discovered in the reign of James IV., but though it is said then to -have provided employment for 300 persons, its mining has long ceased to -be profitable. The village is neat and well built, and contains a -masonic hall and library, the latter founded by the miners about the -middle of the 18th century. Allan Ramsay, the poet, and William -Symington (1763-1831), one of the earliest adaptors of the steam engine -to the purposes of navigation, were born at Leadhills. - - - - -LEAD POISONING, or PLUMBISM, a "disease of occupations," which is itself -the cause of organic disease, particularly of the nervous and urinary -systems. The workpeople affected are principally those engaged in -potteries where lead-glaze is used; but other industries in which health -is similarly affected are file-making, house-painting and glazing, -glass-making, copper-working, coach-making, plumbing and gasfitting, -printing, cutlery, and generally those occupations in which lead is -concerned. - -The symptoms of chronic lead poisoning vary within very wide limits, -from colic and constipation up to total blindness, paralysis, -convulsions and death. They are thus described by Dr J. T. Arlidge -(_Diseases of Occupations_):-- - - The poison finds its way gradually into the whole mass of the - circulating blood, and exerts its effects mainly on the nervous - system, paralysing nerve-force and with it muscular power. Its victims - become of a sallow-waxy hue; the functions of the stomach and bowels - are deranged, appetite fails and painful colic with constipation - supervenes. The loss of power is generally shown first in the fingers, - hands and wrists, and the condition known as "wrist-drop" soon - follows, rendering the victim useless for work. The palsy will extend - to the shoulders, and after no long time to the legs also. Other - organs frequently involved are the kidneys, the tissue of which - becomes permanently damaged; whilst the sight is weakened or even - lost. - -Dr M'Aldowie, senior physician to the North Staffordshire Infirmary, has -stated that "in the pottery trade lead is very slow in producing serious -effects compared with certain other industries." In his experience the -average period of working in lead before serious lesions manifest -themselves is 18 years for females and 22(1/2) years for males. But some -individuals fall victims to the worst forms of plumbism after a few -months' or even weeks' exposure to the danger. Young persons are more -readily affected than those of mature age, and women more than men. In -addition, there seems to be an element of personal susceptibility, the -nature of which is not understood. Some persons "work in the lead" for -twenty, forty or fifty years without the slightest ill effects; others -have attacks whenever they are brought into contact with it. Possibly -the difference is due to the general state of health; robust persons -resist the poison successfully, those with impoverished blood and feeble -constitution are mastered by it. Lead enters the body chiefly through -the nose and mouth, being inspired in the form of dust or swallowed with -food eaten with unwashed hands. It is very apt to get under the nails, -and is possibly absorbed in this way through the skin. Personal care and -cleanliness are therefore of the greatest importance. A factory surgeon -of great experience in the English Potteries has stated that seventeen -out of twenty cases of lead-poisoning in the china and earthenware -industry are due to carelessness (_The Times_, 8th October 1898). - -The Home Office in England has from time to time made special rules for -workshops and workpeople, with the object of minimizing or preventing -the occurrence of lead-poisoning; and in 1895 notification of cases was -made compulsory. The health of workpeople in the Potteries was the -subject of a special inquiry by a scientific committee in 1893. The -committee stated that "the general truth that the potteries occupation -is one fraught with injury to health and life is beyond dispute," and -that "the ill effects of the trade are referable to two chief -causes--namely, dust and the poison of lead." Of these the inhalation of -clay and flint dust was the more important. It led to bronchitis, -pulmonary tuberculosis and pneumonia, which were the most prevalent -disorders among potters, and responsible for 70% of the mortality. That -from lead the committee did not attempt to estimate, but they found that -plumbism was less prevalent than in past times, and expressed the -opinion "that a large part of the mortality from lead poisoning is -avoidable; although it must always be borne in mind that no arrangements -or rules, with regard to the work itself, can entirely obviate the -effects of the poison to which workers are exposed, because so much -depends upon the individual and the observance of personal care and -cleanliness." They recommended the adoption of certain special rules in -the workshops, with the objects of protecting young persons from the -lead, of minimizing the evils of dust, and of promoting cleanliness, -particularly in regard to meals. Some of these recommendations were -adopted and applied with good results. With regard to the suggestion -that "only leadless glazes should be used on earthenware," they did not -"see any immediate prospect of such glazes becoming universally -applicable to pottery manufacture," and therefore turned their attention -to the question of "fritting" the lead. - - It may be explained that lead is used in china and earthenware to give - the external glaze which renders the naturally porous ware watertight. - Both "white" and "red" lead are used. The lead is added to other - ingredients, which have been "fritted" or fused together and then - ground very fine in water, making a thick creamy liquid into which the - articles are dipped. After dipping the glaze dries quickly, and on - being "fired" in the kiln it becomes fused by the heat into the - familiar glassy surface. In the manufacture of ware with enamelled - colours, glaze is mixed with the pigment to form a flux, and such - colours are used either moist or in the form of a dry powder. - "Fritting" the lead means mixing it with the other ingredients of the - glaze beforehand and fusing them all together under great heat into a - kind of rough glass, which is then ground to make the glaze. Treated - in this way the lead combines with the other ingredients and becomes - less soluble, and therefore less dangerous, than when added afterwards - in the raw state. The committee (1893) thought it "reasonable to - suppose that the fritting of lead might ultimately be found - universally practicable," but declared that though fritting "no doubt - diminishes the danger of lead-poisoning," they "could not regard all - fritts as equally innocuous." - -In the annual report of the chief inspector of factories for 1897, it -was stated that there had been "material improvement in dust conditions" -in the potting industry, but "of lead-poisoning unfortunately the same -could not be said, the number of grave cases reported, and particularly -cases of blindness, having ominously increased of late." This appears to -have been largely due to the erroneous inclusion among potting processes -of "litho-transfer making," a colour industry in which girls are -employed. New special rules were imposed in 1899 prohibiting the -employment of persons under fifteen in the dangerous processes, ordering -a monthly examination of all women and young persons working in lead by -the certifying surgeon, with power to suspend those showing symptoms of -poisoning, and providing for the more effectual removal of dust and the -better enforcement of cleanliness. At the same time a scientific inquiry -was ordered into the practicability of dispensing with lead in glazes or -of substituting fritted compounds for the raw carbonate. The scientific -experts reported in 1899, recommending that the use of raw lead should -be absolutely prohibited, and expressing the opinion that the greater -amount of earthenware could be successfully glazed without any lead. -These views were in advance of the opinions held by practical potters, -and met with a good deal of opposition. By certain manufacturers -considerable progress had been made in diminishing the use of raw lead -and towards the discovery of satisfactory leadless glazes; but it is a -long step from individual experiments to the wholesale compulsory -revolution of the processes of manufacture in so large and varied an -industry, and in the face of foreign competitors hampered by no such -regulations. The materials used by each manufacturer have been arrived -at by a long process of experience, and they are such as to suit the -particular goods he supplies for his particular market. It is therefore -difficult to apply a uniform rule without jeopardizing the prosperity of -the industry, which supports a population of 250,000 in the Potteries -alone. However, the bulk of the manufacturers agreed to give up the use -of raw lead, and to fritt all their glazes in future, time being allowed -to effect the change of process; but they declined to be bound to any -particular composition of glaze for the reasons indicated. - -In 1901 the Home Office brought forward a new set of special rules. Most -of these were framed to strengthen the provisions for securing -cleanliness, removing dust, &c., and were accepted with a few -modifications. But the question of making even more stringent -regulations, even to the extent of making the use of lead-glaze illegal -altogether, was still agitated; and in 1906 the Home Office again -appointed an expert committee to reinvestigate the subject. They -reported in 1910, and made various recommendations in detail for -strengthening the existing regulations; but while encouraging the use of -leadless glaze in certain sorts of common ceramic ware, they pointed out -that, without the use of lead, certain other sorts could either not be -made at all or only at a cost or sacrifice of quality which would entail -the loss of important markets. - - In 1908 Dr Collis made an inquiry into the increase of plumbism in - connexion with the smelting of metals, and he considered the increase - in the cases of poisoning reported to be due to the third schedule of - the Workmen's Compensation Act, (1) by causing the prevalence of - pre-existing plumbism to come to light, (2) by the tendency this - fostered to replace men suspected of lead impregnation by new hands - amongst whom the incidence is necessarily greater. - - - - -LEADVILLE, a city and the county seat of Lake county, Colorado, U.S.A., -one of the highest (mean elevation c. 10,150 ft.) and most celebrated -mining "camps" of the world. Pop. (1900) 12,455, of whom 3802 were -foreign-born; (1910 census) 7508. It is served by the Denver & Rio -Grande, the Colorado & Southern and the Colorado Midland railways. It -lies amid towering mountains on a terrace of the western flank of the -Mosquito Range at the head of the valley of the Arkansas river, where -the river cuts the valley between the Mosquito and the Sawatch -(Saguache) ranges. Among the peaks in the immediate environs are Mt. -Massive (14,424 ft., the highest in the state) and Elbert Peak (14,421 -ft.). There is a United States fish hatchery at the foot of Mt. Massive. -In the spring of 1860 placer gold was discovered in California Gulch, -and by July 1860 Oro City had probably 10,000 inhabitants. In five years -the total yield was more than $5,000,000; then it diminished, and Oro -City shrank to a few hundred inhabitants. This settlement was within the -present limits of Leadville. In 1876 the output of the mines was about -$20,000. During sixteen years "heavy sands" and great boulders that -obstructed the placer fields had been moved thoughtlessly to one side. -These boulders were from enormous lead carbonate deposits extremely rich -in silver. The discovery of these deposits was made on the hills at the -edge of Leadville. The first building was erected in June 1877; in -December there were several hundred miners, in January the town was -organized and named; at the end of 1879 there were, it is said, 35,000 -inhabitants. Leadville was already a chartered city, with the usual -organization and all public facilities. In 1880 it was reached by the -Denver & Rio Grande railway. In early years Leadville was one of the -most turbulent, picturesque and in all ways extraordinary, of the mining -camps of the West. The value of the output from 1879 to 1889 totalled -$147,834,186, including one-fifth of the silver production and a third -of the lead consumption of the country. The decline in the price of -silver, culminating with the closing of the India mints and the repeal -of the Sherman Law in 1893, threatened Leadville's future. But the -source of the gold of the old placers was found in 1892. From that year -to 1899 the gold product rose from $262,692 to $2,183,332. From 1879 to -1900 the camp yielded $250,000,000 (as compared with $48,000,000 of gold -and silver in five years from the Comstock, Nevada, lode; and -$60,000,000 and 225,000 tons of lead, in fourteen years, from the -Eureka, Nevada, mines). Before 1898 the production of zinc was -unimportant, but in 1906 it was more valuable than that of silver and -gold combined. This increased output is a result of the establishment of -concentrating mills, in which the zinc content is raised from 18 or 20% -in the raw ores to 25 or 45% in the concentrates. In 1904, per ton of -Lake county ore, zinc was valued at $6.93, silver at $4.16, lead at -$3.85, gold at $1.77 and copper at $.66. The copper mined at Leadville -amounted to about one-third the total mined in the state in 1906. Iron -and manganese have been produced here, and in 1906 Leadville was the -only place in the United States known to have produced bismuth. There -were two famous labour strikes in the "diggings" in 1879 and 1896. The -latter attracted national attention; it lasted from the 19th of June -1896 to the 9th of March 1897, when the miners, being practically -starved out, declared the strike off. There had been a riot on the 21st -of September 1896 and militia guarded the mines for months afterwards. -In January 1897 the mines on Carbonate Hill were flooded after the -removal of their pumps. This strike closed many mines, which were not -opened for several years. Leadville stocks are never on the exchange, -and "flotation" and "promotion" have been almost unknown. - - The ores of the Leadville District occur in a blue limestone formation - overlaid by porphyry, and are in the form of heavy sulphides, - containing copper, gold, silver, lead and zinc; oxides containing - iron, manganese and small amounts of silver and lead; and siliceous - ores, containing much silver and a little lead and gold. The best - grade of ores usually consists of a mixture of sulphides, with some - native gold. Nowhere have more wonderful advances in mining been - apparent--in the size and character of furnaces and pumps; the - development of local smelter supplies; the fall in the cost of coal, - of explosives and other mine supplies; the development of railways and - diminution of freight expenses; and the general improvement of - economic and scientific methods--than at Leadville since 1880. The - increase of output more than doubled from 1890 to 1900, and many ores - once far too low in grade for working now yield sure profits. The - Leadville smelters in 1900 had a capacity of 35,000 tons monthly; - about as much more local ore being treated at Denver, Pueblo and other - places. - - See S. F. Emmons, _Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, - Colorado_, monograph United States Geological Survey, vol. 12 (1886), - and with J. D. Irving, _The Downtown District of Leadville, Colorado_, - Bulletin 320, United States Geological Survey (1907), particularly for - the discussion of the origin of the ores of the region. - - - - -LEAF (O. Eng. _leaf_, cf. Dutch _loof_, Ger. _Laub_, Swed. _lof_, &c.; -possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. [Greek: lepein], to -peel, strip), the name given in popular language to all the green -expanded organs borne upon an axis, and so applied to similar objects, -such as a thin sheet of metal, a hinged flap of a table, the page of a -book, &c. Investigation has shown that many other parts of a plant which -externally appear very different from ordinary leaves are, in their -essential particulars, very similar to them, and are in fact their -morphological equivalents. Such are the scales of a bulb, and the -various parts of the flower, and assuming that the structure ordinarily -termed a leaf is the typical form, these other structures were -designated changed or metamorphosed leaves, a somewhat misleading -interpretation. All structures morphologically equivalent with the leaf -are now included under the general term _phyllome_ (leaf-structure). - -[Illustration: From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik by permission of -Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 1.--Apex of a shoot showing origin of leaves: f, leaf rudiment; g, -rudiment of an axillary bud.] - -Leaves are produced as lateral outgrowths of the stem in definite -succession below the apex. This character, common to all leaves, -distinguishes them from other organs. In the higher plants we can easily -recognize the distinction between stem and leaf. Amongst the lower -plants, however, it is found that a demarcation into stem and leaf is -impossible, but that there is a structure which partakes of the -characters of both--such is a _thallus_. The leaves always arise from -the outer portion of the primary meristem of the plant, and the tissues -of the leaf are continuous with those of the stem. Every leaf originates -as a simple cellular papilla (fig. 1), which consists of a development -from the cortical layers covered by epidermis; and as growth proceeds, -the fibro-vascular bundles of the stem are continued outwards, and -finally expand and terminate in the leaf. The increase in length of the -leaf by growth at the apex is usually of a limited nature. In some -ferns, however, there seems to be a provision for indefinite terminal -growth, while in others this growth is periodically interrupted. It not -unfrequently happens, especially amongst Monocotyledons, that after -growth at the apex has ceased, it is continued at the base of the leaf, -and in this way the length may be much increased. Amongst Dicotyledons -this is very rare. In all cases the dimensions of the leaf are enlarged -by interstitial growth of its parts. - - - Structure of leaves. - -The simplest leaf is found in some mosses, where it consists of a single -layer of cells. The typical foliage leaf consists of several layers, and -amongst vascular plants is distinguishable into an outer layer -(_epidermis_) and a central tissue (_parenchyma_) with fibro-vascular -bundles distributed through it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of a Melon leaf, perpendicular to the -surface. - - es, Upper epidermis. - ei, Lower epidermis. - p, Hairs. - st, Stomata. - ps, Upper (palisade) layers of parenchymatous cells. - pi, Lower (spongy) layers of parenchymatous cells. - m, Air-spaces connected with stomata. - l, Air-spaces between the loose cells in the spongy parenchyma. - fv, Bundles of fibro-vascular tissue.] - - The _epidermis_ (fig. 2, es, ei), composed of cells more or less - compressed, has usually a different structure and aspect on the two - surfaces of the leaf. The cells of the epidermis are very closely - united laterally and contain no green colouring matter (chlorophyll) - except in the pair of cells--guard-cells--which bound the stomata. The - outer wall, especially of the upper epidermis, has a tough outer layer - or cuticle which renders it impervious to water. The epidermis is - continuous except where stomata or spaces bounded by specialized cells - communicate with intercellular spaces in the interior of the leaf. It - is chiefly on the epidermis of the lower surface (fig. 2, ei) that - stomata, st, are produced, and it is there also that hairs, p, usually - occur. The lower epidermis is often of a dull or pale-green colour, - soft and easily detached. The upper epidermis is frequently smooth and - shining, and sometimes becomes very hard and dense. Many tropical - plants present on the upper surface of their leaves several layers of - compressed cells beneath the epidermis which serve for storage of - water and are known as aqueous tissue. In leaves which float upon the - surface of the water, as those of the water-lily, the upper epidermis - alone possesses stomata. - - The _parenchyma_ of the leaf is the cellular tissue enclosed within - the epidermis and surrounding the vessels (fig. 2, ps, pi). It is - known as _mesophyll_, and is formed of two distinct series of cells, - each containing the green chlorophyll-granules, but differing in form - and arrangement. Below the epidermis of the upper side of the leaf - there are one or two layers of cells, elongated at right angles to the - leaf surface (fig. 2, ps), and applied so closely to each other as to - leave only small intercellular spaces, except where stomata happen to - be present (fig. 2, m); they form the palisade tissue. On the other - side of the leaf the cells are irregular, often branched, and are - arranged more or less horizontally (fig. 2, pi), leaving air-spaces - between them, l, which communicate with stomata; on this account the - tissue has received the name of spongy. In leaves having a very firm - texture, as those of Coniferae and Cycadaceae, the cells of the - parenchyma immediately beneath the epidermis are very much thickened - and elongated in a direction parallel to the surface of the leaf, so - as to be fibre-like. These constitute a hypodermal layer, beneath - which the chlorophyll cells of the parenchyma are densely packed - together, and are elongated in a direction vertical to the surface of - the leaf, forming the palisade tissue. The form and arrangement of the - cells, however, depend much on the nature of the plant, and its - exposure to light and air. Sometimes the arrangement of the cells on - both sides of the leaf is similar, as occurs in leaves which have - their edges presented to the sky. In very succulent plants the cells - form a compact mass, and those in the centre are often colourless. In - some cases the cellular tissue is deficient at certain points, giving - rise to distinct holes in the leaf, as in _Monstera Adansonii_. The - fibro-vascular system in the leaf constitutes the _venation_. The - fibro-vascular bundles from the stem bend out into the leaf, and are - there arranged in a definite manner. In _skeleton leaves_, or leaves - in which the parenchyma is removed, this arrangement is well seen. In - some leaves, as in the barberry, the veins are hardened, producing - spines without any parenchyma. The hardening of the extremities of the - fibro-vascular tissue is the cause of the spiny margin of many leaves, - such as the holly, of the sharp-pointed leaves of madder, and of - mucronate leaves, or those having a blunt end with a hard projection - in the centre. - -The form and arrangement of the parts of a typical foliage leaf are -intimately associated with the part played by the leaf in the life of -the plant. The flat surface is spread to allow the maximum amount of -sunlight to fall upon it, as it is by the absorption of energy from the -sun's rays by means of the chlorophyll contained in the cells of the -leaf that the building up of plant food is rendered possible; this -process is known as photo-synthesis; the first stage is the combination -of carbon dioxide, absorbed from the air taken in through the stomata -into the living cells of the leaf, with water which is brought into the -leaf by the wood-vessels. The wood-vessels form part of the -fibro-vascular bundles or veins of the leaf and are continuous -throughout the leaf-stalk and stem with the root by which water is -absorbed from the soil. The palisade layers of the mesophyll contain the -larger number of chlorophyll grains (or corpuscles) while the absorption -of carbon dioxide is carried on chiefly through the lower epidermis -which is generally much richer in stomata. The water taken up by the -root from the soil contains nitrogenous and mineral salts which combine -with the first product of photo-synthesis--a carbohydrate--to form more -complicated nitrogen-containing food substances of a proteid nature; -these are then distributed by other elements of the vascular bundles -(the _phloem_) through the leaf to the stem and so throughout the plant -to wherever growth or development is going on. A large proportion of the -water which ascends to the leaf acts merely as a carrier for the other -raw food materials and is got rid of from the leaf in the form of water -vapour through the stomata--this process is known as _transpiration_. -Hence the extended surface of the leaf exposing a large area to light -and air is eminently adapted for the carrying out of the process of -photo-synthesis and transpiration. The arrangement of the leaves on the -stem and branches (see _Phyllotaxy_, below) is such as to prevent the -upper leaves shading the lower, and the shape of the leaf serves towards -the same end--the disposition of leaves on a branch or stem is often -seen to form a "mosaic," each leaf fitting into the space between -neighbouring leaves and the branch on which they are borne without -overlapping. - -Submerged leaves, or leaves which are developed under water, differ in -structure from aerial leaves. They have usually no fibro-vascular -system, but consist of a congeries of cells, which sometimes become -elongated and compressed so as to resemble veins. They have a layer of -compact cells on their surface, but no true epidermis, and no stomata. -Their internal structure consists of cells, disposed irregularly, and -sometimes leaving spaces which are filled with air for the purpose of -floating the leaf. When exposed to the air these leaves easily part with -their moisture, and become shrivelled and dry. In some cases there is -only a network of filament-like cells, the spaces between which are not -filled with parenchyma, giving a skeleton appearance to the leaf, as in -_Ouvirandra fenestralis_ (Lattice plant). - -A leaf, whether aerial or submerged, generally consists of a flat -expanded portion, called the _blade_, or _lamina_, of a narrower portion -called the _petiole_ or _stalk_, and sometimes of a portion at the base -of the petiole, which forms a _sheath_ or _vagina_ (fig. 5, s), or is -developed in the form of outgrowths, called _stipules_ (fig. 24, s). -All these portions are not always present. The sheathing or stipulary -portion is frequently wanting. When a leaf has a distinct stalk it is -_petiolate_; when it has none, it is _sessile_, and if in this case it -embraces the stem it is said to be _amplexicaul_. The part of the leaf -next the petiole or the axis is the _base_, while the opposite extremity -is the _apex_. The leaf is usually flattened and expanded horizontally, -i.e. at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the shoot, so that the -upper face is directed towards the heavens, and the lower towards the -earth. In some cases leaves, as in Iris, or leaf-like petioles, as in -Australian acacias and eucalypti, have their plane of expansion parallel -to the axis of the shoot, there is then no distinction into an upper and -a lower face, but the two sides are developed alike; or the leaf may -have a cylindrical or polyhedral form, as in mesembryanthemum. The upper -angle formed between the leaf and the stem is called its _axil_; it is -there that leaf-buds are normally developed. The leaf is sometimes -articulated with the stem, and when it falls off a _scar_ remains; at -other times it is continuous with it, and then decays, while still -attached to the axis. In their early state all leaves are continuous -with the stem, and it is only in their after growth that articulations -are formed. When leaves fall off annually they are called _deciduous_; -when they remain for two or more years they are _persistent_, and the -plant is _evergreen_. The laminar portion of a leaf is occasionally -articulated with the petiole, as in the orange, and a joint at times -exists between the vaginal or stipulary portion and the petiole. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Leaf of Elm (_Ulmus_). Reticulated venation; -primary veins going to the margin, which is serrated. Leaf unequal at -the base.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Multicostate leaf of Castor-oil plant (_Ricinus -communis_). It is palmately-cleft, and exhibits seven lobes at the -margin. The petiole is inserted a little above the base, and hence the -leaf is called peltate or shield-like.] - - - Venation. - - The arrangement of the fibro-vascular system in the lamina constitutes - the _venation_ or _nervation_. In an ordinary leaf, as that of the - elm, there is observed a large central vein running from the base to - the apex of the leaf, this is the _midrib_ (fig. 3); it gives off - veins laterally (_primary veins_). A leaf with only a single midrib is - said to be _unicostate_ and the venation is described as pinnate or - feather-veined. In some cases, as sycamore or castor oil (fig. 4), in - place of there being only a single midrib there are several large - veins (_ribs_) of nearly equal size, which diverge from the point - where the blade joins the petiole or stem, giving off lateral veins. - The leaf in this case is _multicostate_ and the venation palmate. The - primary veins give off secondary veins, and these in their turn give - off tertiary veins, and so on until a complete network of vessels is - produced, and those veins usually project on the under surface of the - leaf. To a distribution of veins such as this the name of - _reticulated_ or _netted_ venation has been applied. In the leaves of - some plants there exists a midrib with large veins running nearly - parallel to it from the base to the apex of the lamina, as in grasses - (fig. 5); or with veins diverging from the base of the lamina in more - or less parallel lines, as in fan palms (fig. 6), or with veins - coming off from it throughout its whole course, and running parallel - to each other in a straight or curved direction towards the margin of - the leaf, as in plantain and banana. In these cases the veins are - often united by cross veinlets, which do not, however, form an angular - network. Such leaves are said to be _parallel-veined_. The leaves of - Monocotyledons have generally this kind of venation, while reticulated - venation most usually occurs amongst Dicotyledons. Some plants, which - in most points of their structure are monocotyledonous, yet have - reticulated venation; as in _Smilax_ and _Dioscorea_. In vascular - acotyledonous plants there is frequently a tendency to fork exhibited - by the fibro-vascular bundles in the leaf; and when this is the case - we have _fork-veined_ leaves. This is well seen in many ferns. The - distribution of the system of vessels in the leaf is usually easily - traced, but in the case of succulent plants, as _Hoya_, agave, - stonecrop and mesembryanthemum, the veins are obscure. The function of - the veins which consist of vessels and fibres is to form a rigid - framework for the leaf and to conduct liquids. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Stem of a Grass (_Poa_) with leaf. The sheaths -ending in a process l, called a ligule; the blade of the leaf, f.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Leaf of a Fan Palm (_Chamaerops_), showing the -veins running from the base to the margin, and not forming an angular -network.] - -In all plants, except Thallophytes, leaves are present at some period of -their existence. In _Cuscuta_ (Dodder) (q.v.), however, we have an -exception. The forms assumed by leaves vary much, not only in different -plants, but in the same plant. It is only amongst the lower classes of -plants--Mosses, Characeae, &c.--that all the leaves on a plant are -similar. As we pass up the scale of plant life we find them becoming -more and more variable. The structures in ordinary language designated -as leaves are considered so _par excellence_, and they are frequently -spoken of as _foliage leaves_. In relation to their production on the -stem we may observe that when they are small they are always produced in -great number, and as they increase in size their number diminishes -correspondingly. The cellular process from the axis which develops into -a leaf is simple and undivided; it rarely remains so, but in progress of -growth becomes segmented in various ways, either longitudinally or -laterally, or in both ways. By longitudinal segmentation we have a leaf -formed consisting of sheath, stalk and blade; or one or other of these -may be absent, and thus stalked, sessile, sheathing, &c., leaves are -produced. Lateral segmentation affects the lamina, producing -indentations, lobings or fissuring of its margins. In this way two -marked forms of leaf are produced--(1) _Simple_ form, in which the -segmentation, however deeply it extends into the lamina, does not -separate portions of the lamina which become articulated with the midrib -or petiole; and (2) _Compound_ form, where portions of the lamina are -separated as detached _leaflets_, which become articulated with the -midrib or petiole. In both simple and compound leaves, according to the -amount of segmentation and the mode of development of the parenchyma and -direction of the fibro-vascular bundles, many forms are produced. - - - Simple leaves. - - _Simple Leaves._--When the parenchyma is developed symmetrically on - each side of the midrib or stalk, the leaf is _equal_; if otherwise, - the leaf is _unequal_ or _oblique_ (fig. 3). If the margins are even - and present no divisions, the leaf is _entire_ (fig. 7); if there are - slight projections which are more or less pointed, the leaf is - _dentate_ or toothed; when the projections lie regularly over each - other, like the teeth of a saw, the leaf is _serrate_ (fig. 3); when - they are rounded the leaf is _crenate_. If the divisions extend more - deeply into the lamina than the margin, the leaf receives different - names according to the nature of the segments; thus, when the - divisions extend about half-way down (fig. 8), it is _cleft_; when the - divisions extend nearly to the base or to the midrib the leaf is - _partite_. - - If these divisions take place in a simple _feather-veined_ leaf it - becomes either _pinnatifid_ (fig. 9), when the segments extend to - about the middle, or _pinnatipartite_, when the divisions extend - nearly to the midrib. These primary divisions may be again subdivided - in a similar manner, and thus a feather-veined leaf will become - _bipinnatifid_ or _bipinnatipartite_; still further subdivisions give - origin to _tripinnatifid_ and _laciniated_ leaves. The same kinds of - divisions taking place in a simple leaf with palmate or _radiating_ - venation, give origin to _lobed_, _cleft_ and _partite_ forms. The - name _palmate_ or _palmatifid_ (fig. 4) is the general term applied to - leaves with radiating venation, in which there are several lobes - united by a broad expansion of parenchyma, like the palm of the hand, - as in the sycamore, castor-oil plant, &c. The divisions of leaves with - radiating venation may extend to near the base of the leaf, and the - names _bipartite_, _tripartite_, _quinquepartite_, &c., are given - according as the partitions are two, three, five or more. The term - _dissected_ is applied to leaves with radiating venation, having - numerous narrow divisions, as in _Geranium dissectum_. - - [Illustration: - - FIG. 7.--Ovate acute leaf of _Coriara myrtifolia_. Besides the - midrib there are two intra-marginal ribs which converge to the apex. - The leaf is therefore tricostate. - - FIG. 8.--Runcinate leaf of Dandelion. It is a pinnatifid leaf, with - the divisions pointing towards the petiole and a large triangular - apex. - - FIG. 9.--Pinnatifid leaf of _Valeriana dioica_.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Five-partite leaf of Aconite.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Pedate leaf of Stinking Hellebore - (_Helleborus foetidus_). The venation is radiating. It is a - palmately-partite leaf, in which the lateral lobes are deeply divided. - When the leaf hangs down it resembles the foot of a bird, and hence - the name.] - - When in a radiating leaf there are three primary partitions, and the - two lateral lobes are again cleft, as in hellebore (fig. 11), the leaf - is called _pedate_ or _pedatifid_, from a fancied resemblance to the - claw of a bird. In all the instances already alluded to the leaves - have been considered as flat expansions, in which the ribs or veins - spread out on the same plane with the stalk. In some cases, however, - the veins spread at right angles to the stalk, forming a _peltate_ - leaf as in Indian cress (fig. 12). - - The form of the leaf shows a very great variety ranging from the - narrow _linear_ form with parallel sides, as in grasses or the - needle-like leaves of pines and firs to more or less rounded or - _orbicular_--descriptions of these will be found in works on - descriptive botany--a few examples are illustrated here (figs. 7, 13, - 14, 15). The apex also varies considerably, being rounded, or - _obtuse_, sharp or _acute_ (fig. 7), notched (fig. 15), &c. Similarly - the shape of the base may vary, when rounded lobes are formed, as in - dog-violet, the leaf is cordate or heart-shaped; or kidney-shaped or - _reniform_ (fig. 16), when the apex is rounded as in ground ivy. When - the lobes are prolonged downwards and are acute, the leaf is - _sagittate_ (fig. 17); when they proceed at right angles, as in _Rumex - Acetosella_, the leaf is _hastate_ or halbert-shaped. When a simple - leaf is divided at the base into two leaf-like appendages, it is - called _auriculate_. When the development of parenchyma is such that - it more than fills up the spaces between the veins, the margins become - _wavy_, _crisp_ or _undulated_, as in _Rumex crispus_ and _Rheum - undulatum_. By cultivation the cellular tissue is often much - increased, giving rise to the _curled_ leaves of greens, savoys, - cresses, lettuce, &c. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Peltate leaves of Indian Cress (_Tropaeolum - majus_).] - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Lanceolate leaf of a species of Senna.] - - - Compound leaves. - - Compound leaves are those in which the divisions extend to the midrib - or petiole, and the separated portions become each articulated with - it, and receive the name of _leaflets_. The midrib, or petiole, has - thus the appearance of a branch with separate leaves attached to it, - but it is considered properly as one leaf, because in its earliest - state it arises from the axis as a single piece, and its subsequent - divisions in the form of leaflets are all in one plane. The leaflets - are either sessile (fig. 18) or have stalks, called _petiolules_ (fig. - 19). Compound leaves are pinnate (fig. 19) or palmate (fig. 18) - according to the arrangement of leaflets. When a pinnate leaf ends in - a pair of pinnae it is _equally_ or _abruptly pinnate_ (paripinnate); - when there is a single terminal leaflet (fig. 19), the leaf is - _unequally pinnate_ (imparipinnate); when the leaflets or pinnae are - placed alternately on either side of the midrib, and not directly - opposite to each other, the leaf is _alternately pinnate_; and when - the pinnae are of different sizes, the leaf is _interruptedly - pinnate_. When the division is carried into the second degree, and the - pinnae of a compound leaf are themselves pinnately compound, a - bipinnate leaf is formed. - - [Illustration: - - FIG. 14.--Oblong leaf of a species of Senna. - - FIG. 15.--Emarginate leaf of a species of Senna. The leaf in its - contour is somewhat obovate, or inversely egg-shaped, and its base - is oblique. - - FIG. 16.--Reniform leaf of _Nepeta Glechoma_, margin crenate. - - FIG. 17.--Sagittate leaf of Convolvulus.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Palmately compound leaf of the Horse-chestnut - (_Aesculus Hippocastanum_).] - - [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Imparipinnate (unequal pinnate) leaf of - Robinia. There are nine pairs of shortly-stalked leaflets (foliola, - pinnae), and an odd one at the extremity. At the base of the leaf the - spiny stipules are seen.] - - - Petiole. - - The _petiole_ or leaf-stalk is the part which unites the limb or blade - of the leaf to the stem. It is absent in _sessile_ leaves, and this is - also frequently the case when a sheath is present, as in grasses (fig. - 5). It consists of the fibro-vascular bundles with a varying amount of - cellular tissue. When the vascular bundles reach the base of the - lamina they separate and spread out in various ways, as already - described under venation. The lower part of the petiole is often - swollen (fig. 20, _p_), forming the _pulvinus_, formed of cellular - tissue, the cells of which exhibit the phenomenon of irritability. In - _Mimosa pudica_ (fig. 20) a sensitiveness is located in the pulvinus - which upon irritation induces a depression of the whole bipinnate - leaf, a similar property exists in the pulvini at the base of the - leaflets which fold upwards. The petiole varies in length, being - usually shorter than the lamina, but sometimes much longer. In some - palms it is 15 or 20 ft. long, and is so firm as to be used for poles - or walking-sticks. In general, the petiole is more or less rounded in - its form, the upper surface being flattened or grooved. Sometimes it - is compressed laterally, as in the aspen, and to this peculiarity the - trembling of the leaves of this tree is due. In aquatic plants the - leaf-stalk is sometimes distended with air, as in _Pontederia_ and - _Trapa_, so as to float the leaf. At other times it is _winged_, and - is either leafy, as in the orange (fig. 21, p), lemon and _Dionaea_, - or pitcher-like, as in _Sarracenia_ (fig. 22). In some Australian - acacias, and in some species of _Oxalis_ and _Bupleurum_, the petiole - is flattened in a vertical direction, the vascular bundles separating - immediately after quitting the stem and running nearly parallel from - base to apex. This kind of petiole (fig. 23, p) has been called a - _phyllode_. In these plants the laminae or blades of the leaves are - pinnate or bipinnate, and are produced at the extremities of the - phyllodes in a horizontal direction; but in many instances they are - not developed, and the phyllode serves the purpose of a leaf. These - phyllodes, by their vertical position and their peculiar form, give a - remarkable aspect to vegetation. On the same acacia there occur leaves - with the petiole and lamina perfect; others having the petiole - slightly expanded or winged, and the lamina imperfectly developed; and - others in which there is no lamina, and the petiole becomes large and - broad. Some petioles are long, slender and sensitive to contact, and - function as tendrils by means of which the plant climbs; as in the - nasturtiums (_Tropaeolum_), clematis and others; and in compound - leaves the midrib and some of the leaflets may similarly be - transformed into tendrils, as in the pea and vetch. - - [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Branch and leaves of the Sensitive plant - (_Mimosa pudica_), showing the petiole in its erect state, a, and in - its depressed state, b; also the leaflets closed, c, and the leaflets - expanded, d. Irritability resides in the pulvinus, p.] - - - Leaf base. - - The leaf base is often developed as a _sheath_ (_vagina_), which - embraces the whole or part of the circumference of the stem (fig. 5). - This sheath is comparatively rare in dicotyledons, but is seen in - umbelliferous plants. It is much more common amongst monocotyledons. - In sedges the sheath forms a complete investment of the stem, whilst - in grasses it is split on one side. In the latter plants there is also - a membranous outgrowth, the _ligule_, at right angles to the median - plane of the leaf from the point where the sheath passes into the - lamina, there being no petiole (fig. 5, _l_). - - [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Leaf of Orange (_Citrus Aurantium_), showing - a winged leafy petiole p, which is articulated to the lamina l.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Pitcher (_ascidium_) of a species of - Side-saddle plant (_Sarracenia purpurea_). The pitcher is formed from - the petiole, which is prolonged.] - - In leaves in which no sheath is produced we not infrequently find - small foliar organs, _stipules_, at the base of the petiole (fig. 24, - s). The stipules are generally two in number, and they are important - as supplying characters in certain natural orders. Thus they occur in - the pea and bean family, in rosaceous plants and the family Rubiaceae. - They are not common in dicotyledons with opposite leaves. Plants - having stipules are called _stipulate_; those having none are - _exstipulate_. Stipules may be large or small, entire or divided, - deciduous or persistent. They are not usually of the same form as the - ordinary foliage leaves of the plant, from which they are - distinguished by their lateral position at the base of the petiole. In - the pansy (fig. 24) the true leaves are stalked and crenate, while the - stipules s are large, sessile and pinnatifid. In _Lathyrus Aphaca_ and - some other plants the true pinnate leaves are abortive, the petiole - forms a tendril, and the stipules alone are developed, performing the - office of leaves. When stipulate leaves are opposite to each other, at - the same height on the stem, it occasionally happens that the stipules - on the two sides unite wholly or partially, so as to form an - _interpetiolary_ or _interfoliar_ stipule, as in members of the family - Rubiaceae. In the case of alternate leaves, the stipules at the base - of each leaf are sometimes united to the petiole and to each other, so - as to form an _adnate_, _adherent_ or _petiolary_ stipule, as in the - rose, or an _axillary_ stipule, as in _Houttuynia cordata_. In other - instances the stipules unite together on the side of the stem opposite - the leaf forming an _ocrea_, as in the dock family (fig. 25). - - [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Leaf of an Acacia (_Acacia heterophylla_), - showing a flattened leaf-like petiole p, called a phyllode, with - straight venation, and a bipinnate lamina.] - - In the development of the leaf the stipules frequently play a most - important part. They begin to be formed after the origin of the - leaves, but grow much more rapidly than the leaves, and in this way - they arch over the young leaves and form protective chambers wherein - the parts of the leaf may develop. In the figs, magnolia and pondweeds - they are very large and completely envelop the young leaf-bud. The - stipules are sometimes so minute as to be scarcely distinguishable - without the aid of a lens, and so fugacious as to be visible only in - the very young state of the leaf. They may assume a hard and spiny - character, as in _Robinia Pseudacacia_ (fig. 19), or may be cirrose, - as in _Smilax_, where each stipule is represented by a tendril. At the - base of the leaflets of a compound leaf, small stipules (_stipels_) - are occasionally produced. - - [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Leaf of Pansy. s, Stipules.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Leaf of Polygonum, with part of stem. o, - Ocrea.] - - - Modifications. - - Variations in the structure and forms of leaves and leafstalks are - produced by the increased development of cellular tissue, by the - abortion or degeneration of parts, by the multiplication or repetition - of parts and by adhesion. When cellular tissue is developed to a great - extent, leaves become succulent and occasionally assume a crisp or - curled appearance. Such changes take place naturally, but they are - often increased by the art of the gardener, and the object of many - horticultural operations is to increase the bulk and succulence of - leaves. It is in this way that cabbages and savoys are rendered more - delicate and nutritious. By a deficiency in development of parenchyma - and an increase in the mechanical tissue, leaves are liable to become - hardened and spinescent. The leaves of barberry and of some species of - _Astragalus_, and the stipules of the false acacia (_Robinia_) are - spiny. To the same cause is due the spiny margin of the holly-leaf. - When two lobes at the base of a leaf are prolonged beyond the stem and - unite (fig. 26), the leaf is _perfoliate_, the stem appearing to pass - through it, as in _Bupleurum perfoliatum_ and _Chlora perfoliata_; - when two leaves unite by their bases they become _connate_ (fig. 27), - as in _Lonicera Caprifolium_; and when leaves adhere to the stem, - forming a sort of winged or leafy appendage, they are _decurrent_, as - in thistles. The formation of peltate leaves has been traced to the - union of the lobes of a cleft leaf. In the leaf of the _Victoria - regia_ the transformation may be traced during germination. The first - leaves produced by the young plant are linear, the second are - sagittate and hastate, the third are rounded-cordate and the next are - orbicular. The cleft indicating the union of the lobes remains in the - large leaves. The parts of the leaf are frequently transformed into - _tendrils_, with the view of enabling the plants to twine round others - for support. In Leguminous plants (the pea tribe) the pinnae are - frequently modified to form tendrils, as in _Lathyrus Aphaca_, in - which the stipules perform the function of true leaves. In - _Flagellaria indica_, _Gloriosa superba_ and others, the midrib of the - leaf ends in a tendril. In _Smilax_ there are two stipulary tendrils. - - [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Perfoliate leaf of a species of Hare's-ear - (_Bupleurum rotundifolium_). The two lobes at the base of the leaf are - united, so that the stalk appears to come through the leaf.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Connate leaves of a species of Honeysuckle - (_Lonicera Caprifolium_). Two leaves are united by their bases.] - - The vascular bundles and cellular tissue are sometimes developed in - such a way as to form a circle, with a hollow in the centre, and thus - give rise to what are called _fistular_ or hollow leaves, as in the - onion, and to _ascidia_ or _pitchers_. Pitchers are formed either by - petioles or by laminae, and they are composed of one or more leaves. - In _Sarracenia_ (fig. 22) and _Heliamphora_ the pitcher is composed of - the petiole of the leaf. In the pitcher plant, _Nepenthes_, the - pitcher is a modification of the lamina, the petiole often plays the - part of a tendril, while the leaf base is flat and leaf-like (fig. - 28). - - [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Pitcher of a species of pitcher-plant - (_Nepenthes distillatoria_).] - - In _Utricularia_ bladder-like sacs are formed by a modification of - leaflets on the submerged leaves. - - In some cases the leaves are reduced to mere _scales_--_cataphyllary_ - leaves; they are produced abundantly upon underground shoots. In - parasites (_Lathraea_, _Orobanche_) and in plants growing on decaying - vegetable matter (_saprophytes_), in which no chlorophyll is formed, - these scales are the only leaves produced. In _Pinus_ the only leaves - produced on the main stem and the lateral shoots are scales, the - acicular leaves of the tree growing from axillary shoots. In _Cycas_ - whorls of scales alternate with large pinnate leaves. In many plants, - as already noticed, phyllodia or stipules perform the function of - leaves. The production of leaf-buds from leaves sometimes occurs as - in _Bryophyllum_, and many plants of the order Gesneraceae. The leaf - of Venus's fly-trap (_Dionaea muscipula_) when cut off and placed in - damp moss, with a pan of water underneath and a bell-glass for a - cover, has produced buds from which young plants were obtained. Some - species of saxifrage and of ferns also produce buds on their leaves - and fronds. In _Nymphaea micrantha_ buds appear at the upper part of - the petiole. - - - Phyllotaxis. - -Leaves occupy various positions on the stem and branches, and have -received different names according to their situation. Thus leaves -arising from the crown of the root, as in the primrose, are called -_radical_; those on the stem are _cauline_; on flower-stalks, _floral_ -leaves (see FLOWER). The first leaves developed are known as seed leaves -or _cotyledons_. The arrangement of the leaves on the axis and its -appendages is called _phyllotaxis_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--A stem with opposite leaves. The pairs are -placed at right angles alternately, or in what is called a decussate -manner. In the lowest pair one leaf is in front and the other at the -back; in the second pair the leaves are placed laterally, and so on.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--A stem with alternate leaves, arranged in a -pentastichous or quincuncial manner. The sixth leaf is directly above -the first, and commences the second cycle. The fraction of the -circumference of the stem expressing the divergence of the leaves is -two-fifths.] - - In their arrangement leaves follow a definite order. The points on the - stem at which leaves appear are called nodes; the part of the stem - between the nodes is the _internode_. When two leaves are produced at - the same node, one on each side of the stem or axis, and at the same - level, they are _opposite_ (fig. 29); when more than two are produced - they are _verticillate_, and the circle of leaves is then called a - _verticil_ or _whorl_. When leaves are opposite, each successive pair - may be placed at right angles to the pair immediately preceding. They - are then said to _decussate_, following thus a law of alternation - (fig. 29). The same occurs in the verticillate arrangement, the leaves - of each whorl rarely being _superposed_ on those of the whorl next it, - but usually alternating so that each leaf in a whorl occupies the - space between two leaves of the whorl next to it. There are - considerable irregularities, however, in this respect, and the number - of leaves in different whorls is not always uniform, as may be seen in - _Lysimachia vulgaris_. When a single leaf is produced at a node, and - the nodes are separated so that each leaf is placed at a different - height on the stem, the leaves are _alternate_ (fig. 30). A plane - passing through the point of insertion of the leaf in the node, - dividing the leaf into similar halves, is the median plane of the - leaf; and when the leaves are arranged alternately on an axis so that - their median planes coincide they form a straight row or - _orthostichy_. On every axis there are usually two or more - orthostichies. In fig. 31, leaf 1 arises from a node n; leaf 2 is - separated from it by an internode m, and is placed to the right or - left; while leaf 3 is situated directly above leaf 1. In this case, - then, there are two orthostichies, and the arrangement is said to be - _distichous_. When the fourth leaf is directly above the first, the - arrangement is _tristichous_. The same arrangement continues - throughout the branch, so that in the latter case the 7th leaf is - above the 4th, the 10th above the 7th; also the 5th above the 2nd, the - 6th above the 3rd and so on. The size of the angle between the median - planes of two consecutive leaves in an alternate arrangement is their - _divergence_; and it is expressed in fractions of the circumference of - the axis which is supposed to be a circle. In a regularly-formed - straight branch covered with leaves, if a thread is passed from one to - the other, turning always in the same direction, a spiral is - described, and a certain number of leaves and of complete turns occur - before reaching the leaf directly above that from which the - enumeration commenced. If this arrangement is expressed by a fraction, - the numerator of which indicates the number of turns, and the - denominator the number of internodes in the spiral cycle, the fraction - will be found to represent the angle of divergence of the consecutive - leaves on the axis. Thus, in fig. 32, a, b, the cycle consists of five - leaves, the 6th leaf being placed vertically over the 1st, the 7th - over the 2nd and so on; while the number of turns between the 1st and - 6th leaf is two; hence this arrangement is indicated by the fraction - 2/5. In other words, the distance or divergence between the first and - second leaf, expressed in parts of a circle, is 2/5 of a circle or 360 - deg. X 2/5 = 144 deg. In fig. 31, a, b, the spiral is 1/2, i.e. one - turn and two leaves; the third leaf being placed vertically over the - first, and the divergence between the first and second leaf being - one-half the circumference of a circle, 360 deg. X 1/2 = 180 deg. - Again, in a tristichous arrangement the number is 1/3, or one turn and - three leaves, the angular divergence being 120 deg. - - [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Portion of a branch of a Lime tree, with four - leaves arranged in a distichous manner, or in two rows. a, The branch - with the leaves numbered in their order, n being the node and m the - internode; b is a magnified representation of the branch, showing the - points of insertion of the leaves and their spiral arrangement, which - is expressed by the fraction 1/2, or one turn of the spiral for two - internodes.] - - By this means we have a convenient mode of expressing on paper the - exact position of the leaves upon an axis. And in many cases such a - mode of expression is of excellent service in enabling us readily to - understand the relations of the leaves. The divergences may also be - represented diagrammatically on a horizontal projection of the - vertical axis, as in fig. 33. Here the outermost circle represents a - section of that portion of the axis bearing the lowest leaf, the - innermost represents the highest. The broad dark lines represent the - leaves, and they are numbered according to their age and position. It - will be seen at once that the leaves are arranged in orthostichies - marked I.-V., and that these divide the circumference into five equal - portions. But the divergence between leaf 1 and leaf 2 is equal to - (2/5)ths of the circumference, and the same is the case between 2 and - 3, 3 and 4, &c. The divergence, then, is 2/5, and from this we learn - that, starting from any leaf on the axis, we must pass twice round the - stem in a spiral through five leaves before reaching one directly over - that with which we started. The line which, winding round an axis - either to the right or to the left, passes through the points of - insertion of all the leaves on the axis is termed the _genetic_ or - _generating spiral_; and that margin of each leaf which is towards the - direction from which the spiral proceeds is the _kathodic_ side, the - other margin facing the point whither the spiral passes being the - _anodic_ side. - - [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Part of a branch of a Cherry with six leaves, - the sixth being placed vertically over the first, after two turns of - the spiral. This is expressed by two-fifths. a, The branch, with the - leaves numbered in order; b, a magnified representation of the - branch, showing the points of insertion of the leaves and their spiral - arrangement.] - - In cases where the internodes are very short and the leaves are - closely applied to each other, as in the house-leek, it is difficult - to trace the _generating spiral_. Thus, in fig. 34 there are thirteen - leaves which are numbered in their order, and five turns of the spiral - marked by circles in the centre (5/13 indicating the arrangement); but - this could not be detected at once. So also in fir cones (fig. 35), - which are composed of scales or modified leaves, the generating spiral - cannot be determined easily. But in such cases a series of _secondary - spirals_ or _parastichies_ are seen running parallel with each other - both right and left, which to a certain extent conceal the genetic - spiral. - - The spiral is not always constant throughout the whole length of an - axis. The angle of divergence may alter either abruptly or gradually, - and the phyllotaxis thus becomes very complicated. This change may be - brought about by arrest of development, by increased development of - parts or by a torsion of the axis. The former are exemplified in many - Crassulaceae and aloes. The latter is seen well in the screw-pine - (_Pandanus_). In the bud of the screw-pine the leaves are arranged in - three orthostichies with the phyllotaxis 1/3, but by torsion the - developed leaves become arranged in three strong spiral rows running - round the stem. These causes of change in phyllotaxis are also well - exemplified in the alteration of an opposite or verticillate - arrangement to an alternate, and vice versa; thus the effect of - interruption of growth, in causing alternate leaves to become opposite - and verticillate, can be distinctly shown in _Rhododendron ponticum_. - The primitive or generating spiral may pass either from right to left - or from left to right. It sometimes follows a different direction in - the branches from that pursued in the stem. When it follows the same - course in the stem and branches, they are _homodromous_; when the - direction differs, they are _heterodromous_. In different species of - the same genus the phyllotaxis frequently varies. - - [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Diagram of a phyllotaxis represented by the - fraction 2/5.] - - All modifications of leaves follow the same laws of arrangement as - true leaves--a fact which is of importance in a morphological point of - view. In dicotyledonous plants the first leaves produced (the - cotyledons) are opposite. This arrangement often continues during the - life of the plant, but at other times it changes, passing into - distichous and spiral forms. Some tribes of plants are distinguished - by their opposite or verticillate, others by their alternate, leaves. - Labiate plants have decussate leaves, while Boraginaceae have - alternate leaves, and Tiliaceae usually have distichous leaves; - Rubiaceae have opposite leaves. Such arrangements as 2/5, 3/8, 5/13 - and 8/21 are common in Dicotyledons. The first of these, called a - _quincunx_, is met with in the apple, pear and cherry (fig. 32); the - second, in the bay, holly, _Plantago media_; the third, in the cones - of _Picea alba_ (fig. 35); and the fourth in those of the silver fir. - In monocotyledonous plants there is only one seed-leaf or cotyledon, - and hence the arrangement is at first alternate; and it generally - continues so more or less, rarely being verticillate. Such - arrangements as 1/2, 1/3 and 2/3 are common in Monocotyledons, as in - grasses, sedges and lilies. It has been found in general that, while - the number 5 occurs in the phyllotaxis of Dicotyledons, 3 is common in - that of Monocotyledons. - - [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Cycle of thirteen leaves placed closely - together so as to form a rosette, as in _Sempervivum_. A is the very - short axis to which the leaves are attached. The leaves are numbered - in their order, from below upwards. The circles in the centre indicate - the five turns of the spiral, and show the insertion of each of the - leaves. The divergence is expressed by the fraction (5/13)ths._] - - [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Cone of _Picea alba_ with the scales or - modified leaves numbered in the order of their arrangement on the axis - of the cone. The lines indicate a rectilinear series of scales and two - lateral secondary spirals, one turning from left to right, the other - from right to left.] - - In the axil of previously formed leaves leaf-buds arise. These - leaf-buds contain the rudiments of a shoot, and consist of leaves - covering a growing point. The buds of trees of temperate climates, - which lie dormant during the winter, are protected by scale leaves. - These scales or protective appendages of the bud consist either of the - altered laminae or of the enlarged petiolary sheath, or of stipules, - as in the fig and magnolia, or of one or two of these parts combined. - These are often of a coarse nature, serving a temporary purpose, and - then falling off when the leaf is expanded. They are frequently - covered with a resinous matter, as in balsam-poplar and - horse-chestnut, or by a thick downy covering as in the willow. In - plants of warm climates the buds have often no protective appendages, - and are then said to be _naked_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Circinate vernation. - - FIG. 37.--Transverse section of a conduplicate leaf. - - FIG. 38.--Transverse section of a plicate or plaited leaf. - - FIG. 39.--Transverse section of a convolute leaf. - - FIG. 40.--Transverse section of an involute leaf. - - FIG. 41.--Transverse section of a revolute leaf.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Transverse section of a bud, in which the - leaves are arranged in an accumbent manner. - - FIG. 43.--Transverse section of a bud, in which the leaves are - arranged in an equitant manner. - - FIG. 44.--Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves folded in - an obvolute manner. Each is conduplicate, and one embraces the edge - of the other. - - FIG. 45.--Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves arranged - in a supervolute manner.] - - The arrangement of the leaves in the bud is termed _vernation_ or - _prefoliation_. In considering vernation we must take into account - both the manner in which each individual leaf is folded and also the - arrangement of the leaves in relation to each other. These vary in - different plants, but in each species they follow a regular law. The - leaves in the bud are either placed simply in apposition, as in the - mistletoe, or they are folded or rolled up longitudinally or - laterally, giving rise to different kinds of vernation, as delineated - in figs. 36 to 45, where the folded or curved lines represent the - leaves, the thickened part being the midrib. The leaf taken - individually is either folded longitudinally from apex to base, as in - the tulip-tree, and called _reclinate_ or _replicate_; or rolled up in - a circular manner from apex to base, as in ferns (fig. 36), and called - _circinate_; or folded laterally, _conduplicate_ (fig. 37), as in oak; - or it has several folds like a fan, _plicate_ or _plaited_ (fig. 38), - as in vine and sycamore, and in leaves with radiating vernation, where - the ribs mark the foldings; or it is rolled upon itself, _convolute_ - (fig. 39), as in banana and apricot; or its edges are rolled inwards, - _involute_ (fig. 40), as in violet; or outwards, _revolute_ (fig. 41), - as in rosemary. The different divisions of a cut leaf may be folded or - rolled up separately, as in ferns, while the entire leaf may have - either the same or a different kind of vernation. The leaves have a - definite relation to each other in the bud, being either opposite, - alternate or verticillate; and thus different kinds of vernation are - produced. Sometimes they are nearly in a circle at the same level, - remaining flat or only slightly convex externally, and placed so as to - touch each other by their edges, thus giving rise to _valvate_ - vernation. At other times they are at different levels, and are - applied over each other, so as to be _imbricated_, as in lilac, and in - the outer scales of sycamore; and occasionally the margin of one leaf - overlaps that of another, while it in its turn is overlapped by a - third, so as to be _twisted_, _spiral_ or _contortive_. When leaves - are applied to each other face to face, without being folded or rolled - together, they are _appressed_. When the leaves are more completely - folded they either touch at their extremities and are _accumbent_ or - _opposite_ (fig. 42), or are folded inwards by their margin and become - _induplicate_; or a conduplicate leaf covers another similarly folded, - which in turn covers a third, and thus the vernation is _equitant_ - (fig. 43), as in privet; or conduplicate leaves are placed so that the - half of the one covers the half of another, and thus they become - _half-equitant_ or _obvolute_ (fig. 44), as in sage. When in the case - of convolute leaves one leaf is rolled up within the other, it is - _supervolute_ (fig. 45). The scales of a bud sometimes exhibit one - kind of vernation and the leaves another. The same modes of - arrangement occur in the flower-buds. - - Leaves, after performing their functions for a certain time, wither - and die. In doing so they frequently change colour, and hence arise - the beautiful and varied tints of the autumnal foliage. This change - of colour is chiefly occasioned by the diminished circulation in the - leaves, and the higher degree of oxidation to which their chlorophyll - has been submitted. - - Leaves which are articulated with the stem, as in the walnut and - horse-chestnut, fall and leave a scar, while those which are - continuous with it remain attached for some time after they have lost - their vitality. Most of the trees of Great Britain have deciduous - leaves, their duration not extending over more than a few months, - while in trees of warm climates the leaves often remain for two or - more years. In tropical countries, however, many trees lose their - leaves in the dry season. The period of defoliation varies in - different countries according to the nature of their climate. Trees - which are called evergreen, as pines and evergreen-oak, are always - deprived of a certain number of leaves at intervals, sufficient being - left, however, to preserve their green appearance. The cause of the - fall of the leaf in cold climates seems to be deficiency of light and - heat in winter, which causes a cessation in the functions of the cells - of the leaf. The fall is directly caused by the formation of a layer - of tissue across the base of the leaf-stalk; the cells of this layer - separate from one another and the leaf remains attached only by the - fibres of the veins until it becomes finally detached by the wind or - frost. Before its fall the leaf has become dry owing to loss of water - and the removal of the protoplasm and food substances to the stem for - use next season; the red and yellow colouring matters are products of - decomposition of the chlorophyll. Inorganic and other waste matters - are stored in the leaf-tissue and thus got rid of by the plant. The - leaf scar is protected by a corky change (suberization) in the walls - of the exposed cells. (A. B. R.) - - - - -LEAF-INSECT, the name given to orthopterous insects of the family -Phasmidae, referred to the single genus _Phyllium_ and characterized by -the presence of lateral laminae upon the legs and abdomen, which, in -association with an abundance of green colouring-matter, impart a broad -and leaf-like appearance to the whole insect. In the female this -deceptive resemblance is enhanced by the large size and foliaceous form -of the front wings which, when at rest edge to edge on the abdomen, -forcibly suggest in their neuration the midrib and costae of an ordinary -leaf. In this sex the posterior wings are reduced and functionless so -far as flight is concerned; in the male they are ample, membranous and -functional, while the anterior wings are small and not leaf-like. The -freshly hatched young are reddish in colour; but turn green after -feeding for a short time upon leaves. Before death a specimen has been -observed to pass through the various hues of a decaying leaf, and the -spectrum of the green colouring matter does not differ from that of the -chlorophyll of living leaves. Since leaf-insects are purely vegetable -feeders and not predaceous like mantids, it is probable that their -resemblance to leaves is solely for purposes of concealment from -enemies. Their egg capsules are similarly protected by their likeness to -various seeds. Leaf-insects range from India to the Seychelles on the -one side, and to the Fiji Islands on the other. (R. I. P.) - - - - -LEAGUE. 1. (Through Fr. _ligue_, Ital. _liga_, from Lat. _ligare_, to -bind), an agreement entered into by two or more parties for mutual -protection or joint attack, or for the furtherance of some common -object, also the body thus joined or "leagued" together. The name has -been given to numerous confederations, such as the Achaean League -(q.v.), the confederation of the ancient cities of Achaia, and -especially to the various holy leagues (_ligues saintes_), of which the -better known are those formed by Pope Julius II. against Venice in 1508, -often known as the League of Cambrai, and against France in 1511. "The -League," in French history, is that of the Catholics headed by the -Guises to preserve the Catholic religion against the Huguenots and -prevent the accession of Henry of Navarre to the throne (see FRANCE: -_History_). "The Solemn League and Covenant" was the agreement for the -establishment of Presbyterianism in both countries entered into by -England and Scotland in 1643 (see COVENANTERS). Of commercial leagues -the most famous is that of the Hanse towns, known as the Hanseatic -League (q.v.). The word has been adopted by political associations, such -as the Anti-Corn Law League, the Irish Land League, the Primrose League -and the United Irish League, and by numerous social organizations. -"League" has also been applied to a special form of competition in -athletics, especially in Association football. In this system clubs -"league" together in a competition, each playing every other member of -the association twice, and the order of merit is decided by the points -gained during the season, a win counting two and a draw one. - -2. (From the late Lat. _leuga_, or _leuca_, said to be a Gallic word; -the mod. Fr. _lieue_ comes from the O. Fr. _liue_; the Gaelic _leac_, -meaning a flat stone posted as a mark of distance on a road, has been -suggested as the origin), a measure of distance, probably never in -regular use in England, and now only in poetical or rhetorical language. -It was the Celtic as opposed to the Teutonic unit, and was used in -France, Spain, Portugal and Italy. In all the countries it varies with -different localities, and the ancient distance has never been fixed. The -kilometric league of France is fixed at four kilometres. The nautical -league is equal to three nautical miles. - - - - -LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN (1777-1860), British antiquarian and topographer, -was born in London on the 14th of January 1777. After completing his -education at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and spending four -years in the West Indies as lieutenant of marine artillery, he was sent -by the government to Constantinople to instruct the Turks in this branch -of the service. A journey through Asia Minor in 1800 to join the British -fleet at Cyprus inspired him with an interest in antiquarian topography. -In 1801, after travelling across the desert with the Turkish army to -Egypt, he was, on the expulsion of the French, employed in surveying the -valley of the Nile as far as the cataracts; but having sailed with the -ship engaged to convey the Elgin marbles from Athens to England, he lost -all his maps and observations when the vessel foundered off Cerigo. -Shortly after his arrival in England he was sent out to survey the coast -of Albania and the Morea, with the view of assisting the Turks against -attacks of the French from Italy, and of this he took advantage to form -a valuable collection of coins and inscriptions and to explore ancient -sites. In 1807, war having broken out between Turkey and England, he was -made prisoner at Salonica; but, obtaining his release the same year, he -was sent on a diplomatic mission to Ali Pasha of Iannina, whose -confidence he completely won, and with whom he remained for more than a -year as British representative. In 1810 he was granted a yearly sum of -L600 for his services in Turkey. In 1815 he retired from the army, in -which he held the rank of colonel, devoting the remainder of his life to -topographical and antiquarian studies, the results of which were given -to the world in the following volumes: _Topography of Athens_ (1821); -_Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor_ (1824); _Travels in the Morea_ (1830), -and a supplement, _Peloponnesiaca_ (1846); _Travels in Northern Greece_ -(1835); and _Numismata Hellenica_ (1854), followed by a supplement in -1859. A characteristic of the researches of Leake was their -comprehensive minuteness, which was greatly aided by his mastery of -technical details. His _Topography of Athens_, the first attempt at a -scientific treatment of the subject, is still authoritative in regard to -many important points (see ATHENS). He died at Brighton on the 6th of -January 1860. The marbles collected by him in Greece were presented to -the British Museum; his bronzes, vases, gems and coins were purchased by -the university of Cambridge after his death, and are now in the -Fitzwilliam Museum. He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., received the -honorary D.C.L. at Oxford (1816), and was a member of the Berlin Academy -of Sciences and correspondent of the Institute of France. - - See _Memoir_ by J. H. Marsden (1864); the _Architect_ for the 7th of - October 1876; E. Curtius in the _Preussische Jahrbucher_ (Sept., - 1876); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908), p. - 442. - - - - -LEAMINGTON, a municipal borough and health resort of Warwickshire, -England, on the river Leam near its junction with the Avon, 98 m. N.W. -from London, served by the Great Western and London & North Western -railways. Pop. (1901) 26,888. The parliamentary boroughs of Leamington -and Warwick were joined into one constituency in 1885, returning one -member. The centres of the towns are 2 m. apart, Warwick lying to the -west, but they are united by the intermediate parish of New Milverton. -There are three saline springs, and the principal pump-rooms, baths and -pleasant gardens lie on the right bank of the river. The chief public -buildings are the town hall (1884), containing a free library and -school of art; and the Theatre Royal and assembly room. The parish -church of All Saints is modernized, and the other churches are entirely -modern. The S. Warwickshire hospital and Midland Counties Home for -incurables are here. Leamington High School is an important school for -girls. There is a municipal technical school. Industries include iron -foundries and brickworks. The town lies in a well-wooded and picturesque -country, within a few miles of such interesting towns as Warwick, -Kenilworth, Coventry and Stratford-on-Avon. It is a favourite hunting -centre, and, as a health resort, attracts not only visitors but -residents. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen, and 24 -councillors. Area, 2817 acres. - - Leamington was a village of no importance until about 1786, when baths - were first erected, though the springs were noticed by Camden, writing - about 1586. The population in 1811 was only 543, The town was - incorporated in 1875. The name in former use was Leamington Priors, in - distinction from Leamington Hastings, a village on the upper Leam. By - royal licence granted in 1838 it was called Royal Leamington Spa. - - - - -LEANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN (1862- ), French caricaturist and painter, was -born at Champsecret (Orne), and studied painting under Bin and Cabanel. -From 1887 he figured among the exhibitors of the Salon, where he showed -numerous portraits and genre pictures, but his popular fame is due to -his comic drawings and caricatures. The series of the "Gotha des -souverains," published in _Le Rire_, placed him in the front rank of -modern caricaturists. Besides his contributions to _Le Rire_, _Le -Figaro_ and other comic journals, he published a series of albums: -_Nocturnes_, _Le Musee des souverains_, and _Paris et la province_. -Leandre produced admirable work in lithography, and designed many -memorable posters, such as the "Yvette Guilbert." "Les nouveaux maries," -"Joseph Prudhomme," "Les Lutteurs," and "La Femme au chien." He was -created a knight of the Legion of Honour. - - - - -LEAP-YEAR (more properly known as _bissextile_), the name given to the -year containing 366 days. The astronomers of Julius Caesar, 46 B.C., -settled the solar year at 365 days 6 hours. These hours were set aside -and at the end of four years made a day which was added to the fourth -year. The English name for the bissextile year is an allusion to the -result of the interposition of the extra day; for after the 29th of -February a date "leaps over" the day of the week on which it would fall -in ordinary years. Thus a birthday on the 10th of June, a Monday, will -in the next year, if a leap-year, be on the 10th of June, a Wednesday. -Of the origin of the custom for women to woo, not be wooed, during -leap-year no satisfactory explanation has ever been offered. In 1288 a -law was enacted in Scotland that "it is statut and ordaint that during -the rein of hir maist blissit Megeste, for ilk yeare knowne as lepe -yeare, ilk mayden ladye of bothe highe and lowe estait shall hae liberte -to bespeke ye man she likes, albeit he refuses to taik hir to be his -lawful wyfe, he shall be mulcted in ye sum ane pundis or less, as his -estait may be; except and awis gif he can make it appeare that he is -betrothit ane ither woman he then shall be free." A few years later a -like law was passed in France, and in the 15th century the custom was -legalized in Genoa and Florence. - - - - -LEAR, EDWARD (1812-1888), English artist and humorist, was born in -London on the 12th of May 1812. His earliest drawings were -ornithological. When he was twenty years old he published a brilliantly -coloured selection of the rarer Psittacidae. Its power attracted the -attention of the 13th earl of Derby, who employed Lear to draw his -Knowsley menagerie. He became a permanent favourite with the Stanley -family; and Edward, 15th earl, was the child for whose amusement the -first _Book of Nonsense_ was composed. From birds Lear turned to -landscape, his earlier efforts in which recall the manner of J. D. -Harding; but he quickly acquired a more individual style. About 1837 he -set up a studio at Rome, where he lived for ten years, with summer tours -in Italy and Sicily, and occasional visits to England. During this -period he began to publish his _Illustrated Journals of a Landscape -Painter_: charmingly written reminiscences of wandering, which -ultimately embraced Calabria, the Abruzzi, Albania, Corsica, &c. From -1848-1849 he explored Greece, Constantinople, the Ionian Islands, Lower -Egypt, the wildest recesses of Albania, and the desert of Sinai. He -returned to London, but the climate did not suit him. In 1854-1855 he -wintered on the Nile, and migrated successively to Corfu, Malta and -Rome, finally building himself a villa at San Remo. From Corfu Lear -visited Mount Athos, Syria, Palestine, and Petra; and when over sixty, -by the assistance of Lord Northbrock, then Govenor-General, he saw the -cities and scenery of greatest interest within a large area of India. -From first to last he was, in whatever circumstances of difficulty or -ill-health, an indomitable traveller. Before visiting new lands he -studied their geography and literature, and then went straight for the -mark; and wherever he went he drew most indefatigably and most -accurately. His sketches are not only the basis of more finished works, -but an exhaustive record in themselves. Some defect of technique or -eyesight occasionally left his larger oil painting, though nobly -conceived, crude or deficient in harmony; but his smaller pictures and -more elaborate sketches abound in beauty, delicacy, and truth. Lear -modestly called himself a topographical artist; but he included in the -term the perfect rendering of all characteristic graces of form, colour, -and atmosphere. The last task he set himself was to prepare for popular -circulation a set of some 200 drawings, illustrating from his travels -the scenic touches of Tennyson's poetry; but he did not live to complete -the scheme, dying at San Remo on the 30th of January 1888. Until sobered -by age, his conversation was brimful of humorous fun. The paradoxical -originality and ostentatiously uneducated draughtsmanship of his -numerous nonsense books won him a more universal fame than his serious -work. He had a true artist's sympathy with art under all forms, and -might have become a skilled musician had he not been a painter. -Swainson, the naturalist, praised young Lear's great red and yellow -macaw as "equalling any figure ever painted by Audubon in grace of -design, perspective, and anatomical accuracy." Murchison, examining his -sketches, complimented them as rigorously embodying geological truth. -Tennyson's lines "To E.L. on his Travels in Greece," mark the poet's -genuine admiration of a cognate spirit in classical art. Ruskin placed -the _Book of Nonsense_ first in the list of a hundred delectable volumes -of contemporary literature, a judgment endorsed by English-speaking -children all over the world. - - See _Letters of Edward Lear to Chichester Fortescue, Lord Carlingford, - and Frances, Countess Waldegrave_ (1907), edited by Lady Strachey, - with an introduction by Henry Strachey. (F. L.*) - - - - -LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. _laxare_, to loosen), a -certain form of tenure, or the contract embodying it, of land, houses, -&c.; see LANDLORD AND TENANT. - - - - -LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. -_Leder_, Dutch _leer_ or _leder_, Swed. _lader_, and in such Celtic -forms as Welsh _llader_), an imputrescible substance prepared from the -hides or skins of living creatures, both cold and warm blooded, by -chemical and mechanical treatment. Skins in the raw and natural moist -state are readily putrescible, and are easily disintegrated by bacterial -or chemical action, and if dried in this condition become harsh, horny -and intractable. The art of the leather manufacturer is principally -directed to overcoming the tendency to putrefaction, securing suppleness -in the material, rendering it impervious to and unalterable by water, -and increasing the strength of the skin and its power to resist wear and -tear. - -Leather is made by three processes or with three classes of substances. -Thus we have (1) tanned leather, in which the hides and skins are -combined with tannin or tannic acid; (2) tawed leather, in which the -skins are prepared with mineral salts; (3) chamoised (shamoyed) leather, -in which the skins are rendered imputrescible by treatment with oils and -fats, the decomposition products of which are the actual tanning agents. - - - Heavy leathers. - -_Sources and Qualities of Hides and Skins._--The hides used in heavy -leather manufacture may be divided into three classes: (1) ox and -heifer, (2) cow, (3) bull. Oxen and heifer hides produce the best -results, forming a tough, tight, solid leather. Cow hides are thin, the -hide itself being fibrous, but still compact, and by reason of its -spread or area is used chiefly for dressing purposes in the bag and -portmanteau manufacture and work of a similar description. Bull hides -are fibrous; they are largely used for heel lifts, and for cheap -belting, the thicker hides being used in the iron and steel industry. - -A second classification now presents itself, viz. the British home -supply, continental (Europe), British colonial, South American, East -Indian, Chinese, &c. - -In the British home supply there are three chief breeds: (1) Shorthorns -(Scotch breed), (2) Herefords (Midland breed), (3) Lowland, or Dutch -class. From a tanner's standpoint, the shorthorns are the best hides -procurable. The cattle are exposed to a variable climate in the -mountainous districts of Scotland, and nature, adapting herself to -circumstances, provides them with a thicker and more compact hide; they -are well grown, have short necks and small heads. The Hereford class are -probably the best English hide; they likewise have small heads and -horns, and produce good solid sole leather. The Lowland hides come -chiefly from Suffolk, Kent and Surrey; the animals have long legs, long -necks and big heads. The hides are usually thin and spready. The hides -of the animals killed for the Christmas season are poor. The animals -being stall-fed for the beef, the hides become distended, thin and -surcharged with fat, which renders them unsuitable for first-class work. - -The continental supply may be divided into two classes: (1) Hides from -hilly regions, (2) hides from lowlands. All animals subject to strong -winds and a wide range of temperatures have a very strong hide, and for -this reason those bred in hilly and mountainous districts are best. The -hides coming under heading No. 1 are of this class, and include those -from the Swiss and Italian Alps, Bavarian Highlands and Pyrenees, also -Florence, Oporto and Lisbon hides. They are magnificent hides, thick, -tightly-built, and of smooth grain. The butt is long and the legs short. -A serious defect in some of these hides is a thick place on the neck -caused by the yoke; this part of the hide is absolute waste. Another -defect, specially noticeable in Lisbon and Oporto hides, is goad marks -on the rump, barbed wire scratches and warbles, caused by the gadfly. -Those hides coming under heading No. 2 are Dutch, Rhine valley, Danish, -Swedish, Norwegian, Hungarian, &c. The first three hides are very -similar; they are spready, poorly grown, and are best used for bag and -portmanteau work. Hungarian oxen are immense animals, and supply a very -heavy bend. Swedish and Norwegian hides are evenly grown and of good -texture; they are well flayed, and used a great deal for manufacturing -picker bands, which require an even leather. - -New Zealand, Australian and Queensland hides resemble good English. A -small quantity of Canadian steers are imported; these are generally -branded. - -Chinese hides are exported dry, and they have generally suffered more or -less from peptonization in the storing and drying; this cannot be -detected until they are in the pits, when they fall to pieces. - -Anglos are imported as live-stock, and are killed within forty-eight -hours. They come to Hull, Birkenhead, Avonmouth and Deptford from -various American ports, and usually give a flatter result than English, -the general quality depending largely on whether the ship has had a good -voyage or not. - -Among South American hides, Liebig's slaughter supply the best; they are -thoroughly clean and carefully trimmed and flayed. They come to London, -Antwerp and Havre, and except for being branded are of first-class -quality. Second to the Liebig slaughter come the Uruguay hides. - -East Indian hides are known as kips, and are supposed to be, and should -be, the hides of yearling cattle. They are now dressed to a large extent -in imitation of box calf, being much cheaper. They come from a small -breed of ox, and have an extremely tight grain; the leather is not so -soft as calf. - -Calf-skins are largely supplied by the continent. They are soft and -pliant, and have a characteristically fine grain, are tight in texture -and quite apart from any other kind of skin. - - - Light leathers. - -The most valuable part of a sheepskin is the wool, and the value of the -pelt is inversely as the value of the wool. Pure Leicester and Norfolk -wools are very valuable, and next is the North and South Downs, but the -skins, i.e. the pelts, of these animals are extremely poor. Devon and -Cheviot cross-bred sheep supply a fair pelt, and sometimes these sheep -are so many times crossed that it is quite impossible to tell what the -skin is. Welsh skins also supply a good tough pelt, though small. Indian -and Persian sheepskins are very goaty, the herds being allowed to roam -about together so much. The sheepskin is the most porous and -open-textured skin in existence, as also the most greasy one; it is -flabby and soft, with a tight, compact grain, but an extremely loose -flesh. Stillborn lambs and lambs not over a month old are worth much -more than when they have lived for three months; they are used for the -manufacture of best kid gloves, and must be milk skins. Once the lambs -have taken to grass the skins supply a harsher leather. - -The best goat-skins come from the Saxon and Bavarian Highlands, Swiss -Alps, Pyrenees, Turkey, Bosnia, Southern Hungary and the Urals. The -goats being exposed to all winds yield fine skins. A good number come -from Argentina and from Abyssinia, the Cape and other parts of Africa. -Of all light leathers the goat has the toughest and tightest grain; it -is, therefore, especially liked for fancy work. The grain is rather too -bold for glace work, for which the sheep is largely used. - -The seal-skin, used largely for levant work, is the skin of the -yellow-hair seal, found in the Northern seas, the Baltic, Norway and -Sweden, &c. The skin has a large, bold, brilliant grain, and being a -large skin is much used for upholstery and coach work, like the Cape -goat. It is quite distinct from the fur seal. - -Porpoise hide is really the hide of the white whale; it is dressed for -shooting, fishing and hunting boots. Horse hide is dressed for light -split and upper work; being so much stall-fed it supplies only a thin, -spready leather. The skins of other Equidae, such as the ass, zebra, -quagga, &c. are also dressed to some small extent, but are not important -sources. - - _Structure of Skin._--Upon superficial inspection, the hides and skins - of all mammalia appear to be unlike each other in general structure, - yet, upon closer examination, it is found that the anatomical - structure of most skins is so similar that for all practical purposes - we may assume that there is no distinction (see SKIN AND - EXO-SKELETON). But from the practical point of view, as opposed to the - anatomical, there are great and very important differences, such as - those of texture, thickness, area, &c.; and these differences cause a - great divergence in the methods of tanning used, almost necessitating - a distinct tannage for nearly every class of hide or skin. - - The skins of the lower animals, such as alligators, lizards, fish and - snakes, differ to a large extent from those of the mammalia, chiefly - in the epidermis, which is much more horny in structure and forms - scales. - - The skin is divided into two distinct layers: (1) the epidermis or - epithelium, i.e. the cuticle, (2) the corium derma, or cutis, i.e. the - true skin. These two layers are not only different in structure, but - are also of entirely distinct origin. The epidermis again divides - itself into two parts, viz. the "horny layer" or surface skin, and the - _rete Malpighi_, named after the Italian anatomist who first drew - attention to its existence. The _rete Malpighi_ is composed of living, - soft, nucleated cells, which multiply by division, and, as they - increase, are gradually pushed to the surface of the skin, becoming - flatter and drier as they near it, until they reach the surface as - dried scales. The epidermis is thus of cellular structure, and more or - less horny or waterproof. It must consequently be removed together - with the hair, wool or bristles before tannage begins, but as it is - very thin compared with the corium, this matters little. - - The hair itself does not enter the corium, but is embedded in a sheath - of epidermic structure, which is part of and continuous with the - epidermis. It is of cellular structure, and the fibrous part is - composed of long needle-shaped cells which contain the pigment with - which the hair is coloured. Upon removal of the hair some of these - cells remain behind and colour the skin, and this colour does not - disappear until these cells are removed by scudding. Each hair is - supplied with at least two fat or sebaceous glands, which discharge - into the orifice of the hair sheath; these glands impart to the hair - that natural glossy appearance which is characteristic of good health. - The hair bulb (b, fig. 1) consists of living nucleated cells, which - multiply rapidly, and, like the _rete Malpighi_, cause an upward - pressure, getting harder at the same time, thereby lengthening the - hair. - - The hair papilla (a, fig. 1) consists of a globule of the corium or - true skin embedded in the hair bulb, which by means of blood-vessels - feeds and nourishes the hair. Connected with the lower part of each - hair is an oblique muscle known as the arrector or erector pili, seen - at k, fig. 1; this is an involuntary muscle, and is contracted by - sudden cold, heat or shock, with an accompanying tightening of the - skin, producing the phenomenon commonly known as "goose flesh." This - is the outcome of the contracted muscle pulling on the base of the - hair, thereby giving it a tendency to approach the vertical, and - producing the simultaneous effect of making the "hair stand on end." - - The sudoriferous or sweat glands (R, fig. 1) consist of long - spiral-like capillaries, formed from the fibres of the connective - tissue of the corium. These glands discharge sometimes directly - through the epidermis, but more often into the orifice of the - hair-sheath. - - The epidermis is separated from the corium by a very important and - very fine membrane, termed the "hyaline" or "glassy layer," which - constitutes the actual grain surface of a hide or skin. This layer is - chemically different from the corium, as if it is torn or scratched - during the process of tanning the colour of the underlying parts is - much lighter than that of the grain surface. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1. - - a, Hair papilla. - b, Hair bulb. - c, Hair sheath showing epidermic structure. - d, Dermic coat of hair sheath. - e, Outer root sheath. - f, Inner root sheath. - g, Hair cuticle. - h, Hair. - J, Sebaceous glands. - k, Erector pili. - m, Sweat ducts. - n and _p_, Epidermis. - n, Rete Malpighi. - p, Horny layer. - R, Sweat or sudoriferous gland. - S, Opening at sweat duct.] - - The corium, unlike the epidermis, is of fibrous, not cellular - structure; moreover, the fibres do not multiply among themselves, but - are gradually developed as needed from the interfibrillar substance, a - semi-soluble gelatinous modification of the true fibre. This - interfibrillar substance consequently has no structure, and is - prepared at any time on coming into contact with tannin to form - amorphous leather, which fills what would in the absence of this - substance be interfibrillar spaces. The more of this matter there is - present the more completely will the spaces be filled, and the more - waterproof will be the leather. An old bull, as is well known, - supplies a very poor, soft and spongy leather, simply because the hide - lacks interfibrillar substance, which has been sapped up by the body. - The fibres are, therefore, separated by interfibrillar spaces, which - on contact with water absorb it with avidity by capillary attraction. - But a heifer hide or young calf supplies the most tight and waterproof - leather known, because the animals are young, and having plenty of - nourishment do not require to draw upon and sap the interfibrillar - substance with which the skin is full to overflowing. - - The corium obtains its food from the body by means of lymph ducts, - with which it is well supplied. It is also provided with nodules of - lymph to nourish the hair, and nodules of grease, which increase in - number as they near the flesh side, until the net skin, _panniculus - adiposus_, or that which separates the corium from meat proper, is - quite full with them. - - The corium is coarse in the centre of the skin where the fibres, which - are of the kind known as white connective tissue, and which exist in - bundles bound together with yellow elastic fibres, are loosely woven, - but towards the flesh side they become more compact, and as the - hyaline layer is neared the bundles of fibres get finer and finer, and - are much more tightly interwoven, until finally, next the grain - itself, the fibres no longer exist in bundles, but as individual - fibrils lying parallel with the grain. This layer is known as the - _pars papillaris_. The bundles of fibre interweave one another in - every conceivable direction. The fibrils are extremely minute, and are - cemented together with a medium rather more soluble than themselves. - - There are only two exceptions to this general structure which need be - taken into account. Sheep-skin is especially loosely woven in the - centre, so much so that any carelessness in the wet work or sweating - process enables one to split the skin in two by tearing. This - loosely-woven part is full of fatty nodules, and the skin is generally - split at this part, the flesh going for chamois leather and the grain - for skivers. The other notable exception is the horse hide, which has - a third skin over the loins just above the kidneys, known as the crup; - it is very greasy and tight in structure, and is used for making a - very waterproof leather for seamen's and fishermen's boots. Pig-skin, - perhaps, is rather peculiar, in the fact that the bristles penetrate - almost right through the skin. - - _Tanning Materials._--Tannin or tannic acid is abundantly formed in a - very large number of plants, and secreted in such diverse organs and - members as the bark, wood, roots, leaves, seed-pods, fruit, &c. The - number of tannins which exists has not been determined, nor has the - constitution of those which do exist been satisfactorily settled. As - used in the tanyard tannin is present both in the free state and - combined with colouring matter and accompanied by decomposition - products, such as gallic acid or phlobaphenes (anhydrides of the - tannins), respectively depending upon the series to which the tannin - belongs. In whatever other points they differ, they all have the - common property of being powerfully astringent, of forming insoluble - compounds with gelatine or gelatinous tissue, of being soluble in - water to a greater or lesser extent, and of forming blacks (greenish - or bluish) with iron. Pyrogallol tannins give a blue-black coloration - or precipitate with ferric salts, and catechol tannins a green-black; - and whereas bromine water gives a precipitate with catechol tannins, - it does not with pyrogallol tannins. There are two distinctive classes - of tannins, viz. catechol and pyrogallol tannins. The materials - belonging to the former series are generally much darker in colour - than those classified with the latter, and moreover they yield reds, - phlobaphenes or tannin anhydrides, which deposit on or in the leather. - Pyrogallol tannins include some of the lightest coloured and best - materials known, and, speaking generally, the leather produced by them - is not so harsh or hard as that produced with catechol tannins. They - decompose, yielding ellagic acid (known technically as "bloom") and - gallic acid; the former has waterproofing qualities, because it fills - the leather, at the same time giving weight. - - It has been stated, and perhaps with some truth, that leather cannot - be successfully made with catechol tannins alone; pyrogallol tannins, - however, yield an excellent leather; but the finest results are - obtained by blending the two. - - The classification of the chief tanning materials is as follows:-- - - _Pyrogallols._ - - Myrobalans (_Terminalia Chebula_). - Chestnut wood (_Castanea vesca_). - Divi-divi (_Caesalpinia Coriaria_). - Algarobilla (_Caesalpinia brevifolia_). - Sumach (_Rhus Coriaria_). - Oakwood (_Quercus family_). - Chestnut oak (_Quercus Prinus_). - Galls (_Quercus Infectoria_). - Willow (_Salix arenaria_). - - _Catechols._ - - Gambier (_Uncaria Gambir_). - Hemlock (_Abies canadensis_). - Quebracho (_Quebracho Colorado_). - Mangrove or Cutch (_Rhizophora Mangle_). - Mimosa or Golden Wattle (_Acacia Pycnantha_). - Larch (_Larix Europaea_). - Canaigre (_Rumer Hymenosepalum_). - Birch (_Betula alba_). - Cutch Catechu (_Acacia Catechu_). - - _Subsidiary._ - - Oakbark (_Quercus Robur_). - Valonia (_Quercus Aegilops_). - - Myrobalans are the fruit of an Indian tree. There are several - different qualities, the order of which is as follows, the best being - placed first: Bhimley, Jubbalpore, Rajpore, Fair Coast Madras and - Vingorlas. They are a very light-coloured material, containing from 27 - % to 38 % of tannin; they deposit much "bloom," ferment fairly - rapidly, supplying acidity, and yield a mellow leather. - - Chestnut comes on the market in the form of crude and decolorized - liquid extracts, containing about 27 % to 31 % of tannin, and yields a - good leather of a light-brown colour. - - Oakwood reaches the market in the same form; it is a very similar - material, but only contains 24 % to 27 % of tannin, and yields a - slightly heavier and darker leather. - - Divi-divi is the dried seed pods of an Indian tree containing 40 % to - 45 % of tannin, and yielding a white leather; it might be valuable but - for the tendency to dangerous fermentation and development of a - dark-red colouring matter. - - Algarobilla consists of the seeds of an Indian tree, containing about - 45 % of tannin, and in general properties is similar to divi-divi, but - does not discolour so much upon fermentation. - - Sumach is perhaps the best and most useful material known. It is the - ground leaves of a Sicilian plant, containing about 28 % of tannin, - and yielding a nearly white and very beautiful leather. It is used - alone for tanning the best moroccos and finer leather, and being so - valuable is much adulterated, the chief adulterant being _Pistacia - lentiscus_ (Stinko or Lentisco), an inferior and light-coloured - catechol tannin. Other but inferior sumachs are also used. There is - Venetian sumach (_Rhus cotinus_) and Spanish sumach (_Colpoon - compressa_); these are used to some extent in the countries bordering - on the Mediterranean. _R. Glabra_ and _R. Copallina_ are also used in - considerable quantities in America, where they are cultivated. - - Galls are abnormal growths found upon oaks, and caused by the gall - wasp laying eggs in the plant. They are best harvested just before the - insect escapes. They contain from 50 % to 60 % of tannin, and are - generally used for the commercial supply of tannic acid, and not for - tanning purposes. - - Gambier, terra japonica or catechu, is the product of a shrub - cultivated in Singapore and the Malay Archipelago. It is made by - boiling the shrub and allowing the extract to solidify. It is a - peculiar material, and may be completely washed out of a leather - tanned with it. It mellows exceedingly, and keeps the leather fibre - open; it may be said that it only goes in the leather to prepare and - make easy the way for other tannins. Block gambier contains from 35 % - to 40 % and cube gambier from 50 % to 65 % of tannin. - - Hemlock generally reaches the market as extract, prepared from the - bark of the American tree. It contains about 22 % of tannin, has a - pine-like odour, but yields a rather dark-coloured red leather. - - Quebracho is imported mainly as solid extract, containing 63 % to 70 % - of tannin; it is a harsh, light-red tannage, but darkens rapidly on - exposure to light. It is used for freshening up very mellow liquors, - but is rather wasteful, as it deposits an enormous amount of its - tannin as phlobaphenes. - - Mangrove or cutch is a solid extract prepared from the mangrove tree - found in the swamps of Borneo and the Straits Settlements; it contains - upwards of 60 % of a red tannin. - - Mimosa is the bark of the Australian golden wattle (_Acacia - pycnantha_), and contains from 36 % to 50 % of tannin. It is a rather - harsh tannage, yielding a flesh-coloured leather, and is useful for - sharpening liquors. This bark is now successfully cultivated in Natal. - The tannin content of this Natal bark is somewhat inferior, but the - colour is superior to the Australian product. - - Larch bark contains 9 % to 10 % of light-coloured tannin, and is used - especially for tanning Scotch basils. - - Canaigre is the air-dried tuberous roots of a Mexican plant, - containing 25 % to 30 % of tannin and about 8 % of starch. It yields - an orange-coloured leather of considerable weight and firmness. Its - cultivation did not pay well enough, so that it is little used. - - Cutch, catechu or "dark catechu," is obtained from the wood of Indian - acacias, and is not to be confounded with mangrove cutch. It contains - 60 % of tanning matter and a large proportion of catechin similar to - that contained in gambier, but much redder. It is used for dyeing - browns and blacks with chrome and iron mordants. - - The willow and the white birch barks contain, respectively, 12 % to 14 - % and 2 % to 5 % of tannin. In combination they are used to produce - the famous Russia leather, whose insect-resisting odour is due to the - birch bark. In America this leather is imitated with the American - black birch bark (_Betula lenta_), and also with the oil obtained from - its dry distillation. - - In the list of materials two have been placed in a subsidiary class - because they are a mixture of catechol and pyrogallol tannin. Oak bark - produces the best leather known, proving that a blend of the two - classes of tannins gives the best results. It is the bark of the - coppice oak, and contains 12 % to 14 % of a reddish-yellow tannage. - Valonia is the acorn cup of the Turkish and Greek oak. The Smyrna or - Turkish valonia is best, and contains 32 % to 36 % of an almost white - tannin. Greek valonia is greyer in colour, and contains 26 % to 30 % - of tannin. It yields a tough, firm leather of great weight, due to the - rapid deposition of a large amount of bloom. - - _Grinding and Leaching[1] Tanning Materials._--At first sight it would - not seem possible that science could direct such a clumsy process as - the grinding of tanning materials, and yet even here, the "scientific - smashing" of tanning materials may mean the difference between profit - and loss to the tanner. In most materials the tannin exists imprisoned - in cells, and is also to some extent free, but with this latter - condition the science of grinding has nothing to do. If tanning - materials are simply broken by a series of clean cuts, only those - cells directly on the surfaces of the cuts will be ready to yield - their tannin; therefore, if materials are ground by cutting, a - proportion of the total tannin is thrown away. Hence it is necessary - to bruise, break and otherwise sever the walls of all the cells - containing the tannin; so that the machine wanted is one which - crushes, twists and cuts the material at the same time, turning it out - of uniform size and with little dust. - - The apparatus in most common use is built on the same principle as the - coffee mill, which consists of a series of segmental cutters; as the - bark works down into the smaller cutters of the mill it is twisted and - cut in every direction. This is a very good form of mill, but it - requires a considerable amount of power and works slowly. The teeth - require constant renewal, and should, therefore, be replaceable in - rows, not, as in some forms, cast on the bell. The disintegrator is - another form of mill, which produces its effect by violent concussion, - obtained by the revolution in opposite directions of from four to six - large metal arms fitted with projecting spikes inside a drum, the - faces of which are also fitted with protruding pieces of metal. The - arms make from 2000 to 4000 revolutions per minute. The chief - objection to this apparatus is that it forms much dust, which is - caught in silken bags fitted to gratings in the drum. The myrobalans - crusher, a very useful machine for such materials as myrobalans and - valonia, consists of a pair of toothed rollers above and a pair of - fluted rollers beneath. The material is dropped upon the toothed - rollers first, where it is broken and crushed; then the crushing is - finished and any sharp corners rounded off in the fluted rollers. - - It must not be thought that now the material is ground it is - necessarily ready for leaching. This may or may not be so, depending - upon whether the tanner is making light or heavy leathers. If light - leathers are being considered, it is ready for immediate leaching, - i.e. to be infused with water in preparation of a liquor. If heavy - leathers are in process of manufacture, he would be a very wasteful - tanner who would extract his material raw. It must be borne in mind - that when an infusion is made with fresh tanning material, the liquor - begins to deposit decomposition products after standing a day or two, - and the object of the heavy-leather tanner is to get this material - deposited in the leather, to fill the pores, produce weight and make a - firm, tough product. With this end in view he dusts his hides with - this fresh material in the layers, i.e. he spreads a layer between - each hide as it is laid down, so that the strong liquors penetrate and - deposit in the hides. When most of this power to deposit has been - usefully utilized in the layers, then the material (which is now, - perhaps, half spent) is leached. The light-leather maker does not want - a hard, firm leather, but a soft and pliable product; hence he leaches - his material fresh, and does not trouble as to whether the tannin - deposits in the pits or not. - - Whether fresh or partially spent material is leached, the process is - carried out in the same way. There are several methods in vogue; the - best method only will be described, viz. the "press leach" system. - - The leaching is carried out in a series of six square pits, each - holding about 3 to 4 tons of material. The method depends upon the - fact that when a weak liquor is forced over a stronger one they do not - mix, by reason of the higher specific gravity of the stronger one; the - weaker liquor, therefore, by its weight forces the stronger liquor - downwards, and as the pit in which it is contained is fitted with a - false bottom and side duct running over into the next pit, the - stronger liquor is forced upwards through this duct on to the next - stronger pit. There the process is repeated, until finally the weak - liquor or water, as the case may be, is run off the last vat as a very - strong infusion. As a concrete example let us take the six pits shown - in the figure. - - +-------+-------+-------+ - | | | | - | 4 | 5 | 6 | - | | | | - +-------+-------+-------+ - | | | | - | 3 | 2 | 1 | - | | | | - +-------+-------+-------+ - - No. 6 is the last vat, and the liquor, which is very strong, is about - to be run off. No. 1 is spent material, over which all six liquors - have passed, the present liquor having been pumped on as fresh water. - The liquor from No. 6 is run off into the pump well, and liquor No. 1 - is pumped over No. 2, thus forcing all liquors one forward and leaving - pit No. 1 empty; this pit is now cast and filled with clean fishings - and perhaps a little new material, clean water is then pumped on No. - 2, which is now the weakest pit, and all liquors are thus forced - forward one pit more, making No. 1 the strongest pit. After infusing - for some time this is run off to the pump well, and the process - repeated. It may be noted that the hotter the water is pumped on the - weakest pit, the better will the material be spent, and the nearer the - water is to boiling-point the better; in fact, a well-managed tanyard - should have the spent tan down to between 1% and 2% of tannin, - although this material is frequently thrown away containing up to 10% - and sometimes even more. There is a great saving of time and labour in - this method, since the liquors are self-adjusting. - - _Testing Tan Liquors._--The methods by which the tanning value of any - substance may be determined are many, but few are at once capable of - simple application and minute accuracy. An old method of ascertaining - the strength of a tan liquor is by means of a hydrometer standardized - against water, and called a barkometer. It consists of a long - graduated stem fixed to a hollow bulb, the opposite end of which is - weighted. It is placed in the liquor, the weighted end sinks to a - certain depth, and the reading is taken on the stem at that point - which touches "water mark." The graduations are such that if the - specific gravity is multiplied by 1000 and then 1000 is subtracted - from the result, the barkometer strength of the liquor is obtained. - Thus 1029 specific gravity equals 29 deg. barkometer. This method - affords no indication of the amount of tannin present, but is useful - to the man who knows his liquors by frequent analysis. - - A factor which governs the quality of the leather quite as much as the - tannin itself is the acidity of the liquors. It is known that gallic - and tannic acids form insoluble calcium salts, and all the other acids - present as acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic, formic, &c., form - comparatively soluble salts, so that an easy method of determining - this important factor is as follows:-- - - Take a quantity, say 100 c.c., of tan liquor, filter till clear - through paper, then pipette 10 c.c. into a small beaker (about 1(1/2) - in. diameter), place it on some printed paper and note how clear the - print appears through the liquor; now gradually add from a burette a - clear solution of saturated lime water until the liquor becomes just - cloudy, that is until it just loses its brilliancy. Now read off the - number of cubic centimetres required in the graduated stem of the - burette, and either read as degrees (counting each c.c. as one - degree), to which practice at once gives a useful signification, or - calculate out in terms of acetic acid per 100 c.c. of liquor, - reckoning saturated lime water as 1/20 normal. - - The methods which deal with the actual testing for tannin itself - depend mostly upon one or other of two processes; either the - precipitation of the tannin by means of gelatin, or its absorption by - means of prepared hide. Sir Humphry Davy was the first to propose a - method for analysing tanning materials, and he precipitated the tannin - by means of gelatin in the presence of alum, then dried and weighed - the precipitate, after washing free from excess of reagents. This - method was improved by Stoddart, but cannot lay claim to much - accuracy. Warington and Muller again modified the method, but their - procedure being tedious and difficult to work could not be regarded as - a great advance. Wagner then proposed precipitation by means of the - alkaloids, with special regard to cinchonine sulphate in the presence - of rosaniline acetate as indicator, but this method also proved - useless. After this many metallic precipitants were tried, used - gravimetrically and volumetrically, but without success. The weighing - of precipitated tannates will never succeed, because the tannins are - such a diverse class of substances that each tannin precipitates - different quantities of the precipitants, and some materials contain - two or three different tannins. Then there are also the difficulties - of incomplete precipitation and the precipitation of colouring matter, - &c. Among this class of methods may be mentioned Garland's, in which - tartar emetic and sal ammoniac were employed. It was improved by - Richards and Palmer. - - Another class of methods depends upon the destruction of the tannin by - some oxidizing agent, and the estimation of the amount required. - Terreil rendered the tannin alkaline, and after agitating it with a - known quantity of air, estimated the volume of oxygen absorbed. The - method was slow and subject to many sources of error. Commaille - oxidized with a known quantity of iodic acid and estimated the excess - of iodate. This process also was troublesome, besides oxidizing the - gallic acid (as do all the oxidation processes), and entailing a - separate estimation of them after the removal of the tannin. Ferdinand - Jean (1877) titrated alkaline tannin solution with standard iodine, - but the mixture was so dark that the end reaction with starch could - not be seen; in addition the gallic acid had again to be estimated. - Monier proposed permanganate as an oxidizing agent, and Lowenthal made - a very valuable improvement by adding indigo solution to the tannin - solution, which controlled the oxidation and acted as indicator. This - method also required double titration because of the gallic acid - present, the tanning matters being removed from solution by means of - gelatin and acidified salt. - - The indirect gravimetric hide-powder method first took form about - 1886. It was published in _Der Gerber_ by Simand and Weiss, other - workers being Eitner and Meerkatz. Hammer, Muntz and Ramspacher did - some earlier work on similar lines, depending upon the specific - gravity of solutions. Professor H. R. Procter perfected this method by - packing a bell, similar in shape to a bottomless bottle of about 2 oz. - (liq.) capacity, with the hide-powder, and siphoning the tan liquor up - through the powder and over into a receiver. This deprives the tan - liquor of tannin, and a portion of this non-tannin solution is - evaporated to dryness and weighed till constant; similarly a portion - of the original solution containing non-tannins and tannins is - evaporated and weighed till constant; then the weight of the - non-tannins subtracted from the weight of the non-tannins and tannins - gives the weight of tannin, which is calculated to percentage on - original solutions. This method was adopted as official by the - International Association of Leather Trades Chemists until September - 1906, when its faults were vividly brought before them by Gordon - Parker of London and Bennett of Leeds, working in collaboration, - although other but not so complete work had been previously done to - the same end. The main faults of the method were that the hide-powder - absorbed non-tannins, and therefore registered them as tannins, and - the hide-powder was partially soluble. This difficulty has now been - overcome to a large extent in the present official method of the - I.A.L.T.C. - - Meanwhile, Parker and Munro Payne proposed a new method of analysis, - the essence of which is as follows:--A definite excess of lime - solution is added to a definite quantity of tannin solution and the - excess of lime estimated; the tan solution is now deprived of tannin - by means of a soluble modification of gelatin, called "collin," and - the process is repeated. Thus we get two sets of figures, viz. total - absorption and acid absorption (i.e. acids other than tan); the latter - subtracted from the former gives tannin absorption, and this is - calculated out in percentage of original liquor. The method failed - theoretically, because a definite molecular weight had to be assumed - for tannins which are all different. There are also several other - objections, but though, like the hide-powder method, it is quite - empirical, it gives exceedingly useful results if the rules for - working are strictly adhered to. - - The present official method of the I.A.L.T.C. is a modification of the - American official method, which is in turn a modification of a method - proposed by W. Eitner, of the Vienna Leather Research Station. The - hide-powder is very slightly chrome-tanned with a basic solution of - chromium chloride, 2 grammes of the latter being used per 100 grammes - of hide-powder, and is then washed free from soluble salts and - squeezed to contain 70% of moisture, and is ready for use. This - preliminary chroming does away with the difficulty of the powder being - soluble, by rendering it quite insoluble; it also lessens the tendency - to absorb non-tannins. Such a quantity of this wet powder as contains - 6.5 grammes of dry hide is now taken, and water is added until this - quantity contains exactly 20 grammes of moisture, i.e. 26.5 grammes in - all; it is then agitated for 15 minutes with 100 c.c. of the prepared - tannin solution, which is made up to contain tannin within certain - definite limits, in a mechanical rotator, and filtered. Of this - non-tannin solution 50 c.c. is then evaporated to dryness. The same - thing is done with 50 c.c. of original solution containing non-tannins - and tannins, and both residues are weighed. The tannin is thus - determined by difference. The method does all that science can do at - present. The rules for carrying out the analysis are necessarily very - strict. The object in view is that all chemists should get exactly - concordant results, and in this the I.A.L.T.C. has succeeded. - - The work done by Wood, Trotman, Procter, Parker and others on the - alkaloidal precipitation of tannin deserves mention. - -_Heavy Leathers._--The hides of oxen are received in the tanyard in four -different conditions: (1) market or slaughter hides, which, coming -direct from the local abattoirs, are soft, moist and covered with dirt -and blood; (2) wet salted hides; (3) dry salted hides; (4) sun-dried or -"flint" hides--the last three forms being the condition in which the -imports of foreign hides are made. The first operation in the tannery is -to clean the hides and bring them back as nearly as possible to the -flaccid condition in which they left the animal's back. The blood and -other matter on market hides must be removed as quickly as possible, the -blood being of itself a cause of dark stains and bad grain, and with the -other refuse a source of putrefaction. When the hides are sound they are -given perhaps two changes of water. - - Salted hides need a longer soaking than market hides, as it is not - only essential to remove the salt from the hide, but also necessary to - plump and soften the fibre which has been partially dehydrated and - contracted by the salt. It must also be borne in mind that a 10 % - solution of salt dissolves hide substance, thereby causing an - undesirable loss of weight, and a weak solution prevents plumping, - especially when taken into the limes, and may also cause "buckling," - which cannot easily be removed in after processes. Dried and dry - salted hides require a much longer soaking than any other variety. - Dried hides are always uncertain, as they may have putrefied before - drying, and also may have been dried at too high a temperature; in the - former case they fall to pieces in the limes, and in the latter case - it is practically impossible to soak them back, unless putrefactive - processes are used, and such are always dangerous and difficult to - work because of the Rivers Pollution Acts. Prolonged soaking in cold - water dissolves a serious amount of hide substance. Soaking in brine - may be advantageous, as it prevents putrefaction to some extent. - Caustic soda, sodium sulphide and sulphurous acid may also be - advantageously employed on account of their softening and antiseptic - action. In treating salted goods, the first wash water should always - be rapidly changed, because, as mentioned, strong salt solutions - dissolve hide; four changes of water should always be given to these - goods. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Double-acting Stocks.] - - There are other and mechanical means of softening obstinate material, - viz. by stocking. The American hide mill, or double-acting stocks, - shown diagrammatically in fig. 2, is a popular piece of apparatus, but - the goods should never be subjected to violent mechanical treatment - until soft enough to stand it, else severe grain cracking may result. - Perhaps the use of sodium sulphide or caustic soda in conjunction with - the American wash wheel is the safest method. - - Whatever means are used the ultimate object is first to swell and open - up the fibres as much as possible, and secondly to remove putrefactive - refuse and dirt, which if left in is fixed by the lime in the process - of depilation, and causes a dirty buff. - -After being thus brought as nearly as possible into a uniform condition, -all hides are treated alike. The first operation to which they are -subjected is _depilation_, which removes not only the hair but also the -scarf skin or epidermis. When the goods are sent to the limes for -depilation they are, first of all, placed in an old lime, highly charged -with organic matter and bacteria. It is the common belief that the lime -causes the hair to loosen and fall out, but this is not so; in fact, -pure lime has the opposite effect of tightening the hair. The real -cause of the loosening of the hair is that the bacteria in the old lime -creep down the hair, enter the _rete Malpighi_ and hair sheath, and -attack and decompose the soft cellular structure of the sheath and bulb, -also altering the composition of the _rete Malpighi_ by means of which -the scarf skin adheres to the true skin. These products of the bacterial -action are soluble in lime, and immediately dissolve, leaving the scarf -skin and hair unbound and in a condition to leave the skin upon -scraping. In this first "green" lime the action is mainly this -destructive one, but the goods have yet to be made ready to receive the -tan liquor, which they must enter in a plump, open and porous condition. -Consequently, the "green" lime is followed with two more, the second -being less charged with bacteria, and the third being, if not actually a -new one, a very near approach to it; in these two limes the bundles of -fibre are gradually softened, split up and distended, causing the hide -to swell, the interfibrillar substance is rendered soluble and the whole -generally made suitable for transference to the tan liquors. The hide -itself is only very slightly soluble; if care is taken, the grease is -transformed into an insoluble calcium soap, and the hair is hardly acted -upon at all. - -The time the goods are in the limes and the method of making new limes -depends upon the quality of the leather to be turned out. The harder and -tougher the leather required the shorter and fresher the liming. For -instance, for sole leather where a hard result is required, the time in -the limes would be from 8 to 10 days, and a perfectly fresh top lime -would be used, with the addition of sodium sulphide to hasten the -process. Every tanner uses a different quantity of lime and sulphide, -but a good average quantity is 7 lb. lime per hide and 10-15 lb. sodium -sulphide per pit of 100 hides. The lime is slaked with water and the -sulphide mixed in during the slaking; if it is added to the pit when the -slaking is finished the greater part of its effect is lost, as it does -not then enter into the same chemical combinations with the lime, -forming polysulphides, as when it is added during the process of -slaking. - -For softer and more pliable leathers, such as are required for harness -and belting, a "lower" or mellower liming is given, and the time in the -limes is increased from 9 to 12 days. Some of the old mellow liquor is -added to the fresh lime in the making, so as just to take off the -sharpness. It would be made up as for sole leather, but with less -sulphide or none at all, and then a dozen buckets of an old lime would -be added. For lighter leathers from 3 to 6 weeks' liming is given, and a -fresh lime is never used. - - "Sweating" as a method of depilation is obsolete in England so far as - heavy leathers are concerned. It consists of hanging the goods in a - moist warm room until incipient putrefaction sets in. This first - attacks the more mucous portions, as the _rete Malpighi_, hair bulb - and sheath, and so allows the hair to be removed as before. The method - pulls down the hide, and the putrefaction may go too far, with - disastrous results, but there is much to recommend it for sheepskins - where the wool is the main consideration, the main point being that - while lime entirely destroys wool, this process leaves it intact, only - loosening the roots. It is consequently still much used. - - Another method of fellmongering (dewooling) sheepskins is to paint the - flesh side with a cream of lime made with a 10% solution of sodium - sulphide and lay the goods in pile flesh to flesh, taking care that - none of the solution comes in contact with the wool, which is ready - for pulling in from 4 to 8 hours. Although this process may be used - for any kind of skin, it is practically only used for sheep, as if any - other skin is depilated in this manner all plumping effect is lost. - Since this must be obtained in some way, it is an economy of time and - material to place the goods in lime in the first instance. - - Sometimes, in the commoner classes of sole leather, the hair is - removed by painting the hair side with cream of lime and sulphide, or - the same effect is produced by drawing the hides through a strong - solution of sulphide; this completely destroys the hair, actually - taking it into solution. But the hair roots remain embedded in the - skin, and for this reason such leather always shows a dirty buff. - - Arsenic sulphide (realgar) is slaked with the lime for the production - of the finer light leathers, such as glace kid and glove kid. This - method produces a very smooth grain (the tendency of sodium sulphide - being to make the grain harsh and bold), and is therefore very - suitable for the purpose, but it is very expensive. - - Sufficient proof of the fact that it is not the lime which causes - skins to unhair is found in the process of chemical liming patented by - Payne and Pullman. In this process the goods are first treated with - caustic soda and then with calcium chloride; in this manner lime is - formed in the skin by the reaction of the two salts, but still the - hair remains as tight as ever. If this process is to be used for - unhairing and liming effect, the goods must be first subjected to a - putrid soak to loosen the hair, and afterwards limed. Experiments made - by the present writer also prove this theory. A piece of calf skin was - subjected to sterilized lime for several months, at the end of which - time the hair was as tight as ever; then bacterial influence was - introduced, and the skin unhaired in as many days. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Tanner's Beam.] - -After liming it is necessary to unhair the goods. This is done by -stretching a hide over a tanner's beam (fig. 3), when with an unhairing -knife (a, fig. 4) the beamsman partially scrapes and partially shaves -off the hair and epidermis. Another workman, a "flesher," removes the -flesh or "net skin" (_panniculus adiposus_), a fatty matter from the -flesh side of the skin, with the fleshing knife (two-edged), seen in b, -fig. 4. For these operations several machines have been adapted, working -mostly with revolving spiral blades or vibrating cutters, under which -the hides pass in a fully extended state. Among these may be mentioned -the Leidgen unhairer, which works on a rubber bed, which "gives" with -the irregularities of the hide, and the Wilson flesher, consisting of a -series of knives attached to a revolving belt, and which also "give" in -contact with irregularities. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Tanner's Knives and Pin.] - -At this stage the hide is divided into several parts, the process being -known as "rounding." The object of the division is this: certain parts -of the hide termed the "offal" are of less value than the "butt," which -consists of the prime part. The grain of the butt is fine and close in -texture, whereas the offal grain is loose, coarse and open, and if the -offal is placed in the same superior liquors as the butt, being open and -porous, it will absorb the best of the tannin first; consequently the -offal goes to a set of inferior liquors, often consisting of those -through which the butts have passed. The hides are "rounded" with a -sharp curved butcher's knife; the divisions are seen in fig. 5. The -bellies, cheeks and shoulders constitute the offal, and are tanned -separately although the shoulder is not often detached from the butt -until the end of the "suspenders," being of slightly better quality than -the bellies. The butt is divided into two "bends." This separation is -not made until the tanning of the butt is finished, when it is cut in -two, and the components sold as "bends," although as often as not the -butt is not divided. In America the hides are only split down the ridge -of the back, from head to tail, and tanned as hides. Dressing hides are -more frequently rounded after tanning, the mode depending on the purpose -for which the leather is required. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - -The next step is to remove as much "scud" and lime as possible, the -degree of removal of the latter depending upon the kind of leather to be -turned out. "Scudding" consists of working the already unhaired hide -over the beam with an unhairing knife with increased pressure, squeezing -out the dirt, which is composed of pigment cells, semi-soluble compounds -of lime, and hide, hair sacks and soluble hide substance, &c. This -exudes as a dirty, milky, viscid liquid, and mechanically brings the -lime out with it, but involves a great and undesirable loss of hide -substance, heavy leather being sold by weight. This difficulty is now -got over by giving the goods an acid bath first, to delime the surface; -the acid fixes this soluble hide substance (which is only soluble in -alkalies) and hardens it, thus preventing its loss, and the goods may -then be scudded clean with safety. The surface of all heavy leathers -must be delimed to obtain a good coloured leather, the demand of the -present day boot manufacturer; it is also necessary to carry this -further with milder leathers than sole, such as harness and belly, &c., -as excess of lime causes the leather to crack when finished. Perhaps the -best material for this purpose is boracic acid, using about 10 lb. per -100 butts, and suspending the goods. This acid yields a characteristic -fine grain, and because of its limited solubility cannot be used in -excess. Other acids are also used, such as acetic, lactic, formic, -hydrochloric, with varying success. Where the water used is very soft, -it is only necessary to wash in water for a few hours, when the butts -are ready for tanning, but if the water is hard, the lime is fixed in -the hide by the bicarbonates it contains, in the form of carbonate, and -the result is somewhat disastrous. - -After deliming, the butts are scudded, rinsed through water or weak -acid, and go off to the tan pits for tanning proper. Any lime which -remains is sufficiently removed by the acidity of the early tan liquors. - -The actual tanning now begins, and the operations involved may be -divided into a series of three: (1) colouring, (2) handling, (3) laying -away. - -The colouring pits or "suspenders," perhaps a series of eight pits, -consist of liquors ranging from 16 deg. to 40 deg. barkometer, which -were once the strongest liquors in the yard, but have gradually worked -down, having had some hundreds of hides through them; they now contain -very little tannin, and consist mainly of developed acids which -neutralize the lime, plump the hide, colour it off, and generally -prepare it to receive stronger liquors. The goods are suspended in these -pits on poles, which are lifted up and down several times a day to -ensure the goods taking an even colour; they are moved one pit forward -each day into slightly stronger liquors, and take about from 7 to 18 -days to get through the suspender stage. - - The reason why the goods are suspended at this stage instead of being - laid flat is that if the latter course were adopted, the hides would - sink and touch one another, and the touch-marks, not being accessible - to the tan liquor, would not colour, and uneven colouring would thus - result; in addition the weight of the top hides would flatten the - lower ones and prevent their plumping, and this condition would be - exceedingly difficult to remedy in the after liquors. Another question - which might occur to the non-technical reader is, why should not the - process be hastened by placing the goods in strong liquors? The reason - is simple. Strong tanning solutions have the effect of "drawing the - grain" of pelt, i.e. contracting the fibres, and causing the leather - to assume a very wrinkled appearance which cannot afterwards be - remedied; at the same time "case tanning" results, i.e. the outside - only gets tanned, leaving the centre still raw hide, and once the - outside is case-hardened it is impossible for the liquor to penetrate - and finish the tanning. This condition being almost irremediable, the - leather would thus be rendered useless. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Tanner's Hook (without handle).] - -After the "suspenders" the goods are transferred to a series of -"handlers" or "floaters," consisting of, perhaps, a dozen pits -containing liquors ranging from 30 deg. to 55 deg. barkometer. These -liquors contain an appreciable quantity of both tannin and acid, once -formed the "lay-aways," and are destined to constitute the "suspenders." -In these pits the goods, having been evenly coloured off, are laid flat, -handled every day in the "hinder" (weaker) liquors and shifted forward, -perhaps every two days, at the tanner's convenience. The "handling" -consists of lifting the butts out of the pit by means of a tanner's hook -(fig. 6), piling them on the side of the pit to drain, and returning -them to the pit, the top butt in the one handler being returned as the -bottom in the next. This operation is continued throughout the process, -only, as the hides advance, the necessity for frequent handling -decreases. The top two handler pits are sometimes converted into -"dusters," i.e. when the hides have advanced to these pits, as each butt -is lowered, a small quantity of tanning material is sprinkled on it. - -Some tanners, now that the hides are set flat, put them in suspension -again before laying away; the method has its advantages, but is not -general. The goods are generally laid away immediately. The layer -liquors consist of leached liquors from the fishings, strengthened with -either chestnut or oakwood extract, or a mixture of the two. The first -layer is made up to, say, 60 deg. barkometer in this way, and as the -hides are laid down they are sprinkled with fresh tanning material, and -remain undisturbed for about one week. The second layer is a 70 deg. -barkometer liquor, the hides are again sprinkled and allowed to lie for -perhaps two weeks. The third may be 80 deg. barkometer and the fourth 90 -deg., the goods being "dusted" as before, and lying undisturbed for -perhaps three or four weeks respectively. Some tanners give more layers, -and some give less, some more or less time, or greater or lesser -strengths of liquor, but this tannage is a typical modern one. - -As regards "dusting" material, for mellow leather, mellow materials are -required, such as myrobalans being the mellowest and mimosa bark the -most astringent of those used in this connexion. For harder leather, as -sole leather, a much smaller quantity of myrobalans is used, if any at -all, a fair quantity of mimosa bark as a medium, and much valonia, which -deposits a large amount of bloom, and is of great astringency. About 3 -to 4 cwt. of a judicious mixture is used for each pit, the mellower -material predominating in the earlier liquors and the most astringent in -the later liquors. - -The tanning is now finished, and the goods are handled out of the pits, -brushed free from dusting material, washed up in weak liquor, piled and -allowed to drip for 2 or 3 days so that the tan may become set. - -_Finishing._--From this stage the treatment of sole leather differs from -that of harness, belting and mellower leathers. As regards the first, it -will be found on looking at the dripping pile of leather that each butt -is covered with a fawn-coloured deposit, known technically as "bloom"; -this disguises the under colour of the leather, just like a coat of -paint. The theory of the formation of this bloom is this. Strong -solutions of tannin, such as are formed between the hides from dusting -materials, are not able to exist for long without decomposition, and -consequently the tannin begins to condense, and forms other acids and -insoluble anhydrides; this insoluble matter separates in and on the -leather, giving weight, firmness, and rendering the leather waterproof. -It is known technically as bloom and chemically as ellagic acid. - - After dripping, the goods are scoured free from surface bloom in a - Wilson scouring machine, and are then ready for bleaching. There are - several methods by which this is effected, or, more correctly several - materials or mixtures are used, the method of application being the - same, viz. the goods are "vatted" (steeped) for some hours in the - bleaching mixture at a temperature of 110 deg. F. The mixture may - consist of either sumach and a light-coloured chestnut extract made to - 110 deg. barkometer, and 110 deg. F., or some bleaching extract made - for the purpose, consisting of bisulphited liquid quebracho, which - bleaches by reason of the free sulphurous acid it contains. The - former method is best (though more expensive), as it removes less - weight, and the light shade of colour is more permanent than that - obtained by using bisulphited extracts. - - After the first vatting the goods are laid up in pile to drip; - meanwhile the liquor is again heated, and they are then returned for - another twenty-four hours, again removed and allowed to drip for 2 to - 3 days, after which they are oiled with cod oil on the grain and hung - up in the sheds to dry in the dark. When they have dried to an - india-rubber-like condition, they are piled and allowed to heat - slightly until a greyish "bloom" rises to the surface, they are then - set out and stretched in a Wilson scouring machine; using brass - slickers instead of the stone ones used for scouring, "pinned" over by - hand (with the three-edged instrument seen in c, fig. 4, and known as - a "pin") to remove any bloom not removed by the machine, oiled and - dried. When of a damp even colour they are "rolled on" between two - heavy rollers like a wringing machine, the pressure being applied from - above, hung up in the dark sheds again until the uneven colour so - produced has dried in, and then "rolled off" through the same machine, - the pressure being applied from below. They are now dried right out, - brushed on the grain to produce a slight gloss, and are finished. - -As regards the finishing of harness leather, &c., the goods, after -thorough dripping for a day or two, are brushed, lightly scoured, washed -up in hot sumach and extract to improve the colour, and are again laid -up in pile for two days; they are then given a good coat of cod oil, -sent to the sheds, and dried right out. Only sufficient scouring is -given to clean the goods, the object of the tanner being to leave as -much weight in as possible, although all this superfluous tan has to be -washed out by the currier before he can proceed. - -_Currying._--When the goods are dried from the sheds they are purchased -by the currier. If, as is often the case, the tanner is his own currier, -he does not tan the goods so heavily, or trouble about adding -superfluous weight, but otherwise the after processes, the art of the -currier, are the same. - -Currying consists of working oil and grease into the leather to render -it pliable and increase its strength. It was once thought that this was -a mere physical effect produced by the oil, but such is not the case. -Currying with animal oils is a second tannage in itself; the oils -oxidize in the fibres and produce aldehydes, which are well-known -tanning agents; and this double tannage renders the leather very strong. -Then there is the lubricating effect, a very important physical action -so far as the strength of the leather is concerned. Mineral oils are -much used, but they do not oxidize to aldehydes, or, for the matter of -that, to anything else, as they are not subject to decomposition. They, -therefore, produce no second tannage, and their action is merely the -physical one of lubrication, and this is only more or less temporary, -as, except in the case of the heavier greases, they slowly evaporate. -Where animal fats and oils are used, the longer the goods are left in -contact with the grease the better and stronger will be the leather. - -In the "Einbrennen" process (German for "burning in"), the hides are -thoroughly scoured, and when dry are dipped into hot grease, which is -then allowed to cool; when it is nearly set the goods are removed and -set out. This process is not much used in Great Britain. - -In hand-stuffing belting butts the goods are first thoroughly soaked in -water to which has been added some soda, and then scoured and stretched -by machine. They are then lightly shaved, to take off the loose flesh -and thin the neck. The whole of the mechanically deposited tannin is -removed by scouring, to make room for the grease, and they are then put -into a sumach vat of 40 deg. barkometer to brighten the colour, horsed -up to drip, and set out. If any loading, to produce fictitious weight, -is to be done, it is done now, by brushing the solution of either epsom -salts, barium chloride or glucose, or a mixture, into the flesh, and -laying away in pile for some days to allow of absorption, when, perhaps, -another coat is given. Whether this is done or not, the goods are hung -up until "tempered" (denoting a certain degree of dryness), and then -treated with dubbin. This is manufactured by melting down tallow in a -steam-jacketed pan, and adding cod oil, the mixture being stirred -continually; when quite clear, it is cooled as rapidly as possible by -running cold water through the steam pan, the stirring being continued -until it has set. The tempered leather having been set out on a glass -table, to which the flesh side adheres, is given a thin coat of the -dubbin on the grain, turned, set out on the flesh, and given a thick -coat of dubbin. Then it is hung up in a wind shed, and as the moisture -dries out the grease goes in. After two or three days the goods are "set -out in grease" with a brass slicker, given a coat of dubbin on the grain -slightly thicker than the first coat, then flesh dubbined, a slightly -thinner coat being applied than at first, and stoved at 70 deg. F. The -grease which is slicked off when "setting out in grease" is collected -and sold. After hanging in the warm stove for 2 or 3 days the butts are -laid away in grease for a month; they are then slicked out tight, flesh -and grain, and buck tallowed. Hard tallow is first rubbed on the grain, -when a slight polish is induced by rubbing with the smoothed rounded -edge of a thick slab of glass; they are then hung up in the stove or -stretched in frames to dry. A great deal of stuffing is now carried out -by drumming the goods in hot hard fats in previously heated drums; and -in modern times the tedious process of laying away in grease for a month -is either left undone altogether or very considerably shortened. - -In the tanning and dressing of the commoner varieties of kips and dried -hides, the materials used are of a poorer quality, and the time taken -for all processes is cut down, so that whereas the time taken to dress -the better class of leather is from 7 to 10 months, and in a few cases -more, these cheaper goods are turned out in from 3(1/2) to 5 months. - -A considerable quantity of the leather which reaches England, such as -East India tanned kips, Australian sides, &c., is bought up and -retanned, being sold then as a much better-class leather. The first -operation with such goods is to "strip" them of any grease they may -contain, and part of their original tannage. This is effectually carried -out by first soaking them thoroughly, laying them up to drip, and -drumming for half an hour in a weak solution of soda; they are then -washed by drumming in plenty of water, the water is run off and replaced -by very weak sulphuric acid to neutralize any remaining soda; this is in -turn run off and replaced by weak tan liquor, and the goods are so -tanned by drumming for some days in a liquor of gradually increasing -strength. The liquor is made up as cheaply as possible with plenty of -solid quebracho and other cheap extract, which is dried in with, -perhaps, glucose, epsom salts, &c. to produce weight. Sometimes a better -tannage is given to goods of fair quality, in which they are, perhaps, -started in the drum and finished in layers, slightly better materials -being used all through, and a longer time taken to complete the tannage. - -The tannage of dressing hides for bag and portmanteau work is rather -different from the other varieties described, in that the goods, after -having had a rather longer liming, are "bated" or "puered." - - Bating consists of placing the goods in a wheel or paddle with hen or - pigeon excrement, and paddling for from a few hours to 2 or 3 days. In - puering, dog manure is used, and this being rather more active, the - process does not take so long. This bating or puering is carried out - in warm liquors, and the actions involved are several. From a - practical point of view the action is the removal of the lime and the - solution of the hair sacs and a certain amount of interfibrillar - substance. In this way the goods are pulled down to a soft flaccid - condition, which allows of the removal of short hair, hair sacs and - other filth by scudding with an unhairing knife upon the beam. The - lime is partially taken into solution and partially removed - mechanically during the scudding. A large quantity of hide substance, - semi-soluble and soluble, is lost by being pressed out, but this - matters little, as for dressing work, area, and not weight, is the - main consideration. Theoretically the action is due to bacteria and - bacterial products (organized ferments and enzymes), unorganized - ferments or vegetable ferments like the yeast ferment, such as - pancreadine, pepsin, &c. and chemicals, such as ammonium and calcium - salts and phosphates, all of which are present in the manure. The - evolved gases also play their part in the action. - - There are several bates upon the market as substitutes for dung bate. - A most popular one was the American "Tiffany" bate, made by keeping a - weak glue solution warm for some hours and then introducing a piece of - blue cheese to start fermentation; when fermenting, glucose was added, - and the bate was then ready for work. This and all other bates have - been more or less supplanted by "erodin," discovered after years of - research by Mr Wood (Nottingham) and Drs Popp and Becker (Vienna). - This is an artificial bate, containing the main constituents of the - dung bate. It is supplied in the form of a bag of nutrient material - for bacteria to thrive on and a bottle of bacterial culture. The - nutrient material is dissolved in water and the bacterial culture - added, and after allowing the mixture to get working it is ready for - use. Many tons of this bate are now being used per annum. Its - advantages are: (1) that it is clean, (2) that it is under perfect - control, and (3) that stains and bate burns, which so often accompany - the dung bate, are absolutely absent. Bate burns are caused by not - filtering the dung bate through coarse sacking before use. The - accumulation of useless solid matter settles on the skins if they are - not kept well in motion, causing excessive action in these places. - -After pulling down the goods to a soft, silky condition by bating or -puering, it is necessary, after scudding, to plump them up again and -bring them into a clean and fit condition for receiving the tan. This is -done by "drenching" in a bran drench. A quantity of bran is scalded and -allowed to ferment. When the fermentation has reached the proper stage -the goods are placed, together with the bran liquor, in a suitable pit -or vat, and are allowed to remain until they have risen three times; -this rising to the surface is caused by the gaseous products of the -fermentation being caught by the skin. The plumping action of the bran -is due to the acids produced during fermentation and also in part to the -gases, and the cleansing action is due to the mechanical action of the -particles of bran rubbing against the grain of the skins. After -drenching, the goods are washed free from bran, and are ready for the -tanning process. - - Drenching, now that all kinds of acids are available, is not so much - used for heavy hides as for light skins, it being found much more - convenient and cheaper to use acids. In fact, bating and puering are - being gradually replaced by acid baths in the case of heavy leathers, - the process being carried out as deliming for sole leather, only much - more thoroughly in the case of dressing leather. - -The tanning of dressing hides, which are not rounded into butts and -offal, is briefly as follows. They first enter a series of colouring -pits or suspenders, and then a series of handlers, by which time they -should be plump and coloured through; in this condition they are split -either by means of a union or band-knife splitting machine (fig. 7). - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Band Knife Splitting Machine.] - - This latter is the most popular machine, and consists essentially of - an endless band knife _a_, which revolves at considerable speed with - its cutting edges close to the sides of a pair of rollers through - which the leather is fed and pressed against the knife. The lower of - these rollers is made of short segments or rings, each separately - capable of yielding so as to accommodate itself to the unequal - thicknesses of various parts of a hide. The thickness of the leather - to be cut is gauged to the utmost minuteness by means of the hand - screws _b b_ which raise or lower the upper roller. The knife edge of - the cutter is kept keen by rubbing against revolving emery wheels _c_ - as it passes round. So delicately can this machine effect its work - that slices of leather uniform throughout and as thin as paper can be - easily prepared by it, and by its aid it is quite common to split - hides into as many as three useful splits. - -The dressing hides are usually split in two. Here we will leave the -split (flesh) for a time and continue with the treatment of the grain. -After splitting, they enter another series of handlers, are then piled -up for a day or two, and thrown into a large drum with sumach mixed to a -paste with hot water and a light-coloured extract. They are drummed in -this for one hour to brighten and mellow the grain, washed up in tepid -liquor, piled for two days, and drummed with cod oil or some other -suitable oil or mixture; they are now piled for a day or two to absorb, -dried out, flattened on the grain, and flesh folded. - -The splits are rinsed up in old sumach liquor and drummed with cheap -extracts and adulterants, such as size, glucose, barium chloride, epsom -salts, &c. after which they are piled up to drain, dried to a "sammied" -condition, rolled to make firm, and dried right out. - - In the dressing hide tannage very mellow materials are used. Gambier - and myrobalans form the main body of the tannage, together with a - little quebracho extract, mimosa bark, sumach and extracts. - -_Upper Leather._--Under the head of upper leather are included the thin, -soft and pliable leathers, which find their principal, but by no means -exclusive, application in making the uppers of boots and shoes, which -may be taken as a type of a class of leathers. They are made from such -skins as East Indian kips, light cow and horse hides, thin split hides, -such as those described under dressing leather, but split rather -thinner, and calf. The preparatory dressing of such skins and the -tanning operations do not differ essentially from those already -described. In proportion to the thinness of the skin treated, the -processes are more rapidly finished and less complex, the tannage is a -little lighter, heavy materials such as valonia being used sparsely if -at all. Generally speaking, the goods have a longer and mellower liming -and bating, the lime being more thoroughly removed than for the leathers -previously described, to produce greater pliability, and everything must -tend in this direction. The heavier hides and kips are split as -described under dressing leather, and then tanned right out. - -_Currying of the Lighter Leathers._--The duty of the currier is not -solely directed towards heavier leathers; he is also entrusted with the -dressing and fitting of the lighter leathers for the shoemaker, -coachbuilder, saddler, &c. He has to pare the leather down and reduce -inequalities in thickness, to impregnate it with fatty matter in order -to render it soft and pliable, and to give it such a surface dressing, -colour and finish as will please the eye and suit the purposes of its -consumers. The fact that machinery is used by some curriers for nearly -every mechanical operation, while others adhere to the manual system, -renders it almost impossible to give in brief an outline of operations -which will be consistent with any considerable number of curriers. - -[Illustration: FIG 8.--Currying Knife.] - - The following may be taken as a typical modern dressing of waxed calf - or waxed kips. The goods are first of all soaked down and brought to a - "sammied" condition for shaving. In the better-class leathers - hand-shaving is still adhered to, as it is maintained that the drag of - the shaving machine on the leather causes the "nap" finish to be - coarser. Hand-shaving is carried out on a beam or strong frame of - wood, supporting a stout plank faced with lignum vitae, and set - vertically, or nearly so. The knife (fig. 8) is a double-edged - rectangular blade about 12 in. by 5 in., girded on either side along - its whole length and down the centre with two bars 3 in. wide, leaving - each blade protruding 1 in. beyond them; it has a straight handle at - one end and a cross handle at the other in the plane of the blade. The - edges of this knife are first made very keen, and are then turned over - so as to form a wire edge, by means of the thicker of the two straight - steel tools shown in fig. 9. The wire edge is preserved by drawing the - thinner of the two steel tools along the interior angle of the wire - edge and then along the outside of the turnover edge. The skin being - thrown flesh uppermost over the vertical beam, the shaver presses his - body against it, and leaning over the top holds the knife by its two - handles almost at right angles to the leather, and proceeds to shave - it by a scraping stroke downwards which the wire edge, being set at - right angles to the knife and almost parallel with the skin, turns - into a cut. The skin is shifted so as to bring all parts under the - action of the knife, the shaver frequently passing a fold between his - finger to test the progress of his work. After shaving, the goods are - thoroughly soaked, allowed to drip, and are ready for "scouring." This - operation has for its object the removal of bloom (ellagic acid) and - any other superfluous adherent matter. The scouring solution consists - of a weak solution of soft soap and borax. This is first well brushed - into the flesh of the leather, which is then "sleeked" (slicked) out - with a steel slicker shown at S fig. 9. The upper part of the - "slicker" is wooden, and into it a steel, stone, brass or vulcanite - blade is forced and fastened. The wooden part is grasped in both - hands, and the blade is half rubbed and half scraped over the surface - of the leather in successive strokes, the angle of the slicker being a - continuation of the angle which the thrust out arms of the worker form - with the body, perhaps 30 deg. to 45 deg., with the leather, depending - upon the pressure to be applied. The soap and borax solution is - continually dashed on the leather to supply a body for the removal of - the bloom with the steel slicker. The hide is now turned, and the - grain is scoured with a stone slicker and brush, with soap and borax - solution, it is then rinsed up, and sent to dry; when sammied, it is - "set" i.e. the grain is laid smooth with a brass or steel slicker and - dried right out. It is now ready for "stuffing," which is invariably - done in the drum with a mixture of stearine and "sod" oil, to which is - sometimes added cod oil and wool fat; it is then set out on the grain - and "canked" on the flesh, the grain side is glassed, and the leather - dried right out. The goods are now "rounded," i.e. the lighter - coloured parts of the grain are damped with a mixture of dubbin and - water to bring them to even colour, and are then laid in pile for a - few days to mellow, when they are ready for whitening. The goods are - damped down and got to the right temper with a weak soap and water - solution, and are then "whitened," an operation similar to shaving, - carried out with a turned edge slicker. By this means a fine flesh - surface is obtained upon which to finish by waxing; after this they - are "boarded" with an arm board (R, fig. 9) to bring up the grain, or - give a granular appearance to the leather and make it supple, when - they may be turned flesh inwards and bruised, a similar operation to - graining, essentially to soften and make them pliant. At this stage - the goods are known as "finished russet," and are stored until ready - for waxing. - - [Illustration: FIG 9.--Currying Apparatus. C, pommel; R, raising - board; S, slicker.] - - For waxing, the first operation is to black the goods. In England this - is generally done by hand, but machinery is much more used in the - United States. The process consists of well brushing into the flesh - side of the skins a black preparation made in one of two ways. The - older recipe is a mixture of lampblack, oil and perhaps a little - tallow; the newer recipe consists of soap, lampblack, logwood extract - and water. Either of these is brushed well into the flesh side, which - is then glassed up by means of a thick slab of glass, the smooth - rounded edges being used with a slicking motion, and the goods are - hung up to dry. When dry they are oiled with cod oil, and are ready - for sizing. Goods blacked with soap blacking are sized once, those - prepared with oil blacking are sized twice. The size used for soap - black skins may consist of a mixture of beeswax, pitch, linseed oil, - tallow, soap, glue and logwood extract. For oil blacked skins the - "bottom sizing" may be glue, soap, logwood extract and water, after - the application of which the goods are dried and the "top sizing" - applied; this consists of glue, cod oil, beeswax, tallow, venice - turps, black dye and water. The sizings having been applied with a - sponge or soft brush, thoroughly rubbed in with a glass slicker, crush - marks are removed by padding with a soft leather pad, and the goods, - after being dried out, are ready for the market. - - In the dressing of waxed grain leathers, such as French calf, satin - leather, &c., the preparatory processes are much the same as for waxed - leathers described above as far as stuffing, after which the grain is - prepared to take the colour by light hand scouring with weak soap and - borax solution. The dye is now applied, and so that it may take well - on the grain of the greasy leather, a quantity of either soap, turkey - red oil or methylated spirit is added to the solution. Acid colours - are preferably used, and three coats are given to the dry leather, - which is then grained with an arm board, and finished by the - application of hard buck tallow to the grain and brushing. The dye or - stain may consist of aniline colours for coloured leathers, or, in the - case of blacks, consecutive applications of logwood and iron solutions - are given. - -_Finishing dressing Hides for Bag and Portmanteau Work._--The hides as -received from the tanner are soaked down, piled to sammy, and shaved, -generally by machine, after which they are scoured, as under waxed -leather, sumached and hung up to dry; when just damp they are set out -with a brass slicker and dried right out. The grain is now filled by -applying a solution of either Irish moss, linseed mucilage or any other -mucilaginous filling material, and the flesh is sized with a mixture of -mucilage and French chalk, after which the goods are brush-stained with -an aniline dye, to which has been added linseed mucilage to give it -body; two coats are applied to the sammied leather. When the goods have -sammied, after the last coat of stain, they are "printed" with a brass -roller in a "jigger," or by means of a machine embosser. This process -consists of imprinting the grain by pressure from a brass roller, on -which the pattern is deeply etched. After printing, the flesh side is -sponged with a weak milk solution, lightly glassed and dried, when the -grain is sponged with weak linseed mucilage, almost dried, and brushed -by machine. The hides are now finished, by the application either of -pure buck tallow or of a mixture of carnauba wax and soap; this is -rubbed up into a slight gloss with a flannel. - -_Light Leathers._--So far only the heavier leathers have been dealt -with; we will now proceed to discuss lighter calf, goat, sheep, seal, -&c. - -In tanning light leathers everything must tend towards suppleness and -pliability in the finished leather, in contrast to the firmness and -solidity required in heavy leathers. Consequently, the liming is longer -and mellower; puering, bating or some bacterial substitute always -follows; the tannage is much shorter; and mellow materials are used. A -deposition of bloom in the goods is not often required, so that very -soon after they are struck through they are removed as tanned. The -materials largely used are sumach, oak bark, gambier, myrobalans, mimosa -bark, willow, birch and larch barks. - -As with heavy leathers, so also with light leathers, there are various -ways of tanning; and quality has much to do with the elaboration or -modification of the methods employed. The tanning of all leathers will -be dealt with first, dyeing and finishing operations being treated -later. - -The vegetable-tanned leather _de luxe_ is a bottle-tanned skin. It is -superior to every other class of vegetable-tanned leather in every way, -but owing to competition not a great deal is now produced, as it is -perhaps the most expensive leather ever put on the market. The method of -preparation is as follows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Dash Wheel.] - -The skins are usually hard and dry when received, so they are at once -soaked down, and when sufficiently soft are either milled in the stocks, -drummed in a lattice drum (American dash wheel, fig. 10), or "broken -down" over the beam by working on the flesh with a blunt unhairing -knife. They are next mellow limed (about 3 weeks), sulphide being used -if convenient, unhaired and fleshed as described under heavy leathers, -and are then ready for puering. This process is carried through at about -80 deg. F., when the goods are worked on the beam, rinsed, drenched in a -bran drench, scudded, and are ready for tanning. The skins are now -folded down the centre of the back from neck to butt (tail end), flesh -outwards, and the edges are tightly stitched all round to form bags, -leaving an aperture at one of the shanks for filling; they are now -turned grain outwards and filled with strong sumach liquor and some -quantity of solid sumach to fill up the interstices and prevent leakage, -after which the open shank is tied up, and they are thrown into warm -sumach liquor, where they float about like so many pigs, being -continually pushed under the surface with a dole. When struck through -they are piled on a shelf above the vat, and by their own weight the -liquor is forced through the skins. The tannage takes about 24 hours, -and when finished the stitching is ripped up, the skins are slicked out, -"strained" on frames and dried. "Straining" consists of nailing the -skins out on boards in a stretched condition, or the stretching in -frames by means of strings laced in the edge of the frame and attached -to the edge of the skin. - -The commoner sumach-tanned skins (but still of very good quality) are -tanned in paddle wheels, a series of three being most conveniently used -in the same manner as the three-pit system of liming, each wheel having -three packs of skins through it before being thrown away. This paddling -tends to make a bolder grain, as the skins are kept in continual motion, -and work over one another. Some manufacturers finish the tannage with a -mixture of sumach and oak bark; this treatment yields a less porous -product. Others, when the skins are strained and in a semi-dry -condition, apply neatsfoot or other oil, or a mixture of glycerine and -oil, to the grain to lubricate it and make it more supple; the glycerine -mixture is generally used for "chrome" leather, and will be discussed -later under that head. - -The skins tanned as above are largely dressed as _morocco_. Originally -"morocco" was produced by the Moors in southern Spain and Morocco, -whence the industry spread to the Levant, Turkey and the Mediterranean -coast of Africa generally, where the leather was made from a species of -sumach. Peculiarly enough, the dyeing was carried out before the -tanning, with Roman alum as "mordant" and kermes, which with the alum -produced a fine red colour. Such leather was peculiarly clear in colour, -elastic and soft, yet firm and fine in grain and texture, and has long -been much prized for bindings, being the material in which most of the -artistic work of the 16th-century binders was executed. Now, in addition -to the genuine morocco made from goat skins, we have imitation or French -moroccos, for which split calf and especially sheep skins are employed, -and as the appearance of morocco is the result of the style of graining -and finish, which can now be imitated by printing or embossing machines, -morocco can be made from all varieties of thin leather. - - Great quantities of "Persian" (East India tanned) sheep and goat are - now dressed as moroccos and for innumerable other purposes, the method - being as follows: The goods are tanned with turwar bark and cassia - bark, besides being impregnated with sesame oil, even to the extent of - 30%. The first operation is to "strip" them of the oil and original - tannage as far as possible, by drumming in a solution of soda; the - soap thus formed is got rid of by thoroughly washing the goods, when - they are "soured" in a weak bath of sulphuric acid to brighten the - colour and remove iron stains, after which they are washed up and - re-tanned by drumming in warm sumach, allowing about 4 oz. per skin. - They are then slicked out, dried and are ready for dyeing. - - The tanning of sheep and lamb skins differs very essentially from the - tanning of goat and other leathers, mainly in the preparatory - processes. As the wool is completely destroyed by lime, other methods - have to be resorted to. The process usually practised is known as - "sweating"; this consists of hanging the moist skins up in a warm, - badly-ventilated chamber and allowing incipient putrefaction to set - in. The chamber is always kept warm and saturated with moisture, - either by means of a steam jet or water sprinklers. During the process - large quantities of ammoniacal vapours are given off, and after two or - three days the skins become slimy to the touch, and the wool slips - easily; at this stage the goods are removed, for if the putrefaction - goes too far the grain of the skin is irretrievably ruined. The wool - is now "pulled" by pullers, who throw it into bins arranged to receive - the different qualities; for one pelt may have three different grades - of wool on it. - - Other methods of dewooling are to paint the flesh with a solution of - sodium sulphide, or cream of lime made with a solution of sodium - sulphide; in either case the goods are piled flesh to flesh for an - hour or so, and care is taken that the dewooling agent does not touch - the wool. The pelt is then pulled and rapidly swilled in a stream of - running water. The goods are now, in some yards, lightly limed to - plump them superficially, by paddling in a milk of lime, and at this - stage, or when the goods have been "struck through" with tan liquor, - they are "degreased" either by hydraulic pressure or by benzene - degreasing. This is to expel the oleaginous or fatty matter with which - sheep skins are richly impregnated; the average yield is about 4 oz. - per skin. The tannage is carried out in much the same way as for goat - skins, the goods being started in old acid bark liquors; the general - tannage consists of sumach and bark. - -_Basils_ are sheep skins tanned in various ways. English basils are -tanned with oak bark, although, as in all other leathers, inferior -tannages are now common; Scotch basils are tanned with larch bark, -Australian and New Zealand basils with mimosa bark and Turkish basils -with galls. The last are the commonest kind of skins imported into Great -Britain, and are usually only semi-tanned. _Roans_ are sumach-tanned -sheep skins. - -_Skivers_ are the grain splits of sheep skins, the fleshes of which are -finished for chamois leather. The goods are split in the limed state, -just as the grains are ready for tanning, and are subsequently treated -much as sumach-tanned goat skins, or in any other convenient way; the -fleshes, on the other hand, go back into the limes, as it is necessary -to get a large quantity of lime into leather which is to be finished as -chamois. - -_Russia Leather_ was originally a speciality of Russia, where it was -made from the hides of young cattle, and dressed either a brownish red -or black colour for upper leather, bookbinding, dressing-cases, purses, -&c. It is now made throughout Europe and America, the best qualities -being obtained from Austria. The empyreumatic odour of the old genuine -"Russia" leather was derived from a long-continued contact with willow -and the bark of the _white_ birch, which contains the odorous betulin -oil. Horse hides, calf, goat, sheep skins and even splits are now -dressed as "Russia leather," but most of these are of a decidedly -inferior quality, and as they are merely treated with birch bark oil to -give them something of the odour by which Russia leather is ordinarily -recognized, they scarcely deserve the name under which they pass. The -present-day genuine Russia leather is tanned like other light leathers, -but properly in willow bark, although poplar and spruce fir barks are -used. After tanning and setting out the goods are treated with the -empyreumatic oil obtained by the dry distillation of birch bark. The red -colour commonly seen in Russia leather is now produced by aniline -colours, but was originally gained by the application of an infusion of -Brazil wood, which was rubbed over the grain with a brush or sponge. -Some time ago Russia leather got into disrepute because of its rapid -decay; this was owing to its being dyed with a very acid solution of tin -salts and cochineal, the acid completely destroying the leather in a -year or two. The black leather is obtained by staining with logwood -infusion and iron acetate. The leather, if genuine quality, is very -watertight and strong, and owing to its impregnation with the -empyreumatic oil, it wards off the attacks of insects. - -_Seal Leathers, &c._--The tannage of seal skins is now an important -department of the leather industry of the United Kingdom. The skins form -one of the items of the whaling industry which principally centres in -Dundee, and at that port, as well as at Hull and Peterhead, they are -received in large quantities from the Arctic regions. This skin is that -of the white hair seal, and must not be confused with the expensive seal -fur obtained from Russian and Japanese waters. These white hair seal -skins are light but exceedingly close in texture, yielding a very strong -tough leather of large area and fine bold grain, known as _Levant -morocco_. The area of the skins renders them suitable for upholstery -work, and the flesh splits are dressed in considerable quantity for -"japanned" ("patent") leather and "bolsters," which are used to grain -other skins on, the raised buff affording a grip on the skin being -grained and thus preventing slipping. When the skins arrive in the -tanyard (generally lightly salted) they are drummed in old drench -liquors until soft, dipped into warm water and "blubbered" with a sharp -knife; they are then alternately dipped in warm water and drummed -several times to remove fat, after which they are heavily limed, as they -are still very greasy, and after unhairing and fleshing they are heavily -puered for the same reason. The tannage takes about a month, and is much -the same as for other leathers, the skins being split when "struck -through." - - Alligator leather is now produced to some extent both in the United - States and India. The belly and flanks alone are useful. There are no - special tanneries or processes for dressing the skins. Layers are not - given. The leather is used mostly for small fancy goods, and is much - imitated on sheepskin by embossing. - - Snake and frog skins are also dressed to some extent, the latter - having formed a considerable item in the exports of Japan; they are - dressed mostly for cigar cases and pocket books. The general procedure - is first to lime the goods and then to remove any scales (in the case - of snake skins) by scraping with an unhairing knife on a small beam, - after which the skins are bated and tanned in sumach by paddling. - - A considerable amount of leather is now produced in Australia from the - skins of kangaroo, wallaby and other marsupials. These skins are both - tanned and "tawed," the principal tanning agents being mimosa bark, - mallet bark and sugar bush, which abound in Australia. The leather - produced is of excellent quality, strong and pliable, and rivals in - texture and appearance the kid of Europe; but the circumstance that - the animals exist only in the wild state renders them a limited and - insecure source of leather. - -_Japan and Enamel Leathers._--Japanning is usually done on flesh splits, -whereas enamelling is done on the grain, and if splits are used they are -printed and boarded. The leather should be mellow, soft, free from -grease, with a firm grain and no inclination to stretch. It is first -shaved very smooth, thoroughly scoured with a stone, sumached, washed, -slicked out tight and dried; when "sammied," the grain is buffed to -remove scratches and oiled, the goods are then whitened or fluffed, and -if too hard, bruised by boarding; enamel goods are now grained. The -skins are now tightly nailed on boards and any holes patched up with -brown paper, so that the japan shall not touch the flesh when the first -thick coat of japan or the "daub" is put on. This is applied so thickly -that it cannot soak in, with fine-toothed slicker, and then placed in a -hot stove for twenty-four hours until quite dry; the coating is then -pumiced smooth and the second thinner coat, termed "blanback," is -applied. This is dried and pumiced, and a fine coating of japan or copal -varnish is finally given. This is dried and cooled, and if the goods are -for enamel they are boarded. - - English japans sometimes contain light petroleum, but no turps. The - secret of successful japanning lies in the age of the oil used; the - older the linseed oil is, the better the result. To prepare the ground - coat, boil 10 gallons linseed oil for one hour with 2 lb. litharge at - 600 deg. F. to jellify the oil, and then add 2 lb. prussian blue and - boil the whole for half an hour longer. Before application the mixture - is thinned with 10 gallons light petroleum. For the second coat, boil - 10 gallons linseed oil for 2 hours with 2 lb. prussian blue and 2 lb. - lampblack; when of a thin jelly consistency thin with 5 gallons of - benzine or light petroleum. For the finishing coat, boil 5 gallons of - linseed oil for 1 hour, then add 1 lb. prussian blue, and boil for - another hour; thin with 10 gallons petroleum and apply with a brush in - a warm room. After drying, the goods are mellowed by exposure to the - sun for at least three days. - -_Tawing._--Wool rugs are, after the preliminary processes, sometimes -tanned in oak bark liquors by paddling, but are generally "tawed," that -is, dressed with alum and salt, and are therefore more suitably dealt -with under that head. Tawing implies that the conversion of skins into -leather is carried out by means of a mixture of which the more important -constituents are mineral salts, such as alum, chrome and iron, which may -or may not be supplemented with fatty and albuminous matter, both animal -and vegetable. - -As an example of alum tawing, calf kid may be taken as characteristic of -the process; glove kid is also treated on similar lines. The goods are -prepared for tawing in a manner similar to the preparation of tanned -leathers, arsenical limes being used to ensure a fine grain. After being -well drenched and washed the goods are ready for the tawing process. On -the continent of Europe it is usual for the goods to be thrown into a -tub with the tawing paste and trodden with the bare feet, although this -old-fashioned method is gradually being driven out, and the drum or -tumbler is being used. - - The tawing paste consists of a mixture of alum, salt, flour, egg yolk - and water; the quantities of each constituent diverge widely, every - dresser having his own recipe. The following has been used, but cannot - well be classed as typical: For 100 lb. skin take 9 lb. alum, 5 lb. - salt, dissolve in water, and mix to a thin paste with from 5 to 13 lb. - flour, using 4 to 6 egg yolks for every pound of flour used. Olive oil - is also mixed in sometimes. The skins are drummed or trodden, at - intervals, in the warm paste for some hours, removed, allowed to - drain, and dried rapidly, damped down or "sammied" and "staked" by - drawing them to and fro over a blunt knife fixed in the top of a post, - and known as a knee stake; this process softens them very - considerably. After staking, the goods are wet back and shaved smooth, - either with a moon knife, i.e. a circular concave convex knife, the - centre of which has been cut out, a piece of wood bridging the cavity - forming the grip, or with an ordinary currier's shaving knife; the - skins are now ready for dyeing and finishing. - -_Wool Rug Dressing._--Wool rugs are first thoroughly soaked, well washed -and clean-fleshed, scoured well by rubbing into the wool a solution of -soft soap and soda, and then leathered by rubbing into the flesh of the -wet skins a mixture consisting of three parts of alum and two parts of -salt until they are practically dry; they are now piled up over-night, -and the mixture is again applied. After the second or third application -the goods should be quite leathered. Other methods consist of stretching -the skins in frames and painting the flesh with a solution of alum and -salt, or, better, with a solution of basic alum and salt, the alum -being made basic by the gradual addition of soda until a permanent -precipitate is produced. - - The goods are now bleached, for even the most vigorous scouring will - not remove the yellow tint of the wool, especially at the tips. There - are several methods of bleaching, viz. by hydrogen peroxide, following - up with a weak vitriol bath; by potassium permanganate, following up - with a bath of sulphurous acid; or by fumigating in an air-tight - chamber with burning sulphur. The last-named method is the more - general; the wet skins are hung in the chamber, an iron pot containing - burning sulphur is introduced, and the exposure is continued for - several hours. - - If the goods are to be finished white, they are now given a vitriol - sour, scoured, washed, retanned, dried, and when dry softened by - working with a moon knife. If they are to be dyed, they must be - prepared for the dye solution by "chloring," which consists of - immersion in a cold solution of bleaching powder for some hours, and - then souring in vitriol. - - The next step is dyeing. If basic dyes are to be used, it is necessary - to neutralize the acidity of the skins by careful addition of soda, - and to prevent the tips from being dyed a darker colour than the - roots. Glauber salts and acetic acid are added to the dye-bath. The - tendency of basic colours to rub off may be overcome by passing the - goods through a solution of tannin in the form of cutch, sumach, - quebracho, &c.; in fact, some of the darker-coloured materials may be - used as a ground colour, thus economizing dyestuff and serving two - purposes. If acid colours are used, it is necessary to add sulphuric - acid to the dye bath, and in either case colours which will strike - below 50 deg. C. must be used, as at that temperature alum leather - perishes. - - After being dyed, the goods are washed up, drained, and if necessary - retanned, the glossing finish is then produced by passing them through - a weak emulsion or "fat liquor" of oil, soap and water, after which - they are dried, softened by working with a moon knife and beating, - when they are combed out, and are ready for the market. - - Blacks are dyed by immersing the goods alternately in solutions of - logwood and iron, or a one-solution method is used, consisting of a - mixture of these two, with, in either case, varying additions of - lactic acid and sumach, copper salts, potassium bichromate, &c.; the - time of immersion varies from hours to days. After striking, the goods - are exposed to the air for some hours in order to oxidize to a good - black; they are then well scoured, washed, drained, retanned, dried, - softened and combed. - -_Chrome Tanning._--The first chrome tanning process was described by -Professor Knapp in 1858 in a paper on "Die Natur und Wesen der -Gerberie," but was first brought into commercial prominence by Dr -Heinzerling about 1878, and was worked in a most persevering way by the -Eglinton Chemical Company, who owned the English patents, though all -their efforts failed to produce any lasting effects. Now chrome tanning -is almost the most important method of light leather dressing, and has -also taken a prominent place in the heavy department, more especially in -curried leathers and cases where greater tensile strength is needed. The -leather produced is much stronger than any other leather, and will also -stand boiling water, whereas vegetable-tanned leather is completely -destroyed at 70 deg. C. and alum leather at 50 deg. C. - - The theory of chrome tanning is not perfectly understood, but in - general terms it consists of a partial chemical combination between - the hide fibre and the chrome salts, and a partial mechanical - deposition of chromium oxide in and on the fibre. The wet work, or - preparation for tanning, may be taken as much the same as for any - other leather. - - There are two distinct methods of chrome tanning, and several - different methods of making the solutions. The "two bath process" - consists of treating the skins with a bichromate in which the chromium - is in the acidic state, and afterwards reducing it to the basic state - by some reducing agent. The exact process is as follows: To prevent - wrinkled or "drawn" grain the goods are first paddled for half an hour - in a solution of vitriol and salt, when they are piled or "horsed" up - over night, and then, without washing, placed in a solution consisting - of 7 lb. of potassium bichromate, 3(1/2) lb. of hydrochloric acid to - each 100 lb. of pelts, with sufficient water to conveniently paddle - in; it is recommended that 5% of salt be added to this mixture. The - goods are run in this for about 3 hours, or until struck through, when - they are horsed up for some hours, care being taken to cover them up, - and are then ready for the reducing bath. This consists of a 14% - solution of plain "hypo," or hyposulphite of soda, to which, during - the process of reduction, frequent additions of hydrochloric acid are - made to free the sulphurous and thiosulphuric acids, which are the - active reducing agents. After about 3 hours' immersion, during which - time the goods will have changed in colour from bright yellow to - bright green, one or two skins are cut in the thickest part, and if - the green has struck right through, the pack is removed as tanned, - washed up, and allowed to drain. - - The "single-bath process" consists of paddling, drumming, or otherwise - introducing into the skins a solution of a chrome salt, usually chrome - alum, which is already in the basic condition, and therefore does not - require reducing. The basic solutions are made as follows: For 100 lb. - of pelts 9 lb. of chrome alum are dissolved in 9 gallons of water, and - 2(1/2) lb. of washing soda already dissolved in 1 gallon of water are - gradually added, with constant stirring. One-third of the solution is - added to 80 gallons of water, to which is added 7 lb. of salt, and the - skins are introduced; the other two-thirds are introduced at intervals - in two successive portions. Another liquor, used in the same way, is - made by dissolving 3 lb. of potassium bichromate in hot water, adding - 1/2 gallon strong hydrochloric acid and then, gradually, about 1(1/2) - lb. of glucose or grape sugar; this reduces the acidic chrome salt, - vigorous effervescence ensuing. The whole is made up to 2 gallons and - 5% to 15% of salt is added. In yet another method a chrome alum - solution is rendered basic by boiling with "hypo," and after the - reaction has ceased the solution is allowed to settle and the clear - portion used. - - After tanning, which takes from 8 hours to as many, and even more, - days, depending upon the method used and the class of skin being - dressed, the skins tanned by both methods are treated in a similar - manner, and are neutralized by drumming in borax solution, when they - are washed free from borax by drumming in warm water, and are ready - for dyeing, a process which will be dealt with further on. The goods - are sometimes tanned by suspension, but this method is generally - reserved for the tanning of the heavier leathers, which are treated in - much the same way, the several processes taking longer. - - _Iron Tannage._--Before leaving mineral tanning, mention may be made - of iron tannage, although this has gained no prominent position in - commerce. Ferric salts possess powerful tanning properties, and were - thoroughly investigated by Professor Knapp, who took out several - patents, but the tendency to produce a brittle leather has never been - entirely overcome, although it has been greatly modified by the - incorporation of organic matter, such as blood, rosin, paraffin, - urine, &c. Knapp's basic tanning liquor is made as follows: A strong - solution of ferrous sulphate is boiled and then oxidized to the ferric - state by the careful addition of nitric acid. Next, to destroy excess - of nitric acid, ferrous sulphate is added until effervescence ceases - and the resulting clear orange-coloured solution is concentrated to a - varnish-like consistency. It does not crystallize or decompose on - concentration. The hides or skins are prepared for tanning in the - usual way, and then handled or otherwise worked in solutions of the - above iron salt, the solutions, which are at first weak, being - gradually strengthened. - - The tannage occupies from 2 to 8 days, and the goods are then stuffed - in a ventilated drum with greases or soap. If the latter is used, an - insoluble iron soap is precipitated on the fibres of the leather, - which may then be finally impregnated with stearin and paraffin, and - finished in the usual manner as described under Curried Leathers. A - very fair leather may also be manufactured by using iron alum and salt - in the same manner as described under ordinary alum and salt. - -_Combination Tannages._--Leathers tanned by mixtures or separate baths -of both mineral and vegetable tanning agents have now taken an important -position in commerce. Such leathers are the Swedish and Danish glove -leathers, the United States "dongola leather," and French glazed kid. -The usefulness of such a combination will be evident, for while -vegetable tanning produces fullness, plumpness and resistance to water, -the mineral dressing produces a softness unnatural to vegetable tannages -without the use of large quantities of oils and fats. It may also be -noted that once a leather has been thoroughly tanned with either mineral -or vegetable materials, although it will absorb large quantities of the -material which has not been first used, it will retain in the main the -characteristics of the tannage first applied. The principle had long -been used in the manufacture of such tough and flexible leathers as -"green leather," "combing leather" and "picker bands," but was first -applied to the manufacture of imitation glazed kid by Kent in America, -who, about 1878, discovered the principle of "fatliquoring," and named -his product "dongola leather." The discovery of this process -revolutionized the manufacture of combination leathers. - - The Swedish and Danish glove leathers were first given a dressing of - alum and salt, with or without the addition of flour and egg, and were - then finished and coloured with vegetable materials, generally with - willow bark, although, in cases of scarcity, sumach, oak bark, madder - and larch were resorted to. The "green leathers" manufactured in - England generally receive about a week's tannage in gambier liquors, - and are finished off in hot alum and salt liquors, after which they - are dried, have the crystallized salts slicked off, are damped back, - and heavily stuffed with moellon, degras or sod oil. Kent, in the - manufacture of his dongola leather, used mixed liquors of gambier - alum and salt, and when tanned, washed the goods in warm water to - remove excess of tanning agent, piled up to samm, and fatliquored. In - making alum combinations it must be borne in mind that alum leather - will not glaze, and if a glazed finish is required, a fairly heavy - vegetable tannage should be first applied. For dull finishes the - mineral tannage may advantageously precede the vegetable. - - Very excellent chrome combination leather is also manufactured by the - application of the above principles, gambier always being in great - favour as the vegetable agent. The use of other materials deprives the - leather of its stretch, although they may be advantageously used where - the latter property is objectionable. - -_Oil Tanning._--Under the head of oil tanning is included "buff -leather," "buck leather," "piano leather," "chamois leather," and to a -greater or lesser extent, "Preller's crown or helvetia leather." The -process of oil tanning dates back to antiquity, and was known as -"shamoying," now spelt "chamoising." Chamoising yields an exceedingly -tough, strong and durable leather, and forms an important branch of the -leather industry. The theory of the process is the same as the theory of -currying, which is nothing more or less than chamoising, viz. the -lubrication of the fibres by the oil itself and the aldehyde tanning -which takes place, due to the oxidation and decomposition of the esters -of the fatty acids contained in the oil. The fact that an aldehyde -tannage takes place seems to have been first discovered by Payne and -Pullman, who took out a patent in 1898, covering formaldehyde and other -aldehydes used in alkaline solutions. Their product, "Kaspine" leather, -found considerable application in the way of military accoutrements. -Chamois, buff, buck and piano leathers are all manufactured by the same -process slightly modified to suit the class of hide used, the last three -being heavy leathers, the first light. - - As regards the process used for chamois leather, the reader will - remember, from the account of the vegetable tannage of sheep skins, - that after splitting from the limes, the fleshes were thrown back into - the pits for another three weeks' liming (six weeks in all) - preparatory to being dressed as chamois leather. It is necessary to - lime the goods for oil dressing very thoroughly, and if the grain has - not been removed by splitting, as in the case of sheep skins, it is - "frized" off with a sharp knife over the beam. The goods are now - rinsed, scudded and drenched, dried out until stiff, and stocked in - the faller stocks with plenty of cod oil for 2 to 3 hours until they - show signs of heating, when they are hung up in a cool shed. This - process is repeated several times during a period of from 4 to 6 days, - the heat driving the water out of the skins and the oil replacing it. - At the end of this time the goods, which will have changed to a brown - colour, are hung up and allowed to become as dry as possible, when - they are hung in a warm stove for some hours, after which they are - piled to heat off, thrown into tepid water and put through a wringing - machine. The grease which is recovered from the wringing machine is - known commercially as "degras" or "moellon," and fetches a good price, - as it is unrivalled for fatliquoring and related processes, such as - stuffing, producing a very soft product. They next receive a warm soda - lye bath, and are again wrung; this removes more grease, which forms - soap with the lye, and is recovered by treatment with vitriol, which - decomposes the soap. The grease which floats on top of the liquor is - sold under the name of "sod oil." This also is a valuable material for - fatliquoring, &c., but not so good as degras. - - After being wrung out, the goods are bleached by one of the processes - mentioned in the section on wool rug dressing, the permanganate method - being in general use in England. In countries where a fine climate - prevails the soap bleach or "sun bleach" is adopted; this consists of - dipping the goods in soap solution and exposing them to the sun's - rays, the process being repeated three or more times as necessary. - - The next step is fatliquoring to induce softness, after which they are - dried out slowly, staked or "perched" with a moon knife, fluffed on a - revolving wheel covered with fine emery to produce the fine "nap" or - surface, brushed over with french chalk, fuller's earth or china clay, - and finally finished on a very fine emery wheel. - -_Preller's Helvetia or Crown Leather._--This process of leather -manufacture was discovered in 1850 by Theodor Klemm, a cabinetmaker of -Wurttemberg, who being then in poor circumstances, sold his patent to an -Englishman named Preller, who manufactured it in Southwark, and adopted -a crown as his trade mark. Hence the name "crown" leather. The -manufacture then spread through Switzerland and Germany, the product -being used in the main for picker straps, belting and purposes where -waterproof goods were required, such as hose pipes and military water -bags. No taste is imparted to the water by this leather. - - The process of manufacture is as follows: The hides are unhaired by - short liming, painting with lime and sulphide, or sweating, and - cleansed by scudding and washing, after which they are coloured in - bark liquors, washed up through clean water, and hung up to dry - partially. When in a sammied condition the goods are placed on a table - and a thick layer of the tanning paste spread on the flesh side. The - tanning paste varies with each manufacturer, but the following is the - mixture originally used by Preller: 100 parts flour, 100 parts soft - fat or horse tallow, 35 parts butter, 88 parts ox brains, 50 parts - milk, 15 parts salt or saltpetre. - - The hides are now rolled in bundles, placed in a warm drum and worked - for 8 to 10 hours, after which they are removed and hung up until half - dry, when the process is repeated. Thus they are tumbled 3 to 4 times, - set out flesh and grain, rinsed through tepid water, set out, sammied, - and curried by coating with glycerin, oil, tallow and degras. The - table grease is now slicked off, and the goods are set out in grease, - grained and dried. - - _Transparent Leather._--Transparent leather is a rather horny product, - somewhat like raw hide, and has been used for stitching belts and - picker bands. The goods to be dressed are limed, unhaired, very - thoroughly delimed with acids, washed in water, scudded and - clean-fleshed right to the veins; they are now stretched in frames, - clean-fleshed with a moon knife, and brushed with warm water, when - several coats of glycerin, to which has been added some antiseptic - such as salicylic or picric acid, are applied; the goods are then - dried out, and another coat is applied, and when semi-dry they are - drummed in a mixture of glycerin, boracic acid, alum and salt, with - the addition of a little bichromate of potash to stain them a yellow - colour. After drumming for 2 to 3 hours they are removed, washed up, - lightly set out, and stretched in frames to dry, when they are ready - for cutting into convenient lengths for use. - - _Parchment._--A certain class of sheep skin known as Hampshires is - generally used in the manufacture of this speciality. The skins as - received are first very carefully washed to remove all dirt, dewooled, - limed for 3 to 4 weeks, they are then cleanly fleshed, unhaired, - rinsed up in water, and thickly split, the poorer hides being utilized - for chamois; they are now re-split at the fatty strata so that all fat - may be easily removed, and while the grains are dressed as skivers, - the fleshes are tied in frames, watered with hot water, scraped and - coated on both sides with a cream consisting of whiting, soda and - water, after which they are dried out in a hot stove. In the drying - the whiting mixture absorbs the grease from the skins; in fact, this - method of degreasing is often employed in the manufacture of wool - rugs. When dry, both sides of the skins are flooded to remove the - whiting, and are then well rubbed over with a flat piece of - pumice-stone, swilled, dried, re-pumiced, again swilled, and when - sammied are rolled off with a wooden roller and dried out. - - _Tar and Peat Tanning._--Tar tanning was discovered by a French - chemist named Philippi, who started with the idea that, if coal was a - decomposition product of forests, it must still necessarily possess - the tanning properties originally present in the trees. However - far-fetched such an argument may seem, Philippi succeeded in producing - a leather from wood and coal tar at a fairly cheap rate, the product - being of excellent texture and strength, but rather below the average - in the finish, which was inclined to be patchy, showing oily spots. - His method consisted of impregnating the goods with refined tar and - some organic acid, but the product does not seem to have taken any - hold upon the market, and is not much heard of now. - - Peat tanning was discovered by Payne, an English chemist, who was also - the co-discoverer of the Payne-Pullman formaldehyde tanning process. - His peat or humic acid tannage was patented by him about 1905, and is - now worked on a commercial scale. The humic acid is first extracted - from the peat by means of alkalis, and the hides are treated with this - solution, the humic acid being afterwards precipitated in the hides by - treatment with some stronger organic or mineral acid. - -_Dyeing, Staining and Finishing._--These operations are practised almost -exclusively on the lighter leathers. Heavy leathers, except coloured and -black harness and split hides for bag work, are not often dyed, and -their finishing is generally considered to be part of the tannage. In -light leathers a great business is done in buying up "crust" stock, i.e. -rough tanned stock, and then dyeing and finishing to suit the needs and -demands of the various markets. The carrying out of these operations is -a distinct and separate business from tanning, although where possible -the two businesses are carried on in the same works. - -Whatever the goods are and whatever their ultimate finish, the first -operation, upon receipt by the dyer of the crust stock, is sorting, an -operation requiring much skill. The sorter must be familiar with the why -and wherefore of all subsequent processes through which the leather must -go, so as to judge of the suitability of the various qualities of -leather for these processes, and to know where any flaws that may exist -will be sufficiently suppressed or hidden to produce a saleable -product, or will be rendered entirely unnoticeable. The points to be -considered in the sorting are coarseness or fineness of texture, -boldness or fineness of grain, colour, flaws including stains and -scratches, substance, &c. Light-coloured and flawless goods are -parcelled out for fine and delicate shades, those of darker hue and few -flaws are parcelled out for the darker shades, such as maroons, greens -(sage and olive), dark blues, &c., and those which are so badly stained -as to be unsuitable for colours go for blacks. After sorting, the goods -are soaked back to a limp condition by immersion in warm water, and are -then horsed up to drip, having been given, perhaps, a preliminary -slicking out. - -Up to this point all goods are treated alike, but the subsequent -processes now diverge according to the class of leather being treated -and the finish required. - -Persian goods for glaces, moroccos, &c., require special preparation for -dyeing, being first re-tanned. As received, they are sorted and soaked -as above, piled to samm, and shaved. Shaving consists of rendering the -flesh side of the skins smooth by shaving off irregularities, the skin, -which is supported on a rubber roller actuated by a foot lever, being -pressed against a series of spiral blades set on a steel roller, which -is caused to revolve rapidly. When shaved, the goods are stripped, -washed up, soured, sweetened and re-tanned in sumach, washed up, and -slicked out, and are then ready for dyeing. - -There are three distinct methods of dyeing, with several minor -modifications. Tray dyeing consists of immersing the goods, from 2 to 4 -dozen at a time, in two separate piles, in the dye solution at 60 deg. C, -contained in a flat wooden tray about 5 ft. X 4 ft. X 1 ft., and keeping -them constantly moving by continually turning them from one pile to the -other. The disadvantages of this method are that the bath rapidly cools, -thus dyeing rapidly at the beginning and slowly at the termination of -the operation; hence a large excess of dye is wasted, much labour is -required, and the shades obtained are not so level as those obtained by -the other methods. But the goods are under observation the whole time, a -very distinct advantage when matching shades, and a white flesh may be -preserved. The paddle method of dyeing consists of paddling the goods in -a large volume of liquor contained in a semi-circular wooden paddle for -from half to three-quarters of an hour. The disadvantages are that the -liquor cools fairly rapidly, more dye is wasted than in the tray method, -and a white flesh cannot be preserved. But larger packs can be dyed at -the one operation, the goods are under observation the whole time, and -little labour is required. - -The drum method of dyeing is perhaps best, a drum somewhat similar to -that used by curriers being preferable. The goods are placed on the -shelves inside the dry drum, the lid of which is then fastened on, and -the machinery is started; when the drum is revolving at full speed, -which should be about 12 to 15 revolutions per minute, the dye solution -is added through the hollow axle, and the dyeing continued for half an -hour, when, without stopping the drum, if desired, the goods may be -fatliquored by running in the fatliquor through the hollow axle. The -disadvantages are that the flesh is dyed and the goods cannot be seen. -The advantages are that little labour is required, a large pack of skins -may be treated, level shades are produced, heat is retained, almost -complete exhaustion of the dye-bath is effected, and subsequent -processes, such as fatliquoring, may be carried out without stopping the -drum. - - Of the great number of coal-tar dyes on the market comparatively few - can be used in leather manufacture. The four chief classes are: (1) - acid dyes; (2) basic or tannin dyes; (3) direct or cotton dyes; (4) - mordant (alizarine) dyes. - - Acid dyes are not so termed because they have acid characteristics; - the name simply denotes that for the development of the full shade of - colour it is necessary to add acid to the dye-bath. These dyes are - generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids, and need the addition of an - acid to free the dye, which is the sulphonic acid. Although - theoretically any acid (stronger than the sulphonic acid present) will - do for this purpose, it is found in practice that only sulphuric and - formic acids may be employed, because others, such as acetic, lactic, - &c., do not develop the full shade of colour. Acid sodium sulphate may - also be successfully used. - - Acid colours produce a full level shade without bronzing, and do not - accentuate any defects in the leather, such as bad grain, &c. They are - also moderately fast to light and rubbing. They are generally applied - to leather at a temperature between 50 deg. and 60 deg. C., with an - equal weight of sulphuric acid. The quantity of dye used varies, but - generally, for goat, persians, &c., from 25 to 30 oz. are used per ten - dozen skins, and for calf half as much again, dissolved in such an - amount of water as is most convenient according to the method being - used. If sodium bisulphate is substituted for sulphuric acid twice as - much must be used, and if formic acid three times as much (by weight). - - Basic dyes are salts of organic colour bases with hydrochloric or some - other suitable acid. Basic colours precipitate the tannins, and thus, - because of their affinity for them, dye very rapidly, tending to - produce uneven shades, especially if the tannin on the skin is - unevenly distributed. They are much more intense in colour than the - acid dyes, have a strong tendency to bronze, and accentuate weak and - defective grain. They are also precipitated by hard waters, so that - the hardness should be first neutralized by the addition of acetic - acid, else the precipitated colour lake may produce streakily dyed - leather. To prevent rapid dyeing, acetic acid or sodium bisulphate - should always be added in small quantity to the dye-bath, preferably - the latter, as it prevents bronzing. The most important point about - the application of basic dyes to leather is the previous fixation of - the tannin on the surface of the leather to prevent its bleeding into - the dye-bath and precipitating the dye. All soluble salts of the heavy - metals will fix the tannin, but few are applicable, as they form - colour lakes, which are generally undesirable. Antimony and titanium - salts are generally used, the forms being tartar emetic (antimony - potassium tartrate), antimonine (antimony lactate), potassium titanium - oxalate, and titanium lactate. The titanium salts are economically - used when dyeing browns, as they produce a yellowish-brown shade; it - is therefore not necessary to use so much dye. About 2 oz. of tartar - emetic and 8 oz. of salt is a convenient quantity for 1 dozen goat - skins. The bath is used at 30 deg. to 40 deg. C., and the goods are - immersed for about 15 minutes, having been thoroughly washed before - being dyed. Iron salts are sometimes used by leather-stainers for - saddening (dulling) the shade of colour produced, iron tannate, a - black salt, being formed. It is often found economical to "bottom" - goods with acid, direct, or other colours, and then finish with basic - colours; this procedure forms a colour lake, and colour lakes are - always faster to light and rubbing than the colours themselves. - - Direct cotton dyes produce shades of great delicacy, and are used for - the dyeing of pale and "art" shades. They are applied in neutral or - very slightly acid baths, formic and acetic acids being most suitable - with the addition of a quantity of sodium chloride or sulphate. After - dyeing, the goods are well washed to free from excess of salt. The - eosine colours, including erythrosine, phloxine, rose Bengal, &c., are - applied in a similar manner, and are specially used for the beautiful - fluorescent pink shades they produce; acid and basic colours and - mineral acids precipitate them. - - The mordant colours, which include the alizarine and anthracene - colours, are extremely fast to light, and require a mordant to develop - the colour. They are specially applicable to chamois leather, although - a few may be used for chrome and alum leathers, and one or two are - successfully applied to vegetable-tanned leather without a mordant. - - Sulphur or sulphide colours, the first of which to appear were the - famous Vidal colours, are applied in sodium sulphide solution, and are - most successfully used on chrome leather, as they produce a colour - lake with chrome salts, the resulting colour being very fast to light - and rubbing. A very serious disadvantage in connexion with them is - that they must necessarily be applied in alkaline solution, and the - alkali has a disintegrating effect upon the fibre of the leather, - which cannot be satisfactorily overcome, although formaldehyde and - glycerin mixtures have been patented for the purpose. - - The Janus colours are perhaps worth mentioning as possessing both acid - and basic characteristics; they precipitate tannin, and are best - regarded as basic dyes from a leather-dyer's standpoint. - -The goods after dyeing are washed up, slicked out on an inclined glass -table, nailed on boards, or hung up by the hind shanks to dry out. - -Coal-tar dyes are not much used for the production of blacks, as they do -not give such a satisfactory result as logwood with an iron mordant. In -the dyeing of blacks the preliminary operation of souring is always -omitted and that of sumaching sometimes, but if much tan has been -removed it will be found necessary to use sumach, although cutch may be -advantageously and cheaply substituted. After shaving, the goods, if to -be dressed for "blue backs" (blue-coloured flesh), are dyed as already -described, with methyl violet or some other suitable dye; they are then -folded down the back and drawn through a hot solution of logwood and -fustic extracts, and then rapidly through a weak, cold iron sulphate and -copper acetate solution. Immediately afterwards they are rinsed up and -either drummed in a little neatsfoot oil or oiled over with a pad, flesh -and grain, and dried. When dry the goods are damped back and staked, -dried out and re-staked. - -After dry-staking, the goods are "seasoned," i.e. some suitable mixture -is applied to the grain to enable it to take the glaze. The following is -typical: 3 quarts logwood liquor, 1/2 pint bullock's blood, 1/2 pint -milk, 1/2 gill ammonia, 1/2 gill orchil and 3 quarts water. This season -is brushed well into the grain, and the goods are dried in a warm stove -and glazed by machine. The skins are glazed under considerable pressure, -a polished glass slab or roller being forced over the surface of the -leather in a series of rapid strokes, after which the goods are -re-seasoned, re-staked, fluffed, re-glazed, oiled over with a pad, -dipped in linseed oil and dried. They are now ready for market. If the -goods are to be finished dull they are seasoned with linseed mucilage, -casein or milk (many other materials are also used), and rolled, glassed -with a polished slab by hand, or ironed with a warm iron. - -Coloured glaces are finished in a similar manner to black glaces, dye -(instead of logwood and iron) being added to the season, which usually -consists of a simple mixture of dye, albumen and milk. - -Moroccos and grain leathers are boarded on the flesh side before and -after glazing, often being "tooth rolled" between the several -operations. Tooth rolling consists of forcing, under pressure, a toothed -roller over the grain; this cuts into the leather and helps to produce -many grains, which could not be produced naturally by boarding, besides -fixing them. - -Many artificial grains and patterns are also given to leather by -printing and embossing, these processes being carried out by passing the -leather between two rollers, the top one upon which the pattern is -engraved being generally steam heated. This impresses the pattern upon -the grain of the leather. - -The above methods will give a very general idea of the processes in -vogue for the dressing of goods for fancy work. The dressing of chrome -leathers for uppers is different in important particulars. - - _Chrome Box and Willow Calf._--Willow calf is coloured calf, box calf - is dressed black and grained with a "box" grain. A large quantity of - kips is now dressed as box calf; these goods are the hides of yearling - Indian cattle, and are dressed in an exactly similar manner as calf. - After tanning and boraxing to neutralize the acidity of the chrome - liquor, the goods are washed up, sammied, shaved, and are ready for - mordanting previous to dyeing. Very few dyes will dye chrome leather - direct, i.e. without mordanting. Sulphide colours are not yet in great - demand, nor are the alizarines used as much as they might be. The - ordinary acid and basic dyes are more generally employed, and the - goods consequently require to be first mordanted. The mordanting is - carried out by drumming the goods in a solution containing tannin, - and, except for pale shades, some dyewood extract is used; for reds - peachwood extract, for browns fustic or gambier, and for dark browns a - little logwood is added. For all pale shades sumach is exclusively - used. After drumming in the warm tannin infusion for half an hour, if - the goods are to be dyed with basic colours the tannin is first fixed - by drumming in tartar emetic and salt, or titanium, as previously - described; the dyeing is also carried out as described for persians, - except that a slightly higher temperature may be maintained. If the - goods are to be dyed black they are passed through logwood and iron - solutions. - - After dyeing and washing up, &c., the goods are fatliquored by placing - them in a previously heated drum and drumming them with a mixture - known as a "fatliquor," of which the following recipe is typical: - Dissolve 3 lb. of soft soap by boiling with 3 gallons of water, then - add 9 lb. of neatsfoot oil and boil for some minutes; now place the - mixture in an emulsifier and emulsify until cooled to 35 deg. C., then - add the yolks of 5 fresh eggs and emulsify for a further half hour. - The fatliquor is added to the drum at 55 deg. C., and the goods are - drummed for half an hour, when all the fatliquor should be absorbed; - they are then slicked out and dried. After drying, they are damped - back, staked, dried, re-staked and seasoned with materials similar to - those used for persians; when dry they are glazed, boarded on the - flesh ("grained") from neck to butt and belly to belly to give them - the box grain, fluffed, reseasoned, reglazed and regrained. - - _Finishing of Bag Hides._--The goods are first soaked back, piled to - samm, split or shaved, scoured by machine, finished off by hand, - washed up and retanned by drumming in warm sumach and extract, after - which they are washed up, struck out, hung up to samm, and "set." - "Setting" consists of laying the grain flat and smooth by striking out - with a steel or sharp brass slicker. They are then dried out, topped - with linseed mucilage, and again dried. This brushing over with - linseed mucilage prevents the dye from sinking too far into the - leather; gelatine, Irish moss, starch and gums are also used for the - same purpose. These materials are also added to the staining solution - to thicken it and further prevent its sinking in. - - When dry, the goods are stained by applying a (1/2)% (usually) - solution of a suitable basic dye, thickened with linseed, with a - brush. Two men are usually employed on this work; one starts at the - right-hand flank and the other at the left-hand shank, and they work - towards each other, staining in sections; much skill is needed to - obviate markings where the sections overlap. The goods may - advantageously be bottomed with an acid dye or a dye-wood extract, and - then finished with basic dyes. Whichever method is used, two to three - coats are given, drying between each. After the last coat of stain, - and while the goods are still in a sammied condition, a mixture of - linseed mucilage and French chalk is applied to the flesh and glassed - off wet, to give it a white appearance, and then the goods are printed - with any of the usual bag grains by machine or hand, and dried out. - For a bright finish the season may consist of a solution of 15 parts - carnauba wax, 10 parts curd soap and 100 parts water boiled together; - this is sponged into the grain, dried and the hides are finished by - either glassing or brushing. For a duller finish the grain is simply - rubbed over with buck tallow and brushed. Hide bellies for small work - are treated in much the same manner. - - _Glove Leathers._--As these goods were tanned in alum, salt, flour and - egg, any undue immersion in water removes the tannage; for this reason - they are generally stained like bag hides, one man only being employed - on the same skin. The skins are first thoroughly soaked in warm water - and then drummed for some minutes in a fresh supply, when they are - re-egged to replace that which has been lost. This is best done by - drumming them for about 1(1/2) hours in 40 to 50 egg yolks and 5 lb. of - salt for every hundred skins; they are then allowed to be in pile for - 24 hours, and are set out on the table ready for mordanting. The - mordants universally used are ammonia or alkaline soft soap; 1 in 1000 - of the former or a 1% solution of the latter. When the goods have - partially dried in, bottoming follows, and usually the natural wood - dyestuffs are used for this operation, such as fustic, Brazil wood, - peachwood, logwood and turmeric. After application of these colours - the goods are sammied and topped with a 1% solution of an acid dye, to - which has been added 20% of methylated spirit to prevent frothing with - the egg yolk; they are then dried out slowly, staked, pulled in shape, - fluffed and brushed by machine. The season, which is sponged on, may - consist of 1 part dye, 1 part albumen, 2 parts dextrine and 1/4 part - glycerine, made up to 100 parts with water; when it has been applied, - the goods are sammied, brushed and ironed with a warm flat iron such - as is used in laundry work. - - _Bookbinding Leathers._--A committee of the Society of Arts (London) - has investigated the question of leather for bookbinding, attention - having been drawn to this subject by the rotten and decayed condition - often observed in bindings less than fifty years old. This committee - engaged in research work extending over several years, and the report - in which its results were given was edited for the Society of Arts and - the Leathersellers' Company (which also did much important work in - connexion with it) by Lord Cobham, chairman of the committee, and Sir - Henry Trueman Wood, secretary of the society. The essence of the - report, so far as leather manufacture is concerned, is as follows: The - goods should be soaked and limed in fresh liquors, and bating and - puering should be avoided, weak organic acids or erodine being used; - they should also be tanned with pyrogallol tanning materials, and - preferably with sumach. In shaving, they should only be necked and - backed, i.e. only irregularities should be removed, as further shaving - has a considerable weakening effect on the fibre. The striking out - should not be heavy enough to lay the fibre. In dyeing, acid dyes and - a few direct colours only are permissible, and in connexion with the - former the use of sulphuric acid is strongly condemned, as it - absolutely disintegrates the fibre; the use of formic, acetic and - lactic acids is permitted. The use of salts of mineral acids is to be - avoided, and in finishing, tight setting out and damp glazing is not - to be recommended; oil may be advantageously used. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. G. Bennett, _The Manufacture of Leather_ (1909); S. - R. Trotman, _Leather Trades Chemistry_ (1908); M. C. Lamb, _Leather - Dressing_ (1907); A. Watt, _Leather Manufacture_ (1906); H. R. - Procter, _Principles of Leather Manufacture_ (1903), and _Leather - Industries Laboratory Book_ (1908); L. A. Flemming, _Practical - Tanning_ (1910); A. M. Villon, _Practical Treatise on the Leather - Industry_ (1901); C. T. Davis, _Manufacture of Leather_ (1897). German - works include J. Borgman, _Die Rotlederfabrikation_ (Berlin, - 1904-1905), and _Feinlederfabrikation_ (1901); J. Jettmar, _Handbuch - der Chromgerbung_ (Leipzig, 1900); J. von Schroeder, _Gerbereichemie_ - (Berlin, 1898). (J. G. P.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See LYE. - - - - -LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL. Under the name of artificial leather, or of -American leather cloth, large quantities of a material having, more or -less, a leather-like surface are used, principally for upholstery -purposes, such as the covering of chairs, lining the tops of writing -desks and tables, &c. There is considerable diversity in the -preparation of such materials. A common variety consists of a web of -calico coated with boiled linseed oil mixed with dryers and lampblack or -other pigment. Several coats of this mixture are uniformly spread, -smoothed and compressed on the cotton surface by passing it between -metal rollers, and when the surface is required to possess a glossy -enamel-like appearance, it receives a finishing coat of copal varnish. A -grained morocco surface is given to the material by passing it between -suitably embossed rollers. Preparations of this kind have a close -affinity to cloth waterproofed with indiarubber, and to such -manufactures as ordinary waxcloth. An artificial leather which has been -patented and proposed for use as soles for boots, &c., is composed of -powdered scraps and cuttings of leather mixed with solution of -guttapercha dried and compressed. In place of the guttapercha solution, -oxidized linseed oil or dissolved resin may be used as the binding -medium for the leather powder. - - - - -LEATHERHEAD, an urban district in the Epsom parliamentary division of -Surrey, England, 18 m. S.S.W. of London, on the London, Brighton & South -Coast and the London & South-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 4694. It lies -at the foot of the North Downs in the pleasant valley of the river Mole. -The church of St Mary and St Nicholas dates from the 14th century. St -John's Foundation School, opened in London in 1852, is devoted to the -education of sons of poor clergymen. Leatherhead has brick-making and -brewing industries, and the district is largely residential. - - - - -LEATHES, STANLEY (1830-1900), English divine and Orientalist, was born -at Ellesborough, Bucks, on the 21st of March 1830, and was educated at -Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1852, M.A. 1853. In -1853 he was the first Tyrwhitt's Hebrew scholar. He was ordained priest -in 1857, and after serving several curacies was appointed professor of -Hebrew at King's College, London, in 1863. In 1868-1870 he was Boyle -lecturer (_The Witness of the Old Testament to Christ_), in 1873 Hulsean -lecturer (_The Gospel its Own Witness_), in 1874 Bampton Lecturer (_The -Religion of the Christ_) and from 1876 to 1880 Warburtonian lecturer. He -was a member of the Old Testament revision committee from 1870 to 1885. -In 1876 he was elected prebendary of St Paul's Cathedral, and he was -rector of Cliffe-at-Hoo near Gravesend (1880-1889) and of Much Hadham, -Hertfordshire (1889-1900). The university of Edinburgh gave him the -honorary degree of D.D. in 1878, and his own college made him an -honorary fellow in 1885. Besides the lectures noted he published -_Studies in Genesis_ (1880), _The Foundations of Morality_ (1882) and -some volumes of sermons. He died in May 1900. - -His son, Stanley Mordaunt Leathes (b. 1861), became a fellow of Trinity, -Cambridge, and lecturer on history, and was one of the editors of the -_Cambridge Modern History_; he was secretary to the Civil Service -Commission from 1903 to 1907, when he was appointed a Civil Service -Commissioner. - - - - -LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. _levain_, adapted from Fr. _levain_, in same sense, -from Lat. _levamen_, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, -comfort, _levare_, to lift up), a substance which produces fermentation, -particularly in the making of bread, properly a portion of already -fermented dough added to other dough for this purpose (see BREAD). The -word is used figuratively of any element, influence or agency which -effects a subtle or secret change. These figurative usages are mainly -due to the comparison of the kingdom of Heaven to leaven in Matt. xiii. -33, and to the warning against the leaven of the Pharisees in Matt. xvi. -6. In the first example the word is used of a good influence, but the -more usual significance is that of an evil agency. There was among the -Hebrews an association of the idea of fermentation and corruption, which -may have been one source of the prohibition of the use of leavened bread -in sacrificial offerings. For the usage of unleavened bread at the -feasts of the Passover and of Massoth, and the connexion of the two, see -PASSOVER. - - - - -LEAVENWORTH, a city and the county-seat of Leavenworth county, Kansas, -U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri river. Pop. (1900) 20,738, of -whom 3402 were foreign-born and 2925 were negroes; (1910 census) 19,363. -It is one of the most important railway centres west of the Missouri -river, being served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, -Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago -Great Western, the Missouri Pacific, the Union Pacific and the -Leavenworth & Topeka railways. The city is laid out regularly in the -bottom-lands of the river, and its streets are named after Indian -tribes. Rolling hills surround it on three sides. The city has many -handsome public buildings, and contains the Cathedral of the Immaculate -Conception, Leavenworth being the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. The -public institutions include the Kansas State Protective Home (1889) for -negroes, an Old Ladies' Rest (1892), St Vincent's Orphans' Asylum (1886, -open to all sects) and a Guardian Angels' Home (1889), for negroes--all -private charities aided by the state; also St John's Hospital (1879), -Cushing Hospital (1893) and Leavenworth Hospital (1900), which are -training schools for nurses. There is also a branch of the National Home -for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers. In the suburbs there are state and -United States penitentiaries. Leavenworth is a trading centre and has -various manufactures, the most important being foundry and machine shop -and flouring and grist-mill products, and furniture. The city's factory -products increased in value from $3,251,460 in 1900 to $4,151,767 in -1905, or 27.7%. There are valuable coal mines in Leavenworth and the -immediate vicinity. About 3 m. N. of the city, on a reservation of about -6000 acres, is Fort Leavenworth, an important United States military -post, associated with which are a National Cemetery and Service Schools -of the U.S. Army (founded in 1881 as the U.S. Infantry and Cavalry -School and in 1901 developed into a General Service and Staff College). -In 1907 there were three general divisions of these schools: the Army -School of the Line, for officers (not below the grade of captain) of the -regular army and for militia officers recommended by the governors of -their respective states or territories, offering courses in military -art, engineering, law and languages; the Army Signal School, also open -to regular and militia officers, and having departments of field -signalling, signal engineering, topography and languages; and the Army -Staff College, in which the students are the highest graduates from the -Army School of the Line, and the courses of instruction are included in -the departments of military art, engineering, law, languages and care of -troops. The course is one year in each school. At Fort Leavenworth there -is a colossal bronze statue of General U. S. Grant erected in 1889. A -military prison was established at Fort Leavenworth in 1875; it was used -as a civil prison from 1895 to 1906, when it was re-established as a -military prison. Its inmates were formerly taught various trades, but -owing to the opposition of labour organizations this system was -discontinued, and the prisoners are now employed in work on the military -reservation. - - The fort, from which the city took its name, was built in 1827, in the - Indian country, by Colonel Henry Leavenworth (1783-1834) of the 3rd - Infantry, for the protection of traders plying between the Missouri - river and Santa Fe. The town site was claimed by Missourians from - Weston in June 1854, Leavenworth thus being the oldest permanent - settlement in Kansas; and during the contest in Kansas between the - anti-slavery and pro-slavery settlers, it was known as a pro-slavery - town. It was first incorporated by the Territorial legislature in - 1855; a new charter was obtained in 1881; and in 1908 the city adopted - the commission plan of government. On the 3rd of April 1858 a - free-state convention adopted the Leavenworth Constitution here; this - constitution, which was as radically anti-slavery as the Lecompton - Constitution was pro-slavery, was nominally approved by popular vote - in May 1858, and was later submitted to Congress, but never came into - effect. During the Civil War Leavenworth enjoyed great prosperity, at - the expense of more inland towns, partly owing to the proximity of the - fort, which gave it immunity from border raids from Missouri and was - an important depot of supplies and a place for mustering troops into - and out of the service. Leavenworth was, in Territorial days and until - after 1880, the largest and most thriving commercial city of the - state, and rivalled Kansas City, Missouri, which, however, finally got - the better of it in the struggle for railway facilities. - - - - -LEBANON (from Semitic _laban_, "to be white," or "whitish," probably -referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls of chalk or -limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range), in -its widest sense is the central mountain mass of Syria, extending for -about 100 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W. It is bounded W. by the sea, N. by -the plain Jun Akkar, beyond which rise the mountains of the Ansarieh, -and E. by the inland plateau of Syria, mainly steppe-land. To the south -Lebanon ends about the point where the river Litany bends westward, and -at Banias. A valley narrowing towards its southern end, and now called -the Buka'a, divides the mountainous mass into two great parts. That -lying to the west is still called Jebel Libnan; the greater part of the -eastern mass now bears the name of the Eastern Mountain (Jebel -el-Sharki). In Greek the western range was called Libanos, the eastern -Antilibanos. The southern extension of the latter, Mount Hermon (q.v.), -may in many respects be treated as a separate mountain. - -Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon have many features in common; in both the -southern portion is less arid and barren than the northern, the western -valleys better wooded and more fertile than the eastern. In general the -main elevations of the two ranges form pairs lying opposite one another; -the forms of both ranges are monotonous, but the colouring is splendid, -especially when viewed from a distance; when seen close at hand only a -few valleys with perennial streams offer pictures of landscape beauty, -their rich green contrasting pleasantly with the bare brown and yellow -mountain sides. The finest scenery is found in N. Lebanon, in the -Maronite districts of Kesrawan and Bsherreh, where the gorges are -veritable canyons, and the villages are often very picturesquely -situated. The south of the chain is more open and undulating. -Anti-Lebanon is the barest and most inhospitable part of the system. - - The district west of Lebanon, averaging about 20 m. in breadth, slopes - in an intricate series of plateaus and terraces to the Mediterranean. - The coast is for the most part abrupt and rocky, often leaving room - for only a narrow path along the shore, and when viewed from the sea - it does not suggest the extent of country lying between its cliffs and - the lofty summits behind. Most of the mountain spurs run from east to - west, but in northern Lebanon the prevailing direction of the valleys - is north-westerly, and in the south some ridges run parallel with the - principal chain. The valleys have for the most part been deeply - excavated by mountain streams; the apparently inaccessible heights are - crowned by numerous villages, castles or cloisters embosomed among - trees. The chief perennial streams, beginning from the north, are the - Nahr Akkar, N. Arka, N. el-Barid, N. Kadisha, "the holy river" (the - valley of which begins in the immediate neighbourhood of the highest - summits, and rapidly descends in a series of great bends till the - river reaches the sea at Tripoli), Wadi el-Joz (falling into the sea - at Batrun), Wadi Fidar, Nahr Ibrahim (the ancient Adonis, having its - source in a recess of the great mountain amphitheatre where the famous - sanctuary Apheca, the modern Afka, lay), Nahr el-Kelb (the ancient - Lycus), Nahr Beirut (the ancient Magoras, entering the sea at Beirut), - Nahr Damur (ancient Tamyras), Nahr el-'Auwali (the ancient Bostrenus, - which in the upper part of its course is joined by the Nahr el-Baruk). - The 'Auwali and the Nahr el-Zaherani, the only other considerable - streams before we reach the Litany, flow north-east to south-west, in - consequence of the interposition of a ridge subordinate and parallel - to the central chain. On the north, where the mountain bears the - special name of Jebel Akkar, the main ridge of Lebanon rises gradually - from the plain. A number of valleys run to the north and north-east, - among them that of the Nahr el-Kebir, the Eleutherus of the ancients, - which rises in the Jebel el-Abiad on the eastern slope of Lebanon, and - afterwards, skirting the district, flows westward to the sea. South of - Jebel el-Abiad, beneath the main ridge, which as a rule falls away - suddenly towards the east, occur several small elevated terraces - having a southward slope; among these are the Wadi en-Nusur ("vale of - eagles"), and the basin of the lake Yammuna, with its intermittent - spring Neb'a el-Arba'in. Of the streams which descend into the Buka'a, - the Berdani rises in Jebel Sunnin, and enters the plain by a deep and - picturesque mountain cleft at Zahleh. - - The most elevated summits occur in the north, but even these are of - very gentle gradient. The "Cedar block" consists of a double line of - four and three summits respectively, ranged from north to south, with - a deviation of about 35 deg. Those to the east are 'Uyun Urghush, - Makmal, Muskiyya (or Naba' esh-Shemaila) and Ras Zahr el-Kazib; - fronting the sea are Kam Sauda or Timarun, Fumm el-Mizab and Zahr - el-Kandil. The height of Zahr el-Kazib, by barometric measurement, is - 10,018 ft.; that of the others does not reach 10,000 ft. South from - them is the pass (8351 ft.) which leads from Baalbek to Tripoli; the - great mountain amphitheatre on the west side of its summit is - remarkable. Farther south is a second group of lofty summits--the - snow-capped Sunnin, visible from Beirut; its height is 8482 ft. - Between this group and the more southerly Jebel Keniseh (about 6700 - ft.) lies the pass (4700 ft.) traversed by the French post road - between Beirut and Damascus. Among the bare summits still farther - south are the long ridge of Jebel el-Baruk (about 7000 ft.), the Jebel - Niha, with the Tau'amat Niha (about 6100 ft.), near which is a pass to - Sidon, and the Jebel Rihan (about 5400 ft.). - - The Buka'a, the broad valley which separates Lebanon from - Anti-Lebanon, is watered by two rivers having their watershed near - Baalbek, at an elevation of about 3600 ft., and separated only by a - short mile at their sources. That flowing northwards, El-'Asi, is the - ancient Orontes (q.v.); the other is the Litany. In the lower part of - its course the latter has scooped out a deep and narrow rocky bed; at - Burghuz it is spanned by a great natural bridge. Not far from the - point where it suddenly trends to the west lie, immediately above the - romantic valley, at an elevation of 1500 ft., the imposing ruins of - the old castle Kal'at esh-Shakif, near one of the passes to Sidon. In - its lower part the Litany bears the name of Nahr el-Kasimiya. Neither - the Orontes nor the Litany has any important affluent. - - The Buka'a used to be known as Coelesyria (Strabo. xvi. 2, 21); but - that word as employed by the ancients had a much more extensive - application. At present its full name is Buka'a el-'Aziz (the dear - Buka'a), and its northern portion is known as Sahlet Ba'albek (the - plain of Baalbek). The valley is from 4 to 6 m. broad, with an - undulating surface. - - The Anti-Lebanon chain has been less fully explored than that of - Lebanon. Apart from its southern offshoots it is 67 m. long, while its - width varies from 16 to 13(1/2) m. It rises from the plain of - Hasya-Homs, and in its northern portion is very arid. The range has - not so many offshoots as occur on the west side of Lebanon; under its - precipitous slopes stretch table-lands and broad plateaus, which, - especially on the east side looking towards the steppe, steadily - increase in width. Along the western side of northern Anti-Lebanon - stretches the Khasha'a, a rough red region lined with juniper trees, a - succession of the hardest limestone crests and ridges, bristling with - bare rock and crag that shelter tufts of vegetation, and are divided - by a succession of grassy ravines. On the eastern side the parallel - valley of 'Asal el-Ward deserves special mention; the descent towards - the plain eastwards, as seen for example at Ma'lula, is - singular--first a spacious amphitheatre and then two deep very narrow - gorges. Few perennial streams take their rise in Anti-Lebanon; one of - the finest and best watered valleys is that of Helbun, the ancient - Chalybon, the Helbon of Ezek. xxvii. 18. The highest points of the - range, reckoning from the north, are Halimat el-Kabu (8257 ft.), which - has a splendid view; the Fatli block, including Tal'at Musa (8721 ft.) - and the adjoining Jebel Nebi Baruh (7900 ft.); and a third group near - Bludan, in which the most prominent names are Shakif, Akhyar and - Abu'l-Hin (8330 ft.); Of the valleys descending westward the first to - claim mention is the Wadi Yafufa; a little farther south, lying north - and south, is the rich upland valley of Zebedani, where the Barada has - its highest sources. Pursuing an easterly course, this stream receives - the waters of the romantic 'Ain Fije (which doubles its volume), and - bursts out by a rocky gateway upon the plain of Damascus, in the - irrigation of which it is the chief agent. It is the Abana of 2 Kings - v. 12; the portion of Anti-Lebanon traversed by it was also called by - the same name (Canticles iv. 8). From the point where the southerly - continuation of Anti-Lebanon begins to take a more westerly direction, - a low ridge shoots out towards the south-west, trending farther and - farther away from the eastern chain and narrowing the Buka'a; upon the - eastern side of this ridge lies the elevated valley or hilly stretch - known as Wadi et-Teim. In the north, beside 'Ain Faluj, it is - connected by a low watershed with the Buka'a; from the gorge of the - Litany it is separated by the ridge of Jebel ed-Dahr. At its southern - end it contracts and merges into the plain of Banias, thus enclosing - Mount Hermon on its north-west and west sides; eastward from the - Hasbany branch of the Jordan lies the meadow-land Merj 'Iyun, the - ancient Ijon (1 Kings xv. 20). - - _Vegetation._--The western slope of Lebanon has the common - characteristics of the flora of the Mediterranean coast, but the - Anti-Lebanon belongs to the poorer region of the steppes, and the - Mediterranean species are met with only sporadically along the - water-courses. Forest and pasture land do not properly exist: the - place of the first is for the most part taken by a low brushwood; - grass is not plentiful, and the higher ridges maintain alpine plants - only so long as patches of snow continue to lie. The rock walls - harbour some rock plants, but many absolutely barren wildernesses of - stone occur. (1) On the western slope, to a height of 1600 ft., is the - coast region, similar to that of Syria in general and of the south of - Asia Minor. Characteristic trees are the locust tree and the stone - pine; in _Melia Azedarach_ and _Ficus Sycomorus_ (Beirut) is an - admixture of foreign and partially subtropical elements. The great - mass of the vegetation, however is of the low-growing type (_maquis_ - or _garrigue_ of the western Mediterranean), with small and stiff - leaves, and frequently thorny and aromatic, as for example the ilex - (_Quercus coccifera_), _Smilax_, _Cistus_, _Lentiscus_, _Calycotome_, - &c. (2) Next comes, from 1600 to 6500 ft., the mountain region, which - may also be called the forest region, still exhibiting sparse woods - and isolated trees wherever shelter, moisture and the inhabitants - have permitted their growth. From 1600 to 3200 ft. is a zone of dwarf - hard-leaved oaks, amongst which occur the Oriental forms _Fontanesia - phillyraeoides_, _Acer syriacum_ and the beautiful red-stemmed - _Arbutus Andrachne_. Higher up, between 3700 and 4200 ft., a tall - pine, _Pinus Brutia_, is characteristic. Between 4200 and 6200 ft. is - the region of the two most interesting forest trees of Lebanon, the - cypress and the cedar. The former still grows thickly, especially in - the valley of the Kadisha; the horizontal is the prevailing variety. - In the upper Kadisha valley there is a cedar grove of about three - hundred trees, amongst which five are of gigantic size. (See also - CEDAR.) The cypress and cedar zone exhibits a variety of other - leaf-bearing and coniferous trees; of the first may be mentioned - several oaks--_Quercus subalpina_ (Kotschy), _Q. Cerris_ and the - hop-hornbeam (_Ostrya_); of the second class the rare Cilician silver - fir (_Abies cilicica_) may be noticed. Next come the junipers, - sometimes attaining the size of trees (_Juniperus excelsa_, _J. - rufescens_ and, with fruit as large as plums, _J. drupacea_). But the - chief ornament of Lebanon is the _Rhododendron ponticum_, with its - brilliant purple flower clusters; a peculiar evergreen, _Vinca - libanotica_, also adds beauty to this zone. (3) Into the alpine region - (6200 to 10,400 ft.) penetrate a few very stunted oaks (_Quercus - subalpina_), the junipers already mentioned and a barberry (_Berberis - cretica_), which sometimes spreads into close thickets. Then follow - the low, dense, prone, pillow-like dwarf bushes, thorny and grey, - common to the Oriental highlands--_Astragalus_ and the peculiar - _Acantholimon_. They are found to within 300 ft. of the highest - summits. - - Upon the exposed mountain slopes a species of rhubarb (_Rheum Ribes_) - is noticeable, and also a vetch (_Vicia canescens_) excellent for - sheep. The spring vegetation, which lasts until July, appears to be - rich, especially as regards showy plants, such as _Corydalis_, - _Gagea_, _Colchicum_, _Puschkinia_, _Geranium_, _Ornithogalum_, &c. - The flora of the highest ridges, along the edges of the snow patches, - exhibits no forms related to the northern alpine flora, but - suggestions of it are found in a _Draba_, an _Androsace_, an _Alsine_ - and a violet, occurring, however, only in local species. Upon the - highest summits are found _Saponaria Pumilio_ (resembling our _Silene - acaulis_) and varieties of _Galium_, _Euphorbia_, _Astragalus_, - _Veronica_, _Jurinea_, _Festuca_, _Scrophularia_, _Geranium_, - _Asphodeline_, _Allium_, _Asperula_; and, on the margins of the snow - fields, a _Taraxacum_ and _Ranunculus demissus_. The alpine flora of - Lebanon thus connects itself directly with the Oriental flora of lower - altitudes, and is unrelated to the glacial flora of Europe and - northern Asia. - - _Zoology._--There is nothing of special interest about the fauna of - Lebanon. Bears are no longer numerous; the panther and the ounce are - met with; the wild hog, hyaena, wolf and fox are by no means rare; - jackals and gazelles are very common. The polecat and hedgehog also - occur. As a rule there are not many birds, but the eagle and the - vulture may occasionally be seen; of eatable kinds partridges and wild - pigeons are the most abundant. - -_Population._--In the following sections the Lebanon proper will alone -be considered, without reference to Anti-Lebanon, because the peculiar -political status of the former range since 1864 has effectually -differentiated it; whereas the Anti-Lebanon still forms an integral part -of the Ottoman province of Syria (q.v.), and neither its population nor -its history is readily distinguishable from those of the surrounding -districts. - -The total population in the Lebanon proper is about 400,000, and is -increasing faster than the development of the province will admit. There -is consequently much emigration, the Christian surplus going mainly to -Egypt, and to America, the Druses to the latter country and to the -Hauran. The emigrants to America, however, usually return after making -money, build new houses and settle down. The singularly complex -population is composed of Christians, Maronites, and Orthodox Eastern -and Uniate; of Moslems, both Sunni and Shiah (Metawali); and of Druses. - - (a) _Maronites_ (q.v.) form about three-fifths of the whole and have - the north of the Mountain almost to themselves, while even in the - south, the old Druse stronghold, they are now numerous. Feudalism is - practically extinct among them and with the decline of the Druses, and - the great stake they have acquired in agriculture, they have laid - aside much of their warlike habit together with their arms. Even their - instinct of nationality is being sensibly impaired by their gradual - assimilation to the Papal Church, whose agents exercise from Beirut an - increasing influence on their ecclesiastical elections and church - government. They are strong also in the Buka'a, and have colonies in - most of the Syrian cities. - - (b) _Orthodox_ Eastern form a little more than one-eighth of the - whole, and are strongest in S. Lebanon (Metn and Kurah districts). - Syrians by race and Arab-speaking, they are descendants of those - "Melkites" who took the side of the Byzantine church in the time of - Justinian II. against the Moslems and eventually the Maronites. They - are among the most progressive of the Lebanon elements. - - (c) _Greek Uniate_ are less numerous, forming little more than - one-twelfth, but are equally progressive. Their headquarters is - Zahleh; but they are found also in strength in Metn and Jezzin, where - they help to counterbalance Druses. They sympathize with the Maronites - against the Orthodox Eastern, and, like both, are of Syrian race, and - Arab speech. - - (d) _Sunnite Moslems_ are a weak element, strongest in Shuf and Kurah, - and composed largely of Druse renegades and "Druse" families, which, - like the Shehab, were of Arab extraction and never conformed to the - creed of Hamza. - - (e) _Shiite Moslems_ outnumber the Sunni, and make about one - twenty-fifth of the whole. They are called _Metawali_ and are - strongest in North Lebanon (Kesrawan and Batrun), but found also in - the south, in Buka'a and in the coast-towns from Beirut to Acre. They - are said to be descendants of Persian tribes; but the fact is very - doubtful, and they may be at least as aboriginal as the Maronites, and - a remnant of an old Incarnationist population which did not accept - Christianity, and kept its heretical Islam free from those influences - which modified Druse creed. They own a chief sheikh, resident at - Jeba'a, and have the reputation, like most heretical communities in - the Sunni part of the Moslem world, of being exceedingly fanatical and - inhospitable. It is undoubtedly the case that they are suspicious of - strangers and defiant of interference. Another small body of Shiites, - the _Ismailites_ (Assassins (q.v.) of the crusading chronicles), also - said to be of Persian origin, live about Kadmus at the extreme N. of - Lebanon, but outside the limits of the privileged province. They are - about 9000 strong. - - (f) _Druses_ (q.v.), now barely an eighth of the whole and confined to - Shuf and Metn in S. Lebanon, are tending to emigrate or conform to - Sunni Islam. Since the establishment of the privileged province they - have lost the Ottoman support which used to compensate for their - numerical inferiority as compared with the Christians; and they are - fast losing also their old habits and distinctiveness. No longer armed - or wearing their former singular dress, the remnant of them in Lebanon - seems likely ere long to be assimilated to the "Osmanli" Moslems. - Their feud with the Maronites, whose accentuation in the middle of the - 19th century was largely due to the tergiversations of the ruling - Shehab family, now reduced to low estate, is dying away, but they - retain something of their old clan feeling and feudal organization, - especially in Shuf. - -The mixed population, as a whole, displays the usual characteristics of -mountaineers, fine physique and vigorous independent spirit; but its -ancient truculence has given way before strong government action since -the middle 19th century, and the great increase of agricultural -pursuits, to which the purely pastoral are now quite secondary. The -culture of the mulberry and silk, of tobacco, of the olive and vine, of -many kinds of fruits and cereals, has expanded enormously, and the -Lebanon is now probably the most productive region in Asiatic Turkey in -proportion to its area. It exports largely through Beirut and Saida, -using both the French railway which crosses S. Lebanon on its way to -Damascus, and the excellent roads and mule-paths made since 1883. -Lebanon has thick deposits of lignite coal, but of inferior quality -owing to the presence of iron pyrites. The abundant iron is little -worked. Manufactures are of small account, the raw material going mostly -to the coast; but olive-oil is made, together with various wines, of -which the most famous is the _vino d'oro_, a sweet liqueur-like -beverage. This wine is not exported in any quantity, as it will not bear -a voyage well and is not made to keep. Bee-keeping is general, and there -is an export of eggs to Egypt. - -_History._--The inhabitants of Lebanon have at no time played a -conspicuous part in history. There are remains of prehistoric -occupation, but we do not even know what races dwelt there in the -historical period of antiquity. Probably they belonged chiefly to the -Aramaean group of nationalities; the Bible mentions Hivites (Judges iii. -3) and Giblites (Joshua xiii. 5). Lebanon was included within the ideal -boundaries of the land of Israel, and the whole region was well known to -the Hebrews, by whose poets its many excellences are often praised. How -far the Phoenicians had any effective control over it is unknown; the -absence of their monuments does not argue much real jurisdiction. Nor -apparently did the Greek Seleucid kingdom have much to do with the -Mountain. In the Roman period the district of _Phoenice_ extended to -Lebanon. In the 2nd century, with the inland districts, it constituted a -subdivision of the province of Syria, having Emesa (Homs) for its -capital. From the time of Diocletian there was a _Phoenice ad Libanum_, -with Emesa as capital, as well as a _Phoenice Maritima_ of which Tyre -was the chief city. Remains of the Roman period occur throughout -Lebanon. By the 6th century it was evidently virtually independent -again; its Christianization had begun with the immigration of -Monothelite sectaries, flying from persecution in the Antioch district -and Orontes valley. At all times Lebanon has been a place of refuge for -unpopular creeds. Large part of the mountaineers took up Monothelism and -initiated the national distinction of the Maronites, which begins to -emerge in the history of the 7th century. The sectaries, after helping -Justinian II. against the caliph Abdalmalik, turned on the emperor and -his Orthodox allies, and were named Mardaites (rebels). Islam now began -to penetrate S. Lebanon, chiefly by the immigration of various more or -less heretical elements, Kurd, Turkoman, Persian and especially Arab, -the latter largely after the break-up of the kingdom of Hira; and early -in the 11th century these coalesced into a nationality (see Druses) -under the congenial influence of the Incarnationist creed brought from -Cairo by Ismael Darazi and other emissaries of the caliph Hakim and his -vizier Hamza. The subsequent history of Lebanon to the middle of the -19th century will be found under Druses and Maronites, and it need only -be stated here that Latin influence began to be felt in N. Lebanon -during the Frank period of Antioch and Palestine, the Maronites being -inclined to take the part of the crusading princes against the Druses -and Moslems; but they were still regarded as heretic Monothelites by -Abulfaragius (Bar-Hebraeus) at the end of the 13th century; nor is their -effectual reconciliation to Rome much older than 1736, the date of the -mission sent by the pope Clement XII., which fixed the actual status of -their church. An informal French protection had, however, been exercised -over them for some time previously, and with it began the feud of -Maronites and Druses, the latter incited and spasmodically supported by -Ottoman pashas. The feudal organization of both, the one under the house -of Khazin, the other under those of Maan and Shehab successively, was in -full force during the 17th and 18th centuries; and it was the break-up -of this in the first part of the 19th century which produced the anarchy -that culminated after 1840 in the civil war. The Druses renounced their -Shehab amirs when Beshir al-Kassim openly joined the Maronites in 1841, -and the Maronites definitely revolted from the Khazin in 1858. The -events of 1860 led to the formation of the privileged Lebanon province, -finally constituted in 1864. It should be added, however, that among the -Druses of Shuf, feudalism has tended to re-establish itself, and the -power is now divided between the Jumblat and Yezbeki families, a leading -member of one of which is almost always Ottoman _kaimakam_ of the -Druses, and locally called _amir_. - - The Lebanon has now been constituted a _sanjak_ or _mutessariflik_, - dependent directly on the Porte, which acts in this case in - consultation with the six great powers. This province extends about 93 - m. from N. to S. (from the boundary of the _sanjak_ of Tripoli to that - of the _caza_ of Saida), and has a mean breadth of about 28 m. from - one foot of the chain to the other, beginning at the edge of the - littoral plain behind Beirut and ending at the W. edge of the Buka'a; - but the boundaries are ill-defined, especially on the E. where the - original line drawn along the crest of the ridge has not been adhered - to, and the mountaineers have encroached on the Buka'a. The Lebanon is - under a military governor (_mushir_) who must be a Christian in the - service of the sultan, approved by the powers, and has, so far, been - chosen from the Roman Catholics owing to the great preponderance of - Latin Christians in the province. He resides at Deir al-Kamar, an old - seat of the Druse amirs. At first appointed for three years, then for - ten, his term has been fixed since 1892 at five years, the longer term - having aroused the fear of the Porte, lest a personal domination - should become established. Under the governor are seven _kaimakams_, - all Christians except a Druse in Shuf, and forty-seven _mudirs_, who - all depend on the kaimakams except one in the home district of Deir - al-Kamar. A central _mejliss_ or Council of twelve members is composed - of four Maronites, three Druses, one Turk, two Greeks (Orthodox), one - Greek Uniate and one Metawali. This was the original proportion, and - it has not been altered in spite of the decline of the Druses and - increase of the Maronites. The members are elected by the seven cazas. - In each _mudirieh_ there is also a local _mejliss_. The old feudal and - _mukataji_ (see DRUSES) jurisdictions are abolished, i.e. they often - persist under Ottoman forms, and three courts of First Instance, under - the _mejliss_, and superior to the petty courts of the _mudirs_ and - the village _sheikhs_, administer justice. Judges are appointed by the - governor, but sheikhs by the villages. Commercial cases, and - litigation in which strangers are concerned, are carried to Beirut. - The police is recruited locally, and no regular troops appear in the - province except on special requisition. The taxes are collected - directly, and must meet the needs of the province, before any sum is - remitted to the Imperial Treasury. The latter has to make deficits - good. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction is exercised only over the clergy, - and all rights of asylum are abolished. - - This constitution has worked well on the whole, the only serious - hitches having been due to the tendency of governors-general and - _kaimakams_ to attempt to supersede the _mejliss_ by autocratic - action, and to impair the freedom of elections. The attention of the - porte was called to these tendencies in 1892 and again in 1902, on the - appointments of new governors. Since the last date there has been no - complaint. Nothing now remains of the former French predominance in - the Lebanon, except a certain influence exerted by the fact that the - railway is French, and by the precedence in ecclesiastical functions - still accorded by the Maronites to official representatives of France. - In the Lebanon, as in N. Albania, the traditional claim of France to - protect Roman Catholics in the Ottoman Empire has been greatly - impaired by the non-religious character of the Republic. Like Italy, - she is now regarded by Eastern Catholics with distrust as an enemy of - the Holy Father. - - See DRUSES. Also V. Cuinet, _Syrie, Liban et Palestine_ (1896); N. - Verney and G. Dambmann, _Puissances etrangeres en Syrie_, &c. (1900); - G. Young, _Corps de droit ottoman_, vol. i. (1905); G. E. Post, _Flora - of Syria_, &c. (1896); M. von Oppenheim, _Vom Mittelmeer_, &c. (1899). - (A. So.; D. G. H.) - - - - -LEBANON, a city of Saint Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A., on Silver -Creek, about 24 m. E. of Saint Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1910) 1907. It is -served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western railroad and by the East -Saint Louis & Suburban Electric line. It is situated on a high -tableland. Lebanon is the seat of McKendree College, founded by -Methodists in 1828 and one of the oldest colleges in the Mississippi -valley. It was called Lebanon Seminary until 1830, when the present name -was adopted in honour of William McKendree (1757-1835), known as the -"Father of Western Methodism," a great preacher, and a bishop of the -Methodist Church in 1808-1835, who had endowed the college with 480 -acres of land. In 1835 the college was chartered as the "McKendreean -College," but in 1839 the present name was again adopted. There are coal -mines and excellent farming lands in the vicinity of Lebanon. Among the -city's manufactures are flour, planing-mill products, malt liquors, soda -and farming implements. The municipality owns and operates its -electric-lighting plant. Lebanon was chartered as a city in 1874. - - - - -LEBANON, a city and the county-seat of Lebanon county, Pennsylvania, -U.S.A., in the fertile Lebanon Valley, about 25 m. E. by N. of -Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 17,628, of whom 618 were foreign-born, (1910 -census) 19,240. It is served by the Philadelphia & Reading, the Cornwall -and the Cornwall & Lebanon railways. About 5 m. S. of the city are the -Cornwall (magnetite) iron mines, from which about 18,000,000 tons of -iron ore were taken between 1740 and 1902, and 804,848 tons in 1906. The -ore yields about 46% of iron, and contains about 2.5% of sulphur, the -roasting of the ores being necessary--ore-roasting kilns are more -extensively used here than in any other place in the country. The area -of ore exposed is about 4000 ft. long and 400 to 800 ft. wide, and -includes three hills; it has been one of the most productive magnetite -deposits in the world. Limestone, brownstone and brick-clay also abound -in the vicinity; and besides mines and quarries, the city has extensive -manufactories of iron, steel, chains, and nuts and bolts. In 1905 its -factory products were valued at $6,978,458. The municipality owns and -operates its water-works. - - The first settlement in the locality was made about 1730, and twenty - years later a town was laid out by one of the landowners, George - Steitz, and named Steitztown in his honour. About 1760 the town became - known as Lebanon, and under this name it was incorporated as a borough - in 1821 and chartered as a city in 1885. - - - - -LE BARGY, CHARLES GUSTAVE AUGUSTE (1858- ), French actor, was born at -La Chapelle (Seine). His talent both as a comedian and a serious actor -was soon made evident, and he became a member of the Comedie Francaise, -his chief successes being in such plays as _Le Duel_, _L'Enigme_, _Le -Marquis de Priola_, _L'Autre Danger_ and _Le Dedale_. His wife, Simone -le Bargy nee Benda, an accomplished actress, made her debut at the -Gymnase in 1902, and in later years had a great success in _La Rafale_ -and other plays. In 1910 he had differences with the authorities of the -Comedie Francaise and ceased to be a _societaire_. - - - - -LE BEAU, CHARLES (1701-1778), French historical writer, was born at -Paris on the 15th of October 1701, and was educated at the College de -Sainte-Barbe and the College du Plessis; at the latter he remained as a -teacher until he obtained the chair of rhetoric in the College des -Grassins. In 1748 he was admitted a member of the Academy of -Inscriptions, and in 1752 he was nominated professor of eloquence in the -College de France. From 1755 he held the office of perpetual secretary -to the Academy of Inscriptions, in which capacity he edited fifteen -volumes (from the 25th to the 39th inclusive) of the _Histoire_ of that -institution. He died at Paris on the 13th of March 1778. - - The only work with which the name of Le Beau continues to be - associated is his _Histoire du Bas-Empire, en commencant a Constantin - le Grand_, in 22 vols. 12mo (Paris, 1756-1779), being a continuation - of C. Rollin's _Histoire Romaine_ and J. B. L. Crevier's _Histoire des - empereurs_. Its usefulness arises entirely from the fact of its being - a faithful resume of the Byzantine historians, for Le Beau had no - originality or artistic power of his own. Five volumes were added by - H. P. Ameilhon (1781-1811), which brought the work down to the fall of - Constantinople. A later edition, under the care of M. de Saint-Martin - and afterwards of Brosset, has had the benefit of careful revision - throughout, and has received considerable additions from Oriental - sources. - - See his "Eloge" in vol. xlii. of the _Histoire de l'Academie des - Inscriptions_ (1786), pp. 190-207. - - - - -LEBEAU, JOSEPH (1794-1865), Belgian statesman, was born at Huy on the -3rd of January 1794. He received his early education from an uncle who -was parish priest of Hannut, and became a clerk. By dint of economy he -raised money to study law at Liege, and was called to the bar in 1819. -At Liege he formed a fast friendship with Charles Rogier and Paul -Devaux, in conjunction with whom he founded at Liege in 1824 the -_Mathieu Laensbergh_, afterwards _Le politique_, a journal which helped -to unite the Catholic party with the Liberals in their opposition to the -ministry, without manifesting any open disaffection to the Dutch -government. Lebeau had not contemplated the separation of Holland and -Belgium, but his hand was forced by the revolution. He was sent by his -native district to the National Congress, and became minister of foreign -affairs in March 1831 during the interim regency of Surlet de Chokier. -By proposing the election of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as king of the -Belgians he secured a benevolent attitude on the part of Great Britain, -but the restoration to Holland of part of the duchies of Limburg and -Luxemburg provoked a heated opposition to the treaty of London, and -Lebeau was accused of treachery to Belgian interests. He resigned the -direction of foreign affairs on the accession of King Leopold, but in -the next year became minister of justice. He was elected deputy for -Brussels in 1833, and retained his seat until 1848. Differences with the -king led to his retirement in 1834. He was subsequently governor of the -province of Namur (1838), ambassador to the Frankfort diet (1839), and -in 1840 he formed a short-lived Liberal ministry. From this time he held -no office of state, though he continued his energetic support of liberal -and anti-clerical measures. He died at Huy on the 19th of March 1865. - - Lebeau published _La Belgique depuis 1847_ (Brussels, 4 vols., 1852), - _Lettres aux electeurs belges_ (8 vols., Brussels, 1853-1856). His - _Souvenirs personnels et correspondance diplomatique 1824-1841_ - (Brussels, 1883) were edited by A. Freson. See an article by A. Freson - in the _Biographie nationale de Belgique_; and T. Juste, _Joseph - Lebeau_ (Brussels, 1865). - - - - -LEBEL, JEAN (d. 1370), Belgian chronicler, was born near the end of the -13th century. His father, Gilles le Beal des Changes, was an alderman of -Liege. Jean entered the church and became a canon of the cathedral -church, but he and his brother Henri followed Jean de Beaumont to -England in 1327, and took part in the border warfare against the Scots. -His will is dated 1369, and his epitaph gives the date of his death as -1370. Nothing more is known of his life, but Jacques de Hemricourt, -author of the _Miroir des nobles de Hesbaye_, has left a eulogy of his -character, and a description of the magnificence of his attire, his -retinue and his hospitality. Hemricourt asserts that he was eighty years -old or more when he died. For a long time Jean Lebel (or le Bel) was -only known as a chronicler through a reference by Froissart, who quotes -him in the prologue of his first book as one of his authorities. A -fragment of his work, in the MS. of Jean d'Outremeuse's _Mireur des -istores_, was discovered in 1847; and the whole of his chronicle, -preserved in the library of Chalons-sur-Marne, was edited in 1863 by L. -Polain. Jean Lebel gives as his reason for writing a desire to replace a -certain misleading rhymed chronicle of the wars of Edward III. by a true -relation of his enterprises down to the beginning of the Hundred Years' -War. In the matter of style Lebel has been placed by some critics on the -level of Froissart. His chief merit is his refusal to narrate events -unless either he himself or his informant had witnessed them. This -scrupulousness in the acceptance of evidence must be set against his -limitations. He takes on the whole a similar point of view to -Froissart's; he has no concern with national movements or politics; and, -writing for the public of chivalry, he preserves no general notion of a -campaign, which resolves itself in his narrative into a series of -exploits on the part of his heroes. Froissart was considerably indebted -to him, and seems to have borrowed from him some of his best-known -episodes, such as the death of Robert the Bruce, Edward III. and the -countess of Salisbury, and the devotion of the burghers of Calais. The -songs and virelais, in the art of writing which he was, according to -Hemricourt, an expert, have not come to light. - - See L. Polain, _Les Vraies Chroniques de messire Jehan le Bel_ (1863); - Kervyn de Lettenhove, _Bulletin de la societe d'emulation de Bruges_, - series ii. vols. vii. and ix.; and H. Pirenne in _Biographie nationale - de Belgique_. - - - - -LEBER, JEAN MICHEL CONSTANT (1780-1859), French historian and -bibliophile, was born at Orleans on the 8th of May 1780. His first work -was a poem on Joan of Arc (1804); but he wrote at the same time a -_Grammaire general synthetique_, which attracted the attention of J. M. -de Gerando, then secretary-general to the ministry of the interior. The -latter found him a minor post in his department, which left him leisure -for his historical work. He even took him to Italy when Napoleon was -trying to organize, after French models, the Roman states which he had -taken from the pope in 1809. Leber however did not stay there long, for -he considered the attacks on the temporal property of the Holy See to be -sacrilegious. On his return to Paris he resumed his administrative work, -literary recreations and historical researches. While spending a part of -his time writing vaudevilles and comic operas, he began to collect old -essays and rare pamphlets by old French historians. His office was -preserved to him by the Restoration, and Leber put his literary gifts at -the service of the government. When the question of the coronation of -Louis XVIII. arose, he wrote, as an answer to Volney, a minute treatise -on the _Ceremonies du sacre_, which was published at the time of the -coronation of Charles X. Towards the end of Villele's ministry, when -there was a movement of public opinion in favour of extending municipal -liberties, he undertook the defence of the threatened system of -centralization, and composed, in answer to Raynouard, an _Histoire -critique du pouvoir municipal depuis l'origine de la monarchie jusqu'a -nos jours_ (1828). He also wrote a treatise entitled _De l'etat reel de -la presse et des pamphlets depuis Francois I^(er) jusqu'a Louis XIV_., -in which he refuted an empty paradox of Charles Nodier, who had tried to -prove that the press had never been, and could never be, so free as -under the Grand Monarch. A few years later, Leber retired (1839), and -sold to the library of Rouen the rich collection of books which he had -amassed during thirty years of research. The catalogue he made himself -(4 vols., 1839 to 1852). In 1840 he read at the Academie des -Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres two dissertations, an "Essai sur -l'appreciation de la fortune privee au moyen age," followed by an -"Examen critique des tables de prix du marc d'argent depuis l'epoque de -Saint Louis"; these essays were included by the Academy in its _Recueil -de memoires presentes par divers savants_ (vol. i., 1844), and were also -revised and published by Leber (1847). They form his most considerable -work, and assure him a position of eminence in the economic history of -France. He also rendered good service to historians by the publication -of his _Collection des meilleures dissertations, notices et traites -relatifs a l'histoire de France_ (20 vols., 1826-1840); in the absence -of an index, since Leber did not give one, an analytical table of -contents is to be found in Alfred Franklin's _Sources de l'histoire de -France_ (1876, pp. 342 sqq.). In consequence of the revolution of 1848, -Leber decided to leave Paris. He retired to his native town, and spent -his last years in collecting old engravings. He died at Orleans on the -22nd of December 1859. - - In 1832 he had been elected as a member of the _Societe des - Antiquaires de France_, and in the _Bulletin_ of this society (vol. - i., 1860) is to be found the most correct and detailed account of his - life's works. - - - - -LEBEUF, JEAN (1687-1760), French historian, was born on the 7th of March -1687 at Auxerre, where his father, a councillor in the parlement, was -_receveur des consignations_. He began his studies in his native town, -and continued them in Paris at the College Ste Barbe. He soon became -known as one of the most cultivated minds of his time. He made himself -master of practically every branch of medieval learning, and had a -thorough knowledge of the sources and the bibliography of his subject. -His learning was not drawn from books only; he was also an -archaeologist, and frequently went on expeditions in France, always on -foot, in the course of which he examined the monuments of architecture -and sculpture, as well as the libraries, and collected a number of notes -and sketches. He was in correspondence with all the most learned men of -the day. His correspondence with President Bouhier was published in 1885 -by Ernest Petit; his other letters have been edited by the _Societe des -sciences historiques et naturelles de l'Yonne_ (2 vols., 1866-1867). He -also wrote numerous articles, and, after his election as a member of the -Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1740), a number of -_Memoires_ which appeared in the _Recueil_ of this society. He died at -Paris on the 10th of April 1760. His most important researches had Paris -as their subject. - - He published first a collection of _Dissertations sur l'histoire - civile et ecclesiastique de Paris_ (3 vols., 1739-1743), then an - _Histoire de la ville et de tout le diocese de Paris_ (15 vols., - 1745-1760), which is a mine of information, mostly taken from the - original sources. In view of the advance made by scholarship in the - 19th century, it was found necessary to publish a second edition. The - work of reprinting it was undertaken by H. Cocheris, but was - interrupted (1863) before the completion of vol. iv. Adrien Augier - resumed the work, giving Lebeuf's text, though correcting the numerous - typographical errors of the original edition (5 vols., 1883), and - added a sixth volume containing an analytical table of contents. - Finally, Fernand Bournon completed the work by a volume of - _Rectifications et additions_ (1890), worthy to appear side by side - with the original work. - - The bibliography of Lebeuf's writings is, partly, in various numbers - of the _Bibliotheque des ecrivains de Bourgogne_ (1716-1741). His - biography is given by Lebeau in the _Histoire de l'Academie royale des - Inscriptions_ (xxix., 372, published 1764), and by H. Cocheris, in the - preface to his edition. - - - - -LE BLANC, NICOLAS (1742-1806), French chemist, was born at Issoudun, -Indre, in 1742. He made medicine his profession and in 1780 became -surgeon to the duke of Orleans, but he also paid much attention to -chemistry. About 1787 he was attracted to the urgent problem of -manufacturing carbonate of soda from ordinary sea-salt. The suggestion -made in 1789 by Jean Claude de la Metherie (1743-1817), the editor of -the _Journal de physique_, that this might be done by calcining with -charcoal the sulphate of soda formed from salt by the action of oil of -vitriol, did not succeed in practice because the product was almost -entirely sulphide of soda, but it gave Le Blanc, as he himself -acknowledged, a basis upon which to work. He soon made the crucial -discovery--which proved the foundation of the huge industry of -artificial alkali manufacture--that the desired end was to be attained -by adding a proportion of chalk to the mixture of charcoal and sulphate -of soda. Having had the soundness of this method tested by Jean Darcet -(1725-1801), the professor of chemistry at the College de France, the -duke of Orleans in June 1791 agreed to furnish a sum of 200,000 francs -for the purpose of exploiting it. In the following September Le Blanc -was granted a patent for fifteen years, and shortly afterwards a factory -was started at Saint-Denis, near Paris. But it had not long been in -operation when the Revolution led to the confiscation of the duke's -property, including the factory, and about the same time the Committee -of Public Safety called upon all citizens who possessed soda-factories -to disclose their situation and capacity and the nature of the methods -employed. Le Blanc had no choice but to reveal the secrets of his -process, and he had the misfortune to see his factory dismantled and his -stocks of raw and finished materials sold. By way of compensation for -the loss of his rights, the works were handed back to him in 1800, but -all his efforts to obtain money enough to restore them and resume -manufacturing on a profitable scale were vain, and, worn out with -disappointment, he died by his own hand at Saint-Denis on the 16th of -January 1806. - - Four years after his death, Michel Jean Jacques Dize (1764-1852), who - had been _preparateur_ to Darcet at the time he examined the process - and who was subsequently associated with Le Blanc in its exploitation, - published in the _Journal de physique_ a paper claiming that it was he - himself who had first suggested the addition of chalk; but a committee - of the French Academy, which reported fully on the question in 1856, - came to the conclusion that the merit was entirely Le Blanc's (_Com. - rend._, 1856, p. 553). - - - - -LE BLANC, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement, in the -department of Indre, 44 m. W.S.W, of Chateauroux on the Orleans railway -between Argenton and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 4719. The Creuse divides it -into a lower and an upper town. The church of St Genitour dates from the -12th, 13th and 15th centuries, and there is an old castle restored in -modern times. It is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of -first instance and a communal college. Wool-spinning, and the -manufacture of linen goods and edge-tools are among the industries. -There is trade in horses and in the agricultural and other products of -the surrounding region. - - Le Blanc, which is identified with the Roman _Oblincum_, was in the - middle ages a lordship belonging to the house of Naillac and a - frontier fortress of the province of Berry. - - - - -LEBOEUF, EDMOND (1809-1888), marshal of France, was born at Paris on the -5th of November 1809, passed through the Ecole Polytechnique and the -school of Metz, and distinguished himself as an artillery officer in -Algerian warfare, becoming colonel in 1852. He commanded the artillery -of the 1st French corps at the siege of Sebastopol, and was promoted in -1854 to the rank of general of brigade, and in 1857 to that of general -of division. In the Italian War of 1859 he commanded the artillery, and -by his action at Solferino materially assisted in achieving the victory. -In September 1866, having in the meantime become aide-de-camp to -Napoleon III., he was despatched to Venetia to hand over that province -to Victor Emmanuel. In 1869, on the death of Marshal Niel, General -Leboeuf became minister of war, and earned public approbation by his -vigorous reorganization of the War Office and the civil departments of -the service. In the spring of 1870 he received the marshal's baton. On -the declaration of war with Germany Marshal Leboeuf delivered himself in -the Corps Legislatif of the historic saying, "So ready are we, that if -the war lasts two years, not a gaiter button would be found wanting." It -may be that he intended this to mean that, given time, the -reorganization of the War Office would be perfected through experience, -but the result inevitably caused it to be regarded as a mere boast, -though it is now known that the administrative confusion on the frontier -in July 1870 was far less serious than was supposed at the time. Leboeuf -took part in the Lorraine campaign, at first as chief of staff -(major-general) of the Army of the Rhine, and afterwards, when Bazaine -became commander-in-chief, as chief of the III. corps, which he led in -the battles around Metz. He distinguished himself, whenever engaged, by -personal bravery and good leadership. Shut up with Bazaine in Metz, on -its fall he was confined as a prisoner in Germany. On the conclusion of -peace he returned to France and gave evidence before the commission of -inquiry into the surrender of that stronghold, when he strongly -denounced Bazaine. After this he retired into private life to the -Chateau du Moncel near Argentan, where he died on the 7th of June 1888. - - - - -LE BON, JOSEPH (1765-1795), French politician, was born at Arras on the -29th of September 1765. He became a priest in the order of the Oratory, -and professor of rhetoric at Beaune. He adopted revolutionary ideas, and -became a cure of the Constitutional Church in the department of -Pas-de-Calais, where he was later elected as a _depute suppleant_ to the -Convention. He became _maire_ of Arras and _administrateur_ of -Pas-de-Calais, and on the 2nd of July 1793 took his seat in the -Convention. He was sent as a representative on missions into the -departments of the Somme and Pas-de-Calais, where he showed great -severity in dealing with offences against revolutionaries (8th Brumaire, -year II. to 22nd Messidor, year II.; i.e. 29th October 1793 to 10th July -1794). In consequence, during the reaction which followed the 9th -Thermidor (27th July 1794) he was arrested on the 22nd Messidor, year -III. (10th July 1795). He was tried before the criminal tribunal of the -Somme, condemned to death for abuse of his power during his mission, and -executed at Amiens on the 24th Vendemiaire in the year IV. (10th October -1795). Whatever Le Bon's offences, his condemnation was to a great -extent due to the violent attacks of one of his political enemies, -Armand Guffroy; and it is only just to remember that it was owing to his -courage that Cambrai was saved from falling into the hands of the -Austrians. - - His son, Emile le Bon, published a _Histoire de Joseph le Bon et des - tribunaux revolutionnaires d'Arras et de Cambrai_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., - Arras, 1864). - - - - -LEBRIJA, or LEBRIXA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of -Seville, near the left bank of the Guadalquivir, and on the eastern edge -of the marshes known as Las Marismas. Pop. (1900) 10,997. Lebrija is 44 -m. S. by W. of Seville, on the Seville-Cadiz railway. Its chief -buildings are a ruined Moorish castle and the parish church, an imposing -structure in a variety of styles--Moorish, Gothic, Romanesque--dating -from the 14th century to the 16th, and containing some early specimens -of the carving of Alonso Cano (1601-1667). There are manufactures of -bricks, tiles and earthenware, for which clay is found in the -neighbourhood; and some trade in grain, wine and oil. - -Lebrija is the _Nabrissa_ or _Nebrissa_, surnamed _Veneria_, of the -Romans; by Silius Italicus (iii. 393), who connects it with the worship -of Dionysus, the name is derived from the Greek [Greek: nebris] (a -"fawn-skin," associated with Dionysiac ritual). _Nebrishah_ was a strong -and populous place during the period of Moorish domination (from 711); -it was taken by St Ferdinand in 1249, but again lost, and became finally -subject to the Castilian crown only under Alphonso the Wise in 1264. It -was the birthplace of Elio Antonio de Lebrija or Nebrija (1444-1522), -better known as Nebrissensis, one of the most important leaders in the -revival of learning in Spain, the tutor of Queen Isabella, and a -collaborator with Cardinal Jimenes in the preparation of the -Complutensian Polyglot (see ALCALA DE HENARES). - - - - -LE BRUN, CHARLES (1619-1690), French painter, was born at Paris on the -24th of February 1619, and attracted the notice of Chancellor Seguier, -who placed him at the age of eleven in the studio of Vouet. At fifteen -he received commissions from Cardinal Richelieu, in the execution of -which he displayed an ability which obtained the generous commendations -of Poussin, in whose company Le Brun started for Rome in 1642. In Rome -he remained four years in the receipt of a pension due to the liberality -of the chancellor. On his return to Paris Le Brun found numerous -patrons, of whom Superintendent Fouquet was the most important. Employed -at Vaux le Vicomte, Le Brun ingratiated himself with Mazarin, then -secretly pitting Colbert against Fouquet. Colbert also promptly -recognized Le Brun's powers of organization, and attached him to his -interests. Together they founded the Academy of Painting and Sculpture -(1648), and the Academy of France at Rome (1666), and gave a new -development to the industrial arts. In 1660 they established the -Gobelins, which at first was a great school for the manufacture, not of -tapestries only, but of every class of furniture required in the royal -palaces. Commanding the industrial arts through the Gobelins--of which -he was director--and the whole artist world through the Academy--in -which he successively held every post--Le Brun imprinted his own -character on all that was produced in France during his lifetime, and -gave a direction to the national tendencies which endured after his -death. The nature of his emphatic and pompous talent was in harmony with -the taste of the king, who, full of admiration at the decorations -designed by Le Brun for his triumphal entry into Paris (1660), -commissioned him to execute a series of subjects from the history of -Alexander. The first of these, "Alexander and the Family of Darius," so -delighted Louis XIV. that he at once ennobled Le Brun (December, 1662), -who was also created first painter to his majesty with a pension of -12,000 livres, the same amount as he had yearly received in the service -of the magnificent Fouquet. From this date all that was done in the -royal palaces was directed by Le Brun. The works of the gallery of -Apollo in the Louvre were interrupted in 1677 when he accompanied the -king to Flanders (on his return from Lille he painted several -compositions in the Chateau of St Germains), and finally--for they -remained unfinished at his death--by the vast labours of Versailles, -where he reserved for himself the Halls of War and Peace, the -Ambassadors' Staircase, and the Great Gallery, other artists being -forced to accept the position of his assistants. At the death of -Colbert, Louvois, who succeeded him in the department of public works, -showed no favour to Le Brun, and in spite of the king's continued -support he felt a bitter change in his position. This contributed to the -illness which on the 22nd of February 1690 ended in his death in the -Gobelins. Besides his gigantic labours at Versailles and the Louvre, the -number of his works for religious corporations and private patrons is -enormous. He modelled and engraved with much facility, and, in spite of -the heaviness and poverty of drawing and colour, his extraordinary -activity and the vigour of his conceptions justify his claim to fame. -Nearly all his compositions have been reproduced by celebrated -engravers. - - - - -LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANCOIS, duc de Plaisance (1739-1824), French -statesman, was born at St-Sauveur-Lendelin (Manche) on the 19th of March -1739, and in 1762 made his first appearance as a lawyer at Paris. He -filled the posts successively of _censeur royale_ (1766) and of -inspector general of the domains of the crown (1768); he was also one of -the chief advisers of the chancellor Maupeou, took part in his struggle -against the parlements, and shared in his downfall in 1774. He then -devoted himself to literature, translating Tasso's _Gerusalemme -liberata_ (1774), and the _Iliad_ (1776). At the outset of the -Revolution he foresaw its importance, and in the _Voix du citoyen_, -which he published in 1789, predicted the course which events would -take. In the Constituent Assembly, where he sat as deputy for Dourdan, -he professed liberal views, and was the proposer of various financial -laws. He then became president of the directory of Seine-et-Oise, and in -1795 was elected as a deputy to the Council of Ancients. After the _coup -d'etat_ of the 18th Brumaire in the year VIII. (9th November 1799), -Lebrun was made third consul. In this capacity he took an active part in -the reorganization of finance and of the administration of the -departments of France. In 1804 he was appointed arch-treasurer of the -empire, and in 1805-1806 as governor-general of Liguria effected its -annexation to France. He opposed Napoleon's restoration of the noblesse, -and in 1808 only reluctantly accepted the title of duc de Plaisance -(Piacenza). He was next employed in organizing the departments which -were formed in Holland, of which he was governor-general from 1811 to -1813. Although to a certain extent opposed to the despotism of the -emperor, he was not in favour of his deposition, though he accepted the -_fait accompli_ of the Restoration in April 1814. Louis XVIII. made him -a peer of France; but during the Hundred Days he accepted from Napoleon -the post of Grand Master of the university. On the return of the -Bourbons in 1815 he was consequently suspended from the House of Peers, -but was recalled in 1819. He died at St Mesmes (Seine-et-Oise) on the -16th of June 1824. He had been made a member of the Academie des -Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1803. - - See M. de Caumont la Force, _L'Architresorier Lebrun_ (Paris, 1907); - M. Marie du Mesnil, _Memoire sur le prince Le Brun, duc de Plaisance_ - (Paris, 1828); _Opinions, rapports et choix d'ecrits politiques de C. - F. Lebrun_ (1829), edited, with a biographical notice, by his son - Anne-Charles Lebrun. - - - - -LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE (1785-1873), French poet, was born in Paris on -the 29th of November 1785. An _Ode a la grande armee_, mistaken at the -time for the work of Ecouchard Lebrun, attracted Napoleon's attention, -and secured for the author a pension of 1200 francs. Lebrun's plays, -once famous, are now forgotten. They are: _Ulysse_ (1814), _Marie -Stuart_ (1820), which obtained a great success, and _Le Cid -d'Andalousie_ (1825). Lebrun visited Greece in 1820, and on his return -to Paris he published in 1822 an ode on the death of Napoleon which cost -him his pension. In 1825 he was the guest of Sir Walter Scott at -Abbotsford. The coronation of Charles X. in that year inspired the -verses entitled _La Vallee de Champrosay_, which have, perhaps, done -more to secure his fame than his more ambitious attempts. In 1828 -appeared his most important poem, _La Grece_, and in the same year he -was elected to the Academy. The revolution of 1830 opened up for him a -public career; in 1831 he was made director of the Imprimerie Royale, -and subsequently filled with distinction other public offices, becoming -senator in 1853. He died on the 27th of May 1873. - - See Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits contemporains_, vol. ii. - - - - -LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ECOUCHARD (1729-1807), French lyric poet, was born -in Paris on the 11th of August 1729, in the house of the prince de -Conti, to whom his father was valet. Young Lebrun had among his -schoolfellows a son of Louis Racine whose disciple he became. In 1755 he -published an _Ode sur les desastres de Lisbon_. In 1759 he married Marie -Anne de Surcourt, addressed in his _Elegies_ as Fanny. To the early -years of his marriage belongs his poem _Nature_. His wife suffered much -from his violent temper, and when in 1774 she brought an action against -him to obtain a separation, she was supported by Lebrun's own mother and -sister. He had been _secretaire des commandements_ to the prince de -Conti, and on his patron's death was deprived of his occupation. He -suffered a further misfortune in the loss of his capital by the -bankruptcy of the prince de Guemene. To this period belongs a long poem, -the _Veillees des Muses_, which remained unfinished, and his ode to -Buffon, which ranks among his best works. Dependent on government -pensions he changed his politics with the times. Calonne he compared to -the great Sully, and Louis XVI. to Henry IV., but the Terror -nevertheless found in him its official poet. He occupied rooms in the -Louvre, and fulfilled his obligations by shameless attacks on the -unfortunate king and queen. His excellent ode on the _Vengeur_ and the -_Ode nationale contre Angleterre_ on the occasion of the projected -invasion of England are in honour of the power of Napoleon. This -"versatility" has so much injured Lebrun's reputation that it is -difficult to appreciate his real merit. He had a genius for epigram, and -the quatrains and dizaines directed against his many enemies have a -verve generally lacking in his odes. The one directed against La Harpe -is called by Sainte-Beuve the "queen of epigrams." La Harpe has said -that the poet, called by his friends, perhaps with a spice of irony, -Lebrun-Pindare, had written many fine strophes but not one good ode. The -critic exposed mercilessly the obscurities and unlucky images which -occur even in the ode to Buffon, and advised the author to imitate the -simplicity and energy that adorned Buffon's prose. Lebrun died in Paris -on the 31st of August 1807. - - His works were published by his friend P. L. Ginguene in 1811. The - best of them are included in Prosper Poitevin's "_Petits poetes - francais_," which forms part of the "_Pantheon litteraire_." - - - - -LE CARON, HENRI (whose real name was THOMAS MILLER BEACH) (1841-1894), -British secret service agent, was born at Colchester, on the 26th of -September 1841. He was of an adventurous character, and when nineteen -years old went to Paris, where he found employment in business connected -with America. Infected with the excitement of the American Civil War, he -crossed the Atlantic in 1861 and enlisted in the Northern army, taking -the name of Henri Le Caron. In 1864 he married a young lady who had -helped him to escape from some Confederate marauders; and by the end of -the war he rose to be major. In 1865, through a companion in arms named -O'Neill, he was brought into contact with Fenianism, and having learnt -of the Fenian plot against Canada, he mentioned the designs when writing -home to his father. Mr Beach told his local M.P., who in turn told the -Home Secretary, and the latter asked Mr Beach to arrange for further -information. Le Caron, inspired (as all the evidence shows) by genuinely -patriotic feeling, from that time till 1889 acted for the British -government as a paid military spy. He was a proficient in medicine, -among other qualifications for this post, and he remained for years on -intimate terms with the most extreme men in the Fenian organization -under all its forms. His services enabled the British government to take -measures which led to the fiasco of the Canadian invasion of 1870 and -Riel's surrender in 1871, and he supplied full details concerning the -various Irish-American associations, in which he himself was a prominent -member. He was in the secrets of the "new departure" in 1879-1881, and -in the latter year had an interview with Parnell at the House of -Commons, when the Irish leader spoke sympathetically of an armed -revolution in Ireland. For twenty-five years he lived at Detroit and -other places in America, paying occasional visits to Europe, and all the -time carrying his life in his hand. The Parnell Commission of 1889 put -an end to this. Le Caron was subpoenaed by _The Times_, and in the -witness-box the whole story came out, all the efforts of Sir Charles -Russell in cross-examination failing to shake his testimony, or to -impair the impression of iron tenacity and absolute truthfulness which -his bearing conveyed. His career, however, for good or evil, was at an -end. He published the story of his life, _Twenty-five Years in the -Secret Service_, and it had an immense circulation. But he had to be -constantly guarded, his acquaintances were hampered from seeing him, and -he was the victim of a painful disease, of which he died on the 1st of -April 1894. The report of the Parnell Commission is his monument. - - - - -LE CATEAU, or CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, a town of northern France, in the -department of Nord, on the Selle, 15 m. E.S.E. of Cambrai by road. Pop. -(1906) 10,400. A church of the early 17th century and a town-hall in the -Renaissance style are its chief buildings. Its institutions include a -board of trade-arbitration and a communal college, and its most -important industries are wool-spinning and weaving. Formed by the union -of the two villages of Peronne and Vendelgies, under the protection of a -castle built by the bishop of Cambrai, Le Cateau became the seat of an -abbey in the 11th century. In the 15th it was frequently taken and -retaken, and in 1556 it was burned by the French, who in 1559 signed a -celebrated treaty with Spain in the town. It was finally ceded to France -by the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. - - - - -LECCE (anc. _Lupiae_), a town and archiepiscopal see of Apulia, Italy, -capital of the province of Lecce, 24 m. S.E. of Brindisi by rail. Pop. -(1906) 35,179. The town is remarkable for the number of buildings of the -17th century, in the rococo style, which it contains; among these are -the cathedral of S. Oronzo, and the churches of S. Chiara, S. Croce, S. -Domenico, &c., the Seminario, and the Prefettura (the latter contains a -museum, with a collection of Greek vases, &c.). Buildings of an earlier -period are not numerous, but the fine portal of the Romanesque church of -SS. Nicola e Cataldo, built by Tancred in 1180, may be noted. Another -old church is S. Maria di Cerrate, near the town. Lecce contains a large -government tobacco factory, and is the centre of a fertile agricultural -district. To the E. 7(1/2) m. is the small harbour of S. Cataldo, -reached by electric tramway. Lecce is quite close to the site of the -ancient Lupiae, equidistant (25 m.) from Brundusium and Hydruntum, -remains of which are mentioned as existing up to the 15th century. A -colony was founded there in Roman times, and Hadrian made a harbour--no -doubt at S. Cataldo. Hardly a mile west was Rudiae, the birthplace of -the poet Ennius, spoken of by Silius Italicus as worthy of mention for -that reason alone. Its site was marked by the now deserted village of -Rugge. The name Lycea, or Lycia, begins to appear in the 6th century. -The city was for some time held by counts of Norman blood, among whom -the most noteworthy is Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard. It afterwards -passed to the Orsini. The rank of provincial capital was bestowed by -Ferdinand of Aragon in acknowledgment of the fidelity of Lecce to his -cause. (T. As.) - - See M. S. Briggs, _In the Heel of Italy_ (1910). - - - - -LECCO, a town of Lombardy, in the province of Como, 32 m. by rail N. by -E. of Milan, and reached by steamer from Como, 673 ft. above sea-level. -Pop. (1901) 10,352. It is situated near the southern extremity of the -eastern branch of the Lake of Como, which is frequently distinguished as -the Lake of Lecco. At Lecco begins the line (run by electricity) to -Colico, whence there are branches to Chiavenna and Sondrio; and another -line runs to Bergamo. To the south the Adda is crossed by a fine bridge -originally constructed in 1335, and rebuilt in 1609 by Fuentes. Lecco, -in spite of its antiquity, presents a modern appearance, almost the only -old building being its castle, of which a part remains. Its schools are -particularly good. Besides iron-works, there are copper-works, -brass-foundries, olive-oil mills and a manufacture of wax candles; and -silk-spinning, cotton-spinning and wood-carving. In the neighbourhood is -the villa of Caleotto, the residence of Alessandro Manzoni, who in his -_Promessi Sposi_, has left a full description of the district. A statue -has been erected to him. - -In the 11th century Lecco, previously the seat of a marquisate, was -presented to the bishops of Como by Otto II.; but in the 12th century it -passed to the archbishops of Milan, and in 1127 it assisted the Milanese -in the destruction of Como. During the 13th century it was struggling -for its existence with the metropolitan city; and its fate seemed to be -sealed when the Visconti drove its inhabitants across the lake to -Valmadrera, and forbade them to raise their town from its ashes. But in -a few years the people returned; Azzone Visconti made Lecco a strong -fortress, and in 1335 united it with the Milanese territory by a bridge -across the Adda. During the 15th and 16th centuries the citadel of Lecco -was an object of endless contention. In 1647 the town with its territory -was made a countship. Morone, Charles V.'s Italian chancellor, was born -in Lecco. - - See A. L. Apostolo, _Lecco ed il suo territorio_ (Lecco, 1855). - - - - -LECH (_Licus_), a river of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, 177 m. -long, with a drainage basin of 2550 sq. m. It rises in the Vorarlberg -Alps, at an altitude of 6120 ft. It winds out of the gloomy limestone -mountains, flows in a north-north-easterly direction, and enters the -plains at Fussen (2580 ft.), where it forms rapids and a fall, then -pursues a northerly course past Augsburg, where it receives the Wertach, -and joins the Danube from the right just below Donauworth (1330 ft.). It -is not navigable, owing to its torrential character and the gravel beds -which choke its channel. More than once great historic events have been -decided upon its banks. On the Lechfeld, a stony waste some miles long, -between the Lech and the Wertach, the emperor Otto I. defeated the -Hungarians in August 955. Tilly, in attempting to defend the passage of -the stream at Rain against the forces of Gustavus Adolphus, was fatally -wounded, on the 5th of April 1632. The river was formerly the boundary -between Bavaria and Swabia. - - - - -LE CHAMBON, or LE CHAMBON-FEUGEROLLES, a town of east-central France in -the department of Loire, 7(1/2) m. S.W. of St Etienne by rail, on the -Ondaine, a tributary of the Loire. Pop. (1906) town, 7525; commune, -12,011. Coal is mined in the neighbourhood, and there are forges, steel -works, manufactures of tools and other iron goods, and silk mills. The -feudal castle of Feugerolles on a hill to the south-east dates in part -from the 11th century. - -Between Le Chambon and St Etienne is La Ricamarie (pop. of town 5289) -also of importance for its coal-mines. Many of the galleries of a number -of these mines are on fire, probably from spontaneous combustion. -According to popular tradition these fires date from the time of the -Saracens; more authentically from the 15th century. - - - - -LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENE GUY (1754-1794), French politician, was born at -Rennes on the 12th of June 1754, his father being _batonnier_ of the -corporation of lawyers in that town. He entered his father's profession, -and had some success as an orator. In 1789 he was elected as a deputy to -the States General by the Tiers-Etat of the _senechaussee_ of Rennes. He -adopted advanced opinions, and was one of the founders of the Breton -Club (see JACOBIN CLUB); his influence in the Constituent Assembly was -considerable, and on the 3rd of August 1789 he was elected its -president. Thus he presided over the Assembly during the important -period following the 4th of August; he took an active part in the -debates, and was a leading member of the committee which drew up the new -constitution; he further presented a report on the liberty of theatres -and on literary copyright. He was also conspicuous as opposing -Robespierre when he proposed that members of the Constituent Assembly -should not be eligible for election to the proposed new Assembly. After -the flight of the king to Varennes (20th of June 1792), his opinions -became more moderate, and on the 29th of September he brought forward a -motion to restrict the action of the clubs. This, together with a visit -which he paid to England in 1792 made him suspect, and he was denounced -on his return for conspiring with foreign nations. He went into hiding, -but was discovered in consequence of a pamphlet which he published to -defend himself, arrested and condemned to death by the Revolutionary -Tribunal. He was executed at Paris on the 22nd of April 1794. - - See A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la constituante_ (2nd ed., Paris, - 1905); R. Kerviler, _Recherches et notices sur les deputes de la - Bretagne aux etats generaux_ (2 vols., Rennes, 1888-1889); P. J. - Levot, _Biographie bretonne_ (2 vols., 1853-1857). - - - - -LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR (1811-1888), German Lutheran theologian, was -born on the 18th of April 1811 at Kloster Reichenbach in Wurttemberg. He -studied at Tubingen under F. C. Baur, and became in 1858 pastor of the -church of St Thomas, professor Ordinarius of historical theology and -superintendent of the Lutheran church of Leipzig. He died on the 26th of -December 1888. A disciple of Neander, he belonged to the extreme right -of the school of mediating theologians. He is important as the historian -of early Christianity and of the pre-Reformation period. Although F. C. -Baur was his teacher, he did not attach himself to the Tubingen school; -in reply to the contention that there are traces of a sharp conflict -between two parties, Paulinists and Petrinists, he says that "we find -variety coupled with agreement, and unity with difference, between Paul -and the earlier apostles; we recognize the one spirit in the many -gifts." His _Das apostolische und das nachapostolische Zeitalter_ -(1851), which developed out of a prize essay (1849), passed through -three editions in Germany (3rd ed., 1885), and was translated into -English (2 vols., 1886). The work which in his own opinion was his -greatest, _Johann von Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation_ (2 -vols., 1873), appeared in English with the title _John Wiclif and his -English Precursors_ (1878, new ed., 1884). An earlier work, _Geschichte -des engl. Deismus_ (1841), is still regarded as a valuable contribution -to the study of religious thought in England. - - Lechler's other works include _Geschichte der Presbyterial- und - Synodal-verfassung_ (1854), _Urkundenfunde zur Geschichte des christl. - Altertums_ (1886), and biographies of Thomas Bradwardine (1862) and - Robert Grosseteste (1867). He wrote part of the commentary on the Acts - of the Apostles in J. P. Lange's _Bibelwerk_. From 1882 he edited with - F. W. Dibelius the _Beitrage zur sachsischen Kirchengeschichte_. - _Johannes Hus_ (1890) was published after his death. - - - - -LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE (1838-1903), Irish historian and -publicist, was born at Newtown Park, near Dublin, on the 26th of March -1838, being the eldest son of John Hartpole Lecky, whose family had for -many generations been landowners in Ireland. He was educated at -Kingstown, Armagh, and Cheltenham College, and at Trinity College, -Dublin, where he graduated B.A. in 1859 and M.A. in 1863, and where, -with a view to becoming a clergyman in the Irish Protestant Church, he -went through a course of divinity. In 1860 he published anonymously a -small book entitled _The Religious Tendencies of the Age_, but on -leaving college he abandoned his first intention and turned to -historical work. In 1861 he published _Leaders of Public Opinion in -Ireland_, a brief sketch of the lives and work of Swift, Flood, Grattan -and O'Connell, which gave decided promise of his later admirable work in -the same field. This book, originally published anonymously, was -republished in 1871; and the essay on Swift, rewritten and amplified, -appeared again in 1897 as an introduction to a new edition of Swift's -works. Two learned surveys of certain aspects of history followed: _A -History of the Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe_ (2 vols., -1865), and _A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_ -(2 vols., 1869). Some criticism was aroused by these books, especially -by the last named, with its opening dissertation on "the natural history -of morals," but both have been generally accepted as acute and -suggestive commentaries upon a wide range of facts. Lecky then devoted -himself to the chief work of his life, _A History of England during the -Eighteenth Century_, vols. i. and ii. of which appeared in 1878, and -vols. vii. and viii. (completing the work) in 1890. His object was "to -disengage from the great mass of facts those which relate to the -permanent forces of the nation, or which indicate some of the more -enduring features of national life," and in the carrying out of this -task Lecky displays many of the qualities of a great historian. The work -is distinguished by the lucidity of its style, but the fulness and -extent of the authorities referred to, and, above all, by the judicial -impartiality maintained by the author throughout. These qualities are -perhaps most conspicuous and most valuable in the chapters which deal -with the history of Ireland, and in the cabinet edition of 1892, in 12 -vols. (frequently reprinted) this part of the work is separated from the -rest, and occupies five volumes under the title of _A History of Ireland -in the Eighteenth Century_. A volume of _Poems_, published in 1891, was -characterized by a certain frigidity and by occasional lapses into -commonplace, objections which may also be fairly urged against much of -Lecky's prose-writing. In 1896 he published two volumes entitled -_Democracy and Liberty_, in which he considered, with special reference -to Great Britain, France and America, some of the tendencies of modern -democracies. The somewhat gloomy conclusions at which he arrived -provoked much criticism both in Great Britain and America, which was -renewed when he published in a new edition (1899) an elaborate and very -depreciatory estimate of Gladstone, then recently dead. This work, -though essentially different from the author's purely historical -writings, has many of their merits, though it was inevitable that other -minds should take a different view of the evidence. In _The Map of Life_ -(1900) he discussed in a popular style some of the ethical problems -which arise in everyday life. In 1903 he published a revised and greatly -enlarged edition of _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_, in two -volumes, from which the essay on Swift was omitted and that on O'Connell -was expanded into a complete biography of the great advocate of repeal -of the Union. Though always a keen sympathizer with the Irish people in -their misfortunes and aspirations, and though he had criticized severely -the methods by which the Act of Union was passed, Lecky, who grew up as -a moderate Liberal, was from the first strenuously opposed to -Gladstone's policy of Home Rule, and in 1895 he was returned to -parliament as Unionist member for Dublin University. In 1897 he was made -a privy councillor, and among the coronation honours in 1902 he was -nominated an original member of the new Order of Merit. His university -honours included the degree of LL.D. from Dublin, St Andrews and -Glasgow, the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford and the degree of Litt.D. from -Cambridge. In 1894 he was elected corresponding member of the Institute -of France. He contributed occasionally to periodical literature, and two -of his addresses, _The Political Value of History_ (1892) and _The -Empire, its Value and its Growth_ (1893), were published. He died in -London on the 22nd of October 1903. He married in 1871 Elizabeth, -baroness de Dedem, daughter of baron de Dedem, a general in the Dutch -service, but had no children. Mrs Lecky contributed to various reviews a -number of articles, chiefly on historical and political subjects. A -volume of Lecky's _Historical and Political Essays_ was published -posthumously (London, 1908). - - - - -LE CLERC [CLERICUS], JEAN (1657-1736), French Protestant theologian, was -born on the 19th of March 1657 at Geneva, where his father, Stephen Le -Clerc, was professor of Greek. The family originally belonged to the -neighbourhood of Beauvais in France, and several of its members acquired -some name in literature. Jean Le Clerc applied himself to the study of -philosophy under J. R. Chouet (1642-1731) the Cartesian, and attended -the theological lectures of P. Mestrezat, Franz Turretin and Louis -Tronchin (1629-1705). In 1678-1679 he spent some time at Grenoble as -tutor in a private family; on his return to Geneva he passed his -examinations and received ordination. Soon afterwards he went to Saumur, -where in 1679 were published _Liberii de Sancto Amore Epistolae -Theologicae_ (Irenopoli: Typis Philalethianis), usually attributed to -him; they deal with the doctrine of the Trinity, the hypostatic union of -the two natures in Jesus Christ, original sin, and the like, in a manner -sufficiently far removed from that of the conventional orthodoxy of the -period. In 1682 he went to London, where he remained six months, -preaching on alternate Sundays in the Walloon church and in the Savoy -chapel. Passing to Amsterdam he was introduced to John Locke and to -Philip v. Limborch, professor at the Remonstrant college; the -acquaintance with Limborch soon ripened into a close friendship, which -strengthened his preference for the Remonstrant theology, already -favourably known to him by the writings of his grand-uncle, Stephan -Curcellaeus (d. 1645) and by those of Simon Episcopius. A last attempt -to live at Geneva, made at the request of relatives there, satisfied him -that the theological atmosphere was uncongenial, and in 1684 he finally -settled at Amsterdam, first as a moderately successful preacher, until -ecclesiastical jealousy shut him out from that career, and afterwards as -professor of philosophy, belles-lettres and Hebrew in the Remonstrant -seminary. This appointment, which he owed to Limborch, he held from -1684, and in 1712 on the death of his friend he was called to occupy the -chair of church history also. His suspected Socinianism was the cause, -it is said, of his exclusion from the chair of dogmatic theology. Apart -from his literary labours, Le Clerc's life at Amsterdam was uneventful. -In 1691 he married a daughter of Gregorio Leti. From 1728 onward he was -subject to repeated strokes of paralysis, and he died on the 8th of -January 1736. - - A full catalogue of the publications of Le Clerc will be found, with - biographical material, in E. and E. Haag's _France Protestante_ (where - seventy-three works are enumerated), or in J. G. de Chauffepie's - Dictionnaire. Only the most important of these can be mentioned here. - In 1685 he published _Sentimens de quelques theologiens de Hollande - sur l'histoire critique du Vieux Testament composee par le P. Richard - Simon_, in which, while pointing out what he believed to be the faults - of that author, he undertook to make some positive contributions - towards a right understanding of the Bible. Among these last may be - noted his argument against the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, - his views as to the manner in which the five books were composed, his - opinions (singularly free for the time in which he lived) on the - subject of inspiration in general, and particularly as to the - inspiration of Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles. Richard Simon's - _Reponse_ (1686) elicited from Le Clerc a _Defense des sentimens_ in - the same year, which was followed by a new _Reponse_ (1687). In 1692 - appeared his _Logica sive Ars Ratiocinandi_, and also _Ontologia et - Pneumatologia_; these, with the _Physica_ (1695), are incorporated - with the _Opera Philosophica_, which have passed through several - editions. In 1693 his series of Biblical commentaries began with that - on Genesis; the series was not completed until 1731. The portion - relating to the New Testament books included the paraphrase and notes - of Henry Hammond (1605-1660). Le Clerc's commentary had a great - influence in breaking up traditional prejudices and showing the - necessity for a more scientific inquiry into the origin and meaning of - the biblical books. It was on all sides hotly attacked. His _Ars - Critica_ appeared in 1696, and, in continuation, _Epistolae Criticae - et Ecclesiasticae_ in 1700. Le Clerc's new edition of the _Apostolic - Fathers_ of Johann Cotelerius (1627-1686), published in 1698, marked - an advance in the critical study of these documents. But the greatest - literary influence of Le Clerc was probably that which he exercised - over his contemporaries by means of the serials, or, if one may so - call them, reviews, of which he was editor. These were the - _Bibliotheque universelle et historique_ (Amsterdam, 25 vols. 12 mo., - 1686-1693), begun with J. C. de la Croze; the _Bibliotheque choisie_ - (Amsterdam, 28 vols., 1703-1713); and the _Bibliotheque ancienne et - moderne_, (29 vols., 1714-1726). - - See Le Clerc's _Parrhasiana ou pensees sur des matieres de critique, - d'histoire, de morale, et de politique: avec la defense de divers - ouvrages de M. L. C. par Theodore Parrhase_ (Amsterdam, 1699); and - _Vita et opera ad annum MDCCXI., amici ejus opusculum, philosophicis - Clerici operibus subjiciendum_, also attributed to himself. The - supplement to Hammond's notes was translated into English in 1699, - _Parrhasiana, or Thoughts on Several Subjects_, in 1700, the _Harmony - of the Gospels_ in 1701, and _Twelve Dissertations out of M. Le - Clerc's Genesis_ in 1696. - - - - -LECOCQ, ALEXANDRE CHARLES (1832- ), French musical composer, was born -in Paris, on the 3rd of June 1832. He was admitted into the -Conservatoire in 1849, being already an accomplished pianist. He studied -under Bazin, Halevy and Benoist, winning the first prize for harmony in -1850, and the second prize for fugue in 1852. He first gained notice by -dividing with Bizet the first prize for an operetta in a competition -instituted by Offenbach. His operetta, _Le Docteur miracle_, was -performed at the Bouffes Parisiens in 1857. After that he wrote -constantly for theatres, but produced nothing worthy of mention until -_Fleur de the_ (1868), which ran for more than a hundred nights. _Les -Cent vierges_ (1872) was favourably received also, but all his previous -successes were cast into the shade by _La Fille de Madame Angot_ (Paris, -1873; London, 1873), which was performed for 400 nights consecutively, -and has since gained and retained enormous popularity. After 1873 Lecocq -produced a large number of comic operas, though he never equalled his -early triumph in _La Fille de Madame Angot_. Among the best of his -pieces are _Girofle-Girofla_ (Paris and London, 1874); _Les Pres -Saint-Gervais_ (Paris and London, 1874); _La Petite Mariee_ (Paris, -1875; London, 1876, revived as _The Scarlet Feather_, 1897); _Le Petit -Duc_ (Paris, 1878; London, as _The Little Duke_, 1878); _La Petite -Mademoiselle_ (Paris, 1879; London, 1880); _Le Jour et la Nuit_ (Paris, -1881; London, as _Manola_, 1882); _Le Coeur et la main_ (Paris, 1882; -London, as _Incognita_, 1893); _La Princesse des Canaries_ (Paris, 1883; -London, as _Pepita_, 1888). In 1899 a ballet by Lecocq, entitled _Le -Cygne_, was staged at the Opera Comique, Paris; and in 1903 _Yetta_ was -produced at Brussels. - - - - -LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU (1764-1827), French politician, was -born at Saint-Maixent (Deux-Sevres) on the 13th of December 1764. Deputy -for his department to the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and to the -Convention in the same year, he voted for "the death of the tyrant." His -association with the Girondins nearly involved him in their fall, in -spite of his vigorous republicanism. He took part in the revolution of -Thermidor, but protested against the establishment of the Directory, and -continually pressed for severer measures against the _emigres_, and even -their relations who had remained in France. He was secretary and then -president of the Council of Five Hundred, and under the Consulate a -member of the Tribunate. He took no part in public affairs under the -Empire, but was lieutenant-general of police for south-east France -during the Hundred Days. After Waterloo he took ship from Toulon, but -the ship was driven back by a storm and he narrowly escaped massacre at -Marseilles. After six weeks' imprisonment in the Chateau d'If he -returned to Paris, escaping, after the proscription of the regicides, to -Brussels, where he died on the 15th of January 1827. - - - - -LE CONTE, JOSEPH (1823-1901), American geologist, of Huguenot descent, -was born in Liberty county, Georgia, on the 26th of February 1823. He -was educated at Franklin College, Georgia, where he graduated (1841); he -afterwards studied medicine and received his degree at the New York -College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1845. After practising for three -or four years at Macon, Georgia, he entered Harvard, and studied natural -history under L. Agassiz. An excursion made with Professors J. Hall and -Agassiz to the Helderberg mountains of New York developed a keen -interest in geology. After graduating at Harvard, Le Conte in 1851 -accompanied Agassiz on an expedition to study the Florida reefs. On his -return he became professor of natural science in Oglethorpe University, -Georgia; and from 1852 to 1856 professor of natural history and geology -in Franklin College. From 1857 to 1869 he was professor of chemistry and -geology in South Carolina College, and he was then appointed professor -of geology and natural history in the university of California, a post -which he held until his death. He published a series of papers on -monocular and binocular vision, and also on psychology. His chief -contributions, however, related to geology, and in all he wrote he was -lucid and philosophical. He described the fissure-eruptions in western -America, discoursed on earth-crust movements and their causes and on the -great features of the earth's surface. As separate works he published -_Elements of Geology_ (1878, 5th ed. 1889); _Religion and Science_ -(1874); and _Evolution: its History, its Evidences, and its Relation -to Religious Thought_ (1888). He was president of the American -Association for the Advancement of Science in 1892, and of the -Geological Society of America in 1896. He died in the Yosemite Valley, -California, on the 6th of June 1901. - - See Obituary by J. J. Stevenson, _Annals of New York Acad. of - Sciences_, vol. xiv. (1902), p. 150. - - - - -LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE RENE (1818-1894), French poet, was born -in the island of Reunion on the 22nd of October 1818. His father, an -army surgeon, who brought him up with great severity, sent him to travel -in the East Indies with a view to preparing him for a commercial life. -After this voyage he went to Rennes to complete his education, studying -especially Greek, Italian and history. He returned once or twice to -Reunion, but in 1846 settled definitely in Paris. His first volume, _La -Venus de Milo_, attracted to him a number of friends many of whom were -passionately devoted to classical literature. In 1873 he was made -assistant librarian at the Luxembourg; in 1886 he was elected to the -Academy in succession to Victor Hugo. His _Poemes antiques_ appeared in -1852; _Poemes et poesies_ in 1854; _Le Chemin de la croix_ in 1859; the -_Poemes barbares_, in their first form, in 1862; _Les Erinnyes_, a -tragedy after the Greek model, in 1872; for which occasional music was -provided by Jules Massenet; the _Poemes tragiques_ in 1884; -_L'Apollonide_, another classical tragedy, in 1888; and two posthumous -volumes, _Derniers poemes_ in 1899, and _Premieres poesies et lettres -intimes_ in 1902. In addition to his original work in verse, he -published a series of admirable prose translations of Theocritus, Homer, -Hesiod, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Horace. He died at Voisins, -near Louveciennes (Seine-et-Oise), on the 18th of July 1894. - -In Leconte de Lisle the Parnassian movement seems to crystallize. His -verse is clear, sonorous, dignified, deliberate in movement, classically -correct in rhythm, full of exotic local colour, of savage names, of -realistic rhetoric. It has its own kind of romance, in its "legend of -the ages," so different from Hugo's, so much fuller of scholarship and -the historic sense, yet with far less of human pity. Coldness cultivated -as a kind of artistic distinction seems to turn all his poetry to -marble, in spite of the fire at its heart. Most of Leconte de Lisle's -poems are little chill epics, in which legend is fossilized. They have -the lofty monotony of a single conception of life and of the universe. -He sees the world as what Byron called it, "a glorious blunder," and -desires only to stand a little apart from the throng, meditating -scornfully. Hope, with him, becomes no more than this desperate -certainty:-- - - "Tu te tairas, o voix sinistre des vivants!" - -His only prayer is to Death, "divine Death," that it may gather its -children to its breast:-- - - "Affranchis-nous du temps, du nombre et de l'espace, - Et rends-nous le repos que la vie a trouble!" - -The interval which is his he accepts with something of the defiance of -his own Cain, refusing to fill it with the triviality of happiness, -waiting even upon beauty with a certain inflexible austerity. He listens -and watches, throughout the world, for echoes and glimpses of great -tragic passions, languid with fire in the East, a tumultuous -conflagration in the middle ages, a sombre darkness in the heroic ages -of the North. The burning emptiness of the desert attracts him, the -inexplicable melancholy of the dogs that bark at the moon; he would -interpret the jaguar's dreams, the sleep of the condor. He sees nature -with the same wrathful impatience as man, praising it for its -destructive energies, its haste to crush out human life before the stars -fall into chaos, and the world with them, as one of the least of stars. -He sings the "Dies Irae" exultingly; only seeming to desire an end of -God as well as of man, universal nothingness. He conceives that he does -well to be angry, and this anger is indeed the personal note of his -pessimism; but it leaves him somewhat apart from the philosophical -poets, too fierce for wisdom and not rapturous enough for poetry. (A. -Sy.) - - See J. Dornis, _Leconte de Lisle intime_ (1895); F. Calmette, _Un Demi - siecle litteraire, Leconte de Lisle et ses amis_ (1902); Paul Bourget, - _Nouveaux essais de psychologie contemporaine_ (1885); F. Brunetiere, - _L'Evolution de la poesie lyrique en France au XIX^e siecle_ (1894); - Maurice Spronck, _Les Artistes litteraires_ (1889); J. Lemaitre, _Les - Contemporains_ (2nd series, 1886); F. Brunetiere, _Nouveaux essais sur - la litt. contemp._ (1895). - - - - -LE COQ, ROBERT (d. 1373), French bishop, was born at Montdidier, -although he belonged to a bourgeois family of Orleans, where he first -attended school before coming to Paris. In Paris he became advocate to -the parlement (1347); then King John appointed him master of requests, -and in 1351, a year during which he received many other honours, he -became bishop of Laon. At the opening of 1354 he was sent with the -cardinal of Boulogne, Pierre I., duke of Bourbon, and Jean VI., count of -Vendome, to Mantes to treat with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who -had caused the constable, Charles of Spain, to be assassinated, and from -this time dates his connexion with this king. At the meeting of the -estates which opened in Paris in October 1356 Le Coq played a leading -role and was one of the most outspoken of the orators, especially when -petitions were presented to the dauphin Charles, denouncing the bad -government of the realm and demanding the banishment of the royal -councillors. Soon, however, the credit of the estates having gone down, -he withdrew to his diocese, but at the request of the bourgeois of Paris -he speedily returned. The king of Navarre had succeeded in escaping from -prison and had entered Paris, where his party was in the ascendant; and -Robert le Coq became the most powerful person in his council. No one -dared to contradict him, and he brought into it whom he pleased. He did -not scruple to reveal to the king of Navarre secret deliberations, but -his fortune soon turned. He ran great danger at the estates of Compiegne -in May 1358, where his dismissal was demanded, and he had to flee to St -Denis, where Charles the Bad and Etienne Marcel came to find him. After -the death of Marcel, he tried, unsuccessfully, to deliver Laon, his -episcopal town, to the king of Navarre, and he was excluded from the -amnesty promised in the treaty of Calais (1360) by King John to the -partisans of Charles the Bad. His temporalities had been seized, and he -was obliged to flee from France. In 1363, thanks to the support of the -king of Navarre, he was given the bishopric of Calahorra in the kingdom -of Aragon, which he administered until his death in 1373. - - See L. C. Douet d'Arcq, "Acte d'accusation contre Robert le Coq, - eveque de Laon" in _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, 1st series, - t. ii., pp. 350-387; and R. Delachenal, "La Bibliotheque d'un avocat - du XIV^e siecle, inventaire estimatif des livres de Robert le Coq," in - _Nouvelle revue historique de droit francais et etranger_ (1887), pp. - 524-537. - - - - -LECOUVREUR, ADRIENNE (1692-1730), French actress, was born on the 5th of -April 1692, at Damery, Marne, the daughter of a hatter, Robert Couvreur. -She had an unhappy childhood in Paris. She showed a natural talent for -declamation and was instructed by La Grand, _societaire_ of the Comedie -Francaise, and with his help she obtained a provincial engagement. It -was not until 1717, after a long apprenticeship, that she made her Paris -debut as Electre, in Crebillon's tragedy of that name, and Angelique in -Moliere's _George Dandin_. Her success was so great that she was -immediately received into the Comedie Francaise, and for thirteen years -she was the queen of tragedy there, attaining a popularity never before -accorded an actress. She is said to have played no fewer than 1184 times -in a hundred roles, of which she created twenty-two. She owed her -success largely to her courage in abandoning the stilted style of -elocution of her predecessors for a naturalness of delivery and a -touching simplicity of pathos that delighted and moved her public. In -Baron, who returned to the stage at the age of sixty-seven, she had an -able and powerful coadjutor in changing the stage traditions of -generations. The jealousy she aroused was partly due to her social -successes, which were many, in spite of the notorious freedom of her -manner of life. She was on visiting and dining terms with half the -court, and her _salon_ was frequented by Voltaire and all the other -notables and men of letters. She was the mistress of Maurice de Saxe -from 1721, and sold her plate and jewels to supply him with funds for -his ill-starred adventures as duke of Courland. By him she had a -daughter, her third, who was grandmother of the father of George Sand. -Adrienne Lecouvreur died on the 20th of March 1730. She was denied the -last rites of the Church, and her remains were refused burial in -consecrated ground. Voltaire, in a fine poem on her death, expressed his -indignation at the barbarous treatment accorded to the woman whose -"friend, admirer, lover" he was. - - Her life formed the subject of the well-known tragedy (1849), by - Eugene Scribe and Ernest Legouve. - - - - -LE CREUSOT, a town of east-central France in the department of -Saone-et-Loire, 55 m. S.W. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. -(1906), town, 22,535; commune, 33,437. Situated at the foot of lofty -hills in a district rich in coal and iron, it has the most extensive -iron works in France. The coal bed of Le Creusot was discovered in the -13th century; but it was not till 1774 that the first workshops were -founded there. The royal crystal works were transferred from Sevres to -Le Creusot in 1787, but this industry came to an end in 1831. Meanwhile -two or three enterprises for the manufacture of metal had ended in -failure, and it was only in 1836 that the foundation of iron works by -Adolphe and Eugene Schneider definitely inaugurated the industrial -prosperity of the place. The works supplied large quantities of war -material to the French armies during the Crimean and Franco-German wars. -Since that time they have continuously enlarged the scope of their -operations, which now embrace the manufacture of steel, armour-plate, -guns, ordnance-stores, locomotives, electrical machinery and engineering -material of every description. A network of railways about 37 m. in -length connects the various branches of the works with each other and -with the neighbouring Canal du Centre. Special attention is paid to the -welfare of the workers who, not including the miners, number about -12,000, and good schools have been established. In 1897 the -ordnance-manufacture of the Societe des Forges et Chantiers de la -Mediterranee at Havre was acquired by the Company, which also has -important branches at Chalon-sur-Saone, where ship-building and -bridge-construction is carried on, and at Cette (Herault). - - - - -LECTERN (through O. Fr. _leitrun_, from Late Lat. _lectrum_, or -_lectrinum_, _legere_, to read; the French equivalent is _lutrin_; Ital. -_leggio_; Ger. _Lesepult_), in the furniture of certain Christian -churches, a reading-desk, used more especially for the reading of the -lessons and in the Anglican Church practically confined to that purpose. -In the early Christian Church this was done from the ambo (q.v.), but in -the 15th century, when the books were often of great size, it became -necessary to provide a lectern to hold them. These were either in wood -or metal, and many fine examples still exist; one at Detling in wood, in -which there are shelves on all four sides to hold books, is perhaps the -most elaborate. Brass lecterns, as in the colleges of Oxford and -Cambridge, are common; in the usual type the book is supported on the -outspread wings of an eagle or pelican, which is raised on a moulded -stem, carried on three projecting ledges or feet with lions on them. In -the example in Norwich cathedral, the pelican supporting the book stands -on a rock enclosed with a rich cresting of Gothic tabernacle work; the -central stem or pillar, on which this rests, is supported by miniature -projecting buttresses, standing on a moulded base with lions on it. - - - - -LECTION, LECTIONARY. The custom of reading the books of Moses in the -synagogues on the Sabbath day was a very ancient one in the Jewish -Church. The addition of lections (i.e. readings) from the prophetic -books had been made afterwards and was in existence in our Lord's time, -as may be gathered from such passages as St Luke iv. 16-20, xvi. 29. -This element in synagogue worship was taken over with others into the -Christian divine service, additions being made to it from the writings -of the apostles and evangelists. We find traces of such additions within -the New Testament itself in such directions as are contained in Col. iv. -16; 1 Thess. v. 27. - -From the 2nd century onwards references multiply, though the earlier -references do not prove the existence of a fixed lectionary or order of -lessons, but rather point the other way. Justin Martyr, describing -divine worship in the middle of the 2nd century says: "On the day called -Sunday all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one -place, and the memoirs of the Apostles, or the writings of the Prophets -are read as long as time permits" (_Apol._ i. cap. 67). Tertullian about -half a century later makes frequent reference to the reading of Holy -Scripture in public worship (_Apol._ 39; _De praescript._ 36; _De -amina_, 9). - -In the canons of Hippolytus in the first half of the 3rd century we find -this direction: "Let presbyters, subdeacons and readers, and all the -people assemble daily in the church at time of cock-crow, and betake -themselves to prayers, to psalms and to the reading of the Scriptures, -according to the command of the Apostles, until I come attend to -reading" (canon xxi.). - -But there are traces of fixed lessons coming into existence in the -course of this century; Origen refers to the book of Job being read in -Holy Week (_Commentaries on Job_, lib. i.). Allusions of a similar kind -in the 4th century are frequent. John Cassian (c. 380) tells us that -throughout Egypt the Psalms were divided into groups of twelve, and that -after each group there followed two lessons, one from the Old, one from -the New Testament (_De caenob. inst._ ii. 4), implying but not -absolutely stating that there was a fixed order of such lessons just as -there was of the Psalms. St Basil the Great mentions fixed lessons on -certain occasions taken from Isaiah, Proverbs, St Matthew and Acts (Hom. -xiii. _De bapt._). From Chrysostom (Hom. lxiii _in Act._ &c.), and -Augustine (Tract. vi. _in Joann._ &c.) we learn that Genesis was read in -Lent, Job and Jonah in Passion Week, the Acts of the Apostles in -Eastertide, lessons on the Passion on Good Friday and on the -Resurrection on Easter Day. In the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (ii. 57) -the following service is described and enjoined. First come two lessons -from the Old Testament by a reader, the whole of the Old Testament being -made use of except the books of the Apocrypha. The Psalms of David are -then to be sung. Next the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of Paul -are to be read, and finally the four Gospels by a deacon or a priest. -Whether the selections were _ad libitum_ or according to a fixed table -of lessons we are not informed. Nothing in the shape of a lectionary is -extant older than the 8th century, though there is evidence that -Claudianus Mamercus made one for the church at Vienne in 450, and that -Musaeus made one for the church at Marseilles c. 458. The _Liber -comitis_ formerly attributed to St Jerome must be three, or nearly -three, centuries later than that saint, and the Luxeuil lectionary, or -_Lectionarium Gallicanum_, which Mabillon attributed to the 7th, cannot -be earlier than the 8th century; yet the oldest MSS. of the Gospels have -marginal marks, and sometimes actual interpolations, which can only be -accounted for as indicating the beginnings and endings of liturgical -lessons. The third council of Carthage in 397 forbade anything but Holy -Scripture to be read in church; this rule has been adhered to so far as -the liturgical epistle and gospel, and occasional additional lessons in -the Roman missal are concerned, but in the divine office, on feasts when -nine lessons are read at matins, only the first three lessons are taken -from Holy Scripture, the next three being taken from the sermons of -ecclesiastical writers, and the last three from expositions of the day's -gospel; but sometimes the lives or _Passions_ of the saints, or of some -particular saints, were substituted for any or all of these breviary -lessons. (F. E. W.) - - - - -LECTISTERNIUM (from Lat. _lectum sternere_, "to spread a couch"; [Greek: -stromnai] in Dion. Halic. xii. 9), in ancient Rome, a propitiatory -ceremony, consisting of a meal offered to gods and goddesses, -represented by their busts or statues, or by portable figures of wood, -with heads of bronze, wax or marble, and covered with drapery. Another -suggestion is that the symbols of the gods consisted of bundles of -sacred herbs, tied together in the form of a head, covered by a waxen -mask so as to resemble a kind of bust (cf. the straw puppets called -Argei). These symbols were laid upon a couch (_lectus_), the left arm -resting on a cushion (_pulvinus_, whence the couch itself was often -called _pulvinar_) in the attitude of reclining. In front of the couch, -which was placed in the open street, a meal was set out on a table. It -is definitely stated by Livy (v. 13) that the ceremony took place "for -the first time" in Rome in the year 399 B.C., after the Sibylline books -had been consulted by their keepers and interpreters (_duumviri sacris -faciendis_), on the occasion of a pestilence. Three couches were -prepared for three pairs of gods--Apollo and Latona, Hercules and Diana, -Mercury and Neptune. The feast, which on that occasion lasted for eight -(or seven) days, was also celebrated by private individuals; the -citizens kept open house, quarrels were forgotten, debtors and prisoners -were released, and everything done to banish sorrow. Similar honours -were paid to other divinities in subsequent times--Fortuna, Saturnus, -Juno Regina of the Aventine, the three Capitoline deities (Jupiter, -Juno, Minerva), and in 217, after the defeat of lake Trasimenus, a -lectisternium was held for three days to six pairs of gods, -corresponding to the twelve great gods of Olympus--Jupiter, Juno, -Neptune, Minerva, Mars, Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcan, Vesta, Mercury, -Ceres. In 205, alarmed by unfavourable prodigies, the Romans were -ordered to fetch the Great Mother of the gods from Pessinus in Phrygia; -in the following year the image was brought to Rome, and a lectisternium -held. In later times, the lectisternium became of constant (even daily) -occurrence, and was celebrated in the different temples. Such -celebrations must be distinguished from those which were ordered, like -the earlier lectisternia, by the Sibylline books in special emergencies. -Although undoubtedly offerings of food were made to the gods in very -early Roman times on such occasions as the ceremony of _confarreatio_, -and the _epulum Jovis_ (often confounded with the lectisternium), it is -generally agreed that the lectisternia were of Greek origin. In favour -of this may be mentioned: the similarity of the Greek [Greek: -Theoxenia], in which, however, the gods played the part of hosts; the -gods associated with it were either previously unknown to Roman -religion, though often concealed under Roman names, or were provided -with a new cult (thus Hercules was not worshipped as at the Ara Maxima, -where, according to Servius on _Aeneid_, viii. 176 and Cornelius Balbus, -_ap._ Macrobius, _Sat._ iii. 6, a lectisternium was forbidden); the -Sibylline books, which decided whether a lectisternium was to be held or -not, were of Greek origin; the custom of reclining at meals was Greek. -Some, however, assign an Etruscan origin to the ceremony, the Sibylline -books themselves being looked upon as old Italian "black books." A -probable explanation of the confusion between the lectisternia and -genuine old Italian ceremonies is that, as the lectisternia became an -almost everyday occurrence in Rome, people forgot their foreign origin -and the circumstances in which they were first introduced, and then the -word _pulvinar_ with its associations was transferred to times in which -it had no existence. In imperial times, according to Tacitus (_Annals_, -xv. 44), chairs were substituted for couches in the case of goddesses, -and the lectisternium in their case became a sellisternium (the reading, -however, is not certain). This was in accordance with Roman custom, -since in the earliest times all the members of a family sat at meals, -and in later times at least the women and children. This is a point of -distinction between the original practice at the lectisternium and the -epulum Jovis, the goddesses at the latter being provided with chairs, -whereas in the lectisternium they reclined. In Christian times the word -was used for a feast in memory of the dead (Sidonius Apollinaris, -_Epistulae_, iv. 15). - - See article by A. Bouche-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, - _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, - iii. 45, 187 (1885); G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Romer_, p. - 355 seq.; monograph by Wackermann (Hanau, 1888); C. Pascal, _Studii di - antichita e mitologia_ (1896). - - - - -LECTOR, or READER, a minor office-bearer in the Christian Church. From -an early period men have been set apart, under the title of -_anagnostae_, _lectores_, or readers, for the purpose of reading Holy -Scripture in church. We do not know what the custom of the Church was in -the first two centuries, the earliest reference to readers, as an order, -occurring in the writings of Tertullian (_De praescript. haeret._ cap. -41); there are frequent allusions to them in the writings of St Cyprian -and afterwards. Cornelius, bishop of Rome in A.D. 251-252, in a -well-known letter mentions readers among the various church orders then -existing at Rome. In the _Apostolic Church Order_ (canon 19), mention -is made of the qualifications and duties of a reader, but no reference -is made to their method of ordination. In the _Apostolic Didascalia_ -there is recognition of three minor orders of men, subdeacons, readers -and singers, in addition to two orders of women, deaconesses and widows. -A century later, in the _Apostolic Constitutions_, we find not only a -recognition of readers, but also a form of admission provided for them, -consisting of the imposition of hands and prayer (lib. viii. cap. 22). -In Africa the imposition of hands was not in use, but a Bible was handed -to the newly appointed reader with words of commission to read it, -followed by a prayer and a benediction (Fourth Council of Carthage, can. -8). This is the ritual of the Roman Church of to-day. With regard to -age, the novels of Justinian (No. 123) forbade any one to be admitted to -the office of reader under the age of eighteen. (F. E. W.) - - - - -LECTOURE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement -in the department of Gers, 21 m. N. of Auch on the Southern railway -between that city and Agen. Pop. (1906), town, 2426; commune, 4310. It -stands on the right bank of the Gers, overlooking the river from the -summit of a steep plateau. The church of St Gervais and St Protais was -once a cathedral. The massive tower which flanks it on the north belongs -to the 15th century; the rest of the church dates from the 13th, 15th, -16th and 17th centuries. The hotel de ville, the sous-prefecture and the -museum occupy the palace of the former bishops, which was once the -property of Marshal Jean Lannes, a native of the town. A recess in the -wall of an old house contains the Fontaine de Houndelie, a spring -sheltered by a double archway of the 13th century. At the bottom of the -hill a church of the 16th century marks the site of the monastery of St -Geny. Lectoure has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. -Its industries include distilling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and -biscuits, and market gardening; it has trade in grain, cattle, wine and -brandy. - - Lectoure, capital of the Iberian tribe of the _Lactorates_ and for a - short time of Novempopulania, became the seat of a bishopric in the - 4th century. In the 11th century the counts of Lomagne made it their - capital, and on the union of Lomagne with Armagnac, in 1325, it became - the capital of the counts of Armagnac. In 1473 Cardinal Jean de - Jouffroy besieged the town on behalf of Louis XI. and after its fall - put the whole population to the sword. In 1562 it again suffered - severely at the hands of the Catholics under Blaise de Montluc. - - - - -LEDA, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thestius, king of Aetolia, and -Eurythemis (her parentage is variously given). She was the wife of -Tyndareus and mother of Castor and Pollux, Clytaemnestra and Helen (see -CASTOR AND POLLUX). In another account Nemesis was the mother of Helen -(q.v.) whom Leda adopted as her daughter. This led to the identification -of Leda and Nemesis. In the usual later form of the story, Leda herself, -having been visited by Zeus in the form of a swan, produced two eggs, -from one of which came Helen, from the other Castor and Pollux. - - See Apollodorus iii. 10; Hyginus, _Fab._ 77; Homer, _Iliad_, iii. 426, - _Od._ xi. 298; Euripides, _Helena_, 17; Isocrates, _Helena_, 59; Ovid, - _Heroides_, xvii. 55; Horace, _Ars poetica_, 147; Stasinus in - Athenaeus viii. 334 c.; for the representations of Leda and the swan - in art, J. A. Overbeck, _Kunstmythologie_, i., and Atlas to the same; - also article in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_. - - - - -LE DAIM (or LE DAIN), OLIVIER (d. 1484), favourite of Louis XI. of -France, was born of humble parentage at Thielt near Courtrai in -Flanders. Seeking his fortune at Paris, he became court barber and valet -to Louis XI., and so ingratiated himself with the king that in 1474 he -was ennobled under the title Le Daim and in 1477 made comte de Meulant. -In the latter year he was sent to Burgundy to influence the young -heiress of Charles the Bold, but he was ridiculed and compelled to leave -Ghent. He thereupon seized and held Tournai for the French. Le Daim had -considerable talent for intrigue, and, according to his enemies, could -always be depended upon to execute the baser designs of the king. He -amassed a large fortune, largely by oppression and violence, and was -named gentleman-in-waiting, captain of Loches, and governor of -Saint-Quentin. He remained in favour until the death of Louis XI., when -the rebellious lords were able to avenge the slights and insults they -had suffered at the hands of the royal barber. He was arrested on -charges, the nature of which is uncertain, tried before the parlement of -Paris, and on the 21st of May 1484 hanged at Montfaucon without the -knowledge of Charles VIII., who might have heeded his father's request -and spared the favourite. Le Daim's property was given to the duke of -Orleans. - - See the memoirs of the time, especially those of Ph. de Commines (ed. - Mandrot, 1901-1903, Eng. trans. in Bohn Library); Robt. Gaguin, - _Compendium de origine et gestis Francorum_ (Paris, 1586)--it was - Gaguin who made the celebrated epigram concerning Le Daim: "Eras - judex, lector, et exitium"; De Reiffenberg, _Olivier le Dain_ - (Brussels, 1829); Delanone, _Le Barbier de Louis XI._ (Paris, 1832): - G. Picot, "Proces d'Olivier le Dain," in the _Comptes rendus de - l'Academie des sciences morales et politiques_, viii. (1877), 485-537. - The memoirs of the time are uniformly hostile to Le Daim. - - - - -LEDBURY, a market town in the Ross parliamentary division of -Herefordshire, England, 14(1/2) m. E. of Hereford by the Great Western -railway, pleasantly situated on the south-western slope of the Malvern -Hills. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3259. Cider and agricultural -produce are the chief articles of trade, and there are limestone -quarries in the neighbouring hills. The town contains many picturesque -examples of timbered houses, characteristic of the district, the -principal being the Market House (1633) elevated on massive pillars of -oak. The fine church of St Michael exhibits all the Gothic styles, the -most noteworthy features being the Norman chancel and west door, and the -remarkable series of ornate Decorated windows on the north side. Among -several charities is the hospital of St Catherine, founded by Foliot, -bishop of Hereford, in 1232. Hope End, 2 m. N.E. of Ledbury, was the -residence of Elizabeth Barrett Browning during her early life. A -clock-tower in the town commemorates her. - - Wall Hills Camp, supposed to be of British origin, is the earliest - evidence of a settlement near Ledbury (Liedeburge, Lidebury). The - manor was given to the see of Hereford in the 11th century; but in - 1561-1562 became crown property. As early as 1170-1171 an episcopal - castle existed in Ledbury. The town was not incorporated, but was - early called a borough; and in 1295 and 1304-1305 returned two members - to parliament. A fair on the day of the decollation of John the - Baptist was granted to the bishop in 1249. Of fairs which survived in - 1792 those of the days of St Philip and St James and St Barnabas were - granted in 1584-1585; those held on the Monday before Easter and St - Thomas's day were reputed ancient, but not those of the 12th of May, - the 22nd of June, the 2nd of October and the 21st of December. - Existing fairs are on the second Tuesday in every month and in - October. A weekly market, granted to the bishop by Stephen, John and - Henry III., was obsolete in 1584-1585, when the present market of - Tuesday was authorized. The wool trade was considerable in the 14th - century; later Ledbury was inhabited by glovers and clothiers. The - town was deeply involved in the operations of the Civil Wars, being - occupied both by the royalist leader Prince Rupert and by the - Parliamentarian Colonel Birch. - - - - -LEDGER (from the English dialect forms _liggen_ or _leggen_, to lie or -lay; in sense adapted from the Dutch substantive _legger_), properly a -book remaining regularly in one place, and so used of the copies of the -Scriptures and service books kept in a church. The _New English -Dictionary_ quotes from Charles Wriothesley's _Chronicle_, 1538 (ed. -_Camden Soc._, 1875, by W. D. Hamilton), "the curates should provide a -booke of the bible in Englishe, of the largest volume, to be a lidger in -the same church for the parishioners to read on." It is an application -of this original meaning that is found in the commercial usage of the -term for the principal book of account in a business house (see -BOOK-KEEPING). Apart from these applications to various forms of books, -the word is used of the horizontal timbers in a scaffold (q.v.) lying -parallel to the face of a building, which support the "put logs"; of a -flat stone to cover a grave; and of a stationary form of tackle and bait -in angling. In the form "lieger" the term was formerly frequently -applied to a "resident," as distinguished from an "extraordinary" -ambassador. - - - - -LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECISLAUS JOHANN, COUNT (1822-1902), Polish cardinal, was -born on the 29th of October 1822 in Gorki (Russian Poland), and received -his early education at the gymnasium and seminary of Warsaw. After -finishing his studies at the Jesuit Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici -in Rome, which strongly influenced his religious development and his -attitude towards church affairs, he was ordained in 1845. From 1856 to -1858 he represented the Roman See in Columbia, but on the outbreak of -the Columbian revolution had to return to Rome. In 1861 Pope Pius IX. -made him his nuncio at Brussels, and in 1865 he was made archbishop of -Gnesen-Posen. His preconization followed on the 8th of January 1866. -This date marks the beginning of the second period in Ledochowski's -life; for during the Prussian and German _Kulturkampf_ he was one of the -most declared enemies of the state. It was only during the earliest -years of his appointment as archbishop that he entertained a different -view, invoking, for instance, an intervention of Prussia in favour of -the Roman Church, when it was oppressed by the house of Savoy. On the -12th of December 1870 he presented an effective memorandum on the -subject at the headquarters at Versailles. In 1872 the archbishop -protested against the demand of the government that religious teaching -should be given only in the German language, and in 1873 he addressed a -circular letter on this subject to the clergy of his diocese. The -government thereupon demanded a statement from the teachers of religion -as to whether they intended to obey it or the archbishop, and on their -declaring for the archbishop, dismissed them. The count himself was -called upon at the end of 1873 to lay aside his office. On his refusing -to do so, he was arrested between 3 and 4 o'clock in the morning on the -3rd of February 1874 by Standi the director of police, and taken to the -military prison of Ostrowo. The pope made him a cardinal on the 13th of -March, but it was not till the 3rd of February 1876 that he was released -from prison. Having been expelled from the eastern provinces of Prussia, -he betook himself to Cracow, where his presence was made the pretext for -anti-Prussian demonstrations. Upon this he was also expelled from -Austria, and went to Rome, whence, in spite of his removal from office, -which was decreed on the 15th of April 1874, he continued to direct the -affairs of his diocese, for which he was on several occasions from 1877 -to 1879 condemned _in absentia_ by the Prussian government for -"usurpation of episcopal rights." It was not till 1885 that Ledochowski -resolved to resign his archbishopric, in which he was succeeded by -Dinder at the end of the year. Ledochowski's return in 1884 was -forbidden by the Prussian government (although the _Kulturkampf_ had now -abated), on account of his having stirred up anew the Polish nationalist -agitation. He passed the closing years of his life in Rome. In 1892 he -became prefect of the Congregation of the Propaganda, and he died in -Rome on the 22nd of July 1902. - - See Ograbiszewski, _Deutschlands Episkopat in Lebensbildern_ (1876 and - following years); Holtzmann-Zoppfel, _Lexikon fur Theologie und - Kirchenwesen_ (2nd ed., 1888); Vapereau, _Dictionnaire universel des - contemporains_ (6th ed., 1893); Bruck, _Geschichte der katholischen - Kirche in Deutschland im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_ vol. 4 (1901 and - 1908); Lauchert, _Biographisches Jahrbuch_, vol. 7 (1905). (J. Hn.) - - - - -LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE (1807-1874), French politician, was the -grandson of Nicolas Philippe Ledru, the celebrated quack doctor known as -"Comus" under Louis XIV., and was born in a house that was once -Scarron's, at Fontenay-aux-Roses (Seine), on the 2nd of February 1807. -He had just begun to practise at the Parisian bar before the revolution -of July, and was retained for the Republican defence in most of the -great political trials of the next ten years. In 1838 he bought for -330,000 francs Desire Dalloz's place in the Court of Cassation. He was -elected deputy for Le Mans in 1841 with hardly a dissentient voice; but -for the violence of his electoral speeches he was tried at Angers and -sentenced to four months' imprisonment and a fine, against which he -appealed successfully on a technical point. He made a rich and romantic -marriage in 1843, and in 1846 disposed of his charge at the Court of -Cassation to give his time entirely to politics. He was now the -recognized leader of the working-men of France. He had more authority in -the country than in the Chamber, where the violence of his oratory -diminished its effect. He asserted that the fortifications of Paris were -directed against liberty, not against foreign invasion, and he -stigmatized the law of regency (1842) as an audacious usurpation. -Neither from official Liberalism nor from the press did he receive -support; even the Republican _National_ was opposed to him because of -his championship of labour. He therefore founded _La Reforme_ in which -to advance his propaganda. Between Ledru-Rollin and Odilon Barrot with -the other chiefs of the "dynastic Left" there were acute differences, -hardly dissimulated even during the temporary alliance which produced -the campaign of the banquets. It was the speeches of Ledru-Rollin and -Louis Blanc at working-men's banquets in Lille, Dijon and Chalons that -really heralded the revolution. Ledru-Rollin prevented the appointment -of the duchess of Orleans as regent in 1848. He and Lamartine held the -tribune in the Chamber of Deputies until the Parisian populace stopped -serious discussion by invading the Chamber. He was minister of the -interior in the provisional government, and was also a member of the -executive committee[1] appointed by the Constituent Assembly, from which -Louis Blanc and the extremists were excluded. At the crisis of the 15th -of May he definitely sided with Lamartine and the party of order against -the proletariat. Henceforward his position was a difficult one. He never -regained his influence with the working classes, who considered they had -been betrayed; but to his short ministry belongs the credit of the -establishment of a working system of universal suffrage. At the -presidential election in December he was put forward as the Socialist -candidate, but secured only 370,000 votes. His opposition to the policy -of President Louis Napoleon, especially his Roman policy, led to his -moving the impeachment of the president and his ministers. The motion -was defeated, and next day (June 13, 1849) he headed what he called a -peaceful demonstration, and his enemies armed insurrection. He himself -escaped to London where he joined the executive of the revolutionary -committee of Europe, with Kossuth and Mazzini among his colleagues. He -was accused of complicity in an obscure attempt (1857) against the life -of Napoleon III., and condemned in his absence to deportation. Emile -Ollivier removed the exceptions from the general amnesty in 1870, and -Ledru-Rollin returned to France after twenty years of exile. Though -elected in 1871 in three departments he refused to sit in the National -Assembly, and took no serious part in politics until 1874 when he was -returned to the Assembly as member for Vaucluse. He died on the 31st of -December of that year. - - Under Louis Philippe he made large contributions to French - jurisprudence, editing the _Journal du palais, 1791-1837_ (27 vols., - 1837), and _1837-1847_ (17 vols.), with a commentary _Repertoire - general de la jurisprudence francaise_ (8 vols., 1843-1848), the - introduction to which was written by himself. His later writings were - political in character. See _Ledru-Rollin, ses discours et ses ecrits - politiques_ (2 vols., Paris, 1879), edited by his widow. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Arago, Garnier-Pages, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru-Rollin. - - - - -LEDYARD, JOHN (1751-1789), American traveller, was born in Groton, -Connecticut, U.S.A. After vainly trying law and theology, Ledyard -adopted a seaman's life, and, coming to London, was engaged as corporal -of marines by Captain Cook for his third voyage (1776). On his return -(1778) Ledyard had to give up to the Admiralty his copious journals, but -afterwards published, from memory, a meagre narrative of his -experiences--herein giving the only account of Cook's death by an -eye-witness (Hartford, U.S.A., 1783). He continued in the British -service till 1782, when he escaped, off Long Island. In 1784 he -revisited Europe, to organize an expedition to the American North-West. -Having failed in his attempts, he decided to reach his goal by -travelling across Europe and Asia. Baffled in his hopes of crossing the -Baltic on the ice (Stockholm to Abo), he walked right round from -Stockholm to St Petersburg, where he arrived barefoot and penniless -(March 1787). Here he made friends with Pallas and others, and -accompanied Dr Brown, a Scotch physician in the Russian service, to -Siberia. Ledyard left Dr Brown at Barnaul, went on to Tomsk and Irkutsk, -visited Lake Baikal, and descended the Lena to Yakutsk (18th of -September 1787). With Captain Joseph Billings, whom he had known on -Cook's "Resolution," he returned to Irkutsk, where he was arrested, -deported to the Polish frontier, and banished from Russia for ever. -Reaching London, he was engaged by Sir Joseph Banks and the African -Association to explore overland routes from Alexandria to the Niger, but -in Cairo he succumbed to a dose of vitriol (17th of January 1789). -Though a born explorer, little resulted from his immense but -ill-directed activities. - - See _Memoirs of the Life and Travels of John Ledyard_, by Jared Sparks - (1828). - - - - -LEE, ANN (1736-1784), English religious visionary, was born in -Manchester, where she was first a factory hand and afterwards a cook. -She is remembered by her connexion with the sect known as Shakers -(q.v.). She died at Watervliet, near Albany, New York. - - - - -LEE, ARTHUR (1740-1792), American diplomatist, brother of Richard Henry -Lee, was born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 20th -of December 1740. He was educated at Eton, studied medicine at -Edinburgh, practised as a physician in Williamsburg, Virginia, read law -at the Temple, London, in 1766-1770, and practised law in London in -1770-1776. He was an intimate of John Wilkes, whom he aided in one of -his London campaigns. In 1770-1775 he served as London agent for -Massachusetts, second to Benjamin Franklin, whom he succeeded in 1775. -At that time he had shown great ability as a pamphleteer, having -published in London _The Monitor_ (1768), seven essays previously -printed in Virginia; _The Political Detection: or the Treachery and -Tyranny of Administration, both at Home and Abroad_ (1770), signed -"Junius Americanus"; and _An Appeal to the Justice and Interests of the -People of Great Britain in the Present Disputes with America_ (1774), -signed "An Old Member of Parliament." In December 1775 the Committee of -Secret Correspondence of Congress chose him its European agent -principally for the purpose of ascertaining the views of France, Spain, -and other European countries regarding the war between the colonies and -Great Britain. In October 1776 he was appointed, upon the refusal of -Jefferson, on the commission with Franklin and Silas Deane to negotiate -a treaty of alliance, amity and commerce with France, and also to -negotiate with other European governments. His letters to Congress, in -which he expressed his suspicion of Deane's business integrity and -criticized his accounts, resulted in Deane's recall; and other letters -impaired the confidence of Congress in Franklin, of whom he was -especially jealous. Early in 1777 he went to Spain as American -commissioner, but received no official recognition, was not permitted to -proceed farther than Burgos, and accomplished nothing; until the -appointment of Jay, however, he continued to act as commissioner to -Spain, held various conferences with the Spanish minister in Paris, and -in January 1778 secured a promise of a loan of 3,000,000 livres, only a -small part of which (some 170,000 livres) was paid. In June 1777 he went -to Berlin, where, as in Spain, he was not officially recognized. -Although he had little to do with the negotiations, he signed with -Franklin and Deane in February 1778 the treaties between the United -States and France. Having become unpopular at the courts of France and -Spain, Lee was recalled in 1779, and returned to the United States in -September 1780. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in -1781 and a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782-1785. With -Oliver Wolcott and Richard Butler he negotiated a treaty with the Six -Nations, signed at Fort Stanwix on the 22nd of October 1784, and with -George Clark and Richard Butler a treaty with the Wyandot, Delaware, -Chippewa and Ottawa Indians, signed at Ft. McIntosh on the 21st of -January 1785. He was a member of the treasury board in 1784-1789. He -strongly opposed the constitution, and after its adoption retired to his -estate at Urbana, Virginia, where he died on the 12th of December 1792. - - See R. H. Lee, _Life of Arthur Lee_ (2 vols., Boston, 1829), and C. H. - Lee, _A Vindication of Arthur Lee_ (Richmond, Virginia, 1894), both - partisan. Much of Lee's correspondence is to be found in Wharton's - _Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence_ (Washington, 1889). Eight - volumes of Lee's MSS. in the Harvard University Library are described - and listed in _Library of Harvard University, Bibliographical - Contributions_, No. 8 (Cambridge, 1882). - - - - -LEE, FITZHUGH (1835-1905), American cavalry general, was born at -Clermont, in Fairfax county, Virginia, on the 19th of November 1835. He -was the grandson of "Light Horse Harry" Lee, and the nephew of Robert E. -Lee. His father, Sydney Smith Lee, was a fleet captain under Commodore -Perry in Japanese waters and rose to the rank of commodore; his mother -was a daughter of George Mason. Graduating from West Point in 1856, he -was appointed to the 2nd Cavalry, which was commanded by Colonel Albert -Sidney Johnston, and in which his uncle, Robert E. Lee, was -lieutenant-colonel. As a cavalry subaltern he distinguished himself by -his gallant conduct in actions with the Comanches in Texas, and was -severely wounded in 1859. In May 1860 he was appointed instructor of -cavalry at West Point, but resigned on the secession of Virginia. Lee -was at once employed in the organization of the forces of the South, and -served at first as a staff officer to General R. S. Ewell, and -afterwards, from September 1861, as lieutenant-colonel, and from April -1862 as colonel of the First Virginia Cavalry in the Army of Northern -Virginia. He became brigadier-general on General J. E. B. Stuart's -recommendation on the 25th of July 1862, and served under that general -throughout the Virginian campaigns of 1862 and 1863, becoming -major-general on the 3rd of September 1863. He conducted the cavalry -action of Beverly Ford (17th March 1863) with skill and success. In the -Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns he was constantly employed as a -divisional commander under Stuart, and, after Stuart's death, under -General Wade Hampton. He took part in Early's campaign against Sheridan -in the Shenandoah Valley, and at Winchester (19th Sept. 1864) three -horses were shot under him and he was severely wounded. On General -Hampton's being sent to assist General Joseph E. Johnston in North -Carolina, the command of the whole of General Lee's cavalry devolved -upon Fitzhugh Lee early in 1865, but the surrender of Appomattox -followed quickly upon the opening of the campaign. Fitzhugh Lee himself -led the last charge of the Confederates on the 9th of April that year at -Farmville. - -After the war he devoted himself to farming in Stafford county, -Virginia, and was conspicuous in his efforts to reconcile the Southern -people to the issue of the war, which he regarded as a final settlement -of the questions at issue. In 1875 he attended the Bunker Hill centenary -at Boston, Mass., and delivered a remarkable address. In 1885 he was a -member of the board of visitors of West Point, and from 1886 to 1890 was -governor of Virginia. In April 1896 he was appointed by President -Cleveland consul-general at Havana, with duties of a diplomatic and -military character added to the usual consular business. In this post -(in which he was retained by President McKinley) he was from the first -called upon to deal with a situation of great difficulty, which -culminated with the destruction of the "Maine" (see SPANISH-AMERICAN -WAR). Upon the declaration of war between Spain and the United States he -re-entered the army. He was one of the three ex-Confederate general -officers who were made major-generals of United States Volunteers. -Fitzhugh Lee commanded the VII. army corps, but took no part in the -actual operations in Cuba. He was military governor of Havana and Pinar -del Rio in 1899, subsequently commanded the department of the Missouri, -and retired as a brigadier-general U.S. Army in 1901. He died in -Washington on the 28th of April 1905. He wrote _Robert E. Lee_ (1894) in -the "Great Commanders" series, and _Cuba's Struggle Against Spain_ -(1899). - - - - -LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851), English musician, was born in London, -the son of Henry Lee, a pugilist and innkeeper. He became "tiger" to -Lord Barrymore, and his singing led to his being educated for the -musical profession. After appearing as a tenor at the theatres in Dublin -and London, he joined in producing opera at the Tottenham Street theatre -in 1829, and afterwards was connected with musical productions at Drury -Lane and Covent Garden. He married Mrs Waylett, a popular singer. Lee -composed music for a number of plays, and also many songs, including the -popular "Come where the Aspens quiver," and for a short time had a -music-selling business in the Quadrant. He died on the 8th of October -1851. - - - - -LEE, HENRY (1756-1818), American general, called "Light Horse Harry," -was born near Dumfries, Virginia, on the 29th of January 1756. His -father was first cousin to Richard Henry Lee. With a view to a legal -career he graduated (1773) at Princeton, but soon afterwards, on the -outbreak of the War of Independence, he became an officer in the patriot -forces. He served with great distinction under Washington, and in 1778 -was promoted major and given the command of a small irregular corps, -with which he won a great reputation as a leader of light troops. His -services on the outpost line of the army earned for him the soubriquet -of "Light Horse Harry." His greatest exploit was the brilliant surprise -of Paulus Hook, N.J., on the 19th of August 1779; for this feat he -received a gold medal, a reward given to no other officer below -general's rank in the whole war. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel -1780, and sent with a picked corps of dragoons to the southern theatre -of war. Here he rendered invaluable services in victory and defeat, -notably at Guilford Court House, Camden and Eutaw Springs. He was -present at Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown, and afterwards left the -army owing to ill-health. From 1786 to 1788 he was a delegate to the -Confederation Congress, and in the last-named year in the Virginia -convention he favoured the adoption of the Federal constitution. From -1789 to 1791 he served in the General Assembly, and from 1791 to 1794 -was governor of Virginia. In 1794 Washington sent him to help in the -suppression of the "Whisky Insurrection" in western Pennsylvania. A new -county of Virginia was named after him during his governorship. He was a -major-general in 1798-1800. From 1799 to 1801 he served in Congress. He -delivered the address on the death of Washington which contained the -famous phrase, "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of -his countrymen." Soon after the War of 1812 broke out, Lee, while -helping to resist the attack of a mob on his friend, A. C. Hanson, -editor of the Baltimore _Federal Republican_, which had opposed the war, -received grave injuries, from which he never recovered. He died at the -house of General Nathanael Greene on Cumberland Island, Georgia, on the -25th of March 1818. - - Lee wrote valuable _Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department_ - (1812; 3rd ed., with memoir by Robert E. Lee, 1869). - - - - -LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869), English divine, was born in London on the -28th of July 1804, and was educated at St Paul's school and at Trinity -College, Cambridge, where he displayed exceptional ability as a -classical scholar. After taking orders in 1830 he served under Thomas -Arnold at Rugby school, and in 1838 was appointed head-master of King -Edward's school, Birmingham, where he had among his pupils E. W. Benson, -J. B. Lightfoot and B. F. Westcott. In 1848 Lord John Russell nominated -him as first bishop of the newly-constituted see of Manchester. His -pedagogic manner bore somewhat irksomely on his clergy. He is best -remembered for his splendid work in church extension; during his -twenty-one years' tenure of the see he consecrated 130 churches. He took -a foremost part in founding the Manchester free library, and bequeathed -his own valuable collection of books to Owens College. He died on the -24th of December 1869. - - A memorial sermon was preached by Archbishop E. W. Benson, and was - published with biographical details by J. F. Wickenden and others. - - - - -LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-1692), English dramatist, son of Dr Richard Lee, -a Presbyterian divine, was born probably in 1653. His father was rector -of Hatfield, and held many preferments under the Commonwealth. He was -chaplain to General Monk, afterwards duke of Albemarle, and after the -Restoration he conformed to the Church of England, abjuring his former -opinions, especially his approval of Charles I.'s execution. Nathaniel -Lee was educated at Westminster school, and at Trinity College, -Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1668. Coming to London under the -patronage, it is said, of the duke of Buckingham, he tried to earn his -living as an actor, but though he was an admirable reader, his acute -stage fright made acting impossible. His earliest play, _Nero, Emperor -of Rome_, was acted in 1675 at Drury Lane. Two tragedies written in -rhymed heroic couplets, in imitation of Dryden, followed in -1676--_Sophonisba, or Hannibal's Overthrow and Gloriana, or the Court of -Augustus Caesar_. Both are extravagant in design and treatment. Lee made -his reputation in 1677 with a blank verse tragedy, _The Rival Queens, or -the Death of Alexander the Great_. The play, which treats of the -jealousy of Alexander's first wife, Roxana, for his second wife, -Statira, was, in spite of much bombast, a favourite on the English -stage down to the days of Edmund Kean. _Mithridates, King of Pontus_ -(acted 1678), _Theodosius, or the Force of Love_ (acted 1680), _Caesar -Borgia_ (acted 1680)--an imitation of the worst blood and thunder -Elizabethan tragedies--_Lucius Junius Brutus, Father of His Country_ -(acted 1681), and _Constantine the Great_ (acted 1684) followed. _The -Princess of Cleve_ (1681) is a gross adaptation of Madame de La -Fayette's exquisite novel of that name. _The Massacre of Paris_ -(published 1690) was written about this time. Lee had given offence at -court by his _Lucius Junius Brutus_, which had been suppressed after its -third representation for some lines on Tarquin's character that were -taken to be a reflection on Charles II. He therefore joined with Dryden, -who had already admitted him as a collaborator in an adaptation of -_Oedipus_, in _The Duke of Guise_ (1683), a play which directly -advocated the Tory point of view. In it part of the _Massacre of Paris_ -was incorporated. Lee was now thirty years of age, and had already -achieved a considerable reputation. But he had lived in the dissipated -society of the earl of Rochester and his associates, and imitated their -excesses. As he grew more disreputable, his patrons neglected him, and -in 1684 his mind was completely unhinged. He spent five years in -Bethlehem Hospital, and recovered his health. He died in a drunken fit -in 1692, and was buried in St Clement Danes, Strand, on the 6th of May. - - Lee's _Dramatic Works_ were published in 1784. In spite of their - extravagance, they contain many passages of great beauty. - - - - -LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794), American statesman and orator, was born -at Stratford, in Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 20th of January -1732, and was one of six distinguished sons of Thomas Lee (d. 1750), a -descendant of an old Cavalier family, the first representative of which -in America was Richard Lee, who was a member of the privy council, and -early in the reign of Charles I. emigrated to Virginia. Richard Henry -Lee received an academic education in England, then spent a little time -in travel, returned to Virginia in 1752, having come into possession of -a fine property left him by his father, and for several years applied -himself to varied studies. When twenty-five he was appointed justice of -the peace of Westmoreland county, and in the same year was chosen a -member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, in which he served from 1758 -to 1775. He kept a diffident silence during two sessions, his first -speech being in strong opposition to slavery, which he proposed to -discourage and eventually to abolish, by imposing a heavy tax on all -further importations. He early allied himself with the Patriot or Whig -element in Virginia, and in the years immediately preceding the War of -Independence was conspicuous as an opponent of the arbitrary measures of -the British ministry. In 1768, in a letter to John Dickinson of -Pennsylvania, he suggested a private correspondence among the friends of -liberty in the different colonies, and in 1773 he became a member of the -Virginia Committee of Correspondence. - -Lee was one of the delegates from Virginia to the first Continental -Congress at Philadelphia in 1774, and prepared the address to the people -of British America, and the second address to the people of Great -Britain, which are among the most effective papers of the time. In -accordance with instructions given by the Virginia House of Burgesses, -Lee introduced in Congress, on the 7th of June 1776, the following -famous resolutions: (1) "that these united colonies are, and of right -ought to be, free and independent states, that they are absolved from -all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connexion -between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally -dissolved"; (2) "that it is expedient to take the most effectual -measures for forming foreign alliances"; and (3) "that a plan of -confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective colonies for -their consideration and approbation." After debating the first of these -resolutions for three days, Congress resolved that the further -consideration of it should be postponed until the 1st of July, but that -a committee should be appointed to prepare a declaration of -independence. The illness of Lee's wife prevented him from being a -member of that committee, but his first resolution was adopted on the -2nd of July, and the Declaration of Independence, prepared principally -by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted two days later. Lee was in Congress -from 1774 to 1780, and was especially prominent in connexion with -foreign affairs. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in -1777, 1780-1784 and 1786-1787; was in Congress again from 1784 to 1787, -being president in 1784-1786; and was one of the first United States -senators chosen from Virginia after the adoption of the Federal -constitution. Though strongly opposed to the adoption of that -constitution, owing to what he regarded as its dangerous infringements -upon the independent power of the states, he accepted the place of -senator in hope of bringing about amendments, and proposed the Tenth -Amendment in substantially the form in which it was adopted. He became a -warm supporter of Washington's administration, and his prejudices -against the constitution were largely removed by its working in -practice. He retired from public life in 1792, and died at Chantilly, in -Westmoreland county, on the 19th of June 1794. - - See the _Life_ (Philadelphia, 1825), by his grandson, R. H. Lee; and - _Letters_ (New York, 1910), edited by J. C. Ballagh. - -His brother, WILLIAM LEE (1739-1795), was a diplomatist during the War -of Independence. He accompanied his brother, Arthur Lee (q.v.), to -England in 1766 to engage in mercantile pursuits, joined the Wilkes -faction, and in 1775 was elected an alderman of London, then a -life-position. In April 1777, however, he received notice of his -appointment by the Committee of Secret Correspondence in America to act -with Thomas Morris as commercial agent at Nantes. He went to Paris and -became involved in his brother's opposition to Franklin and Deane. In -May 1777 Congress chose William Lee commissioner to the courts of Vienna -and Berlin, but he gained recognition at neither. In September 1778, -however, while at Aix-la-Chapelle, he negotiated a plan of a treaty with -Jan de Neufville, who represented Van Berckel, pensionary of Amsterdam. -It was a copy of this proposed treaty which, on falling into the hands -of the British on the capture of Henry Laurens, the duly appointed -minister to the Netherlands, led to Great Britain's declaration of war -against the Netherlands in December 1780. Lee was recalled from his -mission to Vienna and Berlin in June 1779, without being required to -return to America. He resigned his post as an alderman of London in -January 1780, and returned to Virginia about 1784. - - See _Letters of William Lee_, edited by W. C. Ford (Brooklyn, 1891). - -Another brother, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE (1734-1797), was a member of the -Virginia House of Burgesses in 1770-1775. In 1775-1779 he was a delegate -to the Continental Congress, and as such signed the Declaration of -Independence. He served on the committee which drafted the Articles of -Confederation, and contended that there should be no treaty of peace -with Great Britain which did not grant to the United States both the -right to the Newfoundland fisheries and the free navigation of the -Mississippi. After retiring from Congress he served in 1780-1782 in the -Virginia Senate. - - - - -LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807-1870), American soldier, general in the -Confederate States army, was the youngest son of major-general Henry -Lee, called "Light Horse Harry." He was born at Stratford, Westmoreland -county, Virginia, on the 19th of January 1807, and entered West Point in -1825. Graduating four years later second in his class, he was given a -commission in the U.S. Engineer Corps. In 1831 he married Mary, daughter -of G. W. P. Custis, the adopted son of Washington and the grandson of -Mrs Washington. In 1836 he became first lieutenant, and in 1838 captain. -In this rank he took part in the Mexican War, repeatedly winning -distinction for conduct and bravery. He received the brevets of major -for Cerro Gordo, lieut.-colonel for Contreras-Churubusco and colonel for -Chapultepec. After the war he was employed in engineer work at -Washington and Baltimore, during which time, as before the war, he -resided on the great Arlington estate, near Washington, which had come -to him through his wife. In 1852 he was appointed superintendent of West -Point, and during his three years here he carried out many important -changes in the academy. Under him as cadets were his son G. W. Custis -Lee, his nephew, Fitzhugh Lee and J. E. B. Stuart, all of whom became -general officers in the Civil War. In 1855 he was appointed as -lieut.-colonel to the 2nd Cavalry, commanded by Colonel Sidney Johnston, -with whom he served against the Indians of the Texas border. In 1859, -while at Arlington on leave, he was summoned to command the United -States troops sent to deal with the John Brown raid on Harper's Ferry. -In March 1861 he was made colonel of the 1st U.S. Cavalry; but his -career in the old army ended with the secession of Virginia in the -following month. Lee was strongly averse to secession, but felt obliged -to conform to the action of his own state. The Federal authorities -offered Lee the command of the field army about to invade the South, -which he refused. Resigning his commission, he made his way to Richmond -and was at once made a major-general in the Virginian forces. A few -weeks later he became a brigadier-general (then the highest rank) in the -Confederate service. - -The military operations with which the great Civil War opened in 1861 -were directed by President Davis and General Lee. Lee was personally in -charge of the unsuccessful West Virginian operations in the autumn, and, -having been made a full general on the 31st of August, during the winter -he devoted his experience as an engineer to the fortification and -general defence of the Atlantic coast. Thence, when the well-drilled -Army of the Potomac was about to descend upon Richmond, he was hurriedly -recalled to Richmond. General Johnston was wounded at the battle of Fair -Oaks (Seven Pines) on the 31st of May 1862, and General Robert E. Lee -was assigned to the command of the famous Army of Northern Virginia -which for the next three years "carried the rebellion on its bayonets." -Little can be said of Lee's career as a commander-in-chief that is not -an integral part of the history of the Civil War. His first success was -the "Seven Days' Battle" (q.v.) in which he stopped McClellan's advance; -this was quickly followed up by the crushing defeat of the Federal army -under Pope, the invasion of Maryland and the sanguinary and indecisive -battle of the Antietam (q.v.). The year ended with another great victory -at Fredericksburg (q.v.). Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS), won against -odds of two to one, and the great three days' battle of Gettysburg -(q.v.), where for the first time fortune turned decisively against the -Confederates, were the chief events of 1863. In the autumn Lee fought a -war of manoeuvre against General Meade. The tremendous struggle of 1864 -between Lee and Grant included the battles of the Wilderness (q.v.), -Spottsylvania, North Anna, Cold Harbor and the long siege of Petersburg -(q.v.), in which, almost invariably, Lee was locally successful. But the -steady pressure of his unrelenting opponent slowly wore down his -strength. At last with not more than one man to oppose to Grant's three -he was compelled to break out of his Petersburg lines (April 1865). A -series of heavy combats revealed his purpose, and Grant pursued the -dwindling remnants of Lee's army to the westward. Headed off by the -Federal cavalry, and pressed closely in rear by Grant's main body, -General Lee had no alternative but to surrender. At Appomattox Court -House, on the 9th of April, the career of the Army of Northern Virginia -came to an end. Lee's farewell order was issued on the following day, -and within a few weeks the Confederacy was at an end. For a few months -Lee lived quietly in Powhatan county, making his formal submission to -the Federal authorities and urging on his own people acceptance of the -new conditions. In August he was offered, and accepted, the presidency -of Washington College, Lexington (now Washington and Lee University), a -post which he occupied until his death on the 12th of October 1870. He -was buried in the college grounds. - -For the events of Lee's military career briefly indicated in this notice -the reader is referred to the articles AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, &c. By his -achievements he won a high place amongst the great generals of history. -Though hampered by lack of materials and by political necessities, his -strategy was daring always, and he never hesitated to take the gravest -risks. On the field of battle he was as energetic in attack as he was -constant in defence, and his personal influence over the men whom he -led was extraordinary. No student of the American Civil War can fail to -notice how the influence of Lee dominated the course of the struggle, -and his surpassing ability was never more conspicuously shown than in -the last hopeless stages of the contest. The personal history of Lee is -lost in the history of the great crisis of America's national life; -friends and foes alike acknowledged the purity of his motives, the -virtues of his private life, his earnest Christianity and the unrepining -loyalty with which he accepted the ruin of his party. - - See A. L. Long, _Memoirs of Robert E. Lee_ (New York, 1886); Fitzhugh - Lee, _General Lee_ (New York, 1894, "Great Commanders" series); R. A. - Brock, _General Robert E. Lee_ (Washington, 1904); R. E. Lee, - _Recollections and Letters of General R. E. Lee_ (London, 1904); H. A. - White, _Lee_ ("Heroes of the Nations") (1897); P. A. Bruce, _Robert E. - Lee_ (1907); T. N. Page, _Lee_ (1909); W. H. Taylor, _Four Years with - General Lee_; J. W. Jones, _Personal Reminiscences of Robert E. Lee_ - (1874). - - - - -LEE (or LEGH) ROWLAND (d. 1543), English bishop, belonged to a -Northumberland family and was educated at Cambridge. Having entered the -Church he obtained several livings owing to the favour of Cardinal -Wolsey; after Wolsey's fall he rose high in the esteem of Henry VIII. -and of Thomas Cromwell, serving both king and minister in the business -of suppressing the monasteries, and he is said to have celebrated -Henry's secret marriage with Anne Boleyn in January 1533. Whether this -be so or not, Lee took part in preparing for the divorce proceedings -against Catherine of Aragon, and in January 1534 he was elected bishop -of Coventry and Lichfield, or Chester as the see was often called, -taking at his consecration the new oath to the king as head of the -English Church and not seeking confirmation from the pope. As bishop he -remained in Henry's personal service, endeavouring to establish the -legality of his marriage with Anne, until May 1534, when he was -appointed lord president of the council in the marches of Wales. At this -time the Welsh marches were in a very disorderly condition. Lee acted in -a stern and energetic fashion, holding courts, sentencing many offenders -to death and overcoming the hostility of the English border lords. After -some years of hard and successful work in this capacity, "the last -survivor of the old martial prelates, fitter for harness than for -bishops' robes, for a court of justice than a court of theology," died -at Shrewsbury in June 1543. Many letters from Lee to Cromwell are -preserved in the Record Office, London; these throw much light on the -bishop's career and on the lawless condition of the Welsh marches in his -time. - - One of his contemporaries was EDWARD LEE (c. 1482-1544) archbishop of - York, famous for his attack on Erasmus, who replied to him in his - _Epistolae aliquot eruditorum virorum_. Like Rowland, Edward was - useful to Henry VIII. in the matter of the divorce of Catherine of - Aragon, and was sent by the king on embassies to the emperor Charles - V. and to Pope Clement VII. In 1531 he became archbishop of York, but - he came under suspicion as one who disliked the king's new position as - head of the English Church. At Pontefract in 1536, during the - Pilgrimage of Grace, the archbishop was compelled to join the rebels, - but he did not sympathize with the rising and in 1539 he spoke in - parliament in favour of the six articles of religion. Lee, who was the - last archbishop of York to coin money, died on the 13th of September - 1544. - - - - -LEE, SIDNEY (1859- ), English man of letters, was born in London on -the 5th of December 1859. He was educated at the City of London school, -and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in modern history in -1882. In the next year he became assistant-editor of the _Dictionary of -National Biography_. In 1890 he was made joint-editor, and on the -retirement of Sir Leslie Stephen in 1891 succeeded him as editor. He was -himself a voluminous contributor to the work, writing some 800 articles, -mainly on Elizabethan authors or statesmen. While he was still at -Balliol he wrote two articles on Shakespearian questions, which were -printed in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, and in 1884 he published a book -on Stratford-on-Avon. His article on Shakespeare in the fifty-first -volume (1897) of the _Dictionary of National Biography_ formed the basis -of his _Life of William Shakespeare_ (1898), which reached its fifth -edition in 1905. Mr Lee edited in 1902 the Oxford facsimile edition of -the first folio of _Shakespeare's Comedies, Histories and Tragedies_, -followed in 1902 and 1904 by supplementary volumes giving details of -extant copies, and in 1906 by a complete edition of Shakespeare's -_Works_. Besides editions of English classics his works include a _Life -of Queen Victoria_ (1902), _Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century_ -(1904), based on his Lowell Institute lectures at Boston, Mass., in -1903, and _Shakespeare and the Modern Stage_ (1906). - - - - -LEE, SOPHIA (1750-1824), English novelist and dramatist, daughter of -John Lee (d. 1781), actor and theatrical manager, was born in London. -Her first piece, _The Chapter of Accidents_, a one-act-opera based on -Diderot's _Pere de famille_, was produced by George Colman at the -Haymarket Theatre on the 5th of August 1780. The proceeds were spent in -establishing a school at Bath, where Miss Lee made a home for her -sisters. Her subsequent productions included _The Recess, or a Tale of -other Times_ (1785), a historical romance; and _Almeyda, Queen of -Grenada_ (1796), a tragedy in blank verse; she also contributed to her -sister's _Canterbury Tales_ (1797). She died at her house near Clifton -on the 13th of March 1824. - -Her sister, HARRIET LEE (1757-1851), published in 1786 a novel written -in letters, _The Errors of Innocence_. _Clara Lennox_ followed in 1797. -Her chief work is the _Canterbury Tales_ (1797-1805), a series of twelve -stories which became very popular. Lord Byron dramatized one of the -tales, "Kruitzner," as _Werner, or the Inheritance_. She died at Clifton -on the 1st of August 1851. - - - - -LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908), Confederate general in the American Civil -War, came of a family distinguished in the history of South Carolina, -and was born at Charleston, S.C., on the 22nd of September 1833. -Graduating from West Point in 1854, he served for seven years in the -United States army and resigned in 1861 on the secession of South -Carolina. He was aide de camp to General Beauregard in the attack on -Fort Sumter, and captain commanding a light battery in General -Johnston's army later in the year 1861. Thereafter, by successive steps, -each gained by distinguished conduct on the field of battle, he rose to -the rank of brigadier-general in November 1862, being ordered to take -command of defences at Vicksburg. He served at this place with great -credit until its surrender to General Grant in July 1863, and on -becoming a prisoner of war, he was immediately exchanged and promoted -major-general. His regimental service had been chiefly with artillery, -but he had generally worked with and at times commanded cavalry, and he -was now assigned to command the troops of that arm in the south-western -theatre of war. After harassing, as far as his limited numbers -permitted, the advance of Sherman's column on Meridian, he took General -Polk's place as commander of the department of Mississippi. In June -1864, on Hood's promotion to command the Army of Tennessee, S. D. Lee -was made a lieutenant-general and assigned to command Hood's old corps -in that army. He fought at Atlanta and Jonesboro and in the skirmishing -and manoeuvring along middle Tennessee which ended in the great crisis -of Nashville and the "March to the Sea." Lee's corps accompanied Hood in -the bold advance to Nashville, and fought in the battles of Franklin and -Nashville, after which, in the rout of the Confederate army Lee kept his -troops closed up and well in hand, and for three consecutive days formed -the fighting rearguard of the otherwise disintegrated army. Lee was -himself wounded, but did not give up the command until an organized -rearguard took over the post of danger. On recovery he joined General J. -E. Johnston in North Carolina, and he surrendered with Johnston in April -1865. After the war he settled in Mississippi, which was his wife's -state and during the greater part of the war his own territorial -command, and devoted himself to planting. He was president of the -Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mississippi from 1880 to 1899, -took some part in state politics and was an active member--at the time -of his death commander-in-chief--of the "United Confederate Veterans" -society. He died at Vicksburg on the 28th of May 1908. - - - - -LEE, a township of Berkshire county, in western Massachusetts, U.S.A. -Pop. (1900) 3596; (1905) 3972; (1910) 4106. The township is traversed by -the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, covers an area of 22(1/2) sq. -m., and includes the village of Lee, 10 m. S. of Pittsfield, East Lee, -adjoining it on the S.E., and South Lee, about 3 m. to the S.W. Lee and -South Lee are on, and East Lee is near, the Housatonic river. The -eastern part of the township is generally hilly, reaching a maximum -altitude of about 2200 ft., and there are two considerable bodies of -water--Laurel Lake in the N.W. (partly in Lenox) and Goose Pond, in the -S.E. (partly in Tyringham). The region is healthy as well as beautiful, -and is much frequented as a summer resort. Memorial Hall was built in -memory of the soldiers from Lee who died during the Civil War. The chief -manufactures are paper and wire, and from the quarries near the village -of Lee is obtained an excellent quality of marble; these quarries -furnished the marble for the extension of the Capitol at Washington, for -St Patrick's cathedral in New York City and for the Lee High School and -the Lee Public Library (1908). Lime is quarried in the township. Lee was -formerly a paper-manufacturing place of great importance. The first -paper mill in the township was built in South Lee in 1806, and for a -time more paper was made in Lee than in any other place in the United -States; the Housatonic Mill in Lee was probably the first (1867) in the -United States to manufacture paper from wood pulp. - -The first settlement within the present township of Lee was made in -1760. The township was formed from parts of Great Barrington and -Washington, was incorporated in 1777 and was named in honour of General -Charles Lee (1731-1782). In the autumn of 1786 there was an encounter -near the village of East Lee between about 250 adherents of Daniel Shays -(many of them from Lee township) and a body of state troops under -General John Paterson, wherein the Shays contingent paraded a bogus -cannon (made of a yarn beam) with such effect that the state troops -fled. - - See Amory Gale, _History of the Town of Lee_ (Lee, 1854), and _Lee, - The Centennial Celebration and Centennial History of the Town of Lee_ - (Springfield, Mass., 1878), compiled by Charles M. Hyde and Alexander - Hyde. - - - - -LEE. (1) (In O. Eng. _hleo_; cf. the pronunciation _lew-ward_ of -"leeward"; the word appears in several Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch -_lij_, Dan. _lae_), properly a shelter or protection, chiefly used as a -nautical term for that side of a ship, land, &c., which is farthest from -the wind, hence a "lee shore," land under the lee of a ship, i.e. one on -which the wind blows directly and which is unsheltered. A ship is said -to make "leeway" when she drifts laterally away from her course. (2) A -word now always used in the plural "lees," meaning dregs, sediment, -particularly of wine. It comes through the O. Fr. _lie_ from a Gaulish -Lat. _lia_, and is probably of Celtic origin. - - - - -LEECH, JOHN (1817-1864), English caricaturist, was born in London on the -29th of August 1817. His father, a native of Ireland, was the landlord -of the London Coffee House on Ludgate Hill, "a man," on the testimony of -those who knew him, "of fine culture, a profound Shakespearian, and a -thorough gentleman." His mother was descended from the family of the -famous Richard Bentley. It was from his father that Leech inherited his -skill with the pencil, which he began to use at a very early age. When -he was only three, he was discovered by Flaxman, who had called on his -parents, seated on his mother's knee, drawing with much gravity. The -sculptor pronounced his sketch to be wonderful, adding, "Do not let him -be cramped with lessons in drawing; let his genius follow its own bent; -he will astonish the world"--an advice which was strictly followed. A -mail-coach, done when he was six years old, is already full of -surprising vigour and variety in its galloping horses. Leech was -educated at Charterhouse, where Thackeray, his lifelong friend, was his -schoolfellow, and at sixteen he began to study for the medical -profession at St Bartholomew's Hospital, where he won praise for the -accuracy and beauty of his anatomical drawings. He was then placed under -a Mr Whittle, an eccentric practitioner, the original of "Rawkins" in -Albert Smith's _Adventures of Mr Ledbury_, and afterwards under Dr John -Cockle; but gradually the true bent of the youth's mind asserted itself, -and he drifted into the artistic profession. He was eighteen when his -first designs were published, a quarto of four pages, entitled _Etchings -and Sketchings by A. Pen, Esq._, comic character studies from the -London streets. Then he drew some political lithographs, did rough -sketches for _Bell's Life_, produced an exceedingly popular parody on -Mulready's postal envelope, and, on the death of Seymour, applied -unsuccessfully to illustrate the _Pickwick Papers_. In 1840 Leech began -his contributions to the magazines with a series of etchings in -_Bentley's Miscellany_, where Cruikshank had published his splendid -plates to _Jack Sheppard_ and _Oliver Twist_, and was illustrating _Guy -Fawkes_ in sadly feebler fashion. In company with the elder master Leech -designed for the _Ingoldsby Legends_ and _Stanley Thorn_, and till 1847 -produced many independent series of etchings. These cannot be ranked -with his best work; their technique is exceedingly imperfect; they are -rudely bitten, with the light and shade out of relation; and we never -feel that they express the artist's individuality, the _Richard Savage_ -plates, for instance, being strongly reminiscent of Cruikshank, and "The -Dance at Stamford Hall" of Hablot Browne. In 1845 Leech illustrated _St -Giles and St James_ in Douglas Jerrold's newly started _Shilling -Magazine_, with plates more vigorous and accomplished than those in -_Bentley_, but it is in subjects of a somewhat later date, and -especially in those lightly etched and meant to be printed with colour, -that we see the artist's best powers with the needle and the acid. Among -such of his designs are four charming plates to Dickens's _Christmas -Carol_ (1844), the broadly humorous etchings in the _Comic History of -England_ (1847-1848), and the still finer illustrations to the _Comic -History of Rome_ (1852)--which last, particularly in its minor woodcuts, -shows some exquisitely graceful touches, as witness the fair faces that -rise from the surging water in "Cloelia and her Companions Escaping from -the Etruscan Camp." Among the other etchings which deserve very special -reference are those in _Young Master Troublesome or Master Jacky's -Holidays_, and the frontispiece to _Hints on Life, or How to Rise in -Society_ (1845)--a series of minute subjects linked gracefully together -by coils of smoke, illustrating the various ranks and conditions of men, -one of them--the doctor by his patient's bedside--almost equalling in -vivacity and precision the best of Cruikshank's similar scenes. Then in -the 'fifties we have the numerous etchings of sporting scenes, -contributed, together with woodcuts, to the _Handley Cross_ novels. - -Turning to Leech's lithographic work, we have, in 1841, the _Portraits -of the Children of the Mobility_, an important series dealing with the -humorous and pathetic aspects of London street Arabs, which were -afterwards so often and so effectively to employ the artist's pencil. -Amid all the squalor which they depict, they are full of individual -beauties in the delicate or touching expression of a face, in the -graceful turn of a limb. The book is scarce in its original form, but in -1875 two reproductions of the outline sketches for the designs were -published--a lithographic issue of the whole series, and a finer -photographic transcript of six of the subjects, which is more valuable -than even the finished illustrations of 1841, in which the added light -and shade is frequently spotty and ineffective, and the lining itself -has not the freedom which we find in some of Leech's other lithographs, -notably in the _Fly Leaves_, published at the _Punch_ office, and in the -inimitable subject of the nuptial couch of the Caudles, which also -appeared, in woodcut form, as a political cartoon, with Mrs Caudle, -personated by Brougham, disturbing by untimely loquacity the slumbers of -the lord chancellor, whose haggard cheek rests on the woolsack for -pillow. - -But it was in work for the wood-engravers that Leech was most prolific -and individual. Among the earlier of such designs are the illustrations -to the _Comic English_ and _Latin Grammars_ (1840), to _Written -Caricatures_ (1841), to Hood's _Comic Annual_, (1842), and to Albert -Smith's _Wassail Bowl_ (1843), subjects mainly of a small vignette size, -transcribed with the best skill of such woodcutters as Orrin Smith, and -not, like the larger and later _Punch_ illustrations, cut at speed by -several engravers working at once on the subdivided block. It was in -1841 that Leech's connexion with _Punch_ began, a connexion which -subsisted till his death on the 29th of October 1864, and resulted in -the production of the best-known and most admirable of his designs. His -first contribution appeared in the issue of the 7th of August, a -full-page illustration--entitled "Foreign Affairs"--of character studies -from the neighbourhood of Leicester Square. His cartoons deal at first -mainly with social subjects, and are rough and imperfect in execution, -but gradually their method gains in power and their subjects become more -distinctly political, and by 1849 the artist is strong enough to produce -the splendidly humorous national personification which appears in -"Disraeli Measuring the British Lion." About 1845 we have the first of -that long series of half-page and quarter-page pictures of life and -manners, executed with a hand as gentle as it was skilful, containing, -as Ruskin has said, "admittedly the finest definition and natural -history of the classes of our society, the kindest and subtlest analysis -of its foibles, the tenderest flattery of its pretty and well-bred -ways," which has yet appeared. In addition to his work for the weekly -issue of _Punch_, Leech contributed largely to the _Punch_ almanacks and -pocket-books, to _Once a Week_ from 1859 till 1862, to the _Illustrated -London News_, where some of his largest and best sporting scenes -appeared, and to innumerable novels and miscellaneous volumes besides, -of which it is only necessary to specify _A Little Tour in Ireland_ -(1859), which is noticeable as showing the artist's treatment of pure -landscape, though it also contains some of his daintiest figure-pieces, -like that of the wind-blown girl, standing on the summit of a pedestal, -with the swifts darting around her and the breadth of sea beyond. - -In 1862 Leech appealed to the public with a very successful exhibition -of some of the most remarkable of his _Punch_ drawings. These were -enlarged by a mechanical process, and coloured in oils by the artist -himself, with the assistance and under the direction of his friend J. E. -Millais. - - Leech was a singularly rapid and indefatigable worker. Dean Hole tells - us, when he was his guest, "I have known him send off from my house - three finished drawings on the wood, designed, traced, and rectified, - without much effort as it seemed, between breakfast and dinner." The - best technical qualities of Leech's art, his unerring precision, his - unfailing vivacity in the use of the line, are seen most clearly in - the first sketches for his woodcuts, and in the more finished drawings - made on tracing-paper from these first outlines, before the - chiaroscuro was added and the designs were transcribed by the - engraver. Turning to the mental qualities of his art, it would be a - mistaken criticism which ranked him as a comic draughtsman. Like - Hogarth he was a true humorist, a student of human life, though he - observed humanity mainly in its whimsical aspects, - - "Hitting all he saw with shafts - With gentle satire, kin to charity, - That harmed not." - - The earnestness and gravity of moral purpose which is so constant a - note in the work of Hogarth is indeed far less characteristic of - Leech, but there are touches of pathos and of tragedy in such of the - _Punch_ designs as the "Poor Man's Friend" (1845), and "General - Fevrier turned Traitor" (1855), and in "The Queen of the Arena" in the - first volume of _Once a Week_, which are sufficient to prove that more - solemn powers, for which his daily work afforded no scope, lay dormant - in their artist. The purity and manliness of Leech's own character are - impressed on his art. We find in it little of the exaggeration and - grotesqueness, and none of the fierce political enthusiasm, of which - the designs of Gillray are so full. Compared with that of his great - contemporary George Cruikshank, his work is restricted both in compass - of subject and in artistic dexterity. - - Biographies of Leech have been written by John Brown (1882), and Frith - (1891); see also "John Leech's Pictures of Life and Character," by - Thackeray, _Quarterly Review_ (December 1854); letter by John Ruskin, - _Arrows of the Chace_, vol. i. p. 161; "Un Humoriste Anglais," by - Ernest Chesneau, _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (1875). (J. M. G.) - - - - -LEECH, the common name of members of the Hirudinea, a division of -Chaetopod worms. It is doubtful whether the medicinal leech, _Hirudo -medicinalis_, which is rarer in England than on the continent of Europe, -or the horse leech, _Aulastoma gulo_, often confused with it, has the -best right to the original possession of this name. But at present the -word "leech" is applied to every member of the group Hirudinea, for the -general structure and classification of which see CHAETOPODA. There are -many genera and species of leeches, the exact definitions of which are -still in need of a more complete survey. They occur in all parts of the -world and are mostly aquatic, though sometimes terrestrial, in habit. -The aquatic forms frequent streams, ponds and marshes, and the sea. The -members of this group are always carnivorous or parasitic, and prey -upon both vertebrates and invertebrates. In relation to their parasitic -habit one or two suckers are always developed, the one at the anterior -and the other at the posterior end of the body. In one subdivision of -the leeches, the _Gnathobdellidae_, the mouth has three chitinous jaws -which produce a triangular bite, though the action has been described as -like that of a circular saw. Leeches without biting jaws possess a -protrusible proboscis, and generally engulf their prey, as does the -horse leech when it attacks earthworms. But some of them are also -ectoparasites. The leech has been used in medicine from remote antiquity -as a moderate blood-letter; and it is still so used, though more rarely -than formerly. As unlicensed blood-letters, certain land-leeches are -among the most unpleasant of parasites that can be encountered in a -tropical jungle. A species of _Haemadipsa_ of Ceylon attaches itself to -the passer-by and draws blood with so little irritation that the -sufferer is said to be aware of its presence only by the trickling from -the wounds produced. Small leeches taken into the mouth with -drinking-water may give rise to serious symptoms by attaching themselves -to the fauces and neighbouring parts and thence sucking blood. The -effects of these parasites have been mistaken for those of disease. All -leeches are very extensile and can contract the body to a plump, -pear-shaped form, or extend it to a long and worm-like shape. They -frequently progress after the fashion of a "looper" caterpillar, -attaching themselves alternately by the anterior and the posterior -sucker. Others swim with eel-like curves through the water, while one -land-leech, at any rate, moves in a gliding way like a land Planarian, -and leaves, also like the Planarian, a slimy trail behind it. Leeches -are usually olive green to brown in colour, darker patches and spots -being scattered over a paler ground. The marine parasitic leech -_Pontobdella_ is of a bright green, as is also the land-leech -_Trocheta_. - -The term "leech," as an old English synonym for physician, is from a -Teutonic root meaning "heal," and is etymologically distinct from the -name (O. Eng. _lyce_) of the _Hirudo_, though the use of the one by the -other has helped to assimilate the two words. (F. E. B.) - - - - -LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE, 1st DUKE OF (1631-1712), English statesman, -commonly known also by his earlier title of EARL OF DANBY, son of Sir -Edward Osborne, Bart., of Kiveton, Yorkshire, was born in 1631. He was -great-grandson of Sir Edward Osborne (d. 1591), lord mayor of London, -who, according to the accepted account, while apprentice to Sir William -Hewett, cloth worker and lord mayor in 1559, made the fortunes of the -family by leaping from London Bridge into the river and rescuing Anne -(d. 1585), the daughter of his employer, whom he afterwards married.[1] -Thomas Osborne, the future lord treasurer, succeeded to the baronetcy -and estates in Yorkshire on his father's death in 1647, and after -unsuccessfully courting his cousin Dorothy Osborne, married Lady Bridget -Bertie, daughter of the earl of Lindsey. He was introduced to public -life and to court by his neighbour in Yorkshire, George, 2nd duke of -Buckingham, was elected M.P. for York in 1665, and gained the "first -step in his future rise" by joining Buckingham in his attack on -Clarendon in 1667. In 1668 he was appointed joint treasurer of the navy -with Sir Thomas Lyttelton, and subsequently sole treasurer. He succeeded -Sir William Coventry as commissioner for the state treasury in 1669, and -in 1673 was appointed a commissioner for the admiralty. He was created -Viscount Osborne in the Scottish peerage on the 2nd of February 1673, -and a privy councillor on the 3rd of May. On the 19th of June, on the -resignation of Lord Clifford, he was appointed lord treasurer and made -Baron Osborne of Kiveton and Viscount Latimer in the peerage of England, -while on the 27th of June 1674 he was created earl of Danby, when he -surrendered his Scottish peerage of Osborne to his second son Peregrine -Osborne. He was appointed the same year lord-lieutenant of the West -Riding of Yorkshire, and in 1677 received the Garter. - -Danby was a statesman of very different calibre from the leaders of the -Cabal ministry, Buckingham and Arlington. His principal aim was no doubt -the maintenance and increase of his own influence and party, but his -ambition corresponded with definite political views. A member of the old -cavalier party, a confidential friend and correspondent of the despotic -Lauderdale, he desired to strengthen the executive and the royal -authority. At the same time he was a keen partisan of the established -church, an enemy of both Roman Catholics and dissenters, and an opponent -of all toleration. In 1673 he opposed the Indulgence, supported the Test -Act, and spoke against the proposal for giving relief to the dissenters. -In June 1675 he signed the paper of advice drawn up by the bishops for -the king, urging the rigid enforcement of the laws against the Roman -Catholics, their complete banishment from the court, and the suppression -of conventicles,[2] and a bill introduced by him imposing special taxes -on recusants and subjecting Roman Catholic priests to imprisonment for -life was only thrown out as too lenient because it secured offenders -from the charge of treason. The same year he introduced a Test Oath by -which all holding office or seats in either House of Parliament were to -declare resistance to the royal power a crime, and promise to abstain -from all attempts to alter the government of either church or state; but -this extreme measure of retrograde toryism was successfully opposed by -wiser statesmen. The king himself as a Roman Catholic secretly opposed -and also doubted the wisdom and practicability of this "thorough" policy -of repression. Danby therefore ordered a return from every diocese of -the numbers of dissenters, both Romanist and Protestant, in order by a -proof of their insignificance to remove the royal scruples.[3] In -December 1676 he issued a proclamation for the suppression of -coffee-houses because of the "defamation of His Majesty's Government" -which took place in them, but this was soon withdrawn. In 1677, to -secure Protestantism in case of a Roman Catholic succession, he -introduced a bill by which ecclesiastical patronage and the care of the -royal children were entrusted to the bishops; but this measure, like the -other, was thrown out. - -In foreign affairs Danby showed a stronger grasp of essentials. He -desired to increase English trade, credit and power abroad. He was a -determined enemy both to Roman influence and to French ascendancy. He -terminated the war with Holland in 1674, and from that time maintained a -friendly correspondence with William; while in 1677, after two years of -tedious negotiations, he overcame all obstacles, and in spite of James's -opposition, and without the knowledge of Louis XIV., effected the -marriage between William and Mary that was the germ of the Revolution -and the Act of Settlement. This national policy, however, could only be -pursued, and the minister could only maintain himself in power, by -acquiescence in the king's personal relations with the king of France -settled by the disgraceful Treaty of Dover in 1670, which included -Charles's acceptance of a pension, and bound him to a policy exactly -opposite to Danby's, one furthering French and Roman ascendancy. Though -not a number of the Cabal ministry, and in spite of his own denial, -Danby must, it would seem, have known of these relations after becoming -lord treasurer. In any case, in 1676, together with Lauderdale alone, he -consented to a treaty between Charles and Louis according to which the -foreign policy of both kings was to be conducted in union, and Charles -received an annual subsidy of L100,000. In 1678 Charles, taking -advantage of the growing hostility to France in the nation and -parliament, raised his price, and Danby by his directions demanded -through Ralph Montagu (afterwards duke of Montagu) six million livres a -year (L300,000) for three years. Simultaneously Danby guided through -parliament a bill for raising money for a war against France; a league -was concluded with Holland, and troops were actually sent there. That -Danby, in spite of these compromising transactions, remained in -intention faithful to the national interests, appears clearly from the -hostility with which he was still regarded by France. In 1676 he is -described by Ruvigny to Louis XIV. as intensely antagonistic to France -and French interests, and as doing his utmost to prevent the treaty of -that year.[4] In 1678, on the rupture of relations between Charles and -Louis, a splendid opportunity was afforded Louis of paying off old -scores by disclosing Danby's participation in the king's demands for -French gold. - -Every circumstance now conspired to effect his fall. Although both -abroad and at home his policy had generally embodied the wishes of the -ascendant party in the state, Danby had never obtained the confidence of -the nation. His character inspired no respect, and he could not reckon -during the whole of his long career on the support of a single -individual. Charles is said to have told him when he made him treasurer -that he had only two friends in the world, himself and his own merit.[5] -He was described to Pepys on his acquiring office as "one of a broken -sort of people that have not much to lose and therefore will venture -all," and as "a beggar having L1100 or L1200 a year, but owes above -L10,000." His office brought him in L20,000 a year,[6] and he was known -to be making large profits by the sale of offices; he maintained his -power by corruption and by jealously excluding from office men of high -standing and ability. Burnet described him as "the most hated minister -that had ever been about the king." Worse men had been less detested, -but Danby had none of the amiable virtues which often counteract the -odium incurred by serious faults. Evelyn, who knew him intimately from -his youth, describes him as "a man of excellent natural parts but -nothing of generous or grateful." Shaftesbury, doubtless no friendly -witness, speaks of him as an inveterate liar, "proud, ambitious, -revengeful, false, prodigal and covetous to the highest degree,"[7] and -Burnet supports his unfavourable judgment to a great extent. His -corruption, his mean submission to a tyrant wife, his greed, his pale -face and lean person, which had succeeded to the handsome features and -comeliness of earlier days,[8] were the subject of ridicule, from the -witty sneers of Halifax to the coarse jests of the anonymous writers of -innumerable lampoons. By his championship of the national policy he had -raised up formidable foes abroad without securing a single friend or -supporter at home,[9] and his fidelity to the national interests was -now, through a very mean and ignoble act of personal spite, to be the -occasion of his downfall. - -Danby in appointing a new secretary of state had preferred Sir W. -Temple, a strong adherent of the anti-French policy, to Montagu. The -latter, after a quarrel with the duchess of Cleveland, was dismissed -from the king's employment. He immediately went over to the opposition, -and in concert with Louis XIV. and Barillon, the French ambassador, by -whom he was supplied with a large sum of money, arranged a plan for -effecting Danby's ruin. He obtained a seat in parliament; and in spite -of Danby's endeavour to seize his papers by an order in council, on the -20th of December 1678 caused two of the incriminating letters written by -Danby to him to be read aloud to the House of Commons by the Speaker. -The House immediately resolved on Danby's impeachment. At the foot of -each of the letters appeared the king's postscripts, "I approve of this -letter. C.R.," in his own handwriting; but they were not read by the -Speaker, and were entirely neglected in the proceedings against the -minister, thus emphasizing the constitutional principle that obedience -to the orders of the sovereign can be no bar to an impeachment. He was -charged with having encroached to himself royal powers by treating -matters of peace and war without the knowledge of the council, with -having promoted the raising of a standing army on pretence of a war with -France, with having obstructed the assembling of parliament, with -corruption and embezzlement in the treasury. Danby, while communicating -the "Popish Plot" to the parliament, had from the first expressed his -disbelief in the so-called revelations of Titus Oates, and his -backwardness in the matter now furnished an additional charge of having -"traitorously concealed the plot." He was voted guilty by the Commons; -but while the Lords were disputing whether the accused peer should have -bail, and whether the charges amounted to more than a misdemeanour, -parliament was prorogued on the 30th of December and dissolved three -weeks later. In March 1679 a new parliament hostile to Danby was -returned, and he was forced to resign the treasurership; but he received -a pardon from the king under the Great Seal, and a warrant for a -marquessate.[10] His proposed advancement in rank was severely reflected -upon in the Lords, Halifax declaring it in the king's presence the -recompense of treason, "not to be borne"; and in the Commons his -retirement from office by no means appeased his antagonists. The -proceedings against him were revived, a committee of privileges deciding -on the 19th of March 1679 that the dissolution of parliament was no -abatement of an impeachment. A motion was passed for his committal by -the Lords, who, as in Clarendon's case, voted his banishment. This was, -however, rejected by the Commons, who now passed an act of attainder. -Danby had removed to the country, but returned on the 21st of April to -avoid the threatened passing by the Lords of the attainder, and was sent -to the Tower. In his written defence he now pleaded the king's pardon, -but on the 5th of May 1679 it was pronounced illegal by the Commons. -This declaration was again repeated by the Commons in 1689 on the -occasion of another attack made upon Danby in that year, and was finally -embodied in the Act of Settlement in 1701. - -The Commons now demanded judgment against the prisoner from the Lords. -Further proceedings, however, were stopped by the dissolution of -parliament again in July; but for nearly five years Danby remained a -prisoner in the Tower. A number of pamphlets asserting the complicity of -the fallen minister in the Popish Plot, and even accusing him of the -murder of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, were published in 1679 and 1680; -they were answered by Danby's secretary, Edward Christian, in -_Reflections_; and in May 1681 Danby was actually indicted by the Grand -Jury of Middlesex for Godfrey's murder on the accusation of Edward -FitzHarris. His petition to the king for a trial by his peers on this -indictment was refused, and an attempt to prosecute the publishers of -the false evidence in the king's bench was unsuccessful. For some time -all appeals to the king, to parliament, and to the courts of justice -were unavailing; but on the 12th of February 1684 his application to -Chief Justice Jeffreys was at last successful, and he was set at liberty -on finding bail to the amount of L40,000, to appear in the House of -Lords in the following session. He visited the king at court the same -day; but took no part in public affairs for the rest of the reign. - -After James's accession Danby was discharged from his bail by the Lords -on the 19th of May 1685, and the order declaring a dissolution of -parliament to be no abatement of an impeachment was reversed. He again -took his seat in the Lords as a leader of the moderate Tory party. -Though a strong Tory and supporter of the hereditary principle, James's -attacks on Protestantism soon drove him into opposition. He was visited -by Dykvelt, William of Orange's agent; and in June 1687 he wrote to -William assuring him of his support. On the 30th of June 1688 he was one -of the seven leaders of the Revolution who signed the invitation to -William. In November he occupied York in the prince's interest, -returning to London to meet William on the 26th of December. He appears -to have thought that William would not claim the crown,[11] and at first -supported the theory that the throne having been vacated by James's -flight the succession fell as of right to Mary; but as this met with -little support, and was rejected both by William and by Mary herself, he -voted against the regency and joined with Halifax and the Commons in -declaring the prince and princess joint sovereigns. - -Danby had rendered extremely important services to William's cause. On -the 20th of April 1689 he was created marquess of Carmarthen and was -made lord-lieutenant of the three ridings of Yorkshire. He was, however, -still greatly disliked by the Whigs, and William, instead of reinstating -him in the lord treasurership, only appointed him president of the -council in February 1689. He did not conceal his vexation and -disappointment, which were increased by the appointment of Halifax to -the office of lord privy seal. The antagonism between the "black" and -the "white marquess" (the latter being the nickname given to Carmarthen -in allusion to his sickly appearance), which had been forgotten in their -common hatred to the French policy and to Rome, revived in all its -bitterness. He retired to the country and was seldom present at the -council. In June and July new motions were made in parliament for his -removal; but notwithstanding his great unpopularity, on the retirement -of Halifax in 1690 he again acquired the chief power in the state, which -he retained till 1695 by bribery in parliament and by the support of the -king and queen. In 1690, during William's absence in Ireland, he was -appointed Mary's chief adviser. In 1691, desiring to compromise Halifax, -he discredited himself by the patronage of an informer named Fuller, -soon proved an impostor. He was absent in 1692 when the Place Bill was -thrown out. In 1693 he presided in great state as lord high steward at -the trial of Lord Mohun; and on the 4th of May 1694 he was created duke -of Leeds.[12] The same year he supported the Triennial Bill, but opposed -the new treason bill as weakening the hands of the executive. Meanwhile -fresh attacks had been made upon him. He was accused unjustly of -Jacobitism. In April 1695 he was impeached once more by the Commons for -having received a bribe of 5000 guineas to procure the new charter for -the East India Company. In his defence, whilst denying that he had -received the money and appealing to his past services, he did not -attempt to conceal the fact that according to his experience bribery was -an acknowledged and universal custom in public business, and that he -himself had been instrumental in obtaining money for others. Meanwhile -his servant, who was said to have been the intermediary between the duke -and the Company in the transaction, fled the country; and no evidence -being obtainable to convict, the proceedings fell to the ground. In May -1695 he had been ordered to discontinue his attendance at the council. -He returned in October, but was not included among the lords justices -appointed regents during William's absence in this year. In November he -was created D.C.L. by the university of Oxford; in December he became a -commissioner of trade, and in December 1696 governor of the Royal -Fishery Company. He opposed the prosecution of Sir John Fenwick, but -supported the action taken by members of both Houses in defence of -William's rights in the same year. On the 23rd of April 1698 he -entertained the tsar, Peter the Great, at Wimbledon. He had for some -time lost the real direction of affairs, and in May 1699 he was -compelled to retire from office and from the lord-lieutenancy of -Yorkshire. - -In Queen Anne's reign, in his old age, he is described as "a gentleman -of admirable natural parts, great knowledge and experience in the -affairs of his own country, but of no reputation with any party. He hath -not been regarded, although he took his place at the council board."[13] -The veteran statesman, however, by no means acquiesced in his enforced -retirement, and continued to take an active part in politics. As a -zealous churchman and Protestant he still possessed a following. In 1705 -he supported a motion that the church was in danger, and in 1710 in -Sacheverell's case spoke in defence of hereditary right.[14] In November -of this year he obtained a renewal of his pension of L3500 a year from -the post office which he was holding in 1694,[15] and in 1711 at the -age of eighty was a competitor for the office of lord privy seal.[16] -His long and eventful career, however, terminated soon afterwards by his -death on the 26th of July 1712. - - In 1710 the duke had published _Copies and Extracts of some letters - written to and from the Earl of Danby ... in the years 1676, 1677 and - 1678_, in defence of his conduct, and this was accompanied by _Memoirs - relating to the Impeachment of Thomas, Earl of Danby_. The original - letters, however, of Danby to Montagu have now been published (by the - Historical MSS. Commission from the MSS. of J. Eliot Hodgkin), and are - seen to have been considerably garbled by Danby for the purposes of - publication, several passages being obliterated and others altered by - his own hand. - - See the lives, by Sidney Lee in the _Dict. Nat. Biography_ (1895); by - T. P. Courtenay in _Lardner's Encyclopaedia_, "Eminent British - Statesmen," vol. v. (1850); in Lodge's _Portraits_, vii.; and _Lives - and Characters of ... Illustrious Persons_, by J. le Neve (1714). - Further material for his biography exists in _Add. MSS._, 26040-95 (56 - vols., containing his papers); in the _Duke of Leeds MSS. at Hornby - Castle_, calendered in _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. pt. vii. pp. 1-43; - _MSS. of Earl of Lindsay and J. Eliot Hodgkin_; and _Calendars of - State Papers Dom_. See also _Add. MSS. 1894-1899_, Index and Calendar; - _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. pt. ii., _House of Lords MSS.; Gen. Cat. - British Museum_ for various pamphlets. (P. C. Y.) - - -_Later Dukes of Leeds._ - -The duke's only surviving son, Peregrine (1659-1729), who became 2nd -duke of Leeds on his father's death, had been a member of the House of -Lords as Baron Osborne since 1690, but he is better known as a naval -officer; in this service he attained the rank of a vice-admiral. He died -on the 25th of June 1729, when his son Peregrine Hyde (1691-1731) became -3rd duke. The 4th duke was the latter's son Thomas (1713-1789), who was -succeeded by his son Francis. - -Francis Osborne, 5th duke of Leeds (1751-1799), was born on the 29th of -January 1751 and was educated at Westminster school and at Christ -Church, Oxford. He was a member of parliament in 1774 and 1775; in 1776 -he became a peer as Baron Osborne, and in 1777 lord chamberlain of the -queen's household. In the House of Lords he was prominent as a -determined foe of the prime minister, Lord North, who, after he had -resigned his position as chamberlain, deprived him of the office of -lord-lieutenant of the East Riding of Yorkshire in 1780. He regained -this, however, two years later. Early in 1783 the marquess of -Carmarthen, as he was called, was selected as ambassador to France, but -he did not take up this appointment, becoming instead secretary for -foreign affairs under William Pitt in December of the same year. As -secretary he was little more than a cipher, and he left office in April -1791. Subsequently he took some slight part in politics, and he died in -London on the 31st of January 1799. His _Political Memoranda_ were -edited by Oscar Browning for the Camden Society in 1884, and there are -eight volumes of his official correspondence in the British Museum. His -first wife was Amelia (1754-1784), daughter of Robert Darcy, 4th earl of -Holdernesse, who became Baroness Conyers in her own right in 1778. Their -elder son, George William Frederick (1775-1838), succeeded his father as -duke of Leeds and his mother as Baron Conyers. These titles were, -however, separated when his son, Francis Godolphin Darcy, the 7th Duke -(1798-1859), died without sons in May 1859. The barony passed to his -nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling into abeyance on -his death in August 1888, and the dukedom passed to his cousin, George -Godolphin Osborne (1802-1872), a son of Francis Godolphin Osborne -(1777-1850), who was created Baron Godolphin in 1832. In 1895 George's -grandson George Godolphin Osborne (b. 1862) became 10th duke of Leeds. -The name of Godolphin, which is borne by many of the Osbornes, was -introduced into the family through the marriage of the 4th duke with -Mary (d. 1764), daughter and co-heiress of Francis Godolphin, 2nd earl -of Godolphin, and grand-daughter of the great duke of Marlborough. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Chronicles of London Bridge_, by R. Thomson (1827), 313, quoting - Stow. - - [2] _Cal. of St Pap. Dom._ (1673-1675), p. 449. - - [3] Letter of Morley, Bishop of Winchester, to Danby (June 10, 1676). - (_Hist. MSS. Com._ xi. Rep. pt. vii. 14.) - - [4] _Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland_, by Sir J. Dalrymple - (1773), i. app. 104. - - [5] _Letters to Sir Joseph Williamson_ (Camden Soc., 1874), i. 64. - - [6] Halifax note-book in Devonshire House collection, quoted in - Foxcroft's _Life of Halifax_, ii. 63, note. - - [7] _Life of Shaftesbury_, by W. D. Christie (1871), ii. 312. - - [8] Macky's _Memoirs_, 46; Pepys's _Diary_, viii. 143. - - [9] See the description of his position at this time by Sir W. Temple - in _Lives of Illustrious Persons_ (1714), 40. - - [10] Add. MSS. 28094, f. 47. - - [11] Boyer's _Annals_ (1722), 433. - - [12] The title was taken, not from Leeds in Yorkshire, but from Leeds - in Kent, 4(1/2) m. from Maidstone, which in the 17th century was a - more important place than its Yorkshire namesake. - - [13] _Memoirs of Sir John Macky_ (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 46. - - [14] Boyer's _Annals_, 219, 433. - - [15] _Harleian MSS._ 2264, No. 239. - - [16] Boyer's _Annals_, 515. - - - - -LEEDS, a city and municipal county and parliamentary borough in the West -Riding of Yorkshire, England, 185 m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1891) -367,505; (1901) 428,968. It is served by the Great Northern railway -(Central station), the Midland (Wellington station), North-Eastern and -London & North-Western (New station), and Great Central and Lancashire & -Yorkshire railways (Central station). It lies nearly in the centre of -the Riding, in the valley of the river Aire. - -The plan of the city is in no way regular, and the numerous handsome -public buildings are distributed among several streets, principally on -the north side of the narrow river. The town hall is a fine building in -Grecian style, well placed in a square between Park Lane and Great -George Street. It is of oblong shape, with a handsome facade over which -rises a domed clock-tower. The principal apartment is the Victoria Hall, -a richly ornamented chamber measuring 161 ft. in length, 72 in breadth -and 75 in height. It was opened in 1858 by Queen Victoria. Immediately -adjacent to it are the municipal offices (1884) in Italian style. The -Royal Exchange (1872) in Boar Lane is an excellent Perpendicular -building. In ecclesiastical architecture Leeds is not rich. The church -of St John, however, is an interesting example of the junction of Gothic -traditions with Renaissance tendencies in architecture. It dates from -1634 and contains some fine contemporary woodwork. St Peter's parish -church occupies an ancient site, and preserves a very early cross from -the former building. The church was rebuilt in 1840 at the instance of -the vicar, Dr Walter Farquhar Hook (1798-1875), afterwards dean of -Chichester, whose work here in a poor and ill-educated parish brought -him fame. The church of All Souls (1880) commemorates him. It may be -noted that the vicarage of Leeds has in modern times commonly formed a -step to the episcopal bench. There are numerous other modern churches -and chapels, of which the Unitarian chapel in Park Row is noteworthy. -Leeds is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a pro-cathedral -dedicated to St Anne. There is a large free library in the municipal -offices, and numerous branch libraries are maintained. The Leeds old -library is a private institution founded in 1768 by Dr Priestley, who -was then minister of the Unitarian chapel. It occupies a building in -Commercial Street. The Philosophical and Literary Society, established -in 1820, possesses a handsome building in Park Row, known as the -Philosophical Hall, containing a laboratory, scientific library, lecture -room, and museum, with excellent natural history, geological and -archaeological collections. The City Art Gallery was completed in 1888, -and contains a fine permanent collection, while exhibitions are also -held. The University, incorporated in 1904, grew out of Yorkshire -College, established in 1875 for the purpose of supplying instruction in -the arts and sciences which are applicable to the manufactures, -engineering, mining and agriculture of the county. In 1887 it became one -of the constituent colleges of Victoria University, Manchester, and so -remained until its separate incorporation. The existing building was -completed in 1885, and contains a hall of residence, a central hall and -library, and complete equipments in all departments of instruction. New -departments have been opened in extension of the original scheme, such -as the medical department (1894). A day training college is a branch of -the institution. The Mechanics' Institute (1865) occupies a handsome -Italian building in Cookridge Street near the town hall. It comprises a -lecture room, library, reading and class rooms; and day and evening -classes and an art school are maintained. The grammar school, occupying -a Gothic building (1858) at Woodhouse Moor, dates its foundation from -1552. It is largely endowed, and possesses exhibitions tenable at -Oxford, Cambridge and Durham universities. There is a large training -college for the Wesleyan Methodist ministry in the suburb of Headingley. -The Yorkshire Ladies' Council of Education has as its object the -promotion of female education, and the instruction of girls and women of -the artisan class in domestic economy, &c. The general infirmary in -Great George Street is a Gothic building of brick with stone dressings -with a highly ornamental exterior by Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work -this is by no means the only good example in Leeds. The city possesses -further notable buildings in its market-halls, theatres, clubs, &c. - -Among open spaces devoted by the corporation to public use that of -Woodhouse Moor is the principal one within the city, but 3 m. N.E. of -the centre is Roundhay Park, a tract of 700 acres, beautifully laid out -and containing a picturesque lake. In 1889 there came into the -possession of the corporation the ground, lying 3 m. up the river from -the centre of the city, containing the celebrated ruins of Kirkstall -Abbey. The remains of this great foundation, of the middle of the 12th -century, are extensive, and so far typical of the usual arrangement of -Cistercian houses as to be described under the heading Abbey. The ruins -are carefully preserved, and form a remarkable contrast with the -surrounding industrial district. Apart from Kirkstall there are few -antiquarian remains in the locality. In Guildford Street, near the town -hall, is the Red Hall, where Charles I. lay during his enforced journey -under the charge of the army in 1647. - -For manufacturing and commercial purposes the situation of Leeds is -highly advantageous. It occupies a central position in the railway -system of England. It has communication with Liverpool by the Leeds and -Liverpool Canal, and with Goole and the Humber by the Aire and Calder -Navigation. It is moreover the centre of an important coal and iron -district. Though regarded as the capital of the great manufacturing -district of the West Riding, Leeds is not in its centre but on its -border. Eastward and northward the country is agricultural, but westward -and southward lies a mass of manufacturing towns. The characteristic -industry is the woollen manufacture. The industry is carried on in a -great number of neighbouring townships, but the cloth is commonly -finished or dressed in the city itself, this procedure differing from -that of the wool manufacturers in Gloucestershire and the west of -England, who carry out the entire process in one factory. Formerly much -of the business between manufacturer and merchant was transacted in the -cloth halls, which formed a kind of market, but merchants now order -goods directly from the manufacturers. Artificial silk is important -among the textile products. Subsidiary to these leading industries is -the production of machine-made clothing, hats and caps. The leather -trade of Leeds is the largest in England, though no sole leather is -tanned. The supply comes chiefly from British India. Boots and shoes are -extensively manufactured. The iron trade in its different branches -rivals the woollen trade in wealth, including the casting of metal, and -the manufacture of steam engines, steam wagons, steam ploughs, -machinery, tools, nails, &c. Leeds was formerly famed for the production -of artistic pottery, and specimens of old Leeds ware are highly prized. -The industry lapsed about the end of the 18th century, but has been -revived in modern times. Minor and less specialized industries are -numerous. - -The parliamentary borough is divided into five divisions (North, -Central, South, East and West), each returning one member. The county -borough was created in 1888. Leeds was raised to the rank of a city in -1893. The municipal borough is under a lord mayor (the title was -conferred in 1897 on the occasion of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee), -16 aldermen and 48 councillors. Area, 21,572 acres. - - Leeds (Loidis, Ledes) is mentioned by Bede as the district where the - Northumbrian kings had a royal vill in 627, and where Oswy, king of - Northumbria, defeated Penda, king of the Mercians, in 665. Before the - Norman Conquest seven thanes held it of Edward the Confessor as seven - manors, but William the Conqueror granted the whole to Ilbert de Lacy, - and at the time of the Domesday Survey it was held of him by Ralph - Paganel, who is said to have raised Leeds castle, possibly on the site - of an earlier fortification. In 1207 Maurice Paganel constituted the - inhabitants of Leeds free burgesses, granting them the same liberties - as Robert de Lacy had granted to Pontefract, including the right of - selling burgher land to whom they pleased except to religious houses, - and freedom from toll. He also appointed as the chief officer of the - town a reeve who was to be chosen by the lord of the manor, the - burgesses being "more eligible if only they would pay as much as - others for the office." The town was incorporated by Charles I. in - 1626 under the title of an alderman, 7 principal burgesses and 24 - assistants. A second charter granted by Charles II. in 1661 appointed - a mayor, 12 aldermen and 24 assistants, and is still the governing - charter of the borough. The woollen manufacture is said to have been - introduced into Leeds in the 14th century, and owing to the facilities - for trade afforded by its position on the river Aire soon became an - important industry. Camden, writing about 1590, says, "Leeds is - rendered wealthy by its woollen manufactures," and the incorporation - charter of 1626 recites that "the inhabitants have for a long time - exercised the art of making cloth." The cloth was then, as it is now, - made in the neighbouring villages and only finished and sold in the - town. A successful attempt was made in the beginning of the 19th - century by Mr William Hirst to introduce goods of a superior quality - which were made and finished in his own factory. Other manufacturers - followed his example, but their factories are now only used for the - finishing process. The worsted trade which was formerly carried on to - some extent has now almost disappeared. The spinning of flax by - machinery was introduced early in the 19th century by Mr John - Marshall, a Holbeck manufacturer, who was one of the first to apply - Sir Richard Arkwright's water frame, invented for cotton manufacture, - to the spinning of linen yarn. The burgesses were represented in - parliament by one member during the Commonwealth, but not again until - by the Reform Act of 1832 they were allowed to return two members. In - 1867 they were granted an additional member. - - See James Wardell, _The Municipal History of the Borough of Leeds_ - (1846); J. D. Whitaker, _Loidis and Elmete: or an Attempt to - illustrate the Districts described in these words by Bede_ (1816); D. - H. Atkinson, _Ralph Thoresby, the Topographer; his Town (Leeds) and - Times_ (1885-1887). - - - - -LEEK, a market town in the Leek parliamentary division of Staffordshire, -England, 157 m. N.W. from London, on the Churnet Valley branch of the -North Staffordshire railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 15,484. The -town lies high in a picturesque situation near the head of the river -Churnet. The church of St Edward the Confessor is mainly Decorated, and -stands in a churchyard commanding a beautiful view from an elevation of -some 640 ft. There is here a curious pillar of Danish work ornately -carved. An institute contains a free library, lecture hall, art gallery -and school of art. A grammar school was established in 1723. In the -vicinity are ruins of the Cistercian abbey De la Croix, or Dieulacresse, -erected in 1214 by Ralph de Blundevill, earl of Chester. The slight -remains are principally embodied in a farm-house. The silk manufacture -includes sewing silk, braids, silk buttons, &c. Cloud Hill, rising to -1190 ft. W. of the town, causes a curious phenomenon in the height of -summer, the sun sinking behind one flank to reappear beyond the other, -and thus appearing to set twice. - -Leek (Lee, Leike, Leeke) formed part of the great estates of Aelfgar, -earl of Mercia; it escheated to William the Conqueror who held it at the -time of the Domesday Survey. Later it passed to the earls Palatine of -Chester, remaining in their hands until Ralph de Blundevill, earl of -Chester, gave it to the abbey of Dieulacresse, which continued to hold -it until its dissolution. The same earl in a charter which he gave to -the town (_temp._ John) calls it a borough and grants to his free -burgesses various privileges, including freedom from toll throughout -Cheshire. These privileges were confirmed by Richard, abbot of -Dieulacresse, but the town received no royal charter and failed to -establish its burghal position. The Wednesday market which is still held -dates from a grant of John to the earl of Chester: in the 17th century -it was very considerable. A fair, also granted by John, beginning on the -third day before the Translation of Edward the Confessor is still held. -The silk manufacture which can be traced to the latter part of the 17th -century is thought to have been aided by the settlement in Leek of some -Huguenots after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In the 17th and -18th centuries the town was famous for its ale. Prince Charles Edward -passed through Leek on his march to Derby (1745) and again on his return -journey to Scotland. A story in connexion with the Civil Wars is told to -explain the expression "Now thus" occurring on the tombstone of a -citizen, who by this meaningless answer to all questions sought escape -on the plea of insanity. - - - - -LEEK, the _Allium Porrum_ of botanists, a plant now considered as a mere -variety of _Allium Ampeloprasum_, wild leek, produced by cultivation. -The plant is probably of Eastern origin, since it was commonly -cultivated in Egypt in the time of the Pharaohs, and is so to the -present day; while as regards its first appearance in England both -Tusser and Gerard--two of the earliest writers on this class of -subjects, the former of whom flourished in the early part and the latter -in the later part of the 16th century--speak of it as being then -commonly cultivated and used.[1] The Romans, it would appear, made -great use of the leek for savouring their dishes, as seems proved by the -number of recipes for its use referred to by Celsius. Hence it is more -than probable that it was brought to England by the Romans. Italy was -celebrated for leeks in the time of Pliny (_H.N._ xix. c. 6), according -to whom they were brought into great esteem through the emperor Nero, -derisively surnamed "Porrophagus," who used to eat them for several days -in every month to clear his voice. The leek is very generally cultivated -in Great Britain as an esculent, but more especially in Scotland and in -Wales, being esteemed as an excellent and wholesome vegetable, with -properties very similar to those of the onion, but of a milder -character. In America it is not much cultivated except by market -gardeners in the neighbourhood of large cities. The whole plant, with -the exception of the fibrous roots, is used in soups and stews. The -sheathing stalks of the leaves lap over each other, and form a thickish -stem-like base, which is blanched, and is the part chiefly preferred. -These blanched stems are much employed in French cookery. They form an -important ingredient in Scotch winter broth, and particularly in the -national dish _cock-a-leekie_, and are also largely used boiled, and -served with toasted bread and white sauce, as in the case of asparagus. -Leeks are sown in the spring, earlier or later according to the soil and -the season, and are planted out for the summer, being dropped into holes -made with a stout dibble and left unfilled in order to allow the stems -space to swell. When they are thus planted deeply the holes gradually -fill up, and the base of the stem becomes blanched and prepared for use, -a process aided by drawing up the earth round about the stems as they -elongate. The leek is one of the most useful vegetables the cottager can -grow, as it will supply him with a large amount of produce during the -winter and spring. It is extremely hardy, and presents no difficulty in -its cultivation, the chief point, as with all succulent esculents, being -that it should be grown quickly upon well-enriched soil. The plant is of -biennial duration, flowering the second year, and perishing after -perfecting its seeds. The leek is the national symbol or badge of the -Welsh, who wear it in their hats on St David's Day. The origin of this -custom has received various explanations, all of which are more or less -speculative. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Tusser, in his verse for the month of March, writes:-- - - "Now leckes are in season, for pottage ful good, - And spareth the milck cow, and purgeth the blood, - These hauving with peason, for pottage in Lent, - Thou spareth both otemel and bread to be spent." - - - - -LEER, a town and river port in the Prussian province of Hanover, lying -in a fertile plain on the right bank of the Leda near its confluence -with the Ems, and at the junction of railways to Bremen, Emden and -Munster. Pop. (1905) 12,347. The streets are broad, well paved, and -adorned with many elegant buildings, among which are Roman Catholic, -Lutheran and Calvinist churches, and a new town hall with a tower 165 -ft. high. Among its educational establishments are a classical school -and a school of navigation. Linen and woollen fabrics, hosiery, paper, -cigars, soap, vinegar and earthenware are manufactured, and there are -iron-foundries, distilleries, tanneries and shipbuilding yards. Many -markets for horses and cattle are held. The transit trade from the -regions traversed by the Westphalian and Oldenburg railways is -considerable. The principal exports are cattle, horses, cheese, butter, -honey, wax, flour, paper, hardware and Westphalian coal. Leer is one of -the principal ports for steamboat communication with the North Sea -watering-places of Borkum and Norderney. Leer is a very old place, -although it only obtained municipal privileges in 1823. Near the town is -the Plitenberg, formerly a heathen place of sacrifice. - - - - -LEEUWARDEN, the capital of the province of Friesland, Holland, on the -canal between Harlingen and Groningen, 33 m. by rail W. of Groningen. -Pop (1901) 32,203. It is one of the most prosperous towns in the -country. To the name of the Frisian Hague, it is entitled as well by -similarity of history as by similarity of appearance. As the Hague grew -up round the court of the counts of Holland, so Leeuwarden round the -court of the Frisian stadtholders; and, like the Hague, it is an -exceptionally clean and attractive town, with parks, pleasure grounds, -and drives. The old gates have been somewhat ruthlessly cleared away, -and the site of the town walls on the north and west competes with the -park called the Prince's Garden as a public pleasure ground. The -Prince's Garden was originally laid out by William Frederick of Nassau -in 1648, and was presented to the town by King William I. in 1819. The -royal palace, which was the seat of the Frisian court from 1603 to 1747, -is now the residence of the royal commissioner for Friesland. It was -restored in 1816 and contains a portrait gallery of the Frisian -stadtholders. The fine mansion called the Kanselary was begun in 1502 as -a residence for the chancellor of George of Saxony (1539), governor of -Friesland, but was only completed in 1571 and served as a court house -until 1811. It was restored at the end of the 19th century to contain -the important provincial library and national archives. Other noteworthy -buildings are the picturesque weigh-house (1595), the town hall (1715), -the provincial courts (1850), and the great church of St Jacob, once the -church of the Jacobins, and the largest monastic church in the -Netherlands. The splendid tombs of the Frisian stadtholders buried here -(Louis of Nassau, Anne of Orange, and others) were destroyed in the -revolution 1795. The unfinished tower of Oldehove dates from 1529-1532. -The museum of the Frisian Society is of modern foundation and contains a -collection of provincial antiquities, including two rooms from -Hindeloopen, an ancient village of Friesland, some 16th- and -17th-century portraits, some Frisian works in silver of the 17th and -18th centuries, and a collection of porcelain and faience. - -Leeuwarden is the centre of a flourishing trade, being easily accessible -from all parts of the province by road, rail and canal. The chief -business is in stock of every kind, dairy and agricultural produce and -fresh-water fish, a large quantity of which is exported to France. The -industries include boat-building and timber yards, iron-foundries, -copper and lead works, furniture, organ, tobacco and other factories, -and the manufacture of gold and silver wares. The town is first -mentioned in documents of the 13th century. - - - - -LEEUWENHOEK, or LEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN (1632-1723), Dutch microscopist, -was born at Delft on the 24th of October 1632. For a short time he was -in a merchant's office in Amsterdam, but early devoted himself to the -manufacture of microscopes and to the study of the minute structure of -organized bodies by their aid. He appears soon to have found that single -lenses of very short focus were preferable to the compound microscopes -then in use; and it is clear from the discoveries he made with these -that they must have been of very excellent quality. His discoveries were -for the most part made public in the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the -Royal Society, to the notice of which body he was introduced by R. de -Graaf in 1673, and of which he was elected a fellow in 1680. He was -chosen a corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1697. -He died at his native place on the 26th of August 1723. Though his -researches were not conducted on any definite scientific plan, his -powers of careful observation enabled him to make many interesting -discoveries in the minute anatomy of man, the higher animals and -insects. He confirmed and extended M. Malpighi's demonstration of the -blood capillaries in 1668, and six years later he gave the first -accurate description of the red blood corpuscles, which he found to be -circular in man but oval in frogs and fishes. In 1677 he described and -illustrated the spermatozoa in dogs and other animals, though in this -discovery Stephen Hamm had anticipated him by a few months; and he -investigated the structure of the teeth, crystalline lens, muscle, &c. -In 1680 he noticed that yeast consists of minute globular particles, and -he described the different structure of the stem in monocotyledonous and -dicotyledonous plants. - - His researches in the life-history of various of the lower forms of - animal life were in opposition to the doctrine that they could be - "produced spontaneously, or bred from corruption." Thus he showed that - the weevils of granaries, in his time commonly supposed to be bred - _from_ wheat, as well as _in_ it, are grubs hatched from eggs - deposited by winged insects. His chapter on the flea, in which he not - only describes its structure, but traces out the whole history of its - metamorphoses from its first emergence from the egg, is full of - interest--not so much for the exactness of his observations, as for - its incidental revelation of the extraordinary ignorance then - prevalent in regard to the origin and propagation of "this minute and - despised creature," which some asserted to be produced from sand, - others from dust, others from the dung of pigeons, and others from - urine, but which he showed to be "endowed with as great perfection in - its kind as any large animal," and proved to breed in the regular way - of winged insects. He even noted the fact that the pupa of the flea is - sometimes attacked and fed upon by a mite--an observation which - suggested the well known lines of Swift. His attention having been - drawn to the blighting of the young shoots of fruit-trees, which was - commonly attributed to the ants found upon them, he was the first to - find the _Aphides_ that really do the mischief; and, upon searching - into the history of their generation, he observed the young within the - bodies of their parents. He carefully studied also the history of the - ant and was the first to show that what had been commonly reputed to - be "ants' eggs" are really their pupae, containing the perfect insect - nearly ready for emersion, whilst the true eggs are far smaller, and - give origin to "maggots" or larvae. Of the sea-mussel, again, and - other shell-fish, he argued (in reply to a then recent defence of - Aristotle's doctrine by F. Buonanni, a learned Jesuit of Rome) that - they are not generated out of the mud or sand found on the seashore or - the beds of rivers at low water, but from spawn, by the regular course - of generation; and he maintained the same to be true of the - fresh-water mussel (_Unio_), whose ova he examined so carefully that - he saw in them the rotation of the embryo, a phenomenon supposed to - have been first discovered long afterwards. In the same spirit he - investigated the generation of eels, which were at that time supposed, - not only by the ignorant vulgar, but by "respectable and learned men," - to be produced from dew without the ordinary process of generation. - Not only was he the first discoverer of the rotifers, but he showed - "how wonderfully nature has provided for the preservation of their - species," by their tolerance of the drying-up of the water they - inhabit, and the resistance afforded to the evaporation of the fluids - of their bodies by the impermeability of the casing in which they then - become enclosed. "We can now easily conceive," he says, "that in all - rain-water which is collected from gutters in cisterns, and in all - waters exposed to the air, animalcules may be found; for they may be - carried thither by the particles of dust blown about by the winds." - - Leeuwenhoek's contributions to the _Philosophical Transactions_ - amounted to one hundred and twelve; he also published twenty-six - papers in the _Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences_. Two - collections of his works appeared during his life, one in Dutch - (Leiden and Delft, 1685-1718), and the other in Latin (_Opera omnia s. - Arcana naturae ope exactissimorum microscopiorum selecta_, Leiden, - 1715-1722); and a selection from them was translated by S. Hoole and - published in English (London, 1781-1798). - - - - -LEEWARD ISLANDS, a group in the West Indies. They derive their name from -being less exposed to the prevailing N.E. trade wind than the adjacent -Windward Islands. They are the most northerly of the Lesser Antilles, -and form a curved chain stretching S.W. from Puerto Rico to meet St -Lucia, the most northerly of the Windward Islands. They consist of the -Virgin Islands, with St Kitts, Antigua, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, -Dominica, Martinique and their various dependencies. The Virgin Islands -are owned by Great Britain and Denmark, Holland having St Eustatius, -with Saba, and part of St Martin. France possesses Guadeloupe, -Martinique, St Bartholomew and the remainder of St Martin. The rest of -the islands are British, and (with the exception of Sombrero, a small -island used only as a lighthouse-station) form, under one governor, a -colony divided into five presidencies, namely: Antigua (with Barbuda and -Redonda), St Kitts (with Nevis and Anguilla), Dominica, Montserrat and -the Virgin Islands. Total pop. (1901) 127,536. There is one federal -executive council nominated by the crown, and one federal legislative -council--ten nominated and ten elected members. Of the latter, four are -chosen by the unofficial members of the local legislative council of -Antigua, two by those of Dominica, and four by the non-official members -of the local legislative council of St Kitts-Nevis. The federal -legislative council meets once annually, usually at St John, Antigua. - - - - -LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN (1814-1873), Irish journalist and author, was -born of an old Huguenot family at Dublin on the 28th of August 1814. He -entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1833. At an early age he had given -proof of literary talent, and in 1837 he joined the staff of the _Dublin -University Magazine_, of which he became later editor and proprietor. In -1837 he produced the Irish ballad _Phaudhrig Croohore_, which was -shortly afterwards followed by a second, _Shamus O'Brien_, successfully -recited in the United States by Samuel Lover. In 1839 he became -proprietor of the _Warder_, a Dublin newspaper, and, after purchasing -the _Evening Packet_ and a large interest in the _Dublin Evening Mail_, -he combined the three papers under the title the _Evening Mail_, a -weekly reprint from which was issued as the _Warder_. After the death of -his wife in 1858 he lived in retirement, and his best work was produced -at this period of his life. He wrote some clever novels, of a -sensational order, in which his vigorous imagination and his Irish love -of the supernatural have full play. He died in Dublin on the 7th of -February 1873. His best-known novels are _The House by the Churchyard_ -(1863) and _Uncle Silas, a Tale of Bartram Haugh_ (1864). _The Purcell -Papers_, Irish stories dating from his college days, were edited with a -memoir of the author by A. P. Graves in 1880. - - - - -LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH, duke of Danzig (1755-1820), marshal of -France, was born at Rouffach in Alsace on the 20th of October 1755. At -the outbreak of the Revolution he was a sergeant in the Gardes -francaises, and with many of his comrades of this regiment took the -popular side. He distinguished himself by bravery and humanity in many -of the street fights in Paris, and becoming an officer and again -distinguishing himself--this time against foreign invaders--he was made -a general of division in 1794. He took part in the Revolutionary Wars -from Fleurus to Stokach, always resolute, strictly obedient and calm. At -Stokach (1799) he received a severe wound and had to return to France, -where he assisted Napoleon during the _coup d'etat_ of 18 Brumaire. He -was one of the first generals of division to be made marshal at the -beginning of the First Empire. He commanded the guard infantry at Jena, -conducted the siege of Danzig 1806-1807 (from which town he received his -title in 1808), commanded a corps in the emperor's campaign of 1808-1809 -in Spain, and in 1809 was given the difficult task of commanding the -Bavarian contingent, which he led in the containing engagements of -Abensberg and Rohr and at the battle of Eckmuhl. He commanded the -Imperial Guard in Russia, 1812, fought through the last campaign of the -Empire, and won fresh glory at Montmirail, Areis-sur-Aube and -Champaubert. He was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII. but joined -Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and was only amnestied and permitted -to resume his seat in the upper chamber in 1819. He died at Paris on the -14th of September 1820. Marshal Lefebvre was a simple soldier, whose -qualifications for high rank, great as they were, came from experience -and not from native genius. He was incapable of exercising a supreme -command, even of leading an important detachment, but he was absolutely -trustworthy as a subordinate, as brave as he was experienced, and -intensely loyal to his chief. He maintained to the end of his life a -rustic simplicity of speech and demeanour. Of his wife (formerly a -_blanchisseuse_ to the Gardes Francaises) many stories have been told, -but in so far as they are to her discredit they seem to be false, she -being, like the marshal, a plain "child of the people." - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 3, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41685.txt or 41685.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/6/8/41685/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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