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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 11:17:41 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 11:17:41 -0800 |
| commit | 1c037a8e047f03dd736d28c31be877c1bc460614 (patch) | |
| tree | eba10e4ccdf43845aaaaa59b82321d570280742a /41685-h | |
| parent | d85c430029f6f7815cfd65c181050868e6231748 (diff) | |
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| -rw-r--r-- | 41685-h/41685-h.htm | 1933 |
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diff --git a/41685-h/41685-h.htm b/41685-h/41685-h.htm index a5615cb..c975efe 100644 --- a/41685-h/41685-h.htm +++ b/41685-h/41685-h.htm @@ -3,10 +3,10 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVI Slice III - Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph. + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVI Slice III - Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph. </title> <style type="text/css"> @@ -147,46 +147,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 3, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 3 - "Latin Language" to "Lefebvre, François-Joseph" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: December 21, 2012 [EBook #41685] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41685 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -217,7 +178,7 @@ be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. <hr class="full" /> <h3>VOLUME XVI SLICE III<br /><br /> -Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph</h3> +Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph</h3> <hr class="full" /> <div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> @@ -232,9 +193,9 @@ Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">LATONA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">LATOUCHE, HYACINTHE JOSEPH DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">LEA, HENRY CHARLES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">LA TOUR, MAURICE QUENTIN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">LEAD</a> (South Dakota, U.S.A.)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">LA TOUR D’AUVERGNE, THÉOPHILE MALO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LEAD</a> (chemical element)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">LA TRÉMOILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">LEADHILLITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">LA TOUR D’AUVERGNE, THÉOPHILE MALO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LEAD</a> (chemical element)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">LA TRÉMOILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">LEADHILLITE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">LATROBE, CHARLES JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">LEADHILLS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">LATTEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">LEAD POISONING</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">LATTICE LEAF PLANT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">LEADVILLE</a></td></tr> @@ -243,7 +204,7 @@ Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">LAUBAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">LEAGUE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">LAUBE, HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">L’AUBESPINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">LEAMINGTON</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LAUCHSTÄDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">LÉANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LAUCHSTÄDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">LÉANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">LAUD, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">LEAP-YEAR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">LAUD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">LEAR, EDWARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">LAUDANUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">LEASE</a></td></tr> @@ -254,47 +215,47 @@ Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">LAUENBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">LEAVEN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">LAUFF, JOSEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">LEAVENWORTH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">LAUGHTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">LEBANON</a> (middle east)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LAUMONT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GILLET DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">LEBANON</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LAUMONT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GILLET DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">LEBANON</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">LAUNCESTON</a> (Cornwall, England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">LEBANON</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">LAUNCESTON</a> (Tasmania)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">LE BARGY, CHARLES GUSTAVE AUGUSTE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">LAUNCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">LE BEAU, CHARLES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">LAUNDRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">LEBEAU, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">LA UNION</a> (Salvador)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">LEBEL, JEAN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">LA UNION</a> (Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">LEBER, JEAN MICHEL CONSTANT</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">LAURAHÜTTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">LEBEUF, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">LAURAHÃœTTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">LEBEUF, JEAN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">LAUREATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">LE BLANC, NICOLAS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">LAUREL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">LE BLANC</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">LAURENS, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">LEBŒUF, EDMOND</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">LAURENT, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">LE BON, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">LAURENT, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">LE BON, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">LAURENTINA, VIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">LEBRIJA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">LAURENTIUS, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">LE BRUN, CHARLES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">LAURIA ROGER DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">LAURIA ROGER DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">LAURIA</a> (Italy)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LAURIER, SIR WILFRID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ÉCOUCHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LAURIER, SIR WILFRID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ÉCOUCHARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LAURISTON, JACQUES ALEXANDRE BERNARD LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">LE CARON, HENRI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LAURIUM</a> (Greece)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">LE CATEAU</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LAURIUM</a> (Michigan, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">LECCE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LAURUSTINUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">LECCO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">LAURVIK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">LECH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LAUSANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">LE CHAMBON</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">LAUTREC, ODET DE FOIX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENÉ GUY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">LAUTREC, ODET DE FOIX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENÉ GUY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">LAUZUN, ANTONIN NOMPAR DE CAUMONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">LAVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">LAVABO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">LE CLERC, JEAN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">LAVAGNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">LECOCQ, ALEXANDRE CHARLES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">LAVAL, ANDRÉ DE, SEIGNEUR DE LOHÉAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">LAVAL, ANDRÉ DE, SEIGNEUR DE LOHÉAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">LAVAL</a> (France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">LE CONTE, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">LA VALLIÈRE, LOUISE FRANÇOISE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE RENÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">LA VALLIÈRE, LOUISE FRANÇOISE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE RENÉ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">LE COQ, ROBERT</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">LAVAUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">LECOUVREUR, ADRIENNE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LAVEDAN, HENRI LÉON ÉMILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">LE CREUSOT</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">LAVELEYE, ÉMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">LECTERN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LAVEDAN, HENRI LÉON ÉMILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">LE CREUSOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">LAVELEYE, ÉMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">LECTERN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">LAVENDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">LECTION, LECTIONARY</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">LAVERDY, CLÉMENT CHARLES FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">LECTISTERNIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">LAVERDY, CLÉMENT CHARLES FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">LECTISTERNIUM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">LAVERNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">LECTOR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">LAVERY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">LECTOURE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">LAVIGERIE, CHARLES MARTIAL ALLEMAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">LEDA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">LA VILLEMARQUÉ, THÉODORE CLAUDE HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">LE DAIM, OLIVIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">LA VILLEMARQUÉ, THÉODORE CLAUDE HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">LE DAIM, OLIVIER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">LAVINIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">LEDBURY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">LAVISSE, ERNEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">LEDGER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECISLAUS JOHANN</a></td></tr> @@ -326,7 +287,7 @@ Latin Language to Lefebvre, François-Joseph</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">LAYAMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">LEEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">LEEWARD ISLANDS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">LAYMEN, HOUSES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">LAYNEZ, DIEGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">LAYNEZ, DIEGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">LAZAR</a></td> <td> </td></tr> </table> @@ -371,7 +332,7 @@ the oldest, the so-called “Forum inscription,” can hardly be referre with confidence to an earlier century than the 5th; the later, the well-known <i>Duenos</i> (= later Latin <i>bonus</i>) inscription, certainly belongs to the 4th; both of these are briefly described -below (§§ 40, 41). At this date we have probably the period of +below (§§ 40, 41). At this date we have probably the period of the narrowest extension of Latin; non-Latin idioms were spoken in Etruria, Umbria, Picenum and in the Marsian and Volscian hills. But almost directly the area begins to expand @@ -397,7 +358,7 @@ the very little <span class="correction" title="amended from than">that</span> c as to the general relations of Italic to its sister groups. Here, as in many kindred questions, the work of Paul Kretschmer of Vienna (<i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache</i>, -Göttingen, 1896) marked an important epoch in the historical +Göttingen, 1896) marked an important epoch in the historical aspects of linguistic study, as the first scientific attempt to interpret critically the different kinds of evidence which the Indo-European languages give us, not in vocabulary merely, @@ -446,14 +407,14 @@ and Albanian have been converted into various types of sibilants company with just the same three western groups, and in contrast to the eastern, the Italic languages labialized the original velars (Ind.-Eur. * <i>qod</i> = Lat. <i>quod</i>, Osc. <i>pod</i>, Gr. <i><span class="grk" title="pod-(apos)">ποδ-(απός)</span></i>, Welsh <i>pwy</i>, Eng. -<i>what</i>, but Sans. <i>kás</i>, “who?”).</p> +<i>what</i>, but Sans. <i>kás</i>, “who?”).</p> <p>(ii.) <i>Indo-European Aspirates.</i>—Like Greek and Sanskrit, but in contrast to all the other groups (even to Zend and Armenian), the Italic group largely preserves a distinction between the Indo-European <i>mediae aspiratae</i> and <i>mediae</i> (<i>e.g.</i> between Ind.-Eur. <i>dh</i> and <i>d</i>, the former when initial becoming initially regularly Lat. <i>f</i> as -in Lat. <i>fēc-ī</i> [cf. Umb. <i>feia</i>, “<i>faciat</i>”], beside Gr. <span class="grk" title="he-thêk-a">ἔ-θηκ-α</span> [cf. Sans. +in Lat. <i>fēc-ī</i> [cf. Umb. <i>feia</i>, “<i>faciat</i>”], beside Gr. <span class="grk" title="he-thêk-a">ἔ-θηκ-α</span> [cf. Sans. <i>da-dhā-ti</i>, “he places”], the latter simply <i>d</i> as in <i>domus</i>, Gr. <i><span class="grk" title="domos">δόμος</span></i>). But the <i>aspiratae</i>, even where thus distinctly treated in Italic, became fricatives, not pure aspirates, a character which they only @@ -465,7 +426,7 @@ Balto-Slavonic), and also in Indo-Iranian, and, curiously, in Messapian, was confused with <i>ă</i>. The name for olive-oil, which spread with the use of this commodity from Greek (<span class="grk" title="elaiwon">ἔλαιϝον</span>) to Italic speakers and thence to the north, becoming by regular changes (see -below) in Latin first *<i>ólaivom</i>, then *<i>óleivom</i>, and then taken into +below) in Latin first *<i>ólaivom</i>, then *<i>óleivom</i>, and then taken into Gothic and becoming <i>alēv</i>, leaving its parent form to change further (not later than 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in Latin to <i>oleum</i>, is a particularly important example, because (<i>a</i>) of the chronological limits which are implied, @@ -487,7 +448,7 @@ Indo-European accentuation, which is directly reflected in Sanskrit, and was itself replaced in Latin and Oscan by another system already mentioned, but not in Latin till it had produced marked effects upon the language (<i>e.g.</i> the degradation of the vowels in compounds as in -<i>cōnficio</i> from <i>cón-facio</i>, <i>inclūdo</i> from <i>ín-claudo</i>). This curious wave +<i>cōnficio</i> from <i>cón-facio</i>, <i>inclūdo</i> from <i>Ãn-claudo</i>). This curious wave of accentual change (first pointed out by Dieterich, <i>Kuhn’s Zeitschrift</i>, i., and later by Thurneysen, <i>Revue celtique</i>, vi. 312, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, xliii. 349) needs and deserves to be more closely investigated @@ -495,7 +456,7 @@ from a chronological standpoint. At present it is not clear how far it was a really connected process in all the languages. (See further Kretschmer, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 115, K. Brugmann, <i>Kurze vergleichende Grammatik</i> (1902-1904), p. 57, and their citations, especially -Meyer-Lübke, <i>Die Betonung im Gallischen</i> (1901).)</p> +Meyer-Lübke, <i>Die Betonung im Gallischen</i> (1901).)</p> </div> <p>To these larger affinities may be added some important @@ -518,10 +479,10 @@ with Attic <i><span class="grk" title="basis">βάσις</sp = Ir. (<i>er</i>-)<i>mitiu</i> (stem <i>miti-n</i>-), contrasted with the same word without the <i>n</i>-suffix in Sans. <i>mati</i>-, Lat. <i>mens</i>, Ind.-Eur. *<i>mṇ-ti</i>-. A similar extension (shared also by Gothic) appears in Lat. <i>iuventū-t</i>-, -O. Ir. <i>óitiu</i> (stem <i>oiliūt</i>-) beside the simple -<i>tu</i>- in nouns like <i>senātus</i>.</p> +O. Ir. <i>óitiu</i> (stem <i>oiliūt</i>-) beside the simple -<i>tu</i>- in nouns like <i>senātus</i>.</p> <p>(ii.) Superlative formation in -<i>is-ṃmo</i>- as in Lat. <i>aegerrimus</i> for -*<i>aegr-isṃmos</i>, Gallic <i><span class="grk" title="Ouxisamê">Οὐξισάμη</span></i> the name of a town meaning “the +*<i>aegr-isṃmos</i>, Gallic <i><span class="grk" title="Ouxisamê">Οὐξισάμη</span></i> the name of a town meaning “the highest.”</p> <p>(iii.) Genitive singular of the <i>o</i>-stems (second declension) in -<i>ī</i> @@ -550,7 +511,7 @@ and the authorities there cited (very little is added by K. Brugmann, <i>Kurze vergl. Gramm.</i> 1904, p. 596).</p> <p>(v.) Formation of the perfect passive from the -<i>to</i>- past participle, -Lat. <i>monitus</i> (<i>est</i>), &c., Ir. <i>léic-the</i>, “he was left,” <i>ro-léiced</i>, “he has +Lat. <i>monitus</i> (<i>est</i>), &c., Ir. <i>léic-the</i>, “he was left,” <i>ro-léiced</i>, “he has been left.” In Latin the participle maintains its distinct adjectival character; in Irish (J. Strachan, <i>Old Irish Paradigms</i>, 1905, p. 50) it has sunk into a purely verbal form, just as the perfect participles in @@ -563,7 +524,7 @@ or third plural active -<i>us</i>(<i>s</i>)<i>so</i> (probably standing for -<i> phonology.</p> <p>(vi.) Assimilation of <i>p</i> to a <i>q<span class="sp">ṷ</span></i> in a following syllable as in Lat. -<i>quinque</i> = Ir. <i>cóic</i>, compared with Sans. <i>pánca</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="pente">πέντε</span>, Eng. <i>five</i>, +<i>quinque</i> = Ir. <i>cóic</i>, compared with Sans. <i>pánca</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="pente">πέντε</span>, Eng. <i>five</i>, Ind.-Eur. *<i>penqe</i>.</p> <p>(vii.) Finally—and perhaps this parallelism is the most important @@ -576,7 +537,7 @@ line of cleavage (i.) between Latinian (Lat. <i>quod</i>, <i>quandō</i>, <i Falisc. <i>cuando</i>) and Osco-Umbrian, better called Safine (Osc. <i>pod</i>, Umb. <i>panū</i>- [for *<i>pandō</i>], Osc.-Umb. <i>pompe</i>-, “five,” in Osc. <i>půmperias</i> “nonae,” Umb. <i>pumpeḓia</i>-, “fifth day of the month”); -and (ii.) between Goidelic (Gaelic) (O. Ir. <i>cóic</i>, “five,” <i>maq</i>, “son”; +and (ii.) between Goidelic (Gaelic) (O. Ir. <i>cóic</i>, “five,” <i>maq</i>, “son”; modern Irish and Scotch <i>Mac</i> as in <i>MacPherson</i>) and Brythonic (Britannic) (Welsh <i>pump</i>, “five,” <i>Ap</i> for map, as in <i>Powel</i> for <i>Ap Howel</i>).</p> @@ -597,7 +558,7 @@ J. Zwicker, <i>De vocabulis et rebus Gallicis sive Transpadanis apud Vergilium</i> (Leipzig dissertation, 1905).</p> </div> -<p>6. <i>Greek and Italic.</i>—We have seen above (§ 4, i., ii., iii.) certain +<p>6. <i>Greek and Italic.</i>—We have seen above (§ 4, i., ii., iii.) certain broad characteristics which the Greek and the Italic groups of language have in common. The old question of the degree of their affinity may be briefly noticed. There are deep-seated @@ -614,10 +575,10 @@ periods of that dialectic development in the Indo-European family, the precursors of Greek and Italic cannot have been separated by any very wide boundary. To this primitive neighbourhood may be referred such peculiarities as (<i>a</i>) the -genitive plural feminine ending in -<i>āsōm</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="-aôn">-άων</span>, later in -various dialects <span class="grk" title="-eôn">-έων</span>, <span class="grk" title="-ôn">-ῶν</span>, <span class="grk" title="-an">-ᾶν</span>; cf. Osc. <i>egmazum</i> “rerum”; +genitive plural feminine ending in -<i>āsōm</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="-aôn">-άων</span>, later in +various dialects <span class="grk" title="-eôn">-έων</span>, <span class="grk" title="-ôn">-ῶν</span>, <span class="grk" title="-an">-ᾶν</span>; cf. Osc. <i>egmazum</i> “rerum”; Lat. <i>mensarum</i>, with -<i>r</i>- from -<i>s</i>-), (<i>b</i>) the feminine gender of -many nouns of the -<i>o</i>- declension, cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="hê hodos">ἡ ὁδὸς</span>, Lat. <i>haec</i> +many nouns of the -<i>o</i>- declension, cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="hê hodos">ἡ ὁδὸς</span>, Lat. <i>haec</i> <i>fāgus</i>; and some important and ancient syntactical features, especially in the uses of the cases (<i>e.g.</i> (<i>c</i>) the genitive of price) of the (<i>d</i>) infinitive and of the (<i>e</i>) participles passive (though in @@ -731,7 +692,7 @@ account of the most important discovery made since the application of scientific method to the study of Latin, for, though it is not strictly a part of phonology, it is wrapped up with much of the development both of the sounds and, by consequence, of the inflexions. -It has long been observed (as we have seen § 4, iv. above) +It has long been observed (as we have seen § 4, iv. above) that the restriction of the word-accent in Latin to the last three syllables of the word, and its attachment to a long syllable in the penult, were certainly not its earliest traceable condition; between @@ -740,7 +701,7 @@ the word-accent was placed in pro-ethnic Indo-European, there had intervened a period of first-syllable accentuation to which were due many of the characteristic contractions of Oscan and Umbrian, and in Latin the degradation of the vowels in such forms as <i>accentus</i> from -<i>ad</i> + <i>cantus</i> or <i>praecipitem</i> from <i>prae</i> + <i>caput</i>- (§ 19 below). R. von +<i>ad</i> + <i>cantus</i> or <i>praecipitem</i> from <i>prae</i> + <i>caput</i>- (§ 19 below). R. von Planta (<i>Osk.-Umbr. Grammatik</i>, 1893, i. p. 594) pointed out that in Oscan also, by the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, this first-syllable-accent had probably given way to a system which limited the word-accent in @@ -770,10 +731,10 @@ these:</p> <div class="list2"> <p>(i.) if the ante-ante-penult was long, the accent was -on the ante-penult (<i>amīcítia</i>); but</p> +on the ante-penult (<i>amīcÃtia</i>); but</p> <p>(ii.) if the ante-ante-penult was also short, it bore the -accent (<i>cólumine, puéritia</i>).</p> +accent (<i>cólumine, puéritia</i>).</p> </div> <p><i>Exon’s Laws of Syncope.</i>—With these facts are now linked what @@ -781,25 +742,25 @@ may be called Exon’s Laws, viz:—</p> <p><i>In pre-Plautine Latin</i> in all words or word-groups of four or more syllables whose chief accent is on one long syllable, a short unaccented -medial vowel was syncopated; thus *<i>quínquedecem</i> -became *<i>quínqdecem</i> and thence <i>quíndecim</i> (for the -<i>im</i> see § 19), -*<i>súps-emere</i> became *<i>súpsmere</i> and that <i>sūmere</i> (on -<i>psm- v. inf.</i>) -*<i>súrregere</i>, *<i>surreg<span class="ov">é</span>mus</i>, and the like became <i>surgere</i>, <i>surg<span class="ov">é</span>mus</i>, and -the rest of the paradigm followed; so probably <i>valid<span class="ov">é</span> bonus</i> became -<i>vald<span class="ov">é</span> bonus</i>, <i>exter<span class="ov">á</span> viam</i> became <i>extr<span class="ov">á</span> viam</i>; so *<i>supo-téndo</i> became -<i>subtendo</i> (pronounced <i>sup-tendo</i>), *<i>ārid<span class="ov">é</span>re</i>, *<i>avid<span class="ov">é</span>re</i> (from <i>āridus</i>, -<i>avidus</i>) became <i>ārd<span class="ov">é</span>re</i>, <i>aud<span class="ov">é</span>re</i>. But the influence of cognate forms -often interfered; <i>poster<span class="ov">í</span>-diē</i> became <i>postrídiē</i>, but in <i>poster<span class="ov">ó</span>rum</i>, -<i>poster<span class="ov">á</span>rum</i> the short syllable was restored by the influence of the -trisyllabic cases, <i>pósterus</i>, <i>pósterī</i>, &c., to which the law did not -apply. Conversely, the nom. *<i><span class="ov">á</span>ridor</i> (more correctly at this period +medial vowel was syncopated; thus *<i>quÃnquedecem</i> +became *<i>quÃnqdecem</i> and thence <i>quÃndecim</i> (for the -<i>im</i> see § 19), +*<i>súps-emere</i> became *<i>súpsmere</i> and that <i>sūmere</i> (on -<i>psm- v. inf.</i>) +*<i>súrregere</i>, *<i>surreg<span class="ov">é</span>mus</i>, and the like became <i>surgere</i>, <i>surg<span class="ov">é</span>mus</i>, and +the rest of the paradigm followed; so probably <i>valid<span class="ov">é</span> bonus</i> became +<i>vald<span class="ov">é</span> bonus</i>, <i>exter<span class="ov">á</span> viam</i> became <i>extr<span class="ov">á</span> viam</i>; so *<i>supo-téndo</i> became +<i>subtendo</i> (pronounced <i>sup-tendo</i>), *<i>ārid<span class="ov">é</span>re</i>, *<i>avid<span class="ov">é</span>re</i> (from <i>āridus</i>, +<i>avidus</i>) became <i>ārd<span class="ov">é</span>re</i>, <i>aud<span class="ov">é</span>re</i>. But the influence of cognate forms +often interfered; <i>poster<span class="ov">Ã</span>-diē</i> became <i>postrÃdiē</i>, but in <i>poster<span class="ov">ó</span>rum</i>, +<i>poster<span class="ov">á</span>rum</i> the short syllable was restored by the influence of the +trisyllabic cases, <i>pósterus</i>, <i>pósterī</i>, &c., to which the law did not +apply. Conversely, the nom. *<i><span class="ov">á</span>ridor</i> (more correctly at this period *<i>āridōs</i>), which would not have been contracted, followed the form -of <i>ārd<span class="ov">ó</span>rem</i> (from *<i>ārid<span class="ov">ó</span>rem</i>), <i>ārd<span class="ov">é</span>re</i>, &c.</p> +of <i>ārd<span class="ov">ó</span>rem</i> (from *<i>ārid<span class="ov">ó</span>rem</i>), <i>ārd<span class="ov">é</span>re</i>, &c.</p> <p>The same change produced the monosyllabic forms <i>nec</i>, <i>ac</i>, <i>neu</i>, <i>seu</i>, from <i>neque</i>, &c., before consonants, since they had no accent of their own, but were always pronounced in one breath with the -following word, <i>neque tántum</i> becoming <i>nec tantum</i>, and the like. +following word, <i>neque tántum</i> becoming <i>nec tantum</i>, and the like. So in Plautus (and probably always in spoken Latin) the words <i>nemp</i>(<i>e</i>), <i>ind</i>(<i>e</i>), <i>quipp</i>(<i>e</i>), <i>ill</i>(<i>e</i>), are regularly monosyllables.</p> @@ -808,7 +769,7 @@ So in Plautus (and probably always in spoken Latin) the words <p>12. <i>Syncope of Final Syllables.</i>—It is possible that the frequent but far from universal syncope of final syllables in Latin (especially before -<i>s</i>, as in <i>mēns</i>, which represents both Gr. <span class="grk" title="menos">μένος</span> and Sans. -matís = Ind.-Eur. <i>mṇtís</i>, Eng. <i>mind</i>) is due also to this law operating +matÃs = Ind.-Eur. <i>mṇtÃs</i>, Eng. <i>mind</i>) is due also to this law operating on such combinations as <i>bona mēns</i> and the like, but this has not yet been clearly shown. In any case the effects of any such phonetic change have been very greatly modified by analogical changes. @@ -820,14 +781,14 @@ final syllables may have been contemporaneous.</p> <p>13. <i>In post-Plautine Latin</i> words accented on the ante-antepenult:—</p> <p>(i.) suffered syncope in the short syllable following the accented -syllable (<i>bálineae</i> became <i>bálneae</i>, <i>puéritia</i> became <i>puértia</i> (Horace), -<i>cólumine</i>, <i>tégimine</i>, &c., became <i>cúlmine</i>, <i>tégmine</i>, &c., beside the -trisyllabic <i>cólumen</i>, <i>tégimen</i>) unless</p> +syllable (<i>bálineae</i> became <i>bálneae</i>, <i>puéritia</i> became <i>puértia</i> (Horace), +<i>cólumine</i>, <i>tégimine</i>, &c., became <i>cúlmine</i>, <i>tégmine</i>, &c., beside the +trisyllabic <i>cólumen</i>, <i>tégimen</i>) unless</p> <p>(ii.) that short vowel was <i>e</i> or <i>i</i>, followed by another vowel (as in -<i>párietem</i>, <i>múlierem</i>, <i>Púteoli</i>), when, instead of contraction, the +<i>párietem</i>, <i>múlierem</i>, <i>Púteoli</i>), when, instead of contraction, the accent shifted to the penult, which at a later stage of the language -became lengthened, <i>pariétem</i> giving Ital. <i>paréếte</i>, Fr. <i>paroi</i>, <i>Puteóli</i> +became lengthened, <i>pariétem</i> giving Ital. <i>paréếte</i>, Fr. <i>paroi</i>, <i>Puteóli</i> giving Ital. <i>Pozzuốli</i>.</p> <p>The restriction of the accent to the last three syllables was completed @@ -839,13 +800,13 @@ another great phonetic change, also dependent upon accent, which had come about before the time of Plautus, the law long known to students as the <i>Brevis Brevians</i>, which may be stated as follows (Exon, <i>Hermathena</i> (1903), xii. 491, following Skutsch in, <i>e.g.</i>, -Vollmöller’s <i>Jahresbericht für romanische Sprachwissenschaft</i>, i. 33): +Vollmöller’s <i>Jahresbericht für romanische Sprachwissenschaft</i>, i. 33): a syllable long by nature or position, and preceded by a short syllable, was itself shortened if the word-accent fell immediately before or immediately after it—that is, on the preceding short syllable or on the next following syllable. The sequence of syllables need not be in the same word, but must be as closely connected in -utterance as if it were. Thus <i>mốdō</i> became <i>módŏ</i>, <i>vŏlūptấtēm</i> became +utterance as if it were. Thus <i>mốdō</i> became <i>módŏ</i>, <i>vŏlūptấtēm</i> became <i>vŏlŭ(p)tấtem</i>, <i>quḯd ēst?</i> became <i>quid ĕst?</i> either the <i>s</i> or the <i>t</i> or both being but faintly pronounced.</p> @@ -854,10 +815,10 @@ would have their quantity immediately restored by the analogy of the same inflexion occurring in words not of this particular shape; thus, for instance, the long vowel of <i>ấmā</i> and the like is due to that in other verbs (<i>pulsā</i>, <i>agitā</i>) not of iambic shape. So ablatives like -<i>modö</i>, <i>sonō</i> get back their -<i>ō</i>, while in particles like <i>modo</i>, “only,” +<i>modö</i>, <i>sonō</i> get back their -<i>ō</i>, while in particles like <i>modo</i>, “only,” <i>quōmodo</i>, “how,” the shortened form remains. Conversely, the shortening of the final -<i>a</i> in the nom. sing. fem. of the <i>a</i>-declension -(contrast <i>lūnă</i> with Gr. <span class="grk" title="chôrã">χωρᾷ</span>) was probably partly due to the +(contrast <i>lūnă</i> with Gr. <span class="grk" title="chôrã">χωρᾷ</span>) was probably partly due to the influence of common forms like <i>eă</i>, <i>bonă</i>, <i>mală</i>, which had come under the law.</p> @@ -865,15 +826,15 @@ the law.</p> effects on Latin inflexion. The chief of these was the creation of the type of conjugation known as the <i>capio</i>-class. All these verbs were originally inflected like <i>audio</i>, but the accident of their short root-syllable, -(in such early forms as *<i>fúgīs</i>, *<i>fugītṹrus</i>, *<i>fugīsếtis</i>, &c., -becoming later <i>fúgĭs</i>, <i>fugĭtṹrus</i>, <i>fugĕrếtis</i>) brought great parts of their +(in such early forms as *<i>fúgīs</i>, *<i>fugītṹrus</i>, *<i>fugīsếtis</i>, &c., +becoming later <i>fúgĭs</i>, <i>fugĭtṹrus</i>, <i>fugĕrếtis</i>) brought great parts of their paradigm under this law, and the rest followed suit; but true forms like <i>fugīre</i>, <i>cupīre</i>, <i>morīri</i>, never altogether died out of the spoken language. St Augustine, for instance, confessed in 387 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (<i>Epist.</i> iii. 5, quoted by Exon, <i>Hermathena</i> (1901), xi. 383,) that he does not know whether <i>cupi</i> or <i>cupiri</i> is the pass. inf. of <i>cupio</i>. Hence we have Ital. <i>fuggīre</i>, <i>morīre</i>, Fr. <i>fuir</i>, <i>mourir</i>. (See further on this -conjugation, C. Exon, <i>l.c.</i>, and F. Skutsch, <i>Archiv für lat. Lexicographie</i>, +conjugation, C. Exon, <i>l.c.</i>, and F. Skutsch, <i>Archiv für lat. Lexicographie</i>, xii. 210, two papers which were written independently.)</p> <p>16. The question has been raised how far the true phonetic shortening @@ -897,7 +858,7 @@ the following are those of chief importance:—</p> besides <i>trīsti-s</i>, contrasted with <i>e.g.</i>, the Greek neuter <span class="grk" title="idri">ἴδρι</span> (the final -<i>e</i> of the infinitive—<i>regere</i>, &c.—is the -<i>ĭ</i> of the locative, just as in the so-called ablatives <i>genere</i>, &c.); (<i>b</i>) before -<i>r</i>- which has arisen from --<i>s</i>-, as in <i>cineris</i> beside <i>cinis</i>, <i>cinisculus</i>; <i>serō</i> beside Gr. <span class="grk" title="i(s)êmi">ἴ(σ)ημι</span> (Ind.-Eur. +-<i>s</i>-, as in <i>cineris</i> beside <i>cinis</i>, <i>cinisculus</i>; <i>serō</i> beside Gr. <span class="grk" title="i(s)êmi">ἴ(σ)ημι</span> (Ind.-Eur. *<i>si-sēmi</i>, a reduplicated non-thematic present).</p> <p>(ii.) Final <i>ŏ</i> became <i>ĕ</i>; imperative <i>sequere</i> = Gr. <span class="grk" title="epe(s)o">ἔπε(σ)ο</span>; Lat. <i>ille</i> @@ -909,22 +870,22 @@ Skutsch, <i>Glotta</i>, i. Hefte 2-3).</p> <i>colōnus</i> for *<i>quelōnus</i>, beside <i>inquilīnus</i> for *<i>en-quēlenus</i>.</p> <p>(iv.) <i>e</i> became <i>i</i> (i.) before a nasal followed by a palatal or velar -consonant (<i>tingo</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="teggô">τέγγω</span>; <i>in-cipio</i> from *<i>en-capio</i>); (ii.) under +consonant (<i>tingo</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="teggô">τέγγω</span>; <i>in-cipio</i> from *<i>en-capio</i>); (ii.) under certain conditions not yet precisely defined, one of which was <i>i</i> in a following syllable (<i>nihil</i>, <i>nisi</i>, <i>initium</i>). From these forms <i>in</i>- spread and banished <i>en</i>-, the earlier form.</p> <p>(v.) The “neutral vowel” (“schwa Indo-Germanicum”) which arose in pro-ethnic Indo-European from the reduction of long -<i>ā</i>, <i>ē</i> or <i>ō</i> in unaccented syllables (as in the -<i>tós</i> participles of such roots -as <i>stā</i>-, <i>dhē</i>-, <i>dō</i>-, *<i>stƏtós</i>, *<i>dhƏtós</i>, *<i>dƏtós</i>) became <i>a</i> in Latin (<i>status +<i>ā</i>, <i>ē</i> or <i>ō</i> in unaccented syllables (as in the -<i>tós</i> participles of such roots +as <i>stā</i>-, <i>dhē</i>-, <i>dō</i>-, *<i>stƏtós</i>, *<i>dhƏtós</i>, *<i>dƏtós</i>) became <i>a</i> in Latin (<i>status con-ditus</i> [from *<i>con-dhatos</i>], <i>datus</i>), and it is the same sound which is represented by <i>a</i> in most of the forms of <i>dō</i> (<i>damus</i>, <i>dabō</i>, &c.).</p> <p>(vi.) When a long vowel came to stand before another vowel in the same word through loss of <i>ḭ</i> or <i><span class="sp">ṷ</span></i>, it was always shortened; thus the -<i>eō</i> of intransitive verbs like <i>candeō</i>, <i>caleō</i> is for -<i>ēḭō</i> (where the <i>ē</i> -is identical with the η in Gr. <span class="grk" title="ephanên">ἐφάνην</span>, <span class="grk" title="emanên">ἐμάνμν</span>) and was thus confused +is identical with the η in Gr. <span class="grk" title="ephanên">ἐφάνην</span>, <span class="grk" title="emanên">ἐμάνμν</span>) and was thus confused with the causative -<i>eiō</i> (as in <i>moneō</i>, “I make to think,” &c.), where the short <i>e</i> is original. So <i>audīuī</i> became <i>audīī</i> and thence <i>audiī</i> (the form audīvī would have disappeared altogether but for being @@ -963,7 +924,7 @@ of meaning;—<i>lautus</i> (the Roman form), “elegant,” but <i> yield of fruit.”</p> <p>(xi.) <i>oi</i> became <i>oe</i> and thence <i>ū</i> some time after Plautus, as in -<i>ūnus</i>, Old Lat. <i>oenus</i>: Gr. <span class="grk" title="oinê">οἰνή</span> “ace.” In Plautus the forms have +<i>ūnus</i>, Old Lat. <i>oenus</i>: Gr. <span class="grk" title="oinê">οἰνή</span> “ace.” In Plautus the forms have nearly all been modernized, save in special cases, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Trin.</i> i. 1, 2, <i>immoene facinus</i>, “a thankless task,” has not been changed to <i>immune</i> because that meaning had died out of the adjective so that @@ -979,7 +940,7 @@ used <i>Pūnicum</i> (<i>bellum</i>)—an example which demonstrates con due to any difference in the surrounding sounds.</p> <p>(xii.) <i>ai</i> became <i>ae</i> and this in rustic and later Latin (2nd or 3rd -century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) simple <i>ē</i>, though of an open quality—Gr. <span class="grk" title="aithos">αἴθος</span>, <span class="grk" title="aithô">αἴθω</span>, +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) simple <i>ē</i>, though of an open quality—Gr. <span class="grk" title="aithos">αἴθος</span>, <span class="grk" title="aithô">αἴθω</span>, Lat. <i>aedēs</i> (originally “the place for the fire”); the country forms of <i>haedus</i>, <i>praetor</i> were <i>edus</i>, <i>pretor</i> (Varro, <i>Ling. Lat.</i> v. 97, Lindsay, <i>Lat. Lang.</i> p. 44).</p> @@ -987,17 +948,17 @@ of <i>haedus</i>, <i>praetor</i> were <i>edus</i>, <i>pretor</i> (Varro, <i>Ling <p>19. <i>Vowels and Diphthongs in unaccented Syllables.</i>—The changes of the short vowels and of the diphthongs in unaccented syllables are too numerous and complex to be set forth here. Some took place -under the first-syllable system of accent, some later (§§ 9, 10). -Typical examples are <i>pep</i>E<i>rci</i> from *<i>péparcai</i> and <i>ónustus</i> from -*<i>ónostos</i> (before two consonants); <i>concIno</i> from *<i>cóncano</i> and <i>hosp</i>I<i>t</i>I<i>s</i> -from *<i>hóstipotes</i>, <i>leg</i>I<i>mus</i> beside Gr. <span class="grk" title="legomen">λέγομεν</span> (before one consonant); -<i>Sic</i>U<i>li</i> from *<i>Siceloi</i> (before a thick <i>l</i>, see § 17, 3); <i>dil</i>I<i>g</i>I<i>t</i> from -*<i>dísleget</i> (contrast, however, the preservation of the second <i>e</i> in +under the first-syllable system of accent, some later (§§ 9, 10). +Typical examples are <i>pep</i>E<i>rci</i> from *<i>péparcai</i> and <i>ónustus</i> from +*<i>ónostos</i> (before two consonants); <i>concIno</i> from *<i>cóncano</i> and <i>hosp</i>I<i>t</i>I<i>s</i> +from *<i>hóstipotes</i>, <i>leg</i>I<i>mus</i> beside Gr. <span class="grk" title="legomen">λέγομεν</span> (before one consonant); +<i>Sic</i>U<i>li</i> from *<i>Siceloi</i> (before a thick <i>l</i>, see § 17, 3); <i>dil</i>I<i>g</i>I<i>t</i> from +*<i>dÃsleget</i> (contrast, however, the preservation of the second <i>e</i> in <i>negl</i>E<i>g</i>I<i>t</i>); <i>occ</i>U<i>pat</i> from *<i>opcapat</i> (contrast <i>accipit</i> with <i>i</i> in the following syllable); the varying spelling in <i>monumentum</i> and <i>monimentum</i>, <i>maxumus</i> and <i>maximus</i>, points to an intermediate sound -(<i>ü</i>) between <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> (cf. Quint. i. 4. 8, reading <i>optumum</i> and <i>optimum</i> -[not <i>opimum</i>] with W. M. Lindsay, <i>Latin Language</i> §§ 14, 16, seq.), +(<i>ü</i>) between <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> (cf. Quint. i. 4. 8, reading <i>optumum</i> and <i>optimum</i> +[not <i>opimum</i>] with W. M. Lindsay, <i>Latin Language</i> §§ 14, 16, seq.), which could not be correctly represented in spelling; this difference may, however, be due merely to the effect of differences in the neighbouring sounds, an effect greatly obscured by analogical influences.</p> @@ -1023,9 +984,9 @@ like <i>tener</i>, <i>niger</i> [from *<i>teneros</i>, *<i>nigros</i>]).</p> <i>ei</i> further to <i>ī</i>, in unaccented syllables, as in <i>Achivi</i> from Gr. <span class="grk" title="Achaiwoi">Ἀχαιϝοί</span>, <i>olīivom</i>, earlier *<i>oleivom</i> (borrowed into Gothic and there becoming <i>alēv</i>) from Gr. <span class="grk" title="elaiwon">ἔλαιϝον</span>. This gives us interesting chronological data, -since the <i>el</i>- must have changed to <i>ol</i>- (§ 16. 3) before the change of +since the <i>el</i>- must have changed to <i>ol</i>- (§ 16. 3) before the change of -<i>ai</i>- to -<i>ei</i>-, and that before the change of the accent from the first -syllable to the penultimate (§ 9); and the borrowing took place after +syllable to the penultimate (§ 9); and the borrowing took place after -<i>ai</i>- had become -<i>ei</i>-, but before -<i>eivom</i> had become -<i>eum</i>, as it regularly did before the time of Plautus.</p> @@ -1046,7 +1007,7 @@ from <i>incūdō</i>, <i>excūdō</i>, banished the older *<i>ca with which is probably connected <i>cauda</i>, “the striking member, tail,” and from which comes <i>caussa</i>, “a cutting, decision, legal case,” whose -<i>ss</i>- shows that it is derived from a root ending in a dental -(see §25 (<i>b</i>) below and Conway, <i>Verner’s Law in Italy</i>, p. 72).</p> +(see §25 (<i>b</i>) below and Conway, <i>Verner’s Law in Italy</i>, p. 72).</p> <p><i>Consonants.</i>—Passing now to the chief changes of the consonants we may notice the following points:—</p> @@ -1054,13 +1015,13 @@ we may notice the following points:—</p> <p>23. Consonant <i>i</i> (wrongly written <i>j</i>; there is no <i>g</i>-sound in the letter), conveniently written <i>ḭ</i> by phoneticians,</p> -<p>(i.) was lost between vowels, as in <i>trēs</i> for *<i>treḭes</i>, &c. (§ +<p>(i.) was lost between vowels, as in <i>trēs</i> for *<i>treḭes</i>, &c. (§ 17. 6);</p> -<p>(ii.) in combination: -<i>mḭ</i>- became -<i>ni</i>-, as in <i>veniö</i>, from Ind.-Eur. +<p>(ii.) in combination: -<i>mḭ</i>- became -<i>ni</i>-, as in <i>veniö</i>, from Ind.-Eur. *Ƨ<span class="f80">ṷ</span> <i>mḭo</i>, “I come,” Sans. <i>gam</i>-, Eng. <i>come</i>; -<i>nḭ</i>- probably (under -certain conditions at least) became -<i>nd</i>-, as in <i>tendō</i> beside Gr. <span class="grk" title="teinô">τείνω</span>, -<i>fendō</i> = Gr. <span class="grk" title="theinô">θείνω</span>, and in the gerundive stem -<i>endus</i>, -<i>undus</i>, probably +certain conditions at least) became -<i>nd</i>-, as in <i>tendō</i> beside Gr. <span class="grk" title="teinô">τείνω</span>, +<i>fendō</i> = Gr. <span class="grk" title="theinô">θείνω</span>, and in the gerundive stem -<i>endus</i>, -<i>undus</i>, probably for -<i>enḭos</i>, -<i>onḭos</i>; cf. the Sanskrit gerundive in -<i>an-īya-s</i>; -<i>gḭ</i>-, -<i>dḭ</i>- became -<i>ḭ</i>- as in <i>māior</i> from *<i>mag-ior</i>, <i>pēior</i> from *<i>ped-ior</i>;</p> @@ -1071,7 +1032,7 @@ became -<i>ḭ</i>- as in <i>māior</i> from *<i>mag-ior</i>, <i>pē written <i><span class="sp">ṷ</span></i>,</p> <p>(i.) was lost between similar vowels when the first was accented, -as in <i>audīui</i>, which became <i>audiī</i> (§ 17 [6]), but not in <i>amāuī</i>, nor in +as in <i>audīui</i>, which became <i>audiī</i> (§ 17 [6]), but not in <i>amāuī</i>, nor in <i>avārus</i>.</p> <p>(ii.) in combination: <i>d<span class="sp">ṷ</span></i> became <i>b</i>, as in <i>bonus</i>, <i>bellum</i>, O. Lat. @@ -1081,8 +1042,8 @@ as in <i>ap-erio</i>, <i>op-erio</i> beside Lith. -<i>veriu</i>, “I open,& and in the verbal endings -<i>bam</i>, -<i>bō</i>, from -<i>bh<span class="sp">ṷ</span>-ām</i>, -<i>bh<span class="sp">ṷ</span>ō</i> (with the root of Lat. <i>fui</i>), and <i>fīo</i>, <i>du-bius</i>, <i>super-bus</i>, <i>vasta-bundus</i>, &c., from the same; -<i>s<span class="sp">ṷ</span></i>- between vowels (at least when the second was -accented) disappeared (see below § 25 (<i>a</i>), iv.), as in <i>pruīna</i> for <i>prusuīna</i>, -cf. Eng. <i>fros-t</i>, Sans, <i>pruṣvā</i>, “hoar-frost.” Contrast <i>Minérva</i> +accented) disappeared (see below § 25 (<i>a</i>), iv.), as in <i>pruīna</i> for <i>prusuīna</i>, +cf. Eng. <i>fros-t</i>, Sans, <i>pruṣvā</i>, “hoar-frost.” Contrast <i>Minérva</i> from an earlier *<i>menes-<span class="sp">ṷ</span>ā</i>, <i>s<span class="sp">ṷ</span>e</i>-, <i>s<span class="sp">ṷ</span>o</i>-, both became so-, as in <i>sorōor</i>(<i>em</i>) beside Sans. <i>svasār-am</i>, Ger. <i>schwes-t-er</i>, Eng. <i>sister</i>, <i>sordēs</i>, beside O. Ger. <i>swart-s</i>, mod. <i>schwarz</i>. -<i><span class="sp">ṷ</span>o</i>- in final syllables became -<i>u</i>-, @@ -1115,7 +1076,7 @@ otherwise must be said to have failed (<i>e.g.</i> the theory of accentual difference in <i>Verner’s Law in Italy</i>, or that of dissimilation, given by Brugmann, <i>Kurze vergl. Gram.</i> p. 242).</p> -<p>(ii.) <i>sr</i> became <i>þr</i> (= Eng. <i>thr</i> in <i>throw</i>) in pro-ethnic Italic, and +<p>(ii.) <i>sr</i> became <i>þr</i> (= Eng. <i>thr</i> in <i>throw</i>) in pro-ethnic Italic, and this became initially <i>fr</i>- as in <i>frīgus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="rhigos">ῥῖγος</span> (Ind.-Eur. *<i>srīgos</i>), but medially -<i>br</i>-, as in <i>funebris</i>, from <i>funus</i>, stem <i>funes</i>-.</p> @@ -1147,7 +1108,7 @@ instead of <i>ex</i>.</p> <p>(vi.) Before <i>n</i>-, <i>m</i>-, <i>l</i>-, initially <i>s</i>- disappeared, as in <i>nūbo</i> beside Old Church Slavonic <i>snubiti</i>, “to love, pay court to”; <i>mīror</i> beside -Sans, <i>smáyatē</i>, “laughs,” Eng. <i>smi-le</i>; <i>lūbricus</i> beside Goth, <i>sliupan</i>, +Sans, <i>smáyatē</i>, “laughs,” Eng. <i>smi-le</i>; <i>lūbricus</i> beside Goth, <i>sliupan</i>, Eng. <i>slip</i>.</p> <p>(<i>b</i>) Latin -<i>ss</i>- arose from an original -<i>t</i> + <i>t</i>-, -<i>d</i> + <i>t</i>-, -<i>dh</i> + <i>t</i>- (except @@ -1163,7 +1124,7 @@ Goth, <i>saihvan</i>, Eng. <i>see</i>; <i>quod</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title= voiced Ƨ<span class="f80">ṷ</span> remained (as -<i>gu</i>-) only after -<i>n</i>- (<i>unguo</i> beside Ir. <i>imb</i>, “butter”) and (as <i>g</i>) before <i>r</i>, <i>l</i>, and <i>u</i> (as in <i>gravis</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="barys">βαρύς</span>; <i>glans</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="balanos">βάλανος</span>; <i>legūmen</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="lobos">λοβός</span>, <span class="grk" title="lebinthos">λεβίνθος</span>). Elsewhere it became <i>v</i>, -as in <i>veniō</i> (see § 23, ii.), <i>nūdus</i> from *<i>novedos</i>, Eng. <i>naked</i>. Hence +as in <i>veniō</i> (see § 23, ii.), <i>nūdus</i> from *<i>novedos</i>, Eng. <i>naked</i>. Hence <i>bōs</i> (Sans. <i>gāus</i>, Eng. <i>cow</i>) must be regarded as a farmer’s word borrowed from one of the country dialects (<i>e.g.</i> Sabine); the pure Latin would be *<i>vōs</i>, and its oblique cases, <i>e.g.</i> acc. *<i>vovem</i>, would be @@ -1178,17 +1139,17 @@ all in that position in Oscan and Umbrian, whereas in Latin they were nearly always changed into voiced explosives. Thus—</p> <div class="list"> -<p>Ind.-Eur. <i>bh</i>: initially Lat. <i>f</i>- (<i>ferō</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="pherô">φέρω</span>).</p> +<p>Ind.-Eur. <i>bh</i>: initially Lat. <i>f</i>- (<i>ferō</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="pherô">φέρω</span>).</p> </div> <div class="list2"> <p>medially Lat. -<i>b</i>- (<i>tibi</i>; Umb. <i>tefe</i>; Sans, <i>tubhy</i>-(<i>am</i>), -“to thee”; the same suffix in Gr. <span class="grk" title="biê-phi">βίη-φι</span>, &c.).</p> +“to thee”; the same suffix in Gr. <span class="grk" title="biê-phi">βίη-φι</span>, &c.).</p> </div> <div class="list"> <p>Ind.-Eur. <i>dh</i>: initially Lat. <i>f</i>- (<i>fa-c-ere</i>, <i>fē-c-ī</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="thetos">θετός</span> (instead -of *<span class="grk" title="thatos">θατός</span>), <span class="grk" title="ethê-ka">ἔθη-κα</span>).</p> +of *<span class="grk" title="thatos">θατός</span>), <span class="grk" title="ethê-ka">ἔθη-κα</span>).</p> </div> <div class="list2"> @@ -1196,26 +1157,26 @@ of *<span class="grk" title="thatos">θατός</span>), <sp <span class="grk" title="mesos">μέσος</span> from *<span class="grk" title="methios">μεθιος</span>); except after <i>u</i> (<i>iubēre</i> beside <i>iussus</i> for *<i>ḭudh-tos</i>; Sans. <i>yốdhati</i>, “rouses to battle”); before <i>l</i> (<i>stabulum</i>, but Umb. <i>staflo</i>-, -with the suffix of Gr. <span class="grk" title="otergêthron">οτέργηθρον</span>, &c.); before or +with the suffix of Gr. <span class="grk" title="otergêthron">οτέργηθρον</span>, &c.); before or after <i>r</i> (<i>verbum</i>: Umb. <i>verfale</i>: Eng. <i>word</i>. Lat. <i>glaber</i> [v. inf].: Ger. <i>glatt</i>: Eng. <i>glad</i>).</p> </div> <div class="list"> <p>Ind.-Eur. <i>ḡh</i>: initially <i>h</i>- (<i>humī</i>: Gr. <span class="grk" title="chamai">χαμαί</span>); except before -<i>u</i>- -(<i>fundo</i>: Gr. <span class="grk" title="che(w)ô">χέ(ϝ)ω</span>, <span class="grk" title="chutra">χύτρα</span>).</p> +(<i>fundo</i>: Gr. <span class="grk" title="che(w)ô">χέ(ϝ)ω</span>, <span class="grk" title="chutra">χύτρα</span>).</p> </div> <div class="list2"> -<p>medially -<i>h</i>- (<i>veho</i>: Gr. <span class="grk" title="echô">ἔχω</span>, <span class="grk" title="öchos">ὄχος</span>; cf. Eng. <i>wagon</i>); +<p>medially -<i>h</i>- (<i>veho</i>: Gr. <span class="grk" title="echô">ἔχω</span>, <span class="grk" title="öchos">ὄχος</span>; cf. Eng. <i>wagon</i>); except after -<i>n</i>- (<i>fingere</i>: Osc. <i>feiho</i>-, “wall”: -Gr. <span class="grk" title="thinganô">θιγγάνω</span>: Ind.-Eur. <i>dheiĝh</i>-, <i>dhinĝh</i>-); and +Gr. <span class="grk" title="thinganô">θιγγάνω</span>: Ind.-Eur. <i>dheiĝh</i>-, <i>dhinĝh</i>-); and before <i>l</i> (<i>fīg(u)lus</i>, from the same root).</p> </div> <div class="list"> <p>Ind.-Eur <i>gṷh</i>: initially <i>f</i>- (<i>formus</i> and <i>furnus</i>, “oven”, Gr. <span class="grk" title="thermos">θερμός</span>, -<span class="grk" title="thermê">θέρμη</span>, cf. Ligurian <i>Bormiō</i>, “a place with hot +<span class="grk" title="thermê">θέρμη</span>, cf. Ligurian <i>Bormiō</i>, “a place with hot springs,” <i>Bormanus</i>, “a god of hot springs”; <i>fendō</i>: Gr. <span class="grk" title="theino, phonos, pros-phatos">θείνω, φόνος, πρόσ-φατος</span>).</p> </div> @@ -1238,8 +1199,8 @@ Karl Brugmann, <i>Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen</i> (vol. i., <i>Lautlehre</i>, 2nd ed. Strassburg, 1897; Eng. trans. of ed. 1 by Joseph Wright, Strassburg, 1888) and his <i>Kurze vergleichende Grammatik</i> (Strassburg, 1902); these contain -still by far the best accounts of Latin; Max Niederman, <i>Précis de -phonétique du Latin</i> (Paris, 1906), a very convenient handbook, +still by far the best accounts of Latin; Max Niederman, <i>Précis de +phonétique du Latin</i> (Paris, 1906), a very convenient handbook, excellently planned; F. Sommer, <i>Lateinische Laut- und Flexionslehre</i> (Heidelberg, 1902), containing many new conjectures; W. M. Lindsay, <i>The Latin Language</i> (Oxford, 1894), translated into German @@ -1287,7 +1248,7 @@ with <i>iter</i> especially natural, such as <i>longiter</i>, <i>firmiter</i>, < (cf. English <i>straightway</i>, <i>longways</i>). The only objections to this derivation which had any real weight (see F. Skutsch, <i>De nominibus no- suffixi ope formatis</i>, 1890, pp. 4-7) have been removed by -Exon’s Law (§ 11), which supplies a clear reason why the contracted +Exon’s Law (§ 11), which supplies a clear reason why the contracted type <i>constanter</i> arose in and was felt to be proper to Participial adverbs, while <i>firmiter</i> and the like set the type for those formed from adjectives.</p> @@ -1303,7 +1264,7 @@ originally <i>rēḭ</i>- (Sans. <i>rās</i>, <i>rāyas</i>, cf. <p>(v.) The disuse of the -<i>ti</i>- suffix in an abstract sense. The great number of nouns which Latin inherited formed with this suffix were either (1) marked as abstract by the addition of the further suffix --<i>ōn</i>- (as in <i>natio</i> beside the Gr. <span class="grk" title="gnêsi-os">γνὴσι-ος</span>, &c.) or else (2) confined to a +-<i>ōn</i>- (as in <i>natio</i> beside the Gr. <span class="grk" title="gnêsi-os">γνὴσι-ος</span>, &c.) or else (2) confined to a concrete sense; thus <i>vectis</i>, properly “a carrying, lifting,” came to mean “pole, lever”; <i>ratis</i>, properly a “reckoning, devising,” came to mean “an (improvised) raft” (contrast <i>ratiō</i>); <i>postis</i>, a “placing,” @@ -1323,7 +1284,7 @@ plural. Thus at say 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the inflexions probably we <p>The confusing difference of signification of the long -<i>ēs</i> ending led to a levelling of these and other forms in the two paradigms.</p> -<p>(vii.) The disuse of the <i>u</i> declension (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêdys">ἡδύς</span>, <span class="grk" title="stachys">στάχυς</span>) in adjectives; +<p>(vii.) The disuse of the <i>u</i> declension (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêdys">ἡδύς</span>, <span class="grk" title="stachys">στάχυς</span>) in adjectives; this group in Latin, thanks to its feminine form (Sans. fem. <i>svādvī</i>, “sweet”), was transferred to the <i>i</i> declension (<i>suavis</i>, <i>gravis</i>, <i>levis</i>, <i>dulcis</i>).</p> @@ -1372,7 +1333,7 @@ Participle with forms from the root of <i>fuī</i>, *<i>amans-fuo</i> becomi Latin; see F. Skutsch, <i>Atti d. Congresso Storico Intern.</i> (1903), vol. ii. p. 191.</p> -<p>(vii.) We have already noticed the rise of the passive in -<i>r</i> (§ 5 (<i>d</i>)). +<p>(vii.) We have already noticed the rise of the passive in -<i>r</i> (§ 5 (<i>d</i>)). Observe, however, that several middle forms have been pressed into the service, partly because the -<i>r</i>- in them which had come from -<i>s</i>- seemed to give them a passive colour (<i>legere</i> = Gr. <span class="grk" title="lege(s)o">λέγε(σ)ο</span>, Attic @@ -1429,7 +1390,7 @@ in -dō still lives in Italian as an indeclinable present participle. The modal and purposive meanings of -<i>dō</i> appear in the uses of the gerund.</p> <p>The authorities giving a fuller account of Latin morphology are the -same as those cited in § 28 above, save that the reader must consult +same as those cited in § 28 above, save that the reader must consult the second volume of Brugmann’s <i>Grundriss</i>, which in the English translation (by Conway and Rouse, Strassburg, 1890-1896) is divided into volumes ii, iii. and iv.; and that Niedermann does not @@ -1444,7 +1405,7 @@ briefly noted.</p> <p>(i.) Latin restricted the various Cases to more sharply defined uses than either Greek or Sanskrit; the free use of the internal accusative -in Greek (<i>e.g.</i> <span class="grk" title="habron bainein, tuphlos ta ôta">ἁβρὸν βαίνειν, τυφλὸς τὰ ὦτα</span>) is strange to Latin, save in +in Greek (<i>e.g.</i> <span class="grk" title="habron bainein, tuphlos ta ôta">ἁβρὸν βαίνειν, τυφλὸς τὰ ὦτα</span>) is strange to Latin, save in poetical imitations of Greek; and so is the freedom of the Sanskrit instrumental, which often covers meanings expressed in Latin by <i>cum</i>, <i>ab</i>, <i>inter</i>.</p> @@ -1452,7 +1413,7 @@ instrumental, which often covers meanings expressed in Latin by <p>(ii.) The syncretism of the so-called ablative case, which combines the uses of (<i>a</i>) the true ablative which ended in -<i>d</i> (O. Lat. <i>praidād</i>); (<i>b</i>) the instrumental sociative (plural forms like <i>dominīs</i>, the ending -being that of Sans. <i>çivāiş</i>); and (<i>c</i>) the locative (<i>noct-e</i>, “at night”; +being that of Sans. <i>çivāiş</i>); and (<i>c</i>) the locative (<i>noct-e</i>, “at night”; <i>itiner-e</i>, “on the road,” with the ending of Greek <span class="grk" title="elpid-i">ἐλπίδ-ι</span>). The so-called absolute construction is mainly derived from the second of these, since it is regularly attached fairly closely to the subject of the @@ -1492,20 +1453,20 @@ Cambridge, 1901).</p> <p>(iii.) The curious construction of the gerundive (<i>ad capiendam urbem</i>), originally a present (and future?) passive participle, but restricted -in its use by being linked with the so-called gerund (see § 32, <i>b</i>). +in its use by being linked with the so-called gerund (see § 32, <i>b</i>). The use, but probably not the restriction, appears in Oscan and Umbrian.</p> <p>(iv.) The favourite use of the impersonal passive has already been -mentioned (§ 5, iv.).</p> +mentioned (§ 5, iv.).</p> <p>35. The chief authorities for the study of Latin syntax are: -Brugmann’s <i>Kurze vergl. Grammatik</i>, vol. ii. (see § 28); Landgraf’s -<i>Historische lat. Syntax</i> (vol. ii. of the joint <i>Hist. Gram.</i>, see § 28); -Hale and Buck’s <i>Latin Grammar</i> (see § 28); Draeger’s <i>Historische +Brugmann’s <i>Kurze vergl. Grammatik</i>, vol. ii. (see § 28); Landgraf’s +<i>Historische lat. Syntax</i> (vol. ii. of the joint <i>Hist. Gram.</i>, see § 28); +Hale and Buck’s <i>Latin Grammar</i> (see § 28); Draeger’s <i>Historische lat. Syntax</i>, 2 vols. (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1878-1881), useful but not -always trustworthy; the Latin sections in Delbrück’s <i>Vergleichende -Syntax</i>, being the third volume of Brugmann’s <i>Grundriss</i> (§ 28).</p> +always trustworthy; the Latin sections in Delbrück’s <i>Vergleichende +Syntax</i>, being the third volume of Brugmann’s <i>Grundriss</i> (§ 28).</p> </div> <p class="pt2 center">IV. <span class="sc">Importation of Greek Words</span></p> @@ -1532,7 +1493,7 @@ customs and bear equally the mark of naturalization. To these may be added names of gods or heroes, like <i>Apollo</i>, <i>Pollux</i> and perhaps <i>Hercules</i>. These all became naturalized Latin words and were modified by the phonetic changes which took place in the Latin -language after they had come into it (cf. §§ 9-27 <i>supra</i>). (<i>b</i>) The +language after they had come into it (cf. §§ 9-27 <i>supra</i>). (<i>b</i>) The second stage was probably the result of the closer intercourse resulting from the conquest of southern Italy, and the wars in Sicily, and of the contemporary introduction of imitations of Greek literature @@ -1564,8 +1525,8 @@ Greek inflexion is frequently preserved, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Hectora</i>, <i>Oresten< and from this time forward the practice wavers. Cicero generally prefers the Latin case-endings, defending, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Piraeeum</i> as against <i>Piraeea</i> (<i>ad Att.</i> vii. 3, 7), but not without some fluctuation, -while Varro takes the opposite side, and prefers <i>poëmasin</i> to the -Ciceronian <i>poëmatis</i>. By this time also <i>y</i> and <i>z</i> were introduced, and +while Varro takes the opposite side, and prefers <i>poëmasin</i> to the +Ciceronian <i>poëmatis</i>. By this time also <i>y</i> and <i>z</i> were introduced, and the representation of the Greek aspirates by <i>th</i>, <i>ph</i>, <i>ch</i>, so that words newly borrowed from the Greek could be more faithfully reproduced. This is equally true whatever was the precise nature of the sound @@ -1627,18 +1588,18 @@ fell away before <i>s</i>.</p> <p>(v.) <i>Labial.</i>—Breathed, <i>p</i> as in English. Voiced, <i>b</i> as in English; but occasionally in inscriptions of the later empire <i>v</i> is written for <i>b</i>, showing that in some cases <i>b</i> had already acquired the -fricative sound of the contemporary β (see § 24, iii.). <i>b</i> before a +fricative sound of the contemporary β (see § 24, iii.). <i>b</i> before a sharp <i>s</i> was pronounced <i>p</i>, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>urbs</i>. Nasal, <i>m</i> as in English, but very slightly pronounced at the end of a word. Spirant, <i>v</i> like the <i>ou</i> in French <i>oui</i>, but later approximating to the <i>w</i> heard -in some parts of Germany, Ed. Sievers, <i>Grundzüge d. Phonetik</i>, ed. 4, +in some parts of Germany, Ed. Sievers, <i>Grundzüge d. Phonetik</i>, ed. 4, p. 117, <i>i.e.</i> a labial <i>v</i>, not (like the English <i>v</i>) a labio-dental <i>v</i>.</p> <p>(vi.) <i>Labio-dental.</i>—Breathed fricative, <i>f</i> as in English.</p> <p>38. <span class="sc">Vowels.</span>—<i>ā</i>, <i>ū</i>, <i>ī</i>, as the English <i>ah</i>, oo, <i>ee</i>; <i>ō</i>, a sound coming nearer to Eng. <i>aw</i> than to Eng. <i>ō</i>; <i>ē</i> a close Italian <i>ē</i>, nearly as the <i>a</i> of -Eng. <i>mate</i>, <i>ée</i> of Fr. <i>passée</i>. The short sound of the vowels was not +Eng. <i>mate</i>, <i>ée</i> of Fr. <i>passée</i>. The short sound of the vowels was not always identical in quality with the long sound. <i>ă</i> was pronounced as in the French <i>chatte</i>, <i>ŭ</i> nearly as in Eng. <i>pull</i>, <i>ĭ</i> nearly as in <i>pit</i>, <i>ŏ</i> as in <i>dot</i>, <i>ĕ</i> nearly as in <i>pet</i>. The diphthongs were produced by pronouncing @@ -1672,8 +1633,8 @@ the symbol <i>f</i> from its Greek value (= Eng. <i>w</i>) to its Latin value to the needs of Latin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>). The reduplicated perfect, its 3rd sing. ending -<i>ed</i>, the dative masculine in -<i>oi</i> (this is one of the only two recorded examples in Latin), the --<i>s</i>- between vowels (§ 25, 1), and the -<i>a</i>- in what was then (see -§§ 9, 10) certainly an unaccented syllable and the accusative +-<i>s</i>- between vowels (§ 25, 1), and the -<i>a</i>- in what was then (see +§§ 9, 10) certainly an unaccented syllable and the accusative <i>med</i>, are all interesting marks of antiquity.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> <p>40. The next oldest fragment of continuous Latin is furnished @@ -1730,7 +1691,7 @@ of conjectural “restorations.”</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>R. S. Conway examined it <i>in situ</i> in company with F. Skutsch in -1903 (cf. his article in Vollmöller’s <i>Jahresbericht</i>, vi. 453), and the +1903 (cf. his article in Vollmöller’s <i>Jahresbericht</i>, vi. 453), and the only words that can be regarded as reasonably certain are <i>regei</i> (<i>regi</i>) on face 2, <i>kalatorem</i> and <i>iouxmenta</i> on face 3, and <i>iouestod</i> (<i>iusto</i>) on face 4.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The date may be said to be fixed by the variation of @@ -1740,7 +1701,7 @@ also that the reason for the destruction of the stele and the repavement may have been either (1) the pollution of the comitium by the Gallic invasion of 390 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, all traces of which, on their departure, could be best removed by a repaving; or (2) perhaps more probably, -the Augustan restorations (Studniczka, <i>Jahresheft d. Österr. Institut</i>, +the Augustan restorations (Studniczka, <i>Jahresheft d. Österr. Institut</i>, 1903, vi. 129 ff.).</p> <div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> @@ -1805,7 +1766,7 @@ on one of the numerous tablets recording the transactions of the college of the Arval brothers, dug up on the site of their grove by the Tiber, 5 m. from the city of Rome; but this also has been so corrupted in its oral tradition that even its general meaning is by -no means clear (<i>C.I.L.</i><span class="sp">1</span> i. 28; Jordan, <i>Krit. Beiträge</i>, pp. 203-211).</p> +no means clear (<i>C.I.L.</i><span class="sp">1</span> i. 28; Jordan, <i>Krit. Beiträge</i>, pp. 203-211).</p> </div> <p>45. The text of the Twelve Tables (451-450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), if preserved @@ -1858,7 +1819,7 @@ only by the grammarians, who cited them for the express purpose of explaining these.</p> <p>Of the language of Plautus important features have already -been mentioned (§§ 10-16); for its more general characteristics +been mentioned (§§ 10-16); for its more general characteristics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plautus</a></span>.</p> <p>48. <i>Ennius.</i>—The language of Ennius deserves especial study @@ -1875,8 +1836,8 @@ commonly retains the original length of verbal terminations as the genitive, but -<i>ai</i> or -<i>as</i>; the older and shorter form of the gen. plur. is -<i>um</i> in common; obsolete forms of pronouns are used, as <i>mis</i>, <i>olli</i>, <i>sum</i> (= eum), <i>sas</i>, <i>sos</i>, <i>sapsa</i>; and in verbal -inflexion there are old forms like <i>morīmur</i> (§ 15), <i>fūimus</i> (§ 17, vi.), -<i>potestur</i> (cf. § 5, iv.). Some experiments in the way of tmesis +inflexion there are old forms like <i>morīmur</i> (§ 15), <i>fūimus</i> (§ 17, vi.), +<i>potestur</i> (cf. § 5, iv.). Some experiments in the way of tmesis (<i>saxo</i> cere <i>comminuit</i>-brum) and apocope (<i>divum domus altisonum</i> cael, <i>replet te laetificum</i> gau) were happily regarded as failures, and never came into real use. His syntax is simple and straightforward, @@ -2288,7 +2249,7 @@ adoption of the phrases and constructions of the different authorities whom he followed in different parts of his work; and the industry of German critics has gone far to demonstrate a conclusion likely enough in itself. Hence perhaps comes the -fairly long list of archaisms, especially in formulae (cf. Kühnast, +fairly long list of archaisms, especially in formulae (cf. Kühnast, <i>Liv. Synt.</i> pp. 14-18). These are, however, purely isolated phenomena, which do not affect the general tone. It is different with the poetical constructions and Graecisms, which appear on @@ -2431,8 +2392,8 @@ and <i>tristimonium</i>, <i>sanguen</i>, <i>manducare</i>, <i>nutricare</i>, <i> <i>savunculum</i>, <i>offla</i>, <i>peduclus</i>, <i>corcillum</i>, with constructions such as <i>maledicere</i> and <i>persuadere</i> with the accusative, and <i>adiutare</i> with the dative, and the deponent forms <i>pudeatur</i> and <i>ridetur</i>. Of especial -interest for the Romance languages are <i>astrum</i> (<i>désastre</i>), <i>berbex</i> -(<i>brébis</i>), <i>botellus</i> (<i>boyau</i>), <i>improperare</i>, <i>muttus</i>, <i>naufragare</i>.</p> +interest for the Romance languages are <i>astrum</i> (<i>désastre</i>), <i>berbex</i> +(<i>brébis</i>), <i>botellus</i> (<i>boyau</i>), <i>improperare</i>, <i>muttus</i>, <i>naufragare</i>.</p> <p>Suetonius (<i>Aug.</i> <i>c.</i> 87) gives an interesting selection of plebeian words employed in conversation by Augustus, who for the rest was @@ -2608,7 +2569,7 @@ usage of daily life.</p> <p>1. Words borrowed (consciously or unconsciously) from the classical poets, especially Virgil, occurring for the most part also in -contemporary prose. Of these Dräger gives a list of ninety-five +contemporary prose. Of these Dräger gives a list of ninety-five (<i>Syntax und Stil des Tacitus</i>, p. 96).</p> <p>2. Words occurring only, or for the first time, in Tacitus. These @@ -2753,7 +2714,7 @@ Languages</a></span>.</p> <p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The grounds for this pronunciation will be found best stated in Postgate, <i>How to pronounce Latin</i> (1907), Arnold and Conway, <i>The Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin</i> (4th ed., Cambridge, 1908); -and in the grammars enumerated in § 28 above, especially the preface +and in the grammars enumerated in § 28 above, especially the preface to vol. i. of <i>Roby’s Grammar</i>. The chief points about <i>c</i> may be briefly given as a specimen of the kind of evidence. (1) In some words the letter following c varies in a manner which makes it impossible to @@ -2768,7 +2729,7 @@ is always transliterated by <i>c</i>, and <i>c</i> by κ; (5) Latin words c are inexplicable except as derived independently from an original <i>ke</i>, <i>ki</i>.</p> -<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The inscription was first published by Helbig and Dümmler in +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The inscription was first published by Helbig and Dümmler in <i>Mittheilungen des deutschen archaol. Inst. Rom.</i> ii. 40; since in <i>C.I.L.</i> xiv. 4123 and Conway, <i>Italic Dial.</i> 280, where other references will be found.</p> @@ -2785,7 +2746,7 @@ Tesiai</i> has been here adopted, and who gives other references.</p> <p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The most important writings upon it are those of Domenico Comparetti, <i>Iscriz. arcaica del Foro Romano</i> (Florence-Rome, 1900); -Hülsen, <i>Berl. philolog. Wochenschrift</i> (1899), No. 40; and Thurneysen, +Hülsen, <i>Berl. philolog. Wochenschrift</i> (1899), No. 40; and Thurneysen, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i> (Neue Folge), iii. 2. Prof. G. Tropea gives a <i>Cronaca della discussione</i> in a series of very useful articles in the <i>Rivista di storia antica</i> (Messina, 1900 and 1901). Skutsch’s @@ -2804,8 +2765,8 @@ been remarkably developed in the last three years, and is of the highest importance for the criticism of Latin prose. It is only possible to refer to Th. Zielinski’s <i>Das Clauselgesetz in Cicero’s Reden</i> (St. Petersburg, 1904), reviewed by A. C. Clark in <i>Classical Review</i>, -1905, p. 164, and to F. Skutsch’s important comments in Vollmöller’s -<i>Jahresberichten über die Fortschritte der romanischen Philologie</i> (1905) +1905, p. 164, and to F. Skutsch’s important comments in Vollmöller’s +<i>Jahresberichten über die Fortschritte der romanischen Philologie</i> (1905) and <i>Glotta</i> (i. 1908, esp. p. 413), also to A. C. Clark’s <i>Fontes Prosae Numerosae</i> (Oxford, 1909), <i>The Cursus in Mediaeval and Vulgar Latin</i> (ibid. 1910), and article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cicero</a></span>.</p> @@ -3176,7 +3137,7 @@ memoirs, and autobiographies such as those of M. Aemilius Scaurus, the elder, Q. Lutatius Catulus (consul 102 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and P. Rutilius Rufus, which formed the sources of future historians. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Annales</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i>, <i>Ancient</i>, -§ “Authorities.”)</p> +§ “Authorities.”)</p> <p>Although the artistic product of the first period of Latin literature which has reached us in a complete shape is limited @@ -3643,7 +3604,7 @@ a time the office of the <i>vates</i>, and resumed that of the critical spectato of human life, but in the spirit of a moralist rather than a satirist. He feels the increasing languor of the time as well as the languor of advancing years, and seeks to encourage younger men -to take up the rôle of lyrical poetry, while he devotes himself to +to take up the rôle of lyrical poetry, while he devotes himself to the contemplation of the true art of living. Self-culture rather than the fulfilment of public or social duty, as in the moral teaching of Cicero, is the aim of his teaching; and in this we @@ -4241,18 +4202,18 @@ Theodosius (438) and the still more famous code of Justinian <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The most full and satisfactory modern account -of Latin literature is M. Schanz’s <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur.</i> +of Latin literature is M. Schanz’s <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur.</i> The best in English is the translation by C. C. Warr of W. S. Teuffel and L. Schwabe’s <i>History of Roman Literature</i>. J. W. Mackail’s short <i>History of Latin Literature</i> is full of excellent literary and aesthetic criticisms on the writers. C. Lamarre’s <i>Histoire de la -littérature latine</i> (1901, with specimens) only deals with the writers of +littérature latine</i> (1901, with specimens) only deals with the writers of the republic. W. Y. Sellar’s <i>Roman Poets of the Republic and Poets of the Augustan Age</i>, and R. Y. Tyrrell’s <i>Lectures on Latin Poetry</i>, will also be found of service. A concise account of the various Latin writers and their works, together with bibliographies, is given in J. E. B. Mayor’s <i>Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature</i> (1879), which -is based on a German work by E. Hübner. See also the separate +is based on a German work by E. Hübner. See also the separate bibliographies to the articles on individual writers.</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. Y. S.; J. P. P.)</div> @@ -4284,7 +4245,7 @@ Lavinia.</p> be found in the fragments of Cato’s <i>Origines</i> (in Servius’s commentary on Virgil) and in Dionysius of Halicarnassus; see further authorities in the article by J. A. Hild, in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire -des antiquités</i>.</p> +des antiquités</i>.</p> </div> @@ -4404,7 +4365,7 @@ by showing that the motion was represented by the superposition of two harmonic terms, the first having a period of about 430 days, the other of one year. The result of this superposition is a seven-year period, which makes 6 periods of the 428-day term -(428<span class="sp">d</span> × 6 = 2568<span class="sp">d</span> = 7 years, nearly), and 7 periods of the annual +(428<span class="sp">d</span> × 6 = 2568<span class="sp">d</span> = 7 years, nearly), and 7 periods of the annual term. Near one phase of this combined period the two component motions nearly annul each other, so that the variation is then small, while at the opposite phase, 3 to 4 years later, the @@ -4472,7 +4433,7 @@ a double observation of each component of the polar motion, from which most of the systematic errors are eliminated. The principal stations are: Carloforte, Italy; Mizusawa, Japan; Gaithersburg, Maryland; and Ukiah, California, all nearly -on the same parallel of latitude, 39° 8′.</p> +on the same parallel of latitude, 39° 8′.</p> <p>The fluctuations derived from this international work during the last seven years deviate but slightly from Chandler’s formulae @@ -4490,7 +4451,7 @@ causes which may produce the annual fluctuation. An elaborate mathematical discussion of the theory is by Vito Volterra: “Sulla teoria dei movimenti del Polo terrestre” in the <i>Astronomische Nachrichten</i>, vol. 138; also, more fully in his memoir “Sur la -théorie des variations des latitudes,” <i>Acta Mathematica</i>, vol. xxii. +théorie des variations des latitudes,” <i>Acta Mathematica</i>, vol. xxii. The results of the international observations are discussed from time to time by Albrecht in the publications of the International Geodetic Association, and in the <i>Astronomische Nachrichten</i> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Earth, @@ -4591,7 +4552,7 @@ of Nemi, &c.). The Alban Mount (Monte Cavo) is almost the highest point on the rim of the inner crater, while Mount Algidus and Tusculum are on the outer ring wall of the larger (earlier) crater.</p> -<p>The fourth period is that in which the various subaërial agencies of +<p>The fourth period is that in which the various subaërial agencies of abrasion, and especially the streams which drain the mountain chain of the Apennines, have produced the present features of the Campagna, a plain furrowed by gullies and ravines. The communities @@ -4617,7 +4578,7 @@ broad strip of sandy plain, evidently formed merely by the accumulation of sand from the sea, and constituting a barren tract, still covered almost entirely with wood as it was in ancient times, except for the almost uninterrupted line of villas along the ancient coast-line, -which is now marked by a line of sand-hills, some ½ m. or more +which is now marked by a line of sand-hills, some ½ m. or more inland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lavinium, Tiber</a></span>). This long belt of sandy shore extends without a break for a distance of above 30 m. from the mouth of the Tiber to the promontory of Antium (Porto d’Anzio); a low rocky @@ -4648,7 +4609,7 @@ their object being to drain the hills on each side of the valleys. They had probably much to do with the relative healthiness of this district in early times. Some of them have been observed to be earlier in date than the Via Appia (312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). They were studied in -detail by R. de la Blanchère. When they fell into desuetude, +detail by R. de la Blanchère. When they fell into desuetude, malaria gained the upper hand, the lack of drainage providing breeding-places for the malarial mosquito. Remains of similar drainage channels exist in many parts of the Campagna Romana @@ -4709,7 +4670,7 @@ at Rome. In this last necropolis cremation seems slightly to precede inhumation in date.</p> <p>For the prehistoric period see <i>Bullettino di paleontologia Italiana, -passim</i>, B. Modestov, <i>Introduction à l’histoire romaine</i> (Paris, 1907), +passim</i>, B. Modestov, <i>Introduction à l’histoire romaine</i> (Paris, 1907), and T. E. Peet, <i>The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy</i> (Oxford, 1909).</p> </div> @@ -4846,8 +4807,8 @@ Cluiliae, 5 m. from Rome, where Coriolanus encamped (Livy ii. 39), and, on the S., towards Laurentum at the 6th mile, where sacrifice to Terminus was made (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, ii. 681): the Ambarvalia too were celebrated even in Strabo’s day (v. 3. 3. p. -230) at a place called <span class="grk" title="Phêstoi">Φῆστοι</span> between the 5th and 6th mile. -The identification (cf. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, +230) at a place called <span class="grk" title="Phêstoi">Φῆστοι</span> between the 5th and 6th mile. +The identification (cf. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, vi. 2223) of this locality with the grove of the Arval brothers at the 5th mile of the Via Portuensis, to the W. of Rome, and of the Ambarvalia with the festival celebrated by @@ -4942,7 +4903,7 @@ was conquered, and four new tribes were formed: <i>Arnensis</i> name does not occur in literature—the stream which forms the outlet to the lake of Bracciano, anc. <i>Lacus Sabatinus</i>),<a name="fa13c" id="fa13c" href="#ft13c"><span class="sp">13</span></a> <i>Sabatina</i> (called after this lake), <i>Stellatina</i> (named from the -Campus Stellatinus, near Capena; cf. Festus p. 343 Müll.) and +Campus Stellatinus, near Capena; cf. Festus p. 343 Müll.) and <i>Tromentina</i> (which, Festus tells us, was so called from the Campus Tromentus, the situation of which we do not know). Four years later were founded the Latin colonies of Sutrium and @@ -5032,7 +4993,7 @@ numerous villas within its boundaries, and used them at least for summer residences. During the 2nd century the Campagna seems to have entered on a new era of prosperity. The system of roads radiating in all directions from Rome (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span>: <i>History</i>, -§ B) belonged to a much earlier period; but they were connected +§ B) belonged to a much earlier period; but they were connected by a network of crossroads (now mostly abandoned, while the main lines are still almost all in use) leading to the very numerous villas with which the Campagna was strewn (even @@ -5281,14 +5242,14 @@ conditionis</i>.</p> of its more important cities, the reader may consult Sir W. Gell’s <i>Topography of Rome and its Vicinity</i> (2nd ed., 1 vol., London, 1846); A. Nibby, <i>Analisi storico-topografico-antiquaria della carta dei -dintorni di Roma</i> (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1848); J. Westphal, <i>Die römische +dintorni di Roma</i> (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1848); J. Westphal, <i>Die römische Kampagne</i> (Berlin, 1829); A. Bormann, <i>Alt-lateinische Chorographie -und Städte-Geschichte</i> (Halle, 1852); M. Zoeller, <i>Latium und Rom</i> +und Städte-Geschichte</i> (Halle, 1852); M. Zoeller, <i>Latium und Rom</i> (Leipzig, 1878); R. Burn’s <i>Rome and the Campagna</i> (London, 1871); H. Dessau, <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> v. xiv. (Berlin, 1887) (Latium); Th. Mommsen, <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> vol. x. pp. 498-675 (Berlin, 1883); G. Tomassetti, “Della Campagna Romana nel medio evo,” published -in the <i>Archivio della Società Romana di Storia Patria</i> (Rome, 1874-1907), +in the <i>Archivio della Società Romana di Storia Patria</i> (Rome, 1874-1907), and separately (a work dealing with the medieval history and topography of the Campagna in great detail, containing also valuable notices of the classical period); by the same author, <i>La Campagna @@ -5311,8 +5272,8 @@ flat; Sans. <i>prath</i>: not connected with <i>lātus</i>, wide.</p> <p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In the time of Augustus the boundary of Latium extended as far E. as Treba (Trevi), 12 m. S.E. of Sublaqueum (Subiaco).</p> -<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See R. de la Blanchère in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire -des antiquités</i>, s.vv. <i>Cuniculus, Emissarium</i>, and the same author’s +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See R. de la Blanchère in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités</i>, s.vv. <i>Cuniculus, Emissarium</i>, and the same author’s <i>Chapitre d’histoire pontine</i> (Paris, 1889).</p> <p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See G. A. Colini in <i>Bullettino di <span class="correction" title="amended from palentologia">paletnologia</span> Italiana</i>, xxxi. @@ -5340,7 +5301,7 @@ system of family ties from the famous <i>patria potestas</i> and agnation of the Patrician and Sabine clans.</p> <div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> -<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The MSS. read <span class="grk" title="boillanôn">βοϊλλανῶν</span> or <span class="grk" title="boilanôn">βοϊλανῶν</span>: the Latin translation has +<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The MSS. read <span class="grk" title="boillanôn">βοϊλλανῶν</span> or <span class="grk" title="boilanôn">βοϊλανῶν</span>: the Latin translation has Bolanorum. It is difficult to say which is to be preferred. The list gives only twenty-nine names, and Mommsen proposes to insert Signini.</p> @@ -5363,14 +5324,14 @@ Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurentum, Cora, Tibur, Suessa Pometia and Ardea.</p> <p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Of the <i>gentes</i> from which these tribes took their names, six entirely disappeared in later days, while the other ten can be traced as patrician—a proof that the patricians were not noble families in -origin (Mommsen, <i>Römische Forschungen</i>, i. 106). For the tribes +origin (Mommsen, <i>Römische Forschungen</i>, i. 106). For the tribes see W. Kubitschek, <i>De Romanarum tribuum origine</i> (Vienna, 1882).</p> <p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> We have various traces of the early antagonism to Gabii, <i>e.g.</i> the opposition between <i>ager Romanus</i> and <i>ager Gabinus</i> in the augural law.</p> <p><a name="ft11c" id="ft11c" href="#fa11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> For the early extension of Roman territory towards the sea, cf. -Festus, p. 213, Müll., <i>s.v.</i> “Pectuscum:” <i>Pectuscum Palati dicta est ea +Festus, p. 213, Müll., <i>s.v.</i> “Pectuscum:” <i>Pectuscum Palati dicta est ea regio urbis, quam Romulus obversam posuit, ea parte, in qua plurimum erat agri Romani ad mare versus et qua mollissime adibatur Urbo, cum Etruscorum agrum a Romano Tiberis discluderet, ceterae vicinae @@ -5379,9 +5340,9 @@ civitates colles aliquos haberent oppositos</i>.</p> <p><a name="ft12c" id="ft12c" href="#fa12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The ancient name is known from an inscription discovered in 1888.</p> -<p><a name="ft13c" id="ft13c" href="#fa13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> So Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, ii. 1204.</p> +<p><a name="ft13c" id="ft13c" href="#fa13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> So Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, ii. 1204.</p> -<p><a name="ft14c" id="ft14c" href="#fa14c"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Festus tells us (p. 136 Müll.) that the Maecia derived its name +<p><a name="ft14c" id="ft14c" href="#fa14c"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Festus tells us (p. 136 Müll.) that the Maecia derived its name “a quodam castro.” Scaptia was the only member of the Latin league that gave its name to a tribe.</p> @@ -5397,7 +5358,7 @@ in 999 at least.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LATONA<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (Lat. form of Gr. <span class="grk" title="Lêtô">Λητώ</span>, Leto), daughter of Coeus +<p><span class="bold">LATONA<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (Lat. form of Gr. <span class="grk" title="Lêtô">Λητώ</span>, Leto), daughter of Coeus and Phoebe, mother of Apollo and Artemis. The chief seats of her legend are Delos and Delphi, and the generally accepted tradition is a union of the legends of these two places. Leto, @@ -5436,7 +5397,7 @@ home of her religion.</p> <p>In Greek art Leto usually appears carrying her children in her arms, pursued by the dragon sent by the jealous Hera, which is slain by the infant Apollo; in vase paintings especially she is often represented -with Apollo and Artemis. The statue of Leto in the Letoön +with Apollo and Artemis. The statue of Leto in the Letoön at Argos was the work of Praxiteles.</p> </div> @@ -5444,22 +5405,22 @@ at Argos was the work of Praxiteles.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LATOUCHE, HYACINTHE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE THABAUD DE<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> [known as <span class="sc">Henri</span>] (1785-1851), French poet and -novelist, was born at La Châtre (Indre) on the 2nd of February +novelist, was born at La Châtre (Indre) on the 2nd of February 1785. Among his works may be distinguished his comedies: -<i>Projets de sagesse</i> (1811), and, in collaboration with Émile +<i>Projets de sagesse</i> (1811), and, in collaboration with Émile Deschamps, <i>Selmours de Florian</i> (1818), which ran for a hundred nights; also <i>La Reine d’Espagne</i> (1831), which proved too indecent for the public taste; a novel, <i>Fragoletta: Naples et Paris en 1799</i> (1829), which attained a success of notoriety; -<i>La Vallée aux coups</i> (1833), a volume of prose essays and verse; +<i>La Vallée aux coups</i> (1833), a volume of prose essays and verse; and two volumes of poems, <i>Les Adieux</i> (1843) and <i>Les Agrestes</i> (1844). Latouche’s chief claim to remembrance is that he -revealed to the world the genius of André Chénier, then only +revealed to the world the genius of André Chénier, then only known to a limited few. The remains of the poet’s work had passed from the hands of Daunou to Latouche, who had sufficient critical insight instantly to recognize their value. In editing the -first selection of Chénier’s poems (1819) he made some trifling -emendations, but did not, as Béranger afterwards asserted, make +first selection of Chénier’s poems (1819) he made some trifling +emendations, but did not, as Béranger afterwards asserted, make radical and unnecessary changes. Latouche was guilty of more than one literary fraud. He caused a licentious story of his own to be attributed to the duchesse de Duras, the irreproachable @@ -5467,7 +5428,7 @@ author of <i>Ourika</i>. He made many enemies by malicious attacks on his contemporaries. The <i>Constitutionnel</i> was suppressed in 1817 by the government for an obscure political allusion in an article by Latouche. He then undertook the management of -the <i>Mercure du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, and began a bitter warfare against +the <i>Mercure du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, and began a bitter warfare against the monarchy. After 1830 he edited the <i>Figaro</i>, and spared neither the liberal politicians nor the romanticists who triumphed under the monarchy of July. In his turn he was violently @@ -5481,7 +5442,7 @@ March 1851.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Sainte-Beuve, in the <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. 3, gives a not too sympathetic portrait of Latouche. See also George Sand in the -<i>Siècle</i> for the 18th, 19th and 20th of July 1851.</p> +<i>Siècle</i> for the 18th, 19th and 20th of July 1851.</p> </div> @@ -5489,7 +5450,7 @@ sympathetic portrait of Latouche. See also George Sand in the <p><span class="bold">LA TOUR, MAURICE QUENTIN DE<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1704-1788), French pastellist, was born at St Quentin on the 5th of September 1704. After leaving Picardy for Paris in 1727 he entered the studio of -Spoède—an upright man, but a poor master, rector of the +Spoède—an upright man, but a poor master, rector of the academy of St Luke, who still continued, in the teeth of the Royal Academy, the traditions of the old gild of the master painters of Paris. This possibly contributed to the adoption by @@ -5531,16 +5492,16 @@ not common to the loves of the 18th century.</p> <p>See, in addition to the general works on French art, C. Desmeze, <i>M. Q. de La Tour, peintre du roi</i> (1854); Champfleury, <i>Les Peintres de Laon et de St Quentin</i> (1855); and “La Tour” in the <i>Collection des -artistes célèbres</i> (1886); E. and J. de Goncourt, <i>La Tour</i> (1867); -Guiffrey and M. Tourneux, <i>Correspondance inédite de M. G. de la +artistes célèbres</i> (1886); E. and J. de Goncourt, <i>La Tour</i> (1867); +Guiffrey and M. Tourneux, <i>Correspondance inédite de M. G. de la Tour</i> (1885); Tourneux, <i>La Tour, biographie critique</i> (1904); and -<i>Patoux, L’Œuvre de M. Quentin de la Tour au musée de St Quentin</i> +<i>Patoux, L’Œuvre de M. Quentin de la Tour au musée de St Quentin</i> (St Quentin, 1882).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA TOUR D’AUVERGNE, THÉOPHILE MALO<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1743-1800), +<p><span class="bold">LA TOUR D’AUVERGNE, THÉOPHILE MALO<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1743-1800), French soldier, was born at Carhaix in Brittany on the 23rd of December 1743, the son of an advocate named Corret. His desire for a military career being strongly marked, he was enabled, @@ -5579,7 +5540,7 @@ In recognition of his singular bravery and modesty Carnot obtained a decree from the first consul naming La Tour d’Auvergne “first grenadier of France” (27th of April 1800). This led him to volunteer again, and he was killed in action at Oberhausen, -near Donauwörth, on the 27th of June 1800.</p> +near Donauwörth, on the 27th of June 1800.</p> <p>La Tour d’Auvergne’s almost legendary courage had captivated the imagination of the French soldier, and his memory was not @@ -5600,30 +5561,30 @@ colour is taken on parade.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span></p> -<p><span class="bold">LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRÉ<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1762-1833), French naturalist, +<p><span class="bold">LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRÉ<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1762-1833), French naturalist, was born in humble circumstances at Brives-la-Gaillarde -(Corrèze), on the 20th of November 1762. In 1778 he entered -the collège Lemoine at Paris, and on his admission to priestly +(Corrèze), on the 20th of November 1762. In 1778 he entered +the collège Lemoine at Paris, and on his admission to priestly orders in 1786 he retired to Brives, where he devoted all the leisure which the discharge of his professional duties allowed to the study of entomology. In 1788 he returned to Paris and found means of making himself known to the leading naturalists -there. His “Mémoire sur les mutilles découvertes en France,” +there. His “Mémoire sur les mutilles découvertes en France,” contributed to the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Society of Natural History in Paris, procured for him admission to that body. At the Revolution he was compelled to quit Paris, and as a priest of conservative sympathies suffered considerable hardship, being -imprisoned for some time at Bordeaux. His <i>Précis des caractères -génériques des insectes, disposés dans un ordre naturel</i>, appeared +imprisoned for some time at Bordeaux. His <i>Précis des caractères +génériques des insectes, disposés dans un ordre naturel</i>, appeared at Brives in 1796. In 1798 he became a corresponding member of the Institute, and at the same time was entrusted with the task of arranging the entomological collection at the recently organized -Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle (Jardin des Plantes); in 1814 he -succeeded G. A. Olivier as member of the Académie des Sciences, +Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle (Jardin des Plantes); in 1814 he +succeeded G. A. Olivier as member of the Académie des Sciences, and in 1821 he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. For some time he acted as professor of zoology in the veterinary school at Alfort near Paris, and in 1830, when the chair of -zoology of invertebrates at the Muséum was divided after the +zoology of invertebrates at the Muséum was divided after the death of Lamarck, Latreille was appointed professor of zoology of crustaceans, arachnids and insects, the chair of molluscs, worms and zoophytes being assigned to H. M. D. de Blainville. @@ -5633,35 +5594,35 @@ Paris on the 6th of February 1833.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>In addition to the works already mentioned, the numerous works -of Latreille include: <i>Histoire naturelle générale et particulière des -crustacés et insectes</i> (14 vols., 1802-1805), forming part of C. N. S. +of Latreille include: <i>Histoire naturelle générale et particulière des +crustacés et insectes</i> (14 vols., 1802-1805), forming part of C. N. S. Sonnini’s edition of Buffon; <i>Genera crustaceorum et insectorum, secundum ordinem naturalem in familias disposita</i> (4 vols., 1806-1807); -<i>Considérations générales sur l’ordre naturel des animaux -composant les classes des crustacés, des arachnides, et des insectes</i> -(1810); <i>Familles naturelles du règne animal, exposées succinctement +<i>Considérations générales sur l’ordre naturel des animaux +composant les classes des crustacés, des arachnides, et des insectes</i> +(1810); <i>Familles naturelles du règne animal, exposées succinctement et dans un ordre analytique</i> (1825); <i>Cours d’entomologie</i> (of which only the first volume appeared, 1831); the whole of the section -“Crustacés, Arachnides, Insectes,” in G. Cuvier’s <i>Règne animal</i>; -besides many papers in the <i>Annales du Muséum</i>, the <i>Encyclopédie -méthodique</i>, the <i>Dictionnaire classique d’histoire naturelle</i> and +“Crustacés, Arachnides, Insectes,” in G. Cuvier’s <i>Règne animal</i>; +besides many papers in the <i>Annales du Muséum</i>, the <i>Encyclopédie +méthodique</i>, the <i>Dictionnaire classique d’histoire naturelle</i> and elsewhere.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA TRÉMOILLE<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span>, an old French family which derives its name +<p><span class="bold">LA TRÉMOILLE<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span>, an old French family which derives its name from a village (the modern La Trimouille) in the department of Vienne. The family has been known since the middle of the 11th century, and since the 14th century its members have been -conspicuous in French history. Guy, sire de la Trémoille, +conspicuous in French history. Guy, sire de la Trémoille, standard-bearer of France, was taken prisoner at the battle of Nicopolis (1396), and Georges, the favourite of King Charles VII., was captured at Agincourt (1415). Louis (2), called the <i>chevalier sans reproche</i>, defeated and captured the duke of Orleans at the battle of Saint Aubin-du-Cormier (1488), distinguished himself in the wars in Italy, and was killed at Pavia (1525). In 1521 -François (2) acquired a claim on the kingdom of Naples by his +François (2) acquired a claim on the kingdom of Naples by his marriage with Anne de Laval, daughter of Charlotte of Aragon. Louis (3) became duke of Thouars in 1563, and his son Claude turned Protestant, was created a peer of France in 1595, and @@ -5700,7 +5661,7 @@ Beside some volumes of travel he published a volume of poems, <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Brief Notices of the Latrobe Family</i> (1864), a privately printed translation of an article revised by members of the family in the -Moravian <i>Brüderbote</i> (November 1864).</p> +Moravian <i>Brüderbote</i> (November 1864).</p> </div> @@ -5758,16 +5719,16 @@ on the 1st of January 1805.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The principal work of Latude is the account of his imprisonment, -written in collaboration with an advocate named Thiéry, and entitled -<i>Le Despotisme dévoilé, ou Mémoires de Henri Masers de la Tude, -détenu pendant trente-cinq ans dans les diverses prisons d’état</i> (Amsterdam, +written in collaboration with an advocate named Thiéry, and entitled +<i>Le Despotisme dévoilé, ou Mémoires de Henri Masers de la Tude, +détenu pendant trente-cinq ans dans les diverses prisons d’état</i> (Amsterdam, 1787, ed. Paris, 1889). An Eng. trans. of a portion was published in 1787. The work is full of lies and misrepresentations, but had great vogue at the time of the French Revolution. Latude also wrote essays on all sorts of subjects.</p> -<p>See J. F. Barrière, <i>Mémoires de Linguet et de Latude</i> (1884); -G. Bertin, <i>Notice</i> in edition of the <i>Mémoires</i> (1889); F. +<p>See J. F. Barrière, <i>Mémoires de Linguet et de Latude</i> (1884); +G. Bertin, <i>Notice</i> in edition of the <i>Mémoires</i> (1889); F. Funck-Brentano, “Latude,” in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (1st October 1889).</p> </div> @@ -5797,7 +5758,7 @@ set it free.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAUBAN,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a town of Germany in the Prussian province of Silesia, is situated in a picturesque valley, at the junction of -the lines of railway from Görlitz and Sorau, 16 m. E. of the former. +the lines of railway from Görlitz and Sorau, 16 m. E. of the former. Pop. (1905) 14,624. Lauban has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a town hall, dating from 1541, a conventual house of the order of St Magdalene, dating from the 14th century, @@ -5825,22 +5786,22 @@ Breslau (1826-1829), and settled in Leipzig in 1832. Here he at once came into prominence with his political essays, collected under the title <i>Das neue Jahrhundert</i>, in two parts—<i>Polen</i> (1833) and <i>Politische Briefe</i> (1833)—and with the novel <i>Das junge -Europa</i>, in three parts—<i>Die Poeten</i>, <i>Die Krieger</i>, <i>Die Bürger</i>—(1833-1837). +Europa</i>, in three parts—<i>Die Poeten</i>, <i>Die Krieger</i>, <i>Die Bürger</i>—(1833-1837). These writings, in which, after the fashion of -Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Börne, he severely criticized the -political régime in Germany, together with the part he played +Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Börne, he severely criticized the +political régime in Germany, together with the part he played in the literary movement known as <i>Das junge Deutschland</i>, led to his being subjected to police surveillance and his works confiscated. On his return, in 1834, from a journey to Italy, undertaken in the company of Karl Gutzkow, Laube was expelled from Saxony and imprisoned for nine months in Berlin. In -1836 he married the widow of Professor Hänel of Leipzig; +1836 he married the widow of Professor Hänel of Leipzig; almost immediately afterwards he suffered a year’s imprisonment for his revolutionary sympathies. In 1839 he again settled in Leipzig and began a literary activity as a playwright. Chief among his earlier productions are the tragedies <i>Monaldeschi</i> (1845) and <i>Struensee</i> (1847); the comedies <i>Rokoko, oder die alten -Herren</i> (1846); <i>Gottsched und Gellert</i> (1847); and <i>Die Karlsschüler</i> +Herren</i> (1846); <i>Gottsched und Gellert</i> (1847); and <i>Die Karlsschüler</i> (1847), of which the youthful Schiller is the hero. In 1848 Laube was elected to the national assembly at Frankfort-on-Main for the district of Elbogen, but resigned in the spring @@ -5860,7 +5821,7 @@ in Vienna and Leipzig in the three volumes <i>Das Burgtheater</i> (1875). His pen was still active after his retirement, and in the five years preceding his death, which took place at Vienna on the 1st of August 1884, he wrote the romances and -novels <i>Die Böhminger</i> (1880), <i>Louison</i> (1881), <i>Der Schatten-Wilhelm</i> +novels <i>Die Böhminger</i> (1880), <i>Louison</i> (1881), <i>Der Schatten-Wilhelm</i> (1883), and published an interesting volume of reminiscences, <i>Erinnerungen, 1841-1881</i> (1882). Laube’s dramas are not remarkable for originality or for poetical beauty; their @@ -5873,7 +5834,7 @@ literary history than his writings.</p> <p>His <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> (excluding his dramas) were published in 16 vols. (1879-1882); his <i>Dramatische Werke</i>, in 13 vols. (1845-1875); a popular edition of the latter in 12 vols. (1880-1892). An edition -of Laube’s <i>Ausgewählte Werke</i> in 10 vols. appeared in 1906 with an +of Laube’s <i>Ausgewählte Werke</i> in 10 vols. appeared in 1906 with an introduction by H. H. Houben. See also J. Proelss, <i>Das junge Deutschland</i> (1892); and H. Bulthaupt, <i>Dramaturgie des Schauspiels</i> (vol. iii., 6th ed., 1901).</p> @@ -5889,7 +5850,7 @@ de l’Aubespine (d. 1582), abbot of Bassefontaine, bishop of Vannes and afterwards of Limoges, fulfilled important diplomatic missions in Germany, Hungary, England, the Low Countries and Switzerland under Francis I. and his successors. Claude -(<i>c.</i> 1500-1567), baron of Châteauneuf-sur-Cher, Sebastien’s +(<i>c.</i> 1500-1567), baron of Châteauneuf-sur-Cher, Sebastien’s brother, was a secretary of finance; he had charge of negotiations with England in 1555 and 1559, and was several times commissioned to treat with the Huguenots in the king’s name. His son @@ -5903,13 +5864,13 @@ and became extinct in the 19th century.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAUCHSTÄDT,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of Germany in the province of Prussian +<p><span class="bold">LAUCHSTÄDT,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of Germany in the province of Prussian Saxony, on the Laucha, 6 m. N.W. of Merseburg by the railway -to Schafstädt. Pop. (1905) 2034. It contains an Evangelical +to Schafstädt. Pop. (1905) 2034. It contains an Evangelical church, a theatre, a hydropathic establishment and several educational institutions, among which is an agricultural school affiliated to the university of Halle. Its industries include malting, -vinegar-making and brewing. Lauchstädt was a popular +vinegar-making and brewing. Lauchstädt was a popular watering-place in the 18th century, the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg often making it their summer residence. From 1789 to 1811 the Weimar court theatrical company gave performances here @@ -5917,8 +5878,8 @@ of the plays of Schiller and Goethe, an attraction which greatly contributed to the well-being of the town.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Maak, <i>Das Goethetheater in Lauchstädt</i> (Lauchstädt, 1905); -and Nasemann, <i>Bad Lauchstädt</i> (Halle, 1885).</p> +<p>See Maak, <i>Das Goethetheater in Lauchstädt</i> (Lauchstädt, 1905); +and Nasemann, <i>Bad Lauchstädt</i> (Halle, 1885).</p> </div> @@ -6250,7 +6211,7 @@ famous medical preparation of his own composed of gold, pearls, ingredient. The term is now only used for the alcoholic tincture of opium (<i>q.v.</i>). The name was either invented by Paracelsus from Lat. <i>laudare</i> to praise, or was a corrupted form of -“ladanum” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="lêdanon">λήδανον</span>, from Pers. <i>ladan</i>), a resinous juice or +“ladanum” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="lêdanon">λήδανον</span>, from Pers. <i>ladan</i>), a resinous juice or gum obtained from various kinds of the <i>Cistus</i> shrub, formerly used medicinally in external applications and as a stomachic, but now only in perfumery and in making fumigating pastilles, &c.</p> @@ -6516,7 +6477,7 @@ Scotland.</p> Holstein to Denmark, but from 1865 to Prussia, and now included in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It lies on the right bank of the Elbe, is bounded by the territories of -Hamburg, Lübeck, Mecklenburg-Strelitz and the province of +Hamburg, Lübeck, Mecklenburg-Strelitz and the province of Hanover, and comprises an area of 453 sq. m. The surface is a slightly undulating plain. The soil, chiefly alluvial, though in some places arenaceous, is generally fertile and well cultivated, @@ -6526,7 +6487,7 @@ river, is connected with the Trave. The chief agricultural products are timber, fruit, grain, hemp, flax and vegetables. Cattle-breeding affords employment for many of the inhabitants. The railroad from Hamburg to Berlin traverses the country. -The capital is Ratzeburg, and there are two other towns, Mölln +The capital is Ratzeburg, and there are two other towns, Mölln and Lauenburg.</p> <p>The earliest inhabitants of Lauenburg were a Slav tribe, the @@ -6546,7 +6507,7 @@ land. The reigning family, however, became extinct when Duke Julius Francis died in September 1689, and there were at least eight claimants for his duchy, chief among them being John George III., elector of Saxony, and George William, duke of -Brunswick-Lüneburg-Celle, the ancestors of both these princes +Brunswick-Lüneburg-Celle, the ancestors of both these princes having made treaties of mutual succession with former dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg. Both entered the country, but George William proved himself the stronger and occupied Ratzeburg; @@ -6570,7 +6531,7 @@ and Prussia and Austria on the other, as by the peace of Vienna (30th of October 1864) it was ceded with Schleswig and Holstein to the two German powers. By the convention of Gastein (14th of August 1865) Austria surrendered her claim to Prussia in -return for the payment of nearly £300,000 and in September +return for the payment of nearly £300,000 and in September 1865 King William I. took formal possession of the duchy. Lauenburg entered the North German confederation in 1866 and the new German empire in 1870. It retained its constitution @@ -6582,7 +6543,7 @@ Bismarck received the title of duke of Lauenburg.</p> <p>See P. von Kobbe, <i>Geschichte und Landesbeschreibung des Herzogtums Lauenburg</i> (Altona, 1836-1837); Duve, <i>Mitteilungen zur Kunde der Staatsgeschichte Lauenburgs</i> (Ratzeburg, 1852-1857), and the <i>Archiv -des Vereins für die Geschichte des Herzogtums Lauenburg</i> (Ratzeburg, +des Vereins für die Geschichte des Herzogtums Lauenburg</i> (Ratzeburg, 1884 seq.).</p> </div> @@ -6590,7 +6551,7 @@ des Vereins für die Geschichte des Herzogtums Lauenburg</i> (Ratzeburg, <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAUFF, JOSEF<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1855-  ), German poet and dramatist, was born at Cologne on the 16th of November 1855, the son of a -jurist. He was educated at Münster in Westphalia, and entering +jurist. He was educated at Münster in Westphalia, and entering the army served as a lieutenant of artillery at Thorn and subsequently at Cologne, where he attained the rank of captain in 1890. In 1898 he was summoned by the German emperor, @@ -6609,7 +6570,7 @@ ed., 1902). He also wrote the novels <i>Die Hexe</i> (6th ed., 1900), the tragedy <i>Ignez de Castro</i> (1894), he proceeded to dramatize the great monarchs of his country, and, in a Hohenzollern tetralogy, issued <i>Der Burggraf</i> (1897, 6th ed. 1900) and <i>Der -Eisenzahn</i> (1900), to be followed by <i>Der grosse Kurfürst</i> (The +Eisenzahn</i> (1900), to be followed by <i>Der grosse Kurfürst</i> (The Great Elector) and <i>Friedrich der Grosse</i> (Frederick the Great).</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -6627,7 +6588,7 @@ laugh, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. <i>lachen</i>, Goth. <i>hlahjan</i>, Icel. <i>hlaeja</i>, &c. These are in origin echoic or imitative words, to be referred to a Teut. base <i>hlah</i>-, Indo-Eur. <i>kark</i>-, to make a noise; Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, 1898) connects ultimately Gr. -<span class="grk" title="klôssein">κλώσσειν</span>, to cluck like a hen, <span class="grk" title="krazein">κράζειν</span>, to croak, &c. A gentle +<span class="grk" title="klôssein">κλώσσειν</span>, to cluck like a hen, <span class="grk" title="krazein">κράζειν</span>, to croak, &c. A gentle and inaudible form of laughter expressed by a movement of the lips and by the eyes is a “smile.” This is a comparatively late word in English, and is due to Scandinavian influence; cf. @@ -6636,22 +6597,22 @@ wonder, and probably with Gr. <span class="grk" title="meidos">με̯ <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAUMONT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE NICHOLAS GILLET DE<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">LAUMONT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE NICHOLAS GILLET DE<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1747-1834), French mineralogist, was born in Paris on the 28th of May 1747. He was educated at a military school, and served in the army from 1772-1784, when he was appointed inspector of mines. His attention in his leisure time was wholly given to -mineralogy, and he assisted in organizing the new École des +mineralogy, and he assisted in organizing the new École des Mines in Paris. He was author of numerous mineralogical papers in the <i>Journal</i> and <i>Annales des Mines</i>. The mineral -laumontite was named after him by Haüy. He died in Paris +laumontite was named after him by Haüy. He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1834.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAUNCESTON,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the Launceston parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, -35½ m. N.W. of Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western +35½ m. N.W. of Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western and the London & South-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 4053. It lies in a hilly district by and above the river Kensey, an affluent of the Tamar, the houses standing picturesquely on @@ -6675,7 +6636,7 @@ agricultural, but there are tanneries and iron foundries. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2189 acres.</p> -<p>A silver penny of Æthelred II. witnesses to the fact that the +<p>A silver penny of Æthelred II. witnesses to the fact that the privilege of coining money was exercised by Launceston (Dunheved, Lanscaveton, Lanstone) more than half a century before the Norman conquest. At the time of the Domesday survey @@ -6863,7 +6824,7 @@ schools, hospital, town hall and large factories.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAURAHÜTTE,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian province +<p><span class="bold">LAURAHÃœTTE,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 5 m. S.E. of Beuthen, on the railway Tarnowitz-Emanuelsegen. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, but is especially noteworthy for its huge iron works, @@ -6904,7 +6865,7 @@ Edwards, Spenser and Samuel Daniel, as “volunteer Laureates.” Sir William Davenant succeeded Jonson in 1638, and the title of poet laureate was conferred by letters patent on Dryden in 1670, two years after Davenant’s death, coupled with a pension of -£300 and a butt of Canary wine. The post then became a +£300 and a butt of Canary wine. The post then became a regular institution, though the emoluments varied, Dryden’s successors being T. Shadwell (who originated annual birthday and New Year odes), Nahum Tate, Nicholas Rowe, Laurence @@ -6933,9 +6894,9 @@ him should be considered a necessity; but Tennyson was generally happy in his numerous poems of this class. The emoluments of the post have varied; Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, and later an annual “terse of Canary -wine.” To Pye an allowance of £27 was made instead of the -wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the lord chamberlain’s -department, and £27 from the lord steward’s in lieu of the +wine.” To Pye an allowance of £27 was made instead of the +wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the lord chamberlain’s +department, and £27 from the lord steward’s in lieu of the “butt of sack.”</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -7055,7 +7016,7 @@ purification from the blood of the Python. This legend was dramatically represented at the Pythian festival once in eight years, a boy fleeing from Delphi to Tempe, and after a time being led back with song, crowned and adorned with laurel. Similar -<span class="grk" title="daphnêphoriai">δαφνηφορίαι</span> were known elsewhere in Greece. Apollo, himself +<span class="grk" title="daphnêphoriai">δαφνηφορίαι</span> were known elsewhere in Greece. Apollo, himself purified, was the author of purification and atonement to other penitents, and the laurel was the symbol of this power, which came to be generally associated with his person and sanctuaries. @@ -7082,7 +7043,7 @@ profane use. It was employed in divination; the crackling of its leaves in the sacred flame was a good omen (Tibull. ii. 5. 81), <span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> and their silence unlucky (Propert. ii. 21); and the leaves when -chewed excited a prophetic afflatus (<span class="grk" title="daphnêphagoi">δαφνηφάγοι</span>, cf. Tibull. ii. +chewed excited a prophetic afflatus (<span class="grk" title="daphnêphagoi">δαφνηφάγοι</span>, cf. Tibull. ii. 5. 63). There is a poem enumerating the ancient virtues of the laurel by J. Passeratius (1594).</p> @@ -7211,7 +7172,7 @@ privately printed by the Bradford Club, New York, in 1867.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAURENT, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1810-1887), Belgian historian and +<p><span class="bold">LAURENT, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1810-1887), Belgian historian and jurisconsult, was born at Luxemburg on the 8th of July 1810. He held a high appointment in the ministry of justice for some time before he became professor of civil law in the university @@ -7219,20 +7180,20 @@ of Ghent in 1836. His advocacy of liberal and anti-clerical principles both from his chair and in the press made him bitter enemies, but he retained his position until his death on the 11th of February 1887. He treated the relations of church and state -in <i>L’Église et l’état</i> (Brussels, 3 vols., 1858-1862; new and +in <i>L’Église et l’état</i> (Brussels, 3 vols., 1858-1862; new and revised edition, 1865), and the same subject occupied a large proportion of the eighteen volumes of his chief historical work, -<i>Études sur l’histoire de l’humanité</i> (Ghent and Brussels, 1855-1870), +<i>Études sur l’histoire de l’humanité</i> (Ghent and Brussels, 1855-1870), which aroused considerable interest beyond the boundaries of Belgium. His fame as a lawyer rests on his authoritative -exposition of the Code Napoléon in his <i>Principes de droit civil</i> +exposition of the Code Napoléon in his <i>Principes de droit civil</i> (Brussels, 33 vols., 1869-1878), and his <i>Droit civil international</i> (Brussels, 8 vols., 1880-1881). He was charged in 1879 by the minister of justice with the preparation of a report on the proposed revision of the civil code. Besides his anti-clerical pamphlets his minor writings include much discussion of social questions, of the organization of savings banks, asylums, &c., -and he founded the <i>Société Callier</i> for the encouragement of +and he founded the <i>Société Callier</i> for the encouragement of thrift among the working classes. With Gustave Callier, whose funeral in 1863 was made the occasion of a display of clerical intolerance, Laurent had much in common, and the efforts @@ -7302,7 +7263,7 @@ of a <i>Spicilegium Gnomonologicum</i> (1612).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The main authority is C. Schlegel, the historian of the Dresden superintendents (1698), summarized by H. W. Rotermund, in the -additions (1810) to Jöcher, <i>Gelehrten-Lexicon</i> (1750).</p> +additions (1810) to Jöcher, <i>Gelehrten-Lexicon</i> (1750).</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> @@ -7440,19 +7401,19 @@ of these wars, but the portrait of Roger de Lauria must be sought in the <i>Chronicle</i> of the Catalan Ramon de Muntaner who knew him and was formed in his school. There is a very fair and well “documented” account of the masterly campaign of 1285 in Charles de la -Roncière’s <i>Histoire de la marine française</i>, i. 189-217.</p> +Roncière’s <i>Histoire de la marine française</i>, i. 189-217.</p> </div> <div class="author">(D. H.)</div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAURIA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Loria</span>, a city of Basilicata, Italy, in the province -of Potenza, situated near the borders of Calabria, 7½ m. by road +of Potenza, situated near the borders of Calabria, 7½ m. by road S. of Lagonegro. Pop. (1901) 10,470. It is a walled town on the steep side of a hill with another portion in the plain below, 1821 ft. above sea-level. The castle was the birthplace of Ruggiero di Loria, the great Italian admiral of the 13th century. -It was destroyed by the French under Masséna in 1806.</p> +It was destroyed by the French under Masséna in 1806.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -7474,7 +7435,7 @@ later utterances, closed with an appeal for sympathy and union between the French and English races as the secret of the future of Canada. He began to practise law in Montreal, but owing to ill-health soon removed to Athabaska, where he opened a law -office and undertook also to edit <i>Le Défricheur</i>, a newspaper then +office and undertook also to edit <i>Le Défricheur</i>, a newspaper then on the eve of collapse. At Athabaska, the seat of one of the superior courts of Quebec, the population of the district was fairly divided between French- and English-speaking people, and @@ -7486,7 +7447,7 @@ acquaintance with their views and aspirations.</p> literary and scientific society which, owing to its liberal discussions and the fact that certain books upon its shelves were on the <i>Index expurgatorius</i>, was finally condemned by the Roman -Catholic authorities. <i>Le Défricheur</i> was an organ of extreme +Catholic authorities. <i>Le Défricheur</i> was an organ of extreme French sentiment, opposed to confederation, and also under ecclesiastical censure. One of its few surviving copies contains an article by Laurier opposing confederation as a scheme @@ -7515,7 +7476,7 @@ involved taxation it was the price a young and vigorous nation must pay for its development. But the Liberal government, to which Laurier was admitted as minister of inland revenue in 1877, made only a slight increase in duties, raising the general -tariff from 15% to 17½%; and against the political judgment +tariff from 15% to 17½%; and against the political judgment of Alexander Mackenzie, Sir Richard Cartwright, George Brown, Laurier and other of the more influential leaders of the party, it adhered to a low tariff platform. In the bye-election which @@ -7663,7 +7624,7 @@ Barthe (Quebec, 1890).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAURISTON, JACQUES ALEXANDRE BERNARD LAW,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1768-1828), French soldier and diplomatist, was -the son of Jacques François Law de Lauriston (1724-1785), a +the son of Jacques François Law de Lauriston (1724-1785), a general officer in the French army, and was born at Pondicherry on the 1st of February 1768. He obtained his first commission about 1786, served with the artillery and on the staff in the @@ -7672,7 +7633,7 @@ artillery in 1795. Resigning in 1796, he was brought back into the service in 1800 as aide-de-camp to Napoleon, with whom as a cadet Lauriston had been on friendly terms. In the years immediately preceding the first empire Lauriston was successively -director of the Le Fère artillery school and special envoy +director of the Le Fère artillery school and special envoy to Denmark, and he was selected to convey to England the ratification of the peace of Amiens (1802). In 1805, having risen to the rank of general of division, he took part in the war against @@ -7680,13 +7641,13 @@ Austria. He occupied Venice and Ragusa in 1806, was made governor-general of Venice in 1807, took part in the Erfurt negotiations of 1808, was made a count, served with the emperor in Spain in 1808-1809 and held commands under the viceroy -Eugène Beauharnais in the Italian campaign and the advance +Eugène Beauharnais in the Italian campaign and the advance to Vienna in the same year. At the battle of Wagram he commanded the guard artillery in the famous “artillery preparation” which decided the battle. In 1811 he was made ambassador to -Russia; in 1812 he held a command in the <i>Grande Armée</i> and +Russia; in 1812 he held a command in the <i>Grande Armée</i> and won distinction by his firmness in covering the retreat from -Moscow. He commanded the V. army corps at Lützen and +Moscow. He commanded the V. army corps at Lützen and Bautzen and the V. and XI. in the autumn campaign, falling into the hands of the enemy in the disastrous retreat from Leipzig. He was held a prisoner of war until the fall of the @@ -7721,8 +7682,8 @@ Greek companies, but mainly for lead, manganese and cadmium. The population of the modern town was 10,007 in 1907.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. Ardaillon, “Les Mines du Laurion dans l’antiquité,” No. -lxxvii. of the <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome</i>.</p> +<p>See E. Ardaillon, “Les Mines du Laurion dans l’antiquité,” No. +lxxvii. of the <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome</i>.</p> </div> @@ -7797,7 +7758,7 @@ was built 1839-1844, while the Barre tunnel was pierced 1851-1855 and the bridge of Chauderon was built in 1905. The valleys and lower portions of the town were gradually filled up so as to form a series of squares, of which those of Riponne and -of St François are the finest, the latter now being the real centre +of St François are the finest, the latter now being the real centre of the town. The railways were built between 1856 and 1862, while the opening of the Simplon tunnel (1906) greatly increased the commercial importance of Lausanne, which is now on the @@ -7837,12 +7798,12 @@ the various branches of the administration of the canton of Vaud. Near both is the splendid Palais de Rumine (on the Place de la Riponne), opened in 1906 and now housing the university as well as the cantonal library, the cantonal picture gallery -(or Musée Arlaud, founded 1841) and the cantonal collections of +(or Musée Arlaud, founded 1841) and the cantonal collections of archaeology, natural history, &c. The university was raised to that rank in 1890, but, as an academy, dates from 1537. Among its former teachers may be mentioned Theodore Beza, Conrad Gesner, J. P. de Crousaz, Charles Monnard, Alexandre -Vinet, Eugène Rambert, Juste Olivier and several members of +Vinet, Eugène Rambert, Juste Olivier and several members of the Secretan family. On the Montbenon heights to the south-west of the cathedral group is the federal palace of justice, the seat (since 1886) of the federal court of justice, which, erected @@ -7851,7 +7812,7 @@ Lausanne by a federal resolution of 26th June 1874. The house, La Grotte, which Gibbon inhabited 1783-1793, and on the terrace of which he completed (1787) his famous history, was demolished in 1896 to make room for the new post office that stands on the -Place St François. The asylum for the blind was mainly founded +Place St François. The asylum for the blind was mainly founded (1845) by the generosity of W. Haldimand, an Englishman of Swiss descent. The first book printed in Lausanne was the missal of the cathedral church (1493), while the <i>Gazette de Lausanne</i> @@ -7876,9 +7837,9 @@ left bank of the Aar) and riches, becoming in 1125 princes of the empire, while their chapter was recruited only from the noblest families. But in 1368 the bishop was forced to recognize various liberties and customs that had been gradually won by the -citizens, the <i>Plaid Général</i> of that year showing that there was -already some kind of municipal government, save for the <i>cité</i>, -which was not united with the <i>ville inférieure</i> or the other four +citizens, the <i>Plaid Général</i> of that year showing that there was +already some kind of municipal government, save for the <i>cité</i>, +which was not united with the <i>ville inférieure</i> or the other four <i>quartiers</i> (Bourg, St Laurent, La Palud and Le Pont) in 1481. In 1525 the city made an alliance with Bern and Fribourg. But in 1536 the territory of the bishop (as well as the Savoyard @@ -7886,7 +7847,7 @@ barony of Vaud) was forcibly conquered by the Bernese, who at once introduced Protestantism. The Bernese occupation lasted till 1798, though in 1723 an attempt was made to put an end to it by Major Davel, who lost his life in consequence. In -1798 Lausanne became a simple prefecture of the canton Léman +1798 Lausanne became a simple prefecture of the canton Léman <span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> of the Helvetic republic. But in 1803, on the creation of the canton of Vaud by the Act of Mediation, it became its capital. @@ -7896,19 +7857,19 @@ from 1821 onwards he added “and of Geneva” to his title.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Besides the general works dealing with the canton of Vaud (<i>q.v.</i>), the following books refer specially to Lausanne: A. Bernus, -<i>L’Imprimerie à Lausanne et à Morges jusqu’à la fin du 16<span class="sp">ième</span> siècle</i> -(Lausanne, 1904); M. Besson, <i>Récherches sur les origines des évêchés -de Genève, Lausanne, Sion</i> (Fribourg, 1906); A. Bonnard, “Lausanne -au 18<span class="sp">ième</span> siècle,” in the work entitled <i>Chez nos aïeux</i> (Lausanne, -1902); E. Dupraz, <i>La Cathédrale de Lausanne ... étude historique</i> +<i>L’Imprimerie à Lausanne et à Morges jusqu’à la fin du 16<span class="sp">ième</span> siècle</i> +(Lausanne, 1904); M. Besson, <i>Récherches sur les origines des évêchés +de Genève, Lausanne, Sion</i> (Fribourg, 1906); A. Bonnard, “Lausanne +au 18<span class="sp">ième</span> siècle,” in the work entitled <i>Chez nos aïeux</i> (Lausanne, +1902); E. Dupraz, <i>La Cathédrale de Lausanne ... étude historique</i> (Lausanne, 1906); E. Gibbon, <i>Autobiography and Letters</i> (3 vols., 1896); F. Gingins and F. Forel, <i>Documents concernant l’ancien -évêché de Lausanne</i>, 2 parts (Lausanne, 1846-1847); J. H. Lewis and +évêché de Lausanne</i>, 2 parts (Lausanne, 1846-1847); J. H. Lewis and F. Gribble, <i>Lausanne</i> (1909); E. van Muyden and others, <i>Lausanne -à travers les âges</i> (Lausanne, 1906); Meredith Read, <i>Historic Studies -in Vaud, Berne and Savoy</i> (2 vols., 1897); M. Schmitt, <i>Mémoires -hist. sur le diocèse de Lausanne</i> (2 vols., Fribourg, 1859); J. Stammler -(afterwards bishop of Lausanne), <i>Le Trésor de la cathédrale de +à travers les âges</i> (Lausanne, 1906); Meredith Read, <i>Historic Studies +in Vaud, Berne and Savoy</i> (2 vols., 1897); M. Schmitt, <i>Mémoires +hist. sur le diocèse de Lausanne</i> (2 vols., Fribourg, 1859); J. Stammler +(afterwards bishop of Lausanne), <i>Le Trésor de la cathédrale de Lausanne</i> (Lausanne, 1902; trans. of a German book of 1894).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> @@ -7921,8 +7882,8 @@ with Pierre, the grandson of Archambaud de Grailly, captal de Buch, who came into possession of the county of Foix in 1401. Odet de Foix and his two brothers, the seigneur de Lescun and the seigneur de l’Esparre or Asparros, served Francis -I. as captains; and the influence of their sister, Françoise de -Châteaubriant, who became the king’ mistress, gained them +I. as captains; and the influence of their sister, Françoise de +Châteaubriant, who became the king’ mistress, gained them high offices. In 1515 Lautrec took part in the campaign of Marignano. In 1516 he received the government of the Milanese, and by his severity made the French domination insupportable. @@ -7941,8 +7902,8 @@ and able soldier, but this reputation scarcely seems to be justified by the facts; though he was always badly used by fortune.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>There is abundant MS. correspondence in the Bibliothèque -Nationale, Paris. See the Works of Brantôme (Coll. Société d’Histoire +<p>There is abundant MS. correspondence in the Bibliothèque +Nationale, Paris. See the Works of Brantôme (Coll. Société d’Histoire de France, vol. iii., 1867); <i>Memoirs</i> of Martin du Bellay (Coll. Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. v., 1838).</p> </div> @@ -7953,22 +7914,22 @@ Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. v., 1838).</p> de Puyguilhem, Duc de</span> (1632-1723), French courtier and soldier, was the son of Gabriel, comte de Lauzun, and his wife Charlotte, daughter of the duc de La Force. He was brought -up with the children of his kinsman, the maréchal de Gramont, +up with the children of his kinsman, the maréchal de Gramont, of whom the comte de Guiche became the lover of Henrietta of England, duchess of Orleans, while Catherine Charlotte, afterwards princess of Monaco, was the object of the one passion of Lauzun’s life. He entered the army, and served under Turenne, also his kinsman, and in 1655 succeeded his father as commander of the <i>cent gentilshommes de la maison du roi</i>. Puyguilhem -(or Péguilin, as contemporaries simplified his name) +(or Péguilin, as contemporaries simplified his name) rapidly rose in Louis XIV.’s favour, became colonel of the royal -regiment of dragoons, and was gazetted <i>maréchal de camp</i>. He +regiment of dragoons, and was gazetted <i>maréchal de camp</i>. He and Mme de Monaco belonged to the coterie of the young duchess of Orleans. His rough wit and skill in practical jokes pleased Louis XIV., but his jealousy and violence were the causes of his undoing. He prevented a meeting between Louis XIV. and Mme de Monaco, and it was jealousy in this matter, -rather than hostility to Louise de la Vallière, which led him to +rather than hostility to Louise de la Vallière, which led him to promote Mme de Montespan’s intrigues with the king. He asked this lady to secure for him the post of grand-master of the artillery, and on Louis’s refusal to give him the appointment @@ -8002,13 +7963,13 @@ little duc de Maine, eldest son of Louis XIV. and Mme de Montespan. She gave way, but Lauzun, even after ten years of imprisonment, refused to sign the documents, when he was brought to Bourbon for the purpose. A short term of imprisonment -at Chalon-sur-Sâone made him change his mind, but when he +at Chalon-sur-Sâone made him change his mind, but when he was set free Louis XIV. was still set against the marriage, which is supposed to have taken place secretly (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montpensier</a></span>). Married or not, Lauzun was openly courting Fouquet’s daughter, whom he had seen at Pignerol. He was to be restored to his place at court, and to marry Mlle Fouquet, who, however, -became Mme d’Uzès in 1683. In 1685 Lauzun went to England +became Mme d’Uzès in 1683. In 1685 Lauzun went to England to seek his fortune under James II., whom he had served as duke of York in Flanders. He rapidly gained great influence at the English court. In 1688 he was again in England, and @@ -8026,8 +7987,8 @@ to show a brave front. In September they sailed for France, and on their arrival at Versailles Lauzun found that his failure had destroyed any prospect of a return of Louis XIV.’s favour. Mademoiselle died in 1693, and two years later Lauzun married -Geneviève de Durfort, a child of fourteen, daughter of the -maréchal de Lorges. Mary of Modena, through whose interest +Geneviève de Durfort, a child of fourteen, daughter of the +maréchal de Lorges. Mary of Modena, through whose interest Lauzun secured his dukedom, retained her faith in him, and it was he who in 1715, more than a quarter of a century after the flight from Whitehall, brought her the news of the disaster @@ -8036,7 +7997,7 @@ The duchy fell to his nephew, Armand de Gontaut, comte de Biron.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See the letters of Mme de Sévigné, the memoirs of Saint-Simon, +<p>See the letters of Mme de Sévigné, the memoirs of Saint-Simon, who was Lauzun’s wife’s brother-in-law; also J. Lair, <i>Nicolas Fouquet</i>, vol. ii. (1890); Martin Hailes, <i>Mary of Modena</i> (1905), and M. F. Sandars, <i>Lauzun, Courtier and Adventurer</i> (1908).</p> @@ -8089,7 +8050,7 @@ some places it has an almery for towels, &c.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAVAGNA,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the province of -Genoa, from which it is 25½ m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7005. +Genoa, from which it is 25½ m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7005. It has a small shipbuilding trade, and exports great quantities of slate (<i>lavagna</i>, taking its name from the town). It also has a large cotton-mill. It was the seat of the Fieschi family, @@ -8100,7 +8061,7 @@ was also a Fieschi.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAVAL, ANDRÉ DE, SEIGNEUR DE LOHÉAC<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1408-1485), +<p><span class="bold">LAVAL, ANDRÉ DE, SEIGNEUR DE LOHÉAC<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1408-1485), French soldier. In 1423 he served in the French army against England, and in 1428 was taken prisoner by John Talbot, 1st earl of Shrewsbury, after the capitulation of Laval, which he @@ -8112,7 +8073,7 @@ faithfully in all his wars, even against the dauphin (1456), and when the latter became king as Louis XI., Laval was dismissed from the marshal’s office. After the War of the Public Weal he was restored to favour, and recovered the marshal’s -bâton, the king also granting him the offices of lieutenant-general +bâton, the king also granting him the offices of lieutenant-general to the government of Paris and governor of Picardy, and conferring upon him the collar of the order of St Michael. In 1472 Laval was successful in resisting the attacks of Charles the Bold, @@ -8140,11 +8101,11 @@ castle,” dating partly from the Renaissance, serves as court-house. Laval possesses several churches of different periods: in that of the Trinity, which serves as the cathedral, the transept and nave are of the 12th century while the choir is of the 16th; -St Vénérand (15th century) has good stained glass; Notre-Dame +St Vénérand (15th century) has good stained glass; Notre-Dame des Cordeliers, which dates from the end of the 14th century or the beginning of the 15th, has some fine marble altars. Half-a-mile below the Pont Vieux is the beautiful 12th-century -church of Avenières, with an ornamental spire +church of Avenières, with an ornamental spire of 1534. The finest remaining relic of the ancient fortifications is the Beucheresse gate near the cathedral. The narrow streets around the castle are bordered by many old houses of @@ -8153,11 +8114,11 @@ as the “Maison du Grand Veneur.” There are an art-museum, a museum of natural history and archaeology and a library. The town is embellished by fine promenades, at the entrance of one of which, facing the mairie, stands the statue of the -celebrated surgeon Ambroise Paré (1517-1590). Laval is the +celebrated surgeon Ambroise Paré (1517-1590). Laval is the seat of a prefect, a bishopric created in 1855, and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, training -colleges, an ecclesiastical seminary and a lycée for boys. The +colleges, an ecclesiastical seminary and a lycée for boys. The principal industry of the town is the cloth manufacture, introduced from Flanders in the 14th century. The production of fabrics of linen, of cotton or of mixtures of both, occupies some @@ -8170,7 +8131,7 @@ marble quarried in the vicinity. There is trade in grain.</p> It was taken by John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in 1428, changed hands several times during the wars of the League, and played an important part at the end of the 18th century in the -war of La Vendée.</p> +war of La Vendée.</p> <p><span class="sc">Seigneurs and Counts of Laval.</span> The castle of Laval was founded at the beginning of the 11th century by a lord of the @@ -8184,11 +8145,11 @@ Anne of Laval (d. 1466), the heiress of the second family, married John de Montfort, who took the name of Guy (XIII.) of Laval. At Charles VII.’s coronation (1429) Guy XIV., who was afterwards son-in-law of John V., duke of Brittany, and father-in-law -of King René of Anjou, was created count of Laval, and the +of King René of Anjou, was created count of Laval, and the countship remained in the possession of Guy’s male descendants until 1547. After the Montforts, the countship of Laval passed by inheritance to the families of Rieux and Sainte Maure, to -the Colignys, and finally to the La Trémoilles, who held it until +the Colignys, and finally to the La Trémoilles, who held it until the Revolution.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -8197,12 +8158,12 @@ the Revolution.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA VALLIÈRE, LOUISE FRANÇOISE DE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1644-1710), +<p><span class="bold">LA VALLIÈRE, LOUISE FRANÇOISE DE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1644-1710), mistress of Louis XIV., was born at Tours on the 6th of August 1644, the daughter of an officer, Laurent de la Baume le Blanc, -who took the name of La Vallière from a small property near -Amboise. Laurent de la Vallière died in 1651; his widow, -who soon married again, joined the court of Gaston d’Orléans +who took the name of La Vallière from a small property near +Amboise. Laurent de la Vallière died in 1651; his widow, +who soon married again, joined the court of Gaston d’Orléans at Blois. Louise was brought up with the younger princesses, the step-sisters of La Grande Mademoiselle. After Gaston’s death his widow moved with her daughters to the palace of the @@ -8235,7 +8196,7 @@ in a small building in the Palais Royal, where in December 1663 she gave birth to a son Charles, who was given in charge to two faithful servants of Colbert. Concealment was practically abandoned after her return to court, and within a week of Anne -of Austria’s death in January 1666, La Vallière appeared at +of Austria’s death in January 1666, La Vallière appeared at mass side by side with Maria Theresa. But her favour was already waning. She had given birth to a second child in January 1665, but both children were dead before the autumn @@ -8245,7 +8206,7 @@ Blois, was publicly recognized by Louis as his daughter in letters-patent making the mother a duchess in May 1667 and conferring on her the estate of Vaujours. In October of that year she bore a son, but by this time her place in Louis’s affections -was definitely usurped by Athénaïs de Montespan (<i>q.v.</i>), who had +was definitely usurped by Athénaïs de Montespan (<i>q.v.</i>), who had long been plotting against her. She was compelled to remain at court as the king’s official mistress, and even to share Mme de Montespan’s apartments at the Tuileries. She made an attempt @@ -8260,22 +8221,22 @@ in 1680. The count of Vermandois, her youngest born, died on his first campaign at Courtrai in 1683.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>La Vallière’s <i>Réflexions sur la miséricorde de Dieu</i>, written after -her retreat, were printed by Lequeux in 1767, and in 1860 <i>Réflexions, +<p>La Vallière’s <i>Réflexions sur la miséricorde de Dieu</i>, written after +her retreat, were printed by Lequeux in 1767, and in 1860 <i>Réflexions, lettres et sermons</i>, by M. P. Clement (2 vols.). Some -apocryphal <i>Mémoires</i> appeared in 1829, and the <i>Lettres de Mme la -duchesse de la Vallière</i> (1767) are a corrupt version of her correspondence -with the maréchal de Bellefonds. Of modern works on the -subject see Arsène Houssaye, <i>Mlle de la Vallière et Mme de Montespan</i> -(1860); Jules Lair, <i>Louise de la Vallière</i> (3rd ed., 1902, Eng. -trans., 1908); and C. Bonnet, <i>Documents inédits sur Mme de la -Vallière</i> (1904).</p> +apocryphal <i>Mémoires</i> appeared in 1829, and the <i>Lettres de Mme la +duchesse de la Vallière</i> (1767) are a corrupt version of her correspondence +with the maréchal de Bellefonds. Of modern works on the +subject see Arsène Houssaye, <i>Mlle de la Vallière et Mme de Montespan</i> +(1860); Jules Lair, <i>Louise de la Vallière</i> (3rd ed., 1902, Eng. +trans., 1908); and C. Bonnet, <i>Documents inédits sur Mme de la +Vallière</i> (1904).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1741-1801), German poet and -physiognomist, was born at Zürich on the 15th of November +physiognomist, was born at Zürich on the 15th of November 1741. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, where J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger were among his teachers. When barely one-and-twenty he greatly distinguished himself @@ -8290,7 +8251,7 @@ enthusiasm in his numerous journeys through Germany. His mystical writings were also widely popular. Scarcely a trace of this influence has remained, and Lavater’s name would be forgotten but for his work on physiognomy, <i>Physiognomische -Fragmente zur Beförderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe</i> +Fragmente zur Beförderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe</i> (1775-1778). The fame even of this book, which found enthusiastic admirers in France and England, as well as in Germany, rests to a great extent upon the handsome style of publication @@ -8313,7 +8274,7 @@ an antagonist of rationalism. During the later years of his life his influence waned, and he incurred ridicule by some exhibitions of vanity. He redeemed himself by his patriotic conduct during the French occupation of Switzerland, which brought about his -tragical death. On the taking of Zürich by the French in 1799, +tragical death. On the taking of Zürich by the French in 1799, Lavater, while endeavouring to appease the soldiery, was shot through the body by an infuriated grenadier; he died after long sufferings borne with great fortitude, on the 2nd of January 1801.</p> @@ -8322,10 +8283,10 @@ sufferings borne with great fortitude, on the 2nd of January 1801.</p> <p>Lavater himself published two collections of his writings, <i>Vermischte Schriften</i> (2 vols., 1774-1781), and <i>Kleinere prosaische Schriften</i> (3 vols., 1784-1785). His <i>Nachgelassene Schriften</i> were -edited by G. Gessner (5 vols., 1801-1802); <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> (but -only poems) (6 vols., 1836-1838); <i>Ausgewählte Schriften</i> (8 vols., +edited by G. Gessner (5 vols., 1801-1802); <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> (but +only poems) (6 vols., 1836-1838); <i>Ausgewählte Schriften</i> (8 vols., 1841-1844). See G. Gessner, <i>Lavaters Lebensbeschreibung</i> (3 vols., -1802-1803); U. Hegner, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis Lavaters</i> (1836); +1802-1803); U. Hegner, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis Lavaters</i> (1836); F. W. Bodemann, <i>Lavater nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken</i> (1856; 2nd ed., 1877); F. Muncker, <i>J. K. Lavater</i> (1883); H. Waser, <i>J. K. Lavater nach Hegners Aufzeichnungen</i> (1894); <i>J. K. @@ -8355,31 +8316,31 @@ Albigenses, and several times during the religious wars of the <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAVEDAN, HENRI LÉON ÉMILE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1859-  ), French +<p><span class="bold">LAVEDAN, HENRI LÉON ÉMILE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1859-  ), French dramatist and man of letters, was born at Orleans, the son of -Hubert Léon Lavedan, a well-known Catholic and liberal +Hubert Léon Lavedan, a well-known Catholic and liberal journalist. He contributed to various Parisian papers a series of witty tales and dialogues of Parisian life, many of which were collected in volume form. In 1891 he produced at the -Théâtre Français <i>Une Famille</i>, followed at the Vaudeville in +Théâtre Français <i>Une Famille</i>, followed at the Vaudeville in 1894 by <i>Le Prince d’Aurec</i>, a satire on the nobility, afterwards re-named <i>Les Descendants</i>. Later brilliant and witty pieces were <i>Les Deux noblesses</i> (1897), <i>Catherine</i> (1897), <i>Le Nouveau jeu</i> (1898), <i>Le Vieux marcheur</i> (1899), <i>Le Marquis de Priola</i> (1902), -and <i>Varennes</i> (1904), written in collaboration with G. Lenôtre. -He had a great success with <i>Le Duel</i> (Comédie Française, +and <i>Varennes</i> (1904), written in collaboration with G. Lenôtre. +He had a great success with <i>Le Duel</i> (Comédie Française, 1905), a powerful psychological study of the relations of two brothers. Lavedan was admitted to the French Academy in 1898.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAVELEYE, ÉMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1822-1892), Belgian +<p><span class="bold">LAVELEYE, ÉMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1822-1892), Belgian economist, was born at Bruges on the 5th of April 1822, and -educated there and at the Collège Stanislas in Paris, a celebrated +educated there and at the Collège Stanislas in Paris, a celebrated establishment in the hands of the Oratorians. He continued his studies at the Catholic university of Louvain and afterwards -at Ghent, where he came under the influence of François Huet, +at Ghent, where he came under the influence of François Huet, the philosopher and Christian Socialist. In 1844 he won a prize with an essay on the language and literature of Provence. In 1847 he published <i>L’Histoire des rois francs</i>, and in 1861 a French @@ -8392,13 +8353,13 @@ to discuss social and economic questions, and was thus led to publish his views on these subjects. In 1859 some articles by him in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> laid the foundation of his reputation as an economist. In 1864 he was elected to the chair -of political economy at the state university of Liége. Here he +of political economy at the state university of Liége. Here he wrote his most important works: <i>La Russie et l’Autriche depuis Sadowa</i> (1870), <i>Essai sur les formes de gouvernement dans les -sociétés modernes</i> (1872), <i>Des Causes actuelles de guerre en Europe -et de l’arbitrage</i> and <i>De la propriété et de ses formes primitives</i> -(1874), dedicated to the memory of John Stuart Mill and François -Huet. He died at Doyon, near Liége, on the 3rd of January +sociétés modernes</i> (1872), <i>Des Causes actuelles de guerre en Europe +et de l’arbitrage</i> and <i>De la propriété et de ses formes primitives</i> +(1874), dedicated to the memory of John Stuart Mill and François +Huet. He died at Doyon, near Liége, on the 3rd of January 1892. Laveleye’s name is particularly connected with bimetallism and primitive property, and he took a special interest in the revival and preservation of small nationalities. But @@ -8412,7 +8373,7 @@ to England, where he thought he saw many of his ideals of social, political and religious progress realized. He was a frequent contributor to the English newspapers and leading reviews. The most widely circulated of his works was a pamphlet on -<i>Le Parti clérical en Belgique</i>, of which 2,000,000 copies were +<i>Le Parti clérical en Belgique</i>, of which 2,000,000 copies were circulated in ten languages.</p> @@ -8463,7 +8424,7 @@ perfuming linen, and the characteristic cry of “Lavender! sweet lavender!” was still to be heard in London streets at the beginning of the 20th century. In England lavender is cultivated chiefly for the distillation of its essential oil, of which -it yields on an average 1½% when freed from the stalks, but in +it yields on an average 1½% when freed from the stalks, but in the south of Europe the flowers form an object of trade, being exported to the Barbary states, Turkey and America.</p> @@ -8554,8 +8515,8 @@ oxidation from myrcene, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>, which is one of the terpenes. The dose -is ½-3 minims. The British pharmacopeia contains a spiritus lavandulae, -dose 5-20 minims: and a compound tincture, dose ½-1 +is ½-3 minims. The British pharmacopeia contains a spiritus lavandulae, +dose 5-20 minims: and a compound tincture, dose ½-1 drachm. This is contained in liquor arsenicalis, and its characteristic odour may thus be of great practical importance, medico-legally and otherwise. The pharmacology of oil of lavender is simply that @@ -8602,7 +8563,7 @@ purple flowers, and shortly stalked spikes crowned by conspicuous purplish sterile bracts. The flowers were official in the London pharmacopoeia as late as 1746. They are still used by the Arabs as an expectorant and antispasmodic. The Stoechades (now called -the isles of Hyères near Toulon) owed their name to the abundance +the isles of Hyères near Toulon) owed their name to the abundance of the plant growing there.</p> <p>Other species of lavender are known, some of which extend as @@ -8619,7 +8580,7 @@ yellow-flowered, evergreen undershrubs of the Composite order.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAVERDY, CLÉMENT CHARLES FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1723-1793), +<p><span class="bold">LAVERDY, CLÉMENT CHARLES FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1723-1793), French statesman, was a member of the parlement of Paris when the case against the Jesuits came before that body in August 1761. He demanded the suppression of the order and @@ -8634,7 +8595,7 @@ accused of having himself profited from the commerce in wheat. A court intrigue led to his sudden dismissal on the 1st of October 1768. Henceforward he lived in retirement until, during the Revolution, he was involved in the charges against the financiers -of the old régime. The Revolutionary tribunal condemned +of the old régime. The Revolutionary tribunal condemned him to death, and he was guillotined on the 24th of November 1793.</p> @@ -8689,7 +8650,7 @@ was ordained priest in 1849, and was professor of ecclesiastical history at the Sorbonne from 1854 to 1856. In 1856 he accepted the direction of the schools of the East, and was thus for the first time brought into contact with the Mahommedan world. -“C’est là,” he wrote, “que j’ai connu enfin ma vocation.” +“C’est là ,” he wrote, “que j’ai connu enfin ma vocation.” Activity in missionary work, especially in alleviating the distresses of the victims of the Druses, soon brought him prominently into notice; he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour, @@ -8722,9 +8683,9 @@ Assembly, but was defeated. In 1874 he founded the Sahara and Sudan mission, and sent missionaries to Tunis, Tripoli, East Africa and the Congo. The order of African missionaries thus founded, for which Lavigerie himself drew up the rule, -has since become famous as the <i>Pères Blancs</i>. From 1881 +has since become famous as the <i>Pères Blancs</i>. From 1881 to 1884 his activity in Tunisia so raised the prestige of France -that it drew from Gambetta the celebrated declaration, <i>L’Anticléricalisme +that it drew from Gambetta the celebrated declaration, <i>L’Anticléricalisme n’est pas un article d’exportation</i>, and led to the exemption of Algeria from the application of the decrees concerning the religious orders. On the 27th of March 1882 the dignity @@ -8747,7 +8708,7 @@ monarchical sympathies, to which he clung as long as the comte de Chambord was alive, expressed his support of the republic. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> and emphasized it by having the Marseillaise played by a band -of his <i>Pères Blancs</i>. The further steps in this evolution emanated +of his <i>Pères Blancs</i>. The further steps in this evolution emanated from the pope, and Lavigerie, whose health now began to fail, receded comparatively into the background. He died at Algiers on the 26th of November 1892.</p> @@ -8755,24 +8716,24 @@ on the 26th of November 1892.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA VILLEMARQUÉ, THÉODORE CLAUDE HENRI,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte +<p><span class="bold">LA VILLEMARQUÉ, THÉODORE CLAUDE HENRI,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte Hersart de</span> (1815-1895), French philologist and man of -letters, was born at Keransker, near Quimperlé, on the 6th +letters, was born at Keransker, near Quimperlé, on the 6th of July 1815. He was descended from an old Breton family, which counted among its members a Hersart who had followed Saint Louis to the Crusade, and another who was a companion -in arms of Du Guesclin. La Villemarqué devoted himself to +in arms of Du Guesclin. La Villemarqué devoted himself to the elucidation of the monuments of Breton literature. Introduced in 1851 by Jacob Grimm as correspondent to the Academy of Berlin, he became in 1858 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. His works include: <i>Contes populaires des anciens Bretons</i> (1842), to which was prefixed an essay on the origin of the romances of the Round Table; <i>Essai sur l’histoire de la -langue bretonne</i> (1837); <i>Poèmes des bardes bretons du sixième -siècle</i> (1850); <i>La Légende celtique en Irelande, en Cambrie et en +langue bretonne</i> (1837); <i>Poèmes des bardes bretons du sixième +siècle</i> (1850); <i>La Légende celtique en Irelande, en Cambrie et en Bretagne</i> (1859). The popular Breton songs published by him in 1839 as <i>Barzaz Breiz</i> were considerably retouched. La -Villemarqué’s work has been superseded by the work of later +Villemarqué’s work has been superseded by the work of later scholars, but he has the merit of having done much to arouse popular interest in his subject. He died at Keransker on the 8th of December 1895.</p> @@ -8787,7 +8748,7 @@ for a list of works on the subject, the <i>Revue Celtique</i> (vol. v.).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAVINIUM,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> an ancient town of Latium, on the so-called Via Lavinatis (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Laurentina, Via</a></span>), 19 m. S. of Rome, the modern -<span class="sc">Pratica</span>, situated 300 ft. above sea-level and 2½ m. N.E. from +<span class="sc">Pratica</span>, situated 300 ft. above sea-level and 2½ m. N.E. from the sea-coast. Its foundation is attributed to Aeneas (whereas Laurentum was the primitive city of King Latinus), who named it after his wife Lavinia. It is rarely mentioned in Roman history @@ -8848,7 +8809,7 @@ elaborate description of his villa given by Pliny (cf. H. Winnefeld in <i>Jahrbuch des Instituts</i>, 1891, 200 seq.).</p> <p>The site of the ancient Lavinium, no less than 300 ft. above -sea-level and 2½ m. inland, is far healthier than the low-lying +sea-level and 2½ m. inland, is far healthier than the low-lying Laurentum, where, except in the immediate vicinity of the coast, malaria must have been a dreadful scourge. It possesses considerable natural strength, and consists of a small hill, the @@ -8874,10 +8835,10 @@ xvi. (1906), 241 seq.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAVISSE, ERNEST<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1842-  ), French historian, was born -at Nouvion-en-Thiérache, Aisne, on the 17th of December 1842. +at Nouvion-en-Thiérache, Aisne, on the 17th of December 1842. In 1865 he obtained a fellowship in history, and in 1875 became -a doctor of letters; he was appointed <i>maître de conférence</i> (1876) -at the école normale supérieure, succeeding Fustel de Coulanges, +a doctor of letters; he was appointed <i>maître de conférence</i> (1876) +at the école normale supérieure, succeeding Fustel de Coulanges, and then professor of modern history at the Sorbonne (1888), in the place of Henri Wallon. He was an eloquent professor and very fond of young people, and played an important part @@ -8887,27 +8848,27 @@ addresses, in his private lessons, where he taught a small number of pupils the historical method, and in his books, where he wrote <i>ad probandum</i> at least as much as <i>ad narrandum</i>: class-books, collections of articles, intermingled with personal reminiscences -(<i>Questions d’enseignement national</i>, 1885; <i>Études et étudiants</i>, -1890; <i>À propos de nos écoles</i>, 1895), rough historical sketches -(<i>Vue générale de l’histoire politique de l’Europe</i>, 1890), &c. Even +(<i>Questions d’enseignement national</i>, 1885; <i>Études et étudiants</i>, +1890; <i>À propos de nos écoles</i>, 1895), rough historical sketches +(<i>Vue générale de l’histoire politique de l’Europe</i>, 1890), &c. Even his works of learning, written without a trace of pedantry, are remarkable for their lucidity and vividness.</p> <p>After the Franco-Prussian War Lavisse studied the development -of Prussia and wrote <i>Étude sur l’une des origines de la +of Prussia and wrote <i>Étude sur l’une des origines de la monarchie prussienne, ou la Marche de Brandebourg sous la dynastie ascanienne</i>, which was his thesis for his doctor’s degree -in 1875, and <i>Études sur l’histoire de la Prusse</i> (1879). In connexion +in 1875, and <i>Études sur l’histoire de la Prusse</i> (1879). In connexion with his study of the Holy Roman Empire, and the cause of its decline, he wrote a number of articles which were published in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>; and he wrote <i>Trois empereurs -d’Allemagne</i> (1888), <i>La Jeunesse du grand Frédéric</i> (1891) and -<i>Frédéric II. avant son avènement</i> (1893) when studying the +d’Allemagne</i> (1888), <i>La Jeunesse du grand Frédéric</i> (1891) and +<i>Frédéric II. avant son avènement</i> (1893) when studying the modern German empire and the grounds for its strength. With his friend Alfred Rambaud he conceived the plan of <i>L’Histoire -générale du IV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle jusqu’à nos jours</i>, to which, however, he +générale du IV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle jusqu’à nos jours</i>, to which, however, he contributed nothing. He edited the <i>Histoire de France depuis -les origines jusqu’à la Révolution</i> (1901-  ), in which he carefully +les origines jusqu’à la Révolution</i> (1901-  ), in which he carefully revised the work of his numerous assistants, reserving the greatest part of the reign of Louis XIV. for himself. This <span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> @@ -8915,10 +8876,10 @@ section occupies the whole of volume vii. It is a remarkable piece of work, and the sketch of absolute government in France during this period has never before been traced with an equal amount of insight and brilliance. Lavisse was admitted to the -Académie Française on the death of Admiral Jurien de la -Gravière in 1892, and after the death of James Darmesteter +Académie Française on the death of Admiral Jurien de la +Gravière in 1892, and after the death of James Darmesteter became editor of the <i>Revue de Paris</i>. He is, however, chiefly -a master of pedagogy. When the école normale was joined to +a master of pedagogy. When the école normale was joined to the university of Paris, Lavisse was appointed director of the new organization, which he had helped more than any one to bring about.</p> @@ -8928,7 +8889,7 @@ bring about.</p> <p><span class="bold">LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1743-1794), French chemist, was born in Paris on the 26th of August 1743. His father, an <i>avocat au parlement</i>, gave him an excellent education at the -collège Mazarin, and encouraged his taste for natural science; +collège Mazarin, and encouraged his taste for natural science; and he studied mathematics and astronomy with N. L. de Lacaille, chemistry with the elder Rouelle and botany with Bernard de Jussieu. In 1766 he received a gold medal from the @@ -8947,7 +8908,7 @@ and the divining rod. The same year he obtained the position of <i>adjoint</i> to Baudon, one of the farmers-general of the revenue, subsequently becoming a full titular member of the body. This was the first of a series of posts in which his administrative -abilities found full scope. Appointed <i>régisseur des poudres</i> in +abilities found full scope. Appointed <i>régisseur des poudres</i> in 1775, he not only abolished the vexatious search for saltpetre in the cellars of private houses, but increased the production of the salt and improved the manufacture of gunpowder. In @@ -8956,7 +8917,7 @@ its secretary drew up reports and instructions on the cultivation of various crops, and promulgated schemes for the establishment of experimental agricultural stations, the distribution of agricultural implements and the adjustment of rights of pasturage. -Seven years before he had started a model farm at Fréchine, +Seven years before he had started a model farm at Fréchine, where he demonstrated the advantages of scientific methods of cultivation and of the introduction of good breeds of cattle and sheep. Chosen a member of the provincial assembly of Orleans @@ -8982,7 +8943,7 @@ and measures.</p> activity, the suppression of the farmers-general marked the beginning of troubles which brought about his death. His membership of that body was alone sufficient to make him an -object of suspicion; his administration at the <i>régie des poudres</i> +object of suspicion; his administration at the <i>régie des poudres</i> was attacked; and Marat accused him in the <i>Ami du Peuple</i> of putting Paris in prison and of stopping the circulation of air in the city by the <i>mur d’octroi</i> erected at his suggestion in 1787. @@ -8999,7 +8960,7 @@ passed a decree for the uniformity of weights and measures, and requested the Academy to take measures for carrying it out, but a week later Fourcroy persuaded the same convention to suppress the Academy together with other literary societies -<i>patentées et dotées</i> by the nation. In November it ordered the +<i>patentées et dotées</i> by the nation. In November it ordered the arrest of the ex-farmers-general, and on the advice of the committee of public instruction, of which Guyton de Morveau and Fourcroy were members, the names of Lavoisier and others @@ -9010,13 +8971,13 @@ former officials, the convention sent them for trial by the Revolutionary tribunal. Within a week Lavoisier and 27 others were condemned to death. A petition in his favour addressed to Coffinhal, the president of the tribunal, is said to have been -met with the reply <i>La République n’a pas besoin de savants</i>, +met with the reply <i>La République n’a pas besoin de savants</i>, and on the 8th of the month Lavoisier and his companions -were guillotined at the Place de la Révolution. He died fourth, +were guillotined at the Place de la Révolution. He died fourth, and was preceded by his colleague Jacques Paulze, whose daughter he had married in 1771. “<i>Il ne leur a fallu</i>,” Lagrange -remarked, “<i>qu’un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent -années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une +remarked, “<i>qu’un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent +années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une semblable</i>.”</p> <p>Lavoisier’s name is indissolubly associated with the overthrow @@ -9052,7 +9013,7 @@ processes he did not explain until after the preparation of “dephlogisticated air” (oxygen) by Priestley in 1774. Then, perceiving that in combustion and the calcination of metals only a portion of a given volume of common air was used up, he -concluded that Priestley’s new air, <i>air éminemment pur</i>, was what +concluded that Priestley’s new air, <i>air éminemment pur</i>, was what was absorbed by burning phosphorus, &c., “non-vital air,” azote, or nitrogen remaining behind. The gas given off in the reduction of metallic calces by charcoal he at first supposed to @@ -9103,7 +9064,7 @@ in character, had appealed most strongly to physicists, but it now began to win conviction from chemists also. C. L. Berthollet, L. B. Guyton de Morveau and A. F. Fourcroy, his collaborators in the reformed system of chemical terminology set forth in 1787 -in the <i>Méthode de <span class="correction" title="amended from momenclature">nomenclature</span> chimique</i>, were among the earliest +in the <i>Méthode de <span class="correction" title="amended from momenclature">nomenclature</span> chimique</i>, were among the earliest French converts, and they were followed by M. H. Klaproth and the German Academy, and by most English chemists except Cavendish, who rather suspended his judgment, and Priestley, @@ -9113,8 +9074,8 @@ the history of science scarcely presents a second instance of a change so fundamental accomplished with such ease. The spread of Lavoisier’s doctrines was greatly facilitated by the defined and logical form in which he presented them in his -<i>Traité élémentaire de chimie</i> (<i>présenté dans un ordre nouveau et -d’après les découvertes modernes</i>) (1789). The list of simple +<i>Traité élémentaire de chimie</i> (<i>présenté dans un ordre nouveau et +d’après les découvertes modernes</i>) (1789). The list of simple substances contained in the first volume of this work includes light and caloric with oxygen, azote and hydrogen. Under the head of “oxidable or acidifiable” substances, the combination @@ -9128,7 +9089,7 @@ were lime, baryta, magnesia, alumina and silica. The simple nature of the alkalies Lavoisier considered so doubtful that he did not class them as elements, which he conceived as substances which could not be further decomposed by any -known process of analysis—<i>les molécules simples et indivisibles +known process of analysis—<i>les molécules simples et indivisibles qui composent les corps</i>. The union of any two of the elements gave rise to binary compounds, such as oxides, acids, sulphides, &c. A substance containing three elements was a binary compound @@ -9144,10 +9105,10 @@ two carried out some of the earliest thermochemical investigations, devised apparatus for measuring linear and cubical expansions, and employed a modification of Joseph Black’s ice calorimeter in a series of determinations of specific heats. -Regarding heat (<i>matière de feu</i> or <i>fluide igné</i>) as a peculiar kind +Regarding heat (<i>matière de feu</i> or <i>fluide igné</i>) as a peculiar kind of imponderable matter, Lavoisier held that the three states of aggregation—solid, liquid and gas—were modes of matter, each -depending on the amount of <i>matière de feu</i> with which the ponderable +depending on the amount of <i>matière de feu</i> with which the ponderable substances concerned were interpenetrated and combined; and this view enabled him correctly to anticipate that gases would be reduced to liquids and solids by the influence of @@ -9165,20 +9126,20 @@ of fermentation, putrefaction and combustion.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>A complete edition of the writings of Lavoisier, <i>Œuvres de Lavoisier, -publiées par les soins du ministre de l’instruction publique</i>, was issued +publiées par les soins du ministre de l’instruction publique</i>, was issued at Paris in six volumes from 1864-1893. This publication comprises his <i>Opuscules physiques et chimiques</i> (1774), many memoirs from the Academy volumes, and numerous letters, notes and reports relating to the various matters on which he was engaged. At the time of his death he was preparing an edition of his collected works, and the portions ready for the press were published in two volumes as -<i>Mémoires de chimie</i> in 1805 by his widow (in that year married to +<i>Mémoires de chimie</i> in 1805 by his widow (in that year married to Count Rumford), who had drawn and engraved the plates in his -<i>Traité élémentaire de chimie</i> (1789).</p> +<i>Traité élémentaire de chimie</i> (1789).</p> -<p>Sec E. Grimaux, <i>Lavoisier 1743-1794, d’après sa correspondance, +<p>Sec E. Grimaux, <i>Lavoisier 1743-1794, d’après sa correspondance, ses manuscripts</i>, &c. (1888), which gives a list of his works; P. E. M. -Berthelot, <i>La Révolution chimique: Lavoisier</i> (1890), which contains +Berthelot, <i>La Révolution chimique: Lavoisier</i> (1890), which contains an analysis of and extracts from his laboratory notebooks.</p> </div> @@ -9191,7 +9152,7 @@ des poisons</i>, which disgraced the reign of Louis XIV. Her husband, Monvoisin, was an unsuccessful jeweller, and she practised chiromancy and face-reading to retrieve their fortunes. She gradually added the practice of witchcraft, in which she had -the help of a renegade priest, Étienne Guibourg, whose part +the help of a renegade priest, Étienne Guibourg, whose part was the celebration of the “black mass,” an abominable parody in which the host was compounded of the blood of a little child mixed with horrible ingredients. She practised medicine, @@ -9201,13 +9162,13 @@ the magician Lesage, whose real name was Adam Cœuret. The great ladies of Paris flocked to La Voisin, who accumulated enormous wealth. Among her clients were Olympe Mancini, comtesse de Soissons, who sought the death of the king’s mistress, -Louise de la Vallière; Mme de Montespan, Mme de Gramont +Louise de la Vallière; Mme de Montespan, Mme de Gramont (<i>la belle</i> Hamilton) and others. The bones of toads, the teeth of moles, cantharides, iron filings, human blood and human dust were among the ingredients of the love powders concocted by La Voisin. Her knowledge of poisons was not apparently so thorough as that of less well-known sorcerers, or it would be -difficult to account for La Vallière’s immunity. The art of +difficult to account for La Vallière’s immunity. The art of poisoning had become a regular science. The death of Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, was attributed, falsely it is true, to poison, and the crimes of Marie Madeleine de Brinvilliers (executed in @@ -9226,8 +9187,8 @@ the <i>chambre ardente</i>, as the court was called, on the 1st of October the 21st of July 1682. Many of the culprits escaped through private influence. Among these were Marie Anne Mancini, duchesse de Bouillon, who had sought to get rid of her husband -in order to marry the duke of Vendôme, though Louis XIV. -banished her to Nérac. Mme de Montespan was not openly +in order to marry the duke of Vendôme, though Louis XIV. +banished her to Nérac. Mme de Montespan was not openly disgraced, because the preservation of Louis’s own dignity was essential, and some hundred prisoners, among them the infamous Guibourg and Lesage, escaped the scaffold through the suppression @@ -9246,9 +9207,9 @@ known to history.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See F. Ravaisson, <i>Archives de la Bastille</i>, vols. iv.-vii. (1870-1874); -the notes of La Reynie, preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale; +the notes of La Reynie, preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale; F. Funck-Brentano, <i>Le Drame des poisons</i> (1899); A. Masson, <i>La -Sorcellerie et la science des poisons au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1904). Sardou made +Sorcellerie et la science des poisons au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1904). Sardou made the affair a background for his <i>Affaire des poisons</i> (1907). There is a portrait of La Voisin by Antoine Coypel, which has been often reproduced.</p> </div> @@ -9301,7 +9262,7 @@ reissued at the rate of 120 for 100—a measure by which foreign coiners profited greatly, and a chamber of justice was established to punish speculators, to whom the difficulties of the state were ascribed. These measures had so little success that the <i>billets -d’état</i> which were issued as part security for the new debt at +d’état</i> which were issued as part security for the new debt at once sank 75% below their nominal value. At this crisis Law unfolded a vast scheme to the perplexed regent. A royal bank was to manage the trade and currency of the kingdom, to collect @@ -9309,10 +9270,10 @@ the taxes, and to free the country from debt. The council of finance, then under the duc de Noailles, opposed the plan, but the regent allowed Law to take some tentative steps. By an edict of 2nd May 1716, a private institution called <i>La Banque -générale</i>, and managed by Law, was founded. The capital was +générale</i>, and managed by Law, was founded. The capital was 6 million livres, divided into 1200 shares of 5000 livres, payable in four instalments, one-fourth in cash, three-fourths in <i>billets -d’état</i>. It was to perform the ordinary functions of a bank, +d’état</i>. It was to perform the ordinary functions of a bank, and had power to issue notes payable at sight in the weight and value of the money mentioned at day of issue. The bank was a great and immediate success. By providing for the absorption @@ -9339,7 +9300,7 @@ d’Occident</i>, and to endow it with privileges practically amounting to sovereignty over the most fertile region of North America. The capital was 100 million livres divided into 200,000 shares of 500 livres. The payments were to be one-fourth in coin and -three-fourths in <i>billets d’état</i>. On these last the government +three-fourths in <i>billets d’état</i>. On these last the government was to pay 3 million livres interest yearly to the company. As the state paper was depreciated the shares fell much below par. The rapid rise of Law had made him many enemies, and @@ -9347,7 +9308,7 @@ they took advantage of this to attack the system. D’Argenson, now head of the council of finance, with the brothers Paris of Grenoble, famous tax farmers of the day, formed what was called the “anti-system.” The farming of the taxes was let to them, -under an assumed name, for 48½ million livres yearly. A company +under an assumed name, for 48½ million livres yearly. A company was formed, the exact counterpart of the Mississippi company. The capital was the same, divided in the same manner, but the payments were to be entirely in money. The returns from the @@ -9371,7 +9332,7 @@ dwindled away to a shadow, to his company. The united association, foreign trade of France. These proceedings necessitated the creation of new capital to the nominal amount of 25 million livres. The payment was spread over 20 months. Every holder of four -original shares (<i>mères</i>) could purchase one of the new shares +original shares (<i>mères</i>) could purchase one of the new shares (<i>filles</i>) at a premium of 50 livres. All these 500-livre shares rapidly rose to 750, or 50% above par. Law now turned his attention to obtaining additional powers within France itself. @@ -9381,7 +9342,7 @@ coin-issue. For this privilege the company paid 5 million livres, and the money was raised by a new issue of shares of the nominal value of 500 livres, but with a premium of other 500. The list was only open for twenty days, and it was necessary to present -four <i>mères</i> and one <i>fille</i> in order to obtain one of the new shares +four <i>mères</i> and one <i>fille</i> in order to obtain one of the new shares (<i>petites filles</i>). At the same time two dividends per annum of 6% each were promised. Again there was an attempt to ruin the bank by the commonplace expedient of making a run on @@ -9541,14 +9502,14 @@ vast projects to restore himself to power, and France to commercial prosperity.</p> <p>The fullest account of the Mississippi scheme is that of Thiers, <i>Law -et son système des finances</i> (1826, American trans. 1859). See also +et son système des finances</i> (1826, American trans. 1859). See also Heymann, <i>Law und sein System</i> (1853); Pierre Bonnassieux, <i>Les Grandes Compagnies de commerce</i> (1892); S. Alexi, <i>John Law und sein -System</i> (1885); E. Levasseur, <i>Récherches historiques sur le système de -Law</i> (1854); and Jobez, <i>Une Préface au socialisme, ou le système de +System</i> (1885); E. Levasseur, <i>Récherches historiques sur le système de +Law</i> (1854); and Jobez, <i>Une Préface au socialisme, ou le système de Law et la chasse aux capitalistes</i> (1848). Full biographical details are given in Wood’s <i>Life of Law</i> (Edinburgh, 1824). All Law’s later -writings are to be found in Daire, <i>Collection des principaux économistes</i>, +writings are to be found in Daire, <i>Collection des principaux économistes</i>, vol. i. (1843). Other works on Law are: A. W. Wiston-Glynn, <i>John Law of Lauriston</i> (1908); P. A. Cachut, <i>The Financier Law, his Scheme and Times</i> (1856); A. Macf. Davis, <i>An Historical Study of Law’s @@ -9799,7 +9760,7 @@ bestowed a Royal medal on Lawes and Gilbert jointly, and in 1882 he was created a baronet. In the year before his death, which happened on the 31st of August 1900, he took measures to ensure the continued existence of the Rothamsted experimental -farm by setting aside £100,000 for that purpose and +farm by setting aside £100,000 for that purpose and constituting the Lawes Agricultural Trust, composed of four members from the Royal Society, two from the Royal Agricultural Society, one each from the Chemical and Linnaean @@ -9854,7 +9815,7 @@ from <i>lin</i>, flax, linen, but Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, 1898, Addenda) and A. Thomas (<i>Romania</i>, xxix. 182, 1900) have shown that the real source of the word is to be found in the name of the French town Laon. Skeat quotes from Palsgrave, <i>Les claircissement -de la langue Françoÿse</i> (1530), showing that the early name +de la langue Françoÿse</i> (1530), showing that the early name of the fabric was <i>Laune lynen</i>. An early form of the word was “laund,” probably due to an adaptation to “laund,” lawn, glade or clearing in a forest, now used of a closely-mown expanse @@ -9918,7 +9879,7 @@ right-hand and left-hand courts; and the portion of these divisions between the service-lines and the net are the right-hand service-court and left-hand service-court respectively. The balls, which are made of hollow india-rubber, tightly covered -with white flannel, are 2½ in. in diameter, and from 1<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> to 2 oz. +with white flannel, are 2½ in. in diameter, and from 1<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> to 2 oz. in weight. The racquets (fig. 3), for which there are no regulation dimensions, are broader and lighter than those used in tennis.</p> @@ -10191,7 +10152,7 @@ and the players who have since then come to the front have for the most part followed the principles laid down by the Renshaws and Lawford. One of the greatest performances at lawn-tennis was in the championship competition in 1886 when W. Renshaw -beat Lawford a love set in 9½ minutes. The longest rest in first-class +beat Lawford a love set in 9½ minutes. The longest rest in first-class lawn-tennis occurred in a match between Lawford and E. Lubbock in 1880, when eighty-one strokes were played. Among players in the first class who were contemporaries of @@ -10634,8 +10595,8 @@ in Boston in 1857.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Hamilton A. Hill, <i>Memoir of Abbott Lawrence</i> (Boston, -1884). Randolph Anders’ <i>Der Weg zum Glück, oder die Kunst -Millionär zu werden</i> (Berlin, 1856) is a pretended translation of +1884). Randolph Anders’ <i>Der Weg zum Glück, oder die Kunst +Millionär zu werden</i> (Berlin, 1856) is a pretended translation of moral maxims from a supposititious manuscript bequeathed to Abbott Lawrence by a rich uncle.</p> </div> @@ -10664,7 +10625,7 @@ Aid Company), which sent 1300 settlers to Kansas, where the city of Lawrence was named in his honour. He contributed personally for the famous Sharp rifles, which, packed as “books” and “primers,” were shipped to Kansas and afterwards came -into the hands of John Brown, who had been a <i>protégé</i> of Lawrence. +into the hands of John Brown, who had been a <i>protégé</i> of Lawrence. During the contest in Kansas, Lawrence wrote frequently to President Pierce (his mother’s nephew) in behalf of the free-state settlers; and when John Brown was arrested he appealed @@ -11004,8 +10965,8 @@ commissioner and his officers united in ascribing “to the Lord our God all the praise due for nerving the hearts of our statesmen and the arms of our soldiers.” As Sir John Lawrence, Bart., G.C.B., with the thanks of parliament, the gratitude -of his country, and a life pension of £2000 a year in addition -to his ordinary pension of £1000, the “saviour of India” returned +of his country, and a life pension of £2000 a year in addition +to his ordinary pension of £1000, the “saviour of India” returned home in 1859. After guarding the interests of India and its people as a member of the secretary of state’s council, he was sent out again in 1864 as viceroy and governor-general @@ -11108,7 +11069,7 @@ by the French under Lally. In 1759 failing health compelled him to return to England. He resumed his command in 1761 as major-general and commander-in-chief. Clive supplemented his old friend’s inconsiderable income by settling on him an -annuity of £500 a year. In 1765 he presided over the board +annuity of £500 a year. In 1765 he presided over the board charged with arranging the reorganization of the Madras army, and he finally retired the following year. He died in London on the 10th of January 1775. The East India Company erected a @@ -11282,7 +11243,7 @@ by the Merrimac, which is here crossed by a great stone dam Water from the river is carried to factories by a canal on each side of the river and parallel to it; the first canal was built on the north side in 1845-1847 and is 1 m. long; the -canal on the south side is about ¾ m. long, and was built several +canal on the south side is about ¾ m. long, and was built several years later. There are large and well-kept public parks, a common (17 acres) with a soldiers’ monument, a free public library, with more than 50,000 volumes in 1907, a city hall, county and @@ -11418,7 +11379,7 @@ imprisoned for conspiring against Cromwell. Afterwards he lived at Scarborough until the fall of Richard Cromwell’s government. During the troubled months which succeeded that event Lawson, flying his flag as admiral of the Channel fleet, played a -marked political rôle. His ships escorted Charles to England, +marked political rôle. His ships escorted Charles to England, and he was soon afterwards knighted. Sent out in 1661 with Montagu, earl of Sandwich, to the Mediterranean, Lawson conducted a series of campaigns against the piratical states of @@ -11473,14 +11434,14 @@ accurately, a short poem, lyrical or narrative, which could be sung or accompanied by music; such were the romances sung by minstrels. Such an expression as the “Lay of the Nibelungen” is due to mistaken association of the word with Ger. <i>Lied</i>, song, -which appears in Anglo-Saxon as <i>léoð</i>. “Lay” comes from +which appears in Anglo-Saxon as <i>léoð</i>. “Lay” comes from O. Fr. <i>lai</i>, of which the derivation is doubtful. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> rejects Celtic origins sometimes put forward, such as Ir. <i>laoidh</i>, Welsh <i>llais</i>, and takes O. Mid. and High Ger. <i>leich</i> as the probable source. (2) “Non-clerical” or “unlearned.” -In this sense “lay” comes directly from Fr. <i>lai</i> (<i>laïque</i>, the +In this sense “lay” comes directly from Fr. <i>lai</i> (<i>laïque</i>, the learned form nearer to the Latin, is now used) from Lat. <i>laicus</i>, -Gr. <span class="grk" title="laikos">λαϊκός</span>, of or belonging to the people (<span class="grk" title="laos">λαός</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="leôs">λεώς</span>). +Gr. <span class="grk" title="laikos">λαϊκός</span>, of or belonging to the people (<span class="grk" title="laos">λαός</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="leôs">λεώς</span>). The word is now specially applied to persons who are not in orders, and more widely to those who do not belong to other learned professions, particularly the law and medicine. The @@ -11511,7 +11472,7 @@ verb “to lie,” of which the past is “lay.” The common ro of both “lie” and “lay” is represented by O. Teut. <i>leg</i>; cf. Dutch <i>leggen</i>, Ger. <i>legen</i>, and Eng. “ledge.”<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (4) “Lay-figure” is the name commonly given to articulated figures of -human beings or animals, made of wood, papier-maché or other +human beings or animals, made of wood, papier-maché or other materials; draped and posed, such figures serve as models for artists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Models</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artists</a></span>). The word has no connexion with “to lay,” to place in position, but is an adaptation of the word @@ -11523,8 +11484,8 @@ is <i>ledenman</i>) and meant an “articulated or jointed man” from <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The verb “to lie,” to speak falsely, to tell a falsehood, is in -O. Eng. <i>léogan</i>; it appears in most Teutonic languages, <i>e.g.</i> Dutch -<i>lugen</i>, Ger. <i>lügen</i>.</p> +O. Eng. <i>léogan</i>; it appears in most Teutonic languages, <i>e.g.</i> Dutch +<i>lugen</i>, Ger. <i>lügen</i>.</p> </div> @@ -11532,17 +11493,17 @@ O. Eng. <i>léogan</i>; it appears in most Teutonic languages, <i>e.g.</i> Dutch <p><span class="bold">LAYA, JEAN LOUIS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1761-1833), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 4th of December 1761 and died in August 1833. He wrote his first comedy in collaboration with Gabriel -M. J. B. Legouvé in 1785, but the piece, though accepted by -the Comédie Française, was never represented. In 1789 he +M. J. B. Legouvé in 1785, but the piece, though accepted by +the Comédie Française, was never represented. In 1789 he produced a plea for religious toleration in the form of a five-act tragedy in verse, <i>Jean Calas</i>; the injustice of the disgrace cast on a family by the crime of one of its members formed the theme of <i>Les Dangers de l’opinion</i> (1790); but it is by his <i>Ami des lois</i> (1793) that Laya is remembered. This energetic protest against mob-rule, with its scarcely veiled characterizations of -Robespierre as Nomophage and of Marat as Duricrâne, was +Robespierre as Nomophage and of Marat as Duricrâne, was an act of the highest courage, for the play was produced at -the Théâtre Français (temporarily Théâtre de la Nation) only +the Théâtre Français (temporarily Théâtre de la Nation) only <span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span> nineteen days before the execution of Louis XVI. Ten days after its first production the piece was prohibited by the commune, @@ -11554,7 +11515,7 @@ of the obnoxious play in their possession were guillotined. At the end of the Terror Laya returned to Paris. In 1813 he replaced Delille in the Paris chair of literary history and French poetry; he was admitted to the Academy in 1817. Laya produced -in 1797 <i>Les Deux Stuarts</i>, and in 1799 <i>Falkland</i>, the title-rôle +in 1797 <i>Les Deux Stuarts</i>, and in 1799 <i>Falkland</i>, the title-rôle of which provided Talma with one of his finest opportunities. Laya’s works, which chiefly owe their interest to the circumstances attending their production, were collected in @@ -11562,8 +11523,8 @@ circumstances attending their production, were collected in <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Notice biographique sur J. L. Laya</i> (1833); Ch. Nodier, -<i>Discours de réception</i>, 26th December (1833); Welschinger, <i>Théâtre -de la révolution</i> (1880).</p> +<i>Discours de réception</i>, 26th December (1833); Welschinger, <i>Théâtre +de la révolution</i> (1880).</p> </div> @@ -11701,7 +11662,7 @@ Article “Layamon,” in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.; Six Old English Chronicles</i>, including Gildas, Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth (in Bohn’s Antiquarian Library); <i>Le Roux de Lincy, Le Roman de Brut, par Wace, avec un commentaire et des notes</i> (Rouen, 1836-1838), -E. Mätzner, <i>Altenglische Sprachproben</i> (Berlin, 1867).</p> +E. Mätzner, <i>Altenglische Sprachproben</i> (Berlin, 1867).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. W. S.)</div> @@ -11748,7 +11709,7 @@ illustrate the antiquities described in this work he published a large folio volume of <i>Illustrations of the Monuments of Nineveh</i> (1849). After spending a few months in England, and receiving the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, Layard -returned to Constantinople as attaché to the British embassy, +returned to Constantinople as attaché to the British embassy, and, in August 1849, started on a second expedition, in the course of which he extended his investigations to the ruins of Babylon and the mounds of southern Mesopotamia. His record of this @@ -11850,7 +11811,7 @@ its educational activities (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jesuits</a> <p>His <i>Disputationes Tridentinae</i> were published in 2 volumes in 1886. Lives by Michel d’Esne (Douai, 1597) and Pet. Ribadeneira (Madrid, 1592; Lat. trans. by A. Schott, Antwerp, 1598). See also -H. Müller, <i>Les Origines de la Compagnie de Jésus: Ignace et Lainez</i> +H. Müller, <i>Les Origines de la Compagnie de Jésus: Ignace et Lainez</i> (1898).</p> </div> @@ -11882,7 +11843,7 @@ Catholic Church. It had its origin in the successful mission to the common people conducted by St Vincent de Paul (<i>q.v.</i>) and five other priests on the estates of the Gondi family. More immediately it dates from 1624, when the little community -acquired a permanent settlement in the collège des Bons Enfans +acquired a permanent settlement in the collège des Bons Enfans in Paris. Archiepiscopal recognition was obtained in 1626; by a papal bull of the 12th of January 1632, the society was constituted a congregation, with St Vincent de Paul at its head. @@ -11921,16 +11882,16 @@ establishments in the United States of America. The total number of Lazarites throughout the world is computed at about 3000. Amongst distinguished members of the congregation may be mentioned: P. Collet (1693-1770), writer on theology -and ethics; J. de la Grive (1689-1757), geographer; E. Boré +and ethics; J. de la Grive (1689-1757), geographer; E. Boré (d. 1878), orientalist; P. Bertholon (1689-1757), physician; and Armand David, Chinese missionary and traveller.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Regulae seu constitutiones communes congregationis missionis</i> -(Paris, 1668); <i>Mémoires de la congrégation de la mission</i> (1863); -<i>Congrégation de la mission. Répertoire historique</i> (1900); <i>Notices -bibliographiques sur les écrivains de la congrégation de la mission</i> -(Angoulême, 1878); P. Hélyot, <i>Dict. des ordres religieux</i>, viii. 64-77; +(Paris, 1668); <i>Mémoires de la congrégation de la mission</i> (1863); +<i>Congrégation de la mission. Répertoire historique</i> (1900); <i>Notices +bibliographiques sur les écrivains de la congrégation de la mission</i> +(Angoulême, 1878); P. Hélyot, <i>Dict. des ordres religieux</i>, viii. 64-77; M. Heimbrecher, <i>Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholischen Kirche</i>, ii. (1897); C. Stork in Wetzer and Welte’s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (Catholic), vii.; E. Bougaud, <i>History of St Vincent de Paul</i> (1908).</p> @@ -12072,19 +12033,19 @@ but must be devoted primarily to society as a whole. The psychologist must study mankind from the historical or comparative standpoint, analysing the elements which constitute the fabric of society, with its customs, its conventions and the -main tendencies of its evolution. This <i>Völkerpsychologie</i> (folk- or +main tendencies of its evolution. This <i>Völkerpsychologie</i> (folk- or comparative psychology) is one of the chief developments of the Herbartian theory of philosophy; it is a protest not only against the so-called scientific standpoint of natural philosophers, but also against the individualism of the positivists. In support of his theory he founded, in combination with H. Steinthal, -the <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft</i> +the <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft</i> (1859). His own contributions to this periodical were numerous and important. His chief work was <i>Das Leben der Seele</i> (Berlin, 1855-1857; 3rd edition, 1883). Other philosophical works were:—<i>Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten</i> (1860 and 1867), <i>Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte</i> (1865 and 1872); <i>Zur Lehre von den -Sinnestäuschungen</i> (1867); <i>Ideale Fragen</i> (1875 and 1885), +Sinnestäuschungen</i> (1867); <i>Ideale Fragen</i> (1875 and 1885), <i>Erziehung und Geschichte</i> (1881); <i>Unser Standpunkt</i> (1881); <i>Ueber die Reize des Spiels</i> (1883). Apart from the great interest of his philosophical work, Lazarus was pre-eminent among the @@ -12095,15 +12056,15 @@ literature and thought. He protested against the violent anti-Semitism of the time, and, in spite of the moderate tone of his publications, drew upon himself unqualified censure. He wrote in this connexion a number of articles collected in 1887 -under the title <i>Treu und Frei. Reden und Vorträge über Juden +under the title <i>Treu und Frei. Reden und Vorträge über Juden und Judenthum</i>. In 1869 and 1871 he was president of the first and second Jewish Synods at Leipzig and Augsburg.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See R. Flint, <i>The Philosophy of History in Europe</i>; M. Brasch, -<i>Gesammelte Essays und Characterköpfe zur neuen Philos. und Literatur</i>; -E. Berliner, <i>Lazarus und die öffentliche Meinung</i>; M. Brasch, -“Der Begründer de Völkerpsychologie,” in <i>Nord et Sud</i>, (September +<i>Gesammelte Essays und Characterköpfe zur neuen Philos. und Literatur</i>; +E. Berliner, <i>Lazarus und die öffentliche Meinung</i>; M. Brasch, +“Der Begründer de Völkerpsychologie,” in <i>Nord et Sud</i>, (September 1894).</p> </div> @@ -12141,9 +12102,9 @@ formally abolished by a state decree of 1830.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See L. Mainbourg, <i>Hist. des croisades</i> (1682; Eng. trans. by -Nalson, 1686); P. Hélyot, <i>Hist. des ordres monastiques</i> (1714), pp. -257, 386; J. G. Uhlhorn, <i>Die christliche Liebesthätigkeit im Mittelalter</i> -(Stuttgart, 1884); articles in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie für +Nalson, 1686); P. Hélyot, <i>Hist. des ordres monastiques</i> (1714), pp. +257, 386; J. G. Uhlhorn, <i>Die christliche Liebesthätigkeit im Mittelalter</i> +(Stuttgart, 1884); articles in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie</i>, xi. (1902) and Wetzer and Welte’s (Catholic) <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, vii. (1891).</p> </div> @@ -12223,7 +12184,7 @@ and cerussite; of minor importance are anglesite, pyromorphite and mimetesite (<i>qq.v.</i>). Galena (<i>q.v.</i>), the principal lead ore, has a world-wide distribution, and is always contaminated with silver sulphide, the proportion of noble metal varying from about -0.01 or less to 0.3%, and in rare cases coming up to ½ or 1%. +0.01 or less to 0.3%, and in rare cases coming up to ½ or 1%. Fine-grained galena is usually richer in silver than the coarse-grained. Galena occurs in veins in the Cambrian clay-slate, accompanied by copper and iron pyrites, zinc-blende, quartz, calc-spar, @@ -12272,11 +12233,11 @@ Broken Hill, New South Wales.</p> <p>Anglesite, or lead sulphate, PbSO<span class="su">4</span>, is poor in silver, and is only exceptionally mined by itself; it occurs in quantity in France, Spain, Sardinia and Australia. Of other lead minerals we may -mention the basic sulphate lanarkite, PbO·PbSO<span class="su">4</span>; leadhillite, -PbSO<span class="su">4</span>·3PbCO<span class="su">3</span>; the basic chlorides matlockite, PbO·PbCl<span class="su">2</span>, -and mendipite, PbCl<span class="su">2</span>·2PbO; the chloro-phosphate pyromorphite, -PbCl<span class="su">2</span>·3Pb<span class="su">3</span>(PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, the chloro-arsenate mimetesite, -PbCl<span class="su">2</span>·3Pb<span class="su">3</span>(AsO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>; the molybdate wulfenite, PbMoO<span class="su">4</span>; the +mention the basic sulphate lanarkite, PbO·PbSO<span class="su">4</span>; leadhillite, +PbSO<span class="su">4</span>·3PbCO<span class="su">3</span>; the basic chlorides matlockite, PbO·PbCl<span class="su">2</span>, +and mendipite, PbCl<span class="su">2</span>·2PbO; the chloro-phosphate pyromorphite, +PbCl<span class="su">2</span>·3Pb<span class="su">3</span>(PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, the chloro-arsenate mimetesite, +PbCl<span class="su">2</span>·3Pb<span class="su">3</span>(AsO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>; the molybdate wulfenite, PbMoO<span class="su">4</span>; the chromate crocoite or crocoisite, PbCrO<span class="su">4</span>; the tungstate stolzite, PbWO<span class="su">4</span>.</p> @@ -12372,7 +12333,7 @@ the flue, so that the metal runs to the latter end to collect in pots placed <i>outside</i> the furnace. In Carinthia the oxidizing process from the first is pushed on so far that metallic lead begins to show, and the oxygen introduced predominates over the sulphur left. The mass is -then stirred to liberate the lead, which is removed as <i>Rührblei</i>. +then stirred to liberate the lead, which is removed as <i>Rührblei</i>. Charcoal is now added, and the heat urged on to obtain <i>Pressblei</i>, an inferior metal formed partly by the action of the charcoal on the oxide of lead. The fuel used is fir-wood.</p> @@ -12397,7 +12358,7 @@ and the oxidized ore is then reduced by fusion in a low, square blast-furnace also the inclined sole-plate which is made to project beyond the furnace, the outside portion (the “work-stone”) being provided with grooves guiding any molten metal that may be placed on the -“stone” into a cast iron pot; the “tuyère” for the introduction +“stone” into a cast iron pot; the “tuyère” for the introduction of the wind was, in the earlier types, about half way down the furnace.</p> @@ -12429,7 +12390,7 @@ dust, called “blue powder.” Thus, a mixture of lead sulphate (45%) and oxide (44%) with some sulphide (8%), zinc and carbonaceous matter, is agglomerated by a heap-roast and then smelted in a slag-eye furnace with grey slag from the ore-hearth. The -furnace has, in addition to the usual tuyères near the bottom, a +furnace has, in addition to the usual tuyères near the bottom, a second set near the throat in order to effect a complete oxidation of all combustible matter. Much fume is thus produced. This is drawn off, cooled and filtered, and forms a white paint of good body, @@ -12458,7 +12419,7 @@ The shaft, resting upon arches supported by four cast iron columns about 9 ft. high, is usually of brick, red brick on the outside, fire-brick on the inside; sometimes it is made of wrought iron water-jackets. The smelting zone always has a bosh and a contracted -tuyère section. It is enclosed by water-jackets, which are usually +tuyère section. It is enclosed by water-jackets, which are usually cast iron, sometimes mild steel. The hearth always has an Arents siphon tap. This is an inclined channel running through the side-wall, beginning near the bottom of the crucible and ending at the @@ -12477,18 +12438,18 @@ of some well-known American lead-furnaces.</p> <p class="pt2 center"><i>Lead Blast-Furnace.</i></p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm allb">Locality.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tuyère<br />Section.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Height, Tuyère<br />to Throat.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Locality.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tuyère<br />Section.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Height, Tuyère<br />to Throat.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">In.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ft.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leadville, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">33 × 84 </td> <td class="tcc rb">14</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denver, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">36 × 100</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Durango, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">36 × 96 </td> <td class="tcc rb">12.6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denver, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">42 × 100</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leadville, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">42 × 120</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Salt Lake City, Utah</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">45 × 140</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leadville, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">33 × 84 </td> <td class="tcc rb">14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denver, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">36 × 100</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Durango, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">36 × 96 </td> <td class="tcc rb">12.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denver, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">42 × 100</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leadville, Colorado</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">42 × 120</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Salt Lake City, Utah</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">45 × 140</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td></tr> </table> -<p>A furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyères, with a working height of +<p>A furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyères, with a working height of 17-20 ft., will put through in twenty-four hours, with twelve men, 12% coke and 2 ℔ blast-pressure, 85-100 tons average charge, <i>i.e.</i> one that is a medium coarse, contains 12-15% lead, not over 5% @@ -12503,7 +12464,7 @@ than 1% lead and 1 oz. silver to the ton. The leading products of the blast-furnace are argentiferous lead (base bullion), matte, slag and flue-dust (fine particles of charge and volatilized metal carried out of the furnace by the ascending gas current). The base bullion -(assaying 300 ± oz. per ton) is desilverized (see below); the matte +(assaying 300 ± oz. per ton) is desilverized (see below); the matte (Pb = 8-12%, Cu = 3-4%, Ag = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>-<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> of the assay-value of the base bullion, rest Fe and S) is roasted and resmelted, when part of the argentiferous lead is recovered as base bullion, while the rest remains @@ -12514,7 +12475,7 @@ dust-chambers, is briquetted by machinery, with lime as a bond, and then resmelted with the ore-charge. The yield in lead is over 90%, in silver over 97% and in gold 100%. The cost of smelting a ton of ore in Colorado in a single furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the -tuyères, is about $3.</p> +tuyères, is about $3.</p> <p>The lead produced in the reverberatory furnace and the ore-hearth is of a higher grade than that produced in the blast-furnace, as the @@ -12652,7 +12613,7 @@ process (1870), which does away with arduous labour and attains a more satisfactory crystallization. The plant consists of two tilting oval metal pans (capacity 7 tons), one cylindrical crystallizing pot (capacity 22 tons), with two discharging spouts and one -steam inlet opening, two lead moulds (capacity 3½ tons), and a steam +steam inlet opening, two lead moulds (capacity 3½ tons), and a steam crane. Pans and pot are heated from separate fire-places. Supposing the pot to be filled with melted lead to be treated, the fire is withdrawn beneath and steam introduced. This cools and stirs the @@ -12687,7 +12648,7 @@ of zinc, all the gold and copper and some silver and lead will be alloyed with the zinc to a so-called gold—or copper—crust, and the residual lead saturated with zinc. By removing from the surface of the lead this first crust and working it up separately (liquating, -retorting and cupelling), doré silver is obtained. By the second +retorting and cupelling), doré silver is obtained. By the second addition of zinc most of the silver will be collected in a saturated zinc-silver-lead crust, which, when worked up, gives fine silver. A third addition becomes necessary to remove the rest of the silver, @@ -12708,7 +12669,7 @@ the plumbago crucible. The retort is pear-shaped, and holds 1000-1500 lb of charge, consisting of liquated crust mixed with 1-3% of charcoal. The condenser commonly used is an old retort. The distillation of 1000 ℔ charge lasts 5-6 hours, requires 500-600 ℔ -coke or 30± gallons reduced oil, and yields about 10% metallic +coke or 30± gallons reduced oil, and yields about 10% metallic zinc and 1% blue powder—a mixture of finely-divided metallic zinc and zinc oxide. About 60% of the zinc used in desilverizing is recovered in a form to be used again. One man serves 2-4 retorts. @@ -12741,12 +12702,12 @@ softness and plasticity, and almost entirely devoid of elasticity. Its breaking strain is very small: a wire <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span>th in. thick is ruptured by a charge of about 30 ℔. The specific gravity is 11.352 for ingot, and from 11.354 to 11.365 for sheet lead (water -of 4°C. = 1). The expansion of unit-length from 0°C. to to 100°C. +of 4°C. = 1). The expansion of unit-length from 0°C. to to 100°C. is .002948 (Fizeau). The conductivity for heat (Wiedemann and Franz) or electricity is 8.5, that of silver being taken as 100. -It melts at 327.7°C. (H. L. Callendar); at a bright-red heat +It melts at 327.7°C. (H. L. Callendar); at a bright-red heat it perceptibly vapourizes, and boils at a temperature between -1450° and 1600°. The specific heat is .0314 (Regnault). Lead +1450° and 1600°. The specific heat is .0314 (Regnault). Lead exposed to ordinary air is rapidly tarnished, but the thin dark film formed is very slow in increasing. When kept fused in the presence of air lead readily takes up oxygen, with the formation @@ -12807,9 +12768,9 @@ properties.</p> <p><i>Bismuth and Tin.</i>—These triple alloys are noted for their low fusing points. An alloy of 5 of lead, 8 of bismuth and 3 of tin -fuses at 94.4°C, <i>i.e.</i> below the boiling-point of water (Rose’s metal). +fuses at 94.4°C, <i>i.e.</i> below the boiling-point of water (Rose’s metal). An alloy of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium -(Wood’s alloy) melts below 70°C.</p> +(Wood’s alloy) melts below 70°C.</p> <p><i>Tin</i> unites with lead in any proportion with slight expansion, the alloy fusing at a lower temperature than either component. It is @@ -12832,7 +12793,7 @@ and thus it shows relations to carbon, silicon, germanium and tin.</p> <p><i>Oxides.</i>—Lead combines with oxygen to form five oxides, viz. Pb<span class="su">2</span>O, PbO, PbO<span class="su">2</span>, Pb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> and Pb<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>. The <i>suboxide</i>, Pb<span class="su">2</span>O, is the first product of the oxidation of lead, and is also obtained as a black -powder by heating lead oxalate to 300° out of contact with air. +powder by heating lead oxalate to 300° out of contact with air. It ignites when heated in air with the formation of the monoxide; dilute acids convert it into metallic lead and lead monoxide, the latter dissolving in the acid. The <i>monoxide</i>, PbO, occurs in nature as the @@ -12859,7 +12820,7 @@ is obtained as a white crystalline precipitate by adding ammonia to a solution of lead nitrate or acetate. It dissolves in an excess of alkali to form <i>plumbites</i> of the general formula Pb(OM)<span class="su">2</span>. It absorbs carbon dioxide from the air when moist. A hydrated oxide, -2PbO·H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained when a solution of the monoxide in potash +2PbO·H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained when a solution of the monoxide in potash is treated with carbon dioxide.</p> <p><i>Lead dioxide</i>, PbO<span class="su">2</span>, also known as “puce oxide,” occurs in nature @@ -12895,7 +12856,7 @@ acid be treated with chlorine gas, a solution of lead tetrachloride is obtained; by adding ammonium chloride ammonium plumbichloride, (NH<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>PbCl<span class="su">6</span>, is precipitated, which on treatment with strong sulphuric acid yields <i>lead tetrachloride</i>, PbCl<span class="su">4</span>, as a translucent, -yellow, highly refractive liquid. It freezes at -15° to a +yellow, highly refractive liquid. It freezes at -15° to a yellowish crystalline mass; on heating it loses chlorine and forms lead dichloride. With water it forms a hydrate, and ultimately decomposes into lead dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It combines with @@ -12944,7 +12905,7 @@ hydrochloric acid to a solution of lead salt, as a white precipitate, little soluble in cold water, less so in dilute hydrochloric acid, more so in the strong acid, and readily soluble in hot water, from which on cooling, the excess of dissolved salt separates out in silky rhombic -needles. It melts at 485° and solidifies on cooling to a translucent, +needles. It melts at 485° and solidifies on cooling to a translucent, horn-like mass; an early name for it was <i>plumbum corneum</i>, horn lead. A basic chloride, Pb(OH)Cl, was introduced in 1849 by Pattinson as a substitute for white lead. Powdered galena is dissolved @@ -12954,7 +12915,7 @@ iron and copper. The residue is then dissolved in hot water, filtered, and the clear solution is mixed with very thin milk of lime so adjusted that it takes out one-half of the chlorine of the PbCl<span class="su">2</span>. The oxychloride comes down as an amorphous white precipitate. Another -oxychloride, PbCl<span class="su">2</span>·7PbO, known as “Cassel yellow,” was prepared +oxychloride, PbCl<span class="su">2</span>·7PbO, known as “Cassel yellow,” was prepared by Vauquelin by fusing pure oxide, PbO, with one-tenth of its weight of sal ammoniac. “Turner’s yellow” or “patent yellow” is another artificially prepared oxychloride, used as a pigment. Mendipite and @@ -12973,7 +12934,7 @@ solubility.</p> (<i>q.v.</i>). It is produced by the addition of a solution of lead salt to an excess of ammonium carbonate, as an almost insoluble white precipitate. Of greater practical importance is a basic carbonate, -substantially 2PbCO<span class="su">3</span>·Pb(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, largely used as a white pigment under +substantially 2PbCO<span class="su">3</span>·Pb(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, largely used as a white pigment under the name of “white lead.” This pigment is of great antiquity; Theophrastus called it <span class="grk" title="psimythion">ψιμύθιον</span>, and prepared it by acting on lead with vinegar, and Pliny, who called it <i>cerussa</i>, obtained it by dissolving @@ -13045,10 +13006,10 @@ and meta-phosphate are similar white precipitates.</p> <p><i>Lead Borates.</i>—By fusing litharge with boron trioxide, glasses of a composition varying with the proportions of the mixture are obtained; some of these are used in the manufacture of glass. The -borate, Pb<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">11</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained as a white precipitate by adding +borate, Pb<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">11</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained as a white precipitate by adding borax to a lead salt; this on heating with strong ammonia gives -PbB<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>·O, which, in turn, when boiled with a solution of boric -acid, gives PbB<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p> +PbB<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>·O, which, in turn, when boiled with a solution of boric +acid, gives PbB<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p> <p><i>Lead silicates</i> are obtained as glasses by fusing litharge with silica; they play a considerable part in the manufacture of the lead glasses @@ -13064,7 +13025,7 @@ precipitated normal chromate with a properly adjusted proportion of caustic soda, or by boiling it with normal (yellow) potassium chromate.</p> -<p><i>Lead acetate</i>, Pb(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O (called “sugar” of lead, on +<p><i>Lead acetate</i>, Pb(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O (called “sugar” of lead, on account of its sweetish taste), is manufactured by dissolving massicot in aqueous acetic acid. It forms colourless transparent crystals, soluble in one and a half parts of cold water and in eight parts of @@ -13161,7 +13122,7 @@ plumbism see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lead Poisoning</a></span>.</p> for a History of Lead</i> (1888); B. Neumann, <i>Die Metalle</i> (1904); A. Rossing, <i>Geschichte der Metalle</i> (1901). For the chemistry see H. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmer, <i>Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry</i>, -vol. ii. (1897); H. Moissan, <i>Traité de chimie minerale</i>; O. Dammer, +vol. ii. (1897); H. Moissan, <i>Traité de chimie minerale</i>; O. Dammer, <i>Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie</i>. For the metallurgy see J. Percy, <i>The Metallurgy of Lead</i> (London, 1870); H. F. Collins, <i>The Metallurgy of Lead and Silver</i> (London, 1899), part i. “Lead”; H. O. Hofmann, @@ -13209,10 +13170,10 @@ occur intergrown together in the same crystal: (<i>a</i>) monoclinic with an optic axial angle -of 20°; (<i>b</i>) rhombohedral +of 20°; (<i>b</i>) rhombohedral (fig. 2) and optically uniaxial; (<i>c</i>) orthorhombic (fig. 1) with an optic axial angle of -72¾°. The first of these is the more common kind, and the +72¾°. The first of these is the more common kind, and the second has long been known under the name susannite. The fact that the published analyses of leadhillite vary somewhat from the formula given above suggests that these three kinds @@ -13236,13 +13197,13 @@ have been called maxite.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEADHILLS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland, 5¾ m. +<p><span class="bold">LEADHILLS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland, 5¾ m. W.S.W. of Elvanfoot station on the Caledonian Railway Company’s main line from Glasgow to the south. Pop. (1901) 835. It is the highest village in Scotland, lying 1301 ft. above sea-level, near the source of Glengonner Water, an affluent of the Clyde. It is served by a light railway. Lead and silver have been -mined here and at Wanlockhead, 1½ m. S.W., for many centuries—according +mined here and at Wanlockhead, 1½ m. S.W., for many centuries—according to some authorities even in Roman days. Gold was discovered in the reign of James IV., but though it is said then to have provided employment for 300 persons, its mining has long @@ -13289,7 +13250,7 @@ Infirmary, has stated that “in the pottery trade lead is very slow in producing serious effects compared with certain other industries.” In his experience the average period of working in lead before serious lesions manifest themselves is 18 years for -females and 22½ years for males. But some individuals fall victims +females and 22½ years for males. But some individuals fall victims to the worst forms of plumbism after a few months’ or even weeks’ exposure to the danger. Young persons are more readily affected than those of mature age, and women more than men. In @@ -13527,7 +13488,7 @@ particularly for the discussion of the origin of the ores of the region.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEAF<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>léaf</i>, cf. Dutch <i>loof</i>, Ger. <i>Laub</i>, Swed. <i>löf</i>, &c.; +<p><span class="bold">LEAF<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>léaf</i>, cf. Dutch <i>loof</i>, Ger. <i>Laub</i>, Swed. <i>löf</i>, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. <span class="grk" title="lepein">λέπειν</span>, to peel, strip), the name given in popular language to all the green expanded organs borne upon an axis, and so applied to similar @@ -14494,12 +14455,12 @@ the 7th over the 2nd and so on; while the number of turns between the 1st and 6th leaf is two; hence this arrangement is indicated by the fraction <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>. In other words, the distance or divergence between the first and second leaf, expressed in parts of a circle, is <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> of a circle -or 360° × <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> = 144°. In fig. 31, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, the spiral is ½, <i>i.e.</i> one turn and +or 360° × <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> = 144°. In fig. 31, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, the spiral is ½, <i>i.e.</i> one turn and two leaves; the third leaf being placed vertically over the first, and the divergence between the first and second leaf being one-half -the circumference of a circle, 360° × ½ = 180°. Again, in a tristichous +the circumference of a circle, 360° × ½ = 180°. Again, in a tristichous arrangement the number is <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, or one turn and three leaves, the angular -divergence being 120°.</p> +divergence being 120°.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:328px; height:309px" src="images/img327c.jpg" alt="" /></td> @@ -14513,7 +14474,7 @@ the node and <i>m</i> the internode; <i>b</i> is a magnified representation of the branch, showing the points of insertion of the leaves and their spiral arrangement, which is expressed -by the fraction ½, or one turn of the spiral +by the fraction ½, or one turn of the spiral for two internodes.</td> <td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> <span class="sc">Fig</span>. 32.—Part of a branch of a @@ -14922,7 +14883,7 @@ at Salonica; but, obtaining his release the same year, he was sent on a diplomatic mission to Ali Pasha of Iannina, whose confidence he completely won, and with whom he remained for more than a year as British representative. In 1810 he was -granted a yearly sum of £600 for his services in Turkey. In 1815 +granted a yearly sum of £600 for his services in Turkey. In 1815 he retired from the army, in which he held the rank of colonel, devoting the remainder of his life to topographical and antiquarian studies, the results of which were given to the world in @@ -14946,7 +14907,7 @@ of France.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Memoir</i> by J. H. Marsden (1864); the <i>Architect</i> for the 7th of -October 1876; E. Curtius in the <i>Preussische Jahrbücher</i> (Sept., 1876); +October 1876; E. Curtius in the <i>Preussische Jahrbücher</i> (Sept., 1876); J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, iii. (1908), p. 442.</p> </div> @@ -14990,7 +14951,7 @@ called Royal Leamington Spa.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LÉANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1862-  ), French caricaturist +<p><span class="bold">LÉANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1862-  ), French caricaturist and painter, was born at Champsecret (Orne), and studied painting under Bin and Cabanel. From 1887 he figured among the exhibitors of the Salon, where he showed numerous portraits @@ -14999,10 +14960,10 @@ drawings and caricatures. The series of the “Gotha des souverains,” published in <i>Le Rire</i>, placed him in the front rank of modern caricaturists. Besides his contributions to <i>Le Rire</i>, <i>Le Figaro</i> and other comic journals, he published a series of -albums: <i>Nocturnes</i>, <i>Le Musée des souverains</i>, and <i>Paris et la -province</i>. Léandre produced admirable work in lithography, +albums: <i>Nocturnes</i>, <i>Le Musée des souverains</i>, and <i>Paris et la +province</i>. Léandre produced admirable work in lithography, and designed many memorable posters, such as the “Yvette -Guilbert.” “Les nouveaux mariés,” “Joseph Prudhomme,” +Guilbert.” “Les nouveaux mariés,” “Joseph Prudhomme,” “Les Lutteurs,” and “La Femme au chien.” He was created a knight of the Legion of Honour.</p> @@ -15108,7 +15069,7 @@ houses, &c.; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEATHER<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; -cf. Ger. <i>Leder</i>, Dutch <i>leer</i> or <i>leder</i>, Swed. <i>läder</i>, and in such Celtic +cf. Ger. <i>Leder</i>, Dutch <i>leer</i> or <i>leder</i>, Swed. <i>läder</i>, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh <i>llader</i>), an imputrescible substance prepared from the hides or skins of living creatures, both cold and warm blooded, by chemical and mechanical treatment. Skins in the @@ -15244,7 +15205,7 @@ yield fine skins. A good number come from Argentina and from Abyssinia, the Cape and other parts of Africa. Of all light leathers the goat has the toughest and tightest grain; it is, therefore, especially liked for fancy work. The grain is rather too -bold for glacé work, for which the sheep is largely used.</p> +bold for glacé work, for which the sheep is largely used.</p> <p>The seal-skin, used largely for levant work, is the skin of the yellow-hair seal, found in the Northern seas, the Baltic, Norway @@ -15707,7 +15668,7 @@ end sinks to a certain depth, and the reading is taken on the stem at that point which touches “water mark.” The graduations are such that if the specific gravity is multiplied by 1000 and then 1000 is subtracted from the result, the barkometer strength of the liquor -is obtained. Thus 1029 specific gravity equals 29° barkometer. +is obtained. Thus 1029 specific gravity equals 29° barkometer. This method affords no indication of the amount of tannin present, but is useful to the man who knows his liquors by frequent analysis.</p> @@ -15719,7 +15680,7 @@ form comparatively soluble salts, so that an easy method of determining this important factor is as follows:—</p> <p>Take a quantity, say 100 c.c., of tan liquor, filter till clear through -paper, then pipette 10 c.c. into a small beaker (about 1½ in. diameter), +paper, then pipette 10 c.c. into a small beaker (about 1½ in. diameter), place it on some printed paper and note how clear the print appears through the liquor; now gradually add from a burette a clear solution of saturated lime water until the liquor becomes @@ -15739,7 +15700,7 @@ propose a method for analysing tanning materials, and he precipitated the tannin by means of gelatin in the presence of alum, then dried and weighed the precipitate, after washing free from excess of reagents. This method was improved by Stoddart, -but cannot lay claim to much accuracy. Warington and Müller +but cannot lay claim to much accuracy. Warington and Müller again modified the method, but their procedure being tedious and difficult to work could not be regarded as a great advance. Wagner then proposed precipitation by means of the alkaloids, @@ -16149,7 +16110,7 @@ may be divided into a series of three: (1) colouring, (2) handling, (3) laying away.</p> <p>The colouring pits or “suspenders,” perhaps a series of eight -pits, consist of liquors ranging from 16° to 40° barkometer, which +pits, consist of liquors ranging from 16° to 40° barkometer, which were once the strongest liquors in the yard, but have gradually worked down, having had some hundreds of hides through them; they now contain very little tannin, and consist mainly of @@ -16189,7 +16150,7 @@ rendered useless.</p> <p>After the “suspenders” the goods are transferred to a series of “handlers” or “floaters,” consisting of, perhaps, a dozen -pits containing liquors ranging from 30° to 55° barkometer. +pits containing liquors ranging from 30° to 55° barkometer. These liquors contain an appreciable quantity of both tannin and acid, once formed the “lay-aways,” and are destined to constitute the “suspenders.” In these pits the goods, having @@ -16215,12 +16176,12 @@ advantages, but is not general. The goods are generally laid away immediately. The layer liquors consist of leached liquors from the fishings, strengthened with either chestnut or oakwood extract, or a mixture of the two. The first layer is made up -to, say, 60° barkometer in this way, and as the hides are laid +to, say, 60° barkometer in this way, and as the hides are laid down they are sprinkled with fresh tanning material, and remain -undisturbed for about one week. The second layer is a 70° +undisturbed for about one week. The second layer is a 70° barkometer liquor, the hides are again sprinkled and allowed -to lie for perhaps two weeks. The third may be 80° barkometer -and the fourth 90°, the goods being “dusted” as before, and +to lie for perhaps two weeks. The third may be 80° barkometer +and the fourth 90°, the goods being “dusted” as before, and lying undisturbed for perhaps three or four weeks respectively. Some tanners give more layers, and some give less, some more or less time, or greater or lesser strengths of liquor, but this tannage @@ -16263,9 +16224,9 @@ a Wilson scouring machine, and are then ready for bleaching. There are several methods by which this is effected, or, more correctly several materials or mixtures are used, the method of application being the same, viz. the goods are “vatted” (steeped) for some -hours in the bleaching mixture at a temperature of 110° F. The +hours in the bleaching mixture at a temperature of 110° F. The mixture may consist of either sumach and a light-coloured chestnut -extract made to 110° barkometer, and 110° F., or some bleaching +extract made to 110° barkometer, and 110° F., or some bleaching extract made for the purpose, consisting of bisulphited liquid quebracho, which bleaches by reason of the free sulphurous acid it <span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span> @@ -16339,7 +16300,7 @@ scoured and stretched by machine. They are then lightly shaved, to take off the loose flesh and thin the neck. The whole of the mechanically deposited tannin is removed by scouring, to make room for the grease, and they are then put into a sumach vat -of 40° barkometer to brighten the colour, horsed up to drip, +of 40° barkometer to brighten the colour, horsed up to drip, and set out. If any loading, to produce fictitious weight, is to be done, it is done now, by brushing the solution of either epsom salts, barium chloride or glucose, or a mixture, into the flesh, @@ -16359,7 +16320,7 @@ the moisture dries out the grease goes in. After two or three days the goods are “set out in grease” with a brass slicker, given a coat of dubbin on the grain slightly thicker than the first coat, then flesh dubbined, a slightly thinner coat being -applied than at first, and stoved at 70° F. The grease which is +applied than at first, and stoved at 70° F. The grease which is slicked off when “setting out in grease” is collected and sold. After hanging in the warm stove for 2 or 3 days the butts are laid away in grease for a month; they are then slicked out @@ -16377,7 +16338,7 @@ and dried hides, the materials used are of a poorer quality, and the time taken for all processes is cut down, so that whereas the time taken to dress the better class of leather is from 7 to 10 months, and in a few cases more, these cheaper goods are turned -out in from 3½ to 5 months.</p> +out in from 3½ to 5 months.</p> <p>A considerable quantity of the leather which reaches England, such as East India tanned kips, Australian sides, &c., is bought up @@ -16609,7 +16570,7 @@ vulcanite blade is forced and fastened. The wooden part is grasped in both hands, and the blade is half rubbed and half scraped over the surface of the leather in successive strokes, the angle of the slicker being a continuation of the angle which the thrust out arms -of the worker form with the body, perhaps 30° to 45°, with the +of the worker form with the body, perhaps 30° to 45°, with the leather, depending upon the pressure to be applied. The soap and borax solution is continually dashed on the leather to supply a body for the removal of the bloom with the steel slicker. The hide is now @@ -16749,7 +16710,7 @@ fig. 10), or “broken down” over the beam by working on the flesh with a blunt unhairing knife. They are next mellow limed (about 3 weeks), sulphide being used if convenient, unhaired and fleshed as described under heavy leathers, and are then ready -for puering. This process is carried through at about 80° F., +for puering. This process is carried through at about 80° F., when the goods are worked on the beam, rinsed, drenched in a bran drench, scudded, and are ready for tanning. The skins are now folded down the centre of the back from neck to butt @@ -16981,7 +16942,7 @@ goods are for enamel they are boarded.</p> The secret of successful japanning lies in the age of the oil used; the older the linseed oil is, the better the result. To prepare the ground coat, boil 10 gallons linseed oil for one hour with 2 ℔ litharge -at 600° F. to jellify the oil, and then add 2 ℔ prussian blue and boil +at 600° F. to jellify the oil, and then add 2 ℔ prussian blue and boil the whole for half an hour longer. Before application the mixture is thinned with 10 gallons light petroleum. For the second coat, boil 10 gallons linseed oil for 2 hours with 2 ℔ prussian blue and 2 ℔ @@ -17074,7 +17035,7 @@ quebracho, &c.; in fact, some of the darker-coloured materials may be used as a ground colour, thus economizing dyestuff and serving two purposes. If acid colours are used, it is necessary to add sulphuric acid to the dye bath, and in either case colours which -will strike below 50° C. must be used, as at that temperature alum +will strike below 50° C. must be used, as at that temperature alum leather perishes.</p> <p>After being dyed, the goods are washed up, drained, and if necessary @@ -17106,8 +17067,8 @@ also taken a prominent place in the heavy department, more especially in curried leathers and cases where greater tensile strength is needed. The leather produced is much stronger than any other leather, and will also stand boiling water, whereas -vegetable-tanned leather is completely destroyed at 70° C. and -alum leather at 50° C.</p> +vegetable-tanned leather is completely destroyed at 70° C. and +alum leather at 50° C.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The theory of chrome tanning is not perfectly understood, but in @@ -17126,7 +17087,7 @@ follows: To prevent wrinkled or “drawn” grain the goods are first paddled for half an hour in a solution of vitriol and salt, when they are piled or “horsed” up over night, and then, without washing, placed in a solution consisting of 7 ℔ of potassium bichromate, -3½ ℔ of hydrochloric acid to each 100 ℔ of pelts, with sufficient +3½ ℔ of hydrochloric acid to each 100 ℔ of pelts, with sufficient water to conveniently paddle in; it is recommended that 5% of salt be added to this mixture. The goods are run in this for about 3 hours, or until struck through, when they are horsed up for some @@ -17148,14 +17109,14 @@ otherwise introducing into the skins a solution of a chrome salt, usually chrome alum, which is already in the basic condition, and therefore does not require reducing. The basic solutions are made as follows: For 100 ℔ of pelts 9 ℔ of chrome alum are dissolved -in 9 gallons of water, and 2½ ℔ of washing soda already dissolved in +in 9 gallons of water, and 2½ ℔ of washing soda already dissolved in 1 gallon of water are gradually added, with constant stirring. One-third of the solution is added to 80 gallons of water, to which is added 7 ℔ of salt, and the skins are introduced; the other two-thirds are introduced at intervals in two successive portions. Another liquor, used in the same way, is made by dissolving 3 ℔ of potassium -bichromate in hot water, adding ½ gallon strong hydrochloric acid -and then, gradually, about 1½ ℔ of glucose or grape sugar; this +bichromate in hot water, adding ½ gallon strong hydrochloric acid +and then, gradually, about 1½ ℔ of glucose or grape sugar; this reduces the acidic chrome salt, vigorous effervescence ensuing. The whole is made up to 2 gallons and 5% to 15% of salt is added. In yet another method a chrome alum solution is rendered basic @@ -17316,7 +17277,7 @@ or china clay, and finally finished on a very fine emery wheel.</p> <p><i>Preller’s Helvetia or Crown Leather.</i>—This process of leather manufacture was discovered in 1850 by Theodor Klemm, a -cabinetmaker of Württemberg, who being then in poor circumstances, +cabinetmaker of Württemberg, who being then in poor circumstances, sold his patent to an Englishman named Preller, who manufactured it in Southwark, and adopted a crown as his trade mark. Hence the name “crown” leather. The @@ -17439,7 +17400,7 @@ a preliminary slicking out.</p> processes now diverge according to the class of leather being treated and the finish required.</p> -<p>Persian goods for glacés, moroccos, &c., require special preparation +<p>Persian goods for glacés, moroccos, &c., require special preparation for dyeing, being first re-tanned. As received, they are sorted and soaked as above, piled to samm, and shaved. Shaving consists of rendering the flesh side of the skins smooth by shaving @@ -17453,8 +17414,8 @@ and are then ready for dyeing.</p> <p>There are three distinct methods of dyeing, with several minor modifications. Tray dyeing consists of immersing the goods, from 2 to 4 dozen at a time, in two separate piles, in the dye -solution at 60° C, contained in a flat wooden tray about -5 ft. × 4 ft. × 1 ft., and keeping them constantly moving by +solution at 60° C, contained in a flat wooden tray about +5 ft. × 4 ft. × 1 ft., and keeping them constantly moving by continually turning them from one pile to the other. The disadvantages of this method are that the bath rapidly cools, thus dyeing rapidly at the beginning and slowly at the termination @@ -17509,7 +17470,7 @@ sulphate may also be successfully used.</p> <p>Acid colours produce a full level shade without bronzing, and do not accentuate any defects in the leather, such as bad grain, &c. They are also moderately fast to light and rubbing. They are -generally applied to leather at a temperature between 50° and 60° C., +generally applied to leather at a temperature between 50° and 60° C., with an equal weight of sulphuric acid. The quantity of dye used varies, but generally, for goat, persians, &c., from 25 to 30 oz. are used per ten dozen skins, and for calf half as much again, dissolved @@ -17542,7 +17503,7 @@ lactate. The titanium salts are economically used when dyeing browns, as they produce a yellowish-brown shade; it is therefore not necessary to use so much dye. About 2 oz. of tartar emetic and 8 oz. of salt is a convenient quantity for 1 dozen goat skins. The -bath is used at 30° to 40° C., and the goods are immersed for about +bath is used at 30° to 40° C., and the goods are immersed for about 15 minutes, having been thoroughly washed before being dyed. Iron salts are sometimes used by leather-stainers for saddening (dulling) the shade of colour produced, iron tannate, a black salt, @@ -17607,8 +17568,8 @@ dried out and re-staked.</p> <p>After dry-staking, the goods are “seasoned,” <i>i.e.</i> some suitable mixture is applied to the grain to enable it to take the glaze. -The following is typical: 3 quarts logwood liquor, ½ pint -bullock’s blood, ½ pint milk, ½ gill ammonia, ½ gill orchil +The following is typical: 3 quarts logwood liquor, ½ pint +bullock’s blood, ½ pint milk, ½ gill ammonia, ½ gill orchil and 3 quarts water. This season is brushed well into the grain, and the goods are dried in a warm stove and glazed by machine. The skins are glazed under considerable pressure, a polished @@ -17621,8 +17582,8 @@ mucilage, casein or milk (many other materials are also used), and rolled, glassed with a polished slab by hand, or ironed with a warm iron.</p> -<p>Coloured glacés are finished in a similar manner to black -glacés, dye (instead of logwood and iron) being added to the +<p>Coloured glacés are finished in a similar manner to black +glacés, dye (instead of logwood and iron) being added to the season, which usually consists of a simple mixture of dye, albumen and milk.</p> @@ -17673,8 +17634,8 @@ with a mixture known as a “fatliquor,” of which the following recipe is typical: Dissolve 3 ℔ of soft soap by boiling with 3 gallons of water, then add 9 ℔ of neatsfoot oil and boil for some minutes; now place the mixture in an emulsifier and emulsify -until cooled to 35° C., then add the yolks of 5 fresh eggs and emulsify -for a further half hour. The fatliquor is added to the drum at 55° C., +until cooled to 35° C., then add the yolks of 5 fresh eggs and emulsify +for a further half hour. The fatliquor is added to the drum at 55° C., and the goods are drummed for half an hour, when all the fatliquor should be absorbed; they are then slicked out and dried. After drying, they are damped back, staked, dried, re-staked and seasoned @@ -17697,7 +17658,7 @@ gums are also used for the same purpose. These materials are also added to the staining solution to thicken it and further prevent its sinking in.</p> -<p>When dry, the goods are stained by applying a ½% (usually) +<p>When dry, the goods are stained by applying a ½% (usually) solution of a suitable basic dye, thickened with linseed, with a brush. Two men are usually employed on this work; one starts at the right-hand flank and the other at the left-hand shank, and they @@ -17724,7 +17685,7 @@ this reason they are generally stained like bag hides, one man only being employed on the same skin. The skins are first thoroughly soaked in warm water and then drummed for some minutes in a fresh supply, when they are re-egged to replace that which has been -lost. This is best done by drumming them for about 1½ hours in +lost. This is best done by drumming them for about 1½ hours in 40 to 50 egg yolks and 5 ℔ of salt for every hundred skins; they are then allowed to be in pile for 24 hours, and are set out on the table ready for mordanting. The mordants universally used are @@ -17738,7 +17699,7 @@ has been added 20% of methylated spirit to prevent frothing with the egg yolk; they are then dried out slowly, staked, pulled in shape, fluffed and brushed by machine. The season, which is sponged on, may consist of 1 part dye, 1 part albumen, 2 parts -dextrine and ¼ part glycerine, made up to 100 parts with water; +dextrine and ¼ part glycerine, made up to 100 parts with water; when it has been applied, the goods are sammied, brushed and ironed with a warm flat iron such as is used in laundry work.</p> @@ -17871,7 +17832,7 @@ There was among the Hebrews an association of the idea of fermentation and corruption, which may have been one source of the prohibition of the use of leavened bread in sacrificial offerings. For the usage of unleavened bread at the feasts of the -Passover and of Massôth, and the connexion of the two, see +Passover and of Massôth, and the connexion of the two, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Passover</a></span>.</p> @@ -17882,7 +17843,7 @@ county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri river. Pop. (1900) 20,738, of whom 3402 were foreign-born and 2925 were negroes; (1910 census) 19,363. It is one of the most important railway centres west of the Missouri river, being -served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago, Burlington +served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago Great Western, the Missouri Pacific, the Union Pacific and the Leavenworth & Topeka railways. The city is laid out @@ -17935,7 +17896,7 @@ the military reservation.</p> <p>The fort, from which the city took its name, was built in 1827, in the Indian country, by Colonel Henry Leavenworth (1783-1834) of the 3rd Infantry, for the protection of traders plying between -the Missouri river and <span class="correction" title="amended from Sante">Santa</span> Fé. The town site was claimed by +the Missouri river and <span class="correction" title="amended from Sante">Santa</span> Fé. The town site was claimed by Missourians from Weston in June 1854, Leavenworth thus being the oldest permanent settlement in Kansas; and during the contest in Kansas between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery settlers, it was @@ -17950,7 +17911,7 @@ submitted to Congress, but never came into effect. During the Civil War Leavenworth enjoyed great prosperity, at the expense of more inland towns, partly owing to the proximity of the fort, which gave it immunity from border raids from Missouri and was an -important depôt of supplies and a place for mustering troops into +important depôt of supplies and a place for mustering troops into and out of the service. Leavenworth was, in Territorial days and until after 1880, the largest and most thriving commercial city of the state, and rivalled Kansas City, Missouri, which, however, finally @@ -18038,7 +17999,7 @@ cleft at Zaḥleh.</p> <p>The most elevated summits occur in the north, but even these are of very gentle gradient. The “Cedar block” consists of a double line of four and three summits respectively, ranged from north to -south, with a deviation of about 35°. Those to the east are ‘Uyun +south, with a deviation of about 35°. Those to the east are ‘Uyun Urghush, Makmal, Muskiyya (or Naba’ esh-Shemaila) and Ras Zahr el-Kazib; fronting the sea are Kam Sauda or Timarun, Fumm el-Mizab and Zahr el-Kandil. The height of Zahr el-Kazib, @@ -18079,7 +18040,7 @@ broad, with an undulating surface.</p> <p>The Anti-Lebanon chain has been less fully explored than that of Lebanon. Apart from its southern offshoots it is 67 m. long, -while its width varies from 16 to 13½ m. It rises from the plain of +while its width varies from 16 to 13½ m. It rises from the plain of Hasya-Homs, and in its northern portion is very arid. The range has not so many offshoots as occur on the west side of Lebanon; under its precipitous slopes stretch table-lands and broad plateaus, @@ -18428,7 +18389,7 @@ of the Republic. Like Italy, she is now regarded by Eastern Catholics with distrust as an enemy of the Holy Father.</p> <p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Druses</a></span>. Also V. Cuinet, <i>Syrie, Liban et Palestine</i> (1896); -N. Verney and G. Dambmann, <i>Puissances étrangères en Syrie</i>, &c. +N. Verney and G. Dambmann, <i>Puissances étrangères en Syrie</i>, &c. (1900); G. Young, <i>Corps de droit ottoman</i>, vol. i. (1905); G. E. Post, <i>Flora of Syria</i>, &c. (1896); M. von Oppenheim, <i>Vom Mittelmeer</i>, &c. (1899).</p> @@ -18492,23 +18453,23 @@ incorporated as a borough in 1821 and chartered as a city in 1885.</p> <p><span class="bold">LE BARGY, CHARLES GUSTAVE AUGUSTE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1858-  ), French actor, was born at La Chapelle (Seine). His talent both as a comedian and a serious actor was soon made evident, and -he became a member of the Comédie Française, his chief successes -being in such plays as <i>Le Duel</i>, <i>L’Énigme</i>, <i>Le Marquis de Priola</i>, -<i>L’Autre Danger</i> and <i>Le Dédale</i>. His wife, Simone le Bargy née -Benda, an accomplished actress, made her début at the Gymnase +he became a member of the Comédie Française, his chief successes +being in such plays as <i>Le Duel</i>, <i>L’Énigme</i>, <i>Le Marquis de Priola</i>, +<i>L’Autre Danger</i> and <i>Le Dédale</i>. His wife, Simone le Bargy née +Benda, an accomplished actress, made her début at the Gymnase in 1902, and in later years had a great success in <i>La Rafale</i> and other plays. In 1910 he had differences with the authorities -of the Comédie Française and ceased to be a <i>sociétaire</i>.</p> +of the Comédie Française and ceased to be a <i>sociétaire</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LE BEAU, CHARLES<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1701-1778), French historical writer, was born at Paris on the 15th of October 1701, and was educated -at the Collège de Sainte-Barbe and the Collège du Plessis; at +at the Collège de Sainte-Barbe and the Collège du Plessis; at the latter he remained as a teacher until he obtained the chair -of rhetoric in the Collège des Grassins. In 1748 he was admitted +of rhetoric in the Collège des Grassins. In 1748 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1752 he was -nominated professor of eloquence in the Collège de France. +nominated professor of eloquence in the Collège de France. From 1755 he held the office of perpetual secretary to the Academy of Inscriptions, in which capacity he edited fifteen volumes (from the 25th to the 39th inclusive) of the <i>Histoire</i> @@ -18516,11 +18477,11 @@ of that institution. He died at Paris on the 13th of March 1778.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The only work with which the name of Le Beau continues to be -associated is his <i>Histoire du Bas-Empire, en commençant à Constantin +associated is his <i>Histoire du Bas-Empire, en commençant à Constantin le Grand</i>, in 22 vols. 12mo (Paris, 1756-1779), being a continuation of C. Rollin’s <i>Histoire Romaine</i> and J. B. L. Crevier’s <i>Histoire des empereurs</i>. Its usefulness arises entirely from the fact of its being -a faithful résumé of the Byzantine historians, for Le Beau had no +a faithful résumé of the Byzantine historians, for Le Beau had no originality or artistic power of his own. Five volumes were added by H. P. Ameilhon (1781-1811), which brought the work down to the fall of Constantinople. A later edition, under the care of M. de @@ -18528,7 +18489,7 @@ Saint-Martin and afterwards of Brosset, has had the benefit of careful revision throughout, and has received considerable additions from Oriental sources.</p> -<p>See his “Éloge” in vol. xlii. of the <i>Histoire de l’Académie des +<p>See his “Éloge” in vol. xlii. of the <i>Histoire de l’Académie des Inscriptions</i> (1786), pp. 190-207.</p> </div> @@ -18538,9 +18499,9 @@ Inscriptions</i> (1786), pp. 190-207.</p> at Huy on the 3rd of January 1794. He received his early education from an uncle who was parish priest of Hannut, and became a clerk. By dint of economy he raised money to study -law at Liége, and was called to the bar in 1819. At Liége he +law at Liége, and was called to the bar in 1819. At Liége he formed a fast friendship with Charles Rogier and Paul Devaux, -in conjunction with whom he founded at Liége in 1824 the +in conjunction with whom he founded at Liége in 1824 the <i>Mathieu Laensbergh</i>, afterwards <i>Le politique</i>, a journal which helped to unite the Catholic party with the Liberals in their opposition to the ministry, without manifesting any open @@ -18567,10 +18528,10 @@ died at Huy on the 19th of March 1865.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Lebeau published <i>La Belgique depuis 1847</i> (Brussels, 4 vols., 1852), -<i>Lettres aux électeurs belges</i> (8 vols., Brussels, 1853-1856). His +<i>Lettres aux électeurs belges</i> (8 vols., Brussels, 1853-1856). His <i>Souvenirs personnels et correspondance diplomatique 1824-1841</i> -(Brussels, 1883) were edited by A. Fréson. See an article by A. -Fréson in the <i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i>; and T. Juste, +(Brussels, 1883) were edited by A. Fréson. See an article by A. +Fréson in the <i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i>; and T. Juste, <i>Joseph Lebeau</i> (Brussels, 1865).</p> </div> @@ -18578,7 +18539,7 @@ Fréson in the <i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i>; and T. Juste, <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEBEL, JEAN<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (d. 1370), Belgian chronicler, was born near the end of the 13th century. His father, Gilles le Beal des -Changes, was an alderman of Liége. Jean entered the church +Changes, was an alderman of Liége. Jean entered the church and became a canon of the cathedral church, but he and his brother Henri followed Jean de Beaumont to England in 1327, and took part in the border warfare against the Scots. His will @@ -18594,7 +18555,7 @@ first book as one of his authorities. A fragment of his work, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span> in the MS. of Jean d’Outremeuse’s <i>Mireur des istores</i>, was discovered in 1847; and the whole of his chronicle, preserved in -the library of Châlons-sur-Marne, was edited in 1863 by L. +the library of Châlons-sur-Marne, was edited in 1863 by L. Polain. Jean Lebel gives as his reason for writing a desire to replace a certain misleading rhymed chronicle of the wars of Edward III. by a true relation of his enterprises down to the @@ -18617,7 +18578,7 @@ have not come to light.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See L. Polain, <i>Les Vraies Chroniques de messire Jehan le Bel</i> (1863); -Kervyn de Lettenhove, <i>Bulletin de la société d’émulation de Bruges</i>, +Kervyn de Lettenhove, <i>Bulletin de la société d’émulation de Bruges</i>, series ii. vols. vii. and ix.; and H. Pirenne in <i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i>.</p> </div> @@ -18625,10 +18586,10 @@ de Belgique</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEBER, JEAN MICHEL CONSTANT<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1780-1859), French -historian and bibliophile, was born at Orléans on the 8th of +historian and bibliophile, was born at Orléans on the 8th of May 1780. His first work was a poem on Joan of Arc (1804); -but he wrote at the same time a <i>Grammaire général synthétique</i>, -which attracted the attention of J. M. de Gérando, then +but he wrote at the same time a <i>Grammaire général synthétique</i>, +which attracted the attention of J. M. de Gérando, then secretary-general to the ministry of the interior. The latter found him a minor post in his department, which left him leisure for his historical work. He even took him to Italy when Napoleon @@ -18643,42 +18604,42 @@ essays and rare pamphlets by old French historians. His office was preserved to him by the Restoration, and Leber put his literary gifts at the service of the government. When the question of the coronation of Louis XVIII. arose, he wrote, as an answer -to Volney, a minute treatise on the <i>Cérémonies du sacre</i>, which +to Volney, a minute treatise on the <i>Cérémonies du sacre</i>, which was published at the time of the coronation of Charles X. Towards -the end of Villèle’s ministry, when there was a movement +the end of Villèle’s ministry, when there was a movement of public opinion in favour of extending municipal liberties, he undertook the defence of the threatened system of centralization, and composed, in answer to Raynouard, an <i>Histoire critique -du pouvoir municipal depuis l’origine de la monarchie jusqu’à -nos jours</i> (1828). He also wrote a treatise entitled <i>De l’état -réel de la presse et des pamphlets depuis François I<span class="sp">er</span> jusqu’à +du pouvoir municipal depuis l’origine de la monarchie jusqu’à +nos jours</i> (1828). He also wrote a treatise entitled <i>De l’état +réel de la presse et des pamphlets depuis François I<span class="sp">er</span> jusqu’à Louis XIV</i>., in which he refuted an empty paradox of Charles Nodier, who had tried to prove that the press had never been, and could never be, so free as under the Grand Monarch. A few years later, Leber retired (1839), and sold to the library of Rouen the rich collection of books which he had amassed during thirty years of research. The catalogue he made -himself (4 vols., 1839 to 1852). In 1840 he read at the Académie +himself (4 vols., 1839 to 1852). In 1840 he read at the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres two dissertations, an “Essai -sur l’appréciation de la fortune privée au moyen âge,” followed by +sur l’appréciation de la fortune privée au moyen âge,” followed by an “Examen critique des tables de prix du marc d’argent depuis -l’époque de Saint Louis”; these essays were included by the -Academy in its <i>Recueil de mémoires présentés par divers savants</i> +l’époque de Saint Louis”; these essays were included by the +Academy in its <i>Recueil de mémoires présentés par divers savants</i> (vol. i., 1844), and were also revised and published by Leber (1847). They form his most considerable work, and assure him a position of eminence in the economic history of France. He also rendered good service to historians by the publication of -his <i>Collection des meilleures dissertations, notices et traités relatifs -à l’histoire de France</i> (20 vols., 1826-1840); in the absence of +his <i>Collection des meilleures dissertations, notices et traités relatifs +à l’histoire de France</i> (20 vols., 1826-1840); in the absence of an index, since Leber did not give one, an analytical table of contents is to be found in Alfred Franklin’s <i>Sources de l’histoire de France</i> (1876, pp. 342 sqq.). In consequence of the revolution of 1848, Leber decided to leave Paris. He retired to his native town, and spent his last years in collecting old engravings. -He died at Orléans on the 22nd of December 1859.</p> +He died at Orléans on the 22nd of December 1859.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>In 1832 he had been elected as a member of the <i>Société des Antiquaires +<p>In 1832 he had been elected as a member of the <i>Société des Antiquaires de France</i>, and in the <i>Bulletin</i> of this society (vol. i., 1860) is to be found the most correct and detailed account of his life’s works.</p> @@ -18690,7 +18651,7 @@ works.</p> the 7th of March 1687 at Auxerre, where his father, a councillor in the parlement, was <i>receveur des consignations</i>. He began his studies in his native town, and continued them in Paris at -the Collège Ste Barbe. He soon became known as one of the +the Collège Ste Barbe. He soon became known as one of the most cultivated minds of his time. He made himself master of practically every branch of medieval learning, and had a thorough knowledge of the sources and the bibliography of his @@ -18700,19 +18661,19 @@ France, always on foot, in the course of which he examined the monuments of architecture and sculpture, as well as the libraries, and collected a number of notes and sketches. He was in correspondence with all the most learned men of the day. His -correspondence with Président Bouhier was published in 1885 +correspondence with Président Bouhier was published in 1885 by Ernest Petit; his other letters have been edited by the -<i>Société des sciences historiques et naturelles de l’Yonne</i> (2 vols., +<i>Société des sciences historiques et naturelles de l’Yonne</i> (2 vols., 1866-1867). He also wrote numerous articles, and, after his -election as a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres -(1740), a number of <i>Mémoires</i> which appeared in the +election as a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres +(1740), a number of <i>Mémoires</i> which appeared in the <i>Recueil</i> of this society. He died at Paris on the 10th of April 1760. His most important researches had Paris as their subject.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>He published first a collection of <i>Dissertations sur l’histoire civile -et ecclésiastique de Paris</i> (3 vols., 1739-1743), then an <i>Histoire de la -ville et de tout le diocèse de Paris</i> (15 vols., 1745-1760), which is a +et ecclésiastique de Paris</i> (3 vols., 1739-1743), then an <i>Histoire de la +ville et de tout le diocèse de Paris</i> (15 vols., 1745-1760), which is a mine of information, mostly taken from the original sources. In view of the advance made by scholarship in the 19th century, it was found necessary to publish a second edition. The work of reprinting @@ -18725,8 +18686,8 @@ completed the work by a volume of <i>Rectifications et additions</i> (1890), worthy to appear side by side with the original work.</p> <p>The bibliography of Lebeuf’s writings is, partly, in various numbers -of the <i>Bibliothèque des écrivains de Bourgogne</i> (1716-1741). His -biography is given by Lebeau in the <i>Histoire de l’Académie royale des +of the <i>Bibliothèque des écrivains de Bourgogne</i> (1716-1741). His +biography is given by Lebeau in the <i>Histoire de l’Académie royale des Inscriptions</i> (xxix., 372, published 1764), and by H. Cocheris, in the preface to his edition.</p> </div> @@ -18739,7 +18700,7 @@ and in 1780 became surgeon to the duke of Orleans, but he also paid much attention to chemistry. About 1787 he was attracted to the urgent problem of manufacturing carbonate of soda from ordinary sea-salt. The suggestion made in 1789 -by Jean Claude de la Métherie (1743-1817), the editor of the +by Jean Claude de la Métherie (1743-1817), the editor of the <i>Journal de physique</i>, that this might be done by calcining with charcoal the sulphate of soda formed from salt by the action of oil of vitriol, did not succeed in practice because the product @@ -18750,7 +18711,7 @@ huge industry of artificial alkali manufacture—that the desired end was to be attained by adding a proportion of chalk to the mixture of charcoal and sulphate of soda. Having had the soundness of this method tested by Jean Darcet (1725-1801), -the professor of chemistry at the Collège de France, the duke of +the professor of chemistry at the Collège de France, the duke of Orleans in June 1791 agreed to furnish a sum of 200,000 francs for the purpose of exploiting it. In the following September Le Blanc was granted a patent for fifteen years, and shortly afterwards @@ -18771,8 +18732,8 @@ worn out with disappointment, he died by his own hand at Saint-Denis on the 16th of January 1806.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Four years after his death, Michel Jean Jacques Dizê (1764-1852), -who had been <i>préparateur</i> to Darcet at the time he examined the +<p>Four years after his death, Michel Jean Jacques Dizê (1764-1852), +who had been <i>préparateur</i> to Darcet at the time he examined the process and who was subsequently associated with Le Blanc in its exploitation, published in the <i>Journal de physique</i> a paper claiming that it was he himself who had first suggested the addition of chalk; @@ -18784,10 +18745,10 @@ Le Blanc’s (<i>Com. rend.</i>, 1856, p. 553).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LE BLANC,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement, -in the department of Indre, 44 m. W.S.W, of Châteauroux -on the Orléans railway between Argenton and Poitiers. Pop. +in the department of Indre, 44 m. W.S.W, of Châteauroux +on the Orléans railway between Argenton and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 4719. The Creuse divides it into a lower and an upper -town. The church of St Génitour dates from the 12th, 13th and +town. The church of St Génitour dates from the 12th, 13th and 15th centuries, and there is an old castle restored in modern times. It is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Wool-spinning, and the @@ -18805,7 +18766,7 @@ frontier fortress of the province of Berry.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEBŒUF, EDMOND<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1809-1888), marshal of France, was born at Paris on the 5th of November 1809, passed through the -École Polytechnique and the school of Metz, and distinguished +École Polytechnique and the school of Metz, and distinguished himself as an artillery officer in Algerian warfare, becoming colonel in 1852. He commanded the artillery of the 1st French corps at the siege of Sebastopol, and was promoted in 1854 to @@ -18820,7 +18781,7 @@ minister of war, and earned public approbation by his vigorous reorganization of the War Office and the civil departments of the service. In the spring of 1870 he received the marshal’s baton. On the declaration of war with Germany Marshal Lebœuf -delivered himself in the Corps Législatif of the historic saying, +delivered himself in the Corps Législatif of the historic saying, “So ready are we, that if the war lasts two years, not a gaiter button would be found wanting.” It may be that he intended this to mean that, given time, the reorganization of the War @@ -18838,7 +18799,7 @@ confined as a prisoner in Germany. On the conclusion of peace he returned to France and gave evidence before the commission of inquiry into the surrender of that stronghold, when he strongly denounced Bazaine. After this he retired into private life to -the Château du Moncel near Argentan, where he died on the +the Château du Moncel near Argentan, where he died on the 7th of June 1888.</p> @@ -18846,9 +18807,9 @@ the Château du Moncel near Argentan, where he died on the <p><span class="bold">LE BON, JOSEPH<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1765-1795), French politician, was born at Arras on the 29th of September 1765. He became a priest in the order of the Oratory, and professor of rhetoric at Beaune. -He adopted revolutionary ideas, and became a curé of the +He adopted revolutionary ideas, and became a curé of the Constitutional Church in the department of Pas-de-Calais, -where he was later elected as a <i>député suppléant</i> to the Convention. +where he was later elected as a <i>député suppléant</i> to the Convention. He became <i>maire</i> of Arras and <i>administrateur</i> of Pas-de-Calais, and on the 2nd of July 1793 took his seat in the Convention. He was sent as a representative on missions into the departments @@ -18860,7 +18821,7 @@ followed the 9th Thermidor (27th July 1794) he was arrested on the 22nd Messidor, year III. (10th July 1795). He was tried before the criminal tribunal of the Somme, condemned to death for abuse of his power during his mission, and executed at -Amiens on the 24th Vendémiaire in the year IV. (10th October +Amiens on the 24th Vendémiaire in the year IV. (10th October 1795). Whatever Le Bon’s offences, his condemnation was to a great extent due to the violent attacks of one of his political enemies, Armand Guffroy; and it is only just to remember that @@ -18868,8 +18829,8 @@ it was owing to his courage that Cambrai was saved from falling into the hands of the Austrians.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His son, Émile le Bon, published a <i>Histoire de Joseph le Bon et des -tribunaux révolutionnaires d’Arras et de Cambrai</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., +<p>His son, Émile le Bon, published a <i>Histoire de Joseph le Bon et des +tribunaux révolutionnaires d’Arras et de Cambrai</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., Arras, 1864).</p> </div> @@ -18905,7 +18866,7 @@ Polyglot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alcala de Henares</a></span>) <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LE BRUN, CHARLES<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1619-1690), French painter, was born at Paris on the 24th of February 1619, and attracted the notice -of Chancellor Séguier, who placed him at the age of eleven in +of Chancellor Séguier, who placed him at the age of eleven in the studio of Vouet. At fifteen he received commissions from Cardinal Richelieu, in the execution of which he displayed an ability which obtained the generous commendations of Poussin, @@ -18942,7 +18903,7 @@ in the service of the magnificent Fouquet. From this date all that was done in the royal palaces was directed by Le Brun. The works of the gallery of Apollo in the Louvre were interrupted in 1677 when he accompanied the king to Flanders (on his return -from Lille he painted several compositions in the Château of +from Lille he painted several compositions in the Château of St Germains), and finally—for they remained unfinished at his death—by the vast labours of Versailles, where he reserved for himself the Halls of War and Peace, the Ambassadors’ @@ -18963,7 +18924,7 @@ engravers.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> duc de Plaisance (1739-1824), +<p><span class="bold">LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> duc de Plaisance (1739-1824), French statesman, was born at St-Sauveur-Lendelin (Manche) on the 19th of March 1739, and in 1762 made his first appearance as a lawyer at Paris. He filled the posts successively @@ -18979,7 +18940,7 @@ take. In the Constituent Assembly, where he sat as deputy for Dourdan, he professed liberal views, and was the proposer of various financial laws. He then became president of the directory of Seine-et-Oise, and in 1795 was elected as a deputy -to the Council of Ancients. After the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th +to the Council of Ancients. After the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th Brumaire in the year VIII. (9th November 1799), Lebrun was made third consul. In this capacity he took an active part in the reorganization of finance and of the administration of the @@ -18999,12 +18960,12 @@ Grand Master of the university. On the return of the Bourbons in 1815 he was consequently suspended from the House of Peers, but was recalled in 1819. He died at St Mesmes (Seine-et-Oise) on the 16th of June 1824. He had been made a member of -the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1803.</p> +the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1803.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See M. de Caumont la Force, <i>L’Architrésorier Lebrun</i> (Paris, 1907); -M. Marie du Mesnil, <i>Mémoire sur le prince Le Brun, duc de Plaisance</i> -(Paris, 1828); <i>Opinions, rapports et choix d’écrits politiques de C. F. +<p>See M. de Caumont la Force, <i>L’Architrésorier Lebrun</i> (Paris, 1907); +M. Marie du Mesnil, <i>Mémoire sur le prince Le Brun, duc de Plaisance</i> +(Paris, 1828); <i>Opinions, rapports et choix d’écrits politiques de C. F. Lebrun</i> (1829), edited, with a biographical notice, by his son Anne-Charles Lebrun.</p> </div> @@ -19012,8 +18973,8 @@ Anne-Charles Lebrun.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1785-1873), French poet, -was born in Paris on the 29th of November 1785. An <i>Ode à la -grande armée</i>, mistaken at the time for the work of Écouchard +was born in Paris on the 29th of November 1785. An <i>Ode à la +grande armée</i>, mistaken at the time for the work of Écouchard Lebrun, attracted Napoleon’s attention, and secured for the author a pension of 1200 francs. Lebrun’s plays, once famous, are now forgotten. They are: <i>Ulysse</i> (1814), <i>Marie Stuart</i> @@ -19022,10 +18983,10 @@ are now forgotten. They are: <i>Ulysse</i> (1814), <i>Marie Stuart</i> Paris he published in 1822 an ode on the death of Napoleon which cost him his pension. In 1825 he was the guest of Sir Walter Scott at Abbotsford. The coronation of Charles X. in -that year inspired the verses entitled <i>La Vallée de Champrosay</i>, +that year inspired the verses entitled <i>La Vallée de Champrosay</i>, which have, perhaps, done more to secure his fame than his more ambitious attempts. In 1828 appeared his most important poem, -<i>La Grèce</i>, and in the same year he was elected to the Academy. +<i>La Grèce</i>, and in the same year he was elected to the Academy. The revolution of 1830 opened up for him a public career; in 1831 he was made director of the Imprimerie Royale, and subsequently filled with distinction other public offices, becoming @@ -19037,22 +18998,22 @@ senator in 1853. He died on the 27th of May 1873.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ÉCOUCHARD<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1729-1807), French +<p><span class="bold">LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ÉCOUCHARD<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1729-1807), French lyric poet, was born in Paris on the 11th of August 1729, in the house of the prince de Conti, to whom his father was valet. Young Lebrun had among his schoolfellows a son of Louis Racine whose disciple he became. In 1755 he published an <i>Ode sur -les désastres de Lisbon</i>. In 1759 he married Marie Anne de -Surcourt, addressed in his <i>Élégies</i> as Fanny. To the early years +les désastres de Lisbon</i>. In 1759 he married Marie Anne de +Surcourt, addressed in his <i>Élégies</i> as Fanny. To the early years of his marriage belongs his poem <i>Nature</i>. His wife suffered much from his violent temper, and when in 1774 she brought an action against him to obtain a separation, she was supported -by Lebrun’s own mother and sister. He had been <i>secrétaire +by Lebrun’s own mother and sister. He had been <i>secrétaire des commandements</i> to the prince de Conti, and on his patron’s death was deprived of his occupation. He suffered a further misfortune in the loss of his capital by the bankruptcy of the -prince de Guémené. To this period belongs a long poem, the -<i>Veillées des Muses</i>, which remained unfinished, and his ode +prince de Guémené. To this period belongs a long poem, the +<i>Veillées des Muses</i>, which remained unfinished, and his ode to Buffon, which ranks among his best works. Dependent on government pensions he changed his politics with the times. Calonne he compared to the great Sully, and Louis XVI. to @@ -19076,9 +19037,9 @@ imitate the simplicity and energy that adorned Buffon’s prose. Lebrun died in Paris on the 31st of August 1807.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His works were published by his friend P. L. Ginguené in 1811. -The best of them are included in Prosper Poitevin’s “<i>Petits poètes -français</i>,” which forms part of the “<i>Panthéon littéraire</i>.”</p> +<p>His works were published by his friend P. L. Ginguené in 1811. +The best of them are included in Prosper Poitevin’s “<i>Petits poètes +français</i>,” which forms part of the “<i>Panthéon littéraire</i>.”</p> </div> @@ -19131,14 +19092,14 @@ monument.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LE CATEAU,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cateau-Cambrésis</span>, a town of northern +<p><span class="bold">LE CATEAU,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cateau-Cambrésis</span>, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on the Selle, 15 m. E.S.E. of Cambrai by road. Pop. (1906) 10,400. A church of the early 17th century and a town-hall in the Renaissance style are its chief buildings. Its institutions include a board of trade-arbitration and a communal college, and its most important industries are wool-spinning and weaving. Formed by the union -of the two villages of Péronne and Vendelgies, under the protection +of the two villages of Péronne and Vendelgies, under the protection of a castle built by the bishop of Cambrai, Le Cateau became the seat of an abbey in the 11th century. In the 15th it was frequently taken and retaken, and in 1556 it was burned @@ -19161,7 +19122,7 @@ church of SS. Nicola e Cataldo, built by Tancred in 1180, may be noted. Another old church is S. Maria di Cerrate, near the town. Lecce contains a large government tobacco factory, and is the centre of a fertile agricultural district. To the E. -7½ m. is the small harbour of S. Cataldo, reached by electric +7½ m. is the small harbour of S. Cataldo, reached by electric tramway. Lecce is quite close to the site of the ancient Lupiae, equidistant (25 m.) from Brundusium and Hydruntum, remains of which are mentioned as existing up to the 15th century. @@ -19228,10 +19189,10 @@ Charles V.’s Italian chancellor, was born in Lecco.</p> 177 m. long, with a drainage basin of 2550 sq. m. It rises in the Vorarlberg Alps, at an altitude of 6120 ft. It winds out of the gloomy limestone mountains, flows in a north-north-easterly -direction, and enters the plains at Füssen (2580 ft.), where it +direction, and enters the plains at Füssen (2580 ft.), where it forms rapids and a fall, then pursues a northerly course past Augsburg, where it receives the Wertach, and joins the Danube -from the right just below Donauwörth (1330 ft.). It is not +from the right just below Donauwörth (1330 ft.). It is not navigable, owing to its torrential character and the gravel beds which choke its channel. More than once great historic events have been decided upon its banks. On the Lechfeld, a stony @@ -19245,15 +19206,15 @@ Bavaria and Swabia.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LE CHAMBON,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Le Chambon-Feugerolles</span>, a town of -east-central France in the department of Loire, 7½ m. S.W. -of St Étienne by rail, on the Ondaine, a tributary of the Loire. +east-central France in the department of Loire, 7½ m. S.W. +of St Étienne by rail, on the Ondaine, a tributary of the Loire. Pop. (1906) town, 7525; commune, 12,011. Coal is mined in the neighbourhood, and there are forges, steel works, manufactures of tools and other iron goods, and silk mills. The feudal castle of Feugerolles on a hill to the south-east dates in part from the 11th century.</p> -<p>Between Le Chambon and St Étienne is La Ricamarie (pop. +<p>Between Le Chambon and St Étienne is La Ricamarie (pop. of town 5289) also of importance for its coal-mines. Many of the galleries of a number of these mines are on fire, probably from spontaneous combustion. According to popular tradition @@ -19262,12 +19223,12 @@ from the 15th century.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENÉ GUY<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1754-1794), French +<p><span class="bold">LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENÉ GUY<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1754-1794), French politician, was born at Rennes on the 12th of June 1754, his -father being <i>bâtonnier</i> of the corporation of lawyers in that town. +father being <i>bâtonnier</i> of the corporation of lawyers in that town. He entered his father’s profession, and had some success as an orator. In 1789 he was elected as a deputy to the States General -by the Tiers-État of the <i>sénéchaussée</i> of Rennes. He adopted +by the Tiers-État of the <i>sénéchaussée</i> of Rennes. He adopted advanced opinions, and was one of the founders of the Breton Club (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jacobin Club</a></span>); his influence in the Constituent Assembly was considerable, and on the 3rd of August 1789 he @@ -19293,8 +19254,8 @@ Revolutionary Tribunal. He was executed at Paris on the <div class="condensed"> <p>See A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la constituante</i> (2nd ed., Paris, -1905); R. Kerviler, <i>Récherches et notices sur les députés de la Bretagne -aux états généraux</i> (2 vols., Rennes, 1888-1889); P. J. Levot, +1905); R. Kerviler, <i>Récherches et notices sur les députés de la Bretagne +aux états généraux</i> (2 vols., Rennes, 1888-1889); P. J. Levot, <i>Biographie bretonne</i> (2 vols., 1853-1857).</p> </div> @@ -19302,7 +19263,7 @@ aux états généraux</i> (2 vols., Rennes, 1888-1889); P. J. Levot, <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1811-1888), German Lutheran theologian, was born on the 18th of April 1811 at -Kloster Reichenbach in Württemberg. He studied at Tübingen +Kloster Reichenbach in Württemberg. He studied at Tübingen under F. C. Baur, and became in 1858 pastor of the church of St Thomas, professor Ordinarius of historical theology and superintendent of the Lutheran church of Leipzig. He died @@ -19310,7 +19271,7 @@ on the 26th of December 1888. A disciple of Neander, he belonged to the extreme right of the school of mediating theologians. He is important as the historian of early Christianity and of the pre-Reformation period. Although F. C. Baur was -his teacher, he did not attach himself to the Tübingen school; +his teacher, he did not attach himself to the Tübingen school; in reply to the contention that there are traces of a sharp conflict between two parties, Paulinists and Petrinists, he says that “we find variety coupled with agreement, and unity with difference, @@ -19323,7 +19284,7 @@ work which in his own opinion was his greatest, <i>Johann von Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation</i> (2 vols., 1873), appeared in English with the title <i>John Wiclif and his English Precursors</i> (1878, new ed., 1884). An earlier work, <i>Geschichte -des engl. Deïsmus</i> (1841), is still regarded as a valuable contribution +des engl. Deïsmus</i> (1841), is still regarded as a valuable contribution to the study of religious thought in England.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -19332,7 +19293,7 @@ Synodal-verfassung</i> (1854), <i>Urkundenfunde zur Geschichte des christl. Altertums</i> (1886), and biographies of Thomas Bradwardine (1862) and Robert Grosseteste (1867). He wrote part of the commentary on the Acts of the Apostles in J. P. Lange’s <i>Bibelwerk</i>. From 1882 -he edited with F. W. Dibelius the <i>Beiträge zur sächsischen Kirchengeschichte</i>. +he edited with F. W. Dibelius the <i>Beiträge zur sächsischen Kirchengeschichte</i>. <i>Johannes Hus</i> (1890) was published after his death.</p> </div> @@ -19471,10 +19432,10 @@ to repeated strokes of paralysis, and he died on the 8th of January <div class="condensed"> <p>A full catalogue of the publications of Le Clerc will be found, with biographical material, in E. and E. Haag’s <i>France Protestante</i> -(where seventy-three works are enumerated), or in J. G. de Chauffepié’s +(where seventy-three works are enumerated), or in J. G. de Chauffepié’s Dictionnaire. Only the most important of these can be mentioned -here. In 1685 he published <i>Sentimens de quelques théologiens -de Hollande sur l’histoire critique du Vieux Testament composée par +here. In 1685 he published <i>Sentimens de quelques théologiens +de Hollande sur l’histoire critique du Vieux Testament composée par le P. Richard Simon</i>, in which, while pointing out what he believed to be the faults of that author, he undertook to make some positive contributions towards a right understanding of the Bible. Among @@ -19483,9 +19444,9 @@ of the Pentateuch, his views as to the manner in which the five books were composed, his opinions (singularly free for the time in which he lived) on the subject of inspiration in general, and particularly as to the inspiration of Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, -Canticles. Richard Simon’s <i>Réponse</i> (1686) elicited from Le Clerc -a <i>Défense des sentimens</i> in the same year, which was followed by a new -<i>Réponse</i> (1687). In 1692 appeared his <i>Logica sive Ars Ratiocinandi</i>, +Canticles. Richard Simon’s <i>Réponse</i> (1686) elicited from Le Clerc +a <i>Défense des sentimens</i> in the same year, which was followed by a new +<i>Réponse</i> (1687). In 1692 appeared his <i>Logica sive Ars Ratiocinandi</i>, and also <i>Ontologia et Pneumatologia</i>; these, with the <i>Physica</i> (1695), are incorporated with the <i>Opera Philosophica</i>, which have passed through several editions. In 1693 his series of Biblical @@ -19502,15 +19463,15 @@ Cotelerius (1627-1686), published in 1698, marked an advance in the critical study of these documents. But the greatest literary influence of Le Clerc was probably that which he exercised over his contemporaries by means of the serials, or, if one may so call -them, reviews, of which he was editor. These were the <i>Bibliothèque +them, reviews, of which he was editor. These were the <i>Bibliothèque universelle et historiqnijkue</i> (Amsterdam, 25 vols. 12 mo., 1686-1693), -begun with J. C. de la Croze; the <i>Bibliothèque choisie</i> (Amsterdam, -28 vols., 1703-1713); and the <i>Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne</i>, +begun with J. C. de la Croze; the <i>Bibliothèque choisie</i> (Amsterdam, +28 vols., 1703-1713); and the <i>Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne</i>, (29 vols., 1714-1726).</p> -<p>See Le Clerc’s <i>Parrhasiana ou pensées sur des matières de critique, -d’histoire, de morale, et de politique: avec la défense de divers ouvrages -de M. L. C. par Théodore Parrhase</i> (Amsterdam, 1699); and <i>Vita et +<p>See Le Clerc’s <i>Parrhasiana ou pensées sur des matières de critique, +d’histoire, de morale, et de politique: avec la défense de divers ouvrages +de M. L. C. par Théodore Parrhase</i> (Amsterdam, 1699); and <i>Vita et opera ad annum MDCCXI., amici ejus opusculum, philosophicis Clerici operibus subjiciendum</i>, also attributed to himself. The supplement to Hammond’s notes was translated into English in @@ -19524,14 +19485,14 @@ Le Clerc’s Genesis</i> in 1696.</p> <p><span class="bold">LECOCQ, ALEXANDRE CHARLES<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1832-  ), French musical composer, was born in Paris, on the 3rd of June 1832. He was admitted into the Conservatoire in 1849, being already -an accomplished pianist. He studied under Bazin, Halévy and +an accomplished pianist. He studied under Bazin, Halévy and Benoist, winning the first prize for harmony in 1850, and the second prize for fugue in 1852. He first gained notice by dividing with Bizet the first prize for an operetta in a competition instituted by Offenbach. His operetta, <i>Le Docteur miracle</i>, was performed at the Bouffes Parisiens in 1857. After that he wrote constantly for theatres, but produced nothing worthy of mention -until <i>Fleur de thé</i> (1868), which ran for more than a hundred +until <i>Fleur de thé</i> (1868), which ran for more than a hundred nights. <i>Les Cent vierges</i> (1872) was favourably received also, but all his previous successes were cast into the shade by <i>La Fille de Madame Angot</i> (Paris, 1873; London, 1873), which was @@ -19539,21 +19500,21 @@ performed for 400 nights consecutively, and has since gained and retained enormous popularity. After 1873 Lecocq produced a large number of comic operas, though he never equalled his early triumph in <i>La Fille de Madame Angot</i>. Among the best of his -pieces are <i>Giroflé-Girofla</i> (Paris and London, 1874); <i>Les Prés -Saint-Gervais</i> (Paris and London, 1874); <i>La Petite Mariée</i> +pieces are <i>Giroflé-Girofla</i> (Paris and London, 1874); <i>Les Prés +Saint-Gervais</i> (Paris and London, 1874); <i>La Petite Mariée</i> (Paris, 1875; London, 1876, revived as <i>The Scarlet Feather</i>, 1897); <i>Le Petit Duc</i> (Paris, 1878; London, as <i>The Little Duke</i>, 1878); <i>La Petite Mademoiselle</i> (Paris, 1879; London, 1880); <i>Le Jour et la Nuit</i> (Paris, 1881; London, as <i>Manola</i>, 1882); <i>Le Cœur et la main</i> (Paris, 1882; London, as <i>Incognita</i>, 1893); <i>La Princesse des Canaries</i> (Paris, 1883; London, as <i>Pepita</i>, 1888). In 1899 -a ballet by Lecocq, entitled <i>Le Cygne</i>, was staged at the Opéra +a ballet by Lecocq, entitled <i>Le Cygne</i>, was staged at the Opéra Comique, Paris; and in 1903 <i>Yetta</i> was produced at Brussels.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1764-1827), -French politician, was born at Saint-Maixent (Deux-Sèvres) +French politician, was born at Saint-Maixent (Deux-Sèvres) on the 13th of December 1764. Deputy for his department to the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and to the Convention in the same year, he voted for “the death of the tyrant.” His association @@ -19561,7 +19522,7 @@ with the Girondins nearly involved him in their fall, in spite of his vigorous republicanism. He took part in the revolution of Thermidor, but protested against the establishment of the Directory, and continually pressed for severer measures -against the <i>émigrés</i>, and even their relations who had remained +against the <i>émigrés</i>, and even their relations who had remained in France. He was secretary and then president of the Council of Five Hundred, and under the Consulate a member of the Tribunate. He took no part in public affairs under the Empire, @@ -19569,7 +19530,7 @@ but was lieutenant-general of police for south-east France during the Hundred Days. After Waterloo he took ship from Toulon, but the ship was driven back by a storm and he narrowly escaped massacre at Marseilles. After six weeks’ imprisonment -in the Château d’If he returned to Paris, escaping, after the +in the Château d’If he returned to Paris, escaping, after the proscription of the regicides, to Brussels, where he died on the 15th of January 1827.</p> @@ -19615,26 +19576,26 @@ Sciences</i>, vol. xiv. (1902), p. 150.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE RENÉ<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1818-1894), -French poet, was born in the island of Réunion on the 22nd of +<p><span class="bold">LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE RENÉ<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1818-1894), +French poet, was born in the island of Réunion on the 22nd of October 1818. His father, an army surgeon, who brought him up with great severity, sent him to travel in the East Indies with a view to preparing him for a commercial life. After this voyage he went to Rennes to complete his education, studying especially Greek, Italian and history. He returned once or -twice to Réunion, but in 1846 settled definitely in Paris. His -first volume, <i>La Vénus de Milo</i>, attracted to him a number +twice to Réunion, but in 1846 settled definitely in Paris. His +first volume, <i>La Vénus de Milo</i>, attracted to him a number of friends many of whom were passionately devoted to classical literature. In 1873 he was made assistant librarian at the Luxembourg; in 1886 he was elected to the Academy in succession -to Victor Hugo. His <i>Poèmes antiques</i> appeared in 1852; -<i>Poèmes et poésies</i> in 1854; <i>Le Chemin de la croix</i> in 1859; the -<i>Poèmes barbares</i>, in their first form, in 1862; <i>Les Erinnyes</i>, +to Victor Hugo. His <i>Poèmes antiques</i> appeared in 1852; +<i>Poèmes et poésies</i> in 1854; <i>Le Chemin de la croix</i> in 1859; the +<i>Poèmes barbares</i>, in their first form, in 1862; <i>Les Erinnyes</i>, a tragedy after the Greek model, in 1872; for which occasional -music was provided by Jules Massenet; the <i>Poèmes tragiques</i> +music was provided by Jules Massenet; the <i>Poèmes tragiques</i> in 1884; <i>L’Apollonide</i>, another classical tragedy, in 1888; -and two posthumous volumes, <i>Derniers poèmes</i> in 1899, and -<i>Premières poésies et lettres intimes</i> in 1902. In addition to his +and two posthumous volumes, <i>Derniers poèmes</i> in 1899, and +<i>Premières poésies et lettres intimes</i> in 1902. In addition to his original work in verse, he published a series of admirable prose translations of Theocritus, Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Horace. He died at Voisins, near Louveciennes @@ -19656,14 +19617,14 @@ blunder,” and desires only to stand a little apart from the throng, meditating scornfully. Hope, with him, becomes no more than this desperate certainty:—</p> -<p class="center f90">“Tu te tairas, ô voix sinistre des vivants!”</p> +<p class="center f90">“Tu te tairas, ô voix sinistre des vivants!”</p> <p class="noind">His only prayer is to Death, “divine Death,” that it may gather its children to its breast:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>“Affranchis-nous du temps, du nombre et de l’espace,</p> -<p class="i05">Et rends-nous le repos que la vie a troublé!”</p> +<p class="i05">Et rends-nous le repos que la vie a troublé!”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">The interval which is his he accepts with something of the @@ -19689,11 +19650,11 @@ wisdom and not rapturous enough for poetry.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See J. Dornis, <i>Leconte de Lisle intime</i> (1895); F. Calmette, <i>Un -Demi siècle littéraire, Leconte de Lisle et ses amis</i> (1902); Paul Bourget, -<i>Nouveaux essais de psychologie contemporaine</i> (1885); F. Brunetière, -<i>L’Évolution de la poésie lyrique en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1894); -Maurice Spronck, <i>Les Artistes littéraires</i> (1889); J. Lemaître, <i>Les -Contemporains</i> (2nd series, 1886); F. Brunetière, <i>Nouveaux essais +Demi siècle littéraire, Leconte de Lisle et ses amis</i> (1902); Paul Bourget, +<i>Nouveaux essais de psychologie contemporaine</i> (1885); F. Brunetière, +<i>L’Évolution de la poésie lyrique en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1894); +Maurice Spronck, <i>Les Artistes littéraires</i> (1889); J. Lemaître, <i>Les +Contemporains</i> (2nd series, 1886); F. Brunetière, <i>Nouveaux essais sur la litt. contemp.</i> (1895).</p> </div> @@ -19701,7 +19662,7 @@ sur la litt. contemp.</i> (1895).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LE COQ, ROBERT<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (d. 1373), French bishop, was born at Montdidier, although he belonged to a bourgeois family of -Orléans, where he first attended school before coming to Paris. +Orléans, where he first attended school before coming to Paris. In Paris he became advocate to the parlement (1347); then King John appointed him master of requests, and in 1351, a year during which he received many other honours, he became @@ -19711,7 +19672,7 @@ count of Vendome, to Mantes to treat with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who had caused the constable, Charles of Spain, to be assassinated, and from this time dates his connexion with this king. At the meeting of the estates which opened in Paris -in October 1356 Le Coq played a leading rôle and was one of +in October 1356 Le Coq played a leading rôle and was one of the most outspoken of the orators, especially when petitions were presented to the dauphin Charles, denouncing the bad government of the realm and demanding the banishment of @@ -19724,9 +19685,9 @@ became the most powerful person in his council. No one dared to contradict him, and he brought into it whom he pleased. He did not scruple to reveal to the king of Navarre secret deliberations, but his fortune soon turned. He ran great danger at the -estates of Compiègne in May 1358, where his dismissal was +estates of Compiègne in May 1358, where his dismissal was demanded, and he had to flee to St Denis, where Charles the -Bad and Étienne Marcel came to find him. After the death +Bad and Étienne Marcel came to find him. After the death of Marcel, he tried, unsuccessfully, to deliver Laon, his episcopal town, to the king of Navarre, and he was excluded from the amnesty promised in the treaty of Calais (1360) by King John @@ -19737,11 +19698,11 @@ bishopric of Calahorra in the kingdom of Aragon, which he administered until his death in 1373.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See L. C. Douët d’Arcq, “Acte d’accusation contre Robert le Coq, -évêque de Laon” in <i>Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Chartes</i>, 1st series, t. ii., -pp. 350-387; and R. Delachenal, “La Bibliothèque d’un avocat du -XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle, inventaire estimatif des livres de Robert le Coq,” in -<i>Nouvelle revue historique de droit français et étranger</i> (1887), pp. 524-537.</p> +<p>See L. C. Douët d’Arcq, “Acte d’accusation contre Robert le Coq, +évêque de Laon” in <i>Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Chartes</i>, 1st series, t. ii., +pp. 350-387; and R. Delachenal, “La Bibliothèque d’un avocat du +XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle, inventaire estimatif des livres de Robert le Coq,” in +<i>Nouvelle revue historique de droit français et étranger</i> (1887), pp. 524-537.</p> </div> @@ -19750,16 +19711,16 @@ XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle, inventaire estimatif des livres de Robert l was born on the 5th of April 1692, at Damery, Marne, the daughter of a hatter, Robert Couvreur. She had an unhappy childhood in Paris. She showed a natural talent for declamation -and was instructed by La Grand, <i>sociétaire</i> of the Comédie -Française, and with his help she obtained a provincial engagement. +and was instructed by La Grand, <i>sociétaire</i> of the Comédie +Française, and with his help she obtained a provincial engagement. It was not until 1717, after a long apprenticeship, that -she made her Paris début as Electre, in Crébillon’s tragedy -of that name, and Angélique in Molière’s <i>George Dandin</i>. Her +she made her Paris début as Electre, in Crébillon’s tragedy +of that name, and Angélique in Molière’s <i>George Dandin</i>. Her success was so great that she was immediately received into -the Comédie Française, and for thirteen years she was the +the Comédie Française, and for thirteen years she was the queen of tragedy there, attaining a popularity never before accorded an actress. She is said to have played no fewer than -1184 times in a hundred rôles, of which she created twenty-two. +1184 times in a hundred rôles, of which she created twenty-two. She owed her success largely to her courage in abandoning the stilted style of elocution of her predecessors for a naturalness of delivery and a touching simplicity of pathos that delighted @@ -19784,23 +19745,23 @@ whose “friend, admirer, lover” he was.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Her life formed the subject of the well-known tragedy (1849), -by Eugène Scribe and Ernest Legouvé.</p> +by Eugène Scribe and Ernest Legouvé.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LE CREUSOT,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a town of east-central France in the department -of Saône-et-Loire, 55 m. S.W. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon +of Saône-et-Loire, 55 m. S.W. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), town, 22,535; commune, 33,437. Situated at the foot of lofty hills in a district rich in coal and iron, it has the most extensive iron works in France. The coal bed of Le Creusot was discovered in the 13th century; but it was not till 1774 that the first workshops were founded there. The royal -crystal works were transferred from Sèvres to Le Creusot in +crystal works were transferred from Sèvres to Le Creusot in 1787, but this industry came to an end in 1831. Meanwhile two or three enterprises for the manufacture of metal had ended in failure, and it was only in 1836 that the foundation of iron -works by Adolphe and Eugène Schneider definitely inaugurated +works by Adolphe and Eugène Schneider definitely inaugurated the industrial prosperity of the place. The works supplied large quantities of war material to the French armies during the Crimean and Franco-German wars. Since that time they have @@ -19812,11 +19773,11 @@ length connects the various branches of the works with each other and with the neighbouring Canal du Centre. Special attention is paid to the welfare of the workers who, not including the miners, number about 12,000, and good schools have been -established. In 1897 the ordnance-manufacture of the Société -des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée at Havre was acquired -by the Company, which also has important branches at Chalon-sur-Saône, +established. In 1897 the ordnance-manufacture of the Société +des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée at Havre was acquired +by the Company, which also has important branches at Chalon-sur-Saône, where ship-building and bridge-construction is carried -on, and at Cette (Hérault).</p> +on, and at Cette (Hérault).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -19924,7 +19885,7 @@ all of these breviary lessons.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LECTISTERNIUM<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>lectum sternere</i>, “to spread a -couch”; <span class="grk" title="strômnai">στρωμναί</span> in Dion. Halic. xii. 9), in ancient Rome, +couch”; <span class="grk" title="strômnai">στρωμναί</span> in Dion. Halic. xii. 9), in ancient Rome, a propitiatory ceremony, consisting of a meal offered to gods and goddesses, represented by their busts or statues, or by portable figures of wood, with heads of bronze, wax or marble, @@ -19998,11 +19959,11 @@ a feast in memory of the dead (Sidonius Apollinaris, <i>Epistulae</i>, iv. 15).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See article by A. Bouché-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, -<i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, -iii. 45, 187 (1885); G. Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i>, +<p>See article by A. Bouché-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, +<i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, +iii. 45, 187 (1885); G. Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i>, p. 355 seq.; monograph by Wackermann (Hanau, 1888); C. Pascal, -<i>Studii di antichità e mitologia</i> (1896).</p> +<i>Studii di antichità e mitologia</i> (1896).</p> </div> @@ -20045,13 +20006,13 @@ Gers, overlooking the river from the summit of a steep plateau. The church of St Gervais and St Protais was once a cathedral. The massive tower which flanks it on the north belongs to the 15th century; the rest of the church dates from the 13th, 15th, -16th and 17th centuries. The hôtel de ville, the sous-préfecture +16th and 17th centuries. The hôtel de ville, the sous-préfecture and the museum occupy the palace of the former bishops, which was once the property of Marshal Jean Lannes, a native of the town. A recess in the wall of an old house contains the -Fontaine de Houndélie, a spring sheltered by a double archway +Fontaine de Houndélie, a spring sheltered by a double archway of the 13th century. At the bottom of the hill a church of the -16th century marks the site of the monastery of St Gény. +16th century marks the site of the monastery of St Gény. Lectoure has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Its industries include distilling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and biscuits, and market gardening; it has trade in grain, cattle, @@ -20124,15 +20085,15 @@ Gaguin, <i>Compendium de origine et gestis Francorum</i> (Paris, 1586)—it was Gaguin who made the celebrated epigram concerning Le Daim: “Eras judex, lector, et exitium”; De Reiffenberg, <i>Olivier le Dain</i> (Brussels, 1829); Delanone, <i>Le Barbier de Louis XI.</i> (Paris, -1832): G. Picot, “Procès d’Olivier le Dain,” in the <i>Comptes rendus -de l’Académie des sciences morales et politiques</i>, viii. (1877), 485-537. +1832): G. Picot, “Procès d’Olivier le Dain,” in the <i>Comptes rendus +de l’Académie des sciences morales et politiques</i>, viii. (1877), 485-537. The memoirs of the time are uniformly hostile to Le Daim.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEDBURY,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> a market town in the Ross parliamentary division -of Herefordshire, England, 14½ m. E. of Hereford by the Great +of Herefordshire, England, 14½ m. E. of Hereford by the Great Western railway, pleasantly situated on the south-western slope of the Malvern Hills. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3259. Cider and agricultural produce are the chief articles of trade, @@ -20249,9 +20210,9 @@ Congregation of the Propaganda, and he died in Rome on the <div class="condensed"> <p>See Ograbiszewski, <i>Deutschlands Episkopat in Lebensbildern</i> -(1876 and following years); Holtzmann-Zöppfel, <i>Lexikon für +(1876 and following years); Holtzmann-Zöppfel, <i>Lexikon für Theologie und Kirchenwesen</i> (2nd ed., 1888); Vapereau, <i>Dictionnaire -universel des contemporains</i> (6th ed., 1893); Brück, <i>Geschichte der +universel des contemporains</i> (6th ed., 1893); Brück, <i>Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Deutschland im neunzehnten Jahrhundert</i> vol. 4 (1901 and 1908); Lauchert, <i>Biographisches Jahrbuch</i>, vol. 7 (1905).</p> @@ -20268,7 +20229,7 @@ Fontenay-aux-Roses (Seine), on the 2nd of February 1807. He had just begun to practise at the Parisian bar before the revolution of July, and was retained for the Republican defence in most of the great political trials of the next ten years. In 1838 -he bought for 330,000 francs Desiré Dalloz’s place in the Court +he bought for 330,000 francs Desiré Dalloz’s place in the Court of Cassation. He was elected deputy for Le Mans in 1841 with hardly a dissentient voice; but for the violence of his electoral speeches he was tried at Angers and sentenced to four months’ @@ -20285,13 +20246,13 @@ usurpation. Neither from official Liberalism nor from the press did he receive support; even the Republican <i>National</i> was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> opposed to him because of his championship of labour. He -therefore founded <i>La Réforme</i> in which to advance his propaganda. +therefore founded <i>La Réforme</i> in which to advance his propaganda. Between Ledru-Rollin and Odilon Barrot with the other chiefs of the “dynastic Left” there were acute differences, hardly dissimulated even during the temporary alliance which produced the campaign of the banquets. It was the speeches of Ledru-Rollin and Louis Blanc at working-men’s banquets in -Lille, Dijon and Châlons that really heralded the revolution. +Lille, Dijon and Châlons that really heralded the revolution. Ledru-Rollin prevented the appointment of the duchess of Orleans as regent in 1848. He and Lamartine held the tribune in the Chamber of Deputies until the Parisian populace stopped @@ -20316,7 +20277,7 @@ He himself escaped to London where he joined the executive of the revolutionary committee of Europe, with Kossuth and Mazzini among his colleagues. He was accused of complicity in an obscure attempt (1857) against the life of Napoleon III., -and condemned in his absence to deportation. Émile Ollivier +and condemned in his absence to deportation. Émile Ollivier removed the exceptions from the general amnesty in 1870, and Ledru-Rollin returned to France after twenty years of exile. Though elected in 1871 in three departments he refused to sit in @@ -20327,16 +20288,16 @@ Vaucluse. He died on the 31st of December of that year.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Under Louis Philippe he made large contributions to French jurisprudence, editing the <i>Journal du palais, 1791-1837</i> (27 vols., -1837), and <i>1837-1847</i> (17 vols.), with a commentary <i>Répertoire général -de la jurisprudence française</i> (8 vols., 1843-1848), the introduction to +1837), and <i>1837-1847</i> (17 vols.), with a commentary <i>Répertoire général +de la jurisprudence française</i> (8 vols., 1843-1848), the introduction to which was written by himself. His later writings were political in -character. See <i>Ledru-Rollin, ses discours et ses écrits politiques</i> +character. See <i>Ledru-Rollin, ses discours et ses écrits politiques</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1879), edited by his widow.</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Arago, Garnier-Pagès, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru-Rollin.</p> +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Arago, Garnier-Pagès, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru-Rollin.</p> </div> @@ -20959,7 +20920,7 @@ Modern Stage</i> (1906).</p> <p><span class="bold">LEE, SOPHIA<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1750-1824), English novelist and dramatist, daughter of John Lee (d. 1781), actor and theatrical manager, was born in London. Her first piece, <i>The Chapter of Accidents</i>, -a one-act-opera based on Diderot’s <i>Père de famille</i>, was produced +a one-act-opera based on Diderot’s <i>Père de famille</i>, was produced by George Colman at the Haymarket Theatre on the 5th of August 1780. The proceeds were spent in establishing a school at Bath, where Miss Lee made a home for her sisters. Her @@ -21028,7 +20989,7 @@ died at Vicksburg on the 28th of May 1908.</p> <p><span class="bold">LEE,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a township of Berkshire county, in western Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1900) 3596; (1905) 3972; (1910) 4106. The township is traversed by the New York, New Haven & -Hartford railway, covers an area of 22½ sq. m., and includes the +Hartford railway, covers an area of 22½ sq. m., and includes the village of Lee, 10 m. S. of Pittsfield, East Lee, adjoining it on the S.E., and South Lee, about 3 m. to the S.W. Lee and South Lee are on, and East Lee is near, the Housatonic river. The @@ -21071,7 +21032,7 @@ Alexander Hyde.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEE.<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1) (In O. Eng. <i>hléo</i>; cf. the pronunciation <i>lew-ward</i> of +<p><span class="bold">LEE.<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1) (In O. Eng. <i>hléo</i>; cf. the pronunciation <i>lew-ward</i> of “leeward”; the word appears in several Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch <i>lij</i>, Dan. <i>lae</i>), properly a shelter or protection, chiefly used as a nautical term for that side of a ship, land, &c., which @@ -21245,7 +21206,7 @@ aspects,</p> a note in the work of Hogarth is indeed far less characteristic of Leech, but there are touches of pathos and of tragedy in such of the <i>Punch</i> designs as the “Poor Man’s Friend” (1845), and “General -Février turned Traitor” (1855), and in “The Queen of the Arena” +Février turned Traitor” (1855), and in “The Queen of the Arena” in the first volume of <i>Once a Week</i>, which are sufficient to prove that more solemn powers, for which his daily work afforded no scope, lay dormant in their artist. The purity and manliness of Leech’s @@ -21415,11 +21376,11 @@ relations after becoming lord treasurer. In any case, in 1676, together with Lauderdale alone, he consented to a treaty between Charles and Louis according to which the foreign policy of both kings was to be conducted in union, and Charles received an -annual subsidy of £100,000. In 1678 Charles, taking advantage +annual subsidy of £100,000. In 1678 Charles, taking advantage of the growing hostility to France in the nation and parliament, raised his price, and Danby by his directions demanded through Ralph Montagu (afterwards duke of Montagu) six million livres -a year (£300,000) for three years. Simultaneously Danby +a year (£300,000) for three years. Simultaneously Danby guided through parliament a bill for raising money for a war against France; a league was concluded with Holland, and troops were actually sent there. That Danby, in spite of these @@ -21444,8 +21405,8 @@ said to have told him when he made him treasurer that he had only two friends in the world, himself and his own merit.<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> He was described to Pepys on his acquiring office as “one of a broken sort of people that have not much to lose and therefore will -venture all,” and as “a beggar having £1100 or £1200 a year, -but owes above £10,000.” His office brought him in £20,000 +venture all,” and as “a beggar having £1100 or £1200 a year, +but owes above £10,000.” His office brought him in £20,000 a year,<a name="fa6j" id="fa6j" href="#ft6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and he was known to be making large profits by the sale of offices; he maintained his power by corruption and by jealously excluding from office men of high standing and ability. @@ -21542,7 +21503,7 @@ the king’s bench was unsuccessful. For some time all appeals to the king, to parliament, and to the courts of justice were unavailing; but on the 12th of February 1684 his application to Chief Justice Jeffreys was at last successful, and he was set -at liberty on finding bail to the amount of £40,000, to appear +at liberty on finding bail to the amount of £40,000, to appear in the House of Lords in the following session. He visited the king at court the same day; but took no part in public affairs for the rest of the reign.</p> @@ -21634,7 +21595,7 @@ churchman and Protestant he still possessed a following. In 1705 he supported a motion that the church was in danger, and in 1710 in Sacheverell’s case spoke in defence of hereditary right.<a name="fa14j" id="fa14j" href="#ft14j"><span class="sp">14</span></a> In November of this year he obtained a renewal of his pension -of £3500 a year from the post office which he was holding in +of £3500 a year from the post office which he was holding in 1694,<a name="fa15j" id="fa15j" href="#ft15j"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and in 1711 at the age of eighty was a competitor for the office of lord privy seal.<a name="fa16j" id="fa16j" href="#ft16j"><span class="sp">16</span></a> His long and eventful career, however, terminated soon afterwards by his death on the 26th of @@ -21744,7 +21705,7 @@ in <i>Lives of Illustrious Persons</i> (1714), 40.</p> <p><a name="ft11j" id="ft11j" href="#fa11j"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Boyer’s <i>Annals</i> (1722), 433.</p> <p><a name="ft12j" id="ft12j" href="#fa12j"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The title was taken, not from Leeds in Yorkshire, but from -Leeds in Kent, 4½ m. from Maidstone, which in the 17th century was +Leeds in Kent, 4½ m. from Maidstone, which in the 17th century was a more important place than its Yorkshire namesake.</p> <p><a name="ft13j" id="ft13j" href="#fa13j"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Memoirs of Sir John Macky</i> (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 46.</p> @@ -21773,7 +21734,7 @@ handsome public buildings are distributed among several streets, principally on the north side of the narrow river. The town hall is a fine building in Grecian style, well placed in a square between Park Lane and Great George Street. It is of oblong -shape, with a handsome façade over which rises a domed clock-tower. +shape, with a handsome façade over which rises a domed clock-tower. The principal apartment is the Victoria Hall, a richly ornamented chamber measuring 161 ft. in length, 72 in breadth and 75 in height. It was opened in 1858 by Queen Victoria. @@ -21965,7 +21926,7 @@ height of summer, the sun sinking behind one flank to reappear beyond the other, and thus appearing to set twice.</p> <p>Leek (Lee, Leike, Leeke) formed part of the great estates of -Ælfgar, earl of Mercia; it escheated to William the Conqueror +Ælfgar, earl of Mercia; it escheated to William the Conqueror who held it at the time of the Domesday Survey. Later it passed to the earls Palatine of Chester, remaining in their hands until Ralph de Blundevill, earl of Chester, gave it to the abbey @@ -22060,7 +22021,7 @@ more or less speculative.</p> <p><span class="bold">LEER,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> a town and river port in the Prussian province of Hanover, lying in a fertile plain on the right bank of the Leda near its confluence with the Ems, and at the junction of -railways to Bremen, Emden and Münster. Pop. (1905) 12,347. +railways to Bremen, Emden and Münster. Pop. (1905) 12,347. The streets are broad, well paved, and adorned with many elegant buildings, among which are Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist churches, and a new town hall with a tower 165 ft. @@ -22278,10 +22239,10 @@ in 1880.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> duke of Danzig +<p><span class="bold">LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> duke of Danzig (1755-1820), marshal of France, was born at Rouffach in Alsace on the 20th of October 1755. At the outbreak of the Revolution -he was a sergeant in the Gardes françaises, and with many of +he was a sergeant in the Gardes françaises, and with many of his comrades of this regiment took the popular side. He distinguished himself by bravery and humanity in many of the street fights in Paris, and becoming an officer and again distinguishing @@ -22290,7 +22251,7 @@ general of division in 1794. He took part in the Revolutionary Wars from Fleurus to Stokach, always resolute, strictly obedient and calm. At Stokach (1799) he received a severe wound and had to return to France, where he assisted Napoleon during -the <i>coup d’état</i> of 18 Brumaire. He was one of the first generals +the <i>coup d’état</i> of 18 Brumaire. He was one of the first generals of division to be made marshal at the beginning of the First Empire. He commanded the guard infantry at Jena, conducted the siege of Danzig 1806-1807 (from which town he received his @@ -22298,7 +22259,7 @@ title in 1808), commanded a corps in the emperor’s campaign of 1808-1809 in Spain, and in 1809 was given the difficult task of commanding the Bavarian contingent, which he led in the containing engagements of Abensberg and Rohr and at the -battle of Eckmühl. He commanded the Imperial Guard in +battle of Eckmühl. He commanded the Imperial Guard in Russia, 1812, fought through the last campaign of the Empire, and won fresh glory at Montmirail, Areis-sur-Aube and Champaubert. He was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII. but joined @@ -22312,390 +22273,14 @@ even of leading an important detachment, but he was absolutely trustworthy as a subordinate, as brave as he was experienced, and intensely loyal to his chief. He maintained to the end of his life a rustic simplicity of speech and demeanour. -Of his wife (formerly a <i>blanchisseuse</i> to the Gardes Françaises) +Of his wife (formerly a <i>blanchisseuse</i> to the Gardes Françaises) many stories have been told, but in so far as they are to her discredit they seem to be false, she being, like the marshal, a plain “child of the people.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 3, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41685-h.htm or 41685-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/6/8/41685/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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