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diff --git a/41677-8.txt b/41677-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index add829a..0000000 --- a/41677-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10608 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The British Navy Book, by Cyril Field - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: The British Navy Book - - -Author: Cyril Field - - - -Release Date: December 21, 2012 [eBook #41677] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BRITISH NAVY BOOK*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Emmy, Matthew Wheaton, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 41677-h.htm or 41677-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41677/41677-h/41677-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41677/41677-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/britishnavybook00fiel - - - - - -THE BRITISH NAVY BOOK - - * * * * * - -_Uniform with this volume_ - -THE BRITISH ARMY BOOK - -BY PAUL DANBY AND LIEUT.-COL. CYRIL FIELD, R.M.L.I. - - - "It is full of great deeds sure to fire the - imagination of any boy."--_Times._ - - "Gives a better and more readable account of our army - than any book we can think of."--_Graphic._ - - "A most stirring, as well as informative - book."--_Scotsman._ - - - "A glorious story, told in fine racy - style."--_Sheffield Daily Telegraph._ - - - LONDON: BLACKIE & SON. LTD., 50 OLD BAILEY, E.C. - - * * * * * - - -[Illustration: "BRITAIN'S SURE SHIELD"] - - -THE BRITISH NAVY BOOK - -by - -LIEUT.-COL. AND BREVET COL. CYRIL FIELD, R.M.L.I. - -With Full-page Illustrations in Colour and in -Black-and-White and Numerous Illustrations in the Text - - - - - - - -Blackie and Son Limited -London Glasgow and Bombay - - - - -Contents - - - CHAP. Page - PROLOGUE: THE COMMAND OF THE SEA (A.D. 1915) 9 - - I. A LESSON FROM CÆSAR 19 - - II. ANCIENT WAR-SHIPS 28 - - III. FIGHTING-SHIPS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 38 - - IV. MARINERS OF OTHER DAYS 54 - - V. SOME MEDIÆVAL SEA-FIGHTS 60 - - VI. THE NAVY IN TUDOR TIMES 67 - - VII. FROM ELIZABETH TO VICTORIA 81 - - VIII. THE "TURKS" IN THE CHANNEL 99 - - IX. THE HONOUR OF THE FLAG 115 - - X. THE EVOLUTION OF NAVAL GUNNERY 125 - - XI. EVOLUTION OF THE IRONCLAD BATTLESHIP 146 - - XII. THE EVOLUTION OF THE SUBMARINE AND SUBMARINE MINE 167 - - XIII. NAVAL BRIGADES 187 - - XIV. WAR-SHIPS OF ALL SORTS 204 - - XV. THE MANNING OF A SHIP 223 - - XVI. BEGINNING OF THE WAR AFLOAT 242 - - XVII. OPERATIONS IN THE NORTH SEA AND CHANNEL 254 - - XVIII. IN THE OUTER SEAS 261 - - XIX. A REVERSE AND A VICTORY 272 - - XX. GERMAN RAIDS AND THEIR SIGNAL PUNISHMENT 285 - - XXI. THE ROYAL NAVAL AIR SERVICE 292 - - CONCLUSION 307 - - - - -Illustrations - - - IN COLOUR - Page - - "BRITAIN'S SURE SHIELD" _Frontispiece_ - - UNIFORMS OF THE BRITISH NAVY: Midshipman, Admiral, - Flag-Lieutenant, Secretary (Fleet Paymaster) 96 - - UNIFORMS OF THE BRITISH NAVY: A.B. (Marching Order), - 1st Class Petty Officer, Stoker 188 - - UNIFORMS OF THE ROYAL MARINES: Gunner, R.M.A.; - Colour-Sergeant, R.M.L.I.; Major, R.M.A 236 - - - IN BLACK-AND-WHITE - - H.M.S. "DREADNOUGHT" FIRING A BROADSIDE OF 12-INCH GUNS 10 - - LEARNING TO FIGHT ZEPPELINS 16 - - A WAR-GALLEY IN THE DAYS OF KING ALFRED 36 - - THE "GREAT HARRY", THE FIRST BIG BATTLESHIP OF THE - BRITISH NAVY 70 - - A SEA-FIGHT IN TUDOR TIMES 78 - - DESTROYING A STRAGGLER FROM THE ARMADA 82 - - LORD HOWARD ATTACKING A SHIP OF THE SPANISH ARMADA 84 - - THE "ROYAL GEORGE" ENGAGING THE "SOLEIL ROYAL" IN - QUIBERON BAY, 1759 90 - - THE "VICTORY" IN GALA DRESS 92 - - "THE GLORIOUS 1ST OF JUNE", 1794 94 - - THE RELEASE OF CHRISTIAN PRISONERS AT ALGIERS 108 - - THE FIGHT BETWEEN A MERCHANTMAN AND A TURKISH PIRATE 112 - - TEACHING THE SPANIARD "THE HONOUR OF THE FLAG" 118 - - THE BATTLE OF THE NORE, JUNE, 1653, BETWEEN THE - ENGLISH AND DUTCH 122 - - THE "DULLE GRIETE" AT GHENT 130 - - THE MAIN GUN DECK ON H.M.S. "VICTORY" 140 - - NAVAL GUNNERY IN THE OLD DAYS 142 - - 13.5-INCH GUNS ON H.M.S. "CONQUEROR" 144 - - H.M.S. "WARRIOR", OUR FIRST SEA-GOING IRONCLAD BATTLESHIP 154 - - A MONSTER GUN WHICH IS NOW OBSOLETE 162 - - A FLEET OF SUBMARINES IN PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR 176 - - ENGLISH BLUEJACKETS AT THE DEFENCE OF ACRE 192 - - THE NAVAL BRIGADE IN THE BATTLE OF EL-TEB 200 - - OUR SEAMEN GUNNERS WITH A MAXIM 202 - - DECK OF A "DREADNOUGHT" CLEARED FOR ACTION 206 - - THE BRITISH SUBMARINE "E2" 216 - - THE 13.5-INCH GUN: SOME IDEA OF ITS LENGTH 238 - - 6-INCH GUN DRILL: THE BREECH OPEN 240 - - THE SINKING OF THE GERMAN CRUISER "MAINZ" 248 - - "MISSED!"; THE HELM THE BEST WEAPON AGAINST TORPEDOES 258 - - THE BRITISH AIR RAID ON CUXHAVEN: DRAWING BY JOHN DE - G. BRYAN 302 - - THE BRITISH AIR RAID ON CUXHAVEN: SEA-PLANE FLOWN BY - FLIGHT-COMMANDER R. ROSS 304 - - - - -Publishers' Note - - -Just as this book was about to go to press an Admiralty Order was issued -forbidding the publication of any text or illustrations likely to prove -of service to the enemy. Proofs of _The British Navy Book_ were -submitted to the Admiralty, with the result that the book has been -approved. Acting in accordance with instructions from the Lords -Commissioners, we have substituted other illustrations for those more -recent ships previously chosen to represent the Great War by sea. - - BLACKIE & SON, LIMITED. - - - - -THE BRITISH NAVY BOOK - - - - -PROLOGUE - -The Command of the Seas - -(A.D. 1915) - - "It may truly be said that the Command of the Sea is - an Abridgement or a Quintessence of an Universal - Monarchy." - - SIR FRANCIS BACON. - - -It is a grey morning out on the North Sea, with but little wind. There -is no swell, but considerable movement on the surface of the waters, -with here and there an occasional tossing of the white manes of the -sea-horses. Swimming majestically through the sea comes one of our -monster slate-grey battle-cruisers. She is "stripped to a gantline", and -in complete and instant readiness for action. The red cross of St. -George flutters bravely at her fore-topmast head, for she is the -flagship of the squadron of three or four towering grey ships that are -following in her wake. Aft flies the well-known White Ensign, the -"meteor flag of England" blazing in the corner. Far away on either bow, -but dimly discernible on the wide horizon, are the shadows of other -smaller ships, the light cruisers, which are moving ahead and on the -flanks of the squadron like cavalry covering the advance of an army. On -board is an almost Sabbath-day stillness, save for the wash of the sea, -the dull steady whirr of the giant turbines far down below the armour -deck, the periodical clang of the ship's bell, marking the flight of -time. Now and again comes a whiff of cooking from the galley. As the day -advances the light grows stronger; gleams of sunshine send the purple -shadows of masts and rigging dancing fitfully over the wide deck, which -is practically deserted. There is the marine sentry over the life-buoy -aft, look-outs aloft and at various corners of the superstructures, and -the figures of the officer of the watch, signalmen and others are seen -in movement up in the triangular platform dignified by the name of the -"fore-bridge". Who would imagine that there are seven or eight hundred -souls on board, seamen, marines, stokers, and many other ratings of -whose existence and duties the "man in the street" is profoundly -ignorant? - -[Illustration: _Photo. Cribb, Southsea_ - -H.M.S. _DREADNOUGHT_ FIRING A BROADSIDE OF 12-INCH GUNS] - -But look inside this massive gun-hood, from which protrude forty feet of -two sleek grey monster cannon, each of which is capable of hurling 850 -pounds of steel and high explosive a distance of a dozen miles. Grouped -round their guns in various attitudes are the bluejackets forming their -crews. They are tanned and weather-beaten fellows, but there is a -strained and tired look about their eyes. Here in the confined spaces of -their turret they have eaten, slept, and whiled away the watches as best -they might for many, many hours. They have not had the discomforts of -their khaki-clad brethren in their sodden trenches, nor listened to the -constant hiss of hostile bullets and the howl and crash of "Jack -Johnsons" at unexpected moments. But if they have been immune from these -constant and manifest dangers, they have had none of their excitements. -They have had the temptation to boredom, and the less exciting but -always present peril of the dastardly German system of mine-laying in -the open sea. Some are writing letters to chums, to sweethearts, and to -wives. Others are killing time with the light literature that has been -sent to the ship in bundles by the many friends of the fleet on -shore. In one corner is a midshipman writing up his "log", and beside -him sits the lieutenant in charge of the turret reading for the fourth -time a much-folded letter he has taken from an inner pocket. - -Look into the next turret and you will see a similar scene, the only -difference being that in this case the guns' crews and their officer are -marines, wearing red-striped trousers and "Brodrick" caps--the latter -not unlike those of the seamen, but with the corps badge in brass on a -semicircular scarlet patch in front, instead of a ribband with the -ship's name. In the casemates housing the smaller guns in the -superstructures and on the deck below are similar though smaller groups. -All are waiting--waiting. - -We wend our way below. The clerks and writers are working in their -offices, the cooks are busy at their galleys. Men must eat and accounts -must be kept though the ship should be blown out of existence in the -next ten minutes. We enter a narrow lift and are shot down to the lower -regions, where the sweating stokers handle rake and shovel, the -artificers and engine-room staff ply oil-can and spanner, and the -engineer officers study gauges and dials of all sorts and kinds. There -is more life down here than up above. Work is going on that needs -constant watching and attention. On our return journey to "the upper -air" we glance in at the wireless room. As we do so comes the loud -crackle of the electric spark. The operator is acknowledging a signal. A -message has come in from a scouting cruiser. "The enemy are out. Five -big cruisers, heading north-west." Another Scarborough Raid perhaps. - -The ship wakes up, she is alive. The engine-room gongs clang down in her -depths. A few signal flags flutter aloft. The admiral is signalling to -his squadron to alter course to head off the enemy, and to increase -speed by so many revolutions. The big ship gathers way. Her consorts -follow in the curve of her foaming wake, and with every big gun trained -forward the lithe grey leviathans tear over the watery plain in search -of their quarry. - -An hour passes. Nothing is seen but the scouting cruisers and a minute -speck in the remote spaces of the sky, which someone thinks is a -sea-plane, but which may well be a grey gull in the middle distance. -Presently, however, a growing darkness along the north-eastern horizon -becomes recognizable as smoke--the smoke of many furnaces. Against its -growing blackness one of our distant light cruisers shows for a moment -as a white ship. Black smoke is pouring from her funnels also, and -amidst it all is a sudden violet-white flash. - -After an age comes the dull "thud" of her cannon. Now she turns away to -port. There are more vivid flashes and the "thudding" of her guns grows -continuous. Soon answering flashes sparkle from amidst the smoke-pall on -the horizon, and first one then another nebulous outline of a warship -disintegrates itself. Flashes break from their sides also, and the noise -of the firing swells into a steady roll of sound rising and falling on -the wind. We again increase speed. Black smoke billows from our funnels, -the bow wave rises higher, and now and again a cloud of spray swishes -over our decks. Then "Cra--ash!" The fore-turret has spoken. The ship -trembles from stem to stern. We are striking in to the assistance of our -scouting cruiser. Through the glasses appears what looks like an iceberg -towering over the enemy's nearest cruiser. We've missed her. - -But the spotting officer is busy in the control-platform aloft, passing -down corrections for transmission to the various gun-stations, and when -a second explosion roars from the starboard turret, the enemy's cruiser, -after disappearing for some seconds in a black and inky cloud of smoke, -bursts into flames. Her consort and our scouting vessel draw farther and -farther away to the northward, fighting fiercely. We continue driving -through the tumbling waters, till, with a slight freshening of the wind, -the black smoke we are approaching thins off into nothingness, and we -see far down on the horizon four or five separate columns of smoke. With -a good glass we can distinguish masts and funnels as if lightly sketched -in pencil. They have sighted us at the same time, and seem to melt -together into one indistinct mass. They are altering course, turning -their backs to us and heading for the east. - -The engine-room gongs clang again, more revolutions are demanded and are -forthcoming, and our four big battle-cruisers rush in pursuit with -renewed energy. A distant humming sound increases quickly to a loud -hissing and roaring--a noise which may be compared to that of a monster -engine letting off steam--and an enormous projectile, passing well over -our heads, plunges into the sea on the starboard beam of our following -ship, the splash rising as high as the mastheads. Others follow fast. -The rearmost ship loses her mainmast, and now the enemy's gunners reduce -their elevation and slap their big shells into the sea just ahead of us. - -Our own guns are not idle. One after another gives tongue with a volume -of noise and a concussion that no words can describe. The pen is -powerless to bring before the imagination such a cataclysm of sound. On -a sudden, amidst the crashing of the guns and the continuous dull -booming of the enemy's in the distance, there is a different and a -rending explosion somewhere forward. We have at last been hit. Down on -the forecastle all is smoke, blackness, torn iron plates and girders. -From the midst of the chaos comes the shriek of a man calling on his -Maker, and piteous groanings. Soon the dull red of fire blushes through -the smoke, and a rush of bluejackets and marines with fire-hoses -spouting white streams of water engages this dread enemy and succeeds in -subduing it. - -Stretcher-men appear on the scene and remove the wounded, but there is -more than one serge-clad figure that lies heedless of fire or water, -friend or foe. These are they who have fought their last fight and have -laid down their lives and all that they had for their country. - -Inside the turrets the aspect of affairs is very different from what we -saw a short time ago. The gun-layers are standing at their sights, the -guns' crews are working levers to and fro, the big breech-blocks are -swinging on one side, the huge pointed projectiles rising on their -hydraulic hoists till they come in line with the bore of the gun. -Another lever is pulled, and the rammer-head, hitherto somewhat in the -background of the turret, advances towards the gun, impelled by what -looks not unlike a monster bicycle chain crawling up from below, and -stiffening itself as it advances along a horizontal trough of steel. The -rammer-head meets the base of the big shell and drives it resistlessly -and with no apparent effort into the gun. It retires; the charges of -explosive, divided into sections and carried in cylinders which come in -turn in line with the breech, are then one after the other pushed into -place by the indefatigable rammer-head, the breech-block is swung to, -turned and locked, and the gun is ready to fire again. - - * * * * * - -We are now in full view of the enemy's squadron, which consists of five -large armoured cruisers. Two of these are in a bad way. One on our -starboard bow has lost two out of her three funnels as well as a mast. -She is barely moving through the water, and has a strong list to port, -which is so pronounced as to prevent her elevating her guns, whose -projectiles all strike the water short of us, though we are at -comparatively close range. Only two or three of her larger pieces are -able to fire at all, and these but at intervals. Her foremost turret is -nothing but a chaos of broken metal from the midst of which a pair of -mutilated cannon point forlornly skyward. - -The midships turret nearest to us is in hardly better case. Her -superstructures look like the ruins of a town after an earthquake, and -several large holes gape in her sides. A dense black smoke sweeps -upwards from the midst of the wreckage. About half a mile ahead of her a -consort is also stationary and on fire, the flames driving away in -sheets to leeward. The ship that followed us as second in the line is -very badly damaged also, and is just discernible on the horizon astern -under a pall of smoke. These casualties leave us evenly matched--three -to three--with plenty of fight left in us, but with the volume and -efficiency of our fire considerably reduced. Our own funnels are still -standing, but riddled like collanders, the fore-bridge has been swept -away, and with it our dear old skipper; but his place has been ably -filled by the commander, who is fighting the ship from the -conning-tower, which still stands. Both squadrons--the German in line -ahead, ours in bow and quarter line--are heading due east, but, just as -we are abreast the badly damaged cruiser to which I have referred, the -enemy begins edging away to the north-east. We fail to see the -significance of this manoeuvre at first, and the admiral, who, though -rather badly hurt by the fall of the fore-bridge, is still in the -conning-tower with the commander, may have visions of "crossing their T" -astern, when there is a sudden shout from aloft. A man is leaning over -and gesticulating wildly from the control-platform and pointing towards -our starboard bow. There, not far from the burning enemy ship, the glass -shows three pairs of what look like black cricket-stumps. Simultaneously -there is a gleam in the sea alongside, like the white of a shark's belly -when he turns to seize his prey. The deadly torpedo had missed us by a -couple of feet. - -We instantly turn sharply to port, signalling our consorts to do the -same, and all head northwards at our best speed. This brings the enemy's -line, which had been turning more and more to port, on a parallel -course, and all three ships at once concentrate on us--the nearest ship. -We get a worse hammering in the five minutes that follow than we have -sustained during the action. The after turret is jammed, one of the -guns in the starboard turret loses its muzzle, and fire breaks out in -two places amidships, and can only be got under with the most strenuous -efforts and great loss of life. - -[Illustration: LEARNING TO FIGHT ZEPPELINS - -Gunnery practice on a British war-ship against an aerial target. It is a -difficult matter to get "war conditions", as the ordinary target, such -as a towed kite, is easier to hit than an aeroplane.] - -Things are looking ugly. The submarines still follow astern, but are not -near enough to risk a shot. We cannot steam any faster, and we are -baulking the fire of our friends. We slow down, risking the submarines, -to allow our consorts to get ahead of us and enable us to meet the three -enemy ships on equal terms. There are many anxious looks astern while -this manoeuvre is in execution. The periscopes of our submarine foes are -still discernible, but beyond them is a fast-growing smoke-cloud from -which presently emerge the lithe black hulls of our "X" destroyer -flotilla. Apparently the submarines do not observe their approach; their -periscopes are steadily fixed on our ship, reckoning every yard they -gain on us. But the destroyers see _them_, and presently we see also a -warning signal from the enemy flagship. But it is too late. Before the -_Unterseeische Böte_ can dive out of harm's way three or four destroyers -sweep over them and ram them at the speed of an express train. Slowing -down, they circle right and left and open fire. What at we cannot see. -Presently up pops a grey lump some way astern. The light guns on the -superstructure give tongue so quickly that one has hardly time to -recognize it as the conning-tower of a submarine before it is literally -blown to pieces. - -For the first time during the fight a cheer rings out fore and aft. -Almost at once the little guns begin banging away again. This time their -long muzzles are nosing about in the air. What are they firing at? -"There they are!" cries someone, pointing to the south-east, where two -big amorphous monsters have appeared high up in the clouds. Zeppelins, -right enough; and the bang, bang, bang of the lighter artillery rises in -crescendo from every ship and destroyer till the air echoes like -Vulcan's forge. Up come the pair of enormous sausages at a high rate of -speed, and as they pass over our destroyer flotilla they begin -dropping their bombs. Dull concussions thud apparently on the ship's -bottom; fountains of white water spout all round the small craft. - -But none are hit. The leading "gas-bag" is heading straight for us. She -has probably spotted our damaged condition, and reckons us an easy prey. -But our gunners are getting closer to her every shot, and presently she -turns slowly to starboard, dropping a futile bomb as she goes. She now -presents a fine broadside target as big as a Dreadnought, another shot -gets home somewhere, and she makes off in the direction she came with -her nose down, tail in air, and a pronounced list to port. Her consort -turns too, and scuttles off at top speed. She hopes to "live to fight -another day" over some peaceful English village where there are no -nasty, disagreeable quick-firing guns, shrapnel-shell, and other unkind -greetings from those she would destroy. - - * * * * * - -The day is drawing to a close. We are heading homewards in tow of a -consort. Low down under the tawny sunset that dim purple line is the -coast of "Old England"--the motherland we are engaged in defending from -the assault of the most unscrupulous enemy she has ever encountered. The -wind has fallen, the waves are hardly more than ripples, and evening is -closing down with a soothing hush over land and sea. We have cleared up -after the smashing and racket of the battle as far as possible, but we -can hardly crawl along, and are bound to go into dockyard hands for some -weeks at any rate. - -"Are we downhearted?" "No!" For we have given much better than the best -efforts of the Huns could give. Two of their ships are at the bottom, -with most of their crews; though, thanks to the exertions and humanity -of our gallant seamen, a considerable number of them have been saved -from a watery grave. To this bag may be added three if not four -submarines and a badly damaged Zeppelin, so we are not ill-satisfied -with the day's work. We have just passed several "tall ships" on their -way out to relieve us on patrol, and as we begin to get under the land -there is a whirring up aloft in the gathering dusk, and a dozen -sea-planes, like a flight of wild-ducks, come swooping seaward and make -towards the Channel. - -Where are they off to? Are they patrolling, or are they bent on a raid -on the enemy's magazines, hangars, and gun positions? We do not know, -but our ignorance does not worry us. We know the kind of man that is -flying down there towards the southern horizon, and are quite satisfied -that he will "make a good job" of whatever he has in hand. Just as the -sun dips, out comes a destroyer from the shadow of the land to pilot us -through the mine-field, and so we are brought "into the harbour where we -would be". We have plenty of hard work before us--some of it very sad -work. There are our poor wounded shipmates down below in the sick-bay -who have to be taken ashore to hospital, and there are the last honours -to be paid to those other gallant comrades and shipmates who have -"fought the good fight" and are now making their last voyage _en route_ -for that promised land where "there shall be no more sea". - -And now let us consider how this guardian fleet and the men who man it -came into being. In the following pages my object will be not so much to -describe well-known sea-fights as to give a series of pictures of the -sailor and of the navy at different stages of "our island story". - - - - -CHAPTER I - -A Lesson from Cæsar - - "Storm and sea were Britain's bulwarks, - Long ere Britons won their name; - Mightier far than pikes and halberds - Wind and wave upheld her fame; - Storm and sea are Britain's brothers, - Keep, with her, their sleepless guard; - Britain's sons, before all others, - Share with them their watch and ward. - - _Chorus_-- - - "'Forward! On!' the sea-king's war-word - Ages back--to do or die.[1] - 'Ne'er a track but points us forward!'[2] - Ages on--our lines reply." - E. H. H. In _Officers' Training Corps and Naval - Cadets' Magazine_, March, 1913. - - -WHENEVER we want to find out anything about the early history of Great -Britain, we have, almost invariably, to turn to the writings of our old -friend Julius Cæsar. In attempting to trace the beginnings of the Royal -Navy, that magnificent organization "whereon", point out the _Articles -of War_, "under the good Providence of God, the Wealth, Safety, and -Strength of the Kingdom chiefly depend", we have to conform to the same -rule, and consult this authority. From Cæsar's _De Bello Gallico_ we -learn that in his time the Ancient Britons made use of boats with a -wooden frame, supporting wicker-work instead of planking, and rendered -watertight by a covering of skins--just such boats, in fact, though -probably larger--as, under the name of "coracles", are used to this day -on the Wye and some other rivers and estuaries. - -The portability and rapid construction of these boats commended them to -Cæsar's military eye, and later on, in one of his Continental wars, he -ordered his soldiers to make some light boats in imitation of those he -had seen in Britain, in order to carry his army across a river. But, -though Cæsar especially mentions these vessels, he does not say that the -British of his day had no other or larger vessels. Though they made use -of hides and wicker, they must have known something of wooden vessels. -There is no doubt that they or their ancestors had large "dug-outs", -hollowed from huge trunks of trees in the same way as Robinson Crusoe -constructed his famous boat. We know this because many of these have -been discovered buried in the mud of our rivers. One of them, found in -the bed of the Rother in 1822, was 60 feet in length and 5 feet wide. -Others have been found in Lincolnshire, Scotland, and Sussex, though -none of them was nearly as long as the Rother boat. We must remember, -too, that the Phoenicians had traded to Cornwall for tin, probably for -centuries, and the Britons must have been familiar with their -comparatively advanced types of shipbuilding. - -But many writers on naval matters are of the opinion that our British -ancestors, whose coracles are described by Cæsar, had, even at that -time, really stout and formidable ships. The reason is this. The Veneti, -a race who inhabited western Brittany, and the country at the mouth of -the Loire, were a kindred race, and when attacked by Cæsar received -assistance from Britain. Now the strength of the Veneti seems to have -been in their ships, which gave the Roman galleys considerable trouble, -and it seems more than likely that the British assistance they received -came in the form of a squadron of similar vessels. - -According to Cæsar, the ships of the Veneti "were built and fitted out -in this manner: their bottoms were somewhat flatter than ours, the -better to adapt them to the shallows, and to sustain without danger the -ebbing of the tide. Their prows were very high and erect, as likewise -their sterns, to bear the hugeness of the waves and the violence of the -tempests. The hull of the vessel was entirely of oak, to withstand the -shocks and assaults of that stormy ocean. The benches of the rowers were -made of strong beams about a foot wide, and were fastened with iron -bolts an inch in thickness. Instead of cables they used chains of iron, -and for their sails, utilized skins and a sort of thin, pliable leather, -either because they had no canvas and did not know how to make sailcloth -or, more probably, because they thought that canvas sails were not so -suitable to stand the violence of the tempests, the fury and rage of the -winds, and to propel ships of such bulk and burden". It is evident that -these ships were for that period quite up to date. They were strongly -built and iron-bolted, and had already discarded hempen cables for iron -ones. - -Above all, they were specially constructed to battle with the heavy -weather of the Bay of Biscay and the North Sea, and to take refuge from -its fury in the rivers and creeks of the western coasts of Europe. The -Roman galleys, relying principally on their oars, and therefore -comparatively long and light, were not so seaworthy in Northern waters, -and the same difference, in construction, between the ships of the -Mediterranean and those of the Northern nations may be traced right down -to comparatively modern ages. One gets very bad weather in the -Mediterranean at times, notwithstanding its traditional blue skies and -sapphire seas, but the big Atlantic rollers are absent. - -These ships of the Veneti proved a tough morsel for our old school -acquaintance, but his generalship was equal to the task of overcoming -them in the end. As he says, "in agility and a ready command of oars, we -had the advantage", for the Veneti trusted entirely to their sails. -But, against that, the beaks of the Roman galleys could make no -impression on the stout timber of the enemy's ships, they were at a -special disadvantage in bad weather, and the bulwarks of the Venetan -ships towered so high above their heads, even when they erected their -fighting-towers, that the Roman soldiers could not hurl their darts on -board them, while the Venetan enemy showered their missiles down upon -their heads. For the same reason they found it almost impossible to -grapple with and make fast to the big ships, and so carry them by -boarding. However, "there are more ways than one of killing a cat", and -so the Venetans found to their cost. For the Romans, fastening sharp -hooks or sickles to the end of long poles, pulled alongside, hooked them -over the halyards of their yards and sails, and, rowing away for all -they were worth, contrived to cut them through, when down came the -yards, and the Venetan vessels became unmanageable. To make matters -worse, when a flat calm fell they could not get away to their -hiding-places on the coast, and the Romans obtained a complete -victory--probably by boarding and fighting at close quarters, when their -armour and discipline would tell heavily in their favour. It is -interesting to note, by the way, that, according to Vegetius, a -fifteenth-century writer on naval and military matters, they painted -their scouting-vessels blue, masts, sails, and all, and dressed their -crews in the same colour. He adds that Pompey, after defeating Cæsar, -called himself "The Son of Neptune", and "affected to wear the _blue_ or -_marine_ colour". As for the Veneti, we may, perhaps, regard them as the -original "Bluejackets", Veneti being the plural of the Latin _venetus_, -"bluish", "sea-coloured". - -[Illustration: Ancient Roman Tile found at Dover - -The letters stamped into this tile, and others like it found elsewhere, -are considered to stand for "Classiarii Britannici", i.e. "British -troops trained for sea-warfare".] - -We have now to pass over a gap of several hundred years, during which -time there is little or no information available about the ships -belonging to these islands, the greater part of which, as a matter of -fact, had become a province of the Roman Empire. There seems to have -been a "Classis Britannici", or British squadron, but this was entirely -a Roman organization, and had as much to do with the north of France--or -Gaul--as Britain. The remains of an old ship--just the keel and lower -ribs--which were not long ago unearthed on the right bank of the Thames, -just below Westminster Bridge, are considered likely to have belonged to -a galley of this squadron, and we know that there was a legion of what -we may term British Marines, who formed the fighting portion of the -fleet. Tiles have been found at Dover and other known stations of the -Romano-British Fleet which bear the following inscription: "C.L., B.R.", -which the experts in such matters interpret as standing for "Classiarii -Britannici"--that is to say, "British troops trained for sea-warfare". -We are also told by Vegetius, the old writer I have already quoted, that -the badge of these troops was a "circle", which, by the way, is a -somewhat curious coincidence, since that of the Marines of our own day -is a globe. These were the men who defended the shores of our island -against the growing numbers of pirates from northern Europe, for the -rowers of the Roman galleys were merely the machinery of propulsion, and -were probably much less considered than the steam-engines of a modern -battleship. These troops also manned part of the wall built from the -North Sea to the Solway in the vain attempt to keep out the Picts and -Scots, for traces of them are to be found at Bowness at its western -end. The North Sea pirates, then generally referred to as Saxons, became -such a menace that the East Coast received the name of "The Saxon -Shore", and a "count" or high official was specially appointed to take -charge of its defence. - -[Illustration: Shield carried by the Soldiers of the "Legio Classis -Britannici" - -(_From a coloured drawing in the Bodleian Library_) - -The centre of the shield is quartered red and white: the rim is white, -and the remainder green.] - -In A.D. 410 the Romans, attacked by the northern nations in their own -country, finally abandoned Britain. The British, who had been -practically a subject race for nearly 400 years, could make no head -against the fierce Picts and Scots, who at once took advantage of the -withdrawal of the Roman garrison and swarmed into the North of England. -In desperation, the British king, Vortigern, offered to buy the -assistance of two Jutish or Saxon pirates--Hengist and Horsa--who were -doing a little raiding on their own account on the southern coast. They -drove off the northern invaders, in accordance with the bargain that was -struck, but, returning home for more of their Danish and Saxon -fellow-countrymen, came back and gradually got the country into their -own hands. According to another theory, many colonies of Saxons had been -established on the East Coast during the time of the Romans, and it was -the special business of the "Count of the Saxon Shore" to rule over -them. However this may have been, England became a Saxon country, the -remnant of the Britons being driven into Wales and Cornwall. - -Now the Scandinavian peoples were at this time the finest sailors in the -world. The Jutes and Angles from Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein belonged -to this race, the whole of which became known as "vikings"--that is to -say, "the sons of the creeks", from the Scandinavian word _vik_, a bay, -creek, or fiord. But though there must have been a strong Viking element -among the Saxon conquerors of England--so much so that it became known -as Angle-land, or England, from the Angles--yet the Saxons or English do -not seem to have taken so enthusiastically to the sea as the Norwegians -and Danes, and, except when special efforts to create fighting fleets -were made by King Alfred and Edmund Ironside, were never able to prevent -the incursions of their Danish and Norse kinsmen, who, in process of -time, firmly established themselves in the country. After the Danes came -the Norman Conquest, and during all this period there was little, if -any, change in the types of the ships in which the northern nations -fared the seas. - -What were these vessels like? As it happens, we really know more about -them than we do of any between their time and the days of Henry VIII. -For not only have we very definite details of them and their "gear" in -the long "sagas" or historical and traditional poems which have come -down to us, sculptured pictures of them in stone, engravings on rocks -and upon arms and ornaments, but more than one of the actual Viking -vessels have been dug out of the big burial-mounds where they had been -hidden for centuries. For the Viking chieftain loved his ship: he -lavished ornament and decoration upon it, and regarded it almost as a -living thing. When, therefore, the time came for him to take the long -last voyage, from which no man ever returns, it was quite natural that -he should have wished to make it in the cherished "Dragon Ship" or "Long -Serpent", which had so often borne him over the waves on his way to -those hand-to-hand combats and harryings and plunderings in which his -soul delighted. Sometimes a funeral pyre was erected on the ship -herself, and with his favourite sword by his side, his shield and his -helmet, the dead chieftain set out on his final voyage, his sons and -followers watching the well-known long-ship sailing into the west till -she, her sails, and her dead captain disappeared in clouds of fire and -smoke under the sunset. Or, again, a dying sea-king would elect to be -buried in his favourite ship in some spot overlooking the glassy fiord -whence he had so often set out on his piratical exploits. The ship was -run up on shore over the rollers which all Viking vessels carried to -facilitate beaching, the body was laid amidships with his most treasured -earthly possessions, a penthouse of timber was built over him, his -favourite horses were killed and placed round the hull of the vessel, -and the whole was buried in the depths of a huge mound, which was -erected over it. - -[Illustration: Noah's Ark, according to a MS. of A.D. 1000 - -Observe the fullness and apparent capacity of the hull of the -dragon-ship on which the Ark proper is erected, and compare it with that -of the Nydam ship on the opposite page.] - -The most famous "finds" of this kind were at Gokstadt, in south Norway, -in 1881, and at Nydam, in Schleswig, in 1863. In the latter case the -ship does not seem to have been used as a sarcophagus, but with another, -which had almost entirely rotted away, was found in a bog. Possibly if -the huge oval mound now utilized as a cemetery at Inverness, and known -as "Tom-na-hurich" ("The Hill of the Fairies"), were tunnelled into, -another Viking ship might be brought to light. In the case of the Nydam -ship, Roman coins found on board fix her date as being somewhere about -A.D. 250. Both from these ships and fragments of others that have been -found in various places it is abundantly evident that their builders -were as skilled shipwrights as ever existed. Space does not allow us to -go into details of their construction, but we may say at once that their -finish was perfect, and that their lines were not only beautiful but -wonderfully well adapted for contending with the stormy waters of the -northern seas. Neither of them appears to have belonged to the largest -type of Viking ships, which may be roughly divided into "Dragon Ships" -or "Drakkars", "Eseneccas" or "Long Serpents", and "Skutas" or small -swift scouting-vessels. It seems just possible, by the way, that our -modern slang expression "skoot"--"get away quickly", "clear out"--may be -derived from this word. We must try in the next chapter to understand -what these Viking ships were like. - -[Illustration: Broadside View of the Nydam Ship now in the Kiel Museum. -Observe the horn-like rowlocks and the steer-board] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] - "If we go backward we die: if we go forward we die: - Better go forward and die."--Viking war-call. - -[2] "Nulla vestigia retrorsum."--Motto of 5th Dragoon Guards. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -Ancient War-ships - - "Piracy was the exercise, the trade, the glory, and - the virtue of the Scandinavian youth. Impatient of a - bleak climate and narrow limits, they started from the - banquet, grasped their arms, sounded their horn, - ascended their ships, and explored every coast that - promised either spoil or settlement." GIBBON. - - "Outlaw and free thief, - My kinsfolk have left me, - And no kinsfolk need I - Till kinsfolk shall need me. - My sword is my father, - My shield is my mother, - My ship is my sister, - My horse is my brother." - CHARLES KINGSLEY. - - -IF we take the dimensions of the actual Viking boats that have been -unearthed, as I have related in the last chapter, we shall have an -excellent foundation upon which to form an idea of the bigger and more -important ones. Now the Gokstadt boat is nearly 80 feet long and 16 feet -6 inches wide at her greatest beam, and carried mast and sail. The Nydam -ship is 75 feet in length, with a beam of 10 feet 6 inches, and had no -mast. Both are very flat amidships, and have very fine or sharp ends, -but it is evident that in proportion to her length the Gokstadt boat had -a much greater beam. - -[Illustration: A Viking Double-prowed "Long Serpent" or "Dragon-ship" - -Observe the well-supported outer stem, the Dragon Head, the embroidered -sail decorated with a variation of the "Swastika" design, which was much -used by the Vikings on arms and ornaments; the vane at the masthead, the -"shield-row" protecting the rowers, and the steersman guiding the ship -by means of her "steer-board".] - -That was because she was a sailing-ship and the Nydam vessel was not. -The latter may fairly be assumed to have been a "Skuta", and the -Gokstadt ship a rather small "Serpent". Now in all the "sagas" that have -come down to us the different war-ships which occupy so prominent a -place in them are distinguished as to size by the number of oars they -pulled. From the Nydam ship, which had fourteen oars a-side, we are -thus able to judge the dimensions of famous Viking war-ships like the -"Long Serpent" of King Olaf and others, if we allow for the slightly -wider space between the rowers' benches necessitated by the greater -length of the oars in the larger vessels. Of course, the whole length of -the ship was not occupied by the benches. In the Nydam ship, for -instance, they took up 46 feet of her length; the remaining 15 feet at -each end were required for fighting- and steering-platforms, stowage of -stores, &c. In this way it has been calculated that the "Long -Serpent"--you must remember that this was a _special_ "Long Serpent", -and probably bigger than the usual run of the war-vessels so-called--was -180 feet long, while the still bigger ship belonging to our King Canute -works out at no less than 300 feet in length. The beam or width it has -not been found possible to estimate exactly, but my own opinion is that -the lines, or contour, of these very much bigger ships were much deeper -and fuller than in the smaller types. - -There is an old manuscript in the Bodleian Library, at Oxford, dating -from about A.D. 1000, in which appear three pictures of Noah's Ark (see -p. 26). The house part of the design is frankly impossible--it would -capsize the ship--but the hull in each case--the boat part--is not at -all unlike the well-known Bayeux-tapestry ships, but of a better and -more seaworthy shape, though in some of them the big dragon figure-head -is unduly exaggerated. The space between the benches was called a -"room", and the port and starboard portions of this were known as -"half-rooms". The crew were all told off to these half-rooms as their -stations, except those quartered forward and aft. Thus the "Long -Serpent" had eight men to each "half-room", and from this item of -information it has been estimated that she carried a crew of something -between six and seven hundred men. Goodness knows how many King Canute's -big "Dreadnought" carried. - -Some of these Viking ships were very smartly decorated. Armorial -bearings had not then been invented, but their sails were worked with -the most beautiful emblematic and intricate embroidery, and were not -infrequently made of velvet, though generally of a coarse woollen -material called "vadmal." Some of the most elaborate ones were actually -lined with fur. Not only the ships themselves, but also their sails, -like the swords of their warriors, were given poetical sounding names: -"The Cloth of the Wind", "The Beard of the Yard", and "The Tapestry of -the Mast-head", are some of them. Along their gunwales, above the oars, -which worked through holes in the ship's side, ran the "shield-row", -composed of circular wooden shields or targets, with big shining bosses -of brass or other metal in the middle. Each shield overlapped the next -till it touched its boss, and so gave a double protection to the rowers. -This was a very ancient custom, as shields were carried in this way by -Phoenician ships as far back as 450 B.C. As a general rule, the -Norsemen's shields were black and yellow, the Danes' red, and the -Saxons' white with red or blue edges. - -[Illustration: A "Dragon" Figure-head - -There was a law that ships must not approach the land with their -figure-heads in position with "gaping heads and yawning snouts."] - -It is rather curious that, with the exception of black, these colours -are conspicuous in the flags of the corresponding nations of to-day. But -the King of Norway presented our King Athelstan, in 931, with a ship -fitted with a complete row of _golden_ shields. - -A whole chapter might be written about the figure-heads of the Viking -ships, for they were much more than mere ornaments. They each had some -special signification, and were certainly connected with a most -extraordinary superstition which prevailed among the Scandinavian -peoples. It is best explained by an example from the saga of which one -Egil was the hero. Pursued by a king answering to the suggestive name of -Blood-axe, he escaped from Norway and took ship to Iceland. Before he -set sail over the North Sea he determined to take it out of his enemy, -Blood-axe, by a species of what we may call "wireless" witchcraft. -Landing on an islet, he erected what was known as a "Nithstang", a -"contraption" considered very pleasing to the Norse gods. The idea -probably had something in common with the "lifting up" of the brazen -serpent in the _Book of Numbers_. His installation was a very simple -one: a hazel pole with a horse's head stuck on the top. He stuck it up -in a crevice of the rocks, saying that he did so "as a curse" on -Blood-axe and his Queen. Then he turned it round so as to point to the -mainland, and announced that he also "fired off" his curse at the -"Guardian Spirits" of the country, who were to get no rest till they had -hustled King Blood-axe out of it. Finally he inscribed his curse in -Runic characters on the pole, and continued his voyage to Iceland as -pleased with himself as a German hero who had dropped a floating mine in -the track of passenger vessels. - -[Illustration: A Dragon-head and a Representation of a "Nithstang". From -a Saxon MS.] - -Now it appears that these same guardian spirits were extremely -susceptible to this sort of "wireless", not only in Norway, but -everywhere. And it also seems that--how or in what way I am unable to -explain--the figure-heads of the Viking ships had much the same -properties as the "Nithstangs". So it was that in Iceland, at any rate, -there was a law that ships must remove their figure-heads before -approaching the land, "and not approach it with gaping heads and -yawning snouts", lest they might scare the guardian spirits of the -land.[3] Having carried out this regulation, it was customary for the -seamen to hoist a polished shield to the masthead and so flash the -signal that the guardian spirits need not now be alarmed. That some -connection existed between these "heads" and the "Nithstang" is further -shown by a drawing in an old manuscript of that period, which depicts a -human head set on a pole, which is fastened to a dragon figure-head. And -again, in a wall-painting in the church of Tegelsmora in Upland, in -which the famous King Olaf is seen waging a desperate battle with our -old nursery friends the "Trolls", the bowsprit of his ship is adorned -with the skull of an ox. - -But we must leave the ships and come to their crews. To begin with, they -were all "soldiers and sailors too"! They were equally at home on the -battle-field ashore and in handling their cherished "long-ships" afloat. -The Scandinavians believed that the soul of a warrior killed in battle -went at once to Valhalla, which represented their idea of heaven. - -There they confidently expected that the brave fighter would spend a -happy eternity of fighting and feasting. It is said that their remote -forefathers had brought this weird form of belief from the depths of -Central Asia--but that must be a very old story. But fighting was the -breath of their life. They revelled in it, though they did not despise -the plunder which was generally the reward of victory. Many of these -fierce warriors were subject to and even cultivated a species of -madness, almost amounting to demoniacal possession, which induced them -to tear off their clothes and hurl themselves almost naked into the -fray, feeling endued with the strength of seven men. - -These "Berserkers", as they were called from this custom, were doubtless -most dangerous opponents in their "Berserk" fury. Nowadays it is -generally accepted that the braver the man the more modest he is about -his deeds of valour; the boaster is considered likely to be but a broken -reed in the day of battle. But it was quite otherwise with the Viking -warriors. They gloried in boasting aloud of their prowess, of the deeds -they had done, and of those that they were ready to perform. - -The tactics of the Vikings, if they failed to ram their opponents, was -to lash the bows of as many friendly and hostile vessels together as -possible, so as to form a floating battle-field. The fighting-platforms -were not, apparently, raised above the bows, as later on in mediæval -times. They were somewhere about the level of the gunwale, and when -several ships were lashed together, all these platforms provided a -battle-ground upon which the Berserker and his emulators could indulge -in the furious hand-to-hand combats which were their delight. If they -could do this they were probably more than pleased that they had failed -to ram their enemy. I doubt if every ship was built with a ram, but, on -the other hand, it is certain that some ships were specially built for -use as rams, and even strengthened by iron plating. So that we see that -the armour-clad is no new invention. - -[Illustration: "Showing his Teeth" - -Figure of a Berserker from a set of ancient chessmen found in the island -of Lewis. The Berserkers always bit their "shield-rims" on going into -battle.] - -In the larger "long-ships" a fighting-gangway ran along behind the -shield-row, connecting the fore and after platforms. Beneath the latter, -which was somewhat elevated so that the steersman could look ahead, was -the sleeping-place for the commander of the ship. Other sleeping -accommodation was provided under the foremost platform, while, if at -anchor, those of the crew who were not on watch slept under awnings or -tents, set up on framework which could be erected for the purpose in the -centre of the vessel. The men slept in leather bags, which were equally -useful either ashore or afloat. In short, these ancient war-vessels were -so well and scientifically built, so well arranged and equipped, and so -well manned that we cease to wonder at the long voyages they were able -to perform by taking advantage of the summer months. - -[Illustration: A WAR-GALLEY IN THE DAYS OF KING ALFRED - -The Dragon or other figure-head has been unshipped, possibly because the -galley is going into port.] - -There is not the slightest doubt that the Vikings discovered the -continent of America long before Columbus did. They went by way of -Iceland, and so were able to touch land more than once on their journey, -but they got there all the same. They established a colony in Greenland -about A.D. 985. From there they made several expeditions to the -southward, and discovered a densely wooded country which is supposed to -have been some portion of Nova Scotia. The climate of Greenland must -have been very different from what it is at present, for the Viking -colony lasted for 400 years, till, in the fifteenth century, an enormous -mass of ice was swept down by the Arctic current, piled itself up along -the coast, and entirely cut off the settlement--which at that time -consisted of thirty villages with their churches and monasteries--from -the rest of the world, so that before long every trace of it -disappeared. - -It seems possible that some of you may say: "This is all very -interesting, but I thought we were going to read about the British Navy, -and it seems to me that the Saxons and their ships represented the -British navy of those days". That is a fair argument, but for my part I -do _not_ think that we can accept the Saxon Navy as the ancestor of the -British Navy of to-day. - -The Saxons were no seamen, and apparently but poor soldiers. When King -Alfred built a navy of ships, which are stated to have been superior in -every way to those of the Frisians, Scandinavians, and Danes, and by -means of which he succeeded in securing more than one victory, he could -not provide them with seamen. The Saxons were no good, and he had to -hire Frisian pirates to man them. The Saxons fought well at Hastings, -but, though there was a strong infusion of the Danish element by this -time, they lost the battle through lack of discipline and military -experience. It is difficult, therefore, to recognize in these Saxons the -progenitors of men like Lieutenant Holbrook, who navigated his submarine -through and under rows and rows of deadly mines, knowing that the least -touch would bring annihilation, or of Private Pym of the Berkshires, -who, _alone_ and "on his own", rushed into a house held by a detachment -of German soldiers and succeeded in killing the whole of them but three, -who "made their escape". - -No. For the ancestors of the British seamen and sailors of Elizabethan -and modern times I think we should rather look to the Danes, who, it -must be remembered, between 870 and the Norman Conquest, were not only -continually invading England, but established themselves in a great part -of it, especially in the east and north, and to those of the Conqueror's -followers who traced their descent directly from the Northmen or -Vikings. It is their spirit which has brought us victory both by land -and by sea, but more especially by sea, and not the spirit of Alfred's -Saxon subjects, who had to pay others to fight for them. Again, take -such pre-eminent commanders as Drake and Nelson. Is not the former name -one which takes us directly back to the "Draakers", the "Dragon-ships" -of the Vikings, and has not Nelson a distinctly Danish sound about it? - -The ships of King Alfred "were full-nigh twice as long as the others; -some had sixty oars, and some had more; they were both swifter and -steadier, and also higher, than the others. They were shapen neither -like the Frisian nor the Danish; but so it seemed to him that they would -be most efficient." - -FOOTNOTE: - -[3] I am indebted to the Rev. S. Baring-Gould for the following very -interesting note, which indicates that there was some affinity between -the ancient Grecian and the Viking ideas with regard to figure-heads: -"The Greeks never allowed an image of an entering ship to arrive -un-removed, and then it was conveyed to the shore to salute the Goddess -of the port. The altar 'to the Unknown God' St. Paul saw _was actually -to any unknown Deity of an approaching vessel_." - - - - -CHAPTER III - -Fighting-ships of the Middle Ages - - "With grisly sound off go the great guns - And heartily they crash in all at once, - And from the top down come the great stones; - In goes the grapnel so full of crooks, - Among the ropes run the shearing hooks; - And with the pole-axe presses one the other; - Behind the mast begins one to take cover - And out again, and overboard he driveth - His foe, whose side his spear-head riveth. - He rends the sail with hooks just like a scythe; - He brings the cup, and bids his mate be blithe; - He showers hard peas to make the hatches slippery. - With pots full of lime they rush together; - And thus the live-long day in fight they spend." - Description of a mediæval sea fight, _Legend of Good Women_ - (modernized), fifteenth century. - - -WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR, like Cortez, the discoverer of Mexico at a later -date, dispelled any thoughts of retreat that might have been lurking in -the minds of his followers by destroying the ships which had brought -them over. He had come to stay. Now the Normans, though of the same -blood as the seafaring Vikings, who had sailed and fought their -Dragon-ships to the very ends of the known earth, had been so long -settled in France that they had adopted not only the French language, -but French ideas, which were not, generally speaking, of a nautical -nature. - -Among these was the system of feudalism and knight-service. The very -word for knight--_chevalier_ in French--signified a horseman; and the -Norman and other feudal knights of the eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, -and fourteenth centuries looked at war and politics from the point of -view of a cavalier armed cap-à-pie seated in his war-saddle. As for -ships and sailors, they were merely unpleasant means to necessary -ends.[4] But if one wanted to go to fight and plunder and raid across -Channel he had to submit himself and his followers to the cramped -accommodation of a vessel of some kind, and to the care of the rough -shipmaster and his crew--low but necessary persons, in the eyes of the -mediæval knight, just as were the experienced "tarpawlins" in the -estimate of the scented "gentleman-captains" in the days of the -Restoration. So it came about that for some centuries England had no -Royal Navy. - -The king and his principal nobles had at times a few galleys or -sailing-vessels of their own--almost, if not entirely, their personal -property--and these they made use of for purposes of transportation or -fighting when required; but during this period the maritime defence of -the realm was carried out--on the whole inefficiently--on the hire -system. The money for this purpose was forthcoming, since William -revived a tax for defence purposes, called the "Heregeld", which had -been not long before abolished by Edward the Confessor, on the pretext -that by it "the people were manifoldly distressed". Had he not listened -to the "little navyites" of his day, perhaps the Norman Invasion would -not have succeeded. In addition to this, William placed the five -principal ports commanding the narrowest part of the Channel on a -special footing, under which, in return for certain privileges, they -were to supply him or his successors with a fleet of fifty-two ships in -cases of emergency. They could only be retained for fifteen days, -however. These ports--Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich--were -then, and for ever afterwards known as the "Cinque Ports", though Dover -is the only one which can still be regarded as a port at all. Rye, -Winchelsea, and Pevensey also became "Cinque Ports" later on. - -William's idea with regard to the Cinque Ports was probably not so much -the general defence of the kingdom as the defence of his communications -with Normandy. With their assistance he could be sure of always being -able to move troops either way across Channel as his exigencies -required. Thus, when in 1083 William, who was then in Normandy, heard -rumours of the intention of the Kings of Denmark and Norway and the -Count of Flanders to invade England with a great fleet, he hurried -over-Channel with so great an army that "men wondered how this land -could feed all that force". Without the assistance of the Cinque Ports -he might have had some difficulty in doing this. - -Although we really know a great deal about the ships of the Saxon and -Danish periods of our history, we know comparatively little about those -which were built between the Conquest and the accession of Henry VII. -For, while we have had specimens of the actual Viking ships to work -upon, we have for this long period, of over 400 years, little -information beyond that afforded by the seals of maritime towns, the -ships depicted by monkish chroniclers and romancists in their -illuminated manuscripts, and in a few cases old stained-glass windows -and decorative carvings. - -Now, to begin with, it is obvious that in each of these cases the artist -was cramped for space. He had to decide between the calls of accuracy -and of decorative effect, and almost invariably he gave way to the -latter. - -In seals, especially, he was tempted to make the curves of the ship's -hull run parallel to the circumference of the seal. In that which -belonged to the master of the _Sainte Catherine de Cayeux_, which fought -at Sluys in 1340, the exterior curve of the hull of the ship represented -upon it is really concentric with the seal itself. In almost every other -case--up to the fifteenth century at any rate--the hulls of the ships -shown on seals of this description approximate to this shape, and, -generally speaking, are of crescent form, with fighting-stages or -"castles" at the bow and stern. There are a few exceptions, which are -more likely to be correct, as their designers evidently made up their -minds not to be led away from the truth. - -In the rather fascinating pictures that appear in mediæval manuscripts, -too, the monkish artists had to work in a small space, in which they -wanted to put a great deal of ornamental and other detail. They probably -knew little or nothing about nautical affairs into the bargain. In the -result their ships present the same crescent-shaped hulls as those in -the seals of the period, and give the impression of being very small -affairs indeed, thanks to the large-sized nobles and men-at-arms with -which they are densely packed. - -[Illustration: Seal of Demizel, master of the barque _Sainte Catherine -de Cayeux_, 1340 - -(From _Histoire de la Marine Française_, by kind permission of the -author, Monsieur C. de la Ronière.) - -An example of the impossible ship. Note how the engraver has made the -keel exactly parallel to the circumference of the seal. It makes a -handsome and effective seal, but can hardly be accepted as a picture of -a ship of 1340.] - -The reason of this quaint method of representing ships and their crews -or passengers is not far to seek. Who has not seen a child's first -attempts to draw the human face in profile? He outlines the forehead, -the nose, and chin, and puts in the back of the head easily and to his -own satisfaction. Then he pauses and deliberates. The eyes are what he -is puzzling over. He knows that, though everybody has one nose, one -forehead, and one chin, he has _two_ eyes. What about them? He may think -that one eye looks most suitable, but still he doesn't like to leave the -other one out. So, as often as not, he puts in a couple, one about the -right place and the other somewhere towards the back of the head. - -[Illustration: Wreck of the White Ship, 1120 - -Another example of the impossible-ship picture. There were said to be -300 souls on board! Observe the rudder, which proves the date of the -original drawing to be much later than 1120--probably 100 or 150 years.] - -The tonsured artist argued very much on the same lines. If he painted a -ship it was not a picture of a special ship. What he wanted to portray -was the saint or hero of his manuscript--very often Alexander the -Great--on a voyage or crossing a river. If he drew him on the same scale -as his vessel he would be a mere dot or blob of paint. He wanted to show -his face, his armour, robes, crown, halo, or what-not. So, though he -could not help knowing that it was inaccurate, he drew him--and, -generally speaking, his companions--on a scale about 500 per cent larger -than that of the ship in which he was depicted as performing a most -cramped and uncomfortable voyage. - -We must not therefore accept these brilliantly coloured works of art as -corroborative of the accuracy of the figures of ships appearing on the -seals of Dover, Yarmouth, Poole, and other English and foreign ports, -and in the fifteenth century of various noblemen who held the -appointment of Admiral of England or France. But there are, -nevertheless, a great many useful details to be learned from these -sources of information. From seals we can trace the gradual evolution of -the poop and forecastle from the early platforms or fighting-stages, the -supersession of the steering-oar or "steer-board" by the rudder, the -beginning of cabins, the progress of fighting-tops and action aloft. We -see, too, the mode of wearing banners, streamers, and flags, and gain -some idea of the gradual growth of sail-power, which culminated, we may -say, in the sailing battleship of Trafalgar days. - -If we consider the question of mediæval shipbuilding as a whole, we -shall find it difficult to believe that the scientific methods of -construction which distinguished the Viking ships, and the improvements -on them which were made by Alfred the Great, had all been forgotten and -thrown on one side, and that these fine specimens of the shipbuilder's -art had been replaced by anything like the ridiculous little "cocked -hats" that are supposed to represent the shipping of the British and -other Northern nations between 1066 and 1450. - -The sea-going ships of these peoples, intended especially for sailing, -would naturally be considerably shorter and broader in the beam than the -Viking class of ship, which relied principally on oars for propulsion, -and was rather too long and narrow to sail well under ordinary -conditions of weather. Moreover, though they carried a single sail, they -were not intended to contend with heavy winter weather. - -We have a description of the _Mont-Joie_, in which Louis IX of France -sailed on his last crusade. She was built at Genoa, which then and for -long after shared with Venice the distinction of being the birthplace of -the largest and finest ships in the world. She is worth describing, for -she was one of the precursors of the big Spanish and Genoese carracks -that our fleets encountered off the coasts of France and Flanders from -time to time during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and which -stimulated us to buy or build big ships of our own. - -The _Mont-Joie_ was 80 feet long on the keel, but over all, measuring -from the extremity of the forecastle to the highest point of the stern, -she had a length of 120 feet. She is said to have been 26 feet deep -amidships. Twelve feet above the keel was a deck running from right -forward to right aft. Below this was the hold, where lay the ballast, -and in which were stowed water, provisions, and various war materials. -Six feet above the lower deck was another similar deck, which we may -call the upper deck, while above this again a gallery or gangway, six or -seven feet wide, ran along each side of the ship, between the fore and -after castles. The ship's side rose 3-1/2 feet above these fore and aft -bridges and was pierced with loopholes for archery. In action the -bulwarks would be heightened and further protected by shields or -_pavises_.[5] Below the upper deck, aft, was situated the "paradis" -(chambre de parade), or state cabin, which in this case was, of course, -occupied by St. Louis himself. - -There was other accommodation provided forward for the rest of the -_Mont-Joie's_ passengers, with the exception of the Queen, who occupied -another "paradis" on the upper deck, immediately over the King's. These -cabins were lighted by ports or scuttles cut in the sides of the ship. -Forward there was further shelter provided under the forecastle, and -both it and the after part of the ship were surmounted by a -_bellatorium_, or fighting-platform, with bulwarks 4 feet in height. The -ship was equipped with two tall masts raking forward and carrying large -lateen sails. At the summit of each was a _gabie_ or fighting-top. -Altogether it will be seen at once that here was a real sea-going ship, -very different from the open boats, manned by giants, of the seals and -manuscripts illustrations. - -It is not always easy to convey the impression of size by mere figures, -but if we bear in mind that the famous old _Victory_, now lying in -Portsmouth Harbour, and which many of us have seen at least once, is -only about twice the length of those thirteenth-century ships, we shall -be able to form some idea of their not unimportant dimensions. - -Many of the mediæval ships were most gorgeously painted and decorated. -When the French king Charles VI fitted out a great naval armament at -Sluys, in 1386, for the invasion of England--which did not come off, by -the way--Froissart tells us that "gold and silver were no more spared -than though it had rained out of the clouds or been scooped out of the -sea". One young noble covered his mast with gold-leaf. "They made -banners, pennons, and standards of silk, so goodly that it was marvel to -behold them; also they painted the masts of their ships from the one end -to the other, glittering with gold and devices and arms: and specially -it was shewed me", says old Froissart, "that the Lord Guy de la -Tremouille garnished his ship richly; the paintings that were made cost -more than ten thousand francs. Whatsoever any lord could devise for -their pleasure was made on the ships: and the poor people of the realm -paid for all; for the taxes were so great, to furnish this voyage, that -they which were most rich sorrowed for it, and the poor fled for it." - -Our own Henry V had rather "loud" tastes in his ship decoration. In the -year 1400 he had a ship painted red, decorated with collars and garters -of gold surrounding fleur-de-lis and leopards, as well as gilded leashes -looped round white greyhounds with golden collars. All these were -selections from the royal badges. Her mast was red also. The _Good Pace -of the Tower_[6] was red too, but her upper works and stern were of a -different colour, and she carried a gilded eagle with a crown in its -mouth on her bowsprit. - -The _Trinity of the Tower_ was another red ship, elaborately adorned -with coats of arms, while the _Nicholas of the Tower_ was black, -"powdered" with "Prince of Wales's Feathers", with quills and scrolls in -gold. The King's own particular ship, the "cog" _John_, carried the -royal crest, "the Lion standing on the Crown", at her masthead, besides -other decorations. The Genoese in 1242 painted their war-ships white, -spotted all over with red crosses, so Henry perhaps only followed the -fashion after all; but, generally speaking, red was the favourite -colour, though black at times ran it pretty close in favour as -groundwork for various patterns of ornamentation. - -But the continually growing decoration in the way of flags, standards, -pennons, and streamers must by no means be overlooked. They were, -perhaps, the most striking characteristic of the mediæval war-ship. - -The standard or pennon of the owner or commander of the ship--and it -must be remembered that he was in those days not a seaman, but always a -soldier--was planted at the foremost corner of the poop or after-castle, -on the starboard side. A ship called after a saint would have, in -addition, the banner of that saint, and in the case of the Cinque Ports -we may be sure that their arms, "three lions with half a galley in place -of tail and hind legs", were displayed on some portion of the vessel. In -royal ships there were other banners with the various royal badges, and -there were hosts of streamers, pendants, and guidons as well. When fully -"dressed", with all her flags flying, the mediæval war-ship must have -made a brave display. Galleys, in addition, had a small staff with a -pendant attached to the loom of every oar on such occasions. - -[Illustration: Fifteenth-century Ship - -(_From a painting by Carpaccio_) - -Observe the capacious hull, the heavy mast, the way the sail is made -fast in the middle as well as by the sheets at the corners, the crane -for hoisting missiles to the top, and the darts ranged round it; also -the way the main-yard is spliced in the middle.] - -Nor must we overlook the ornamental nature of the sails in the times of -which we are writing. It was no uncommon thing for the whole of the big -square mainsail of a "cog" to be decorated with the arms of her owner. -This is clearly shown in the well-known manuscript _Life of the Earl of -Warwick_, by John Rous. Generally sails, often themselves of the -richest colouring and material, were adorned with badges or devices, but -sometimes merely with stripes of different colours. Colour ran riot in -the war-vessels of our mediæval ancestors--how different from the sombre -grey war-paint of our modern Leviathans! - -[Illustration: Ship of the latter half of the Fifteenth Century (_From -an illuminated MS. of 1480_) - -Note the diminutive figure-head, the two shields amidships--probably -placed there for decorative purposes, as the ship appears to be -"dressed" with many pennons and streamers. The smallness of the tops is -unusual, also the square port-hole and the double-gabled cabin.] - -The end of the fifteenth century saw the development of the carrack into -the caravel, such a ship as the _Sancta Maria_, in which Columbus sailed -to the West Indies in 1492. As her original plans were found in the -dockyard at Cadiz, and a replica of the famous original was built from -them by Spanish workmen in the arsenal of Carracas in 1892 for the -Chicago Exhibition, which took place in the following year, we know -exactly what she was like. She was just over 60 feet long on her keel, -and had a length over all of 93 feet, with a beam of nearly 6 feet. She -had a displacement of 233 tons when fully laden and equipped. She had -three masts, but only the mainmast had a top-sail. The mizzen carried a -lateen sail. She was considerably smaller than many ships of her day, -but in general appearance and rig she approximated to the smaller ships -of the Elizabethan epoch, and she and her class may well be considered -as forming a connecting-link between the old single-masted "round ships" -and the square-rigged, many-gunned line-of-battleship, which from the -time of Henry VIII to Queen Victoria formed the mainstay of our battle -fleets. There were, of course, many developments and improvements during -this long period, but the type persisted throughout, just as did that of -the modified Viking ship in mediæval ages. - -So much for the ships of the Middle Ages. But before we go on to take -stock of their crews it will be as well to attempt some description of -the way they were fought. Nowadays the ship armed with the heaviest and -longest-ranged guns--if her gunners know their work--seems to be able to -"knock out" a slightly less powerfully gunned opponent before she can -get in any effective reply. The present war has given us many -illustrations of this fact. The _Scharnhorst_--a crack gunnery -ship--with her heavier broadside, was able to sink the _Good Hope_ with -little or no damage to herself, and in her turn she was simply -demolished by the heavy guns of the _Inflexible_ and the _Invincible_ -off the Falkland Islands. - -But in the Middle Ages there was nothing like this. All decisive -fighting was practically hand to hand and man to man, except for the use -of the ram by galleys and the exchange of arrows and stones at -comparatively close quarters. But victory was only achieved, as a -general rule, when the enemy's ship was boarded and her crew defeated -in a bloody tussle, at the end of which no one but the victors remained -alive, unless, perhaps, some knight or noble who was worth preserving -for the value of his ransom. The military portion of the crew, the -archers, men-at-arms, and their knightly leaders, carried the usual arms -of their day. The seamen, who were in the minority, probably used -knives, short swords, and spears, and made themselves very useful in -hurling big stones, heavy javelins called "viretons", unslaked lime, and -other disagreeable missiles from the "top-castles" at the head of the -mast or masts. - -We have already mentioned the fore and after fighting-stages, or, as -they later on became, poops and forecastles, that were erected when a -ship was going on the war-path. We may note, in passing, that in the -earlier part of the period we are dealing with, these were so often and -so generally required that "castle-building" afloat became a recognized -trade, until, in the process of evolution, poops and forecastles became -integral parts of the ship. - -We may add that, in addition to the fore and after fighting-platforms, -special fighting-towers were not infrequently erected, certainly in the -Mediterranean, and we may therefore assume that they were not altogether -unknown in Northern waters. These towers were generally built up round -the mast, and provided with loopholes and battlements, and sometimes -protected by iron plates or raw hides. - -One account of mediæval war-galleys states that in some cases "a castle -was erected of the width of the ship and some twenty feet in length; its -platform being elevated sufficiently to allow of free passage under it -and over the benches". King John introduced the famous Genoese -cross-bowmen--who so signally failed to distinguish themselves at -Crécy--into his navy. The reason most probably was that a cross-bow -could be fired through a loophole by a man crouching under cover of the -bulwarks or shield-row, whereas a long-bow could not be used in this -way. Nevertheless the cross-bow did not succeed in ousting the long-bow -in the British Navy, since, in 1456, in the course of a public -disputation between the heralds of England and France as to the claim of -the former country to the domination of the sea, the French herald -claimed for his countrymen that they were more formidable afloat because -they used the cross-bow. "Our arbalistiers", he asserted, "fire under -cover or from the shelter of the fore and after castles; through little -loopholes they strike their opponents without danger of being wounded -themselves. Your English archers, on the other hand, cannot let fly -their arrows except above-board and standing clear of cover; fear and -the motion of the ship is likely to distract their aim." But there does -not seem to have been much "fear" among the English archers, and as -those that were in the habit of serving afloat doubtless had their -"sea-legs", it must have taken a good deal to disconcert their aim, -world-renowned for its deadliness. - -Still, as we shall see in a later chapter, the cross-bow was a most -formidable weapon afloat, and the French herald's argument was a sound -one. In the place of artillery the ships of the earlier Middle Ages were -provided with mangonels, trebuchets, espringalds and other mechanical -instruments for hurling heavy projectiles, which, according to some -authorities, were made or imported as the result of the experiences of -Richard I and his crusading companions in the Mediterranean. Personally, -I should say that they had been known long before that time. A -contemporary chronicle of the siege of Paris by the Northmen in 885-7 -mentions that, to cover the Danish stormers, "thousands of leaden balls, -scattered like a thick hail in the air, fall upon the city, and powerful -_catapults_ thunder upon the forts which defend the bridge". The -knowledge of the heavy war-machines of the Ancients had never died out. -The catapult was the old Roman onager, and consisted of a long arm or -beam, of which one end was thrust through the middle of a -tightly-twisted bundle of hair-ropes, fibres, or sinews stretched across -a solid frame. At the other end was either a sling or a spoon-shaped -receptacle for the projectile. This end was drawn back by means of -levers and winches against the twist of the bundle of sinews and held by -a catch. On the catch being released, by pulling on a lanyard attached -to a trigger, the long end of the beam was forced violently forward till -it struck against a strongly-supported transverse baulk of timber -arranged for the purpose. When this occurred the huge stone or other -projectile flew on through the air and struck its target with tremendous -force. - -The trebuchet and the mangonel were very like the Roman ballista, and -acted much in the same way as the catapult, except that the motive force -was the fall of a heavy counterweight instead of tension. The springald, -or espringald, was a large-sized steel cross-bow, mounted on a pivot, -hurling heavy iron darts, with great force, which had considerable -penetration. In the battle of Zierksee (1304) one of these heavy -"garots", as they were called, struck the _Orgueileuse_ of Bruges with -such violence that it not only pierced the bulwarks of the forecastle, -but took off the arm of one of the trumpeters who were sounding their -silver trumpets, transfixed another, and finally embedded itself in the -after castle. - -One of the most formidable missiles hurled by the mangonels and such -machines was the famous Greek fire, knowledge of which had been brought -to Europe from the Crusades. Sometimes it was projected through -"siphons" or tubes, of which no exact knowledge has come down to us. But -it seems to have ignited the moment it came in contact with the air, and -was spouted forth with the violence of water from a fire-hose. It -destroyed everything that came in its way, and was inextinguishable by -water. It could only be smothered by plenty of earth or sand, a material -not generally available at sea. The mangonels threw it in barrels. - -"This was the fashion of the Greek Fire," says De Joinville, the -historian of Louis IX's first Crusade. "It came on as broad in front as -a vinegar cask, and the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big -as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded -like the thunder of Heaven. It looked like a dragon in the air. Such a -bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though -it was day, by reason of the great mass of fire and the brilliance of -the light that it shed. Thrice that night they hurled the Greek Fire at -us, and four times shot it from the tourniquet[7] cross-bow. Every time -that our holy King (St. Louis) heard that they were throwing Greek Fire -at us, he draped his sheet round him, and stretched out his hands to our -Lord, and said, weeping: 'Oh! fair Lord God, protect my people!'" Such -was the terror inspired by this fearful mixture, whose chief ingredient -is supposed to have been naphtha. It does not, however, appear to have -been used to any considerable extent in Western Europe. - -In the latter half of the period we are dealing with, cannon--big, -little, and middle-sized--quite superseded the mangonel and other -mechanical projectile-throwers. Few large guns were carried, and those -mostly fixed rigidly on timber beds and fired over the ship's -side--hence the term "gunwale", which we still use in boats, a "wale" -meaning a band of timber. Small breech-loading guns were mounted in -considerable numbers in the fore and after castles, some of these, -generally known as "murderers", being mounted inboard in such a way as -to fire at close quarters on any boarding-parties of the enemy who might -succeed in gaining possession of the waist of the ship. Others were -mounted aloft in the tops, just as they were in our own days until the -tops were required for fire-control platforms. But I propose to give the -quaint ancestors of our modern monster cannon and rapid-fire guns a -chapter to themselves later on. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] "No doubt the noblemen of France prefer land to sea warfare, so hard -and so little in accord with nobility ", stated a French Herald in 1456. - -[5] Pavises, plural of Pavois. The "Pavois", or "Pavise" as it was -generally termed in English, was a big round-topped shield like a -tombstone. It was set up with a prop on shore or fastened to a ship's -bulwarks, either on going into action or as a decoration. This is why to -this day a French man-of-war when "dressed" with all her colours at a -review, for instance, is said to be "_en grand pavois_". - -[6] "Of the Tower": this signifies that she was a royal ship, like -"H.M.S." of to-day. - -[7] A strong bow that needed a tourniquet or winch to draw it back. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -Mariners of Other Days - - "A shipman was ther ... - All in a gown of faulding[8] to the knee, - A dagger hanging by a lace had he - About his neck under his arm adown; - The hot summer had made his hue all brown: - And certainly he was a good fellow; - Full many a draught of wine had he drawn - From Bordeaux-ward, while that the chapmen[9] sleep; - Of nice conscience took he no keep. - If that he fought and had the higher hand, - By water he sent them home to every land.[10] - - . . . . . . . . . . - - He knew well all the havens as they were - From Gothland to the Cape of Finisterre, - And every creek in Bretagne and in Spain: - His barge ycleped[11] was the _Magdelaine_." - CHAUCER, _Canterbury Tales_. - - -WE have yet to give some descriptions of one or two actual battles, but -I think we will commence by trying to picture the seamen themselves. - -What were these old "matlows"[12] like, and how were they raised? The -second question is easily answered. As Lord Haldane has stated, -compulsory service was never foreign to the English laws and -constitution. But we may observe that it has never been carried out in -the fair and impartial manner which is now universal on the Continent of -Europe, where "duke's son, cook's son", and everybody else has to serve -his country alike. No; ours has always been a kind of bullying system or -want of system. - -In the old days of the Cinque Ports, if more ships were required than -they had to provide, their ships were just sent out to "commandeer" any -suitable craft they could lay hands on. So with men. Certain places and -counties had to provide a regulated quota of soldiers or sailors, or -both. If they were voluntarily forthcoming, well and good; if not, the -magistrates, the port-reeves, or bayliffs had authority to take as many -as they required to make up the number by force, and made no bones about -doing so. So while Jones got off free, Brown and Robinson were pressed. -But it was all a matter of luck--at any rate ostensibly. That was the -hardship of it, not only then, but in the later "press-gang days". - -But, once caught, the mediæval seaman had little to complain of in the -way of pay. That, no doubt, made up for a good deal of severe -discomfort. A mariner or seaman in 1277 got 3_d._ a day--a penny more -than an ordinary soldier[13]--and in 1370 it was raised to 4_d._ Now, if -we bear in mind that it has been estimated that money at that time was -worth something like fourteen times what it is to-day, we must admit -that the seaman did not do so badly. The master of the ship at this time -was called the "rector", and received 6_d._ a day, while his second in -command got the same amount. There were no admirals then, but the senior -sea officer of the fleet was termed "captain" and paid 12_d._ per diem. -The knight who was in actual military command of a warship would draw -2_s._ a day if he was paid the same rate afloat as ashore. - -Whether there was a regular scale of provisioning before John Redynge -was appointed "Clerk of the Spicery" in 1496, to look after the -victualling of both army and navy, I am unable to say, but it appears -that the usual "sea-stock" laid in for a voyage in mediæval times -consisted of bacon, salt meat, "Poor John" or salted herrings, flour, -eggs, and poultry. - -We have little information as to the personality, manners, and customs -of the seamen of mediæval ages. In the earlier period they were pretty -certainly more of the long-shore or fisherman class than deep-sea -sailors. When not engaged in legitimate trading or warfare they -generally took a hand at rank piracy. There was a saying about them that -the British sailors were "good seamen, but better pirates"! Even the -Cinque Ports, which provided the nearest approach to a national navy, -achieved a most scandalous notoriety in this respect. But at the same -time there is no doubt that the Normans, Basques, Flemings, French, and -other seafarers were just as bad, though perhaps not quite so expert. It -was the fashion afloat in those days. - -We may gather some small idea of what seamen and sea-going were like in -the Middle Ages from the pen of one Brother Felix Fabri, a Dominican of -Ulm, who went from Venice to Jerusalem somewhere about 1480. Space -forbids as long an extract as could be wished, for his experiences are -both interesting and amusing. The seamen with whom he came in contact -were not Englishmen, but "sea ways" are generally much the same all over -the world. He and his fellow pilgrims chose their berths before -starting, and had their names chalked over them. He gives many warnings, -which those of us who have been to sea can well appreciate. To the -would-be traveller he says: "Let him not sit on any ropes, lest the wind -change of a sudden and he be thrown overboard". And "Let him beware of -getting in the way of the crew, for however noble he may be, nay, were -he a bishop, they will push against him and trample on him". "He should -also be cautious where he sits down, lest he stick to his seat, for -every place is covered with pitch, which becomes soft in the heat of the -sun". Inadvertently to "steal the commander's paint" is a mishap which -may easily overtake the unwary on board His Majesty's ships in these -latter days. - -The chronicler explains that the captain's authority is absolute; though -ignorant of navigation, he commands what course the ship will take. He -has under him a master-at-arms, a "caliph" or "ship's husband", and a -"cometa" or "mate", who sets the crew in motion--like the commander -in a modern man-of-war. "The mate's subordinates", says Brother Felix, -"fear him as they would fear the devil." The crew--bar the wretched -slaves who worked the oars, and of whose tortures "he shuddered to -think"--consisted of "compani", nine in number, who were employed on all -dangerous work aloft, and others termed "mariners", who, according to -him, "sing while work is being carried on to those who do it". This -sounds like a "soft job", but the "mariners" probably may be classed -with the so-called "idlers" in our war-ships, who are anything but idle. -There was a "scribe", with the duties of the purser on a mail steamer of -our day, who "arranges disputes about berths, makes men pay their -passage-money, and has many duties. He is, as a rule, hated by all -alike." We must not omit mention of the pilot, or navigating officer, -with whom were associated "certain cunning men, astrologers and -soothsayers, who watch the signs of the stars and the sky". They have a -chart, "an ell long and an ell broad, whereon the whole sea is drawn -with thousands of lines". One of them was always on duty, watching the -compass and chanting "a kind of sweet song, which shows that all is -going well, and in the same tone he chants to him that holdeth the -tiller of the rudder, to which quarter it ought to be moved". - -The mention of "astrologers and soothsayers" reminds us that sailors -have always had the reputation of being exceptionally superstitious. I -doubt if this is still true--at any rate as regards the Royal Navy. Take -the proverbial bad luck of sailing on a Friday. My own sea experience, -which goes back for a good many years, is that Friday was a very -favourite day for going to sea. We often left harbour on Fridays. I -think it was because on Saturday we got a good clear day for cleaning up -the ship, then came Sunday--a quiet day--so that everything and -everybody was nicely settled down by Monday morning, and we could start -fair on the weekly routine. - -But from what we know of life in the Middle Ages it would have been -indeed strange if seamen had _not_ been superstitious. The wonders and -dangers of the deep were very real and close in those days of cogs and -galleys--veritably mere specks on the ocean. It is to be feared that -seamen of later ages had not the same dread of going to sea in debt as -De Joinville the Crusader,[14] or the expression "to pay with the -fore-topsail" would never have arisen. Like Chaucer's seaman, some of -them "of nice conscience took ... no keep", and were very glad to escape -their creditors by hoisting sail and putting to sea. - -"Sailors have ever been superstitious," says a French writer on the -Middle Ages;[15] "their credulous brains are the parents of all the -fantastic beings and animals that they persuade themselves that they -have seen in their wanderings, and with which they have peopled the -mysterious depths of the ocean. The syrens of antiquity, the monsters of -Scylla and Charybdis, have been far surpassed by modern legendary -creations, such as the 'Kraken', a gigantic mass of pulp which attacked -and dragged down the largest ships; the 'Bishop Fish', which, mitre on -head, blessed and then devoured shipwrecked mariners; the 'Black Hand', -which, even in the days of Columbus, was despicted as marking the -entrance to the 'Sunless Ocean'; and the numerous troops of hideous -demons, one of whom, in the sight of the whole French Fleet of -Crusaders, on their way to attack the Island of Mitylene, in the reign -of Louis XII, clutched and swallowed up a profligate sailor who had -'blasphemed and defied the Holy Virgin'." - -Strange to say, the St. Elmo's light, or "corposant", was regarded as a -heaven-sent vision prognosticating favour and protection. Knowing -nothing of electricity, and being unaware that the gradual collection of -the electric fluid into the weird luminous balls of light which, during -thunderstorms, sometimes collect at mast-head or yard-arm, is supposed -to render the ship less likely to be struck by lightning, one cannot -help thinking it remarkable that this phenomenon, which certainly has -quite a supernatural appearance, did not inspire more terror than -confidence in the seamen of the Middle Ages. I remember two "corposants" -appearing at the fore-top-mast head and at the yard-arm on board the old -_Nelson_ in a storm of thunder and wind, off the Australian coast. They -remained--occasionally shifting their position a little--for some -considerable time. - -It was doubtless something of this kind which William, Earl of -Salisbury, saw one night, in a hard gale of wind, on his way back from -the Holy Land in 1222. The storm was so fierce that he gave up hope of -life, and threw his money and richest apparel overboard. Suddenly, when -the tempest was at its height, all hands saw "a mighty taper of wax -burning brightly at the prow". They also thought they saw the figure of -a celestial being standing beside it, screening it from the wind. The -ship's company were at once reassured of ultimate safety, but the Earl -was the most confident of all, because he felt certain that he was being -repaid for his piety at the time of his initiation into the honour of -knighthood, on which occasion he had brought a taper to the altar, and -arranged for it to be lighted every day in honour of the Holy Virgin. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[8] A coarse woollen stuff. - -[9] Innkeepers. - -[10] Threw the enemy's survivors overboard and drowned them. - -[11] Called. - -[12] At one time the "British Blue" was rather fond of calling himself a -"matlow" or "matlo", though it is said the custom is falling into -disuse. It has been stated that it dates from the old comradeship of -French and English in the Crimean War. The French word _matelot_, by the -way, is derived from _matelas_, a mattress. Before hammocks, two men -used a mattress in turn, one being always on watch. - -[13] I say "ordinary" advisedly, as an archer got 3_d._ a day in 1346 -and probably earlier. - -[14] "Hereby would I shew you how foolhardy is he who adventures himself -in such peril, if he be in debt to any man, or is in deadly sin; for one -goes to sleep at night never knowing whether one will awake at the -bottom of the sea." - -[15] Paul Lacroix. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -Some Mediæval Sea-fights - - "The King's own galley, he called it _Trenchthemer_ - That was first on way, and came the ship full near. - . . . . . . . . . . . - The ship cast hooks out, the galley to them to draw; - The King stood full stoutly, and many of them slew; - Wild-fire they cast, the King to confound; - . . . . . . . . . . . - The King abased him not but stalwartly fought. - . . . . . . . . . . . - The ship that was so great, it foundered in the flood; - They counted fifteen hundred Saracens that drownèd were, - Forty and six were selected, and were all that were saved there. - The sum could no man tell of gold that was therein - And other riches to sell, but all they might not win. - . . . . . . . . . . . - It sank soon in the sea, half might they not get. - Richard bade, 'Haul up your sails, may God us lead, - Our men at Acre lie, of help they have great need.'" - PETER OF LANGTOFT (modernized), thirteenth-century poem. - - -ONE of the most interesting episodes of mediæval war afloat was the -sinking of the great Turkish _Dromon_, off Beyrout, by King Richard I. -After having effected the junction of his fleets off Messina, he had -gone on to Cyprus, where fighting, and other matters with which we need -not concern ourselves, had delayed him for some time. At length he and -his "busses"[16] and galleys set out for Acre. The following day--6th -June, 1191--the British fleet made the Syrian coast, near the Castle of -Margat, and continued their way, pretty close under the land, for the -town of Acre. About noon the day following, when near Beyrout, it was -reported to the King, who led the fleet in his galley _Trench-the-Mer_, -that an enormous ship was in sight. None of the English had ever seen -such a leviathan. "A marvellous ship," says an old chronicler, "a ship -than which, except Noah's ship, none greater was ever read of--the Queen -of Ships!" It was a fine and beautiful summer morning, with but little -wind. The strange ship showed no distinguishing colours, and was putting -on as much sail as she possibly could; but she made little, if any, way -at all: - - "The weather was full soft, the wind held them still, - The sail was high aloft, they had no wind at will", - -to quote an ancient poem dealing with the fight that ensued. The big -ship was of great bulk, painted green on one side and yellow on the -other, probably to render her inconspicuous against either a sandy or a -green background, or at sea, when her green side was towards the enemy. -But in spite of this curious colouring she is said to have presented a -very beautiful appearance, and her decoration was considered "very -elegant". - -The vessel is stated to have carried 1500 men--an enormous -complement--which included 7 Emirs and 80 chosen Turks, for the defence -of Acre. She was equipped with bows, arrows, and other weapons, many -jars filled with the dreaded Greek fire, and "200 most deadly serpents -prepared for the destruction of Christians". Most historians consider -that these "serpents" were some kind of firework used as a missile, -since "serpentine" was an early name for one of the smallest-sized -cannon. Personally, I do not see why we should not accept the word -"serpents" in its everyday meaning. The adjective "deadly" is -suggestive, and in one old account it is particularly stated that "the -200 serpents were _drowned_". There have been instances of hives of bees -being hurled as missiles from war-engines, so why not baskets of deadly -snakes? But it is more probable that these serpents--since none of them -were expended in the battle that took place--were intended to have been -introduced into the camps of the Crusaders after being landed at Acre. - -As soon as the big _Dromon_--as she is generally called by old -writers--was sighted, Richard dispatched Peter de Barris in his galley -to find out who she was. The word _Dromon_, by the way, was used at that -time to denote any exceptionally large ship; just as we use -"Dreadnought" in a similar way. But the actual and original meaning of -the word was not a big, but a fast, ship. The word is connected with -speed and racing, and is of Greek origin. We use it in its proper sense -now in hippodrome, velodrome, aerodrome, &c. - -As De Barris pulled alongside the _Dromon_, she showed the French king's -colours on a lance, and, on being hailed, stated that she was taking -French Crusaders to Acre. Further interrogated, another story was tried. -She was a Genoese, bound for Tyre. All this was suspicious enough, but -in the meantime one of the men in the King's ship announced that he -recognized her--he had seen her once at Beyrout--and was brought before -Richard. "I will give my head to be cut off, or myself to be hanged," -asserted this mariner, "if I do not prove that this is a Saracen ship. -Let a galley be sent after them, and give them no salutation; their -intention and trustworthiness will then be discovered." Richard adopted -the suggestion. Another galley shot out from the fleet and surged up -alongside the towering _Dromon_. There was no mistake this time. Down -came whistling flights of arrows, while pots of Greek fire crashed into -flame as they struck the galley. Off dashed Richard in the -_Trench-the-Mer_ to the rescue. "Follow me, and take them," he cried to -the other galleys, "for if they escape, ye lose my love for ever; and if -ye capture them all their goods shall be yours!" The Turk could not get -away, she was practically becalmed, and the oar-propelled galleys of the -Crusaders closed around her. - -But the assailants were in the same predicament as were the Romans when -they attacked the lofty ships of the Veneti. The sides of the _Dromon_ -towered far over their heads, and do what they would they could not get -on board her. The Turks had thrown a grapnel and made fast to the King's -galley at the very beginning of the fight. Greek fire and missiles of -all kinds rained upon the heads of the English, fully exposed on the -decks and benches of their low galleys. The apparent hopelessness of -their situation began to affect the efforts of the Crusaders. Richard -saw that "something must be done", and he rose to the occasion. - -"Will ye now suffer that ship to get off untouched and uninjured?" he -shouted. "Oh, shame! after so many triumphs do ye now give way to sloth -and fear? Know that if this ship escape, every one of you shall be hung -on the cross or put to extreme torture!" - -That was _his_ way of bestowing the cross--a wooden one, not an "iron" -one! But it had its effect. The galley-men dived overboard, and, -fastening ropes to the enemy's rudder, "steered her as they pleased". It -is rather difficult to understand the precise advantage gained by his -manoeuvre, unless the wind had sprung up and the big Turkish vessel was -gathering a good deal of way and dragging the whole press of galleys -along with her, and that many were in danger of being swamped. However, -after this they were able to climb up her sides by means of ropes, and a -desperate hand-to-hand conflict took place on her decks. Here the -martial prowess of the Crusaders had full play. Wielding their heavy -trenchant swords, they drove the Saracens right forward into the bows of -the ship; but just when they thought victory was in their grasp, up came -a torrent of fresh assailants from below, and in such overwhelming -numbers that the boarders were hurled back into their galleys. - -Things were now very black indeed, but Richard once more showed his -generalship. He ordered the whole of his galleys to cut loose from their -elephantine enemy, to draw off and form line abreast with their bows -towards the foe. Then, at his signal, down went the long oars with a -great splash into the water, and, every rower putting his full strength -into his stroke, the galleys roared through the sea at the big yellow -and green _Dromon_. There was a series of rending crashes as the iron -beaks of the galleys struck her sides, like sword-fish attacking a -whale. The Crusaders backed their oars for all they knew, to get clear, -and, staggering and rolling to her doom, the huge Saracen gradually -foundered as the water poured in cataracts through the gaping holes in -her sides. Only fifty-five of her crew were saved, being men whom the -Crusaders considered would be useful to help them to make the military -engines, for which, it would seem, the Saracens were renowned. The -remainder who had escaped the swords of the English were "sent home by -water", according to the custom of Chaucer's "schipman" at a later date. -This cruel habit would seem to have died hard, for we find one of the -English captains in the Armada fight regretting that they had not "made -water-spaniels" of the crew of a captured Spaniard who were reported to -be short of provisions. - - * * * * * - -We will now forge right ahead through a couple of hundred years, and -take a glimpse at a sea-fight in the days of Richard II. The merchants -of Flanders, La Rochelle, and some other places had agreed to sail -together in considerable force for mutual protection to La Rochelle, in -order to buy wine and other merchandise. The English had wind of this -expedition and had every intention of catching them _en route_. But the -Flemings contrived to elude them and get safely to their destination. -There was nothing for it but to make another attempt, and cut them off -on their return journey. - -"The English navy", says Sir John Froissart, "lay at anchor before -Margate at the Thames mouth, toward Sandwich, abiding their adventure, -and specially abiding for the ships that were gone to La Rochelle; for -they thought they would shortly return. And so they did...." - -When he saw he would have to fight, Sir John de Bucq, the commander of -the Flemings, made ready his 700 cross-bowmen and his guns. - -"The English ships approached," continues Froissart, "and they had -certain galleys furnished with archers, and these came foremost rowing -with oars, and gave the first assault. The archers shot fiercely, and -lost much of their shot; for the Flemings covered them under the decks -and would not appear, but drave ever forward with the wind: and when -they were out of the English archer's shot, then they did let fly their -bolts from the cross-bows, wherewith they hurted many. - -"Then approached the great ships of England, the Earl of Arundel with -his company, and the Bishop of Norwich with his; and so the other lords. -They rushed in among the Flemings' ships, and them of La Rochelle: yet -the Flemings and cross-bows defended themselves right valiantly, for -their patron, Sir John de Bucq, did ever support them: he was in a great -strong ship, where he had three guns shooting so great stones, that -wheresoever they lighted they did great damage. And even as they fought -they drew little and little towards Flanders; and some little ships, -with their merchants, took the coasts of Flanders, and the low water, -and thereby saved them, for the great ships could not follow them. - -"Thus on the sea they had a hard battle, and ships broken and sunken on -both sides; for out of the tops they cast down great bars of iron, -sharpened so that they went through to the bottom. This was a hard -battle and well fought, for it endured three whole tides; and when the -day failed they withdrew from each other, and cast anchor, and there -rested all night, and there dressed their hurt men: and when the flood -came, they disanchored and drew up sails and returned again to battle. - -"With the Englishmen was Peter du Bois of Ghent, with certain archers -and mariners; he gave the Flemings much ado, for he had been a mariner, -therefore he knew the art of the sea, and he was sore displeased that -the Flemings and merchants endured so long. But always the Englishmen -won advantage of the Flemings, and so came between Blankenburgh and -Sluys, against Cadsand; there was the discomfiture, for the Flemings -were not succoured by any creature; and also at that time there were no -ships at Sluys, nor men of war.... By this discomfiture of Sir John de -Bucq, as he came from La Rochelle, the Englishmen had great profit, -specially of wine, for they had a nine thousand tuns of wine; whereby -wine was the dearer all the year after in Flanders, Holland, and -Brabant, and the better cheap in England, as it was reason. Such are the -chances of this world; if one hath damage another hath profit." - -There are one or two very interesting points in this account. One, of -course, is the fact that there were three guns mounted on John de Bucq's -ship, which evidently was exceptional at the time, or attention would -not have been so particularly drawn to them. Moreover, they were not -little guns, like those which were mounted in such numbers a few years -later, but of some size, since they fired "_great_ stones". But the most -noteworthy point that emerges from the story of the fight is that not -only were the cross-bowmen able to fire from under cover on the English -without exposing themselves, but their bows had actually outranged the -long-bows. Now we know that a long-bow in expert hands would kill at 400 -yards, so that the effective range of the cross-bow must have been -considerable. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[16] "_Bus_", "ships of the largest size, with triple sails". - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -The Navy in Tudor Times - - "The various ships that were built of yore, - And above them all, and strangest of all - Towered the _Great Harry_, crank and tall, - Whose picture was hanging on the wall, - With bows and stern raised high in air, - And balconies hanging here and there, - And signal lanterns and flags afloat, - And eight round towers, like those that frown - From some old castle, looking down - Upon the drawbridge and the moat." - "The Building of the Ship." LONGFELLOW. - - -THE Tudor period, to which this chapter is devoted, is noteworthy as -witnessing the birth of the Royal Navy as a permanent national -institution. Though we have accounts--probably to a great extent -mythical--of the 3600 "very stout" ships of the Saxon King Edgar (A.D. -975), which are said to have been divided into three squadrons, cruising -on the north, east, and west coasts of Great Britain; though Edward III, -after the victory over the French at Sluys, was dubbed "King of the -Sea"; and though Henry V got together the most formidable navy of his -time, yet at none of these periods was there what we may term a navy of -the realm. Indeed, for the two years, August, 1447, to August, 1449, -there may be said to have been no navy at all, since during the whole of -this time only £8, 9_s._ 7_d._ was expended upon what we now regard as -our first line of defence. - -At the death of Henry V, in 1422, the "Little Navy" disease broke out -again, and nearly the whole of his fine fleet was sold. Things went from -bad to worse, till the disgust and uneasiness of the nation found -expression in a little work entitled _The Libel of English Policie_. The -author, who is supposed to have been Bishop Adam de Molyns, exhorted the -nation to "Keepe the Sea and namely the Narrow Sea", and also to secure -both Dover and Calais. "Where bene our shippes", says he, "where bene -our swerdes become?" He went on to point out how much our naval force -had deteriorated since the time when Edward III had caused the famous -Golden Noble to be struck, in which he is represented standing in a -ship, sword in hand and shield on arm, and thus referred to the -signification of the device: - - "Four things our Noble sheweth unto me: - King, Ship and Sword and Power of the Sea". - -That this appeal had some kind of effect is shown by the fact that in -1442 an order was issued "for to have upon the See continuelly, for the -sesons of the yere fro Candlimes to Martymesse, viii Shippes with -forstages; ye wiche Shippes, as it is thought, most have on with an -other eche of hem cl men. Item, every grete Shippe most have attendyng -opon hym a Barge and a Balynger." "Hym" strikes one, by the way, as a -curious way to refer to a ship. These vessels with "iiii Spynes", which -seem to have been what we might call dispatch vessels, were stationed, -one at Bristol, two at Dartmouth, two in the Thames, one at Hull, and -one at "the Newe Castell". The whole fleet combined was manned by 2160 -men. It was a poor affair, but still it was better than nothing. - -Then came the Wars of the Roses, which, naturally, diverted men's -thoughts from the navy. That Edward IV, when he had established himself -on the throne, had some idea of emulating the naval deeds of the third -Edward may be suspected from his having issued a gold noble, which was -evidently closely copied from the one we have already referred to. But -nothing much was done either by him or by his successor, Richard -Crookback, and it was left to Henry VII to reap the honour of being, to -some extent, the founder of the Royal Navy of which we are all so proud. -Though by some his son, "Bluff King Hal", may be regarded in this light, -on account of the very formidable fleet which he raised and organized -and the improvements which he is said to have made in its ships, yet I -think we must admit that Henry VII laid the foundation-stone upon which -his successor built. - -He depended greatly on hired merchantmen--we do not despise this method -of augmenting our navy even at the present day--but he resurrected the -Royal Fleet. Though it was but a very small one, of only about a dozen -ships, yet two of them, at any rate, were finer ships than any the -British Navy had before possessed. These were the _Regent_ and the -_Sovereign_. While we had neglected our shipbuilding, to carry on war -between ourselves, it had progressed abroad, especially in France, and -there is little doubt that the _Regent_, built on the River Rother, was -inspired by the French ship _Columbe_, which, perhaps, was the ship -which had brought Henry to England. The _Regent_ had four masts, the -_Sovereign_ three, and each of them was much more like some of the ships -we are familiar with in pictures of the Spanish Armada fight than the -old cogs of a few years previously, even in their most improved forms. -The armament of the _Regent_ consisted, it is said, of 225 -"serpentines". The number is formidable, but not the weapons themselves. -They were merely what might be called breech-loading wall-pieces, -corresponding to Chinese "jingalls", and firing balls weighing from 4 to -6 ounces. - -In a contemporary picture of the destruction of this ship in her action -with the _Marie la Cordelière_ in 1512, when both ships caught fire and -blew up, the _Regent_ is shown with very heavy guns firing through -port-holes. Port-holes, by the way, are said to have been invented by -Desharges, a Brest shipbuilder, in 1500. I am inclined to think that -they were known at an earlier date--possibly Desharges invented -port-_lids_. It is, of course, possible that these were cut in the -_Regent_ some time after her original construction, and heavier guns -mounted in place of some of her serpentines. According to some writers -this ship was originally christened the _Great Harry_, while the -_Sovereign_ was built out of the remains of an older ship called the -_Grace Dieu_. As a very large and renowned _Henri Grace à Dieu_ was -launched in 1514, there has been a considerable amount of confusion -between one ship and the other. But if the _Regent_ was called the -_Great Harry_, she had nothing whatever to do with the _Henri_, which is -also sometimes referred to as the _Harry Grace à Dieu_.[17] As a matter -of fact, the latter was built to replace the former, the loss of which -was considered a national disaster, and so much so that an attempt was -made to keep her fate a secret. "At the reverens of God", wrote Cardinal -Wolsey, "kepe these tydyngs to yourselfe." There was probably another -reason for the construction of an exceptionally fine ship, and that was -the desire that the English should not be eclipsed by the Scots in this -respect. - -[Illustration: THE _GREAT HARRY_, THE FIRST BIG BATTLESHIP OF THE -BRITISH NAVY] - -For, the year before the _Regent_ was blown up, the King of Scotland, -who was hand in glove with the French, had put afloat what a -contemporary chronicler terms "ane verrie monstrous great schip". This -was the famous _Great Michael_. Her constructor was Jaques Tarret, a -Frenchman, and it has been written that "she was of so great stature and -took so much timber, that except Falkland, she wasted all the woods of -Fife, which were oak wood, with all the timber that was gotten out of -Norway". She took "a year and a day to build", and we are given her -dimensions, which compare favourably in point of size with many much -later line-of-battle ships. "She was 12 score feet in length and 36 feet -within the sides; she was 10 feet thick in the wall, and boarded on -every side so slack and so thick that no cannon could go through -her." It is rather difficult to understand what "slack" means in this -context. - -"This great ship", goes on the account, "cumbered Scotland to get her to -sea." By the time she was afloat and fully equipped she was reckoned to -have cost the King from thirty to forty thousand pounds. She carried a -heavy battery, and if her cannon were as formidable as their names, they -must have been most effective in action. "She bore many cannons, six on -every side, with three great Bassils, two behind in her dock, and one -before, with three hundred shot of small Artillerie, that is to say, -Myand and Battered Falcon and Quarter Falcon, Slings, pestilent -Serpentines and Double Dogs, with Hagtar and Culvering, Cross-bows and -Hand-bows. She had three hundred mariners to sail her: she had six score -of gunners to use her artillery, and had a thousand men of war by her, -Captains, Skippers, and Quartermasters." A "basil" or "basilisk", it may -be explained, was a gun throwing a ball of 200 pounds weight, a much -heavier projectile than any used at Trafalgar. - -Space forbids further details as to the "menagerie" of other pieces that -armed the decks of the _Great Michael_, but you will find more about -these and other old-fashioned cannon in another chapter. As soon as she -was afloat the King had her fired at to test the resistance of her -tremendously thick sides, but, says our old writer, "the cannon deired -hir not"; that is to say, could not penetrate her. This is the oldest -experiment of the kind of which we have any record. But the most -remarkable thing about the _Great Michael_--at least to my mind--is her -size. According to the old account from which I have quoted, which, by -the way, was written by one Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, she must have -had almost the exact dimensions of the _Duke of Wellington_, one of the -last and finest of our steam three-deckers. Now I have a perfect idea of -_her_ size, because I had the honour of serving on board her for a -couple of years. She was in the "sere and yellow leaf" then, her masts -had gone, her engines had disappeared, and she had a roof which made her -look much more like Noah's Ark than a battleship, but I can remember her -in all her glory when she carried the flag of the commander-in-chief at -Portsmouth. I was only a boy then, but I recollect that her appearance -was fine in the extreme. In reckoning the beam of the _Great Michael_ we -must remember to add 20 feet for the thickness of her sides, since -Pitscottie only gives us her internal width. Having done this, I will -put down the dimensions of the two ships for comparison-- - - _Great Michael_, length, 240 feet; beam, 56 feet. - _Duke of Wellington_, length, 240 feet, 7 inches; beam, 60 feet, 1 inch. - -Now if Pitscottie's figures are correct, either the _Michael_ must have -been almost incredibly bigger than any ship of her day, or, as I have -before suggested, the old war-ships of that and earlier centuries were -in reality a good deal larger than contemporary representations and -records of "tunnage" would lead us to expect. - -The old Scots writer, however, offers to prove his figures; for he says: -"If any man believe that this ship was not as we have shewn, let him -pass to the place of Tullibardine, where he will find the length and -breadth of her set with hawthorne: as for my author he was Captain -Andrew Wood, principal Captain of hir, and Robert Bartone, who was made -her Skipper". - -[Illustration: Rough Diagram, showing Comparative Sizes of Famous Ships -at Different Periods - -The sizes of these ships can only be shown approximately, as in some -cases only the length of the keel is known; in others a mean has to be -taken between length of keel and length over-all; while in others the -authority does not say where the length was measured. H.M.S. _Queen -Elizabeth_--650 feet long, with a beam of 94 feet--is bigger than all -the rest put together.] - -With regard to the plan of the vessel in hawthorns, I am indebted to -Lady Strathallan for the following interesting items: Tullibardine -Castle has quite disappeared. What little was left of it was used in the -construction of farm buildings from 1830-40. The spot where the -hawthorns were planted to show the dimensions of the _Great Michael_ is -still known, but there is nothing to mark it. When the great ship was -built, the carpenter or "wright" of the castle went down to superintend -the shipwrights. When he got home, as the people at the castle were -very anxious to form some idea of the size of this "Dreadnought" of that -period, he was given orders to have an excavation made of the exact size -of the ship. The hawthorns were, it would appear, planted round the -excavation, which was tilled with water and aquatic plants, and remained -as an ornamental pond till about the time of the battle of Waterloo. In -1837 the shape of the vessel was distinctly perceptible, but three only -remained of the hawthorn-trees that formerly surrounded it. Some time -ago Lady Strathallan, anxious that this curious monument of antiquity -should not disappear altogether, directed the forester to renew the -hawthorn outline of the _Great Michael_. The trees were procured for the -purpose, but the tenant of the farm on which it was situated objected -that it would take up too much room in his field, so that the project -was abandoned. It seems a thousand pities that something cannot, even -now, be done to perpetuate this relic of the famous Scots man-of-war, -which, year by year, is being rendered more and more indistinguishable -by the plough. The field in which traces of the hollow may be looked for -is situated 400 yards from the old parish chapel, which was restored a -good many years ago and used as a burial vault. - -The _Great Michael_ did not long remain a Scots ship. The fleet of -Scotland went to France in 1513, and in the following year she was -bought by Louis XII for 40,000 francs, to replace the _Cordelière_, -which, as you will remember, was blown up with the _Regent_. This brings -us back to the _Henri Grace à Dieu_, which was built to replace the -latter ship. But before we turn our attention to her we cannot but note -the difference between the alleged cost of the _Great Michael_ and that -for which she was sold. The bargain does not seem worthy of the Scots -reputation for "canniness". But we must bear in mind that a "pound -Scots" was not at all the same thing as an English pound at that date. -Ever since 1355 its value had been falling, till by 1603 it was only -worth twenty pence instead of twenty shillings. It was, in fact, at the -time of the sale, the kind of "silver pound" that the "chieftain to the -Highlands bound" paid or promised the boatman if he would row Lord -Ullin's daughter and himself "o'er the ferry". But even if we put it at -about a tenth of a pound sterling in 1513, the bargain seems a poor one. -Probably it was more of a political deal than anything else, comparable -to the German sale of the _Goeben_ to Turkey. - -The _Henri Grace à Dieu_--I think we may as well call her the _Henri_ -for short, and save time and paper--is a ship about which we have the -most extended information in some respects--those dealing with her -decoration and equipment, for instance; but we are left entirely in the -dark as to her size and measurements. The only dimensions I have been -able to find are those indicated on a plan which, on very insufficient -grounds, is claimed to be a copy of the official one on which she was -built, and which is stated to be--or at any rate to have been within the -last century--at Plymouth dockyard. So far this original has not been -traced, and I may remark that anyone who knows anything about the Navy -would not dream of referring to the dockyard in the western port except -as "Devonport Dockyard". However, I give the dimensions for what they -may be worth--not much, I think: - - Length, 145 feet; beam, 35 feet 9 inches; tonnage, - 839. - -Now if this, by any chance, is anything like correct she must have been -a very much smaller ship than the _Great Michael_, which is not very -likely, since Henry VIII would naturally have wanted "to go one better". -Moreover, she is generally credited as having been of at least a -thousand tons displacement, and carried a battery little, if any, -inferior in weight and numbers to that of the _Michael_. - -She was heavily equipped with ordnance, very little of which is apparent -in her pictures. According to her inventories she carried something like -185 guns of all sorts and sizes, but many of these must have been kept -on shore as reserve stores. She is generally credited with carrying 14 -heavy guns on the lower and 12 on the main deck, and 46 light cannon on -her upper works. Some of the large and all the smaller ones were -breech-loaders, and as most were provided with at least two "chambers" -or breech-pieces, which contained the powder-charge and could be quickly -substituted one for the other, we may almost call them "quick-firers". -She was gorgeously decorated in the first place, and poop, waist, -forecastle, and tops were hung with shields showing alternately the St. -George's Cross, the Golden Fleur-de-Lis on a blue ground, and the Tudor -Rose on a green and white ground. Her sails were woven with a decorative -design in gold damask, and she carried a lion figure-head, but the lion -was badly executed and a very tame one. Like all Tudor ships she flew a -profusion of flags, standards, and immense streamers bearing the St. -George's Cross, the fly or long-pointed end being half green and half -white. These were the Tudor livery colours. The plain red-cross flag or -"Jack" was well in evidence and generally carried on the fore masthead -as well as among the smaller flags placed on poles at equal distances -along the bulwarks. The royal standard was also carried, but not in -every ship, and sometimes it appears "impaled" with the national -red-cross flag--that is to say, the two were placed side by side on the -same flag. - -The national status of the Royal Navy was becoming recognized. Before -this time, though the English "Jack" generally found a place somewhere -on board an English ship, the banners and pennons of the nobles and -knights on board were most in evidence. Now we see nothing but royal and -national emblems. In the war with France in 1455 the ships of the -squadron forming the "van" or leading portion of the fleet carried the -St. George's Cross at the fore, those of the centre at the main, and the -rear squadron at the mizzen. - -In describing the _Henri_ we have practically described all the "great -shippes" of her class, of which there were a considerable number, though -none were quite so large, or probably quite so elaborately decorated. Of -course she was what we may call "a show ship", like the _Royal James_ -and _Sovereign of the Seas_ of a later date. - -But by 1546, if we may accept Anthony Anthony's _Roll_ as correct, -"timber colour" with scarlet masts and spars was uniform for all classes -of ships. - -But it is time we turned our attention to the men who manned them. The -changes in this respect were quite as important as those we have noted -in the ships themselves. To begin with, the nobles and gentry of the -kingdom were beginning to wake up to the fact that war afloat offered -them at least equal opportunities of distinction to those they had -hitherto looked for in land warfare. Besides, they had now little or no -chance of that at home, and there was no longer any land frontier over -in France across which they could ride and raid and harry and fight as -their fathers and grandfathers had so often done. Naval strategy was -still confined to cross raiding, but ships were now better -fighting-machines and were not merely used as platforms for hand-to-hand -fighting and as transports; so that men of the class which had hitherto -looked down on ships and sailors began to turn their eyes towards the -sea. - -[Illustration: Ships of the Time of Henry VIII - -(_From a Drawing of 1545_) - -Looking at the lofty hulls, the immense mainsails, and the nearness of -the ports to the water-line, we can easily understand how a want of care -wrecked the _Mary Rose_. The ship in the background on the right is -apparently trying to reduce sail, and has had to lower her main-yard. -Her mainsail is almost in the water, to the apparent danger of the -ship.] - -This does not mean that they became seamen. No, they still remained and -considered themselves soldiers, and did not trouble to learn any -seamanship. That was still the special job of the master or skipper. But -they recognized that the command of a fighting-ship was worth having. I -may instance the Carew family.[18] At least three of them were serving -in command of ships in the battle at Spithead in 1545. Sir George Carew -lost his life when his ship, the _Mary Rose_, went down; his brother, -Peter Carew, who had been a year or two before in command of a company -of infantry in the English army in France, commanded a Venetian -ship--probably hired--the _Francisco Bardado_; while their uncle, Sir -Gawen Carew, commanded a third. As for the men, the seamen, thanks to -more seaworthy vessels, had probably improved in their seamanship, while -the navy was formed into a regularly-organized force consisting of -"mariners, soldiers"--or, as we should call them now, marines--"and -gunners". Every ship had her proper complement of each. Thus the _Henri -Grace à Dieu_ carried 260 seamen, 400 soldiers, and 40 gunners; the -_Mary Rose_ 180 seamen, 200 soldiers, and 20 gunners; the _Peter -Pomgranate_ 130 seamen, 150 soldiers, and 20 gunners; and so forth, -according to size. - -[Illustration: A SEA FIGHT IN TUDOR TIMES - -_Facsimile woodcut from "Holinshed's Chronicles"_ - -Which particular battle this picture is supposed to represent cannot be -stated, since old Holinshed uses it over and over again for almost every -naval engagement to which he makes reference right back as far as the -Conquest. That cannon were not then in existence does not appear to -trouble him at all. But we may take it as fairly representative of an -action at sea in the times in which the historian lived and wrote.] - -Though there are indications of a somewhat similar arrangement in -earlier times, it would appear that the seamen were either paid by the -king or hired with their ship, while the soldiers were paid by some -noble or even bishop who had supplied them as a feudal obligation. - -The pay does not seem to have been quite so liberal as in former times, -but it was not bad if we allow for the difference in its value compared -with that of to-day. In the _Gabriel Royal_, for instance, Sir William -Trevellian, the captain--a soldier--got 1_s._ 6_d._ a day. The master -and the rest of her company, officers, seamen, and soldiers, got 5_s._ a -month (of twenty-eight days), but the master and other officers got in -addition what were called "dead shares", in number from six to -one-half. This means that the master got six men's pay besides his -own--altogether 35_s._--a month, and so on in proportion. The gunners -got extra pay, called "rewards"--we might call it "efficiency -pay"--varying from 5_s._ a month for the master gunner to 1_s._ 8_d._ -for the private gunners. - -The provision allowance was respectable--England was renowned for good -feeding at this period. Sundays, Tuesdays, and Thursdays each man had -1/2 pound of beef and 1/4 pound of bacon for his dinner, and the same -for supper. On Mondays, Wednesdays, and Saturdays they had to be content -with two herrings and 1/8 pound of cheese for each of these meals, while -on Fridays or "ffishe days beynge ffastinge dayes" they had to go -without supper, but for dinner had either half a cod or half a stock -fish and a pound of butter between four men, or, if they preferred it, -could divide ten herrings and a pound of cheese between them. As for -bread, every man got either a pound of bread or biscuit daily, while -instead of the "grog" or "optional cocoa" of to-day, he got a liberal -allowance either of beer or "beverage" made of two parts water to one of -"sack". - -As for the clothing of the Royal Navy, we have very little information -so far as the Tudor period is concerned. That there was some attempt at -uniformity may be gathered from the constant references to the provision -of coats or jackets of green and white cloth. Some were satin or damask -of the same colouring, presumably for officers. But what these garments -were like we do not know. In Anthony Anthony's drawing of the _Galley -Subtle_ the master of the ship appears in the old "jack" with the red -cross, while the rowers are apparently clad in pink. This may be -intended to represent their bare flesh, for they might be stripped to -the waist for rowing, but it is more probable that it was originally red -and that the colour has faded. It is said that the rowers of Henry -VIII's royal barge wore this colour, and it seems quite possible that -the _Galley Subtle_, the only one of her class and a profusely-decorated -vessel, _was_ regarded as the royal barge. - -We know, too, from the costume of the Yeomen of the Guard, or -"Beefeaters", that red was making its appearance as a military colour, -for their uniform is that of Henry VIII's body-guard. The standard under -which Henry VII secured the crown at the battle of Bosworth Field was a -red dragon on a white and green field, and was supposed to represent -that of Cadwallader, the last of the British kings, from whom the victor -claimed descent. The descent, I dare say, was genuine enough, but -Cadwallader must have died before the invention of heraldry. But Wales -has always been associated with a dragon of this kind, which has from -time immemorial been a world-wide emblem of sovereignty. Henry seems to -have adopted the colour of the dragon as the royal livery colour--as it -remains to-day--but at the same time retained the white and green for -the navy. Much in the same way "blue" is accepted as a royal colour, and -as such is worn as the facings of royal regiments and as the uniform of -the Royal Navy and Royal Artillery. - -But it seems probable that blue--very possibly from dye of that colour -being easily procurable; the Ancient Britons, we may remember, decorated -themselves with blue woad--had been for centuries a very usual colour -for seamen to wear; and when, in 1553, Sir Hugh Willoughby's North Sea -expedition was fitted out all his crews were provided with "parade -suits" of "Wachett or Skie-coloured cloth". Watchett was a place in -Somersetshire where this special material was made. But these, perhaps, -were not men actually belonging to the Royal Navy. As for the soldiers -or marines, we may suppose that they wore the white "jack" with the red -cross, which was so universal at this time that "whitecoat" was used for -"soldier" just as "redcoat" was at a later date. The "gunners" wore the -white and green and may have been regarded as "seamen gunners". - -FOOTNOTES: - -[17] She was first called the _Gret Carrick_, then _Imperyall Carrick_, -next _Henry Imperiall_. The name _Henri Grace à Dieu_ was written with -all kinds of variations; sometimes she was merely called the _Harry_, -and finally, after King Harry's death, the _Edward_. - -[18] Each of the Carews adopted the badge of a ship's "fighting-top", -which still appears as the crest of the family. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -From Elizabeth to Victoria - - "Hearts of oak are our ships, - Gallant tars are our men, - We always are ready, - Steady, boys, steady! - We'll fight and we'll conquer again and again." - GARRICK. - - -WE have now followed the story of our navy, its ships, and its men up to -the time when the three-masted, many-gunned man-of-war with two or three -decks, and relying entirely on sail-power for propulsion, made its -appearance. This class of vessel, with, of course, gradual improvements, -remained the principal fighting-unit, not only in our own, but in all -other navies right up to the time of the introduction of steam power, -and indeed we may almost say later; as, though provided with engines of -no very great horse power, the sails, rigging, and hulls of our -line-of-battle ships at the time of the introduction of the ironclad -were practically the same as those of the ships which fought at -Trafalgar. We are, in fact, entering on the period beginning with the -time-- - - "When that great fleet Invincible, against us bore in vain - The richest spoils of Mexico, the stoutest hearts of Spain", - -and ending with the imposing but indecisive operations of the combined -British and French fleets in the Crimean War. - -Now this portion of our naval history is as near as possible all plain -sailing, and its course as well known as that from the Mersey Bar to -Sandy Hook to transatlantic travellers. I do not therefore propose to -conduct my readers through the glorious, though, if I may be allowed to -say it, somewhat hackneyed stories of the defeat of the Spanish Armada, -Drake's exploits on the Spanish Main, and the series of wars with the -Dutch, in which we met the toughest opponents we have ever fought with -for the supremacy of the seas. Neither do I intend recounting for the -hundredth time the magnificent record of the Royal Navy in its almost -continuous campaign against those of the French kings, the French -Republic, and the Emperor Napoleon, which, beginning early in the -eighteenth century, was only finally terminated by the downfall of the -great Corsican general at Waterloo. As far as all these are concerned I -have only to say: "Now the rest of the acts of the Royal Navy, and all -that it did, are they not written in the book of the chronicles of James -the Naval Historian", and of many other historians for that matter, -good, bad, and indifferent. No, so far I have endeavoured to keep a -little off the beaten track of naval history as generally presented in -books of this class, and until we arrive at our navy of to-day I propose -to keep this principle in view; and it is in accordance with this that, -before finally quitting the Tudor period, I propose to make a brief -reference to our experiences with the Hanseatic League. - -[Illustration: DESTROYING A STRAGGLER FROM THE ARMADA - -_From the painting by C. M. Padday_ - -The first Spanish ships to meet their fate were the stragglers from the -main body of the Armada. Above is shown one such vessel being engaged by -an English captain. The great Spanish galleon is quite at the mercy of -the smaller but handier vessel, which has got the wind of her enemy, and -is pouring a destructive fire into her prow.] - -The adverse influence of this great confederation of German cities upon -our country for two or three centuries has never been sufficiently -emphasized in our histories. Possibly the earlier historians who were -contemporary with the Hanseatics were "got at" by their representatives, -who swarmed in this country and had an organized system of bribery, with -a regulated scale of bribes for all sorts of people, from the Lord Mayor -of London downwards. They seem to have been about the only people in the -later Middle Ages with ready cash in the north of Europe, and they were -glad to lend the Kings of England money to carry on their interminable -wars with France in return for various concessions, which generally -hit British trade pretty hard. They knew how to get good security for -their loans, and in Edward III's time they actually had the British -crown in pawn at Cologne! One proof of their tremendous financial -influence in this country remains to this day in the word "sterling". We -still say "one pound sterling", "sterling gold", &c. Now "sterling" is -nothing but a corrupted form of "easterling"--a man from the eastward, -as these Hanse traders used to be called--when they were not referred to -as "Prussians". - -At the Conquest, and for long afterwards, we were a nation of -agriculturists, soldiers, fishermen, and sailors. Our only regular trade -was in wool, therefore known as the "staple" industry--generally "the -staple" for short. It was the desire to get their greedy fingers into -this our only "pie" that first brought the Hanse traders into this -country in force some time in the thirteenth century, though we had not -been free from them since the days of Ethelred. They were allowed to -make their head-quarters in the Steelyard in London (where Cannon Street -Station now stands), to import merchandise on paying a nominal duty of 1 -per cent, to be licensed victuallers, keeping inns, hotels, and wine -shops, to have special courts of jurisdiction of their own, which put -them above English law, and actually to hold one of the gates of the -city. Have we not seen this financial, business, trading, and -inn-keeping undermining of British interests in our own day by the -modern easterlings? - -Later historians preferred rather to dilate on our victories than to -refer to our encounters at sea with the Hanseatics, in which we did not -always show to advantage. For these traders, like their modern -representatives, were good pirates on occasion, had a considerable -number of fighting-ships at their command, and, according to some -authorities, had complete control of the northern seas. Nor was there -any reciprocity about their trading arrangements. They made a rule that -only their own ships were to carry the goods they dealt in, and sank -any English ship that attempted to break it. At the same time they would -not allow our ships into the Baltic to interfere with their trade with -Russia and Scandinavia, and now and again in return for some real or -pretended grievance attacked our seaboard and hung the crews of our -coasters to their own masts. All the time they were endeavouring to -strangle our trade from their London head-quarters. Like an American -"Trust", they were generally able to ruin individuals or smaller -companies which endeavoured to compete with them. - -[Illustration: LORD HOWARD ATTACKING A SHIP OF THE SPANISH ARMADA - -In this fruitless attempt to invade our shores ten thousand Spaniards -gave up their lives. England lost but one ship and about a hundred men.] - -Naturally the "Prussians" were not loved in this country, and it is said -that Wat Tyler's insurrection was to a great extent directed against -these interlopers, the insurgents killing as many of them as they could -get hold of. But their influence with the Government always saved them -till the days of the Tudors, when, in spite of all obstacles, our -merchants began to make headway. Edward VI imposed heavy duties and -restrictions on them, and established an alliance and a trading -connection with Russia by sending a mission to Moscow by way of -Archangel. The marriage of Queen Mary with Philip of Spain gave the -Hanse merchants their chance, since the Prince Consort's father--Charles -V--was Emperor of Germany. The privileges which had been taken away from -the "Prussians" by her brother were restored; but they were not to hold -them long. Queen Elizabeth had an eye to business; she saw how the -Germans were hampering the development of our trade, and reimposed -Edward VI's duty of 20 per cent on the Hanse merchants of the Steelyard. -But she found that she still had to buy gunpowder and other munitions of -war from them, because she could not get them elsewhere, and she did not -like them the better for that. Neither did they like the reimposed -duties, and they were only too glad to assist the Spanish Armada by -sending a fleet laden with provisions and munitions to the Tagus. Drake -and the navy countered by seizing the whole of these ships. - -The Hanseatics, who had already before this laboured "to render the -English merchants obnoxious to the other trading nations by various -calumnies", retaliated by turning every Englishman out of Germany. This -did not affect us very much, as, though there were a comparatively small -number of the "merchants of the staple" and the "merchant adventurers" -settled in that country, their trade and interests were not comparable -with that of the merchants of the Steelyard in England. But the -Hanseatics got a "knock out" blow in return from "good Queen Bess", who -turned the whole collection of German merchants out of England, "lock, -stock, and barrel", and so freed the country of a menace which, while -not so obvious, was probably more insidiously dangerous than the Spanish -Armada. Then followed the break-up of Germany in the Thirty Years' War, -and British trade came by its own. It does seem a pity that "once bit" -we were not "twice shy". Our historians are considerably to blame; but, -in any case, we ought not to have so entirely forgotten what a menace -German trade and German immigration might be to this country. - -"What has all this to do with the navy?" may perhaps be asked. Possibly -not much at first sight, but in reality a great deal. If, during the -centuries the Hanse merchants were throttling our trade, we had -maintained a formidable and national navy instead of pursuing a -hand-to-mouth policy and utilizing our ships principally as ferry-boats -to take our armies over to France, we might have been in a better -position to deal with the Hanse League. We could have prevented -interference with our ships, forced our way into the Baltic, and -extended our trade. On the other hand, the navy was not a national navy, -but, generally speaking, a personal appanage of the reigning monarch, -who as often as not was very heavily in debt to the "Prussians". Gold is -a very powerful factor, even in naval warfare, if judiciously applied, -and not misapplied, as when some of our feebler Saxon kings bought off -the viking invaders with "Danegelt". - -I am tempted, before leaving the Hansa, to relate a story of one of -their smaller naval operations, which, I must premise, is taken from a -German source, so you can believe as much or as little of it as you -please. But it is not a bad story in its way. Our King Edward IV had -fallen out with the King of Denmark, who, in retaliation for a real or -alleged piratical attack made by the traders of Lynn upon his dominions -in Iceland, set to work to capture our merchantmen, using apparently the -ships of his allies, the Hanse League, for the purpose. King Edward, in -his turn, at once closed the Steelyard, and, according to this account, -strangled many of its merchants, and demanded £20,000 compensation for -his captured ships. At this time there were a couple of rather big Hanse -ships lying in a Dutch harbour, the _Mariendrache_ and the _Anholt_. -Hearing of the English preparations for war, Paul Beneke, who was in -command, stood over to Deal under French colours to intercept the Lord -Mayor of London, who was expected to land there on his way back from -Paris in _La Cygne_ of Dieppe. How he discovered this we are not told. - -By the use of French colours Paul Beneke succeeded in kidnapping the -Mayor of Deal and various other notabilities, who thought they were -going on board _La Cygne_ to welcome the Lord Mayor. The two Hanseatic -ships then put to sea, intercepted the real French ship and her consort -_La Madeline of Cannes_, took out their distinguished passenger and -whatever goods they had on board, and made for the Dutch harbour they -had started from. The omniscient Beneke knew that it was being blockaded -by thirteen small English ships and one much more powerful than either -of his, the _St. John_, possibly the _John Evangelist of Dartmouth_. -However, thanks to a fog, he got through the blockade undiscovered. Late -at night he, with one other companion, pulled out to sea in a -fishing-boat, and, under the pretence of being Dutch fishermen, went -alongside the big _St. John_ and asked leave to make fast astern while -they boiled their "beer soup" for supper. Permission was granted, and, -as the "beer soup" in question was in reality molten lead, they had not -much difficulty, under cover of the lofty and overhanging stern, in -pouring it into the iron joints of the rudder, so that it became -immovable. Then, "after supper", having thanked the obliging officer of -the watch, Beneke and his confederate made their way back to their own -ship. The following morning the two Germans stood out of harbour and -attacked the English fleet, and, as none of its ships were big enough to -put up any fight against them, with the exception of the _St. John_, and -she was not under control, thanks to Beneke's strategem, they are said -to have won a "glorious victory". Veracious or not, this tale has one -realistic touch about it in the evident desire to win by underhand means -rather than by fair fighting. But we seem to have been blown a bit out -of our course, and must get back to our point of departure. - -Although Henry VIII is inseparably connected with the _Henri Grace à -Dieu_, this famous ship was by no means the only improved type of -fighting-ship which dates from his reign. There were, besides the great -ships, such as the _Henri_, the _Jesus of Lubeck_,[19] and others, a -class known as galleasses, without a raised poop and forecastle, with a -single tier of heavy guns, and a protruding spur or "beak" forward. They -had fully-rigged main- and foremasts, a mizen and a bonaventure -mizen--these last two masts very small and carrying a single lateen sail -apiece--and a long bowsprit. There is little doubt that these were an -adaptation of the Mediterranean galleys modified to suit Northern seas. -Ships were longer-lived in those days than at present, and though many -of those in Elizabeth's navy had originally belonged to that of her -father, in the newer vessels their constructors endeavoured to combine -the best qualities of both the great ships and the galleasses. The ships -of this improved type were known as "galleons", a word that is -generally, but erroneously, taken to refer only to Spanish ships. The -battleships of both nations were galleons at this period, but they -differed considerably in their general lines and in their armament. - -Generally speaking, the Spanish ships were higher out of the water and -carried lighter cannon than our own. An Elizabethan battleship, then, -was rather longer than earlier great ships, and, though she still had a -comparatively high stern, it was not to be compared in this respect with -that of the _Henri_. The "fore castle" had come down to a very low -affair, the bows finishing with a "beak-head" adopted from the -galleasse, but with the spur at its extremity replaced by a -figurehead--generally a lion, dragon, or unicorn. The general uniformity -in colouring which marked the earlier Tudor men-of-war had been replaced -by a "go as you please" system, under which one ship had her upper works -painted red, another white and green, a third black and white, while a -fourth might retain the old regulation timber colour. Considerable sums -were expended in carving, gilding, and decoration in colour, not only at -the bow and stern, but along the exterior of the bulwarks. As regards -the armament carried afloat, at this and later times, particulars will -be given in a future chapter. - -An old writer of the period takes satisfaction in pointing out the -superiority of the English over foreign ships. "As for those of the -Portuguese," he says, "they are the veriest drones on the sea, the -rather because their seeling[20] was dammed up with a certain kind of -mortar to dead the shot." "The French," he goes on to say, "however -dextrous in land battles, are left-handed in sea-fights, whose best -ships are of Dutch building. The Dutch build their ships so floaty and -buoyant, they have little hold in the water in comparison to ours, which -keep the better wind and so out-sail them. The Spanish pride hath -infected their ships with loftiness, which makes them but the fairer -marks to our shot. Besides the wind hath so much power of them in bad -weather, that it drives them two leagues for one of ours to -leeward--which is very dangerous upon a lee-shore." He states further -that the "Turkish frigots", especially those built at Algiers, are much -the best foreign ships; being "built much nearer the English mode", and -they "may hereafter prove mischievous to us, if not seasonably -prevented". The writer was perfectly correct in his last remark, as will -be seen in the next chapter. - -Here are a few extracts from Sir Walter Raleigh's directions for -"clearing for action". The captain is to appoint "sufficient company to -assist the gunners", by which it would appear that the number of guns -carried had increased faster than the complement of "gonnars" allotted -to a man-of-war. If necessary, "the cabins between the decks shall be -taken down, all beds and sacks employed for bulwarks". The -"musketiers"[21] were to be distributed between the "fore-castell", the -"mast", and the "poope". The gunners were ordered not to fire except at -point-blank range, that is to say, until pretty close alongside the -enemy. An officer was to be specially detailed to see that there was no -loose powder carried between decks nor near any lighted gun-matches. -About the decks were to be distributed "divers hogsheads" sawn in half -and filled with water. No one was to board the enemy's ship without -orders; special men were told off to each sail; while the carpenter and -his crew were to attend with plugs and sheets of lead, some in the hold, -others on the lower deck, in readiness to plug up shot holes between -wind and water. - -In the early Stuart period there were no very great changes in the -construction and appearance of our men-of-war, but they gradually--if we -may judge from their pictures--seem to have acquired a more -"ship-shape" look, and give one the idea of greater roominess. The -bonaventure mizen-mast disappears, so that there are only three masts -instead of four, and the mizen is provided with a topsail in addition to -its lateen. At the end of the bowsprit, too, appears a little top and -top-mast, while a square sail is spread on a yard slung below it. This -sail has a large round hole in each lower corner, to let the water run -out when it is plunged under water as the ship pitches. The _Prince -Royal_ was the show ship of those days, and no less than £441 was spent -on her carved decorations, and £868 on gilding them. She was our first -three-decker, if we include the upper deck, and had a displacement of -1200 tons. - -[Illustration: THE _ROYAL GEORGE_ ENGAGING THE _SOLEIL ROYAL_ IN -QUIBERON BAY, 1759 - -Admiral Hawke in this engagement gained a decisive victory. The _Royal -George_ was the first of an improved type of ship. Her end was a tragic -one, for she capsized and sank at Spithead, taking 900 people with her.] - -In 1637 was launched the much more famous _Sovereign of the Seas_. She -was a very handsome vessel, longer and lower in the water than the -_Prince Royal_, and 483 tons bigger. In the _Travels of Cosmo III_, Duke -of Tuscany, through England, about thirty years after she was launched, -the following account is given of her: "This monstrous vessel was built -in the year 1637 by King Charles I at incredible expense; for, besides -the vast size of the ship, which is an hundred and twenty paces in -length, it has cabins roofed with carved work, richly ornamented with -gold, and the outside of the stern is decorated in a similar manner. The -height of the stern is quite extraordinary, and it is hung with seven -magnificent lanthorns, the principal one, which is more elevated than -the rest, being capable of containing six people. The ship carries 106 -pieces of brass cannon, and requires a thousand men for its equipment. -His Highness went to the highest part of the stern, and having walked -over the whole length from stern to prow as well above as below, stepped -into the handsomest cabin in the stern, where there were still evident -marks of the sides having been repaired from the effect of cannon-balls, -which sufficiently indicated that it had been more than once in action." -The _Sovereign_ was coloured outside black and gold, and had an -elaborate figure-head representing King Edgar on horseback trampling -on seven kings. During the Commonwealth and Restoration there were -continuous improvements in ship design, due, no doubt, in some measure, -to the constant fighting with the Dutch. Our naval constructors -naturally wanted to build better ships; they had the Dutch prizes to -study, and our sea officers saw a good deal of the French men-of-war, -which during the latter part of the war assisted them against the Dutch. -The _Royal Charles_ of 1673 may be taken as the link between the -_Sovereign_ and the eighteenth-century ships of our navy. She was a -handsome ship, rather smaller than the _Sovereign_, with a rounded stern -at the water-line, instead of its being put in flat like that of an -ordinary boat. This not only made ships built in this way, as they -always were after this time, stronger, but gave them more graceful -lines, as well as better ones for sailing. - -The French about this time began to turn out ships on much better lines -than our own, and throughout the eighteenth century and part of the -nineteenth our French prizes were our best-looking and best-sailing -ships. However, a writer at the very end of the seventeenth century -makes the following comparison between the fighting capacity of the -French and British ships of the period: "Our guns, being for the most -part shorter," he says, "are made to carry more shot than a French gun -of like weight, therefore the French guns reach further, and ours make a -bigger hole. By this the French has the advantage to fight at a -distance, and we yard-arm to yard-arm. The like advantage have we over -them in shipping; although they are broader and carry a better sail, our -sides are thicker and better able to receive their shot; by this they -are more subject to be sunk by our gun-shot than we." At the beginning -of the eighteenth century the exterior of the bulwarks of the upper -deck, poop, and forecastle was generally painted blue, though -occasionally red. On this broad band, carved devices, generally -representing trophies of colours, arms, and guns, were placed between -the ports, which on the upper deck were round. Outboard a carved wreath -encircled them, which, with the numerous other ornamental carvings at -bow and stern, was profusely gilded. Below this broad blue band the -sides of the ship were of a yellow tinge, and were finished off, just -above the water-line, with a single or double black wale. - -[Illustration: _Photo. Symonds & Co._ - -THE _VICTORY_ IN GALA DRESS - -Nelson's famous flagship, dressed with flags in honour of the visit of -the French President to Portsmouth.] - -The hull below this was painted white. The ship's sides inboard were -usually coloured red, in order, the story goes, that the crew should not -be affected by the sight of blood splashes in action. The gun-carriages -were often the same colour. The beak-head had disappeared, and the stem -curved up at a somewhat abrupt angle, finishing off with a big -figure-head, as often as not a lion. As the century went on it was found -that not only were the French building better ships than our own, but -the Spaniards also. Our ships might possibly have had thicker sides, as -claimed by the old writer already quoted, but towards the middle of the -century there were great complaints of their structural weakness, and in -1746 the first of an improved and stronger type was taken in hand. This -was the _Royal George_, memorable especially from her tragic end at -Spithead, where she capsized and went down, taking 900 men, women, and -children with her. In 1765 Nelson's _Victory_--perhaps the most famous -ship in history--was built. Thenceforward our battleships were -classified by the number of guns they carried. Thus the _Victory_ and -sister ships carried 100 guns. Then came 90-gun ships, 80-gun ships, -"74's", "64's", and 50-gun ships. - -As time went on there was naturally a slight increase in size in the -newer ships, but they were not altered in type. Thus the _Hibernia_ of -1795 was of 2508 tons displacement, as against the 1921 tons of the -_Victory_, and mounted ten more guns. Perhaps the finest sailing -three-decker ever built was the _Queen_, begun in 1833 and launched in -1839. This ship had a displacement of 4476 tons, yet a picture of her -would almost pass muster for the _Victory_. The _Duke of Wellington_ was -built as a sailing-ship, but fitted with engines before her launch in -1852, and was very much the same to look at, except that her stern was -more rounded and had two or three projecting balconies or "stern-walks". -The _Duke_ brings us to the end of the epoch of wooden line-of-battle -ships. Iron ships protected with armour took their place, but these will -be dealt with in another chapter. - -The external colouring of our men-of-war remained much the same up to -the battle of Trafalgar, though the carving and gilding grew gradually -less. At the Nile in 1797 there were ships of all sorts of colouring. -Thus the _Audacious_ had plain yellow sides, the _Zealous_ red sides -with yellow stripes. Most, however, were yellow, with different numbers -of narrow black stripes. This yellow and black developed into what was -known as "Nelson Mode"--yellow bands on the lines of the gun-ports, with -black bands between. It is this style with which we are most familiar, -on account of the many paintings and engravings of men-of-war in action -at that and more recent periods; for, except that later on the yellow -was changed to white, the fashion lasted till the advent of the -ironclads. - -Having glanced in this cursory manner at the ships which flew the -"meteor flag" between the times of our two greatest queens, Elizabeth -and Victoria, it will be well to give some account, however brief, of -the costume of the men who manned them. - -We have little or no personal information about the seamen of the -Elizabethan navy, but we know from their doughty deeds that they were -good men and true, and we also know that they, like their predecessors, -were pretty well paid and provisioned. Uniform clothing they probably -had not,[22] but in the reign of James I there is a description of a -masque in which appeared men dressed as "skippers", in red caps, short -cassocks, wide canvas breeches striped with red, and red stockings. The -six "principal masters of the navy" were provided annually with coats of -red cloth, "guarded", or faced, with velvet of the same colour, and -"embroidered with ships, roses, crowns, and other devices". But, though -this fine apparel was provided for the favoured few, the seamen began at -this time to be neglected, poorly paid, badly fed, and ill-treated--thanks -probably to having such greedy officials and incapable officers as the -Duke of Buckingham and other courtiers at the head of the navy. The -Venetian ambassador to James I reports the great falling off of the -British navy as compared to that of Henry VII and VIII. - -[Illustration: "THE GLORIOUS 1ST OF JUNE", 1794 - -On this date Lord Howe achieved a victory over the French which was -considered so important that on the return of the fleet to Spithead the -King presented Howe with a gold chain and a sword valued at 3000 -guineas.] - -"Now", he writes, "it only numbers thirty-seven ships, many of them old -and rotten and barely fit for service." Never was it in a worse state, -and good men were naturally harder and harder to get. Charles I was -anxious to restore the navy to its former glory and efficiency, but his -persistency in demanding "ship-money" from his subjects led eventually -to the Civil War, which resulted in his downfall. The Commonwealth, -however, did what he had been ambitious of doing himself: it spent large -sums on the navy, and ships and men were once more in good case. With -the Restoration set in rottenness and corruption. Even Charles II, -though he was too careless or too incapable to remedy matters, -recognized the state of affairs. "If ever", said he, at a meeting of the -Council, "you intend to man the fleet without being cheated by the -captains and pursers, you may go to bed and resolve never to have it -manned." His brother James was more keenly interested in the navy, in -which he had himself served against the Dutch, and no doubt improved -matters in various respects, but the lot of a seaman was still a hard -one. It may have been at his suggestion, when Duke of York, that the -maritime regiment, of which he was the first commander, was raised, -possibly with some idea of its being the nucleus of a permanent -establishment. - -[Illustration: A Matchlock and a Firelock, or Fusil (17th Century) - -The constantly smouldering match of the former rendered it a very -dangerous weapon in the neighbourhood of cannon; the "snaphaunce", or -"fusil", was fitted with a "fire-lock", in which a spark was struck from -a flint.] - -These early marines, who were not infrequently referred to as -"mariners", wore coats of the duke's favourite yellow with red breeches -and stockings, and carried the flag of St. George, with the addition of -the golden rays of the sun issuing from each corner of the -cross--possibly "the glorious sun of York", as Shakespeare has it. It is -interesting to note that they were the first fusiliers, though not in -name. For probably to prevent danger from lighted matches on board a -ship in action, they were armed with "snaphaunce muskets" or -fusils--that is to say, flintlocks instead of the matchlocks usually -carried by the infantry of the period. The 7th Fusiliers, who were -raised as an artillery escort a few years later, were armed in the same -way for a similar reason; and it is curious that, though never called -fusiliers, the marines have almost always followed fusilier customs, as -to uniform, in never having any officers of the rank of ensign, and in -their officers carrying fusils at the time when other infantry officers -carried half-pikes. We begin to find references to the familiar navy -blue about this period as being worn by seamen. In a quaint old work -published in 1682[23] the devil is referred to as having appeared to -someone in Newcastle "in seaman's clothing with a blew cape". And again, -in the description of the supporters of the coat-of-arms granted to the -Earl of Torrington, who died 1689, we read that they are "Two sailors -proper, habited with jackets and caps on their heads _azure_, with white -trowsers striped _gules_," i.e. red. The following is a list of seamen's -clothing or "slops" and prices, as authorized by James, Duke of York, -when Lord High Admiral in 1663:-- - - _s._ _d._ - Monmouth caps, each 2 6 - Red caps 1 1 - Yarn stockings, per pair 3 0 - Irish stockings 1 2 - Blue shirts, each 3 6 - White shirts 5 0 - Cotton waistcoats 3 0 - Cotton drawers, per pair 3 0 - Neat's leather shoes 3 6 - Blue neckcloths, each 0 5 - Canvas suits 5 0 - Rugs of one breadth 4 0 - Blue suits 5 0 - -[Illustration: UNIFORMS OF THE BRITISH NAVY - -Midshipman. Admiral. Flag-Lieutenant. Secretary (Fleet Paymaster).] - -A "Monmouth cap" is said to have been worn by both seamen and soldiers, -and to have resembled a "tam-o'-shanter", but there appears to be some -doubt about it. It seems possible that it may equally well have been -what we now call a "fisherman's cap", or a cap like that worn by the -bands of the Household Cavalry, but with the peak turned perpendicularly -upwards. We sometimes see pictures of boats' crews in such caps at about -this period. - -In 1706 blue seems to have been superseded by grey, seamen being -directed to wear "grey jackets and red trousers, brass and tin buttons, -blue and white check shirts and drawers, grey woollen stockings, -gloves(!), leather caps faced with red cotton;" also "striped ticken -waistcoats and breeches". Naval officers apparently wore what they -pleased, though there are indications that red was the favourite colour -right up to 1748, when a blue uniform with white facings and gold lace -was ordered by the King. But it is said that naval officers did not take -kindly to it at first, and in some ships tried to evade the order by -having but one or two uniform coats on board, which were only worn by -officers when sent away on duty where questions might be asked. - -Red was now the recognized military colour, and, as mentioned -elsewhere,[24] naval officers took a long time to forget the old -military status of the commanders of the royal ships. Blue with white -linings or facings is said to have been the uniform of two regiments of -marines--who were "to be all fuzileers without pikes"--raised in 1690; -but this had no connection with King George's selection, which is stated -to have been due to his having seen the Duchess of Bedford, wife of the -First Lord of the Admiralty, riding in the park in a habit of blue faced -with white, which prodigiously took His Majesty's fancy. The seamen seem -to have worn grey and red up to about this time, when green and blue -baize frocks and trousers were provided for them. The sailor of this -period is described as wearing "a little low cocked hat, a pea-jacket (a -sort of cumbrous Dutch-cut coat), a pair of petticoat trousers, not -unlike a Scotch kilt, tight stockings, with pinchbeck buckles on his -shoes". The "little cocked hat" is elsewhere described as having its -flaps tacked close down to the crown, which made it look like "a -triangular apple pasty". This hat was gradually replaced by a tarpaulin -or straw hat, not a bit like that worn at the present day, but more -nearly resembling a low inverted flowerpot with a narrow curly brim. -Short, open, blue jackets began to be worn--"round jackets" they were -called--showing the check shirt or a red or buff waistcoat. The -trousers were longer than previously, and round the hat was often worn a -bright blue ribband bearing the ship's name. Black, or occasionally -coloured, bandana handkerchiefs were loosely knotted round the neck. In -Nelson's days it was a favourite practice of the seamen to sew strips of -white canvas over the seams of their jackets by way of ornamentation, -and to adorn them with as many buttons as possible. Pigtails were in -full fashion and of a portentous length and stiffness, leading to the -adoption of the square "sailor collar" to protect the cloth jackets from -grease. But though a regulation uniform had been prescribed for officers -there was no strict regulation as to the seaman's dress before 1857, an -exact reversal of the previous state of things. - -In the early part of the nineteenth century captains very often dressed -their crews in "fancy rigs", but the short jacket, trousers taut on the -hips and long and loose in the legs, with a straw or tarpaulin hat--now -with a flat brim and lower crown--remained the general costume of the -British sailor until, after the introduction of continuous service, a -regulation uniform was laid down, as mentioned above. The marines, who -had originally been under the War Office, and had worn different facings -in their different regiments, were, in 1755, formed into the present -corps under the Admiralty and dressed in red with white facings, which -were changed to blue in 1802 on the occasion of the distinction "Royal" -being granted them, on the representations of Lord St. Vincent, as a -recognition of their services both in action and in the suppression of -various disorders in the fleet. One more change was made in the uniform -of naval officers, by William IV, who instituted red facings. It was a -temporary one only, for in about ten years the navy was glad to be -allowed to resume the time-honoured blue and white. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] Purchased about 1544, probably from the Hansa. - -[20] Seeling means literally to "roll from side to side", but it is -evidently here used for the sides themselves. - -[21] As guns of these days were called after animals and birds, the -"musket" received its name from "mosquito". - -[22] The Elizabethan seamen, and indeed their successors, must have -inherited somewhat of the old Viking Berserkers' dislike of defensive -armour, or any equipment limiting bodily activity. Sir Richard Hawkins -complained in 1593 that though he had with him in his expedition to the -South Seas "great preparation of armour, as well of proofe as of light -corsletts, yet not a man would use them ". - -[23] Law's _Memorialls_. - -[24] Chapter VI. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -The "Turks" in the Channel - - "All, all asleep within each roof, along the rocky street, - And these must be the lovers' friends, with gently sliding feet-- - A stifled gasp! a dreary noise! 'The roof is in a flame!' - From out their beds, and to their doors, rush maid, and sire, and dame-- - And meet, upon the threshold stone, the gleaming sabre's fall, - And o'er each black and bearded face the white or crimson shawl-- - The yell of 'Allah!' breaks above the prayer and shriek and roar-- - Oh, blessed God! The Algerine is lord of Baltimore!" - _The Sack of Baltimore_, by THOMAS OSBORNE DAVIS. - - -YOU may read dozens of English histories, and even histories of the -British Navy, and find little or no mention of the subject of this -chapter. And yet during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and part of the -eighteenth centuries the Algerine pirates, or "Turks" as they were -generally called, were a real menace to our trade, our fishermen, and -even to the dwellers on our coasts. The story is not at all a creditable -one to us as a nation, nor did the Navy itself gain any particular -distinction in fighting with these pests; but this was not so much the -fault of our sea-commanders and their men as of the Government, which -rarely gave them any real opportunity of exterminating the Turkish -pirates that infested even our home waters. - -The most discreditable part of all was that played by the British -renegades, who were, more than anyone else, responsible for the Turkish -efficiency at sea. Left to themselves, the corsairs from Algiers, Tunis, -and Salee would never have become formidable. In mediæval times, as has -already been noted, the English had the reputation of being "good -seamen, but better pirates", and piracy (including English piracy), -though scotched, was not killed till some time after the days of "Good -Queen Bess". Why, in the youth of Edward VI, when the country was ruled -by the Regent Somerset, the Regent's own brother--Sir Thomas Seymour, -the Lord High Admiral of England--did not disdain to "do a bit in that -line" himself! - -The story is this. He had been married to the Queen Dowager. When she -died, he found himself rather "hard up". From his position he knew all -about the Channel pirates; he had dealt with lots of them, and "executed -justice" on them for their misdeeds. Now, however, he entered into a -surreptitious partnership with them, "winked the other eye" at -complaints, and pocketed half-profits. He did so well that he tried to -start a special mint of his own at Bristol. He still pretended to the -Regent and the Council to be very poor, and eventually succeeded in -getting an addition of 1500 ducats a year to his salary. He was allowed, -moreover, to draw this in a lump sum in advance. But it was not very -long before the Council began to "smell a rat". The pirates naturally -got bolder and bolder, knowing that they could work with impunity, and -Sir Thomas Seymour was asked "why he did not look after these matters?" -"Oh," said he, "I am just sending three ships after these fellows! I'll -soon make things all right." His ships sailed, but only to become the -worst and most successful freebooters in British waters. Their -depredations and his great wealth, which, it seems, he spent openly and -extravagantly, could not long remain a secret, and he was again summoned -before the Council. He still asserted that he was poverty-stricken, but -he could no longer get anyone to believe him, and a piratical captain -who was captured about this time admitted, under examination, that the -admiral had "gone halves" with him. "Brother or no brother, he must be -executed for this," said the Protector Somerset--and he was. - -When a man in Sir Thomas Seymour's exalted position could behave in -this manner, one can hardly be surprised that lesser "gentlemen" were -not ashamed to follow in his footsteps--even some years later. - -The first appearance of Mohammedan pirates in Northern waters was at a -time very remote from that of which I am now writing, but I think it is -of sufficient interest to deserve a passing reference. It was in the -year 1048--just eighteen years before the Conquest--that news came to -William of Normandy that a band of Moorish or Saracen pirates had -established themselves in a castle which they had built on an eminence -right in the middle of the Island of Guernsey, from which they harassed -and terrorized the inhabitants. A knight, Samson d'Anville, was sent to -destroy "Le Château du Grand Sarrasin", as it was called, and he -apparently succeeded in rooting out the wasps' nest; and when in 1203 a -church was built on the site, the salvation of the islanders was -commemorated by its consecration as "Notre Dame de la Deliverance du -Castel". Catel Church still stands on this historic spot. We hear no -more of Saracen pirates in Northern seas till the sixteenth century, -unless the mysterious ships which were driven ashore near Berwick in -1254 were in any way connected with them. Certainly the ships of any -Northern nation would have been recognizable on our north-east coast. -The ships in question "were large handsome vessels, but unlike anything -ever before seen in this country: well provided with naval stores and -provisions, and laden with coats of mail, shields and weapons of all -kinds, sufficient for an army".[25] Their crews were arrested "as -barbarians, or spies, or even enemies", but as no one understood their -language, nothing whatever could be made of them, and so they were -eventually allowed to depart in peace. Who they were, whence they came, -and whither they went has never been discovered. The incident remains -one of the most impenetrable of the many mysteries of the sea. - -The foundation of the piratical States on the north coast of Africa, -which were to be the source of untold misery to European nations, may be -traced to the final expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1509. Pursued -by the Spaniards to Algiers--or Argier, as it was then usually -called--the Moors called in the assistance of Arouji Barbarossa, a noted -Mediterranean corsair. He succeeded in beating off the invaders and -established himself as first Dey. Tunis, Sallee, and other rover -communities soon sprang up along the African coast, and, beginning by -retaliating on the Spaniards, the "Turks" gradually extended their -sphere of operations till they became a terror to Christendom. - -Christendom had itself to blame in a very great measure, since the -Christian nations could never agree long enough between themselves to -stamp out effectively these nests of pirates. Ceasing to be content with -the spoils and slaves they could capture in the Mediterranean, they set -themselves to-- - - "Keeping in awe the Bay of Portingale - And all the ocean by the British Shore".[26] - -The churchwardens' accounts of the parish of St. Helen's, Abingdon, bear -curious witness to the pitch at which Turkish piracy had arrived by the -year 1565. An entry in this year runs as follows: "Payde for two bokes -of Common Prayer agaynst invading of the Turke 0_s._ 6_d._" The special -prayer was probably the one that ran thus: - - "O Almighty and Everlasting God, our Heavenly Father, - we Thy disobedient and rebellious children, now by Thy - just judgement sore afflicted, and in great danger to - be oppressed, by Thine and our sworn and most deadly - enemies, the Turks, &c." - -The danger was evidently felt to be imminent. By 1576 the "Turks" of -Argier had no less than 25,000 Christian captives in their cruel -clutches. Most, certainly, came from the southern European countries, -but our turn was to come, and half a dozen years later the miscreants -were boasting as much to their English captives. We still had our own as -well as Flemish, Irish, and French piratical gentlemen in the Channel at -this time, for in 1580 the Council called the attention of the Cinque -Ports to the fact that such robbers were "daily received and harboured -by the inhabitants of the said places, making open sale of their spoils -without interruption". - -[Illustration: A Turkish Pirate Ship of 1579 (_From a print of Algiers -of that year_) - -Observe the sharp ram, the tower-like forecastle, and the curiously -perched cabin aft. Also the tail-like ornaments at the stern, possibly -reminiscent of the sterns of the old "Dragon-ships" and "Long Serpents". -The big and somewhat triangular openings are probably gun-ports, but no -guns are visible.] - -It is probable that the attempts at the suppression of our own -sea-robbers drove some of them into the ranks of the Barbary corsairs. -And among them, it is shameful to relate, were not a few men of good -family. Captain John Smith, who wrote about 1630, explains that at the -accession of James I the "Gentlemen Adventurers" and other seaman who -had long carried on a sort of licensed piracy against the Spanish -possessions and ships on the Spanish Main, found themselves, like -Othello, with their "occupation gone". James wanted to live at peace -with everybody. As an epigram of the time put it: - - "When Elizabeth was England's King, - That dreadful name thro' Spain did ring; - How altered is the case ad sa'me, - These juggling days of good Queen Jamie". - -So that, to quote John Smith on the Gentlemen Adventurers, "those that -were rich, rested with what they had; those that were poor, and had -nothing but from hand to mouth, turned pirates; some because they were -slighted of those for whom they had got much wealth; some for that they -could not get their due; some that had lived bravely would not abase -themselves to poverty.... Now because they grew hateful to all Christian -Princes, they retired to Barbary, where altho' there be not many good -harbours, but Tunis, Algier, Sally, Marmora and Tituane, there are many -convenient roads.... Ward, a poor English sailor, and Dansker, a -Dutchman made first here their marts when the Moors scarce knew how to -sail a ship. Bishop was ancient and did little hurt; but Easton got so -much as made himself a Marquess in Savoy, and Ward lived like a Bashaw -in Barbary; those were the first taught the Moors to be men of war." He -gives the names of several other noted English pirates of the time: some -were hung, others were "mercifully pardoned" by King James. Other -villains acted as agents and contrived to give the "Turks" wind of the -sailing of any punitive expedition. - -"For there being several Englishmen," writes Sir William Monson, the -celebrated Admiral, "who have been too long in trading with pirates, and -furnishing them with powder and other necessaries, it is to be feared -those same Englishmen will endeavour to give the pirates intelligence, -lest their being taken, their wicked practices should be discovered." -Thanks to such scoundrels as these the "Turks" were able to attack us -in our own waters. By 1616 they had no less than thirty ships north of -the Mediterranean, and in that year a Salee rover was actually captured -in the River Thames. By the year following so many British ships had -been taken by the "Turks" that the merchants of London established a -fund of £40,000--the Trinity House contributing £1068--"for the -merchants and ships of the Port of London as a fund against the Turks". -Four hundred and sixty British ships had already fallen into their -hands. - -When in 1619 Sir John Killigrew asked permission to erect a lighthouse -on the Lizard the Trinity House refused, on the ground "that it is not -necessary or convenient to erect a lighthouse there, but _per contra_, -inconvenient, having regard to _pirates_ and enemies whom it would -conduct to a safe place of landing". In 1620 James I was at last -persuaded to send an expedition against "Argier". The £40,000 collected -in London, and other sums subscribed, went towards its equipment. It -consisted of six men-of-war and twelve hired merchantmen under Sir -Robert Mansell; but as during the previous sixteen years of the King's -reign, "never a nail had been knocked into any of the Royal ships", and -as their captains "were of little repute", the whole affair turned out -such a dismal failure that the Algerines were encouraged to attack us -with greater determination than ever. - -"But too true it is," wrote Monson, "that since that time our poor -English, and especially the people of the West country, who trade that -way daily, fall into the hands of those pirates. It is too lamentable to -hear their complaints, and too intolerable to suffer the misery that has -befallen them."[27] - -By 1625 the Turkish pirate ship was "a common object of the seashore" in -the West. There were at least a score of them in the Channel. They -captured the Island of Lundy, and, "Hun-like", threatened to burn -Ilfracombe unless a large sum was paid as indemnity. They landed in -Cornwall one Sunday, surrounded a church while divine service was -proceeding, and carried off sixty men from the congregation into -slavery. Some months earlier it had been officially reported that there -were nearly 1400 Englishmen captive in Salee alone, "all, or greatest -part, taken within 20 or 30 miles of Dartmouth, Plymouth, or Falmouth. -When the winter takes, then the Sally men-of-war go to Flushing and -Holland, where, having supplied all wants, and the winter past, they go -to sea again. If they want men in the places with the Dutch, they are -furnished." - -Perhaps the most celebrated coastal raid was that made by Murad Reis -upon the village of Baltimore, on the Munster coast, on 31st June, 1631. -Piloted by a traitor from Dungarvon--one Flachet by name, who, it is -consoling to learn, expiated his crime on the scaffold--the "Turks" -sailed into the little harbour in the dead of night and descended on the -sleeping village like a "bolt from the blue". Completely surprised, the -Irishmen could oppose no resistance to the dark-skinned demons and their -blacker-hearted renegade comrades. Those who were not fortunate enough -to be slain on their own doorsteps were herded on board the corsairs -with all the weeping women and children of the village, even babies in -arms, and carried off into a captivity worse than death itself. The -total "bag" amounted to 237 men, women, and children. Baltimore was then -a thriving fishing centre, but it has never recovered from this raid. -The south coast of Ireland and the Bristol Channel seem to have been a -favourite hunting-ground at this period. Murad had already been harrying -the English coast before he carried out his coup at Baltimore. The year -before the "Turks" had taken six ships _near Bristol_, and had -something like forty ships operating in English waters. But the -Government of King Charles was so feeble and so incompetent that even -the Sack of Baltimore failed to rouse it to the necessary action. - -The navy was willing enough to deal with the pirates, but it was in a -very poor way itself, its men robbed, starved, and stinted, its ships -and many of their commanders anything but efficient. It is even stated -that two of the King's ships lying at Kinsale had word of Murad Reis's -attack, but did not attempt to intercept it. Apparently all that was -done was to set up additional alarm-beacons on the coast. Captain -Richard Plumleigh wrote from Waterford in October of the year following, -reporting an engagement he had had with "the arch-pirate Nutt", and -adds, "Nutt has 2 Turks with him and his consort.... I never saw people -in whom one disaster had settled so deep an impression as the Turks' -last descent hath done in these Irish: every small fleet they see on the -coast puts them into arms, or at least to their heels." - -There would appear to have been something like a permanent, though -inefficient, watch in St. George's Channel about this time, for in 1634 -Sir John Plumleigh, another naval officer, writes from the Isle of Man, -after "scouring" those waters, "Of the Turks as yet we hear nothing, -though the general bruit runs that they intend hither this year, as some -prisoners from Algiers have written over to their friends". So -enterprising had the pirates become that not long before this it was -represented very strongly to the Mayor of Barnstaple that "unless -vigorous steps are taken for the suppression of these marauders" there -was great danger that "they will fall upon our fishing shippes both at -Newfoundland and Virginea, for they desire both our shippes and men". - -The "Turks" were, in fact, insatiable. At this time it was reported that -they had 25,000 Christian slaves in Algiers alone, besides 8000 -renegades, among whom were over 1000 women. The petitions to the -Government from coastal towns, from merchants, from the friends and -relations of the unhappy captives, were legion--but nothing practical -was done. The celebrated Robert Boyle writes of his passage from Youghal -to Bristol in 1635, that he accomplished it safely, "though the Irish -coasts were infested with Turkish galleys". - -[Illustration: THE RELEASE OF CHRISTIAN PRISONERS AT ALGIERS - -The bold and aggressive Turkish pirates were for long the terror of -merchantmen. So successful were they in their raids that at one time -they were reported to have 25,000 Christian slaves in Algiers alone.] - -Two years later a squadron under Captain William Rainsborow was actually -dispatched against Salee. This port was blockaded by four ships, which -were reinforced by four more, and after destroying every Turkish ship -which attempted to break the blockade, the squadron closed in to the -city, and so battered its fortifications that the pirates were glad to -make terms by giving up 400 English slaves. The success of Captain -Rainsborow shows what might have been done had the same process been -applied to other pirate cities on the African coast, but, strange to -say, our forefathers were content merely to "scotch the snake", without -making an end of it once and for all. - -By 1640 the Turks were as bold and aggressive as ever. Three Turkish -men-of-war attacked the _Elizabeth_ off the Lizard and burned her, and -shortly afterwards landed at Penzance and carried off sixty men, women, -and children. The Deputy-Lieutenant of Cornwall reported that there were -about sixty Turkish pirates off the coast at this time. In 1645 it is -stated that they landed again at Fowey, and made slaves of 240 persons, -including some ladies. - -Occasionally some of our merchant-ships were able to put up a successful -defence against the "Turks". - -There were several instances of this in the Mediterranean, and here is a -shipmaster's report of how he did the like in the Channel in 1638: "W. -Nurry, of this town and county of Poole, Mariner and Master under God of -the good ship called the _Concord_ of Poole, burthen, 80 tons, with 6 -guns, 12 men, and 2 boys, being about 6 or 7 leagues off Ushant, coming -from Rochelle laden with salt, was set upon by a man-of-war of Algiers -having 15 pieces of ordnance and full of men with the colour of -Holland displayed ... and then put out her Turkey colours and bade him -'amain'[28] for the King of Algiers, whereupon this examinant refusing -to strike their sails at his command, the Turk boarded his ship in his -quarter with great store of men, whereby they continued to fight board -by board together by the space of 3 hours, and the Turk being weary of -the battery took occasion to cut away this examinant's sprit-sail-yard -to clear himself away, and then stood to the northward ... that he -killed a great many of the Turks and beat them out of his top into the -sea with his muskets, and then surprised and brought into this harbour -of Poole, one Turk and three Christians, viz.: a Dutchman, a Frenchman -and a Biscayner." These three men made statements to the effect that the -Turkish ship was of 240 tons displacement, carried 15 guns and 124 men, -of whom 19 were Christians, 6 of them English, and 3 of them renegades, -and that thirty men-of-war from Algiers were "on the war-path" against -Spain, France, and England. The "Dutchman" was one Oliver Megy of -Lübeck, who admitted that he had been acting as pilot. Dutchman was -apparently then used indiscriminately for Dutch or German, as I believe -is still to a great extent the case at sea. - -Then Sir John Pennington, in his _Journal_ on board H.M.S. _Vauntguard_, -in 1633, reports falling in with a "fly-boat", which informed him that -he had been "clapt aboard" by two Turks, one of eleven, the other of -seven guns, "betwixt the Gulfe and the Land's End, and hurt 9 or 10 of -his men very dangerously, but at last--God bee praysed--they got from -them and slew 4 of the Turkes--that entered them--outright and drove the -rest overboard". Again, when anchored in the _Swiftsure_, in Stokes Bay, -Pennington notes on 24th September, 1635: "There came in a freebooter, -and in his company a barke of Dartmouth laden with Poore John (dried -fish) which he tooke in the Channel from a Turks man-of-warr". In 1652, -just after the Republican form of government had been established in -England, the _Speaker_ frigate was dispatched to "Argier in Turkey" with -£30,000 to ransom English captives from slavery. But when the strong -hand of the Protector Cromwell had seized the helm of state there was no -more question of ransoms or presents to the barbarians of Algiers. He -dispatched the celebrated Admiral Blake with a dozen men-of-war to deal -with the Turks in the only effective way. Blake stood into the harbour -of Tunis, burned all the shipping there, and knocked their -fortifications to pieces, with the loss of only twenty-five killed and -forty wounded. He then appeared before Algiers, whither the story of his -victory at Tunis had preceded him, and had no difficulty in arranging -for the release of the whole of the British captives. More than this, -the "Turks" gave British waters a wide berth, and there were no more -complaints of their performances in the Narrow Seas during the -Protectorate. - -But with the re-appearance of the Stuart kings at the Restoration the -old story of outrage and piracy began all over again. The Turks led off -with the sensational capture of Lord Inchiquin, the British Ambassador -to Portugal, who with his whole suite was captured off the Tagus and -publicly sold by auction in the market-place of Algiers. They would -never have dared to act in this manner in the days of Cromwell and -Blake; but they knew well enough that there was mighty little patriotism -about the "Merry Monarch" and his Court and Government. But even Charles -could not stomach the degrading arrangement which was made by the Earl -of Winchelsea, the British Ambassador to Turkey, who had been ordered to -call at Algiers on his way out to negotiate a new treaty with the Dey. -This nobleman actually granted the pirates liberty to search British -vessels and remove all foreigners and their goods. The Earl of Sandwich -and Sir John Lawson were sent with a fleet to Algiers to enforce the -removal of the obnoxious clause from the treaty. They bombarded the -town, but apparently not very effectively. The point was conceded by the -Dey, but as the Algerines, like the modern Huns, regarded all treaties -as "scraps of paper", to be torn up when opportunity offered, the -expedition was practically fruitless. - -The Earl of Inchiquin and his son were eventually ransomed for £1500, -and Charles showed his weakness by indulging in the unfortunately -widespread habit of trying to conciliate the "Turks" by presents of arms -and ammunition, which everyone knew would be used against our own ships -and men. - -From about this time forward the Turkish pirates seem to have generally -kept farther out in the Atlantic. They were especially on the look-out -for our Newfoundland ships. In 1677 six corsairs destroyed seventeen of -these, but one of the Turks was terribly mauled by a small English -frigate, and only escaped by the aid of a dark and stormy night. Our -watch-dogs were settling down to their work at last. The _Concord_ -merchantman bound for America had a stiff fight with a Turkish squadron -in 1678, 120 leagues from the Land's End. One night they fell in with -"The Admiral of Algiers, a new Frigate of 48 guns, called the _Rose_, -and commanded by Canary, a Spanish renegade; the other two Virginiamen, -the one of Plymouth, the one of Dartmouth", evidently captured ships. -There was also a "barque of Ireland". "The Algerian hailed us in -English," says Thomas Grantham, master of the _Concord_, "'From whence?' -We answered, 'From London.' He told us he was the _Rupert_, frigate, and -commanded our boat on board, which our Captain refused, knowing it could -not be the _Rupert_. The Turk kept company with us all night, which gave -us some time to fit our ship, and get our boats out: when it was light -he put abroad his bloody flag[29] at main-topmast head, fires a gun, -and commands us to strike to the King of Algiers and to Admiral Canary. - -[Illustration: THE FIGHT BETWEEN A MERCHANTMAN AND A TURKISH PIRATE - -_Drawn by C. M. Padday_ - -"His sails, masts, and shrouds were all in a blaze. Then we cut loose, -and his mast went by the board."] - -"We gave him a 'What cheer ho', he comes up with us and passes his -broadside upon us, having 13 guns of a side of his lower tier; we -returned him as good a salute as we could; he steered from us, falls -astern, loaded his guns with double head and round partridge,[30] and -then came up again with us, claps us on board, grapples with us on the -quarter, and made fast his spritsail topmast to our main-bowline, our -main-topsail being furled. After 2 or 3 hours dispute, finding he could -not master us, he cut away our boats, and fires us on the quarter, and -our mizzen-yard being shot down, fired our sail which burnt very -vehemently, and immediately set all the after-part of our ship on fire. -Our captain kept the round-house and cuddy, till the fire forced him to -retreat, all that were with him being killed or wounded and being got -down into the great cabin steerage, he sallied out with those that were -there with a resolution rather to be burnt than taken. - -"In the interim, the Turk's foresail hanging in the brails over our poop -took fire; then he would fain have got clear of us, but we endeavoured -to keep him fast, and as many as run up to cut him clear, we fetched -down with our small shot, until his sails, masts, shrouds, and yards, -were all in a blaze; then we cut loose, and immediately his mast to the -deck went by the board, with many men in his top and his bloody flag; -several of the men betook themselves to their boats, but at last they -overcame the fire, as, thanks be to God, we did likewise on board our -ship, having our mizzen-mast burnt by the board and all the after-part -of our ship burnt; there was little or no wind. The Turk got his oars, -and rowed till he was out of fear of us.... We had killed or wounded on -board of us in the action with Canary 21 men, but of Turks, according to -the account from aboard them, at least 70 or 80 are killed." If every -merchantman had put up as good a fight as Captain Thomas Grantham, the -Turks would soon have had to retire from their piratical business. As it -was, they were able to continue their depredations for some years -longer, but not in quite the same wholesale way. The British Navy became -more and more active, and in 1681-2 made prizes of a number of Turkish -vessels, among them the _Admiral of Sally_, the _Two Lyons and Crown of -Argiers_, the _Three Half Moons_, the _Golden Lyon_, and--what a name -for a man-of-war!--the _Flowerpott_. These captures had an immediate -effect. The Algerines became "very inclinable to peace" and offered to -release many English captives "gratis". Their last notable exploit in -British waters was the attempt to capture a transport in which the Royal -Irish Regiment was sailing from Ostend to Cork in 1695. - -The "Turk" in this case was a Salee rover, like the one that attacked -Robinson Crusoe's ship. She gave chase to the transport and overhauled -her, but when she got near enough to see her decks crowded with redcoats -she considered discretion to be the better part of valour and hauled -off. It is probable that occasional forays were made on our shipping by -such marauders in the early part of the eighteenth century, and we have -a very detailed account of the wreck of the _White Horse_, an Algerine -frigate, near Penzance, in September, 1740. The return of the greater -part of her survivors to Algiers on board the _Blonde_ frigate is an -early instance of our national weakness for too tenderly dealing with -alien enemies. Slavery had not been abolished; we could easily and -legitimately have sold them for slaves to the West Indian planters or to -the Knights of Malta, or exchanged them for some of the hundreds of our -fellow-countrymen the pirate cities of North Africa still held in -bondage. But no, we preferred to set them free and to put them in a -position to murder, rob, and enslave yet more Englishmen. - -The very last appearance of the Turkish pirate in our waters I have been -able to find is of so recent a date as 18th May, 1817, when a couple of -Moorish vessels captured a ship coming from Oldenburgh, off the Galloper -Shoal, which is not far from the Goodwin Sands. This must have been a -very exceptional case, though up to the time Lord Exmouth subjected -Algiers to a severe bombardment the "Turks" were still a danger to -merchantmen in southern waters. The pest was not stamped out until the -capture of the famous pirate city by the French in 1830. So confident -and so truculent were the Deys of Algiers as late as the early part of -the nineteenth century that, in 1804, even Nelson, in command of a -powerful fleet, was unable to make the Dey give an interview to Captain -Keats of the _Superb_, whom he had sent as bearer of a letter setting -forth certain British claims. Incredible to relate, no further steps -were taken, and the fleet put to sea and resumed the blockade of Toulon. -We can hardly, therefore, be surprised to read that in the same year the -"Turks" should have had the hardihood to attack the United States -frigate _Philadelphia_, which took the ground off Tripoli when in -pursuit of a pirate. The Americans fought for four hours, but, the ship -being by that time almost on her beam ends, had eventually to strike -their colours, and both officers and men were carried ashore into -slavery. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[25] Nicholas. _History British Navy._ - -[26] Massinger. - -[27] From the Parish Books of Portishead, Somerset: Acct. of -Disbursements:-- - - "1722.--Gave 5 sailors taken by Pierates 10_d._ - 1723.--Gave 1 man that had been in turkey 1_d._ - 1726.--Gave 6 poor men tacking by the pirits 6_d._ - 1726.--Gave 7 poor sailors burnt 1_s._" - -Mr. Henry Caer of Portishead, who has been good enough to send me these -extracts, thinks that "burnt" in the last entry means that their ship -had been burnt. - -[28] i.e. "yield". - -[29] This, the old Grecian signal to engage, in 1292 "signified certain -death and mortal strife to all sailors everywhere". In the sixteenth and -seventeenth centuries it was constantly used as an emblem of "Defiance" -and "No Quarter". The mutineers at the Nore hoisted it in 1797, as did -the Paris Communists in 1871. - -[30] A species of grape-shot. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -The Honour of the Flag - - "Ye mariners of England! - That guard our native seas; - Whose flag has braved, a thousand years, - The battle and the breeze! - Your glorious standard launch again - To match another foe. - . . . . . . . - The meteor flag of England - Shall yet terrific burn - Till danger's troubled night depart, - And the star of peace return." - "Ye Mariners of England." THOMAS CAMPBELL. - - -MOST people, as they listen to the inspiring strains of "Rule, -Britannia! Britannia rule the waves", feel a wholesome consciousness of -pride and satisfaction in having the privilege of belonging to a nation -whose sons have almost always been pre-eminent on the ocean; but few -stop to consider what is implied by the expression "rule the waves". - -We are not in any doubt at the present moment of at least one meaning of -the words. Had not our fleet instantly asserted its supremacy at the -very outbreak of the great war with Germany we should have found it very -difficult to get along at all, either with the war or with "business as -usual". Does everybody realize, even now, that the war forced us to try -to do two stupendous things at once--to carry on the biggest struggle in -our history and to keep going the biggest trade and commerce in the -world? It is quite certain that if we had not been able to maintain our -"ruling of the waves", we should soon have been in a state of commercial -collapse. - -But in the old days our claim to the empire of the sea was based on -other considerations, and though nothing more important was at stake -than what may be termed a question of precedence, our naval commanders, -even in those periods when our navy was by no means at its best or -strongest, were always prepared to enforce their claims by instant -resort to arms. Strange to say, it is only since our great victory off -Cape Trafalgar that we have abrogated a claim to an extensive watery -kingdom, extending from Cape Van Staten in Norway to Finisterre in -Spain, which for many hundred years we had fought for, generally -maintained, and asserted in the most imperious manner. According to old -writers on the subject, even the Saxon kings had claimed the kingship of -the "Narrow Seas", which then probably meant what is now the English -Channel. This, in the time of our Norman kings, was actually a channel -through their dominions, and when, by his marriage to the daughter of -the Duke of Aquitaine, Henry II eventually succeeded to that duchy, and -extended his dominions to the south-east corner of the Bay of Biscay, he -naturally felt he had a claim to rule the seas still farther to the -south. - -"The striking of the sail" (that is, lowering it) "is one of the -ancientest prerogatives of the Crown of England," says an old writer, -"and in the second year of King John, it was declared at Hastings by -that Monarch, for a law and custom of the sea, that if a Lieutenant on -any voyage, being ordained by the King, encounter upon the sea any ship -or vessel, laden or unladen, that will not strike or vail their -bonnets[31] at the commandment of the Lieutenant of the King, or of the -Admiral of the King, or his Lieutenant, but will fight against them of -the fleet, that if they can be taken they shall be reputed as enemies; -their ships, vessels, and goods taken and forfeited as the goods of -enemies; and that the common people being in the same, be chastised by -imprisonment of their bodies." The same writer states that this claim -was formally recognized and accepted in the twenty-sixth year of the -reign of Edward I (1297) "by the Agents and Ambassadors of Genoa, -Catalonia, Spain, Almaigne, Zealand, Holland, Friesland, Denmark, -Norway, and divers other places in the Empire, and by all the States and -Princes of Europe". - -There do not seem to have been any definite limitations to our watery -kingdom laid down: it is sometimes convenient not to be too precise. But -the earliest claim was _usque ad finem terrae_, which might mean to the -"Land's End", to "Finisterre" in Brittany, to "Finisterre" in Spain, or -"to the ends of the earth"--all very different things. Certainly the -Spanish Finisterre was regarded as the southern boundary in the -seventeenth century, for in the Rev. H. Teonge's _Diary_, when chaplain -in the _Royal Oak_, we find the following entry written after leaving -Gibraltar for England: "13 May, 1679--An indifferent good gale, and -fayre weather, and at twelve wee are in the King of England's dominions -(_Deo gratia_), that is wee are past Cape Finister and entering on the -Bay of Biscay". - -Monarch after monarch asserted his right to be saluted by foreigners -"taking in their flag and striking their topsail" when within "His -Majesty's Seas", and the Protector Cromwell made the same claim on -behalf of the nation. Our men-of-war had also to be saluted in the same -way by our merchant-ships. Any neglect used to be summarily punished. -Captain Pennington of H.M.S. _Vauntguard_ notes in his _Journal_ that on -6th September, 1633, he had "in the Bilbowes" (that is, fastened by the -legs to an iron bar running along the deck) "Richard Eastwood, Master of -a Sandwich hoye, for not striking his topsayle"! He does not say how -long he kept him there, or whether he handed him over to the civil power -to be prosecuted by the Admiralty. - -Not only the sea but "all that therein is" was considered the property -of the English monarchs. Foreigners were not allowed to fish without -permission, for which they generally had to pay. This was relaxed under -Henry VI, but reasserted later, and the enforcement of payment from -Dutch fishermen for fishing in the North Sea was one of the prime causes -of the wars between Holland and England in the time of the Commonwealth -and of Charles II. For the Dutch thought they were strong enough to -wrest the trident of Neptune from our grasp. They nearly succeeded, but -not quite, and we find William III asserting our claim to sovereignty -afloat just as particularly and definitely as any of his predecessors. - -[Illustration: TEACHING THE SPANIARD "THE HONOUR OF THE FLAG" - -Philip of Spain, arriving in the Straits of Dover on his journey to -England to espouse Mary, flaunts the flag of Spain without paying the -customary salute. Lord Howard of Effingham, the English admiral, soon -brings him to his senses by firing a round shot across his bows.] - -The officers in command of royal ships or fleets were not expected to -refer the matter to higher authority, but were to take action at once, -and made no bones about doing so. Innumerable instances may be -quoted--the only difficulty is to pick out the most interesting cases. -Nor were they respectors of persons. When the gloomy and saturnine -Philip of Spain arrived in British waters, on his way to espouse our -Queen Mary, he came with great pomp and circumstance with a fleet of 100 -sail, flaunting the gaudy flag of Spain even in the Straits of Dover. -Lord Howard of Effingham, sent with a guard of honour of 28 men-of-war -to meet the Prince Consort elect, had no idea of allowing that even in -this very special case, and, seeing no disposition on the part of the -Spanish fleet to pay the customary salute, lost no time in sending over -a gentle reminder in the shape of a round shot. - -The hint was taken, and not till then did Howard go on board to pay his -respects to King Philip. Not many years later a Spanish fleet which was -on its way to Flanders, to bring Anne of Austria back to Spain, tried it -on again on entering Plymouth. Here they found Admiral Hawkins flying -his flag on board the _Jesus of Lubeck_--a ship, by the way, that had -taken part in the Armada fight. Hawkins was not slow in sending the -usual reminder humming through the Spanish admiral's rigging, and, as he -still hesitated to "take in his flag", a second messenger came crashing -into his ship's side. Still trying to avoid paying the usual -compliment, he went personally on board the _Jesus_ to argue the point. -He might have spared his pains. All the satisfaction he got was a -peremptory order to clear out of our seas within twelve hours as a -penalty for his rudeness to the Queen. - -Again, off Calais, the French ambassador was made to render the proper -salute to our admiral of the Narrow Seas, who gave orders to Sir Jerome -Turner, his second in command, to "shoot and strike him", should he -refuse to do so. In 1605 Sir William Monson had a slight difficulty with -a Dutch admiral at the same place. The Dutchmen dipped his flag three -times, but Monson insisted that he should pay the ordained salute and -take it in altogether, or fight the matter out on the spot. The salute -was paid. - -Even in the days of James I, when our fleet was in somewhat a poor way, -its captains insisted as firmly as ever on the customary honour being -paid to our flag. Captain Best of the _Guardland_ sends in a report -about two Dutch men-of-war off Aberdeen, and says: "The Admiral of the -Holland men-of-war hath his flag in her main-top, but giveth it out that -he will not take it in for all the Commanders of His Majesty's ships. -Forty years is within the compass of my knowledge, and I never knew but -that all nations forbear to spread their flags in the presence of the -King's ships. That custom shall not be lost by me. When I come into the -road and anchor by him, if the Admiral will not take in his flag when I -shall require it, I will shoot it down, though it grow into a quarrel." -The last expression is delightful. There certainly would have been the -makings of a "quarrel". This was in 1623. - -Captain Richard Plumleigh took an even wider view of the obligations of -foreigners to pay honour to the English flag. His idea was that they had -to do so even in foreign harbours. He writes to the Admiralty on 23rd -September, 1631: "It was my fortune to speak with one of these two -merchants from whom the French demanded their flag". That is to say -that the French had what he regarded as the impertinence to expect that -they should have "struck" their topsails to them. He goes on: "They shot -at the English some dozen shots and received from the English the like -entertainment, with the loss of one man, by which they sat down and gave -over their pretences.... It hath always been my principal aim to -preserve His Majesty's Naval honnour both in his own seas and abroad, -and for my part I think that it were better that both I and the ship -under my charge were at the bottom of the sea, than that I should live -to see a Frenchman or any other nation wear a flag aloft in His -Majesty's seas and suffer them to pass unfought withal.... I dare engage -my head that with five of H.M. ships I will always clear the way to all -French flagmasters, yea, and make them strike to him upon those which -they call their own seas.... This summer I was at the Texel in Holland, -where come in divers French, and though the Hollanders bade me domineer -at home in England, yet I forebore not to fetch down their flag with my -ordnance." Evidently the gallant captain had strong views on the -subject, and did not hide them under a bushel. But he was not alone in -his determination to uphold the "honnour of the flag" at all costs. - -Pennington, a notable naval officer of that period, has several -incidents of a similar kind to relate in his _Journals_ on board H.M.S. -_Convertive_,[32] _Vauntguard_, and _Swiftsure_, between 1631 and 1636. -He tells us that sailing in the first-mentioned ship, together with the -_Assurance_ and a couple of small vessels known as "whelps"--in search -of "Rovers and Pyrates"--he met a fleet of eleven Dutch men-of-war in -Dover Roads, "whereof two were soe stoute that they would not so much as -settle their topp-sayles untill wee made a shott at each of them, -soe--they doinge their dutyes--wee stood on our course". A few days -later "There came up 4 Dunkerke men-of-warr unto us, who in all -submissive wise, with their topp-sayles and top-gallant sayles lowrd -upon the capp, saluted us accordinge to the custome of the sea"! - -All this seems summary and drastic enough for anybody, so that it is -curious to find the celebrated Sir Walter Raleigh not long before -lamenting British decadence in this respect. "But there's no state grown -in haste but that of the United Provinces, and especially in their sea -forces.... For I myself may remember when one ship of Her Majesty's -would have made forty Hollanders strike sail and come to an anchor. They -did not then dispute _De Mare Libero_, but readily acknowledged the -English to be _Domini Maris Britannici_. That we are less powerful than -we were I do hardly believe it; for, although we have not at this time -135 ships belonging to the subject of 500 tons each ship, as it is said -we had in the twenty-fourth year of Queen Elizabeth; at which time also, -upon a general view and muster, there were found in England of able men -fit to bear arms, 1,172,000, yet are our merchant ships now far more -warlike and better appointed than they were, and the Royal Navy double -as strong as it then was." - -Possibly Raleigh's words had borne fruit in increased vigilance on the -part of the captains of English men-of-war. But the Hollanders were -determined to put the matter to the test. Possibly they thought that as -there was no King of England after the martyrdom of Charles I there -could be no king of the English seas. They began by forbidding their -captains to pay the usual salute under pain of death. It was not long -before Van Tromp sailed defiantly through Dover Straits with all his -flags aloft. He got what he was asking for, a volley of round shot from -Robert Blake, who was on the look-out for him, and at once both fleets -went for each other "tooth and nail". The Dutch were beaten, but in a -second encounter--for by now English and Dutch were openly at war--Blake -got the worst of it, and was driven into the Thames to refit. "Tromp -meanwhile sailed up and down the Channel as a conqueror, with a broom at -his mast-head, thus braving the English navy in those very seas in -which she claimed unrivalled sovereignty".[33] - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF THE NORE, JUNE 1653, BETWEEN THE ENGLISH -AND DUTCH] - -But his triumph was short-lived. The British eventually got the upper -hand, and their claims to the sovereignty of their seas were formally -admitted by the Dutch in 1654. Once again the question was fought out in -the days of Charles II, and once again the Dutch were compelled to agree -to strike their sails to even a single ship flying the King's flag. This -was in 1674. Not long before the first Dutch War the Swedes also wished -to question British rights. In 1647 Captain Owen of the _Henrietta -Maria_, having with him only the _Roebuck_, a small craft, with a crew -of forty-five men all told, was refused the salute by a fleet of three -Swedish men-of-war and nine or ten merchant-vessels off the Isle of -Wight. The usual "weighty arguments" were ignored, and the Swedes got -away and anchored in Boulogne Roads. Captain Owen was unable to keep in -touch with them, as they had shot away his tiller, but he got into -Portsmouth and reported the matter, and the Parliament at once ordered -the _St. Andrew_, _Guardland_, _Convertine_, and _Mary Rose_, which were -lying in the Downs, to attend to the matter. Captain Batten, of the -first-named ship, who was in command, at once put to sea, and found the -Swedes still at anchor off Boulogne, but flying no colours at all. -Batten sent for the Swedish commanders to come on board--and they came, -but declared that if their flags _had_ been up they would not have taken -them in, as they had been expressly ordered not to do so. It was rather -a difficult situation. Captain Batten, however, dealt with it by -ordering the Swedish vice-admiral to "come with him", and took him back -to the Downs. He told the remainder to "run away home". However, they -followed the English and their prisoners to the Downs, as their -commanders said that they dare not go home without the vice-admiral. The -affair was then considered by "the Committee of Lords and Commons for -the Admiralty and Cinque Ports", who eventually gave an order for the -release of the culprit. - -Other nations from time to time attempted to exact salutes from foreign -ships in certain places, but apparently without much success. Thus the -Spanish demanded that a French fleet under the Duke of Guise when -passing Gibraltar in 1622 should strike their flags. The Duke refused, -though he said that they had told him that British ships were in the -habit of doing so, and he asked Sir E. Herbert to write and ask the Duke -of Buckingham whether this was true or not. But Herbert smelt a rat; and -though he complied with Guise's request, he wrote: "Be well advised what -answer you return, for I believe that he intends that the French king -should exact the same acknowledgements on the coasts of this country, -which you will never permit, as to the prejudice of the sovereignty that -the Kings of England have always kept in the narrow seas." As regards -the Mediterranean, it was laid down by James II, to prevent disputes -with "the most Christian King",[34] "That whensoever His Majesty's ships -of war shall meet any French men-of-war in the Mediterranean, there -shall no salutes at all pass on either side". William III's orders -were--after the usual directions to make foreigners pay the customary -salute in the English seas--"And you are further to take notice, that in -Their Majesties' Seas, Their Majesties' Ships are in no wise to strike -to any; and that in other parts, no ship of Their Majesties' is to -strike her flag or top-sail to any foreigner unless such foreigner shall -have first struck." - -A final incident must bring this chapter to a close. It indicates a -slightly farther step towards the evacuation of the original position -which we had taken up. This was in the year 1730. Lieutenant Thomas -Smith, R.N., happened to be in temporary command of H.M.S. _Gosport_, -which was lying in Plymouth Sound. In came a French frigate, which, -either on account of ignorance or of design, omitted to strike her -top-sails. Smith, having so many precedents to guide him, though -possibly not very recent ones, sent the usual intimation by hulling her -with a cannon-ball. It was at a time of profound peace, and on the -demand of the French ambassador he was tried and dismissed the Service. -Plumleigh and Pennington must have turned in their graves! But he was -re-appointed to the Navy on the very next day, with the rank of captain, -and for the rest of his life was known as "Tom of Ten Thousand". - -The old regulations remained in force up to the end of the eighteenth -century, but were omitted from those that were published about the -Trafalgar period. The orders given by William III for guidance of -officers when _outside_ English seas were made universal, so that for -some unknown reason we finally abandoned our claims at the very time we -were in a better position to enforce them than we had ever been before. -The old system rather partook of the way the proverbial Irishman in -search of "divarsion" asks "if any gintleman will be good enough to -thread on the tail of his coat", but it had its advantages. Had it been -now in force it is practically certain that some German commander would -have challenged it long before the German fleet had reached its present -proportions, after which there would have been no German fleet. Again, -there could have been no difficulties with neutral nations about -contraband or conditional contraband. As the whole sea from Norway to -Finisterre would have been recognized as British, no one could have -disputed our right to close it to anybody or anything that suited our -book. When it comes to fighting, other nations do not thank us for -having played "Uriah Heep" beforehand. It has possibly induced them to -fight instead of settling the dispute in some other way. - -"Striking the sail" is now a thing of the past, but it is customary for -merchant-vessels to "dip" their flags to kings' ships. As for -men-of-war, they no longer exchange salutes of this kind when they meet -at sea. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[31] "Bonnet", an extra piece of canvas laced to a sail to enlarge it. -"Vail", to lower. - -[32] Or _Convertine_, originally the _Destiny_. - -[33] Guizot, _Cromwell, and the English Commonwealth_. - -[34] Louis XIV of France. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -The Evolution of Naval Gunnery - - "It was great pity, so it was, - That villanous salt-petre should be digg'd - Out of the bowels of the harmless earth, - Which many a good tall fellow had destroy'd - So cowardly; and, but for those vile guns, - He would himself have been a soldier." - Hotspur describing his meeting with a "popinjay" after a battle. - SHAKESPEARE. _King Henry IV._ Act I, Scene iii. - - "Earth and air were badly shaken - By thy humane discovery, Friar Bacon." - BYRON. _Don Juan._ VIII, 33. - - "The hand-spikes, sponges, rammers, crows, - Were well arranged about; - And to annoy Old England's foes, - The Great Guns were run out." - --_Old Verses._ - - -"WHO invented gunpowder?" There is only one definite and reliable answer -to this question, and that is that nobody knows. It has been stated, but -I think that it may be dismissed as a "galley yarn", that the first -mention of artillery is to be found in an account of a naval engagement -between the Phoenicians and Iberians in the year 1100 B.C.--just -eighty-seven years after the siege of Troy. - -The Phoenician war-vessels, it is said, came out of Cadiz--or Gades, as -it was then called--with what their opponents took to be brazen lions at -their bows. These turned out to be some kind of machine from which -enormous flames of fire were projected by explosives, to consume and -destroy the ships of the Iberians. But the most generally accepted -theory now is that gunpowder was invented in China some centuries -before the Christian era and gradually found its way to Europe by way of -India, Arabia, and Africa. As for the stories that it was invented -either by Roger Bacon (1214-92) or by the German monk, Barthold -Schwartz, in 1320, they must be certainly rejected, since there is -evidence that cannon of some kind were in use long previous to Roger -Bacon's birth. Doubtless he wrote something about the composition of -gunpowder, but so might anyone to-day. That would not make him its -inventor. - -Much less, then, can this invention be attributed to the German monk. It -is probably correct that, in pounding certain ingredients in a mortar, -he nearly blew himself "into the middle of next week"--as very many -would-be chemical investigators have done at a much more recent -date--and it may be that the sight of his pestle flying through the -ceiling suggested to him that a mortar might be made of military -use.[35] He may possibly, on this account, be credited with the -invention of the muzzle-loading cannon, for it seems probable that the -guns in use previous to 1320 were merely _cannae_, or tubes open at each -end. The famous battery of three guns, which is said by some historians -to have been used by the English at Crécy, was probably of this kind. -Whether the guns were used there or not, it would not have been the -first time such weapons made their appearance in European warfare, as -seems to be assumed by some writers. - -More than 100 years previously cannon were employed by the Moors at the -siege of Saragossa, in 1118. The Spaniards were not slow to adopt the -invention, and in 1132 they built what is stated to have been a -"culverin" throwing a 4-pound shot. "Culverin", which is a term, -belonging to Tudor times, for a special type of gun, is evidently used -as a general term for "cannon". Like the "Joe Chamberlain" and "Bloody -Mary",[36] manned by the Naval Brigade in the Boer War, and other -prominent specimens of the gun-maker's art, this first European cannon -received a special name. It was christened "Salamonica". I have said -that the Spaniards "built" this weapon. I wrote this advisedly, for all -the earlier cannon were "built up" of staves of iron, or even wood, -strongly hooped together with wrought-iron rings. - -It was a long time before cannon were "founded" or "cast", and now, -strange to say, we have gone back to the original method of manufacture, -which, thanks to modern science and workmanship, has absolutely ousted -what was at its inception considered a wonderful advance in the art of -cannon-making. The early guns, open at both ends, were probably loaded -at the breech, which was then closed by a block of stone or big stake -driven into the ground, close to which the gun itself was fixed in some -kind of a framework. Such guns are to be seen in a picture in -Froissart's _Chronicles_ representing the siege of Tunis by the -Crusaders in 1390, and it is from this that the often-reproduced drawing -of the guns said to have been used at Crécy in 1346 would appear to have -been taken. - -What is said to be the earliest representation of a cannon in England is -to be found in a manuscript of 1326 in the Christ Church Library at -Oxford. It is of quite a different appearance from those just described. -It is in the shape of a fat vase or bottle, and could not well have been -a breech-loader. It is loaded with a big "garot" or dart fitted with a -wooden haft which seems to fit tightly into the neck of the weird -"cannon", which lies on a very rickety looking table. The gunner, clad -in what looks like a suit of Crusader's chain-mail, is an unwary person -who is holding a lighted match to the touch-hole while standing directly -behind the gun. As there is not the slightest indication of anything -whatever to stop the recoil, it seems about three to one that the -discharge would be more disastrous to him than to the enemy. It is -noteworthy that "metal cannons" and "iron balls" were ordered to be -made in this same year at Florence, and in 1331 _vase_ appears to have -been the usual term for the cannon made in Italy, while in France they -were termed _pots de fer_. - -[Illustration: A "Vase" or "Pot-de-fer" - -The "garot", or heavy dart, to be fired from this early gun was provided -with a wooden plug made to fit the bore. The type of "garot" shown on -the right was intended to be fired from a large cross-bow on a stand.] - -This brings us to the earliest indication that I can find of the use of -guns afloat. It is a document dated 1338, in which Guillaume du Moulin, -of Boulogne, acknowledges to have received from Thomas Fouques, the -custodian of the enclosure for the King's galleys at Rouen, a -_pot-de-fer_ to throw "fire garots", together with forty-eight garots in -two cases, 1 pound of saltpetre, and 1/2 pound of sulphur "to make -powder to fire the said garots". Now it seems more than probable that -this _pot-de-fer_ or _vase_ was very similar to that in the Oxford -manuscript and that it was intended for use afloat, or it would not have -been among the stores belonging to the galleys. The recipient being at -Boulogne, we may fairly assume that it was required by him for use on -shipboard. "Garots", we know, were very commonly used in naval actions -at this date, either thrown by hand from the tops or propelled from -espringalds. Moreover, it is evident that the gun open at both ends -would be a great source of danger on board ship. The system of -breech-closing on shore was singularly rough and ineffective; there must -have been nearly as much "back-fire" at the breech as flames from the -muzzle. This would be a constant danger afloat, and, unless a few -_vases_ like those described were sometimes used, it is probable that -cannon were not adopted for sea service until some more regular and -effective breech-closing apparatus had been evolved. But for this seamen -had not very long to wait. - -The progress of gun-making was now proceeding apace, especially in -Germany and Flanders. At first, and for some time, there do not seem to -have been any what we may call "moderate-sized" cannon, or, at any rate, -they are not so much in evidence as the very large ones and the very -small ones. The latter were not bigger than very heavy muskets, and it -was with weapons of this kind that the many-gunned ships of the late -fifteenth and early sixteenth century were principally equipped, though, -as time went on, heavier pieces were added. To show how very small these -little cannon were, it is only necessary to quote from Monstrelet's -_Chronicles_, in which he tells us that, in 1418: "The Lord of Cornwall -... crossed the Seine ... having with him in a _skiff_ a _horse loaded -with small cannons_". When one reads of the extraordinary numbers of -guns which are said to have been used in some mediæval battles and -sieges, one should always bear this passage in mind. - -[Illustration: _Photo by the Author_ - -THE _DULLE GRIETE_ AT GHENT - -This gun dates from 1384, and is very similar to the "marvellous great -bombard" mentioned by Froissart as employed by the men of Ghent to -attack Oudenarde.] - -As for the big guns, they were giants when compared with their smaller -brothers. Old Froissart, whom I have already quoted more than once, -tells of a very notable specimen employed by the "men of Ghent" to -attack Oudenarde: "A marvellous great bombarde, which was fifty feet -long, and threw great heavy stones of a wonderful bigness; when this -bombarde was discharged, it might be heard five leagues by day, and ten -at night, making so great a noise in going off, that it seemed as if all -the devils in hell were abroad". All traces of this monster have -disappeared, but an 18-feet gun of probably an exactly similar type is -still to be seen at Ghent--unless the Germans have stolen it. This gun -dates from about 1384, and has a bore something like 25 inches in -diameter. As perhaps none of us are likely to be in Ghent for some time, -we can see a rather smaller but almost duplicate weapon in -Edinburgh--the celebrated "Mons Meg". Though she is supposed to have -been built 100 years later, it is quite possible that both were turned -out at the same manufactory. The Scots gun evidently came from Mons in -Flanders, and the Flemish gun is also called "Meg", i.e. the _Dulle -Griete_ or "Mad Margery" or "Meg". Another bigger and more handsomely -finished gun of the same type, dating from 1464, is to be seen at the -Royal Artillery Museum at Woolwich. This is a Turkish piece, and is said -to have been "cast", while "Mons Meg" and her sisters are all built-up -guns, as can be at once seen on inspection by the most amateur eyes. -There are several others on the Continent, notably the two "Michelets" -which were left at Mont St. Michael when the siege of that place was -abandoned by the English in 1427. The siege began in 1423, so they may -date from a good many years earlier. As the English batteries were -erected on the Isle of Tombelaine, which is 3000 yards distant from the -mount, some idea may be obtained of the distance to which these early -cannon could hurl their granite projectiles. - -[Illustration: The Gun with which we won the Great War with France - -Observe the heavy breeching-rope attaching the gun to the ship's side; -the tackle and block for running in and out; the wooden wheels, and the -"quoins" or wedges for elevating the gun.] - -Such cannon were all built up of long rectangular bars of iron upon -which heavy rings of the same material were shrunk, the whole weapon, on -completion, forming a heavy and extremely tough cylinder of wrought -iron. The chambers, or breech-pieces, for the reception of the -powder-charge, were built separately, with much thicker sides and -smaller bores than the rest of the gun, into which they were screwed. -The guns must not, I think, be therefore considered breech-loaders; for -though it may be possible that they were screwed in and out at each -discharge, I think it more probable that, as they were such heavy masses -of metal, the breech-pieces were left screwed up and the charges -inserted at the muzzle. But when cannon came to be made of more moderate -dimensions--big enough to be effective against walls and the sides of -ships, and small enough to be transported with reasonable facility--some -system of breech-loading was almost universal. I say "almost", because -guns began to be cast in brass in Germany at a comparatively early date, -and such guns were probably often muzzle-loaders, since cast brass would -not have been strong enough for the breech-closing methods in vogue. -These were comparatively simple. The breech of the gun, which was built -up much in the same way as Mons Meg and others of the same kidney, -terminated in a species of trough. Into this trough fitted an iron -cylinder which contained the charge of powder and was called a -"chamber". The muzzle of the chamber was bevelled off or turned down so -as to fit into the breech end of the bore of the gun itself, and was -held in position by iron wedges, generally at the rear end, but -sometimes across the top. In some of the larger types the trough was -made in the huge block of tough oak to which the gun was fastened. In -the Tower of London you can see a gun of this kind that was fished up -from the wreck of the _Mary Rose_. As most guns were provided with at -least two "chambers", one would imagine that a fairly rapid fire could -have been kept up, at any rate with the smaller guns. This, however, -would not seem to have been the case, for the French account of the -battle off St. Helens (when the _Mary Rose_ capsized), which lasted for -two hours, and in which a considerable number of ships were engaged, -mentions that 300 rounds were fired as a fact indicating the uncommon -fierceness of the fighting. And yet the _Henri Grace à Dieu_ alone -carried over 100 guns of various sizes! - -But at first, even at a time when artillery of one kind or another was -in common use on land, very few guns were carried afloat. Very likely -the reason was that few were suitable; they were either too big, too -small, or, as before suggested, could not be safely closed at the -breech. Thus in the reign of Henry IV, 1399-1413, the _Christopher_, a -rather important man-of-war, only carried "three iron guns with five -chambers, one hand-gun, and one small barrel of powder". The barge -_Mary_ (_Marie de la Tour_) carried one iron gun with two chambers and -one brass gun with one chamber. Another _Mary_ (of Weymouth) had also -one brass and one iron gun, the _Bernard_ had two iron guns, and a ship -referred to as the _Carrake_ one. The _Christopher's_ guns are said to -have been "stoked". This may possibly mean fitted with "stocks" or oaken -beds, like those previously referred to, in which case her guns were -probably larger and heavier than those in the other ships. The invention -of port-holes was probably coincident with the adoption of really heavy -artillery afloat. Before then it would not have been safe to have -carried such heavy weights on the upper decks of the kind of ship then -existing. The _Great Michael_ may possibly be taken as an exception, for -she could hardly have had port-holes cut in her 10-foot thick sides. At -the same time, since her heavy guns were probably breech-loaders, they -may have been practically built into her sides, since at that time there -was no such thing as training a heavy gun right or left on board ship. - -With the numerous batteries of small guns also carried on board ships of -this period, it was quite a different matter. They were mounted on -swivels on the gunwale, or in openings or ports in the fore- and -after-castles as well as in the tops. Others, and among them certain -wide-mouthed pieces known as "murderers", were distributed in what were -known as the "cubbridge heads", or those sides of the fore- and -after-castles which faced inboard and commanded the waist of the ship. -Here it was to be expected an enemy's boarders would make their assault, -and here--the crew having retired fore and aft--they would be mowed down -by charges of all sorts of iron fragments from the "murderers". The same -system of dealing with boarders lasted some time after the disappearance -of the lofty "castles" at bow and stern; strong athwart-ships bulkheads -being provided at bow and stern both on the upper and main decks. - -It was in Henry VIII's time that the manufacture of cast-iron guns, for -which England soon became famous, began in this country. One Ralph -Hogge,[37] at Buxted, in Sussex, cast the first iron cannon. This is -said to have been in 1543, and it is stated that the house in which this -was done is still standing near the church of that village, and that it -has the figure of a hog with the date 1581 carved over the door. There -is another story to the effect that this early gunfounder's name was -John Howe, and that there is the following distich, cut in stone, still -extant in Buxted:-- - - "I, John Howe, and my man John, - We two cast the first cannon". - -This invention may be said to have sealed the fate of the heavy -breech-loading gun for some centuries, though the system remained in -vogue for small pieces for another 200 years. A cast-iron or brass -muzzle-loading gun could be made so much more easily, rapidly, and -cheaply than a built-up wrought-iron breech-loader of the same calibre -that with the growing demand for guns afloat there is little wonder that -the former drove the more expensive weapon clean out of the field. It -must be remembered, too, that the casting of bronze guns had already -reached great perfection on the Continent. What is known as "Queen -Elizabeth's pocket pistol" at Dover is a standing witness to this. It is -supposed to have been cast at Utrecht, and to have been presented to -Henry VIII by the Emperor Charles V in 1544. It is 24 feet long, and is -a very fine piece of workmanship. Its bore is 58 calibres long--that is -to say, it is fifty-eight times as long as its diameter, a proportion -not very unlike that upon which some of our most modern weapons are -designed. - -[Illustration: Early Breech-loading Cannon - -The first was an Armada weapon. This type of gun remained in use afloat -well into the eighteenth century] - -But to return to our early naval cannon. As I have already pointed out, -the casting of bronze guns in Germany and Flanders had reached a great -pitch of perfection long before anything of the sort was made in -England. Germany, in fact, may be said to have led in gunnery for a -considerable period. The master gunners in most armies seem to have -been Germans, and at the accession of Queen Elizabeth we were buying our -powder from the German Hansa Company established in the Steel Yard in -London, instead of making sufficient for ourselves. There were many -brass guns afloat in Henry VIII's navy besides the wrought-iron -breech-loaders. Some of fine workmanship were found in the wreck of the -_Mary Rose_, as well as those of the latter class which have been -already mentioned. As an indication of the cost and labour expended on -such weapons, it may be instanced that a bronze gun cast in Germany in -1406 took from Whitsuntide to Michaelmas to finish, and required 52-1/2 -hundredweight of copper and 3-1/2 hundredweight of tin. The metal cost -422 florins, while the master gun-founder received 86 florins for his -pains. - -The heaviest weapon afloat in Tudor times was the curtall or curtow, -generally of brass, and firing a 60-pound shot. The culverin was rather -lighter and longer. There were a whole host of fancy names--and -doubtless fancy types--for ordnance at this time, several of which have -already been referred to as forming the armament of the _Great Michael_. -Space forbids further enumeration or description, which, in any case, -would be impossible on account of the very different guns which are -called indiscriminately by the same name. But by the Armada days the -following were the principal guns used afloat:-- - - Name. Bore. Weight of Shot. - Double cannon 8-1/2 inches 66 pounds - Whole cannon 8 " 60 " - Demi-cannon 6-1/2 " 32 " - Whole culverin 5-1/2 " 17 " - Demi-culverin 4-1/2 " 9 " - Saker 3-1/2 " 51 " - Minion 3 " 4 " - Falcon 2-1/2 " 2 " - Falconet 2 " 1-1/2 " - Robinet 1 " 1 "[38] - -The "double cannon" is sometimes called a "cannon royal" or a -"carthoun". The "saker" is often spelt "sacre". The "culverin"--a name -that occurs rather more frequently than any other at this time--was so -called from the lugs or handles for hoisting it in and out of its -carriage, which were made in the form of an ornamental serpent.[39] - -Although the English cast-iron cannon almost at once achieved such a -reputation that they sold in Amsterdam for £40 a ton, for £60 in France, -and for no less than £80 in Spain, though costing only £12 a ton in this -country; and though they were bought so freely at these high prices by -foreigners that in 1574 their export was totally forbidden, yet it would -appear that the Royal Navy was then using nothing but brass guns, except -perhaps in the case of the smaller pieces. But the merchantmen used iron -guns. Thus when James I sent an expedition of six men-of-war and a dozen -armed merchant-ships against the Algerines in 1620, all the former -carried brass and all the latter iron guns. The men-of-war were heavily -gunned, so much so, indeed, that it was not unusual for their captains -to dismount a few of their heaviest pieces and stow them as ballast for -the safety of the ship. The _Prince Royal_, for instance, carried a -battery of two "cannon perriers" (i.e. throwing stone shot), six -demi-cannon, twelve culverins, thirteen sakers, and four light pieces. -The famous _Sovereign of the Seas_ in the next reign mounted twenty -cannon, eight demi-cannon, thirty-two culverins, and forty-two -demi-culverins--all brass guns--and probably some small iron falconets -as well. On each gun was engraved the rose and crown, the sceptre and -trident, anchor and cable. The engraving cost £3 per gun, but we must -remember that the _Sovereign_ was a "show ship". - -According to an artilleryman who wrote in the first half of the -seventeenth century, three shots an hour was about as much as an -ordinary gun would stand, "always provided that after 40 shots you -refresh and cool the piece[40] and let her rest an houre, for fear lest -80 shots should break the piece". But I think we may credit our seamen -with being able to fire their guns a bit faster than that. Constant -running out of powder seems to have been the great trouble in the -English fleet engaged in the discomfiture of the "Invincible" Armada. -And not only did the English ships carry heavier ordnance and fire -heavier broadsides than the Spaniards, so that the British cannon -"lacked them through and through", but our gunners are said to have -fired their pieces three times to the Spaniards' one. This is a Spanish -estimate, and it is abundantly evident that our gunnery proved at least -as superior as it did over that of the Germans in Sir David Beatty's -victory off the Friesland coast in January, 1915. Later on, at the -battle of La Hogue (1692) the British ships were able to fire three -broadsides to every two of the French. - -[Illustration: Early Attempts at Maxim Guns - -In all probability each barrel of the first gun had to be loaded -separately and fired by hand, one after another. In the second case, the -eight little cannon are apparently secured to a kind of turntable, to be -revolved by hand.] - -Coming to the navy of the Commonwealth, we find the same curiously named -guns in use. Here is the battery of the _Naseby_: Nineteen cannon, nine -demi-cannon, twenty-eight culverins, thirty demi-culverins, and five -sakers. The same classification lasted till the time of George I, when -it became the custom to designate guns by the weights of their -projectiles. Thenceforward we find ship-armaments reckoned in -42-pounders, 32-pounders, 24-pounders, 12-pounders, and 6-pounders. The -old 60-pounder had disappeared, and before long the 42-pounder followed -it into temporary oblivion, so that at Trafalgar our heaviest gun was a -32-pounder.[41] It was not until nearly 1840 that it reappeared, and was -followed by a 68-pounder. - -During the period between Elizabeth and Trafalgar there were innumerable -attempts to invent and introduce improved forms of ordnance, including -shell-guns and machine-guns. The idea of the latter was extremely -ancient. There are several manuscript illuminations and old wood-cuts -of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries showing attempts at a "Maxim" -gun. The "orgue", consisting of a large number of very small guns or -musket-barrels fixed in rows, or revolving rings, or bundles, was a -common weapon in those centuries--at least on shore. Then there was -something of the kind for which William Drummond was given a patent in -1625, and which he termed a "thunder carriage". Again, there was one -Puckle, who in 1781 invented a regular revolving gun mounted on a -tripod. It was made in two patterns--one to fire ordinary round bullets, -the other to fire square ones--against the "unspeakable Turk". Puckle -thought these infidels ought to get as nasty a wound as possible. With -his specification he issued a doggerel which ran as follows:-- - - -A DEFENCE! - - "Defending King George, your country and Lawes - Is defending yourselves and Protestant Cause". - -The invention did not "catch on", and under a picture of the weapon -which appeared on the eight of spades in a pack of cards of the period -was another attempt at poetry: - - "A rare Invention to destroy the Crowd - Of Fools at Home, instead of Foes Abroad. - Fear not, my Friends, this terrible Machine; - They're only wounded that have Shares therein". - -Neither machine-guns nor shell-guns were to appear before the Victorian -Era, the reason probably being that there was no machinery capable of -turning them and their component parts out in payable quantities. As for -shell-guns, mortars were found to answer very well; no navy wanted to -introduce a form of warfare that would be absolutely destructive of -wooden shipping, and so we find that they did not long precede the -appearance of the modern ironclad. But towards the end of the eighteenth -century a new and practical weapon was invented by General Melville with -the idea of producing a gun which should fire a comparatively large -projectile for its weight. To effect this, something, of course, had to -be sacrificed, and this was length, both of the gun itself and of its -range and also penetration. But, as naval actions then took place at -close quarters, this did not count for much, and what was lost in -penetration was more than made up for by the smashing effect of the -heavy shot. In fact, the gun itself was at first termed a "smasher", -but, from the fact that most of them were cast at the famous Carron -foundry in Scotland, they soon became universally known as "carronades". - -In the days of wooden ships the "carronade" became a most useful weapon. -The smaller kind were light, took up little space, and were just the -things for merchant-men and small craft; while the bigger -class--generally 68-pounders--were valuable auxiliaries to the batteries -of our line-of-battle ships. The carronade was essentially a British -gun, and its efficiency was never more conspicuous than in the fight -between H.M.S. _Glatton_, a converted East Indiaman, and a French -squadron of four frigates and two corvettes, which took place off the -coast of Flanders on 15th July, 1796. - -[Illustration: _Photo. Symonds & Co._ - -THE MAIN GUN DECK ON H.M.S. _VICTORY_ - -Typical of a ship's battery in the palmiest days of our Wooden Walls. -The thick rope "breechings", the blocks and tackles for running the guns -in or out, and securing them for sea, are clearly shown. So also are the -"trucks" or wheels, and the "quoins" or wedges for elevating or -depressing the guns. Overhead are suspended the Sponge, Rammer, and -Worm, for each gun. The latter is the implement with a double corkscrew -for withdrawing a cartridge.] - -The British ship, whose armament consisted of a main battery of -68-pounder carronades, with 32-pounders on her upper deck--fifty guns in -all--completely defeated and drove off her six assailants, who retreated -to Flushing with their decks ripped up, besides other terrible damages, -one of them being so badly mauled that she sank on arrival in port. Had -not the _Glatton_ been a very slow sailer she could have destroyed the -lot. As it was, she effected her victory with only two casualties--Captain -Strangeways of the Marines mortally, and a private marine slightly -wounded. - -It may be interesting to note the armament carried by Nelson's _Victory_ -at the Battle of Trafalgar, in order that it may be compared with that -of some earlier ships of which particulars have been given and with -those of our modern battleships, which will be found in a later chapter. - -On that memorable day the famous old three-decker which still swings at -her buoy in Portsmouth harbour mounted-- - - On her lower deck, thirty 32-pounders; - On her middle deck, thirty 24-pounders; - On her main deck, thirty-two 12-pounders; - On her upper deck, eight 12-pounders, and four 32-pounder carronades. - -The upper-deck 12-pounders were 2 feet shorter than those on the main -deck, and only weighed 21 cwt., as against their 34, but the 32-pounder -carronades only weighed 17 cwt. This will give an idea of the -comparative lightness of these weapons. The guns at this period, and -indeed since Elizabethan times, were mounted on carriages formed of two -wooden sides or cheeks strongly connected together by timber -cross-pieces or "transoms", and placed on four solid wooden wheels or -"trucks". They were secured to the ship's side by thick ropes or -"breechings" passing round the breech of the gun, and long enough to -allow of a certain recoil on being fired. The gun was run out again -by blocks and tackles, which could also be used to haul it inboard -without its being fired, in order to secure it for sea and close the -port. It was trained from side to side by means of hand-spikes or levers -placed under the rear of the carriage, and elevated in a similar manner, -the hand-spikes being used to raise or lower the breech of the gun, -while the "quoin", or wedge, supporting it was being adjusted. Similar -carriages remained in use in our navy far into the 'eighties of last -century, being used for the "converted 64-pounder", which was the old -smooth-bore 68-pounder lined with a rifled steel tube. I have drilled at -such guns myself. It was fine exercise, and it was necessary to be -pretty smart and have all one's wits about one to get outside the -breeching, if a loading number, before the gun was run out. The -13·5-inch gun of to-day is, thanks to hydraulics, manipulated with a -tithe of the exertion required to serve a truck gun. Here are the orders -for "Exercise at the Great Guns" which obtained in 1781, and are -considerably simpler than those previously in vogue: - - 1. "Silence." - 2. "Cast loose your guns." - 3. "Level your guns." - 4. "Take out your tompions." - 5. "Run out your guns." - 6. "Prime." - 7. "Point your guns." - 8. "Fire." - 9. "Sponge your guns." - 10. "Load with cartridge." - 11. "Shot your guns." - 12. "Put in your tompions." - 13. "House your guns." - 14. "Secure your guns." - -"Tompions" are a species of plug used to close the muzzle of a gun when -not in action. In the "days of wood and hemp" they were usually painted -red, but in modern guns they are generally faced with gun-metal, -decorated in some cases with the badge of the ship. "Prime" means to -place loose powder in the pan after having pierced the cartridge with a -"priming wire" thrust through the touch-hole or vent. To "house" was to -haul the gun inboard ready for securing. - -The smooth-bore gun remained the naval weapon right up to the Crimean -War, though explosive shells gradually began to be used as well as the -old solid round shot. The rifling of muskets and cannon had often been -suggested by inventors as far back as Tudor times, and occasionally a -few experimental rifled muskets were made. But in the war with Russia, -in which most of the combatants were armed with muzzle-loading rifles, -rifled cannon began to make their appearance. The Lancaster gun, with a -twisted oval bore, was the first rifled naval gun, and was thought a -great deal of in its day. Then came the breech-loading Armstrong guns. -These were very finely turned out weapons with poly-groove rifling, and -closed at the breech by a species of block which lifted in and out and -had somewhat the appearance of a carriage clock. It was held in position -by a hollow screw through which the charge and projectile were loaded -into the gun, and which was screwed up tight against the breech-block -before firing. This was not a very satisfactory system, since, if not -properly screwed taut, the block had a habit of blowing out, sometimes -with unfortunate results. It was probably for this reason that none of -these guns was made bigger than a 100-pounder. The projectiles for the -Armstrong gun were covered with leaden jackets in order to take the -rifling. This jacket every now and again flew off, which rendered these -guns very unsafe to use over the heads of our own troops. - -[Illustration: NAVAL GUNNERY IN THE OLD DAYS - -An 18-ton gun in action at the bombardment of Alexandria. The gun has -just recoiled after firing. No. 1 is "serving the vent". The sponge end -is being passed to be thrust out of the small scuttle in the middle of -the port (which is closed as soon as the gun is fired), so that the big -wet end can be placed in the gun.] - -The consequence was that while the Germans went in for the Krupp -breech-loading system, in which the breech is closed by a sliding block -across it, and the French for the interrupted-screw breech-closing plug, -the prototype of our present system, we gave up breech-loaders and went -in for built-up, muzzle-loading guns. Their advocates claimed for them -simplicity, comparative cheapness, and other virtues, but, as a matter -of fact, we were entirely on "the wrong tack" and were gradually being -left behind in gun-construction by other nations. These big -muzzle-loaders were formed by shrinking successive jackets over a -steel tube which formed the bore. They were rifled with a few wide, -shallow grooves, their projectiles being fitted with gun-metal studs -intended to travel along the rifling and so give them the spinning -movement requisite for accuracy. The biggest guns of this class -constructed in this country were the 80-ton guns carried by the -_Inflexible_ at the bombardment of Alexandria, though the Italians, who -followed us in sticking to muzzle-loaders for a time, had guns of 100 -tons. Of course the biggest guns had special hydraulic mountings, but -the broadside guns of 7-, 8-, 9-, or 10-inch bore were mounted on -carriages invented by a Captain Scott. These consisted of a pair of iron -brackets, or sides, supporting the gun, which ran in and out on slides -made of iron girders that could be trained to the right or left by means -of tackles, or in most cases by cog wheels working on curved and cogged -racers. The carriage on which the gun was mounted had rollers beneath it -with eccentric axles, so that, unless these were raised by levers -supplied for the purpose, the carriage itself rested on the slide. This -helped to check the recoil, further restrained by a system of -interlocking plates on the carriage and slide which could be compressed -together by a hand-wheel and screw. - -After the gun had recoiled inboard and had been reloaded, the -compressors were slackened and the gun-carriage put on its rollers, so -that it ran down the slightly-sloping slide to its firing-position. But -for all its simplicity there were very many disadvantages attendant on -the muzzle-loader. One very important one was the impossibility of -preventing the gases caused by the explosion of the powder from escaping -past the projectile, so that part of the force of the explosion was -wasted. In breech-loading guns the projectile fits the rifling -closely--it could not be forced through the gun by the rammer from the -rear--being provided with a copper driving-band of slightly bigger -circumference than the bore. When the gun is fired, this is driven into -the grooves of the rifling, rotates the shot, and at the same time stops -any escape of gas and consequently of energy. Thus, size for size, a -breech-loading gun must have greater range and penetration than a -muzzle-loader. A breech-loader can be made much longer than a -muzzle-loader into the bargain, as it is not necessary to get to the -muzzle to load it. This also makes for accuracy and penetration. - -[Illustration: _Photo. Cribb, Southsea_ - -13.5-INCH GUNS ON H.M.S. _CONQUEROR_ - -The muzzles of the monster cannon are closed by plugs or "tompions" with -handsome designs in burnished gun-metal. Above the higher turret is seen -a "Barr & Stroud" range-finder in a canvas case.] - -It was a considerable time before those in this country who had stuck to -the muzzle-loading system through thick and thin could be brought to see -the error of their ways, but after 1880 breech-loaders much of the -French type were introduced into the navy, till we reached the monster -110-ton guns carried in the _Benbow_, _Sanspareil_, and the ill-fated -_Victoria_. As I have already mentioned, the French guns were closed at -the breech by an "interrupted screw". What this is may be shortly -explained. Imagine a screw plug about one and a half times as long as -its diameter, with a close thread to it. Now, to screw this in and out -of the breech of the gun would be a matter taking an appreciable time. -Suppose, now, that we take this screw plug and divide the outside of -it--the screw part--perpendicularly into six equal parts. Then, if we -cut away the thread of the screw on every other sixth, we shall have -three-sixths smooth and the other three-sixths with the screw-thread -still standing out upon them. If now we treat the corresponding -screw-thread in the breech of the gun itself in a similar manner, and -then insert the plug with the three threaded portions in line with the -three smooth portions cut in the gun, we can push it directly in to its -full length, after which a sixth of a turn will lock the threaded parts -together and securely close the breech. This has proved amply strong -enough to resist the immense strain imposed by the explosion of the -charge; but while the principle has been retained in all our -cannon--except the small 3- and 6-pounder Hotchkiss guns, which have a -sliding block--it has been so improved that the locking of the breech -is still stronger, and in all but our very big guns it can be opened and -closed with just about as much ease as a cupboard door. Of course, in -monsters like the 12-, 13·5-, and 15-inch guns, hydraulic machinery is -brought into play, by means of which their immense breech-blocks are -manipulated with the greatest ease by the movement of various levers. - -Machine-guns at one period were introduced into the naval service for -the special purpose of defence against torpedo-boats, but smaller -rifle-calibre weapons were also supplied for use in the tops, boats, and -in landing operations. The first-mentioned were "Nordenfeldt" guns, -firing steel projectiles of 1 inch diameter in volleys of two or five. -These proved too small to deal with the torpedo-boat, which grew bigger -and bigger and was superseded by the destroyer; and were replaced -successively by 3-, 6-, and 12-pounder rapid-fire guns. But at the -present time a 4- or 6-inch shell is required to be really effective -against the big destroyers which are now in commission. The -rifle-calibre guns were at first Gatlings with revolving barrels, then -Gardner and Nordenfeldt volley-firing guns, and lastly the well-known -Maxim. Some of these are still carried on board ship but are not now of -use in a naval action, though they are most valuable when bluejackets -and marines are landed for shore service, and, upon occasion, in the -boats. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[35] In the Civil War, according to Warburton's _Memoirs of Prince -Rupert_, apothecaries' mortars were sometimes used in emergencies. - -[36] In Henry V's expedition to Harfleur he took with him, among others, -two big guns known as the "London" and "the King's Daughter". - -[37] Sometimes called Hugget. - -[38] Compiled from five authorities, who differ slightly. - -[39] Lat., _coluber_, a serpent. - -[40] In 1586 "gunners were provided with milk and vinegar to cool their -pieces". - -[41] There may have been some 68-pounder _carronades_ in action. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -Evolution of the Ironclad Battleship - - "Our ironclads and torpedo-boats - Have never met the foe, - But times of peace don't alter us, - Our hearts are right, you know; - As right and tight as in the days - When glorious fights were won, - And if duty call, we'll on them fall - With torpedo, ram, and gun, my boys, - With torpedo, ram, and gun. - They may blow us up, - They may blow us down, - They may blow us every way; - But we'll sink or win, - And ne'er give in, - Though they blow us right away, my boys, - Though they blow us right away!" - "Sink or Win" (Joe the Marine). From "Per Mare", - Jane's _Naval Annual_, 1895. - - -WE are accustomed to think of the armour-clad war-ship as entirely a -thing of to-day, or at any rate of the last fifty or sixty years. This -is, however, not altogether correct. Armour is not necessarily steel or -iron--witness the derivation of "cuirass" from the French _cuir_, i.e. -"leather". A French battleship is called _cuirassé_. - -Protective devices of various kinds and materials have been used for -hundreds, nay thousands, of years for the defence of ships specially -designed for fighting purposes, though never, it must be admitted, so -generally and extensively as at the present day. Raw hides were -constantly used in ancient and mediæval times to protect ships and the -wooden towers used in sieges on shore. Thick felt was also utilized for -this purpose. The Normans hung their galleys with this material in a -battle with the Saracens off Palermo in 1071, and it played not only a -defensive but a decorative part in the equipment of the big "dromons" of -the Saracens and Byzantines, which were covered with thick woollen cloth -soaked in vinegar to render it fire-proof, and hung with mantlets of red -and yellow felt--a rather gaudier war-jacket than the slate-grey of our -"Dreadnoughts". - -Whatever the advantages of felt, there were naval constructors who stood -fast by the old "adage", "There's nothing like leather". Thus, at the -siege of Tyre in 1171 and the forcing of the entrance of the Nile in -1218, an extensive use was made of a species of small craft known as -"barbots" or "duck-backs", whose crews were protected by a strong domed -deck or roof covered with leather. Again, in 1276, Pedro III of Aragon -_cuirassed_ two of his biggest ships with leather--probably raw -hides--before sending them to engage the fleet of Charles of Anjou. Lead -was also used for ship armour in mediæval times. It is said that the -great dromon captured by Richard I off Beyrout had some kind of leaden -plating. Later on, this heavy metal preceded copper as a sheathing for -the under-water portions of ships: the _Grande Françoise_, launched in -1527, was lead-sheathed from her keel to the first wale above her -water-line. Three years later than this date a regular "lead-clad" was -launched at Nice, where she had been built to the order of the Knights -of Malta, who had not very long before been driven out of Rhodes by the -Turks. - -This big vessel, the _Santa Anna_, was a regular "Dreadnought" in her -day. While as fast as other unprotected vessels of her time, she was -heavily plated with lead, fastened to her sides with brazen bolts, from -her upper deck down to her keel; and this armour was so strengthened by -the thick backing of her timbers that, "having been many times engaged, -and received much cannonading, she was never pierced below the -bulwarks". She carried fifty heavy guns, besides numerous smaller -pieces, of which not a few were carried aloft in her many fighting-tops. - -It is interesting to note that she had a large armoury, a chapel, -forges, a bakery, and a band. "She had various lodges and galleries -round the poop, and chests and boxes full of earth, wherein were planted -cypresses and divers other trees and flowering shrubs, after the fashion -of a garden, small but beautiful." This is about the only garden I have -ever heard of afloat, except the mythical "garden in the main-top", -where are said to be grown any vegetables, "tin-bag" or other, which -arouse the inquisitiveness of ship-visitors. But the main-top has now -gone, and I suppose the "garden" with it. - -It has been stated, but without any authority being quoted for the -statement, that "chain-netting of iron was suspended to the sides of -men-of-war, which were also strengthened by plates in the time of Henry -VIII and Elizabeth". I should say this is very doubtful, since Sir -William Monson, in his _Naval Tracts_, published at that period, does -not mention this practice, although he refers to a number of other -protective devices. But, as we have already seen, iron was used as a -protection--probably against ramming--by the Viking ships of many -centuries before this time. - -The first regular ironclad ship armed with cannon appears to be that -quaint craft christened the _Finis Belli_, which was constructed by the -burghers of Antwerp what time they were closely besieged by the -redoubtable Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, in the year 1585. With -this floating battery, for it was little else, the besieged hoped to be -able to break the Spanish blockade. There are various accounts of her. -One states that she was protected by iron plates, another that her sides -were from 5 to 10 feet thick, "filled with rotten nets, well rammed in, -which made them firm and almost impenetrable". Probably the hull proper, -which was very low in the water, was protected in this way, and the -built-up battery or casemate, which she had amidships, was covered more -or less with iron. She mounted twenty heavy guns, besides lighter -pieces, and carried a large number of musketeers, some in her -fighting-tops, some behind a loopholed bulwark over her battery, and -others, "which could not be hurt, being lodged lower than the cannon -could batter". - -[Illustration: The _Finis Belli_, the first regular Ironclad Ship armed -with Cannon - -The funnel on the poop is presumably the galley funnel, though placed in -an unusual position.] - -Unfortunately for _les braves Belges_ the _Finis Belli_ was a total -failure. In spite of her three rudders she was "very troublesome to -govern", and eventually ran aground and had to be abandoned. The Spanish -besiegers laughed prodigiously at this effort, and nicknamed the -abandoned ironclad the _Caramanjula_ or "Bogey-bogey". As for her -designers, they re-named her _Perditæ Expensæ_, or "Money thrown away". - -[Illustration: Japanese Ironclad of about 1600 A.D. - -(_From a drawing by a Japanese Naval Officer_) - -With hull covered with plates of copper and iron, two rudders, one at -the bow and one at the stern; and a paddle-wheel as her propelling -machinery, fitted inside.] - -The Dutch patriots struggling for freedom from Spanish tyranny had -tried their hands at a somewhat similar contrivance about ten years -earlier, which was known as _The Ark of Delft_. This seems to have been -a double-hulled arrangement, with three hand-turned paddle-wheels placed -between the two hulls. The _Ark_ only rose 5 feet above the water-line, -was 110 feet long and 46 feet broad. She mounted twenty guns, and "a -large gallery was suspended from her three military masts"--whatever -that may mean. It is a curious but generally accepted fact that a great -many more or less modern "inventions" have been forestalled in the Far -East. Gunpowder was first made in China; water-tight compartments were -commonly used in the ships of that country hundreds of years before they -found a place in our men-of-war. It is not altogether strange, -therefore, that the Japanese should have been in possession of what may -well have been a pretty formidable armour-clad so far back as the year -1600--a remarkable-looking craft, more like a big turtle than anything -else. She was cased with hexagonal plates of iron and copper, fitted -closely together. She had a rudder at both bow and stern, and was -propelled by a paddle-wheel amidships, something like the _Ark of -Delft_. A Captain Saris, who made a voyage to Japan in 1613, mentions -that he there saw a junk of from 800 to 1000 tons, sheathed all over -with iron. This was probably the one just described, which, by the way, -is stated to have carried a battery of cannon. - -It is hardly necessary to point out that impenetrability does not -necessarily imply armoured protection. An earthen rampart may well be -impenetrable, as may a thick-sided wooden ship, as was the _Great -Michael_ to the artillery of her day; yet, while affording protection to -those behind it, neither the one nor the other is armoured. Between 1600 -and 1800 there were many attempts at special forms of protection, from -the floating batteries employed by the English in the mismanaged -expedition to La Rochelle to the famous Spanish floating batteries -destroyed at the Siege of Gibraltar in 1781; but iron ship-armour does -not appear again till the year of Trafalgar. - -In the _Naval Chronicle_ for that year we have an account of a vessel -designed by a son of the General Congreve who is famous as being the -inventor of the "Congreve rocket", once a somewhat highly esteemed -missile. The ship--it does not appear whether it was actually built or -not--was intended for the attack of the French invasion flotillas which -were blockaded inside their ports by our fleets. It was to have sloping -sides covered with iron plates and bars, proof against any gun of the -period, and was to be armed with four big mortars and the same number of -42-pound carronades. Her rudder, anchors, and cables were to be entirely -under water, and so not exposed to hostile artillery, while she was to -be rigged in such a way that masts, yards, and sails could be lowered or -erected in a quarter of an hour. When these were "struck" and housed -under the armour she could be moved--probably at a very slow pace--by -oars pulled by forty men, worked entirely under cover. - -Fulton, the famous American inventor, who built a submarine boat, and -invented mines and torpedoes and other weapons of war, turned his -attention to the protection of war-vessels. He was probably responsible -for a little paddle-wheel-propelled vessel for towing torpedoes, which -is described as being covered with 1/2-inch iron plates, "not to be -injured by shot". Later on he built a steam frigate, which he called the -_Demologos_, or "Voice of the People". This relied on 13-feet-thick -sides to protect her crew, but was not armour-plated. She was blown up -by accident in 1829, and replaced by the _Fulton the Second_, which -seems to have been to some extent protected by iron armour. - -But it was not till towards the end of the Crimean War that real -steam-propelled armour-clad ships appeared, in the shape of a series of -slow and unwieldy floating batteries, specially designed for the attack -of the massive Russian fortifications. If anyone would like to see what -these were like--that is, as regards their hulls, for the masts have -long since disappeared--he has only to travel as far as Chatham Dockyard -and ask the policeman on duty at the main gate to direct him to the -_Thunderbolt_ pier. - -The _Thunderbolt_ is one of these old ironclads which has come down to -the useful but inglorious duty of acting as a landing-stage in the River -Medway. Neither she nor any of her English sisters was ever in action; -they were too late in the field--or rather the water. But several of the -French floating batteries, almost precisely similar vessels, took a -prominent part in the bombardment of the Russian fortress of Kinburn, -where their fire proved most effective. As for the shot and shell from -the Russian forts, they rebounded from their sloping iron sides like so -many tennis-balls. These armoured batteries were, however, slow, clumsy, -flat-bottomed affairs, with no speed under steam or sail and but -moderately seaworthy. It remained for the French--whose models in the -"days of wood and hemp" were generally better than our own--to go -another step forward and produce a regular sea-going ironclad. - -This was the famous _La Gloire_. She was no beauty. She had an extremely -ugly bow and was very short in proportion to her beam. She was not a new -ship, but the old two-decker _Napoleon_ cut down, lengthened, and -covered along her whole side with iron plating 5 inches in thickness. -She took two years to finish, and was not ready till the end of 1859. -She naturally created a good deal of excitement, and it was at once seen -that we must follow suit. - -But our naval men did not see why they need be content with so unsightly -a war-ship. They had been much impressed, a year or two before, by the -_Niagara_, a fine United States frigate which had visited the Thames, -and which had what was then regarded as the immense length of 337 feet. -Our constructors, therefore, were rather inclined to follow her lines -than those of _La Gloire_, and turned out the _Warrior_, a -magnificent-looking vessel, not improvised out of an old wooden ship, -but entirely built of iron. Her armour-plating, however, did not extend -from bow to stern, but only covered her battery amidships, which -occupied somewhere about two-thirds of her total length. The _Warrior_ -was 382 feet long, and fitted with a not very obtrusive ram. As a matter -of fact, it was not perceptible at all, since the stem was finished off -with a very graceful swan bow adorned with one of the finest -figure-heads ever executed. She was fully rigged, did 14-1/2 knots under -steam at her trials, and carried an armament of thirty-eight -68-pounders, then the heaviest guns afloat. In short, the _Warrior_ was -a triumph of British shipbuilding, and a worthy ancestor of the -magnificent armour-clad fleet which has played such an important part in -the history of the nation. She had one sister, the _Black Prince_, after -which a few smaller ironclads were built, the _Defence_, _Resistance_, -_Hector_, and _Valiant_. Next came four bigger ships, the _Achilles_, -_Minotaur_, _Northumberland_, and _Agincourt_. These were all improved -_Warriors_, armoured along their whole length, with ram bows, a heavier -armament, and no less than five masts. They were imposing-looking ships, -though, of course, to-day about as obsolete as the _Henri Grace à Dieu_. - -[Illustration: H.M.S. _WARRIOR_, OUR FIRST SEA-GOING IRONCLAD BATTLESHIP - -She was a very efficient reply to the French _La Gloire_, which was a -wooden ship converted into an ironclad. Observe the Red-and-blue Ensign. -The White Ensign with St. George's Cross did not become universal in the -Royal Navy till 1864.] - -I have a vivid recollection of a visit to the _Minotaur_ when a boy. -Possibly a few extracts from notes made at the time may be of interest. -"She has five masts and is a tremendous length. Her upper deck is -furnished with a good many small guns for repelling boat attacks. Round -the masts are placed some of the shot and shell for the large guns -below, painted white, and the knobs (i.e. studs to fit the rifling) and -points gilded. Were here shown a Gatling gun for service on shore or for -clearing the decks of boarders, &c. On going below we saw a couple of -rocket-tubes burnished like a looking-glass.... In the steerage we saw a -7- or 9-pounder boat gun polished beautifully (as was all the metalwork -in the ship) which had an arrangement for reducing the recoil by a -cylinder full of oil. The main-deck battery consisted of 12-ton guns, -lacquered to look like jet." The carriages, I remember, were painted -white and the slides under them scarlet, which, with their burnished -gun-metal machinery, gave them a most brilliant appearance, very -different from the slate-coloured monsters of to-day. These guns were -some which had replaced her original armament of more numerous but -lighter cannon, and in consequence every other port in the battery was -vacant. But the long line of guns presented a most imposing appearance. -"Between the guns were field-guns, boat-guns, &c. Round the hatchways -were ranged shot, shell, and canister, which also appeared in every -available corner." - -Among other notes, too long to be transcribed, I find that the Whitehead -torpedoes in the _Minotaur_ were made of copper, a material which has -long since been superseded by steel, and that I was shown "the Rumpf -coil for generating the electric light which can be shown in three -places". Compare this very modest installation with the numbers of -powerful search-lights which a battleship carries to-day, to say nothing -of the thousands of incandescent lamps which light her interior. The -"cylinder full of oil" for checking the recoil of a small boat-gun, -which is referred to above, is noteworthy as the prototype of the almost -universal system now in use both ashore and afloat, though in the -_Minotaur_ none of the big guns were fitted with this very effective -apparatus. - -As guns grew more powerful, and, in consequence, armour increased in -thickness and weight, the amount of side protection had perforce to be -reduced, so that as time went on the battleship's cuirass was cut down -to a comparatively narrow water-line belt, with a "box-battery" -containing her heavy guns amidships. In later types the foremost and -aftermost guns in these batteries were placed at an angle and the port -"recessed" in the ship's side, so that these guns could fire on the -broadside and nearly ahead as well. In some ships, such as the _Sultan_, -_Alexandra_--which, by the way, was long flagship of the Mediterranean -fleet and a notable ship in her day--_Triumph_, and _Iron Duke_, the -box-battery was arranged in two tiers, one above the other. All these -were broadside ships and fully rigged. If they could not get along very -fast under sail alone, the sails, under some circumstances, were useful -in "easing the engines" and getting a little more speed out of the ship. - -But in any case naval officers had not then brought themselves to accept -the idea of relying on their engines alone; they liked to have a second -string to their bow. Besides, the work and evolutions aloft were -undeniably a splendid thing for the seamen; it rendered them quick, -smart, and self-reliant, and kept them in excellent physical training. - -The reverse side of the picture was the weight of yards, rigging, and -sails, the resistance they offered to the wind when the ship was -steaming against it, the danger in action to those quartered on the -upper deck from the fall of yards, blocks, and spars from aloft, and -the time taken in preparing them for action. The top-gallant masts were -sent down on deck as well as the upper yards, the top-masts were -generally lowered till they only showed a few feet above the heads of -the lower masts, extra slings had to be put in place to secure the lower -yards, the shrouds supporting the masts on either side had to be "snaked -down", by coiling wire hawsers in a species of zigzag from top to -bottom, so that if one or more shrouds were cut the whole would hang -together, and many other precautions taken which occupied valuable time -and were, perhaps, after all of a merely negative nature--that is to -say, the rigging was more of a danger in action than a useful asset. The -tops were the only part of it that were of use. As in ancient days they -afforded stations for archers and stone-throwers, and later on for -musketry, swivel-guns, and grenade-throwers, so they were at this time -utilized for mounting machine-guns to fire down upon an enemy's decks. - -For at that period "close action" was always expected. Boarders were -told off when the ship "went to quarters for action", and boarding-pikes -and cutlasses were provided for their use, while the small upper-deck -guns--usually breech-loading Armstrongs--were mounted on carriages which -enabled them to be fired downward to repel a boat attack or the rush of -a steamboat with a spar torpedo. The ideas of an action at sea were -practically the same as those which obtained in the days of Nelson. -"Masts and yards" were the source of yet another danger. The "smartness" -of a ship was still generally gauged by her "smartness" aloft. All -evolutions in the Navy are done "against time", and for a ship to get -her "royal yards across" some seconds before any other ship in the -squadron was a notable feat of which every soul on board was proud to a -degree. These ideas were those of the old sailing navy, and in spite of -the advent of steam, ironclads, rifled guns, and torpedoes, the -conservatism of our great sea service rendered them still paramount, so -that even gunnery took a second place. There were regulation quantities -of ammunition to be fired--"expended" was the usual term--at regulated -periods, there were orders that torpedoes were to be run at stated -intervals, that bluejackets and marines should be landed for drill -ashore every week when in harbour. But in most ships these things were -regarded as secondary and annoying performances, to be got over and done -with as soon as possible, if they could not be avoided altogether, so -that all hands might be set to their "games with sticks and string", as, -in course of time, irreverent observers began to call the cherished -evolutions with mast and yards, and the important business of cleaning -paintwork, burnishing "brightwork", and generally making the ship as -spick and span as possible. - -"Spit and polish" were the idols worshipped in those days by captains -and more especially commanders, for it was almost universally recognized -that their promotion depended more on the brilliant appearance of their -ships at an inspection than on any other earthly matter. But for all -that the days of "sticks and string" were numbered, as were those of -broadside ironclads and box batteries. - -The prime cause of the approaching change was the appearance of a -queer-looking little craft in the Civil War in America between 1861 and -1864. The United States Government had a fine fleet of wooden steamships -at the outbreak of hostilities, but the naval authorities of the -seceding Southern States, having raised the _Merrimac_, a 40-gun frigate -which had been sunk at the Norfolk navy yard, cut her down, built a -battery amidships armoured with two or three thicknesses of railway -iron, and attacked the Federal fleet. The _Merrimac_ had it all her own -way, rammed and sank the frigate _Cumberland_, set the bigger _Congress_ -on fire and compelled her to surrender, and withdrew with all the -honours of war. But she was yet to meet her match. John Ericsson, a -Swedish engineer, was commissioned by the United States Government to -construct a small ironclad of his own designing. While the _Merrimac_ -was engaged in defeating the wooden ships of the Federals in Hampton -Roads, the _Monitor_, as the new vessel was called, was on her way south -from New York. She joined the Federal fleet the very night before the -_Merrimac_ made a second sortie. On this occasion, as she came out into -the Roads and opened up the fleet she intended to attack, the _Merrimac_ -spotted what someone described as looking "like a cheese-box on a raft". -It was an excellent description of the little _Monitor_, which was built -with a very low freeboard and had nothing on her deck but a cylindrical -revolving turret containing a couple of guns, no masts, and but the -merest apology for a funnel. Yet she proved one too many for the -_Merrimac_ with her more numerous battery of guns. She was unable -actually to pierce her sides, as her commander had received the most -peremptory orders not to use more than 15 pounds of powder to load his -guns, but the _Merrimac_ got so "rattled" that she had to sheer off. - -[Illustration: The _Monitor_, the famous little ship that revolutionized -warship design - -The upper figure is a broadside view, the lower one a transverse section -amidships. The upper portion of the hull was very like a raft, and was -heavily armoured all over, as was the turret and the little pilot-box -forward.] - -This first duel between ironclad vessels attracted an enormous amount -of attention, as is only to be supposed. The net result in this country -was that Captain Cowper Coles, R.N., was allowed to have a cupola- or -turret-ship built which he had designed some years before. The _Royal -Sovereign_, a wooden three-decker, was cut down to within a few feet of -the water-line, plated with 5-1/2-inch iron, and fitted with four -turrets. The foremost one carried two guns, the remainder one apiece. -She had very light pole masts and light, hinged iron bulwarks, which -gave her 3-1/3 feet more freeboard at sea but had to be lowered before -she could fight her guns. Captain Coles, however, had the usual -hankering after "masts and yards", and, the _Royal Sovereign_ having -proved moderately successful, induced the Admiralty to build a fully -rigged turret-ship. This was the unfortunate _Captain_, whose low -freeboard, heavy turrets, superstructures, and fully-rigged tripod masts -caused her to turn turtle in a squall off Cape Finisterre on the night -of 6th September, 1870. Her inventor went down in her. Her gunner and -seventeen men were the sole survivors. One other full-rigged turret-ship -was built--the _Monarch_. As she had a very considerable freeboard she -proved a seaworthy ship, but she was the last of her kind.[42] - -In the meantime several small coast-defence turret-vessels had been -built, such as the _Scorpion_ and _Wyvern_ in 1865, the _Abyssinia_, -_Magdala_, and _Cerberus_ in 1870, and the _Glatton_, _Gorgon_, -_Cyclops_, and others a year or so later. They had one or two masts, but -were not rigged ships. These little turret-ships developed into the -battleships _Devastation_, _Dreadnought_, and _Thunderer_, launched -between 1873 and 1877. Each had two turrets containing a couple of heavy -guns apiece. Their hulls were heavily armoured, and they had but one -mast fitted with a military top for machine-guns. It is from this branch -of our earlier armour-clad construction that our modern "Dreadnoughts" -derive their descent rather than from the broadside type. - -To explain further developments it must be noted that while in this -country the success of the _Monitor_ induced us to experiment with -placing guns in revolving armoured turrets, in France the tendency was -to build a fixed armoured tower in the ship, and place the guns inside -on a turntable _en barbette_--that is to say, so mounted that they could -fire over the top of the armour in any direction. We tried to go one -better in the _Temeraire_ (1877). She was a broadside ship, with a -"box-battery" amidships, but forward and aft two pear-shaped armoured -barbettes were built into her, the tops of which rose about 1 foot or 18 -inches above her upper deck. In each of these was placed a 25-ton -gun--we classified guns by weight in those days, and not by inches of -calibre as we do now--on a mounting, which enabled it to sink down on -being fired, and to be raised up again into its firing-position when -loaded. The _Temeraire_, it may be said, was an experimental ship in -many ways. Though heavily rigged, she had only two masts, so was like an -enormous brig. I believe I am right in saying that her mainyard was the -longest and heaviest in the Service. At one time, too, she was painted -grey, instead of the black which was then universal, except when ships -were in hot climates, when it was generally changed to white. Yellow -funnels were regulation, as was "mast-colour"--a sort of deep-yellow -ochre with a reddish tinge--for all masts and spars. Ships were, and had -been for very many years, painted white withinboard instead of the old -eighteenth-century red. Outboard the black sides were finished off -generally with a white water-line, and a broad white band along the -upper part of the bulwarks, known as a "boot-top". Sometimes another -white line was painted on the black side a few inches below it. - -There was a good deal of controversy about this time as to the relative -merits of "broadside" fire and "end-on" fire. Space forbids us from -entering further into this question, but, generally speaking, if a -British ship carried four guns heavier than the rest, they were so -arranged that two could be fired ahead or astern, and all four on either -broadside. But in a French ship the four corresponding guns would be -each mounted singly in barbettes arranged diamond-fashion, so that three -could be fired either ahead, astern, or on either broadside. A couple of -armoured cruisers, the _Imperieuse_ and _Warspite_, were built, probably -as an experiment, on these lines, on the latter of which I had the -honour of serving for something like twelve months. They were originally -brig-rigged, like the _Temeraire_, but this was done away with later and -replaced by a single military mast. Personally I do not think they were -a success. The _Warspite_, at any rate, was a very wet ship. When -steaming against quite a moderate sea the water ran all over her, into -the barbettes and down below, and she was much cramped in many ways by -the arrangement of her guns. The _Devastation_ and her sisters proved -very formidable and successful ships, but with the idea of getting a -heavier fire ahead or astern a new departure was made in the -_Inflexible_--the biggest ironclad we had yet constructed--by placing -her turrets, not one forward and the other aft on the centre line of the -ship, but _en echelon_--that is to say, diagonally amidships. -Theoretically this arrangement, which had been copied from the big -Italian ships _Duilio_ and _Dandolo_, had a good deal to recommend it, -but practically there is more to be said against it than for it. -Nevertheless, four other smaller ships were built on these lines, the -_Ajax_ and _Agamemnon_--which gained notoriety as being almost -impossible to steer--and the _Edinburgh_ and _Colossus_. The last two -were armed with breech-loading guns, which were now superseding the old -muzzle-loaders to which the ordnance authorities had clung with such -obstinacy long after every other nation had consigned them to the scrap -heap. - -Meanwhile a smaller single-turret ship, the _Conqueror_, had been -built, an unwieldy-looking craft which went by the name of the -"half-boot" from the resemblance her general outline had to that useful -article of military equipment. But she seems to have met with the -approval of the Admiralty, since an improved sister-ship, the _Hero_, -was launched about five years later. These ships probably suggested the -very much larger ones, _Victoria_ and _Sans Pareil_, each of which, on a -displacement of 10,470 tons only, carried a couple of 111-ton guns of -16·25-inch bore in a single turret--that is to say, as their main -armament. They had also a 10-inch gun aft, and a dozen 6-inch -breech-loading guns. These formed what is called her "secondary -battery". The provision of such batteries marks a step in the evolution -of war-ship construction which is very noteworthy. The bigger and bigger -guns carried by battleships necessitated stronger and stronger armour. -In spite of improvements in quality and manufacture the weight of armour -tended constantly to increase. The area covered had therefore to be more -and more restricted. To carry all this weight of guns and armour -comparatively large ships were necessary, and a great part of their -sides had to go without any protection at all. Their flotation might be -preserved--against attack by gun-fire--by the combination of armoured -belt and sloping armoured decks which had by now become almost -universal. But it was obvious that the unarmoured portions of the ship -above water could be torn to pieces by the fire of comparatively light -weapons. This led to the installation of "secondary batteries" of 4-, -5-, and 6-inch guns, for the purpose of attacking an enemy's ship in -this way and of neutralizing his attack by keeping down the fire of -_his_ secondary batteries. - -[Illustration: _Photo. West & Son, Southsea_ - -A MONSTER GUN WHICH IS NOW OBSOLETE - -The 111-ton gun on the old _Benbow_, which was very slow of fire and -whose life was estimated at little more than 70 rounds.] - -The development of torpedo-attack brought about the Whitehead automobile -torpedo, and the improvements in the speed and construction of -destroyers and torpedo-boats caused also the introduction of "auxiliary -batteries" of rapid-firing 3- and 6-pounder-shell guns. The machine-guns -firing rifle bullets, and, later on, small steel shot, were found to -have no "stopping-power" against torpedo-craft, and more powerful -weapons became imperative. - -The tragic end of the _Victoria_, which cost the nation, not only a fine -ship, but the lives of the greater portion of her crew, and that very -talented naval commander, Sir George Tryon, is a well-known tragedy of -the sea, and there is little doubt that the enormous weight forward of -her huge turret and guns, with nothing aft to counterbalance it, was one -of the causes contributing to the completeness of the catastrophe. - -No more ships were built on such lines, but about this period an -important innovation was made by the introduction of a class of ships in -which the four heavy guns were carried in a couple of high barbettes -with sloping sides, instead of in turrets. The whole gun was exposed, -but not its mountings or crew, since the top of the barbette was closed -in by a flat shield which revolved with the guns. These were the -_Collingwood_, _Camperdown_, _Howe_, _Rodney_, _Anson_, and _Benbow_. -The last-named had one 111-ton gun in each barbette, instead of a pair -of rather smaller cannon. Amidships, between the barbettes, were -secondary batteries of half a dozen 6-inch guns (the _Benbow_ had ten). -These were entirely unprotected except from fire coming from ahead or -astern, from which they were covered by armoured bulkheads reaching -across the ship immediately behind each barbette. - -I well recollect my first sight of these ships, which had all been -completed during four years I had been away on a distant station, -though, as a matter of fact, I had seen the _Rodney_ launched before I -left England. I was on board H.M.S. _Aurora_, a new cruiser which had -been specially commissioned for the naval manoeuvres. We left Plymouth -and proceeded to Spithead, where a large fleet had been assembled to do -honour to the Kaiser--with whom we were then on rather more friendly -terms than latterly, and who came over at the head of a squadron of his -war-ships. He was much more anxious to exhibit German war-ships to the -British fleet than his naval commanders seem to have been during the -Great War. We got into Spithead about six on a morning when there was a -thick drizzle almost amounting to a fog, and as one after another of -these monsters--as we thought them then--loomed up out of the mist and -vanished astern, they presented a most impressive picture of strength -and solidity. They really did look in the dim light like "castles -afloat"! - -But they were not by any means among our most successful efforts. No one -liked the unprotected secondary batteries, and thought of the -well-armoured _Devastation_ and her sisters. _They_ had no secondary -batteries--but they were so well armoured that these were not necessary, -except for purposes of offence. This consideration doubtless led to the -building of the _Nile_ and _Trafalgar_, in which the four big guns were -carried in turrets and the secondary armament in an armoured battery -amidships. They were extremely well-protected ships and would have given -a very good account of any ship of their day. But the tendency was ever -for bigger ships, which allowed, generally speaking, for greater speed, -greater radius of action, greater seaworthiness, and afforded a steadier -gun platform. - -This produced the "Royal Sovereign" class, of over 14,000 tons -displacement, a great advance in size on any ships which had preceded -them. They created a considerable sensation at the time of their -appearance, especially the _Royal Sovereign_ herself, the first of them. -My own first sight of her was somewhere in the Irish Sea, not far from -the Isle of Man. I was serving on board H.M.S. _Triumph_ in the naval -manoeuvres of 1892. The _Royal Sovereign_ passed us just at the time tea -was going on in the wardroom, which would be between half-past three and -four, and I remember how everybody rushed up on deck to get a look at -the new marvel in shipbuilding. - -The _Royal Sovereign_ became practically the regulation type of -battleship until the advent of the "Dreadnoughts", though of course each -successive batch was an improvement on the preceding one in speed, -protection, and gun-power. All had four heavy guns in low barbettes, -covered with armoured hoods which revolved with the guns--so they may be -said to have been a combination of turret and barbette. The single -exception was the _Hood_ in the "Royal Sovereign" batch, which carried -her four heavy guns in two regular turrets. All had secondary batteries, -whose guns were distributed in armoured casemates at considerable -intervals from each other, and all had a couple of military masts, with -one or two fighting-tops on each, armed with light rapid-fire guns. This -fine series of battleships amounted to forty in all, and formed a -homogeneous and magnificent fleet, the like of which the world had never -seen. Nearly all had a displacement of from 14,000 to 15,000 tons, and a -speed of from 17 to 18 knots. Most are still in service, and though they -have been put rather in the background by our "Dreadnoughts" and -"Super-Dreadnoughts", we may still be very proud of them. - -There were two intermediate steps between them and the epoch-making -_Dreadnought_. The first was the creation of the "King Edward" class of -five ships, dating from 1902-3. These were very similar to their -predecessors, but had over 1000 tons more displacement, were more -thoroughly armoured, and, in addition to the four 12-inch and ten or a -dozen 6-inch guns which formed their armament, were provided with four -guns of 9·2 inches calibre, each placed singly in a turret at the -corners of the superstructure. The final type before the _Dreadnought_ -made her sensational appearance was the "Lord Nelson" class, which, -however, only comprised two ships--the _Lord Nelson_ herself and the -_Agamemnon_.[43] They were very little bigger than the "King Edwards", -but in their case the 6-inch guns were replaced by ten guns of 9·2-inch -calibre, a most formidable secondary battery, capable of penetrating a -considerable thickness of armour. The Battle of Tsushima, between the -Japanese and Russians, led to the temporary abandonment of the secondary -battery. It was considered that battles would in future be fought at -such immense ranges that a decision, one way or another, would be -reached before the smaller guns could be brought within effective range -of the enemy, and the events of the European War go to confirm this -theory. So it was that we once more arrived at the "all-big-gun ship", -and in the _Dreadnought_, launched in 1906, went back to the principle -followed in the armament of her namesake of 1875, and confined her -armament--except for a few small anti-torpedo-boat guns--to cannon of -the largest size. A comparison of the two _Dreadnoughts_ will form an -appropriate termination to this chapter, which has already occupied more -pages than I intended. - - 1875--H.M.S. _Dreadnought_. Displacement, 10,820 tons; - speed, 14 knots; guns, four muzzle-loaders; armour, - 10, 11, 13, and 14 inches; weight of projectiles, 809 - pounds; penetration of wrought iron at 1000 yards, - 17-1/2 inches. - - 1906--H.M.S. _Dreadnought_. Displacement, 17,900 tons; - speed, 21 knots; guns, ten breech-loaders; armour, 6, - 7, 9, and 12 inches; weight of projectiles, 850 - pounds; penetration of wrought iron at 1000 yards, 36 - inches. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[42] If we except the _Neptune_, which was built by a foreign Government -and eventually acquired by the Royal Navy. - -[43] It would perhaps be more correct to call the _Lord Nelson_ and -_Agamemnon_ contemporaries of the _Dreadnought_. They were practically -experimental ships offering an alternative type. The cost of thirty of -these ships would have been the same as that of twenty-nine -_Dreadnoughts_. The annual upkeep of twenty-nine _Dreadnoughts_ would be -less by £15,000 than that of thirty _Lord Nelsons_. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -The Evolution of the Submarine and Submarine Mine - - _Thomas._ They write here one Corneilius'[44] son - Hath made the Hollanders an invisible eel - To swim the Haven at Dunkirk and sink all - The shipping there. - - _Pennyboy._ But how is't done? - - _Cymbal._ I'll show you, Sir. - It's an automa, runs under water - With a snug nose, and has a nimble tail - Made like an auger, with which tail she wriggles - Betwixt the costs[45] of a ship and sinks it straight. - - _Pennyboy._ A most brave device - To murder their flat bottoms! - _The Staple of News._ BEN JONSON. - - -"PITT", said the famous Admiral Lord St. Vincent, in the course of an -interview with the American inventor Fulton, "is the greatest fool that -ever existed, to encourage a mode of war which they who commanded the -seas did not want, and which, if successful, would deprive them of it." -Truer words were never spoken. Fulton had invented floating mines or -torpedoes--"infernals" as they were then called--and even an ingenious -form of submarine boat. The French, to whom he first offered them, to -their honour be it spoken, would have nothing to do with them even -though hard put to it to hold their own against the British fleet. -Admiral Decrès reported that Fulton's inventions were "fit only for -Algerines and pirates". The Maritime Prefect at Brest refused to allow -him to attack an English frigate off the coast with his submarine, -"because this type of warfare carries with it the objection that those -who undertake it and those against whom it is made will all be lost. -This cannot be called a gallant death", he said. Finally, Admiral -Pléville le Pelly, the Minister of War, stated that it appeared to him -to be "impossible to serve a Commission for Belligerency to men who -employ such a method of destroying the fleet of an enemy". - -It is a sad reflection that after a century of much-boasted "advance in -civilization", we none of us appear to have any chivalric scruples of -this kind. But, in spite of our tremendous ascendancy at sea, -Pitt--being a politician and not a naval officer--was, as St. Vincent -said, "fool" enough to listen to Fulton when, repulsed from France, he -took the name of Francis and brought his schemes over to this country. -Experiments were made in the Downs, and Lieutenant Robinson of the Royal -Marines carried out a demonstration before Pitt with some of Fulton's -torpedoes, or "carcasses" as they were called, by blowing up a brig -anchored off Walmer Castle. - -The famous Sir Sydney Smith was an aider and abettor of Fulton, though a -naval officer, but his attitude may have been due to a desire to stand -well with Mr. Pitt rather than to a conviction that the adoption of his -proposed methods of warfare would be of real service to the navy. What -doubtless attracted both men was the hope of destroying the French -invasion flotillas at Boulogne and in the Basque Roads, which our fleet -could not get at. Attempts were made, but ended in dismal failures. The -public generally was dead against the employment of what were regarded -as dastardly and underhand apparatus, and so were most naval officers. -An officer, in a diary made at the time, describes[46] "six copper -submarine carcasses, some to hold 540 pounds of powder and others 405 -pounds" that were sent on board his ship for the purpose of being -employed against the enemy's vessels. He says further that "Johnstone -the smuggler laid one down near the gates of the new harbour before -Flushing surrendered, but we never heard of any damage being done by it. -As for our part we never tried them--indeed, _our Admiral said it was -not a fair proceeding_." - -The idea of attacking an enemy under water was, however, by no means a -novel one. Attempts in this direction have been made almost from time -immemorial. Swimming under water and diving seem to have been often -resorted to in order to cut ships' cables, and even for the purpose of -boring holes in their bottoms; but the latter would appear to be rather -an impossible performance.[47] The Romans are said to have had a corps -or society of divers known as _Urinatores_. Then there are legends of -diving-apparatus employed by Alexander the Great, who himself is -frequently depicted in mediæval manuscripts being lowered to the bottom -of the sea in a glass barrel. - -In manuscripts and woodcuts of the Middle Ages there are to be found -several pictures representing men in a species of diver's costume, -supposed to have been made of leather, with air-tubes leading to the -surface of the water, where they are buoyed by bladders. Some, instead -of tubes, are provided with flasks of air. Personally I should doubt -whether such dresses ever had any actual existence. I fancy they are -originally derived from a species of swimming-jacket or life-belt which -is depicted in a fourteenth-century manuscript in the Imperial -Historical Museum at Vienna.[48] - -[Illustration: Diver Salving a Gun - -(_From a print of 1613_)] - -A comparison between the two sketches over page will, I think, go far to -prove me right, since the so-called "Diver's Helmet" is taken from -Vegetius' _De Re Militari_, not published before 1511. The earliest -picture of a diving-helmet of this kind I have been able to find is in a -German work published in 1500: both are therefore of a later date than -the "Swimming Jacket". This "jacket" was intended to be worn as follows: -The lower rectangular part was to be placed at the back, the oval -portion to the front of the body. When the swimmer wished to remain at -the surface he inflated his jacket by means of the tube; when he -required to dive out of sight he would let the air out. Look at the -position of the buckles and straps in the two drawings and you will see -that there is a strong presumption that the later artist deliberately -made the alteration in order to support his bogus picture of a -diving-_helmet_. - -[Illustration: Swimming Jacket - -(from a fourteenth-century MS.) - -Diver's Helmet from Vegetius - -(sixteenth century) - -Observe the close similarity between these two nominally very different -articles. The shape of the earlier drawing has suggested a helmet to the -illustrator of _De Re Militari_ by Vegetius, and he has therefore done -away with two straps and buckles and altered the positions of the other -two. It is not clear how they are to be fastened together; but the use -of the straps and buckles on the jacket is apparent.] - -The earliest mention of a submarine boat occurs in "Salman[49] and -Morolf", a German poem of 1190. This was, of course, an imaginary one, -like the famous _Nautilus_ in Jules Verne's _20,000 Leagues under the -Sea_; but in the days of "good Queen Bess" one William Bourne, a naval -gunner, published a detailed description of how to make "a shippe or -boate that may goe under the water unto the bottome, and so to come up -againe at your pleasure". The "device", as he calls it, had some quite -practical points.[50] - -In the following reign a Dutchman, Corneilius Van Drebbel by name, seems -actually to have built a submarine vessel, which is stated to have gone -under water from Westminster to Greenwich, and with which James I was so -pleased that he not only had a duplicate one built, sending it as a -present to the Tsar of Russia, but so far overcame his constitutional -timidity as to adventure his precious and royal person in a submarine -trip in the Dutchman's invention. Then followed many suggestions for -submarines, but between Van Drebbel's boat in 1620 and Fulton's in 1800 -probably not more than half a dozen were actually constructed. - -Van Drebbel was probably responsible for the "water mines, water -petards, forged cases to be shot with fireworks, and _boates to goe -under water_" which Buckingham took with his fleet on the ill-managed -and inglorious expedition to La Rochelle in 1626. The water-petards or -floating mines were of a very feeble description. The following is a -French contemporary account of what they were like. - -"The composition of these petards was of Lattin (i.e. Brass) filled with -powder, laid upon certain pieces of timber, crosse which there was a -spring, which touching any vessel would flie off and give fire to the -petards, but only one took effect, which did no great hurt, only cast -water into the ship, and that was all, the rest being taken by the -King's boats." - -About 1771 David Bushnell, a native of Maine, built a curious little -submarine not unlike a walnut in shape, if you imagine a walnut floating -with the point downwards. It was propelled by a hand-turned screw and -carried a case of powder provided with a clockwork apparatus for -exploding it at the required moment. There was an ingenious arrangement -for screwing this mine to the bottom of a ship, and by its means the -navigator of Bushnell's submarine very nearly succeeded in blowing up -H.M.S. _Eagle_ when lying in the Hudson River in charge of a convoy of -transports bringing troops for the campaign against the revolted -American colonists. Other attempts were made by the Americans to blow up -our men-of-war in the course of the war, but without success. In the war -with the United States (1812-14) the Americans again attacked our ships -in a similar manner. The _Ramillies_ in particular seems to have been -singled out for these attempts. She was attacked both by a submarine -boat and by various explosive contrivances. The British retaliated by -embarking in her 100 American prisoners and notifying their presence on -board to the United States Government. They also bombarded the town of -Stonington for being "conspicuous in preparing and harbouring -torpedoes". - -Between this time and the latter portion of the century innumerable -submarine boats were designed and a considerable number of experimental -ones actually built. A few of them promised very well, though most were -failures, the principal reason of their non-success being the want of a -suitable means of propulsion. Every conceivable method was attempted, -but it was not till the advent of the internal-combustion engine that -the submarine became a really practical proposition. Space forbids -mention of even a tithe of these inventions, but among the most notable -was that invented by the German Bauer, between 1850 and 1860, when he -made a futile attempt to blow up a Danish man-of-war. Then there were -the _Davids_, used by the Confederates in the Civil War in America. -Most of these drowned their crews. One, however, succeeded in torpedoing -the Federal sloop _Housatonic_, but accompanied her to "Davy Jones's -locker". A Swede, Mr. Nordenfeldt, built about half a dozen submarines -between 1880 and 1890, one for this country, one--his first experimental -one--which was eventually purchased by Greece, two for the Turkish -Government, and, lastly, two or three for the German Admiralty. All of -these may be regarded as experimental craft, but they are noteworthy as -being the first submarines to be equipped with Whitehead torpedoes, and -certainly marked a step forward in the science of underwater navigation. - -The French navy was the first to tackle the problem of submarine -navigation with any real enthusiasm. French inventors had been -responsible for a very large proportion of the designs for submarines, -which had continually increased in numbers as the nineteenth century -progressed. After extensive experiments with the _Gymnote_ (launched -1888), _Gustave Zèdé_ (1893), and _Morse_ (1899), France set about the -construction of a regular submarine flotilla of considerable size, -launching nearly thirty boats between 1900 and 1903. Other Powers, -except perhaps Russia, held back from the new departure, and it is not -impossible that it would have been politic for the British Government to -have maintained that attitude, in accordance with the views of Lord St. -Vincent, and to have announced that it would refuse to recognize the -crews of submarines as legitimate belligerents. To have done this would -not have been to enunciate any new theory, for from time immemorial this -was the attitude adopted by all navies towards the crews of fire-ships, -and that it was later on accepted to apply to those who made use of -torpedoes and floating mines is evident by the following quotation from -the naval officer's diary which has already been referred to. - -He states that on the occasion of the attack on the French ships in the -Basque Roads by Lord Cochrane, when _explosion-ships_ as well as -fire-ships were used, volunteers were called for to take them in, and -"no one was compelled to go, as the enemy by the laws of war can put -anyone to death who is taken belonging to a fire-ship". Had we refrained -from following the example of the French most probably the Germans would -have done so also, first because the French submarines sustained many -accidents and did not appear very likely, to experts such as the German -naval officers, to become a very valuable arm; and, secondly, because in -naval matters they have always tried to follow our lead. But the -newspaper "experts" and other laymen in this country to whom the idea of -submarine navigation was most captivating as something mysterious, new, -and strange, with great potentialities, not only for warfare but for -"copy", clamoured in the Press for submarines. The Admiralty eventually -ordered four "Holland" boats for "experimental purposes". - -John P. Holland was an American inventor, and his first boat, built in -1875, "was a tiny affair with just enough room in her for one man to sit -down amidships and work the pedals that turned the propeller. It was -only 16 feet long, 2 feet deep, and 20 inches wide, and it is probably -the smallest submarine ever constructed. The 'crew' had to wear a -diving-dress, and drew air from reservoirs at either end of the vessel. -Five little torpedoes were carried, which could be put out through the -dome and fired from a distance by electricity."[51] Between this time -and 1902 Holland was responsible for six more submarines and the design -for another which was never built. The earlier ones were small, but the -last two or three of considerable size. - -The _Holland VIII_ deserves some description, as she may be regarded as -the prototype of the British earlier submarine vessels from which nearly -all of our larger and later types have been evolved. "She was a -porpoise-like vessel 65 feet long, nearly 11 feet in diameter, and of 75 -tons displacement. Her single propeller was driven by a gas-engine when -at the surface and by an electric motor when below, both being placed on -the same shaft and connected or disconnected as required. She carried a -torpedo-tube, a tube for throwing aerial torpedoes, and a submarine gun, -the latter being placed aft and inclined upwards, as was the aerial -torpedo-tube forward".[52] This vessel, after very considerable -alterations had been made in her, was re-named the _Holland IX_ and -purchased for the United States navy. - -[Illustration: A FLEET OF SUBMARINES IN PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR - -Observe the _Victory_ in the background. If Nelson were standing on the -poop with his glass, what would he think and say of these "microbes of -the sea"?] - -The First Lord of the Admiralty, in reply to a question asked in the -House of Parliament in 1900, had replied "that the Admiralty had _not_ -designed a submarine boat, and did not propose to design one, because -such a boat would be the weapon of an inferior power". Whether he was -right or wrong, the statement was a straightforward and an -understandable one. Possibly it struck the First Lord as being too -straightforward for a politician, so he at once began to "hedge", and -qualified what he had said by adding: "But if it could be produced as a -working article, the Power which possessed such an article would no -longer be an inferior but a superior Power". It is hard to reconcile the -two statements; for if a submarine was an unworkable proposition it -would be no good to any Power, strong or weak. - -However, a couple of years later, as I have already mentioned, the -Admiralty determined to acquire a few submarine boats, nominally with -the view of finding out how their use by an enemy could be rendered -abortive. First one and then four other practically similar ones, to be -built on Holland's designs, were ordered from Vickers of -Barrow-in-Furness. Their displacement--submerged--was 120 tons. It must -be remembered that a submarine's surface displacement is always less -than when she has filled her tanks to sink her deeper in the water. They -were 63 feet 4 inches long and 11 feet 9 inches wide at their greatest -beam; steamed from 8 to 10 knots above and 5 to 7 knots below water, -carried a crew of seven men, and had a single torpedo-tube. Many -experiments were carried out with these little vessels, the net result -being that series after series of larger and larger submarines were -constructed, each batch an improvement on the preceding one. Thus we -had, after the first five "Hollands", the A, B, C, D, and E classes, and -are now turning out the "F" class. The description of our latest -submarines must be postponed till the chapter dealing with the -fighting-ships of to-day; but it may be noted that up to 1914 all had -been improved "Hollands". That is to say, that while some other naval -powers, notably Germany, were building their submarines more and more on -the lines of surface vessels with flat tops or decks, we remained -faithful to the "porpoise" or "fat cigar" type, only modifying them by -increasing their size and length, and by adding to the length of the -narrow superstructure, which formed a deck and eventually a cut-water -for use at the surface, but which was independent of the actual -watertight hull or body of the vessel, since the water was allowed free -access below the platform. - - * * * * * - -It is time now to give some description of the evolution of that -terrible instrument of destruction, the Submarine Mine, under which head -may be included both those that are placed below water and those that -float or drift at the surface. The utilization of explosives for the -attack of shipping has been attempted by belligerents for centuries, but -I am not aware that they have ever been employed against peaceful -traders and fishermen before the Great War. The Germans may attempt to -excuse themselves by alleging that some merchantmen carry guns for -defence; but that has been the universal practice for centuries, and no -merchantmen were more heavily armed than the old trading-ships of the -Hansa League. Such ships were entirely different from the privateers, -provided with Letters of Marque which entitled them to attack and -capture enemy vessels if they could. On principles of self-defence, -merchantmen were always entitled to beat off an attack if they could, -and such action exposed other merchantmen to no reprisals. It is only of -late years, when civilization was supposed to be so far advanced as to -render the sinking of merchantmen "on their lawful occasions" an -impossibility, that they ceased to carry guns. - -Probably the first inventor of a floating mine--in the shape of an -explosion-ship, as distinguished from a fire-ship--was an Italian -engineer, who in contemporary accounts is variously referred to as -"Gianibelli", "Gedevilo", "Genebelli", "Gienily", "Jenabel", and -"Innibel", who, by means of a couple of small vessels filled with -powder, which was built over with tons of bricks, gravestones, -millstones, and "everything heavy, hooked, and sharp which 'this wicked -witty man thought most damageable'", blew to absolute "smithereens" the -great bridge which the Duke of Parma had built across the Scheldt in -order to complete the blockade of Antwerp in 1585. It is rather -interesting to note in passing that Gianibelli seems to have spent some -time in this country. He had a good deal to do with the building of -Tilbury Fort, and brought forward extended proposals for the reopening -of Rye Harbour, which had become silted up. This he does not seem to -have effected satisfactorily, and payment of £821, 9_s._, which he -demanded of the Mayor and jurats of that famous town, was refused. He -may have had something to do with the preparation of the fire-ships sent -against the Spanish Armada in Calais Roads. At any rate the Spaniards on -board thought so, for they, considering them "to be of those kind of -dreadful Powder-Ships, which that famous Enginier Frederick Innibel had -devised not long before in the River of Skeld", cried "the Fire -Antwerp", cut their cables, and put to sea in the confusion that proved -their ruin. - -We have already mentioned the attempts made by the British at La -Rochelle with floating mines and devices of that kind, and, coming to -the time of William III, we find "Honest Benbow" employing an -explosion-ship, evidently modelled on those of Gianibelli, against the -town of St. Malo. It did a lot of damage and unroofed a great number of -houses, but effected nothing of any military value. One Meesters, a -Dutchman, was the leading spirit in this kind of warfare. Whether he was -any connection of Van Drebbel and Dr. Kuffler I cannot say, but he -induced the Government to use his explosion-ships, or "machines" as they -were termed, probably with the view of emulating these two nautical Guy -Fawkeses who had succeeded in getting good incomes and considerable sums -of money out of the British Government for their ideas and inventions, -although, as far as can be ascertained, none of them had proved of the -slightest value or efficiency. Explosion-ships or machines became for a -time recognized units in the British navy, and were employed against -Dunkirk, Dieppe, and various French ports without much effect. "At the -former, the machine-ships, as they are called, did nothing but blow up -themselves, and the credit of their inventor, as some say; but he being -come hither, complains he was not seconded with ships as he ought to -have been."[53] Very possibly he was not, for this class of warfare did -not meet with much appreciation in the Royal Navy. On the other hand, -the naval commanders complained that Mr. Meesters "had not his -machine-ships in readiness when they had a fair opportunity of wind and -weather to attack the forts at Dunkirk, and that he had trifled all the -time and put the Government to great expense only to enrich himself, -when the whole matter was impracticable". It is not surprising, -therefore, that we hear no more of explosion-ships for a very long -time.[54] The attempts made against the British ships by the Americans, -and those we ourselves carried out with indifferent success against the -French Invasion flotillas, have been already referred to. Though this -form of attack was not again employed by the navy for many years, the -following description in Müller's _Elements of the Science of War_ -(1811) shows that something like a floating mine was used in armies for -the destruction of bridges. It consisted of a chest fitted with a rudder -and filled with powder, and fired by means of two gun-locks, which were -set in action by a stick protruding from the water and attached to their -triggers. - -[Illustration: Submarine Mine laid by the Russians in the Crimean War - -Made of staves about 3 in. thick, and containing an inner case filled -with flue gunpowder.] - -In 1844 some attention was attracted to an alleged invention of a -Captain Warner for blowing up ships. The _John of Gaunt_, a -sailing-ship, was taken in tow by a steamer and blown up off Brighton in -the presence of an immense crowd of spectators; but as the inventor -wanted the Admiralty to pay him £400,000 for it before he showed them -what it was like, his secret naturally remained a secret. It would seem -to have been merely a mine floating just beneath the surface of the -water, with some arrangement to explode it on contact. The Crimean War -gave us some little experience of underwater mines, for several were -employed by the Russians in the Baltic and the Black Sea. They were -feeble affairs, and did no damage worth mentioning. One was fished up -and exploded on board one of our ships, but no one was seriously hurt. -Some were made of copper, others of wood fastened together like the -staves of a barrel. But the rumour of these mines, which were stated to -contain 700 pounds of powder and to explode either on contact or by what -was then called a "galvanic current"--that is to say, electricity--caused -the allied French and British fleets in the Baltic to exercise great -care in their movements. As at the present day, a system of trawling for -them was instituted, and no less than fifty were picked up off Cronstadt -in ten days. - -[Illustration: Russian Mine laid in the Baltic in the Crimean War - -A B, Close-fitting copper cases containing powder. C, Leather tube -containing electric wire. D, Mooring weight. E, Small white wooden ball -showing position of mine. F, Openings to load mine. G, Iron framework -supporting mine. K, Iron ring-part of frame. L, Mooring rope.] - -"The angling for this dangerous kind of prey was thus managed: two boats -took between them a long rope, which was sunk by heavy weights to a -depth of ten or twelve feet, and held suspended at that depth by empty -casks as floats; the boats then separated as far as the rope would -allow, and rowed onwards at right angles to the length of the rope; it -was a species of trawl fishing in which the agitation of the floats -showed that a prey had been caught, which prey was then hauled up -carefully."[55] Mines were also fished up off Kertch and other Black Sea -ports, showing that the Russians had gone in extensively for submarine -defence, and only failed in causing us serious loss on account of the -primitive character of the mines and the precautions which we took -against them. On our part we had some idea of using a so-called -submarine invented by Mr. Scott Russell, a noted engineer; but it seems -to have been merely an elongated diving-bell which could not carry out a -satisfactory trial. Two attempts were made by Boatswain John Shepherd, -R.N., to blow up Russian ships in the harbour of Sebastopol, but -apparently without success. He went in alone in a punt, taking with him -some kind of an explosive apparatus, and for his "bold and gallantly -executed" exploits he received the Victoria Cross. - -[Illustration: A, Wires to catch side of ship. B, Lead weight. C, Jars -of Gunpowder. D, Case with side broken away to show jars. E, Raft.] - -[Illustration: A, Can buoy containing powder. B, Box containing lighted -match and punk below. C, Lid or slide between match and punk. D, String -for pulling out slide, to allow match to ignite punk. - -VARIOUS CHINESE FLOATING MINES USED AGAINST H.M.S. _ENCOUNTER_] - -At the end of the 'fifties we were engaged in war with China for a -considerable period, and the wily Celestials tried all sorts of dodges -to blow up our ships by means of floating mines, or "infernal machines" -as they were still called. They were ingenious apparatus, some of them. -The following extracts from a letter written by an officer on board the -_Encounter_, off Canton, give a good idea of the means employed. Three -attempts were made to blow her up. - -[Illustration: Chinese Floating Mine - -One of two, tied together, with which an attempt was made to blow up -H.M.S. _Encounter_.] - -"The first was a sampan", he writes, "towed by a canoe on 24th December, -1856, and captured close under the bow by our second gig rowing guard. -The fuse was lighted in the bamboo tubes at the side. The second attempt -was on the morning of 5th January, 1857, about 2.30. Two rafts, moored -together, with about 20 fathom of line buoyed up, with hooks to catch -cables or anything else, and, on the wires touching the ship's side, to -break by the little lead weight the lighted fuse on the top of the -bamboo, which communicated with the powder. These were lighted and all -ready, but fortunately observed by our guard-boat and towed clear of -ship. Being only a raft it was just awash, and in each caisson at least -17 cwt. of gunpowder in open tubs and jars. The raft itself was made of -6-inch plank well bound together, and caulked. The third attempt was on -the morning of the 7th January, 1857, at 4.30. A pair of vessels in the -shape of a can-buoy with a flag on the top, about 8 inches long; the -fuse, with a tin box containing punk[56] over the fuse, then a cover -with lighted match on top; this had a string to it, which, when pulled, -drew out the centre partition and communicated the fire to the punk, to -allow the fellows who swam off with them towards the ship to make their -escape; but they got frightened at some stir with the boats, and by -accident one went off with a fearful explosion on the starboard bow, -about 60 yards, and the other, being deserted, floated down on our -booms. One of the men was caught and brought on board here, and had his -brains blown out at the port gangway. The buoy-shaped vessel was capable -of holding about 10 cwt. of gunpowder." The _Encounter_ was afterwards -attacked by two floating mines coupled together by a length of rope, -each containing half a ton of powder. They were towed by a Chinaman in a -small boat, who was shot by the look-outs and the mines destroyed. The -_Niger_, however, had a small junk exploded alongside her which had, on -the top of the powder in her hold, a cargo of the most evil-smelling -filth that could be found even in a Chinese city. No damage was done to -her hull, but she was absolutely smothered with this poisonous muck, -and for years afterwards the crew of the _Niger_ was subject to the -annoyance of being reminded of this malodorous incident, for whenever a -man belonging to another ship met a _Niger_, he made a point of holding -his nose! - -[Illustration: Barrel Torpedo used at Charleston, made of an ordinary -barrel with ends of solid wood; fired by electricity] - -[Illustration: Confederate Torpedo for Rivers - -A, Outer shell. B, Air chamber to keep end up. C, Gunpowder. D, Pistol -with trigger connected with rod. E, Rod with prongs to catch vessel -coming up stream. F, Iron bands with rings. G, Weights anchoring -torpedo. - -SUBMARINE MINES USED IN THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR] - -It remained for the mechanical ingenuity of the Americans to establish -the submarine mine as a recognized naval weapon. In the long war between -North and South a considerable use was made of improvised submarine -mines, principally by the Southerners in trying to prevent the ships of -the big Federal Fleet from penetrating their estuaries and harbours. -Space forbids description in detail of these contrivances, but the -sketches on p. 185 will enable you to form some idea of their -construction. The results obtained induced the British Admiralty to -carry out a series of experiments in 1865. The old _Terpsichore_ was -blown up by a "torpedo-shell" charged with 75 pounds of powder, and very -much higher powered mines were tried in various ways. Other European -nations could not afford to overlook this form of warfare, and it was -largely owing to the use of defensive submarine mines that the Germans -kept the powerful French fleet from attacking their coast in the war of -1870. Ten years later mines and their appliances were part of the -equipment of most large war-vessels, which carried two kinds, one -holding 250, the other 500 pounds of gun-cotton. They were perfectly -safe to handle, although fully charged, since the gun-cotton was kept -wet and could only be exploded by inserting a small canister of dry -gun-cotton as a primer. They were intended to be used for countermining -and blowing up an enemy's mine defences, or for defending the ship at -anchor. For harbour defence at home and in our overseas dominions a -special branch of the Royal Engineers was formed, known as the Submarine -Miners, who had charge of everything connected with this part of our -national defences; but with the advent of the submarine this duty was -assumed by the Royal Navy. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[44] i.e. Corneilius Van Drebbel. - -[45] Sides. - -[46] _A Mariner of England, 1780-1817._ Colonel Spencer Childers. - -[47] The Chinese considered this a practical form of warfare even in -comparatively recent times. In _The Voyage of H.M.S. Nemesis_ (1841) an -account is given of the preparations made against the British fleet. At -Canton it was stated that "several hundred divers were said to be in -training who were to go down and bore holes in our ships at night; or -even, as the Chinese privately reported, to carry down with them some -combustible material which would burn under water and destroy our -vessels". - -[48] There is, however, in this MS. a picture of what is probably -intended for a diver wearing a metal helmet without a tube. - -[49] i.e. King Solomon. - -[50] Included in the ships' companies of the Middle Ages were "seamen -who knew how to swim for a long time under water". These divers "pierced -the ships (of the enemy) in many places so that the water could enter". -In an old work on naval architecture, published in 1629, it is stated in -reference to the Turkish pirates of Barbary that "The Corsairs, indeed, -are very wily in attack and defence, acquainted with many kinds of -projectiles, even _Submarine Torpedoes_, which a diver will attach to an -enemy's keel". - -[51] See _The Story of the Submarine_, by Colonel C. Field, R.M.L.I. - -[52] _See The Story of the Submarine_, by Colonel C. Field, R.M.L.I. - -[53] Letter from Mr. Ellis to Lord Lexington, 9th August, 1695. - -[54] In the Civil War in America the _Louisiana_ was filled with 430,000 -pounds of powder, and exploded against Fort Fisher on Christmas Eve, -1864, with little or no effect. This is the last recorded case of an -explosion-ship, unless we reckon the four fireships in the form of rafts -that in April, 1915, were sent by the Germans against a fort at Osowiec. -Some never arrived; the others were blown up by the guns of the fort. - -[55] _War with Russia_, by H. Tyrell. - -[56] i.e. tinder. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -Naval Brigades - - "The sailor who ploughs on the watery main, - To war and to danger and shipwreck a brother, - And the soldier who firmly stands out the campaign, - Do they fight for two men who make war on each other? - Oh no, 'tis well known, - The same loyal throne - Fires their bosoms with ardour and noble endeavour; - And that each with his lass, - As he drinks a full glass, - Toasts the Army and Navy of Britain for ever." - _Chorus_--"And that each, &c." - - -WHAT is a "Naval Brigade"? "Brigade" is a military term, and in our -service an infantry brigade now consists of four battalions, with their -head-quarters staff. Not long ago two battalions constituted a brigade. -So that we see a brigade is the combination of a small number of -complete units. In like manner a naval brigade is either, in the case of -a single ship, a landing-force composed of her bluejackets and marines -brigaded together, or, in the case of a fleet or squadron, of its -various ships' companies. In a fleet of any size the naval brigade -available for landing--if there was no chance of an attack by sea--might -amount to two or three battalions formed out of seamen and stokers, and -one of marines. It has frequently fallen to the lot of naval brigades to -carry on a small campaign "on their own", but very often a naval brigade -has been attached to an army on active service. A big book might be -written on the services of British naval brigades, so that we cannot -hope to do more than glance at a very few instances of their work in -"soldiering on shore". - -"Naval Brigade", by the way, is not a very ancient term, though in the -sixteenth, seventeenth, and early eighteenth centuries we often find -references to the employment of a "regiment" or "battalion" of seamen. -This may possibly be because, although embarked as part complement of -our men-of-war, the marines, who were in those times organized in -regiments and not in one large corps, did not actually belong to the -Admiralty, but to the War Office. They were landed together, if -possible, in their own regiments, and became for the time being a part -of the army, to which, in addition, a battalion of seamen--which, it is -rather confusing to find, is sometimes referred to as a "marine -regiment"--might often be attached. But seamen and marines were not in -those times generally brigaded together, as they so frequently have been -in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. - -[Illustration: UNIFORMS OF THE BRITISH NAVY - -A. B. (Marching Order). 1st Class Petty Officer. Stoker.] - -Though for many a long day the sailor proper "had no use for -soldiering", which he contemned as an inferior profession to his own, he -was always a pretty useful man with the heavy gun. Naturally, if a man -can make decent shooting with a weapon tossing about on an unstable -platform, he finds it comparatively easy to hit his target on terra -firma. One of the earliest references to the employment of seamen in -operations on shore is at the siege of Leith--then held by French -troops--in 1560. The town was beleaguered from seaward by the English -fleet under Admiral Winter, and on the shore side by a combined English -and Scots army; and in the list of troops detailed for an assault--which -unfortunately proved unsuccessful--we find that the "Vyce-Admyralle of -the Quene's Majestye's Schippes" was to furnish 500 men. - -Drake's men in his expeditions to the Spanish coast were formed into -regiments and fought on shore, and after the Restoration a battalion of -seamen took part in the severe fighting with the Moors at Tangier. It -does not seem quite clear whether this included marines or not.[57] -Anyway, it was under the command of Admiral Herbert and had been put -through a special course of exercise "by an expert old soldier--Captain -Barclay", who, after the first engagement, was reproved by the Admiral -"for suffering too forward and furious advancement, lest thereby they -might fall into the enemy's ambushments". Captain Barclay retorted that -"he could lead them on, but the furies could not bring them off"! - -At the siege of Cork by the Duke of Marlborough, in 1690, besides the -two marine regiments of the Earls of Torrington and Pembroke, a naval -brigade of 600 seamen and marines[58] was landed from the fleet, with as -many carpenters and gunners as could be spared, to assist in the -construction of the siege-batteries and gun-platforms. The brigade was -under the command of the Duke of Grafton, then captain of one of the -ships, though previously in command of the 1st Foot Guards. The -readiness and cheerfulness with which both seamen and marines dragged -their heavy guns into position in the face of the enemy's opposition is -specially recorded. The capture of the "Cat", an important outwork -covering the approaches to the city, is set down to the credit of two of -the seamen. These worthies, with or without leave, were cruising about -in front of the outposts in the early morning in the neighbourhood of -the "Cat", and, seeing no sign of life or movement, crept cautiously up -to its formidable ramparts and found that it had been deserted by the -Irish garrison. They installed themselves in possession and signalled -the state of affairs to their friends, on which 200 men of Colonel -Hale's regiment were sent to occupy it. - -In the expedition to Flanders in 1694 it is stated that 6000 seamen were -"mixed with our land forces, and each of them on landing" was to receive -"a guinea a man".[59] - -In the capture of Gibraltar in 1704 the seamen played a prominent part. -The marines were all landed together under the Prince of Hesse, to cut -off communication with the mainland, while the seamen, under Captains -Hicks and Jumper--Jumper's Bastion commemorates his name at the present -day--stormed its defences at the southern end. The marine regiments -played such a distinguished part in the gallant defence against -overwhelming odds which followed that the corps bears the word -"Gibraltar"[60] on its colours and accoutrements to the present day; but -at one part of the siege a force of seamen and guns was landed from the -fleet and did most useful service. - -One of them[61] has left a very interesting account of his experiences -on this occasion. "On the morning we got thither", he says, "the -Spaniards were discovered that came up the back of the hill. Then there -was a command for twenty of our men to go ashore with fire-arms.... We -were all in high spirits and fit to do execution, not being at all -daunted at their numbers, for they were like swarms of bees upon the -hill and in great confusion, and we like lions in the valley seeking -whom we might devour; as our duty required. At it we went, loading and -firing as fast as we could. Our men had a great advantage of the -Spaniards in firing uphill, and it was a very great advantage they were -not obliged to wade, for the water often overflows that part where we -were obliged to engage them. We were happy enough in missing the tide; -had it been otherwise, we had been but in a bad situation. The Spaniards -rolled pieces of rocks down the hill and wounded a great many of our -men, but our advantage in firing was more than all they could do. When -they found they could do no good they laid down their fire-arms.... We -stayed ashore all night, and in the morning returned to our ship. They -found the duty too hard for the soldiers, and then there were orders -sent for ten men of a ship to go ashore again.... When we went over we -found that the works were very much demolished, for there was not a gun -that we could fire one day without its being unfit for service on the -next, for the Spaniards would dismount them.... We found the duty -extremely hard, for what they beat down by day we were obliged to clear -away at night." - -After a further description of their work, the writer speaks of the -Spanish bombardment and tells how he just escaped a "Jack Johnson" of -the period by throwing himself flat on the ground. "Had I been so -unwise", he says, "as to have stood up when it fell, I should have been -lifted up on its wings. I was hardened in that employment, and a great -many of our men ran in a terrible fright, thinking that I was blown up. -They said, when they saw me, we are glad to see you alive. I thanked -them for their regard for me, and told them I never minded a bomb at -all, only to observe its falling and step out of the way and fall with -my face to the ground.... We continued making our works by night and in -the daytime we were employed in drawing guns from the New Mole to -Wills's Battery. We had very indifferent ground some part of the way, -therefore we were obliged to draw in gears, in the same manner as horses -do. But when we came among the rocks we were obliged to lay deal spars, -and parbuckle them up with hawsers, and by these means we haled them up -to the Battery." - -It is in this kind of work that our seamen have ever proved so -invaluable to the sister service on shore. A military officer, writing -of the taking of Martinique in 1762, writes: "The cannon and other -warlike stores were landed as soon as possible, and dragged by the -'Jacks' to any point thought proper. You may fancy you know the spirit -of these fellows; but to see them in action exceeds any idea that can be -formed of them. A hundred or two of them, with ropes and pulleys, will -do more than all your dray horses in London. Let but their tackle hold -and they will draw you a cannon or mortar on its proper carriage up to -any height, though the weight be ever so great. It is droll enough to -see them tugging along with a good 24-pounder at their heels; on they go -huzzaing, hallooing, sometimes uphill, sometimes downhill, now sticking -fast in the brakes, presently floundering in mud and mire ... and as -careless of everything but the matter committed to their charge as if -death or danger had nothing to do with them. We had a thousand of these -brave fellows sent to our assistance by the Admiral; and the service -they did us, both on shore and on the water, is incredible."[62] - -[Illustration: ENGLISH BLUEJACKETS AT THE DEFENCE OF ACRE - -Seamen and marines constantly worked together on shore during numerous -expeditions in the course of the long series of wars which only -terminated with the Battle of Waterloo.] - -Two or three years previously the seamen of the fleet had performed a -similar duty at the siege of Quebec, and it is related that after -bringing up the guns they met a battalion of soldiers about to go into -action and insisted in falling-in alongside them, some armed with -cutlasses, some with sticks, and others with no weapons at all. General -Wolfe, coming up, thanked them for their spirit, but urged them to -continue on their way to their ships, as they were both unarmed and -unacquainted with military discipline and manoeuvres. He said that it -would be of more service to their country if they did so than for them -to lose their lives for no result. To this address some of them called -out: "God bless your Honour, pray let us stay and see fair play between -the English and the French". Wolfe again urged them to go on board. Some -followed his advice, but others, as soon as his back was turned, swore -that the soldiers should not have all the fighting to themselves. They -contrived to remain with the redcoats, and whenever one of the latter -fell a seaman put on his accoutrements, seized his musket, and charged -with the battalion. Seamen and marines constantly worked together on -shore during the numerous expeditions that were directed against the -enemy's possessions in the course of the long series of wars which -only terminated with the Battle of Waterloo, not so very often in -regular brigades but in landing-parties from their own ships, notably at -the defence of Acre by Sir Sidney Smith, Captain of the _Tigre_, -assisted by Colonel Douglas of the Marines and by Colonel Philpoteaux, -an engineer officer and a French Royalist refugee. A very usual -operation was for one or two of our ships to set about the capture of a -number of the enemy's merchantmen and small craft that had sought refuge -in some harbour on the Mediterranean coast. If there was a battery -defending the entrance the ship would engage it, and after its guns were -silenced, it would be stormed by the bluejackets and marines. After this -the latter would take up a covering position while the seamen brought -out the shipping. - -We have a somewhat amusing account of a naval brigade of seamen which -was put on shore during the unfortunate Walcheron Expedition of 1808. It -was written by a soldier, so perhaps may have been a bit overdrawn, but -it must be remembered that there was no attempt to teach seamen infantry -drill in those days, and none of them was enlisted for longer than a -ship's commission. "These extraordinary fellows", says the writer, -"delighted in hunting the 'Munseers', as they called the French, and a -more formidable pack was never unkennelled. Armed with a long pole, a -pike, a cutlass, and a pistol, they annoyed the French skirmishers in -all directions by their irregular and unexpected attacks. They usually -went out in parties as if they were going to hunt a wild beast, and no -huntsman ever followed the chase with more delight.... They might be -seen leaping the dykes by the aid of their poles or swimming across -others, like Newfoundland dogs; and if a few French riflemen appeared in -sight, they ran at them helter-skelter, and pistol, cutlass, or pike -went to work in good earnest. The French soldiers did not at all relish -such opponents--and no wonder, for the very appearance of them was -terrific, and quite out of the usual order of things. Each man seemed a -sort of Paul Jones, tarred, belted, and cutlassed as they were. Had we -had occasion to storm Flushing I have no doubt they would have carried -the breach themselves." - -The writer gives a humorous description of their drill, of which they -wisely only attempted enough to assist them in moving from place to -place. "'Heads up, you beggar of a corporal, there', a little -slang-going Jack would cry out from the rear rank, well knowing that his -diminutive size prevented his being seen by his officers. Then, perhaps, -the man immediately before the wit, in order to show his sense of -decorum, would turn round and remark: 'I say, who made you fugleman,[63] -Master Billy? Can't you behave like a sodger afore the commander, eh?'" - -Drill was looked upon merely as an amusing interlude in the serious -business of war and appreciated accordingly. It was an exhibition of the -same spirit of cheerfulness which has made us so proud of our Tommies -for "sticking it out" so heroically in the trenches. This spirit never -left these gallant seamen till the last, for the account above quoted -tells how, when one of them was brought to the ground by a bullet which -broke the bones of his leg, while pursuing some of the enemy's riflemen, -he "took off his tarpaulin hat and flung it with all his might after -them, adding a wish, 'that it was an 18-pounder for their sakes!' The -poor fellow was carried off by his comrades and taken to the hospital, -where he died. Such were the men who fought our battles." - -At the landing in Aboukir Bay in 1801 a body of seamen under Sir Sidney -Smith were of great assistance to our army--very badly provided with -artillery with which to reply to the numerous French field-pieces. The -seamen, however, landed some guns, dragged them to a good position among -the sand-hills, and by their fire materially contributed to the victory -which ensued. It was in the same part of the world--to be exact, on the -coast of Syria--that some years afterwards, in 1840-1, a naval brigade -from the Mediterranean fleet, under Sir Charles Napier, assisted by a -reinforcement of the Royal Marines sent out from England, carried on a -campaign against Mehemet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, who had revolted from -the Sultan and forcibly occupied Syria. There were Turkish troops also -engaged and a small detachment from one or two Austrian ships, but Sir -Charles Napier was in charge of the operations, and no British soldiers, -other than the few marines, took part in the campaign. - -Sir Charles, though a sailor, always thought that he was a soldier -spoiled, and was very proud of the rank of Major-General which had been -given him by the Portuguese Government about ten years before. He had -seen a little fighting on shore in the Peninsula, and entered into this -shore-going campaign with the greatest zest. The marines, who were -formed into two battalions, did the greater part of the fighting on -land, as the seamen were required to man the guns of their ships, which -constantly co-operated with the land forces by bombarding the enemy's -towns and positions; but the bluejackets took part in the storming of -Tortosa--where they preceded the marines as a pioneer party to remove -obstacles--the assault of a castle near Acre, the occupation of Tyre, -and the capture of Acre and Sidon. The seamen and marines of the fleet -engaged in the Chinese war of 1840-1 also did a considerable amount of -shore work of which space precludes any account, the operations they -were engaged in being so numerous and so scattered. But we may say that, -generally speaking, the seamen acted as gunners, while the marines were -employed as infantry. - -Naval guns mounted in shore batteries played a most distinguished part -in the Crimean War. They were manned both by seamen and by marines, and -were employed at the bombardment and capture of Bomarsund in the Baltic -and in the trenches before Sebastopol. At the latter place, although a -brigade of the Royal Marines had been encamped on the heights above -Balaclava, and though they and the Royal Marine Artillery manned the -guns in the redoubts built to secure our right flank from a Russian -attack, it had not been intended to place naval guns in the -siege-batteries. But when our siege-train found that they had all they -could do to contend with the unexpected efficiency of the Russian guns, -it was hurriedly determined to call on the navy for assistance. Fifty -heavy guns were at once landed, with 35 officers and 732 seamen under -Captain Stephen Lushington. The reinforcement was most valuable. The -guns were powerful and the seamen's fire most accurate. The brigade did -"yeoman service", and sustained by the end of the siege the loss of 7 -officers and 95 men killed, and 39 officers and 432 men wounded. - -Perhaps the most famous naval brigade in history is the _Shannon's_ -brigade, under Captain Peel, which made such a glorious record in the -strenuous days of the Indian Mutiny. Although nearly all accounts would -lead the reader to believe that it was entirely composed of seamen, it -consisted, in point of fact, of 450 seamen, 140 marines, and 15 marine -artillerymen, drawn from both the _Shannon_ and the _Pearl_. The guns -which they took with them and which did such invaluable service were -twelve in number--ten 8-inch guns--pretty heavy pieces to haul -along--and a couple of brass field-pieces. The brigade participated in -the action at Kajwa, 1st November, 1857, when Peel took charge of the -operations on the death of Colonel Powell of the 53rd, and brought them -to a victorious conclusion. On the 13th of the same month eight heavy -guns and 250 of the brigade, with Peel himself, arrived before Lucknow, -where they formed part of the army under Sir Colin Campbell which had -advanced to the relief of the Europeans besieged in the Residency. After -the capture of the Sikander Bagh, the relieving-force was checked in a -narrow way by the desperate resistance offered by the garrison of the -Shah Najif, "which was wreathed in volumes of smoke from the burning -buildings in front but sparkled all over with the bright flash of -small-arms".[64] The guns could make little or no impression on it; -retreat was impossible along the narrow crowded lane by which the -advance had been made. Desperate measures were necessary. Peel was equal -to the occasion. While his marines and the Highlanders did their best to -keep down the fire from the rebel loopholes, his seamen man-handled two -of their big guns to within a few feet of the walls. But they had to be -drawn off again under cover of the fire from a couple of rocket tubes, -which were brought into action for the purpose. Still their gunners had -made a small breach, which they had not even noticed themselves, and by -this breach fifty men of the 93rd Highlanders, under Colonel Adrian Hope -and Sergeant Paton--who received the V.C. for this service--later on -effected an entry and expelled the garrison. The naval guns were of the -greatest service during the withdrawal of the hardly pressed garrison of -the Residency, since they kept down the fire from the Kaisar Bagh, the -principal stronghold of the rebel sepoys. At Cawnpore and at the battle -of Futtygurh, and in the final relief of Lucknow, the _Shannon_ and -_Pearl_ brigades distinguished themselves time after time; but we must -leave further details, to deal with later naval brigades. - -Passing over the operations in China in 1858-9-60, and the attack on -Simomosaki in Japan, in all of which both seamen and marines were -engaged, we come to the Ashanti War of 1873. The opening operations were -entirely carried out by the navy, with the assistance of a few black -troops. The invading army of Ashantis was forced back over the River -Prah by the marines and seamen of the squadron, reinforced by a small -force of the former sent especially from England, Cape Coast Castle and -Elmina were saved, and time was gained for the arrival of the -expeditionary force from England under Sir Garnet Wolseley. A small -naval brigade of 200 seamen, and 60 marines, with a rocket train, -accompanied the army on its advance to Kumassi and played a conspicuous -part in the battle of Amoaful, suffering a loss of six officers and -forty men wounded. - -A little naval brigade of 3 officers and 121 men with two rocket-tubes, -six 12-pounders, and a Gatling gun participated in the fighting with the -Kafirs in South Africa in 1877-8; while in the Zulu War of a year or so -later the _Shah_, _Active_, _Boadicea_, and _Tenedos_ landed a brigade -of seamen and marines of the strength of 41 officers and 812 men, with -several guns. It was employed in somewhat scattered detachments. In 1881 -a small naval brigade took part in the inglorious Boer War and suffered -heavily at the unfortunate battle on Majuba Hill, where it lost more -than half its strength. It is to one of the seamen present that the -following terse summary of that disastrous day is attributed. "We took -three mortal hours to get up that bloomin' hill," he said, "but we come -down in three bloomin' strides." - -The navy and marines played a considerable part in the shore operations -which followed on the bombardment of Alexandria in 1882. After the fire -of Sir "Breach'em" Seymour's fleet had driven Arabi and his soldiers out -of the city, the mob gave itself up to murder, looting, and -incendiarism. No troops had yet arrived, and the only thing to do was to -land the naval brigade to keep order and save the city and its European -inhabitants. The bluejackets, with their Gatling guns, supported by the -marines with their rifles, lost no time in clearing the streets of the -murderous rabble. The work was done in a thorough and effective manner, -and as soon as possible a rough-and-ready tribunal was established to -deal with special cases. In addition to these duties the naval brigade -had to find detachments to hold a line of outposts round the landward -side of the city, ready to check a very probable attempt of Arabi to -recapture the city. In a day or so the hardly-worked seamen and marines -were strengthened by the arrival of a battalion of the Royal Marines -which had been specially sent out from England in the _Tamar_ in view -of possible hostilities. It could easily have arrived at Alexandria two -or three days earlier but for a series of orders and counter-orders from -home which delayed it at Gibraltar, Malta, and finally sent it out of -the way to Cyprus, where it was greeted with news of the bombardment, -and the _Tamar_ steamed straight out of Limasol harbour without letting -go her anchor. When the army began to arrive, the naval brigade was -gradually withdrawn on board its ships, but shortly afterwards was -employed in seizing Port Said, Ismailia, and other points on the canal. - -In the advance along the Sweet-water Canal, which culminated in the -victory of Tel-el-Kebir, only a very small naval contingent from the -ships took part, but a battalion of the Royal Marine Light Infantry and -another of Royal Marine Artillery were attached to the army, the latter -being told off as a body-guard to Lord Wolseley. But we must not omit to -mention Lieutenant Rawson of the Royal Navy, to whom was committed the -important task of guiding the night march of the army against the -Egyptian lines of Tel-el-Kebir by the aid of the stars, and who fell in -the moment of victory. "No man more gallant fell on that occasion," -reported Lord Wolseley. - -Naval brigades were well to the fore in the fighting which took place in -the Sudan in 1884-5. At the Battle of El Teb 13 naval officers and 150 -seamen, with six machine-guns, were present, as well as a battalion of -400 marines. It was in this action that Captain A. K. Wilson--now -Admiral of the Fleet, Sir A. K. Wilson, V.C., G.C.B., O.M., -G.C.V.O.--gained the V.C. for the gallant way in which he, -single-handed, engaged no less than six of the enemy who had endeavoured -to capture one of his machine-guns. The naval brigade suffered heavy -casualties at the Battle of Tamaii, which took place not long -afterwards. In the Gordon Relief Expedition the naval brigade was -naturally of great use on the Nile, and a small detachment of -fifty-eight seamen under Lord Charles Beresford accompanied the Camel -Corps in its dash across the desert and took part in the -fiercely-contested fights of Abu Klea and Abu Kru. The marines formed -the fourth company of the Guards Camel Corps on this occasion. In the -operations on the upper Nile which preceded the fall of Khartoum there -were a few naval and one marine officer in command of the Egyptian -gunboats, whose fire proved such a useful auxiliary to the advance of -the Anglo-Egyptian Army, while about a dozen non-commissioned officers -of the Royal Marine Artillery were responsible for the instruction of -their Egyptian gunners and the direction of their fire. - -[Illustration: THE NAVAL BRIGADE IN THE BATTLE OF EL-TEB] - -Naval brigades were very much in evidence in the South African War. No -special squadron and no battalions of marines were sent out, because it -was necessary to keep our main fleet and its personnel ready to hand in -case of complications with European powers. The big cruisers _Terrible_ -and _Powerful_, however, appeared on the scene, and their crews assisted -in the formation of the naval brigades. In October, 1899, one of these -was formed at Simonstown from the _Doris_, _Terrible_, _Powerful_, and -_Monarch_. - -It is noteworthy that for the first time on record both seamen and -marines were provided with khaki uniform in place of their usual -blue-serge service-dress. This brigade was sent to Stormberg, on to -Queenstown, and then, to its intense disappointment, back to Simonstown -by sea from East London. That is, with the exception of the _Terribles_, -who sailed for Durban. However, the very day the brigade arrived at -Simonstown it was ordered off again to join Lord Methuen's force on the -Modder River. The khaki-clad bluejackets, with their straw hats covered -with the same coloured material, were rather a puzzle to the soldiers. -During one of the engagements which took place, some of the Scots -Guards, passing them standing by their guns, said to each other: "Blimy, -Tommy, there's them Boer guns we've took!" - -At the Battle of Graspan the naval brigade particularly distinguished -itself. Captain Protheroe was in command, Commander Ethelston commanding -the seamen, and Major Plumbe the marines. In the course of the action -Captain Protheroe was wounded and both the other officers mentioned were -killed, the brigade being brought out of action by Captain Marchant of -the Royal Marines.[65] The Boers were strongly posted on a pair of -kopjes. The eastern kopje was attacked by a force distributed as -follows:-- - -_Firing Line._--One company bluejackets, 50 strong; three companies -Royal Marines, 190 strong in all; one company King's Own Yorkshire Light -Infantry. - -_Supports._--Seven companies King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. - -_Reserve._--Half a battalion Loyal North Lancashire Regiment. - -The remainder of the seamen belonging to the naval brigade--about 150 in -number--helped to cover the attack by bringing their guns into action at -about 2800 yards range. The kopje was taken, but a heavy price was paid -by the naval brigade. There were 2 naval and 2 marine officers killed -and one of each wounded, 2 seamen and 6 marines killed, and 13 seamen -and 82 marines wounded. During the farther advance on our western flank -the guns of the naval brigade were constantly in action. One of the big -4·7 guns, mounted on the travelling carriage suggested by Captain (now -Admiral) Sir Percy Scott of the _Terrible_, and put into practical form -by one of her engineer officers, arrived in time for the naval brigade -to use it at Magersfontein with considerable effect. At Paardeberg they -had four of these weapons in action, besides smaller guns. Manned either -by bluejackets or marines, and hauled along either by teams of oxen or -by the men of the brigade themselves, they again and again proved most -effective during the operations which followed. - -[Illustration: _Photo. Cribb, Southsea_ - -OUR SEAMEN GUNNERS WITH A MAXIM] - -Meanwhile the _Powerfuls_ had formed a naval brigade of their own, and -in response to the appeal made by Sir George White, the defender of -Ladysmith, for more guns, Captain the Hon. Hedworth Lambton of that ship -rushed up 17 officers and 267 men with two 4·7 guns, four 12-pounders, -and four Maxims, just managing to get into the beleaguered town in time. -On the very first day the 12-pounders managed to put the Boer "Long -Tom", which was lobbing its big projectiles into the place, out of -action, and their presence undoubtedly saved the situation. Another -naval brigade formed part of the relieving force and fought at Colenso. -This force comprised 20 officers and 403 bluejackets and marines, to -whom must be added 2 officers and 50 men belonging to the Natal Naval -Volunteers. A formidable battery of one 6-inch, five 4·7-inch, and -eighteen long 12-pounders accompanied this brigade, which was of the -greatest possible assistance to the army. - -About this time the Boxer outbreak in China led to the formation of -other naval brigades. Though hardly to be termed a naval brigade, it may -be noted that the British portion of the small international force which -so stoutly defended the Pekin Legations consisted of 79 Royal Marines -and 3 officers, together with a leading signalman, an armourer's mate, -and a sick-berth steward. But the relief column, under Vice-Admiral Sir -E. H. Seymour, was a big naval brigade of various nationalities, of -which about half were British--62 officers, 640 seamen, and 218 marines. -The British were under the immediate command of Captain J. R. Jellicoe, -C.B., C.V.O.,[66] the marines being under Major J. R. Johnstone, -R.M.L.I.[67] A determined attempt was made to advance along the railway -line to Pekin, but the Chinese troops, who were exceedingly well armed, -having thrown in their lot with the Boxers, the brigade was unable to -get farther than An-tung, which was occupied by Major Johnstone with -sixty men, while preparations were made to fall back on Tien-tsin. -The force had come up in a series of trains, but, the railway having -been broken behind it in more than one place, a great part of the return -journey had to be carried out on foot. Village after village had to be -stormed, and not far from Tien-tsin the retreating column had to pass -close under the walls of the important Chinese arsenal of Hsi-ku, which -stood on the opposite bank of the river. From this big fortified -enclosure a heavy fire was poured upon the Europeans at short range. It -was a regular death-trap. However, the principal part of the column -sought what cover the rather high bank of the river afforded, while -Major Johnstone, with the British marines and half a company of -bluejackets, contrived to get across in junks a little higher up, and, -forming under cover of a small village, fixed bayonets and stormed the -enclosure in flank with a tremendous rush, driving out the garrison -before him. The column halted for the night and for the next day or two -inside the arsenal, where it was attacked again and again till a relief -column moved out from Tien-tsin and brought off the harassed naval -brigade. In the meanwhile Admiral Seymour's brigade were fighting -fiercely in Tien-tsin itself. The Pei-Yang Arsenal held by the Chinese -had to be stormed, the European quarter defended, and finally the -high-walled native city had to be taken by assault, an operation in -which the British seamen and marines suffered very heavily. - -This is the last important occasion on which a naval brigade was in -action until the European War. So far no naval brigade, in the sense of -a force of bluejackets and marines disembarked from their ships, has -taken part in the fighting, except perhaps at the Dardanelles. The Naval -Division which went to Antwerp was composed of marines and reservists -from their head-quarters and of naval reservists and volunteers, but we -have so little reliable information of what happened on that occasion -that it would be very inadvisable to attempt to give any account of its -performances at the present time. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[57] Possibly not, as there was a composite battalion at Tangier -composed of companies from various regiments, including one of marines. - -[58] "Five or six hundred seamen and others of the Marine -Regiment."--_Reminiscences of Cork_, by Crofton Croker (MS.). - -[59] Lutterell. - -[60] Several years ago the Kaiser bestowed this distinction on a Hessian -Regiment on account of its ancestors--so it is stated--having -participated in the capture. I have studied the taking of Gibraltar -pretty thoroughly, but have never found any mention of a German regiment -taking part in it. - -[61] _Life and Adventures of Matthew Bishop_. London, 1744. - -[62] Quoted in Cassell's _British Sea Kings and Sea Fights_. - -[63] A soldier who used to be placed in front of a regiment, by whose -motions the movements of the exercises with arms were directed. In some -regiments at the present day the right-hand man steps a pace forward on -the order "Fix bayonets", to give the time and ensure all moving -together. - -[64] _Blackwood's Magazine_, October, 1858. - -[65] Now Brigadier-General Marchant, C.B., A.D.C. - -[66] Now Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., the famous -commander of our Grand Fleet. - -[67] Now Major-General Johnstone, C.B. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -War-ships of all Sorts - - "The King's Navy exceeds all others in the World for - three things, viz.: Beauty, Strength, and Safety. For - Beauty, they are so many Royal Palaces; for Strength, - so many moving Castles and Barbicans; and for Safety, - they are the Most Defensive Walls of the Realm. - Amongst the Ships of other Nations, they are like - Lions amongst silly Beasts, or Falcons, amongst - fearful Fowle."--_Lord Cokes Fourth Institute._ - - -IN a previous chapter was set forth the story of the evolution of our -battleships, up to and including the famous _Dreadnought_ of 1907, the -so-called "first all-big-gun type". As there had been several -"all-big-gun ships" among our earlier ironclads, this description seems -hardly warranted. However, the _Dreadnought_ stands pre-eminent as the -first of the modern type of battleship, though in power, speed, tonnage, -and general efficiency she has been far out-classed by the successive -batches of Super-Dreadnoughts which have followed her, which are -represented by the _Bellerophon_, _St. Vincent_, _Colossus_, _Orion_, -_King George V_, _Iron Duke_, and, last of all, the monster _Queen -Elizabeth_, or "_Lizzie_" as she is irreverently called. To describe -this latest product of the naval designer's art is the best way of -explaining what a really modern battleship is like. - -The _Queen Elizabeth_, then, is 600 feet in length--that is to say, just -200 yards. Think of the distance you have often seen measured off for a -hundred-yards' race, multiply it by two, and you will have some idea of -what this means. Or, if you have ever done any shooting on the range, -try to remember how far off the 200-yard target looked, and you will -realize what must be the size of a ship long enough to cover all the -ground between it and the firing-point. (The _Dreadnought_, by the way, -was only 490 feet in length.) The beam of the _Queen Elizabeth_ is 92 -feet--10 feet more than that of the _Dreadnought_. You may well imagine -that the tonnage, or weight of water displaced, by a ship of these -dimensions is enormous, and so it is, being no less than 27,500 tons! -So, also, is the horse-power of her engines--58,000! But when we know -that they have to be able to drive this leviathan through the water at a -speed of 25 knots an hour, we can well understand the necessity for -powerful engines. To feed their furnaces 4000 tons of fuel are carried. -It is not coal, but what is known as "heavy oil", arrangements having -been made by the Admiralty for an immense quantity of this fuel, which -is considered to have many advantages over coal. Earlier ships carry a -proportion of both coal and oil. The engines are, of course, of the -turbine type, which has entirely superseded the old reciprocating -engines in the Royal Navy. - -"The introduction of the turbine engine", writes a naval officer, "has -revolutionized the appearance of the engine-room. The flashing -piston-rods and revolving cranks have vanished. All the driving-power of -the ship is hidden in some mahogany-sheathed horizontal cylinders, and -there is nothing to indicate that the engines are in movement but a -small external dial and needle no larger than a mantelpiece clock, -attached to each of the shafts, of which there are two in each -engine-room."[68] - -The _Queen Elizabeth_ can hardly be called an "all-big-gun ship", since -besides the eight huge 15-inch guns which form her principal armament -she carries sixteen 6-inch quick-firing guns, firing projectiles of 100 -pounds weight, and about a dozen little cannon specially mounted for -firing up at Zeppelins or aeroplanes. But her 15-inch guns are the -biggest and most powerful cannon now afloat. Not only do they fire huge -elongated shells of 1950 pounds weight, but their range and accuracy is -most remarkable. We have seen a little of what they can do in the -Dardanelles, when the ship, steaming well out at sea, pitched these -terrible projectiles right over the peninsula of Gallipoli, to descend -like a combination earthquake and avalanche upon the Turkish forts in -the straits. The _Dreadnought_ had 12-inch guns firing 850-pound -projectiles, but she carried ten to the four of all her predecessors. -But though the _Queen Elizabeth_ had to give up one turret,[69] and -therefore two guns, in order to make room for more boiler-power for the -production of greater speed, her broadside totals 15,600 pounds of metal -as against the 8500 of the earlier war-ship, or the 12,500 pounds of -later Super-Dreadnoughts armed with ten 13-1/2-inch big guns. But the -ability to throw heavier projectiles was by no means the only reason for -increasing the calibre of our big guns. The fact was that gradual -improvements in the 12-inch gun had made it so long in proportion to its -calibre that there was an imperceptible sort of "whip" at the muzzle on -discharge that was yet quite enough to interfere with its accuracy.[70] -So we brought out the 13.5-inch, a most formidable weapon, and, later -on, the 15-inch gun. With each of these the difficulty of making sure of -hitting at long range decreased, and the encounters in the war that have -taken place between our ships and those of the Germans which have had -the temerity to put their noses outside their harbour defences have all -gone to prove the previously-advanced theory that the battles of the -immediate future will take place at immense ranges, at which the smaller -guns and torpedoes cannot be effectively used. - -[Illustration: DECK OF A _DREADNOUGHT_ CLEARED FOR ACTION] - -It would be superfluous to describe the general appearance of the _Queen -Elizabeth_ in words, the photograph opposite presenting it better than -the most detailed description: but it may be fairly said that while in -picturesque beauty modern battleships cannot compete with the -masterpieces of "the days of wood and hemp", there is yet an appearance -of power, proportion, and impressiveness about them which forms a -combination that may be almost called a beauty in itself. In the same -way we may compare the plain, severe beauty of the Parthenon at Athens -with the elaborately carved, gilded, and painted workmanship of a -Japanese temple. Both are attractive to the eye in their own peculiar -and far differing ways. In the old wooden ships an appreciable -proportion of their cost went in decoration alone, but out of the -£2,400,000 expended on the "_Lizzie_" such expenditure may be set down -practically as _nil_. A plain slate-coloured coat of paint, extending -from truck to water-line, is all the painter has had to do with her -external appearance. - -The turrets in which the _Queen Elizabeth's_ big guns are carried are -four in number, and are placed on the centre line of the ship--two -forward and two aft. Each turret contains a pair of guns, and the two -innermost turrets are perched up on a species of protected tower or -pedestal in such a way that they can fire directly over the foremost and -aftermost turrets. By this arrangement four guns can be discharged dead -ahead, four astern, and the whole eight on either broadside. We have -been some time evolving this arrangement of turrets--in point of fact -some foreign "Dreadnoughts" were the first to adopt it. - -Our original _Dreadnought_ had five turrets, three on the centre line of -the ship and one on either broadside. The same arrangement was carried -out in the _Bellerophon_ and _St. Vincent_ classes, which followed her, -but in the _Colossus_ class, which succeeded them, the position of the -five turrets was altered. There was one right forward on the centre line -of the ship, then one on the port side, and farther aft another on the -starboard side. In fact, these two turrets were arranged _en echelon_, -just as they were in the earlier _Colossus_ and other ships. The fourth -and fifth turrets were on the centre line, and the fourth was able to -fire over the fifth, just as the second can fire over the first in the -_Queen Elizabeth_. In the _Orion_ class, which came next, the same -arrangement as in the _Queen Elizabeth_ was followed, but as there was -an additional turret it was placed by itself right amidships. No change -in this respect was made in the _King Georges_. - -We must not leave our typical modern battleship without some reference -to the way in which she is protected by armour. As in all such ships, -the armour-plating is distributed (_a_) to protect her flotation and -(_b_) to protect her guns. With the former object in view she has a -broad water-line belt of the finest and strongest 13-1/2-inch armour -procurable, which is supplemented by an armoured deck of considerable -thickness. Each turret stands on a species of armoured tower, going -right down to the armoured deck, and is itself made of 13-1/2-inch -armour. Her flotation is further safeguarded by minute subdivision below -the water-line. - -"Long experience of naval war has established a belief, shown by the -practice of maritime powers to be unanimous, that a navy should comprise -three great classes of ships, these classes admitting of much internal -subdivision. In the period of the great naval wars there were ships of -the line, frigates, and small craft. These are now represented by -battleships, cruisers, and smaller and special-service vessels. -Individuals of the first-mentioned class are intended to fight in large -groups, that is to say, in fleet actions; those of the second class are -intended for solitary service, or, at any rate, to fight only in small -groups; while those of the third are intended, according to the -subdivision to which they belong, for a variety of special purposes." So -writes Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge in his _Art of Naval Warfare_, and his -definitions are clear and compact. - -With the battleship class we have already dealt, both as regards its -evolution and present-day pitch of perfection; but want of space has -precluded any attempt to trace the evolution of the cruiser in the same -way. It is therefore necessary, before going on to describe the cruisers -of our modern navy, to glance, in the briefest possible manner, at -their predecessors of days gone by. Perhaps we may take the viking -_skuta_, or fast scouting vessel, as its first prototype, scouting being -one of the most important duties of a cruiser. Possibly the galleys and -balingers of mediæval times may be regarded as the _skuta's_ successors, -while the low-lying _Tiger_ and other ships of her class in Tudor reigns -may be considered as the immediate precursors of the famous frigates and -corvettes which figured so largely and did such yeoman service in our -eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century maritime campaigns. Our first -frigates were the _Satisfaction_, _Adventure_, _Nonsuch_, _Assurance_, -and _Constant Warwick_, all built in the year 1646; and from that time -up to about 1870 a constant succession of ships of this useful type were -added to the navy, the latest ones being, of course, steam frigates. - -A frigate, according to an old work of 1771, was defined as "a light -nimble ship built for the purposes of sailing swiftly. These vessels -mount from twenty to thirty-eight guns, and are esteemed excellent -_cruisers_." The name was derived from _fregata_, a Mediterranean vessel -propelled both by sails and by oars. It is said the British navy was the -first to adopt frigates for use in war, but the French, and afterwards -the Americans, were generally successful in building the finest vessels -of this class. These ships were full-rigged, with three masts, and -carried all their principal guns in one battery on the main deck. The -corvette may be regarded as a smaller frigate, but was not square-rigged -on her mizzen-mast, and carried her main battery on her upper deck. This -later type of cruiser outlasted the frigate by some years, and the last -of them, such as the _Opal_ and other corvettes of the "Jewel" class, -were very handsome vessels, though by no means so formidable as the -pole-rigged cruisers which took their place. - -The frigates in the old French War were considered "the eyes and ears of -the fleet". They sought out and reported the enemy, they attacked his -cruisers and commerce and protected our own, and fully justified their -name and the general reputation for smartness which they were accorded. -The duties of our cruisers of to-day are of a very similar kind, -although the invention of wireless telegraphy and the aeroplane has -supplemented and to some extent superseded their scouting work. - -As for what they have actually done, we have only to recollect the -various incidents of the Great War as regards its aspects at sea. Acting -in unison with those of France and Japan, they have swept German -commerce and German cruisers from the face of the ocean, and so far, -except for shore bombardments and submarine attacks, have been the only -war-vessels engaged on either side. At the time of writing no -battleships have as yet been in action against one another, for we may -regard all those ships which have been reported in action at sea as -cruisers, from the big battle-cruiser _Lion_ down to the destroyers--and -even, perhaps, our submarines, which are very useful scouts. - -Cruisers proper in our navy are now officially classed in three main -divisions--"battle-cruisers", "cruisers", and "light cruisers", though a -very short time ago they were subdivided into "armoured cruisers", -"first-class protected cruisers", "second-class protected cruisers", -"third-class protected cruisers", "unarmoured cruisers", -"lightly-armoured cruisers", and "scouts". - -The battle-cruiser is a hybrid and, as this war has proved, a most -useful war-vessel. She is not so heavily armed or armoured as a -battleship of equivalent age, but has much greater speed. She is as big -or bigger, and costs just about as much. Thus the _Lion_ was launched in -the same year as the battleship _Orion_--1910. Note the comparison -below:-- - - Thickest - Displacement. Guns. Speed. Armour. Cost. - _Orion_ 22,300 Ten 13·5 in. 21 knots 12 in. £1,900,000 - _Lion_ 26,350 Eight 13·5 in. 28 knots 10 in. 2,100,000 - -Thus it will be seen that of these two contemporary ships the -battle-cruiser is the bigger, cost £200,000 more, has two less big guns, -2 inches less protection, but steams at least 7 knots faster than the -battleship. Indeed, it is hard to say whether she is or is not, on the -whole, the more useful ship, even as a battleship. The Admiralty and -naval constructors would seem to incline to this opinion, for, as we -have seen in the latest battleship--the _Queen Elizabeth_--two guns have -been sacrificed for the sake of 4 knots more speed than the _Orion_. - -The cruiser-battleship or battle-cruiser, then, not only has almost -precisely the same appearance as a battleship, though probably of rather -greater length, but has special battle duties as well as cruiser duties. -Thus, if working with battleships, it is her business to pursue an -enemy's battle squadron in retreat, and, by bringing its rearmost ships -to action, try to induce their consorts to stand by them till her own -slower but more powerfully gunned consorts can come up and take a hand. -As for her cruising duties, we have had conspicuous examples during the -course of the war, both as to the right and wrong way of such ships' -employment. The unexpected and opportune intervention of the -_Inflexible_ and _Invincible_ in the Falkland Islands battle, whose mere -appearance convinced von Spee that his "game was up"; and the way in -which Sir David Beatty was "on the spot" and swooped down on the German -North Sea raiders, are both excellent examples of the way these -formidable fighting-cruisers should be used. If you want to see "how not -to do it" you have only got to consider the misuse of the _Goeben_ in -the Mediterranean, where, after a useless bombardment of one or two not -very important Algerian towns, she fled for shelter to the Dardanelles, -instead of trying to break out into the Atlantic. It is claimed, of -course, that, but for her appearance at Constantinople, Turkey would not -have been drawn into the war on the side of Germany, but it is hard to -believe that the long-pursued German intrigues in Turkey would have all -gone for nothing without the arrival of the somewhat discredited -_Goeben_. Nor was the use of battle-cruisers to bombard a few -defenceless coast towns a sound method of strategy. As it was, they were -within an ace of being lost--and for what result? Absolutely _nil_ from -a military point of view. The battle-cruiser has a great future before -it, and it does not seem unlikely that, now that the enormous advantages -of high speed have been so clearly demonstrated, it will altogether -supersede the slower and heavier armed and armoured battleship proper. - -After battle-cruisers we come to cruisers. Our typical modern cruisers -may be taken to be represented by the "_Defence_" and "_Achilles_" -classes, the latest of which dates from 1909. The former class have a -displacement of 14,600 tons apiece, and carry four 9·2 and ten 7·5 guns. -The latter are about 1000 tons smaller, and have an armament of six 9·2 -and four 7·5 guns. Both types have 6- to 8-inch armour, and about 23 -knots speed. They are exceedingly smart-looking vessels, with their -numerous turrets or gun-houses, four funnels, and two lightly-rigged -masts. They sit comparatively low in the water, and present an -appearance of both speed and war-like efficiency. - -The "County" class of cruisers, which immediately preceded those just -mentioned, are considerably smaller, though to some minds but weakly -gunned for their size. None of them have heavier guns than 7·5-inch, and -most only 6-inch weapons. Neither have they a great deal of armour -protection or an extraordinary high rate of speed. As none have been -built within recent years, we may fairly assume that they are not -considered quite what we want at the present time, though many or most -of them have done excellent work in the present war. You will remember -how the _Kent_ and _Cornwall_ fought at the battle off the Falklands. - -The "Town" class, of not much more than half the size, would appear to -have superseded the "Counties", and they, too, have been very much in -evidence in the hostilities which have been carried on afloat. The -biggest of these are of 5400 tons displacement, and carry eight 6-inch -guns, and as these are the latest cruisers built, with the exception of -the monster battle-cruisers, it seems likely that it is not intended to -have any cruisers of intermediate size. Big sparsely-armoured cruisers, -like the unfortunate _Good Hope_, which did not steam faster than -smaller ones, and which carried but a poor armament considering her size -and cost, cannot be considered a good investment. The "Town" class have -done splendidly in the war at sea. The _Birmingham_ had the distinction -of sinking the first German submarine; the plucky little _Gloucester_ -hung closely on the heels of the giant _Goeben_ and her consort the -_Breslau_ during their flight to Constantinople, though one -well-directed shot from the former would have put her out of action and -probably sent her to the bottom. The _Glasgow_, _Carnarvon_, and -_Bristol_ were of great use in the Falklands fight, the first-named -having already fought against the heavy batteries of the _Scharnhorst_ -and _Gneisenau_ off the coast of Chile, while later on she sank the -Dresden; while the _Sydney_ won undying fame by defeating and driving on -shore the notorious commerce-destroyer _Emden_. - -Another distinctly modern type of cruiser is the "light cruiser", a fast -unprotected vessel with light guns of 4-inch calibre, which has proved -of immense value in the area of "liveliness" in the North Sea. The -_Amphion_ opened the ball by sinking the German mine-layer _Königin -Luise_ at the very opening of hostilities, but was very soon after -herself blown up by a mine the latter had laid. She, like her sisters, -was almost exactly like a big destroyer in appearance. The "Saucy" -_Arethusa_ has proved a worthy descendant of the famous frigate after -which she was named, and has more than once particularly distinguished -herself, notably in the fight off Heligoland. But space forbids more -than the mere mention of the smallest class of cruiser, the "scouts", of -just under 3000 tons, which are also extremely useful little vessels, -since it is necessary to give some account of destroyers and -submarines. - -The destroyer was originally built to "destroy" the torpedo-boat, which, -from its small size, had its limitations in anything of a sea-way. The -earliest torpedo-boats were ordinary steamboats, such as are carried by -most ships of any size, fitted with a long spar with a tin of gun-cotton -at the end of it, which could be run out some way over the bows. The -idea was to approach an enemy's ship under cover of the darkness, lower -the outer end of the spar with its "torpedo" below the water-line, place -it in contact with the enemy's ship, and explode the charge by means of -an electric current. This seems a crude way of going to work, but -several ships have been sunk by its means, notably the Confederate ram -_Albemarle_, which was attacked by Lieutenant Cushing of the United -States navy in this way in the course of the Civil War in America. -Special boats were then made for this purpose, but the advent of the -"Whitehead" automobile torpedo provided them with a much more formidable -weapon. Naval powers built these "torpedo-boats" in considerable -numbers, and they were considered such a menace to bigger ships that the -destroyer, an almost exactly similar boat, but of larger size, was -designed to cope with them. In point of fact it did destroy them, for it -was found to be so much better an "all-round craft", not only for -attacking torpedo-boats, but to act as one itself, that the smaller -craft before long were entirely superseded by the destroyers. Beginning -about 1897 with boats of about 180 tons, armed with 6-pounder guns, we -have now improved our destroyers till at the present day our latest -types are more than twice as big, and are armed with 4-inch guns, which -give them a decided advantage over less heavily-gunned destroyers, as -has been amply demonstrated in more than one encounter with German -destroyers. The destroyer is used, generally speaking, for scouting -purposes, and especially to attack an enemy's submarines, which, if -caught at the surface, may be approached in a swift destroyer and sunk -by gun-fire before they are able to dive, or, with luck, may even be -rammed. Destroyers, too, may be used to attack at night as -torpedo-boats, or even in the course of a naval action if a favourable -opportunity offers; it will be remembered that the _Goliath_ was -torpedoed by a Turkish destroyer. - -"Vessels of stealth", as submarines have been called, have now taken the -place of the obsolete torpedo-boat. The latter relied on torpedoing her -enemy under cover of the darkness, but the submarine is most dangerous -in day-time. At night it is almost impossible for her to find her target -or to estimate the speed at which she is travelling if under way, -without which knowledge it is extremely difficult to arrange for a -torpedo to intercept her course unless fired at very close quarters -indeed. As the particulars of our submarines are wisely kept secret, no -more can be said about them than is already public property. - -The "E" class, our latest improved "Hollands", are 176 feet long, with a -beam of a little over 22 feet, and have a displacement--when -submerged--of 800 tons. When at the surface their heavy oil-engines, of -something like 2000 horse-power, enable them to travel at a speed of -from 16 to 20 knots. When under water the electric engines are brought -into play, but owing to the increased friction and larger area of the -vessel to be forced through the water the speed of the boat drops to 10 -knots. Moreover, travelling at the most economical rate of speed, not -more than 140 knots can be negotiated when submerged, while at the -surface an "E" submarine can travel for no less than 5000 miles without -refilling her oil-tanks. - -These boats preserve the "porpoise" shape, are equipped with wireless -apparatus, and provided with panoramic periscopes to enable them to -sight their target when submerged. There is no necessity nowadays to -describe the principle of a periscope, since little portable patterns of -this optical instrument, of various types, made for use in the trenches, -can be seen exposed for sale almost anywhere. But, of course, those in -use on a submarine are of a large and highly perfected type. The -conning-tower of the "E" boats is armoured, and they carry a couple of -quick-firing guns of 3 inches calibre in recesses on their decks, closed -in by folding doors. These little weapons can be quickly raised into -position by an arrangement of hydraulic machinery, and by merely -pressing a lever they sink down and are boxed in again in a second or -two.[71] They are so mounted as to be able to fire at a very high -elevation, in order to defend the boat against bomb-dropping air-ships -or aeroplanes, but, of course, can be used against surface vessels in -the same way as those of the German submarines, which have made several -attempts to sink merchantmen. As a modern Whitehead has a range of -something like 3 miles, travels at a speed of 50 miles an hour, and -carries a heavy charge of high explosive in its head, we need not dwell -on its formidable nature, which has been amply proved in the course of -the war. It has also been equally proved that it is almost impossible -for a submarine to torpedo a fast and well-handled vessel once it has -located the position of its attacker. - -[Illustration: _Photo. Cribb, Southsea_ - -THE BRITISH SUBMARINE _E 2_ - -It was a boat of this class, _E9_, by which the German cruiser _Hela_ -and a destroyer were sunk by Lieutenant Max Horton; and another, _E11_, -specially distinguished herself at the Dardanelles.] - -"The modern submarine has every comfort commensurate with the size and -service of the vessel. The principal item making for comfort is, of -course, properly-prepared food.... As time passed, electric -cooking-apparatus was installed. This was always subject to the many -troubles inherent in early electrical heating-apparatus. However, the -idea was a step in advance. To-day there is installed a well-arranged -oven, four or five independent plates for cooking meats and vegetables, -and an urn for keeping coffee constantly hot and on tap when cruising. -All of these things, though small in themselves, make for contentment in -the crew."[72] Whether or not such cooking appliances are installed in -our own submarines I am unable to say, but there is no doubt that -everything necessary for the comfort of their crews has been provided by -the Admiralty, and the boats themselves are very like the American -submarines which are referred to above. - -"Monitors" are novel vessels in our navy, and at present we have only -three of them--the _Humber_, _Mersey_, and _Severn_--which were -originally built for Brazil, but were acquired from their builders, -Vickers, Maxim, & Co., immediately on the outbreak of war. They proved -their usefulness by standing close inshore and attacking the flank of -the German advance on Nieuport in the fighting between that place and -Ostend which took place in the autumn of 1914. Their light draught of -water--under 9 feet--enabled them to do this, and rendered them very -difficult targets for the German submarines, which, moreover, could not -operate in such shoal water. - -The appearance of the original _Monitor_ in the Civil War in America has -already been referred to. The United States Navy had a considerable -number of such vessels during and after that campaign. Russia also -purchased several of a similar type. But for many years, if we except a -few of an improved type which were built for the United States Navy -between 1885 and 1895, they fell quite into disuse, except for river -work. The Austrians have a small flotilla of such vessels on the Danube, -and Brazil has had others for use on the Amazon before the ones we took -over were ordered. It is, however, one would imagine, not without the -bounds of probability that there may be some return to the -shallow-draught "Monitor" type among the battleships of the future, as -being less vulnerable to torpedo attack. A battleship design put forward -some years ago by a Russian inventor, which he claimed to be nearly -torpedo-proof, certainly approximated somewhat to a "Monitor". - -The three "Monitors" which were added to our own navy as described, are -of only 1200 tons displacement apiece. They are 265 feet long, with a -beam of 49 feet, and have a speed of 11-1/2 knots only. But it is -obvious that speed was of very secondary consideration for the purposes -for which they were designed. They have thin armour-plating on their -sides, and carry two 6-inch guns in a turret at the bows. Aft are a -couple of 4·7-inch howitzers under revolving shields, while half a dozen -machine-guns are mounted on their upper works. They are smart-looking -little craft, with one funnel and a single military mast with a -search-light platform. - - * * * * * - -Having described the various classes of our fighting-ships, we may for a -moment or two consider the subject of fighting tactics afloat. In the -old sailing-ship days it was the object of the commander of a -fighting-ship to get what was known as the "weather-gage" of his -opponent. Put into shore-going English, this meant that, as far as -possible, he kept his own ship between the direction of the wind and his -enemy, which enabled him to manoeuvre more easily, close in upon him or -not as he considered more advantageous to himself. The French were not -so keen in seeking for the weather-gage, since in that position it was -not so easy to break off the engagement and get away. This remark must -not be necessarily taken as imputing any want of courage to our then -gallant enemy, for whereas the Admiralty orders to our captains were to -find the enemy and "sink, burn, or destroy" him, those given to the -French naval officers impressed upon them that it was their first duty -to save their ships. The result was that though as a general rule our -sea-captains took the weather-gage whenever they could get it, there -were some of them who, according to a pamphlet published in 1766, were -fond of "engaging to leeward", to prevent an enemy from running away! - -In fleet actions in Nelsonian times our object was to break the enemy's -line in one or more places, and, having effected this, to set upon the -broken portions with all the strength available and defeat them in -detail. This was the principle followed so successfully at Trafalgar. -Of course the leading ships of our two lines suffered severely from the -broadsides of the enemy as they approached him at right angles, but it -must be remembered that the range and efficiency of the guns of those -days was so limited that the leading and rear ships of the combined -French and Spanish fleets could not damage any of our rear ships very -much, nor even our leading ones. As for our own ships, we were prepared -to take this preliminary pounding and not really to begin our offensive -till we had broken their line and got within close range of that portion -of their fleet we intended to destroy first. If, as at the Nile, the -enemy foolishly chose to await our attack at anchor, it simplified -matters for us pretty considerably. We could, as we did, move towards -one end of their line at an angle on which we could exchange broadsides -as we advanced on equal terms, and as soon as one-half of our ships had -passed the flank selected for attack, both halves altered course so as -to move parallel to the line of anchored Frenchmen and engage half their -line with a superiority of two to one. Each French ship had to fight two -British ones, one on either side. The ships farther down the line could -do nothing to assist them unless they weighed anchor, made sail, and -broke their formation, and so simply lay there waiting their turn to be -dealt with. - -Steam has, of course, put all this class of manoeuvring long out of -date, though as long as naval warfare endures on this earth the main -principle of attempting to take the enemy at a disadvantage must always -remain. In the early days of ironclads there were various theories as to -the best fighting-formations. There were advocates of "line ahead", that -is to say, each ship following the other in "Indian file"; of "line -abreast", in which ships advanced like a line of soldiers in "extended -order", and which necessitated that each ship should have a very -powerful "right ahead" fire; and various group formations. At the battle -of Lissa, in 1866, practically the only fleet engagement during the -ironclad period prior to the Chino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars, -the victorious Austrians attacked the Italian fleet in a wedge-shaped -formation; but they intended to use their rams and to fight at -absolutely close quarters, a procedure which in the present days of -long-range guns of tremendous power and extraordinary accuracy would be -almost, if not quite, impossible. The ram, moreover, is now practically -obsolete. In the naval actions in the Far East, to which reference has -been made, the generally adopted battle-formation was that of "line -ahead", the first of those explained above, and the ideal manoeuvre was -considered to be what was known as "crossing the T"--that is to say, to -get one's line of ships into such a position with regard to the enemy's -line that, while his represented the perpendicular part of the "T", -one's own would be in the place of the horizontal line forming the top -of the letter: in fact, to be in the same relative position as were the -enemy's fleet at Trafalgar to our advancing lines. With modern guns and -gunnery the whole fleet could concentrate on and smash up the leading -ships one after the other, those following in rear not being able to do -very much to assist them. Obviously it is the object of every fleet -commander to avoid being caught in this way. If he sees the enemy's line -are steering so as to cross his course at right angles, he will alter -course to one parallel to theirs. If within range, broadsides will -doubtless be exchanged while passing, but each opposing line will then -try to turn and cross the enemy's "T" for him by passing in rear of his -line. Both will be awake to this manoeuvre, so that if the manoeuvre -continues on normal lines the battle will resolve itself into two curved -lines of ships chasing each other round the circumference of a circle. - -But varieties of speed, the disabling of some ships, and the menace of -destroyers or submarines will probably throw any such regular sequence -entirely out of gear, and, other things being equal, victory will -incline to the fleet whose commander is quickest to adapt its formation -to meet the sudden emergencies of the fighting and to turn them to his -own advantage. But he will not be able to do this unless his fleet is -well drilled in manoeuvre, and at least as capable of carrying out his -orders and signals with smartness and efficiency as that of the enemy. - -[Illustration: Squadron in "Line on a Bearing" or "Bow and Quarter Line" - -Observe the first position of the five battleships A, B, C, D, E -(shaded). Each can fire right ahead, right astern, and on both -broadsides. They are steering due west. Now suppose they all turn -directly south. They will then be in similar formation, as indicated by -a, b, c, d, e (unshaded).] - -At the present time, perhaps what is known as the "line on a -bearing"--i.e. compass bearing--or "bow and quarter line" as it is -sometimes called, is the favourite formation, and there is a very great -deal to be said in its favour. It is what is known as an "echelon" -formation when applied to the manoeuvres of soldiers. The word "echelon" -is derived from the French _echelle_, a ladder, and the ships in this -case are disposed in a way suggestive of the steps of a ladder or stair. -Thus, suppose the flagship leading, the next ship would follow her on a -parallel course, not immediately in her wake but some way astern on her -port or starboard quarter, the next in a corresponding position with -regard to the second ship, and so on, as indicated in the annexed -diagram. - -If you look at this you will at once see its advantages over "line -ahead". Every ship can bring its broadside to bear either to port or -starboard, as in that formation, but, in addition, every ship can fire -directly ahead or astern as well. If ships in "line ahead" all turn -together to the right or left, or, to use the correct wording, alter -course together eight points to starboard or port, only the leading and -rear ship could use their broadsides, and only one of them at that. But -a similar turn in "bow and quarter line" can be made without any loss of -fire effect. - -In the Great War we have not, at the time of writing, yet had a fleet -action. The German Navy has shown itself most determined--to take no -risks. It seems to be imbued with the principles impressed by the French -Government on its sea commanders in the old wars with us.[73] Never, on -any account, are ships to be hazarded against superior force, or, in -other words, the ships of the "admiral of the Atlantic" are not to fight -unless in very superior force to their antagonists, as was the case in -the action off Chile. The German squadron, starting out on the second -raid on our coasts, no sooner clapped eyes on Admiral Beatty's -ships--which only numbered one more ship than the German squadron--than -it turned tail and made off for all it was worth. So the British had no -chance of crossing the "T", or of any manoeuvre other than a stern -chase. Such a chase is proverbially a long one, but in this case it was -long enough to enable our seamen and marines to sink one German and -badly damage at least two others, who only got away "by the skin of -their teeth", thanks to the intervention of their mine-fields and -submarines. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[68] Engineer-Commander Chas. E. Eldred, R.N., _Everybody's Book of the -Navy_. - -[69] "The Progress of Dreadnoughts", _Journal of Commerce_, 4th March, -1915. - -[70] "Your Navy as a Fighting Machine." Fred. T. Jane. - -[71] Particulars from _Submarines, Mines, and Torpedoes in the War_. C. -W. Domville Fife. - -[72] Paper by Lieutenant C. N. Hinkamp, United States Navy, reprinted in -_Journal of Commerce_, 29th April, 1915. - -[73] German ships, by the way, are often provided with a heavier astern -fire than a forward one, so that apparently they have long decided to -fight a retreating action. The opposite system is pursued in our navy. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -The Manning of a Ship - - "We're sober men and true, - And quite devoid of fe-ar. - In all the Royal N. - There are none so smart as we are. - When the wind whistles free - O'er the bright blue sea - We stand to our guns all da-ay; - When at anchor we ride - By the starboard side, - We've plenty of time for play." - --_H.M.S. "Pinafore"._ W. S. Gilbert. - - -AT the beginning of our naval story we found our fleets composed of -rowing-vessels, fought and commanded by soldiers. Then came a time--the -viking period--when fighting-ships were manned and fought by warriors -who were emphatically "soldiers and sailors too". In battle their -dragons and long-serpents relied mainly on their oars, but the sail -began to take a much more important position than before, and the oars -were not pulled by slaves but by the crew proper, all of whom were -fighters. In the period that followed, the sail--in northern waters at -any rate--continued to grow in importance, till in the biggest ships it -entirely ousted the oars. - -Then arose the professional sailor. Ships carried but a few sails, so -that comparatively few men were required to handle them, and the -fighting-men on board and the commanders of ships and squadrons were -once more soldiers. When the fully rigged ship arrived--in Tudor -times--the sailor element naturally was considerably increased, and, the -heavy gun making its appearance on shipboard at about the same time, -the "gunners" seem to have been taken from that class rather than from -the soldiers, who formed about half the ship's company. But in the royal -ships the supreme command was always in the hands of a military officer, -till the successes gained by the privately-equipped ships commanded by -men like Drake and Frobisher introduced a new type of distinctly naval -officer. But he did not supersede the military ship-commander much -before the time of William III. Up to that time ships seem to have had -sometimes a soldier, like Blake, in command and sometimes a sailor, like -Sir George Rooke and others. - -The latter is a good example of what may be called the transition -period, because he, like Sir Cloudesley Shovel and many other -sea-commanders, had a commission in the Duke of York and Albany's -Maritime Regiment, instituted in 1664 and generally accepted as being -the ancestor of the present corps of Royal Marines. But it seems -possible that there must have been an idea underlying the institution of -this regiment of sea-soldiers that has never been explained. The key to -it may perhaps be found in the oft-repeated reference to marine -regiments at this period as "nurseries for the fleet". The idea did not -work, as the men trained as soldiers did not volunteer to become sailors -to an appreciable extent; but in my own opinion there was more in the -idea than this. It must be remembered that at this time there was a -great controversy as to the most suitable officers to command our -war-ships. The "gentleman captains", who were in many cases soldiers, -but often merely courtiers, clung tenaciously to their position, and the -Court influence at their back enabled them to stand their ground. But at -the same time the claims of the real sailors--the "tarpawlins", as they -were called--who were neither soldiers nor gentlemen, were being more -and more recognized by the public, and grew stronger and stronger. And -they certainly had a very strong case. They could themselves sail, -navigate, and fight their ships, while the other class had to have -"masters" to do everything but the fighting for them. - -It seems possible that the intention of those responsible for the -raising of the "Maritime Regiment", the men of which were indifferently -referred to as "marines" or as "mariners", was not only to provide the -nucleus of a disciplined personnel, but to produce a corps of officers -who, while retaining a military status, would yet be professional -seamen. It was an experiment, but not on a sufficiently comprehensive -scale, to transform the ill-paid, ill-treated, and ill-fed seamen of the -day into a loyal, contented and disciplined body, or to supply a -sufficient number of "gentleman-tarpawlins" to command our ships and -fleets. A large number of these officers did do so, but quite as many -continued to serve as soldiers, some afloat in command of marines, and -many others in the army. - -As time went on, things adjusted themselves, and before the eighteenth -century had progressed very far the sailor came into his own. The "days -of oak and hemp" were at their zenith. Our men-of-war were commanded by -officers who were thorough seamen, able to handle their ships under sail -themselves, though masters who were navigation experts still remained. -Their crews were composed of two distinct classes--seamen and -marines.[74] The former were, as before, still recruited for the -commission only, while the latter were enlisted for a fixed period of -service.[75] The best seamen, nevertheless, made a regular profession of -the navy, going from one ship to another as they were paid off and -commissioned. If they made an occasional trip to sea in a merchantman or -privateer between whiles, that by no means impaired their professional -ability, and the "prime seamen" of those days were the finest sailors in -history. Unfortunately their number, for various reasons, was somewhat -limited, and a ship's company, especially if she or her commander bore a -bad name afloat, had to be completed by all kinds of people. Even the -marines, regularly enlisted men as they were, were by no means always of -the same calibre. - -According to our apparently interminable national practice, we always -began our wars shorthanded in this as well as in every other militant -service, and recruits had on these occasions to be sent on board in the -rawest stages of their training. Yet, in spite of all these drawbacks, -look at the victories our navy won in those glorious days! Good, bad, or -indifferent, sailor or marine, the men were all true Britons when the -time came to "strike home" for King and Country, just as their gallant -descendants have proved themselves in the Great European War. As the -nineteenth century progressed, and our navy had no big wars on hand, the -seaman element by no means deteriorated. The professional sailor was -forthcoming in sufficient numbers to man our navy in peace-time or in -minor operations, and there was no necessity to send untrained marines -afloat. Steam had made its appearance, but it was far from superseding -sail-power. The executive were still sailors, heart and soul, and had no -hankering after soldiering and drill ashore. All the same, the -sailing-masters were still retained, and seemed to be indispensable. -Admiral John Moresby, in his interesting work entitled _Two Admirals_, -which relates his own and his father's naval experiences from 1786 to -1877, gives the following account of the naval officers of 1847:-- - -"The officers, with few exceptions, were content to be practical seamen -only. They had nothing whatever to do with the navigation of the ship or -the rating of the chronometers. That was entirely in the hands of the -master, and no other had any real experience or responsibility in the -matter. I may instance the case of a captain whose ship was at Spithead. -He was ordered by signal to go to the assistance of a ship on shore at -the back of the Isle of Wight. In reply he hoisted the signal of -'Inability: the master is on shore.' 'Are the other officers on board?' -he was asked. He answered 'Yes,' and to the repeated order, 'Proceed -immediately,' he again hoisted 'Inability', and remained entrenched in -his determination until a pilot was sent to his assistance." - -If a "practical seaman" was so dependent on his master as this he would -not appear to have been much of an improvement on the soldier-captains -of earlier times. It seems a most extraordinary position, and it is -almost as extraordinary that now, when sailoring proper is a thing of -the past, we may be quite certain that no captain in His Majesty's -service would hesitate to get under way on receipt of an order to go to -the assistance of a ship in distress, whether the navigating officer was -on board or not. But, probably on account of the long period of peace -which had followed after Waterloo, neither our navy nor army was in such -a high state of efficiency as it had been earlier in the century or is -at the present minute. The Crimean War broke like a thunder-clap on our -peace-organized forces. We know what terrible times our gallant soldiers -went through before Sebastopol on account of deficiency of commissariat, -equipment, and every other aid to efficiency which ought to have been in -readiness, but which, in fact, had no existence. We commissioned a fine -fleet for the Baltic, but it practically effected nothing, and we had -the greatest difficulty in manning it. - -"Public opinion", writes Admiral Moresby, "resented the revival of the -press-gang; therefore the only alternative was the offer of a large -bounty, and by this means the ships were filled with counter-jumpers and -riff-raff of all sorts, and rarely a sailor amongst them. What this -meant only those who had to do the necessary slave-driving can tell.... -In the _Driver_ ... we may have had twenty seamen as a nucleus. The rest -were long-shore fellows, and when Admiral Berkley came on board and told -us that the Russians were at sea, and probably in a few days we should -be in action, there was a strong dash of anxiety in our satisfaction." - -So short were we of men that I have been told by an officer who served -in that fleet that had it not been for the coast-guardsmen and marines -it would never have been ready for sea. "On board the _St. Jean -d'Acre_," said this officer, "we had a splendid crew, thanks to the -popularity of Harry Keppel: the work of fitting out from a mere hulk was -done by the Royal Marines with a small number of seamen-gunners from the -_Excellent_ and some boys. The officers at Portsmouth and other places -raised men _who would not join until the hard work was over_." But good -arose out of this evil, which was so patent that it could not be -overlooked by anyone. The usefulness of the seamen-gunners and Royal -Marines pointed the way to a remedy. The marines were a permanent force; -the seamen-gunners were on the spot and under naval discipline. It was -determined to institute an equally permanent establishment of -bluejackets. The creation of this force was the most momentous and -beneficial step ever taken by the Admiralty, and to it we owe the -magnificent body of trained seamen who have done such yeoman service to -the country during the war. Where should we have been without it? -Imagine the disasters which would have befallen us if, as at the -outbreak of the Crimean War, we had had to hunt up crews for our fleet -after the 4th of August, 1914! As it was, everything went "on wheels", -as the saying is. The Grand Fleet was ready and other ships were put -into commission without the least delay or hitch in the smooth running -of our mobilization for war. Reserves were so plentiful that a residuum -of both bluejackets and marines was available as the nucleus of the -Royal Naval Division, which was soon recruited up to a high figure. - -It is not too much to say that the end of the Crimean War saw the -beginning of our modern naval forces, with the exception of the Royal -Marines, who had been in existence as a naval force under the Admiralty -ever since 1755, and the later instituted Royal Naval Reserve, Royal -Fleet Reserve, and Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve. It may be noted, in -passing, that the first-mentioned reserve consists of men in the -merchant service, who, seamen by profession, receive a training in -gunnery and other matters connected with naval warfare, and are paid an -annual retaining-fee, which renders them liable to be called up for -service when required. - -The Royal Fleet Reserve consists of both bluejackets and marines, who, -having served for twelve years on the active list, are permitted to -transfer to this force. They receive a small daily rate of pay, and have -to undergo a short revision of their drills annually. The last-mentioned -reserve has been in existence on and off under one name or other for a -considerable number of years. In 1861 Captain Vernon of the 4th Cinque -Ports Artillery Volunteers at Hastings instituted a so-called "marine -company" in his regiment, which wore a semi-naval uniform and was -drilled at naval guns. From this small beginning grew in time the Royal -Naval Artillery Volunteers, first formed in 1873, which assumed -considerable proportions and had branches at every important seaport. -This corps was eventually abolished because the naval authorities did -not quite see how men who in very many cases had at most but "a bowing -acquaintance" with Father Neptune could well be utilized afloat. This -decision was a great blow to its members, who were very proud of their -voluntary duties, and after a time the Admiralty was strongly pressed by -those interested in the movement to resuscitate it. Hence the Royal -Naval Volunteer Reserve was created.[76] - -The bluejacket of the present day is better termed a seaman than a -sailor, since sails are non-existent in the navy except in boats.[77] -Besides, his official rating is seaman--ordinary seaman, able seaman, -&c. Some writers in journals dealing with naval matters have coined the, -to me, objectionable-sounding name of "fleetman". This may answer for a -comprehensive term, including seamen, marines, and stokers, writers and -other auxiliary branches of the service, but they might all be equally -well classed together as seamen or mariners, since there is little if -any difference nowadays between the time each branch spends afloat. -There are big naval barracks now at our ports as well as marine -barracks, and bluejackets often spend there as much time as, or more -time than the marine does in his barracks. - -The outstanding difference between the ship's company of to-day and of -past centuries is that it is composed entirely of trained men. There are -no "landsmen" and odds and ends of humanity pitchforked on board to -complete the number of the company. Seamen, marines, and stokers all are -specially instructed in their own line of business before they appear on -board a ship in commission. The same holds good in the case of their -officers. No more boys of nineteen are appointed captains on account of -family connections; no more are officers of marines appointed from line -regiments or even from the cavalry, as they were in days gone by. It is -only fair to say that we must go back a long way to find cases of this -sort, for as regards its officers the navy has been a permanent -profession for centuries, though its seamanhood was not in the same -position before the middle of the last century. - -What our naval officers and men are to-day in their work and duties is -best demonstrated by a glance at the crew of a modern man-of-war in -commission. First and foremost, of course, is the captain, not -infrequently referred to by those under his command as the "skipper", -"the Old Man", or sometimes as the "Owner". His rule may be termed a -benevolent despotism. He can no longer be the tyrant that he -occasionally was "in the days of wood and hemp", and has no desire to be -anything of the kind. He is far too much of a gentleman and a good -fellow. But there can be little limitation to his monarchy or the -machine would not work. He lives somewhat apart from his subjects, -having his meals in lonely state, and only occasionally comes into the -ward-room, in which most of the ship's commissioned officers live and -move and have their being. The sub-lieutenant's, midshipmen's, junior -engineer officers', assistant paymasters', and clerks' mess is known as -the gun-room. In the old days what is now the ward-room was called the -gun-room, and what is now the gun-room, the midshipmen's berth. It is -probable that this enforced seclusion is one of the worst trials of the -captain's greatness, since he has spent the whole of his previous -service afloat in the _camaraderie_ and good-fellowship of the ward-room -and gun-room. At sea he passes a great portion of his time on the -bridge, and in most ships has a special sea-cabin in its close -proximity. He is the supreme court of justice on board, and as he can -dispense punishment up to ninety days' imprisonment with hard labour -"off his own bat", it must be a pretty bad case, or one in which an -officer is concerned, that he has to send before a court martial. - -This should be remembered when, as is sometimes the case, comparisons -are drawn in the Press between the numbers of courts martial in the -naval and military services, or between those held on the men of the -navy and on those of the marines. A naval court martial is a very big -affair, only resorted to on rare occasions, while in the army, besides -the general court martial, which may be ranked with the naval court, -there are district and even regimental courts martial, the latter very -small affairs, composed of three junior officers, which deal with -offences which in the navy would probably be settled off-hand, if not -by the commander, at any rate by the captain. When marines are serving -ashore in their barracks they come under army rules, so that the -proportion of courts martial held on a given number of marines must -always be expected to be greater than in the case of a similar number of -bluejackets or stokers. No comparison as to good conduct or otherwise -can therefore be instituted along these lines. - -The captain of a ship, being in supreme command, exercises a general -supervision over his ship and all that it contains, and is, of course, -directly responsible to the admiral under whom he is serving and to the -Admiralty for its condition both as to material and personnel. But the -second in command--the "commander"--addressed by the courtesy title of -"captain" also--may be regarded as the managing man. He lives, or rather -has his meals, in the ward-room. As to where he actually _lives_, it may -be said to be everywhere on board except in his own cabin. He is perhaps -the hardest-worked man in the ship. Up at daylight, he is engaged in -running the whole show till he goes the rounds at 9 p.m. to see that -everything and everybody is properly settled down for the night. He -draws up a regular daily and weekly routine, which he personally sees is -regularly carried out. He "tells off" the "hands" for this, that, and -the other duties, and sees that everyone is at his proper station at -"general quarters" for action, fire quarters, collision stations, and -many another "evolution". He holds a daily court of justice, and either -deals with the defaulters who have been "shoved in the rattle", i.e. put -in his report, himself, or in more serious cases passes them on to the -higher court--the captain. In most ships there is yet a minor court, -held by the senior officer of marines on his own men. His powers are yet -more limited, and if after investigation he finds that they will not -admit a sufficient punishment for an offence, he takes the offender -before the commander. In some ships he is empowered by the captain to -bring such cases directly to him. - -In spite of the commander's hard work, he has little to grumble at, nor, -I believe, does he ever do so, except in the ordinary conversational way -we all do at times, when we "let off steam". For he knows that, unless -he is very unfortunate in his "skipper", he has his promotion in his own -hands. He is showing what he is made of, and once he succeeds in -negotiating the big jump to captain's rank he is assured of going right -on to admiral, even if he is not fortunate enough to "hoist his flag" in -command of a squadron or fleet. He has the relative rank of a -lieutenant-colonel in the army, and is almost invariably a much younger -man, probably from thirty to thirty-five years of age, and can take and -bear the strain of his position. - -After the commander the lieutenants. Of these in a battleship three or -four are lieutenant-commanders, and five or six lieutenants. The senior -of these is known as the first lieutenant, or, less officially, as "No. -1". In smaller ships they are, of course, fewer. One of these will be -the gunnery lieutenant, another navigating lieutenant, and a third -torpedo lieutenant. The remainder are classed as watch-keepers, in which -duty they are now assisted when in harbour by the officers of marines -belonging to the ship. As everyone knows, the day and night on board -ship are divided into periods of four hours, known as "watches", except -for the "dog watches" of two hours apiece. They run as follows:-- - - NAME. TIME. BELLS. - Middle watch ... Midnight to 4 a.m. ... 8 to 8 - Morning watch ... 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. ... 8 to 8 - Forenoon watch ... 8 a.m. to noon ... 8 to 8 - Afternoon watch ... noon to 4 p.m. ... 8 to 8 - 1st Dog watch ... 4 p.m. to 6 p.m. ... 8 to 4 - 2nd Dog watch ... 6 p.m. to 8 p.m. ... 4 to 8 - First watch ... 8 p.m. to midnight ... 8 to 8 - -The bell is struck, generally by the marine sentry posted nearest to it, -or the corporal of the gangway, every half-hour, after reporting the -time to the officer of the watch, and being instructed to "make it so". -Thus at 8.30 in the morning he strikes it once, at 9 twice--two strokes -quickly following each other; at 9.30 three times--two quick strokes, an -interval, and a single stroke--and so on up to eight bells struck in a -succession of double strokes. There is also "little one bell", a gentle -stroke five minutes after midnight for the watch to "fall in". The dog -watches have stood from time immemorial, in order to change the men of -the night watches every twenty-four hours. Otherwise the same men would -always be keeping the same watches. Some men would always be on at night -and others in the daytime. By dividing the 4 p.m. to 8 p.m. watches into -two halves--the "first" and "second" dog watches--the rotation is -changed, so that men come on watch at fresh periods. There is said to be -a tradition that the origin of the word "dog" is "dodge", and that they -were originally known as "dodge watches", the reason being obvious. But -I should be sorry to vouch for the accuracy of this statement. - -The officer of the watch is practically in command of the ship for the -time being. He has to deal with any sudden emergency himself; there may -very probably be no time to refer to the captain, even if it is -advisable to do so. He keeps his watch on the fore-bridge, and sees that -the quartermaster at the wheel keeps the ship upon her proper course. He -takes observations from time to time, and is entirely responsible--under -the captain--for the safety of the ship and all on board. All sorts of -reports have to be made to him from time to time, and he makes or sends -any necessary reports to the captain. - -The lieutenants have charge of their "divisions", which may be said to -correspond to the companies of a regiment; have to inspect them at -morning and evening parades, known respectively as "divisions" and -"evening quarters", and are responsible for their men's clothing being -uniform and kept up to the regulation quantities. They have many other -incidental duties, such as boarding ships coming into harbour as -"officer of the guard", going ashore in charge of men for drill, -musketry, and other miscellaneous work of which space precludes the -merest mention. - -The gunnery lieutenant is, of course, responsible for the guns and -gunnery of the ship, which includes the musketry and infantry drill of -the seamen and stokers. The torpedo lieutenant, as his name implies, has -charge of the torpedoes and their tubes and the mining gear, and it is -his business to see that they are all kept in proper working order and -in instant readiness for action. In addition, he has entire charge of -the electric lighting and wireless telegraphy. - -The navigating lieutenant has taken the place of the old "master", but -is not, as he was, outside the executive line. His duty is to lay off -the course for the ship, take her position at various times during the -day by "shooting the sun" with his sextant, keep the chronometers wound -up, and take general charge of the navigation of the ship. Following the -order taken in the Navy List of the officers of a ship, we come to that -very important personage the engineer commander. In some sort he -occupies a similar position to the old sailing-masters in the days when -ships were commanded by soldiers. The ship couldn't get along without -the special engineering knowledge of this officer and his understudies -any more than William the Conqueror could have got across Channel -without Stephen FitzErard, his sailing-master. - -We may note, in passing, that to this day the executive ranks of the -navy always call themselves the "military branch". They are, of course, -the "militant" branch, though in one sense no one on board a ship in -action can help being a militant too. - -The engineering branch, at any rate, stands as good a chance of -casualties as even the executive or marine portions of the ship's -complement, and it is perhaps partly for this reason that its officers -have recently been allowed to wear the much-prized executive "curl" of -gold lace on their sleeves. The engineer commander has charge of all the -engines on board, the number of which runs to several dozen, for besides -the big main engines for propelling the ship there are smaller engines -for almost every conceivable purpose. There are engines to work the -steering-gear, the winches and hoists, the dynamos to produce electric -light, for the magazine refrigerating machinery, and many others, to say -nothing of those in the steamboats belonging to the ship. He and the -carpenter are also responsible for the hull of the ship, the expenditure -and replenishment of coal and oil, and goodness knows how many other -things! To assist him in all this mass of work and responsibility he has -two or three engineer lieutenants and a number of artificer engineers, -engine-room artificers, mechanicians, chief stokers, and, in a big ship, -hundreds of stokers. - -[Illustration: UNIFORMS OF THE ROYAL MARINES - -Gunner, R.M.A. Colour-Sergeant, R.M.L.I. Major, R.M.A.] - -The duty of senior engineer lieutenant is no sinecure either, since he -occupies much the same position in regard to his chief as the commander -does to the captain of the ship. The remaining engineer lieutenants keep -watch down in the engine-room in the same way as the other lieutenants -do on deck. - -Still following the order of the Navy List, we come to the officers of -marines. In the old days there were, perhaps, five or six of these in a -line-of-battleship, but the biggest "Dreadnought" of to-day never -carries more than two, unless, perhaps, there is another one attached to -the admiral's staff--supposing it to be a flagship--for special duties -in connection with the Intelligence Department, &c. Generally in a -flagship there is a major and a subaltern. Of the two, one, probably, -will be a marine artilleryman. Other big ships will have a captain and a -subaltern, and in smaller ones a captain or subaltern alone. Their -duties are considerably more onerous than they used to be, since they -are wisely made of much more use in the general work of the ship, -instead of being relegated to the unsatisfactory rôle of being "lookers -on at life". - -The major is, of course, responsible for the conduct, drill, and -military efficiency of his detachment, which may number about 100 men, -but he has, in addition, to inspect those of other ships in the squadron -or fleet from time to time, and to command and drill the marines of the -fleet when landed together for drill or tactical instruction. He or the -captain of marines in another ship has charge also of the gunnery of his -men, who are told off to man some of the guns in the ship, and may very -possibly be himself stationed in one of the control-positions in time of -action. He also commands the detachment when drawn up as a guard of -honour to receive the admiral or any distinguished visitor who is -entitled to this mark of distinction. His subaltern assists him -generally with the detachment, visits the sentries from time to time -during the night and day, keeps his turn of watch in harbour and of -officer of the guard, drills and looks after the marine guns, and not -infrequently acts as assistant gunnery or torpedo officer. All this is -very different from the old days, when the captain or major of marines -was popularly supposed to spend his time on the stern lockers practising -the flute, and when on arrival in harbour it was considered to be a near -thing as to whether he or the "killick"[78] touched the ground first. - -The Church takes the next place, in the shape of the chaplain, generally -a great acquisition to the mess. The "padre" or "sky pilot" requires to -be a man of considerable tact, and generally speaking he is. He has to -be on more or less friendly terms with everyone fore and aft, or he -would find it difficult to carry out his spiritual duties effectively. -On the other hand, I may fairly say that it is his own fault if, in this -respect, he is not met more than half-way both by his messmates in the -ward-room and by the "lower deck".[79] He reads prayers at divisions or -morning parade, visits the sick-bay and cells, superintends the -instruction given by the ship's schoolmaster, and, of course, carries -out divine service on Sundays. Sometimes he occupies the post of naval -instructor in addition to his strictly clerical duties, and in that -capacity instructs the midshipmen in various more or less scientific -subjects, such as applied mathematics and navigation, &c., and generally -musters his pupils on deck with their sextants at noon to take their -observations and work out the exact position of the ship. He and the -paymaster often look after the men's savings-bank, and make themselves -useful in other small matters connected with the interior domestic -economy of the ship and her ward-room mess. - -[Illustration: _Photo. Cribb, Southsea_ - -THE 13.5-INCH GUN: SOME IDEA OF ITS LENGTH - -Thirteen midshipmen seated upon this monster naval gun seem to emphasize -its length. Sixteen of our super-Dreadnoughts each carry eight or ten -13.5-inch guns. They settled the fate of the _Blücher_ in the Dogger -Bank fight, and sent the other German ships back to port shattered and -on fire.] - -The fleet surgeon, with one or two surgeons, has entire charge of the -health of both officers and men. His special domain is the "sick-bay", -generally situated forward, so that the sick get the freshest air, and -he is assisted in his duties by a staff of sick-berth stewards and -sick-berth attendants. He is an autocrat in his way, as not even the -captain can traverse his decisions as to health or disease. He makes a -daily report of the officers and men on the sick-list to the captain, -and arranges that one of his surgeons is always at hand in case of -accidents. In action he and his staff and what extra assistants can be -spared arrange a place down below the armoured deck where they can do -what is possible for the wounded that are passed down to them. But in -these days, when guns are closed up in separate turrets and casemates, -it is not too easy a business to arrange for the transport of these poor -fellows. - -The fleet paymaster is another non-combatant--so far as it is possible -for anyone to be so classed on a ship-of-war--and has the responsible -duty of looking after the pay, accountant, and clerical work of the -ship, stores of all kinds, and many other matters of a like nature, -including "slops" or clothes for the ship's company. The paymaster line -has no curl on the sleeve and wears white cloth between the gold stripes -of rank. The surgeons also have plain stripes, but with scarlet cloth -between them. The engineers wear purple between their stripes, and the -naval instructors sky-blue, but this is rarely seen, since most naval -instructors are also chaplains and wear the ordinary clerical rig. -Personally I have never set eyes on the sky-blue. - -This about finishes the list of ward-room officers, but those in the -gun-room are at least as numerous. The autocrat of the gun-room is the -senior sub-lieutenant, who is supposed to rule his subjects with a rod -of iron, or, to be more exact, a leather dirk scabbard, which at times -forms a useful and effective instrument of justice. In the gun-room live -the midshipmen, clerks, and assistant-engineer officers, and their -duties have, generally speaking, been already indicated in describing -those of the senior officers of the various branches to whom they are -assistants and understudies. But a word or two about the midshipmen--the -"young gentlemen" as they are generally called--will not be out of -place. They have plenty to do. They have to keep watch like their -seniors, and one important, though unofficial, part of a watch-keeping -midshipman's duties used to be to brew and bring up a cup of cocoa to -the officer on the bridge in the middle watch. But this is probably now -an exploded custom. A midshipman generally has charge of one of the -boats, and takes great pride in keeping it and its crew well up to the -mark. The "young gentlemen" drill under the gunnery lieutenant before -breakfast, work with the chaplain or naval instructor during the -forenoon, and at any moment must be ready to go away in charge of their -boats. Every midshipman is expected to keep a daily "log", which is -periodically inspected by the captain. Some of them take the greatest -pains not only to make their logs models of neatness, but to decorate -them with sketches, drawings, and plans, often of considerable merit and -interest. This is but a very partial and fragmentary account of the -duties of the boys from whom our future admirals and commanders-in-chief -will be recruited, but it is time this chapter was drawing to a close, -and we cannot leave our ship without at least mentioning a few other -people who, though not commissioned officers, are yet of very great -importance in her interior economy. - -[Illustration: _Photo. Cribb, Southsea_ - -6-INCH GUN DRILL: THE BREECH OPEN] - -First and foremost there are the warrant officers, pre-eminent among -whom are the boatswain, gunner, and carpenter, three time-honoured -titles. The first-named may be regarded as the commander's right-hand -man, and has multifarious duties and responsibilities. The duties of the -other two are sufficiently indicated by their titles. Then there are -engineer warrant officers, and of late years marine warrant officers -known as "Royal Marine gunners". The "sergeant-major" of marines, which -is the courtesy title borne by the senior non-commissioned officer of -the corps on board, is also a man of considerable importance on a -man-of-war. Then there are the chief petty officers, and petty officers -such as the yeoman of signals, the chief quartermaster, chief -boatswain's mate, and many others, together with sailmaker, blacksmiths, -armourers, electricians, coopers, cooks, bandsmen, plumbers, and all -kinds of ratings whose presence on board His Majesty's ships and vessels -of war is little suspected by the man in the street. Then there is the -ship's police, headed by the master-at-arms or "jaundy".[80] These men -are recruited from all branches of the navy, and perform much the same -duties as the "bobby" on shore, look after the prisoners in cells, and -are supposed to detect all irregularities that may take place on board -and to bring the delinquents to justice. - -If a ship is a flagship there is naturally a more important personage on -board than any of the officers whose ranks and duties have been -detailed--the admiral in command of the fleet or squadron. He may be -a full admiral--the highest rank employed afloat--a vice-admiral, or a -rear-admiral, the difference in rank being indicated by the number of -stripes on the cuff of his coat, placed above the lower very wide stripe -of gold lace. Thus a rear-admiral has one narrow stripe above it, with -the executive curl, a vice-admiral two additional narrow ones, and an -admiral three. The admiral lives in a regular suite of cabins, generally -right aft, consisting of a dining-room or fore-cabin, a sitting-room or -after-cabin, and two or three sleeping cabins. The captain of a flagship -is known as the flag-captain, and he, with the flag-lieutenant, -secretary, and sometimes an officer of marines, form the admiral's -staff. All these officers are distinguished from the rest of the -officers in the squadron by wearing aiguillettes. The captain, of -course, has to command his ship like other captains, but the secretary, -who is a staff-paymaster or paymaster told off for this special duty, is -the admiral's right-hand man as regards the tremendous amount of paper -work connected with the command of a fleet or squadron. The -flag-lieutenant is the admiral's personal aide-de-camp and so is -specially to the fore, both in the big man's inspections of ships and -naval establishments and in social duties and functions. He is also an -authority in connection with signalling in its various branches, and -necessarily and generally a smart young man all round. He and the -secretary mess at the admiral's table and not in the ward-room. A -man-of-war, it will be realized, even from this necessarily very brief -attempt to describe those who make their "home on the rolling deep" on -board her, is a little world in herself. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[74] Except between 1713 and 1739, when there were no marines. - -[75] "Fixed" is, perhaps, not the right word to use. Up to and including -part of the nineteenth century, marines and soldiers seem to have been -enlisted for an indefinite period--for as long or short a time as the -Government chose to keep them. - -[76] The Royal Naval Artillery Volunteers were disbanded in 1892 on the -report of a Committee of which the late Admiral Sir George Tryon was -president. The report said: "The corps of Royal Naval Artillery -Volunteers is composed of men who have not, as a rule, practical -acquaintance with the sea, but are attracted by sympathy and aspiration. -The Committee suggest that there are grounds for maintaining that a -Volunteer Force affiliated to the Royal Marine Artillery--from the -system of training and discipline that would be established--would be a -far more permanently valuable force than any so-termed naval force in -which are enrolled men not inured to sea-life and who have no sufficient -practical experience at sea, which experience cannot be given by -Government under any volunteer system we can devise." - -[77] The bluejacket of to-day, by the way, often refers to himself as a -"Matlow" or a "Flat-foot", while the marines are often termed -"Leather-necks". - -[78] i.e. the anchor - -[79] i.e. the ship's company. - -[80] Said to be a corruption of _gendarme_. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -Beginning of the War Afloat - - "Hark! I hear the cannon's roar - Echoing from the German shore." - Old Nautical Ballad (in Huth Collection). - - "Come all ye jolly sailors bold, - Whose hearts are cast in honour's mould, - While English glory I unfold. - Huzza for the _Arethusa_! - Her men are staunch - To their fav'rite launch, - And when the foe shall meet our fire, - Sooner than strike we'll all expire - On board of the _Arethusa_. - - "And, now we've driven the foe ashore - Never to fight with Britons more, - Let each fill his glass - To his fav'rite lass; - A health to our captain and officers true, - And all that belong to the jovial crew - On board of the _Arethusa_." - Old Naval Song. - - Ordered by the Admiralty to be engraved upon a brass - plate and fixed in a conspicuous position on board - H.M.S. _Arethusa_, after the Battle of the Bight, 28th - August, 1914. - - -IN July, 1914, it was determined to have a "test mobilization" of the -British fleet. "Mobilization" means, in connection with either the navy -or the army, the calling up of reserves and filling up regiments or -ships till they have the numbers necessary to complete them for war -service. In previous years it was usual to have a series of naval -manoeuvres during the summer or autumn, to practise our fleets in -working together or to work out strategical problems. This generally -entailed a partial mobilization, but in 1914 it was determined to see -how the machinery for mobilization would work at full power. - -On the 19th and 20th July the magnificent naval force formed by the -assembly of the first, second, and third fleets, with various flotillas -of destroyers and submarines, was inspected at Spithead by King George. -After a few days' fleet exercises in the Channel the great armament -dispersed, the first fleet going to Portland, the remainder to their -home ports to give manoeuvre leave. But in the meanwhile affairs on the -Continent became so threatening that it was deemed a wise precaution to -keep the first fleet in readiness where it was, and to defer giving -leave. On the 27th July Austria declared war against Serbia. Two days -later the first fleet steamed out of Portland and disappeared from -sight. Where it went we do not know, but in a short time it and all our -other fleets were swallowed up in "the fog of war", from which some of -their ships have from time to time made dramatic entrances upon the -scene of conflict, generally attended with unpleasant consequences to -the enemy. - -Events now moved with the greatest rapidity. Germany declared war on -Russia on 1st August, and on the day following her troops violated the -neutrality not only of Luxembourg but of Belgium, although she--equally -with Great Britain and France--had guaranteed the neutrality of the -latter country by a formal treaty. On 3rd August the action of Germany -automatically brought France into the war, and on the same day the -mobilization of the British fleet was completed at four o'clock in the -morning. On the 4th the British ultimatum was dispatched. It was -summarily rejected, and by 11 p.m. the two countries were at war. - -The next morning the first shots were fired by the British Navy. H.M.S. -_Amphion_, a smart four-funnelled vessel of the light-cruiser class, -which, with a flotilla of destroyers, was on patrol duty in the North -Sea, was spoken by a trawler about 9 a.m., who reported having recently -seen a suspicious steamer "throwing things overboard". The skipper -described her position as nearly as he could. It was easy to guess what -the "things" in question were. Germany had made little or no secret of -her intention to pursue a policy of strewing mines in the open sea, -though she had a fine fleet, only second to our own, both in numbers and -discipline. (Nelson, it may be pointed out, won the battle of St. -Vincent with 15 line-of-battle ships, 4 frigates, a brig and a cutter, -although he attacked an enemy fleet consisting of 27 line-of-battle -ships, 7 of which carried more guns than any English ship, and 13 -frigates.) We may well imagine the zest with which our little squadron -set off to punish the naval "dynamitards", and it was not long before a -mercantile-looking steamer hove in sight, which proved to be the -_Königin Luise_, of 2000 tons, belonging to the Hamburg-Amerika Line. -She was steering east, and four destroyers shot after her like -greyhounds unleashed. The chase was good for about twenty knots, but -after a thirty-mile run the _Amphion_ and destroyers opened fire, which -the German returned. The destroyer _Lance_ now crept up abreast of her -on the port hand and fired[81] at comparatively close quarters. Four -shots did the trick. The first absolutely wrecked her fore-bridge, the -second got her fair amidships between the funnels, while the last two -made such a mess of her stern that she began to founder. - -With true British sportsmanship and humanity, every attempt was at once -made to rescue her crew, with the result that twenty-eight escaped a -watery grave. The _Amphion_ and her satellites, having disposed of the -mine-layer, proceeded with their work until about 6.30 the following -morning. The flotilla was at this time in the neighbourhood of the spot -where the _Königin Luise_ had been dropping her mines. Every precaution -was taken to avoid what was supposed to be the dangerous area, but -suddenly, without any warning, the _Amphion_ struck a mine and the -catastrophe occurred. "A sheet of flame instantly enveloped the bridge, -rendered the captain insensible, and he fell on the fore-and-aft bridge. -As soon as he recovered consciousness he ran to the engine-room to stop -the engines, which were still going at revolutions for 20 knots. As all -the fore part was on fire, it proved impossible to reach the bridge or -to flood the fore magazine. The ship's back appeared to be broken, and -she was already settling down by the bows. All efforts were therefore -directed to placing the wounded in a place of safety, in case of -explosion, and towards getting her in tow by the stern. By the time the -destroyers closed, it was clearly time to abandon the ship. They fell in -for this purpose with the same composure that had marked their behaviour -throughout. All was done without hurry or confusion, and twenty minutes -after the mine was struck the men, officers, and captain left the -ship."[82] - -It was not long before the corner of the curtain shrouding the North Sea -was again raised for a moment to give us a fleeting glimpse of the -destruction of the German submarine U15 by the cruiser _Birmingham_. -There have been one or two versions of this event. According to one -account, the look-outs on board the cruiser "spotted" the periscope of a -German submarine rather over a mile distant and opened fire; and so good -was the marksmanship of her gunners that, small as was the target -offered by the periscope, it was carried away at the first shot. The -submarine dived, but, being unable to see where she was going, came to -the surface, only to have her conning-tower wrecked by another -projectile, which did so much damage that the U15 sank like a stone. -According to a well-known writer on naval matters[83] this story, -however, is "entirely fictitious, except in so far that the -_Birmingham_ did sink the U 15; but the real truth of the matter is that -the U 15 fired at a certain British ship and missed her. Thereafter the -U 15 might have got home in safety had not her captain imagined that he -had succeeded, and come to the surface to shout 'Deutschland über -alles'. That little incident settled the fate of the U 15, as she came -up alongside the _Birmingham_ and was sunk at once." - -This incident took place on the 9th August, and for the next fortnight -or so the "fog of war" rolled very thick over the North Sea. There is -reason to believe that things were not exactly peaceful during all this -time, since on the 19th there was an official reference to some -"desultory fighting", resulting in no loss to either side. Between the -24th and 28th the Germans sank twenty-two fishing-boats. Immediately -after, a well-planned move by the British Navy resulted in what is known -as the "Battle of the Bight". The rocky, cliff-bound islet known as -Heligoland--the German Gibraltar of the North Sea covering the -approaches to Cuxhaven and the Kiel Canal--was not so long ago a British -possession. It had been ours for over a century when we exchanged it for -Zanzibar, because we thought "there was more money in it". We had never -made any use of it when we had it. Had we fortified it, as the Germans -have now done, its value in the war would have been priceless. That we -did not do so may be set down to our fear of offending German -susceptibilities and to our fixed resolve not to contemplate a war with -Germany as being in the plane of practical politics. If any Government -had attempted to make an advanced naval base of it, what an outcry there -would have been! - -It has been described by a German naval writer as "the strategical basis -of the German fleet, distant about 40 miles from the mouths of the Elbe, -the Weser, and the Jadhe. It is a fortress of the most modern kind, -furnished with the newest weapons, and fortified with the utmost -technical skill. Its guns, contained in armour-plated revolving towers -and bomb-proof casemates, dominate the sea over a circle from 20 to 25 -miles in diameter. Powerful moles, some 650 feet long, protect the -flotillas of torpedo-boats and submarines, and great stores of -ammunition and supplies facilitate the provisioning of our ships."[84] - -Over and around this rock-bound fortress in the early hours of the -morning of 28th August hung a thick mist--almost a light fog. Now and -again the watchers on duty caught sight of the phantom shapes of the -German destroyers and torpedo-boats as they carried out their -never-ending sentry-go over the approaches to the Elbe. Presently out at -sea there were ruddy glimmers through the haze, followed by the slam of -small cannon. Away to the westward, in a lift of the mist, the German -patrols suddenly "spotted" the porpoise-like forms of three big -submarines brazenly exposing themselves on the surface, and a general -dash was made in the direction of this splendid "bag". - -But they were too late. The intruders had dived, and were out of sight -or hearing. Then suddenly broke out a rapid banging all round in the -mist. - -What was happening? As a matter of fact, our First and Third Destroyer -Flotillas, supported by the First Light-cruiser Squadron, and with the -First Battle-cruiser Squadron in reserve, were carrying out an ingenious -plan which was described as "a scooping movement" against the German -war-craft known to be in the neighbourhood of Heligoland. Some of our -submarines were also playing their part, and it is probable that the -"scoop" was planned on information previously gained by these little -craft, since it was officially announced by the Press Bureau, after the -battle, that "the success of this operation was due in the first -instance to the information brought to the admiral by the submarine -officers, who have, during the past three weeks, shown extraordinary -daring and enterprise in penetrating the enemy's waters". - -[Illustration: THE SINKING OF THE GERMAN CRUISER _MAINZ_ - -A snapshot from one of the British war-ships engaged in the fight off -Heligoland.] - -The three submarines were a decoy to draw the enemy's flotillas to the -westward. Then down came the saucy _Arethusa_, looking not unlike a big -destroyer herself, flying the broad pennant of Commodore R. Y. Tyrwhitt, -and the destroyers of the Third Flotilla. The new-comers immediately -attacked the German Flotilla, which was now making for Heligoland. The -_Arethusa_, in her turn, was attacked by two German cruisers, and there -was something in the nature of a general mêlée, in which the _Fearless_ -and the First Destroyer Flotilla very shortly took a hand. Our gunnery -seems to have been the more effective, but all the same our flotillas -were somewhat hardly pressed until the Light Cruiser Squadron, and -finally the battle-cruisers, with their enormous guns, came looming -colossal out of the mist and gave the German cruisers the _coup de -grâce_. The _Köln_ and _Mainz_ were set on fire and sunk outright, the -third cruiser, subsequently understood to have been the _Ariadne_, -disappeared blazing into the fog, only to founder shortly afterwards, -while two destroyers were also accounted for. The _Arethusa_ was -somewhat damaged, and was towed out of the fight by the _Fearless_. Of -course, with the arrival of our reinforcements, we were in overwhelming -superiority, and our principal risk lay in the enemy submarines, which -attempted an attack that was balked by the high speed of our ships and -the alertness of our destroyers. - -A thrilling account of the engagement is contained in a letter[85], -written by a naval officer who evidently was serving on board one of our -destroyers. I do not think I can do better than quote from it: "We -destroyers went in and lured the enemy out and had lots of excitement. -The big fellows then came up and did some excellent target practice, and -we were very glad to see them come; but they ought not to consider we -had a fight, because it was a massacre, not a fight. It was superb -generalship having overwhelming forces on the spot, but there was really -nothing for them to do except shoot the enemy, even as Pa shoots -pheasants. For us who put up the quarry in its lair, there was no doubt -more to do than 'shoot the enemy', for in our case the shooting was -passive and not active only! For that very reason the fight did us of -the destroyers more good than it did our big fellows, for my humble -opinion, based on limited observation, is that no ship is really herself -until she has been under fire. The second time she goes into action you -may judge her character; she is not likely to do normally well the first -time. We all need to be stiffened and then given a week or two to take -it all in. After that we are 'set'. A ship will always do better in her -second action. To see the old _Fearless_ charging around the field of -fight (it was her second engagement) seeking fresh foes was most -inspiriting. Until the big brothers came up she was absolutely all in -all to us, and she has no bigger guns than we have. I also learn that -there is all the difference in the world between a 4-inch gun in a -cruiser and a 4-inch gun in a destroyer. I would regard a cruiser armed -with a 3-inch as about a match for a destroyer with a 4-inch; but then I -have personally only looked at it from a destroyer point of view. But it -must be more unpleasant to have half a dozen plumped accurately and -together at you, with a well-arranged 'fire-control' guiding them, -watching their fall, and applying corrections to the range -scientifically and dispassionately, rather than to have isolated shots -banged off from a vibrating pulsating destroyer, turning this way and -that, with no one to look where the shot falls, except, perhaps, the -captain, who has a lot of other things to attend to.... - -"Have you ever watched a dog rush in on a flock of sheep and scatter -them? He goes for the nearest and barks at it, goes so much faster than -the flock that it bunches up with its companions; the dog then barks at -another and the sheep spread out fanwise, so that all round in front of -the dog is a semicircle of sheep and behind him none. That was much what -we did at 7 a.m. on the 28th. The sheep were the German torpedo-craft, -who fell back just on the limits of range and tried to lure us within -fire of the Heligoland forts. _Pas si bête!_ But a cruiser came out and -engaged our _Arethusa_; they had a real heart-to-heart talk while we -looked on, and a few of us tried to shoot at the enemy too, though it -was beyond our distance. We were getting nearer and nearer Heligoland -all the time; there was a thick mist, and I expected every minute to -find the forts on the island bombarding us; so _Arethusa_ presently drew -off after landing at least one good shell on the enemy. - -"Seeing our papers admit it, so may I--our fellows got quite a nasty -'tummy-ache'. The enemy gave every bit as good as he got there. We then -re-formed, but a strong destroyer belonging to the submarines got -chased, and _Arethusa_ and _Fearless_ went back to look after her, and -we presently heard a hot action astern. So the captain, who was in -command of the flotilla, turned us round and we went back to help, but -they had driven the enemy off, and on our arrival told us to form up on -the _Arethusa_. - -"When we had partly formed and were very much bunched together, a fine -target, suddenly out of the 'everywhere' arrived five shells not 150 -yards away. We gazed at whence they came, and again five or six stabs of -fire pierced the mist, and we made out a four-funnelled cruiser of the -'Breslau' class. These five stabs were her guns going off, of course. We -waited fifteen seconds and the shots and the noise of the guns arrived -pretty simultaneously fifty yards away. Her next salvo went over us, and -I, personally, ducked as they whirred overhead like a covey of fast -partridges. You would have supposed the captain had done this sort of -thing all his life; he gives me the impression of a Nelson officer who -has lived in a state of suspended animation since, but yet has kept pace -with the times, and is nowise perturbed at finding his frigate a -destroyer. He went full speed ahead at the first salvo to string the -bunch out and thus offer less target, and the commodore from the -_Arethusa_ made a signal to us to attack with torpedoes. - -"So we swung round at right angles and charged full speed at the enemy, -like a hussar attack. We got away at the start magnificently and led the -field, so that all the enemy's fire was aimed at us for the next ten -minutes. When we got so close that the debris of their shells fell on -board, we altered our course and so threw them out in their reckoning of -our speed, and they had all their work to do over again. You follow that -with a destroyer coming at you at 30 knots it means that the range is -decreasing at the rate of about 150 yards per ten seconds. When you see -that your last shot fell, say, 100 yards short, you put up 100 extra -yards on your sights; but this takes five seconds to do. When you have -in this way discovered his speed you put that correction in -automatically; a cruiser can do this, a destroyer has not room for the -complicated apparatus involved. Humanly speaking, therefore, the -captain, by twisting and turning at the psychological moment, saved us; -actually I feel we are in God's keeping these days. - -"After ten minutes we got near enough to fire our torpedo, and then -turned back to the _Arethusa_. Next our follower arrived just where we -had been and fired his torpedo, and of course the enemy fired at him, -instead of at us. What a blessed relief! It was like coming out of a -really hot and oppressive orchid house into the cool air of a summer -garden. A 'hot' fire is properly descriptive; it seems actually to be -hot! After the destroyers came the _Fearless_, and she stayed on the -scene, and soon we found she was engaging a three-funneller, the -_Mainz_. So off we started again to go for the _Mainz_, the situation -being, I take it, that crippled _Arethusa_ was too 'tummy'-aching to do -anything but be defended by us, her children. - -"Scarcely, however, had we started (I did not feel the least like -another gruelling) when from out the mist and across our front in -furious pursuit came the First Cruiser Squadron, the Town class, -_Birmingham_, &c., each unit a match for three _Mainz_, and as we looked -and reduced speed they opened fire, and the clear 'bang! bang!' of their -guns was just a cooling drink! To see a real big four-funneller spouting -flame, which flame denoted shells starting, and those shells not aimed -at us but for us, was the most cheerful thing possible. Even as -Kipling's infantryman, under heavy fire, cries 'The Guns, thank Gawd, -the Guns', when his own artillery has come into action over his head, so -did I feel as those 'Big Brothers' came careering across. - -"Once we were in safety I hated it. We had just been having our own -imaginations stimulated on the subject of shells striking us, and now, a -few minutes later, to see another ship not three miles away reduced to a -piteous mass of unrecognizability, wreathed in black fumes, from which -flared out angry gouts of fire like Vesuvius in eruption, as an unending -stream of 100-pound shells burst on board; it just pointed the moral and -showed us what might have been! The _Mainz_ was immensely gallant. The -last I saw of her, absolutely wrecked alow and aloft, her whole midships -a fuming inferno, she had one gun forward and one aft still spitting -forth fury and defiance, 'like a wild cat mad with wounds'. Our own -four-funnelled friend recommenced at this juncture with a couple of -salvos, but rather half-heartedly; and we really did not care a ----, -for there, straight ahead of us in lordly procession, like elephants -walking through a pack of 'pi-dogs', came the _Lion_, _Queen Mary_, -_Invincible_, and _New Zealand_, our battle-cruisers. Great and grim and -uncouth as some antediluvian monsters, how solid they looked, how -utterly earth-quaking. - -"We pointed out our latest aggressor to them, whom they could not see -from where they were, and they passed down the field of battle with the -little destroyers on their left and the destroyed on their right, and we -went west while they went east, and turned north between poor -four-funnels and her home, and just a little later we heard the thunder -of their guns for a space, then all silence, and we knew. Then wireless: -'_Lion_ to all ships and destroyers; retire'. That was all. - -"Remains only little details, only one of which I will tell you. The -most romantic, dramatic, and piquant episode that modern war can ever -show. The _Defender_, having sunk an enemy, lowered a whaler to pick up -her swimming survivors; before the whaler got back an enemy's cruiser -came up and chased the _Defender_, and thus she abandoned her whaler. -Imagine their feelings; alone in an open boat without food, twenty-five -miles from the nearest land, and that land the enemy's fortress, with -nothing but fog and sea around them. Suddenly a swirl alongside, and up, -if you please, pops His Britannic Majesty's submarine E 4, opens his -conning-tower, takes them all on board, shuts up again, dives, and -brings them home 250 miles! Is not that magnificent? No novel would dare -face the critics with an episode like that in it, except, perhaps, Jules -Verne--and all true!" - -FOOTNOTES: - -[81] The first shot, probably from the _Amphion_--thus the first shot of -the war afloat--was fired by Private J. B. King, R.M.L.I. (Plymouth), -who died of wounds in Netley Hospital soon after the sinking of the -_Amphion_. - -[82] Official account. - -[83] Fred. T. Jane, _Your Navy as a Fighting-machine_. - -[84] _Naval and Military Record._ - -[85] In the _Morning Post_. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -Operations in the North Sea and Channel - - "Grey and solemn on the wave, - Vast of beam, immense of length; - Coldly scorning death and grave-- - Citadel of monster strength. - - "Darkened sky and troubled sea, - Thunder-crashing sound in air; - Massive citadel--was she - Such a thing as founders there." - "Submarined." (From _The Battleship_, by Walter Wood, 1912.) - - -THE next phase of the naval operations in the Channel and North Sea does -not afford quite such satisfactory reading as the "Battle of the Bight", -for the loss of several of our cruisers and smaller vessels by mine and -torpedo has to be recorded. At the same time the very fact that our -ships were at sea, and so offering a target to the German submarines, -while their ships were hiding under the fortifications of Kiel and -Heligoland, must not be lost sight of. - -If we claim command of the sea we must face the risks of the position. -The sinking of a few men-of-war by mines or submarines will not transfer -the "trident of Neptune" to a fleet which only plays for safety, any -more than the destruction of one or two public buildings by a dynamitard -will give him the reins of government. The "silver lining" to the cloud -of our losses in men and material is the magnificent bravery and -discipline displayed by the crews of the vessels attacked, officers, -seamen, and marines alike. Space forbids a detailed account of each of -these losses, but it is as well to mention them. - -Thus the _Speedy_ and _Pathfinder_, small cruisers of mature age, were -blown up, the first by a mine, the second by a submarine, during -September. In the month of October the cruiser _Hawke_, when in company -with the _Theseus_ in the North Sea, was attacked and torpedoed by a -German submarine, while the _Hermes_, fitted as a tender for aeroplanes, -was sunk in a similar way in the Channel, where, on the 27th, the German -submarine service went so far as to torpedo the French steamer _Amiral -Ganteaume_, crowded as she was with 2500 refugees. The biggest and most -dramatic of the losses occasioned by the enemy submarines was the -torpedoing of the three big cruisers _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, and _Hogue_ on -the morning of 22nd September. The ships were by no means new, and their -loss is not to be compared with that of the many gallant men who formed -their crews. - -To quote the official statement issued to the Press: "The duty on which -these vessels were engaged was an essential part of the arrangements by -which the control of the seas and the safety of the country are -maintained, and the lives lost are as usefully, as necessarily, and as -gloriously devoted to the requirements of His Majesty's Service as if -the loss had been incurred in a general action." The ships were in the -neighbourhood of the Hook of Holland when they were attacked by the U -9--alone, according to the German story, though some of the survivors -think there were more, and claim that one was sunk. The _Aboukir_ was -the first victim, and the other ships, seeing her plight, stopped, or at -any rate reduced their speed, to lower their boats to pick up her men, -thus giving the enemy an opportunity of torpedoing them also which he -was not slow to take advantage of. - -"The natural promptings of humanity have in this case led to heavy -losses which would have been avoided by a strict adherence to military -considerations," remarked the authorized statement published by the -Press Bureau, which went on to point out the necessity of this rule -being observed, especially in the case of large ships. - -The material loss inflicted on the navy by the loss of the _Aboukir_, -_Cressy_, and _Hogue_ was not great. The three ships were all designed -as far back as 1898, which may perhaps account for the rapidity with -which they foundered, since the torpedo at that time was by no means so -formidable, either as regards range, accuracy, or explosive effect, as -those of to-day. It is probable, therefore, that the precautions against -these weapons, in the shape of internal subdivision, were not so -extensive as in our more modern ships of war. The _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, -and _Hogue_ were among our very oldest armoured cruisers, and, big as -they were, had a comparatively light armament considering their 12,000 -tons of displacement. - -Considering the extremely limited opportunities afforded by the coyness -of the German so-called "High Seas Fleet", our submarines and destroyers -retaliated fairly effectively. The E 9, one of our newest submarines, -commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton, R.N., torpedoed the -_Hela_, a light 2000-ton cruiser of an old type, on 13th September. The -ship was not a great loss to the German Navy, as she was quite an old -stager, dating from 1895, but the exploit was a notable one, being -carried out, as it was, well behind the Island of Heligoland, that very -formidable German naval fortress. - -The same boat scored another success on 6th October, when she sighted -two German destroyers patrolling off the mouth of the Ems, not far from -the island of Borkum, and managed to torpedo one of them--the S 126, of -420 tons. "It was an easier case than that of the _Hela_," said one of -the E9's crew on her return to Harwich, "but luck was with us." - -"When we rose," he said, "we saw two German destroyers travelling at a -speed of some 30 knots. Our commander was at the periscope, and ordered -the forward tubes to be fired." They then rose to the surface, and the -commander said: "Look at her; the beggar is going down." Then they saw -the German rise perpendicularly, and men rushed up to her stern and -dived into the water. The submarine then submerged and made her way -back. - -"I don't want to boast," continued the narrator, "but we got our -'rooties'[86] home. It was not a bad performance."[87] - -Again, a smart little action was fought on the afternoon of 17th October -between the light cruiser _Undaunted_, commanded by Captain Fox, who was -blown up in the _Amphion_--with the destroyers _Lance_, _Lennox_, -_Legion_, and _Loyal_, and four German destroyers, all of which were -sunk. - -"We steamed out of Harwich," wrote an officer who was engaged, "with all -the ships' companies jubilant and eager to get into the danger zone, as -it was reported that a 'certain amount of liveliness' prevailed in the -North Sea.[88] All was quiet till two o'clock, when, heading up -northwards and skirting the Dutch coast-line, we sighted the smoke of -four vessels. Our captain immediately cleared for action, and signalled -the order to chase. We steamed at top speed, with two destroyers -disposed on either side of us. It was a never-to-be-forgotten -sight--nerves strained to their utmost tension, and everybody as keen as -mustard. Sea and spray flew all over us, and covered us fore and aft. -The German destroyers turned about and fled, but we had the advantage in -speed, soon got within range with our 6-inch bow gun, and opened -fire.... Once within effective range our 4-inch semi-automatic guns -blazed away, the destroyers acting independently. The Germans, seeing -themselves cornered, altered course, with the intention of obtaining a -better strategic position. Most of their shooting was aimed at the -destroyers. Lusty cheers rang from our ships as the first German -destroyer disappeared. A 6-inch lyddite shell struck her just below the -bridge. She toppled over on her beam-ends like a wounded bird, then -righted herself level with the surface, and finally plunged, bow first, -all in about two minutes. - -[Illustration: "MISSED!"; THE HELM THE BEST WEAPON AGAINST TORPEDOES - -This picture illustrates an incident which has frequently occurred in -the patrol flotillas when destroyers have been hunting down submarines -and the latter have retaliated by firing torpedoes. Clever manoeuvring -in combination with good gunnery is the war-ship's best protection -against attack by submarine.] - -"We had by this time closed, and the enemy commenced firing their -torpedoes. They must have discharged at least eight, one missing our -stern by only a few yards. Fortunately for us, we caught sight of the -bubbles on the surface denoting its track, and just missed the fate of -the _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, _Hogue_, and _Hawke_ by a hairbreadth. At 2·55 -p.m. the second of the enemy's vessels was seen to be out of action, -being ablaze fore and aft, showing the fearful havoc our lyddite shells -were making. As each shell hit its mark, funnels, bridge, torpedo-tubes, -and all the deck fittings disappeared like magic, dense fumes from the -explosive covering the vessels fore and aft. We actually passed over the -spot where the first vessel had sunk, and just for the space of a couple -of seconds, as we were tearing through the water at over 30 knots an -hour, we caught sight of scores of poor wretches floating about and -clinging to charred and blackened debris and wreckage. This was truly a -pitiable sight, but as we had two more combatants to put out of action, -to stop at such close range, even to save life, would have been courting -disaster. We should have been merely exposing ourselves to torpedoes. We -had to tear along and try and forget the gruesome result of our work. -The second ship, now a mass of seething flame, sank quite level with the -water, and we soon had the remaining two literally holed and maimed. -Their firing was very poor and inaccurate, although several shells flew -around, throwing shrapnel bullets about. It was a marvel that none -struck us. The _Loyal_ and _Lennox_ got quite near one of the German -vessels. The surviving German fired her last torpedo, which, however, -went wide of the mark. During these activities we had closed in with the -last of the Kaiser's destroyers, and placed her _hors de combat_. The -_Legion_ had two wounded. By 3·30 the action was over, and the German -fleet had been reduced by four units. Then came the order to get out -boats and save life. Altogether we saved 2 officers and 29 men.... Those -wretched Teutons made a good fight. They were, of course, completely -outmatched." - -A few days afterwards the destroyer _Badger_ did a smart piece of work -in ramming and destroying a German submarine off the Dutch coast. The -Admiralty wired to her commanding officer--Commander C. A. -Fremantle--that they were "very pleased with your good service". But -about the same time our submarine E 3 was reported to have been lost in -the North Sea. The navy made rather a surprise appearance on the Belgian -coast towards the end of October, enfilading the right of the German -attack on Nieuport, which was being stoutly defended by the Belgians, -and formed the extreme left of the "far-flung battle line" of the -Allies. Three "Monitors"--novel craft in our service--which had been -building for Brazil, but had been taken up by the Admiralty at the -outbreak of war, played the leading part to begin with, but later on -other heavier ships took a hand in the proceedings. The "Monitors" were -especially well adapted for work in the shallow waters between Dunkirk -and Zeebrügge. Their appearance was unexpected by the Germans, who -suffered severely from their fire, and were unable to press their attack -against Nieuport. The "Monitors" _Mersey_, _Severn_, and _Humber_, -assisted by destroyers and a French flotilla, steamed within a couple of -miles of the shore and were in action from 6 a.m. till 6 p.m. on the -first day. Their fire was incessant, one vessel alone firing 1000 -lyddite and shrapnel shells. The German trenches, which were about 3 -miles inland, were especially aimed at, and the most terrible execution -was done upon the troops in them. The German batteries among the big -sand-dunes along the beach also came in for a good deal of attention. -One battery of field-guns was entirely wiped out, a train collected to -force the passage of the Yser was totally dispersed, an ammunition -column blown up, and General von Tripp and the whole of his staff, who -were near Westende, were killed. - -The Germans seemed unable to make an effective reply, and even an -aeroplane sent up to signal the ranges by smoke-balls proved a failure. -By the end of the day the Germans had lost 4000 men and had been driven -from the coast, where nothing was visible but dense masses of black -smoke and lurid patches of flame. The British fire was extremely rapid, -some of the guns firing no less than fourteen rounds a minute at times. -A few casualties were suffered by the British, but no material damage of -a serious nature was sustained, although exposed both to gun-fire and, -it is stated, to submarine attacks, which were warded off by the -attendant destroyers. - -The British Navy continued to do valuable work on the Belgian coast for -a considerable time. The _Venerable_, a pre-Dreadnought battleship, did -great execution with her big 12-inch guns, which outranged the German -batteries. In November, Zeebrügge, where the enemy had established a -submarine station, was heavily bombarded and considerable damage done. -The British casualties during these coastal operations were but slight. -The destroyer _Falcon_, however, received one very destructive shell, -which killed 1 officer and 8 men and wounded 1 officer and 15 men. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[86] i.e. torpedoes. - -[87] _Naval and Military Record._ - -[88] _Ibid._ - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -In the Outer Seas - - "The idea that an inferior power, keeping its - battleships in port and declining fleet actions, can, - nevertheless, bring the trade of an enemy to a - standstill, has no basis either in reason or - experience." - - SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE. - - -IT had been generally understood that the German programme of -hostilities against this country--when the "selected moment" -arrived--was to deliver a sudden blow with the full force of their fleet -against ours, before the declaration of war and during a time of -"strained relations". The first move would probably have been made by -submarines and destroyers, and it was hoped that after a successful -surprise attack, before war was declared, the German High Seas Fleet -would be stronger than the residuum of our own. - -For various reasons, which we have not room to discuss here, the Germans -had made up their minds that in August, 1914, Great Britain would _not_ -fight, and that they would be able to carry out their programme against -France, Russia, and Belgium, after which they would decide exactly their -selected moment to attack us. At the outbreak of war their High Seas -Fleet was apparently lying in different deep fiords on the Norwegian -coast. What it was doing there, goodness only knows; but we may be sure -it was not for anybody's good, except, possibly, Germany's. - -Anyway, these ships were not in a position to carry out the programme -laid down for war with England, and so scurried back to the security of -their fortified bases. So, also, they were not quite ready for raiding -our commerce. Still, they were able to put a good many cruisers, regular -and auxiliary, on the ocean highways, and for a time gave us a good deal -of trouble. In the Mediterranean they had the big battle-cruiser -_Goeben_ and the small cruiser _Breslau_, and on the morning of 4th -August these two ships bombarded Bona and Philippeville on the Algerian -coast. They did but little damage; in fact, it was merely a "runaway -knock". The next morning they arrived at Messina, a neutral port, where -they had either to remain indefinitely and be disarmed or leave within a -prescribed period. The German officers decided to leave, and after a -theatrical business of devoting themselves to death, and depositing -their wills and private papers with the German Consul--taking good care -to report this to the Berlin Press, which published glowing accounts of -the "mad daring" of their devoted seamen--they got under way and steamed -out, with colours flying and bands playing. - -Soon after midnight--6th-7th August--the look-outs on board the -_Gloucester_, a light cruiser carrying no heavier gun than a 6-inch, -"spotted" them moving along under cover of the land. After steering a -parallel course for some time she crossed their sterns to get between -them and the land in order to see them better, and hung closely to them -all night and morning. "We let the two ships go on under cover of the -darkness," wrote one of the crew, "and they were moving without lights -at about 23 knots, and then followed almost at full speed. The _Goeben_ -went on ahead, and the _Breslau_ not far behind her. Just about two -o'clock the _Breslau_ slowed down.... As far as we could tell she fired -two torpedoes ... and then discharged several salvoes from her 4-inch -guns. We at once replied with our fore 6-inch gun, and, although it was -dark, we found that with the second shell we cleared her -quarter-deck.... Neither the torpedoes nor shells from the _Breslau_ hit -their mark.... Although they were slightly faster vessels, we kept our -distance from them without losing anything all day, and in the -afternoon sighted the Greek coast after having made the fastest run -across that open bit of water that ever was made. The weather was fine, -and there was not a sight of another war-ship except the Germans.... -When they were off Cape Matapan, the most southerly point of the Greek -mainland, the _Breslau_ stopped again, as she had done in the night, and -waited for us to come on. This time we did not wait for her to open -fire, but discharged our fore 6-inch gun directly we got within -range."[89] - -"After the first shot," wrote another _Gloucester_, "our lads were quite -happy, and they kept firing as quickly as possible. One chap near -swallowed his 'chew of 'baccy' when the first shot fell short. The next -one he spat on for luck, and it took half the _Breslau's_ funnel away. -He repeated the operation on the next shot, which cleared her -quarter-deck and put her after-gun out of action. Then he began to -smile."[90] - -This interchange of compliments lasted nearly five-and-twenty minutes. -The _Breslau_ fired heavily, but, though her gunnery was good, she had -nothing bigger than a 4-inch gun, and the _Gloucester_ was so well -handled by her captain--W. A. H. Kelly, M.V.O.--that every salvo arrived -just after she had left the spot where it arrived. At last the big -_Goeben_ turned slowly round and approached the plucky little British -cruiser and opened fire, but without effect. As a single shot from her -heavy guns would have put the _Gloucester_ out of action, and probably -sunk her, she withdrew in accordance with her instructions. The _Goeben_ -and _Breslau_ eventually arrived at Constantinople, where the farce of a -sale to Turkey was carried out; but they left behind a good deal of the -prestige of the German Navy and a new phrase for our bluejackets' -vocabulary--the "_Goeben_ glide"--that is, to "skedaddle rather than -fight". - -About five German cruisers were known to be in the Atlantic, and a -considerable force of both our own and the French cruisers set to work -to "round them up". The _König Wilhelm der Grosse_, a big armed -mercantile cruiser of 14,000 tons and ten 4-inch guns, was "bagged" by -the _Highflyer_ off the Oro River on the West African coast on 26th -August. She had sunk three of our merchantmen, and was holding up a -couple more when the _Highflyer_ hove in sight. The German, a much -faster vessel, was made fast to a captured collier, from which she was -coaling, which enabled the _Highflyer_, which dated from 1900, to get -within range with her heavier guns. "If all British ships shoot as -straight as the _Highflyer_," said the captain of _König Wilhelm der -Grosse_, "I shall be sorry for our poor fellows in the North Sea." -Nearly a month later the _Carmania_, a big armed liner, sank the _Cap -Trafalgar_, a similar vessel--which was disguised as a "Castle" liner -with grey hull and red funnels--off the Island of Trinidad to the -eastward of Rio de Janeiro. - -"We sighted the German", wrote an officer on board the _Carmania_, -"about 10 a.m. on 14th September, in the South Atlantic. She was coaling -from a collier, and two others were standing off. On sighting us the -_Cap Trafalgar_ hurried off, smothering the colliers, and soon after the -latter steered to the eastward and the _Cap Trafalgar_ to the -southwards. We steamed after her at top speed, and when about 4 miles -off, she turned and steered towards us. We were cleared for action, and -had been standing by our guns for some time, all strangely fascinated by -the movements of our enemy. When about 3-1/2 miles off we fired our -challenge shot across her bows, and immediately after this she displayed -her colours at the masthead, and fired her first shot from her starboard -after-guns. This shot came right close over our heads, dropping in the -water. Then the firing from both ships became fast and furious. -Projectiles and splinters from bursting shells showered around us. The -engagement began at 12.10 midday and lasted hot until about 1.10 p.m., -when she showed signs of having been badly hit, and was taking a heavy -list to starboard, and was on fire fore and aft. We were also on fire -on our fore-bridge. Our bridge-telegraphs and steering-gear were -completely wrecked, and the captain's cabin, the chart-house, and a -number of officers' quarters were gutted. We were also badly holed by -her fire. When we found we had crippled our enemy, and that she was -sinking, we ceased firing, although her colours were still flying. She -gradually listed over till her funnels nearly touched the water. Then -she settled down forward till her second funnel almost disappeared. At -last she rolled over, showing her keel and propellers, stood up on end, -and gradually assumed a perpendicular position and dived out of sight. - -"We could make out some boats with survivors, and one of the colliers -rendered assistance. We had to clear away, because low down on the -horizon the signalman saw smoke and what appeared to be the _Dresden_. -We steered away south, and then doubled on our course. By that time -darkness was setting in, and we thus escaped her clutches." - -An auxiliary cruiser, of course, would not stand much chance in a duel -with a man-of-war cruiser, as was shown by that between the _Highflyer_ -and the _König Wilhelm der Grosse_, a much newer, larger, and faster -ship. Rather later in the year the _Navarra_, another German auxiliary -cruiser of the Hamburg-Amerika line, was sunk also in South Atlantic -waters by the British auxiliary cruiser _Orama_, an Orient liner. The -Germans do not appear to have put up much of a fight, and the British -gunnery proved much superior, but details are wanting.[91] - -If space permitted, a good deal more might be written about the cruiser -operations in the Atlantic, but we have now to turn our attention to the -Indian Ocean. The first incident to be noticed is an adverse one to the -British. The _Pegasus_, a small cruiser dating from 1899, after having -in conjunction with the _Astrea_ destroyed the German wireless station -at Dar-es-Salem, and sunk the gunboat _Möwe_ and a floating-dock, was -caught while overhauling her machinery in the harbour of Zanzibar by the -German light cruiser _Königsberg_, a much newer vessel. - -The _Königsberg_ approached at full speed at five o'clock on Sunday -morning, 20th September, and, having sunk the British patrol boat by -three shots, opened fire on the _Pegasus_ from 5 miles distance, closing -to 7000 yards. The _Pegasus_, being at anchor, presented an easy target, -and the German fire was so well directed that in a quarter of an hour -the only guns she could bring to bear were put out of action. - -After an interval the German re-opened fire for another fifteen minutes, -after which she stood out to sea. The British crew, caught under such -disadvantageous circumstances, showed true heroism, though, as may be -supposed, they suffered very severely. The ensign was twice shot away, -but afterwards held up proudly by hand by two men of the detachment of -Royal Marines, who stationed themselves in the most conspicuous place -they could find. One was killed by a shell and his place was at once -taken by another comrade. The _Pegasus_ was holed badly on the -water-line, her fires had to be put out, and she was run aground in -shallow water but subsequently driven by wind and tide into deeper -water, where she sank. - -It was at about this time that the German light cruiser _Emden_ began to -gain notoriety. She had belonged to the German squadron in China, but -had slipped away south, and now began to sink one after another of our -merchantmen in the Indian Ocean. This was in contravention of -international law, but as, generally speaking, her commander, Captain -Müller, saved their crews, and showed both dash and humanity, the -British public were more or less inclined to look with a lenient eye on -his semi-piratical proceedings. He fired a few shots at Madras and -destroyed an oil-tank, and at Singapore torpedoed the _Jemtchug_, a -Russian gunboat, and the _Mousquet_, a French destroyer. The _Emden_ was -enabled to approach unsuspected on account of having rigged up an extra -funnel and hoisted Japanese colours. However, her day was yet to come. - -By this time British, Russian, Japanese, and French cruisers in the East -were on the qui vive, as well as those belonging to the newly-formed -fleet of the Australian Commonwealth, and it is to one of the Australian -cruisers, the _Sydney_, that the honour of ridding the seas of the -"wanted" _Emden_ belongs. On 9th November the raiding German arrived at -the Cocos Keeling Islands, an isolated group in the Indian Ocean, and, -landing a party of men, set about destroying the British wireless -station. Luckily the operators were suspicious of the strange craft, and -managed to get off a message which reached the cruisers _Melbourne_ and -_Sydney_ in a somewhat broken condition. "Strange warship--off entrance" -it ran. This was about seven in the morning, when they were 50 miles to -the eastward of the islands, and in charge of a convoy. The _Melbourne_, -as senior officer, ordered the _Sydney_ off at full speed to -investigate. Before half-past nine the tops of the _Emden's_ funnels -were made out close to the feathery palm tops denoting the position of -the Cocos. She was 10 or 14 miles distant, but she "spotted" the -_Sydney_, and very soon opened fire at a tremendous range. - -"Shortly after, we started in on her," wrote one of the _Sydney's_ -officers.[92] "The Australian opened fire from her port guns. Before -long a shot from the _Emden_ knocked out nearly the whole gun's crew of -No. 2 gun on the starboard side." - -"There was a lot of 'Whee-oo, whee-oo, whee-oo'," continued the officer -above quoted, "and the 'But-but-but' of the shell striking the water -beyond, and, as the range was pretty big, this was quite possible, as -the angle of descent would be pretty steep. Coming aft, I heard a shot -graze the top of No. 1 Starboard. A petty-officer now came up limping -from aft, and said that he had just carried an officer below (he was -not dangerously hit) and that the after-control position had been -knocked right out, and everyone wounded (they were marvellously lucky). -I told him if he was really able to carry on to go aft to No. 2 -Starboard and see there was no fire, and, if there was, that any charges -about were to be thrown overboard at once. He was very game and limped -away aft. He got aft to find a very bad cordite fire just starting. He, -with others, got this put out. I later noticed some smoke rising aft, -and ran aft to find it was but the remnant of what they had put out, but -found two men, one with a pretty badly wounded foot, sitting on the -gun-platform, and a petty-officer lying on the deck a little farther aft -with a nasty wound in his back. I found one of the men was unwounded but -badly shaken. However, he pulled himself together when I spoke to him, -and told him I wanted him to do what he could for the wounded. I then -ran back to my group.[93] - -"All the time we were going at 25 and sometimes as much as 26 knots. We -had the speed of the _Emden_ and fought as suited ourselves.... Best of -all was to see the gun-crews fighting their guns quite unconcerned. When -we were last in Sydney, we took on board three boys from the -training-ship _Tingira_ who had volunteered. The captain said: 'I don't -really want them, but as they are keen, I'll take them'. Now the action -was only a week or two afterwards, but the two out of the three who were -directly under my notice were perfectly splendid. One little slip of a -boy did not turn a hair, and worked splendidly. The other boy, a very -sturdy youngster, carried projectiles from the hoist to his gun -throughout the action without so much as thinking of cover. I do think -that for two boys absolutely new to their work they were splendid.... -Coming aft the port side from the forecastle gun, I was met by a lot of -men cheering and waving their caps. I said: 'What's happened?' 'She's -gone, sir, she's gone!' I ran to the ship's side and no sign of a ship -could I see. If one could have seen a dark cloud of smoke it would have -been different. But I could see no sign of anything. So I called out: -'All hands turn out the life-boats; there will be men in the water'. -They were just starting to do this when someone called out: 'She's still -firing, sir,' and everyone ran back to the guns. - -"What had happened was, a cloud of yellow or very light-coloured smoke -had obscured her from view, so that looking in her direction one's -impression was that she had totally disappeared. Later we turned again -and engaged her on the other broadside. By now her three funnels and her -foremast had been shot away, and she was on fire aft. We turned again, -and after giving her a salvo or two with the starboard guns, saw her run -ashore on North Keeling Island. So at 11.20 a.m. we ceased firing, the -action having lasted one hour forty minutes. Our hits were not very -serious. We were 'hulled' in about three places. The shell that exploded -in the boys' mess-deck, apart from ruining the poor little beggars' -clothes, provided a magnificent stock of trophies. For two or three days -they kept finding fresh pieces. The only important damage was the after -control-platform, which is one mass of gaping holes and tangled iron, -and the foremost range-finder shot away. Other hits, though -'interesting', don't signify." As for the _Emden_, she was a perfect -shambles. Her voice-pipes had been shot away early in the action, and, -with the exception of the forecastle, everything was wrecked on the -upper deck. The German party on shore seized a schooner, the _Ayesha_, -and contrived to escape to sea. - -Thus ended the adventurous career of the _Emden_, by far the most -successful of the German commerce-raiders. In seven weeks she had -destroyed something like 70,000 tons of British shipping, so that the -news of her suppression was most welcome in Great Britain. But no one -who has not been in Australia will be able to realize the delight and -exultation the news of the _Sydney's_ exploit brought to the people of -that island continent. That one of their own ships, out of the many that -were looking out for the _Emden_, should so effectively have disposed of -her was the most magnificent and acceptable news that could be imagined, -and it is hoped that her guns will be salved and placed as trophies in -the big Australian cities. - -Almost simultaneously another sea-wasp, the _Königsberg_, the same -vessel which had so mauled the _Pegasus_, besides doing other mischief -among our merchant-shipping, was "cornered" by the cruiser _Chatham_ in -the Rufigi River on the East Coast of Africa. Harried this way and that -by our cruisers, she at last took refuge so far up the river that she -was out of range from the _Chatham's_ guns. At the same time she landed -a party of her men on an island at the mouth of the river with Maxims -and quick-firing guns. Here they entrenched themselves. The British at -once sent secretly to Zanzibar and procured a steamer--the -_Newbridge_--loaded with 1500 tons of coal, which, upon arrival, they -deliberately anchored across the river channel, in spite of the fire -directed upon them by the German detachment on the island. When all was -ready, her crew took to their boats, blew three holes in her bottom, and -sank her, effectually "bottling up" the _Königsberg_. Several casualties -were incurred during this operation. The German cruiser after this -contrived to conceal her exact position for some time, by fastening the -tops of palm-trees to her masts, but an aeroplane, being brought down -the coast in the _Kinfauns Castle_, flew over her and indicated her -position by means of smoke bombs, enabling her to be fired at, at long -range, by the 12-inch guns of the battleship _Goliath_, which had now -arrived on the scene. - -Powerful as were the battleship's guns, they were unable to effect her -destruction. It was not until several months had elapsed that the -British Navy was able to finish off the German cruiser. The work was -eventually carried out by the little monitors _Severn_ and _Mersey_, -which had made their _debut_ on the Belgian coast. While the _Weymouth_ -and _Pioneer_ engaged the guns on the island and others which had been -mounted on the river bank, the two monitors steamed up the river and -engaged the _Königsberg_. The battle lasted for a long time, as the -raider was so ensconced in jungle that the airmen who were "spotting" -for the British found the greatest difficulty in seeing where their shot -fell. Most of the time the German got six guns to bear on the monitors, -and generally fired salvoes. After six hours her masts were still -standing, but shortly afterwards she was set on fire by a salvo from the -monitors. Her effective guns were reduced to one, and before long she -ceased fire altogether. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[89] _Naval and Military Record._ - -[90] _Ibid._ - -[91] _Journal of Commerce_, Weekly Edition, 14th April, 1915. - -[92] In the _Times_. - -[93] i.e. of guns. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -A Reverse and a Victory - - "Through the fog of the fight we could dimly see, - As ever the flame from the big guns flashed, - That Cradock was doomed, yet his men and he, - With their plates shot to junk and their turrets smashed, - Their ship heeled over, her funnels gone, - Were fearlessly, doggedly, fighting on. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - "We could see by the flashes, the dull, dark loom - Of their hull as it bore toward the Port of Doom, - Away on the water's misty rim-- - Cradock and his few hundred men, - Never, in time, to be seen again. - - "While into the darkness their great shells screamed, - Little the valiant Germans dreamed - That Cradock was teaching them how to go - When the fate their daring, itself, had sealed, - Waiting, as yet, o'er the ocean's verge, - To their eyes undaunted would stand revealed; - And snared by a stronger, swifter foe, - Out-classed, out-metalled, out-ranged, out-shot - By heavier guns, but not out-fought, - They, too, would sink in the sheltering surge." - JOHN E. DOLSON. (In an American Newspaper.) - - -A SAD but glorious day in the annals of the British Navy has now to be -referred to--the defeat of Sir Christopher Cradock's squadron off the -coast of Chile, with the loss of the _Good Hope_ and _Monmouth_ with all -hands. Sad because of the defeat and the loss of so many gallant -officers and men--glorious on account of the way they fought and met -their deaths. It is the only thing approaching a naval victory scored by -the Germans up to the time of writing. - -The German squadron, which was commanded by Admiral Graf von Spee, -consisted of the _Scharnhorst_, _Gneisenau_, _Dresden_, _Nürnberg_, and -_Leipzig_. The two former had been on the Chinese station and were big -armoured cruisers of 11,600 tons, dating from 1907. They were sister -ships, each mounting eight 8·2-inch, six 6-inch, and several smaller -guns. The _Scharnhorst_ (flag) was the crack gunnery ship of the German -fleet. The other three ships were third-class cruisers of between 3000 -and 4000 tons, similar to the _Emden_, and carried ten 4·1-inch guns -apiece, firing 34-pound projectiles. They had been carrying on various -separate commerce-raiding operations in the Pacific, had bombarded the -French port of Papeete in Tahiti, and now, when the numerous cruisers of -the allied Powers were beginning to make the Pacific Ocean "unhealthy" -for them, had apparently concentrated off the Chilian coast with the -view of slipping out of it into the Atlantic in hopes of doing further -mischief, after capturing the Falkland Islands as a base, or possibly of -eventually attempting to find their way back to a German port. - -On 1st November at 2 p.m. a British squadron consisting of the _Good -Hope_ (14,100 tons), _Monmouth_ (9800 tons), _Glasgow_ (4800 tons), and -_Otranto_ (12,100 tons) were at sea to the westward of Coronel, in -Chile, when it was reported that there were enemy's ships in the -neighbourhood. The two first-named ships were armoured cruisers of large -size, but not too well gunned for their displacement. The _Good Hope_ -had a couple of 9·2-inch guns and sixteen 6-inch guns, the _Monmouth_ -fourteen 6-inch guns. The _Glasgow_ was a light cruiser with two 6-inch -and ten 4-inch guns, while the _Otranto_ was merely a big mail-boat, -belonging to the Orient line, armed as a mercantile auxiliary. - -At 4.20 the smoke of hostile ships was made out on the horizon, and -about a quarter to six the British squadron was formed in line ahead in -the order in which their names have been already noted. The enemy came -in sight about this time at 12 miles distance, but kept away as long as -the sun was above the horizon, as it showed them up well to our gunners -and was in the eyes of their own. As soon as it dipped, the light was -entirely in their favour. The grey forms of their ships were but dimly -discernible, whilst ours were silhouetted black against the ruddy glow -of the sunset. - -The following account of the action is from the pen of one of the crew -of the _Glasgow_:[94] "By 6 p.m. we were steaming abreast each other. -The _Monmouth_, as she passed us close on our port side, gave us a few -cheers, which were readily returned. Everyone was stripped and ready, -and all seemed satisfied to think that we had found the enemy after -searching for nearly three months. The sea was still very rough, and the -ships were washing down forward. The enemy's squadron seemed to be going -faster than we were, and were getting on our port bow. The sun was -setting in the west, and we must have made very nice targets for the -Germans, as we were between them and the sun. They had some dark clouds -behind them and were difficult to see even then. As soon as the sun had -set they altered course towards us, and we turned slightly towards them, -the _Otranto_ going away off our starboard quarter and taking no part in -the action. As soon as the enemy were within 14,000 yards they opened -fire, each of the armoured ships firing at the _Good Hope_ and -_Monmouth_, while the two smaller ships concentrated their fire on the -_Glasgow_, although they did not open fire until the fourth ship had -joined them and they had got much closer than when the armoured ships -opened fire. - -"The _Good Hope_ and _Monmouth_ returned the enemy's fire, and soon the -action became general. We were very close to each other on the British -side, but the Germans were much farther apart. The enemy soon got the -range of our ships and were hitting the _Good Hope_ and the _Monmouth_ -very often, and it was not long before the _Good Hope_ was on fire. Soon -after the _Monmouth_ took fire, but this was kept under. - -"After about forty minutes the _Good Hope_ seemed to break out of the -line and close towards the enemy, and she was not seen again (although -some state that she was still firing her after-turret)." According to -the official report made by the captain of the _Glasgow_: "At 7.50 p.m. -an immense explosion occurred on board _Good Hope_ amidships, flames -reaching 200 feet high. Total destruction must have followed. It was now -quite dark." - -The _Monmouth_ and _Glasgow_ still fought on gamely, both sides firing -at the flashes, the Germans firing salvoes. "The _Monmouth_ was very -badly damaged by this time", continues the account we have already -quoted, "and she hauled off to starboard, followed by the _Glasgow_, as -the big ships had now commenced to fire on us as well as the small ones. -It was very dark now, but owing to the fire on the _Monmouth_ no doubt -the enemy had a good mark to aim at. The enemy's fire ceased as soon as -we turned away to starboard. It could easily be seen as we passed the -_Monmouth_ that she had suffered heavily, and it appeared to me that she -was still on fire. She also had a list to port and was down by the head. - -"Our captain made a signal to her, asking if she was all right, and was -told that she was making water badly forward and was trying to get her -stern to the sea. He then asked him if he could steer north-west, but -received no reply. The enemy were now coming towards us, and we thought -that we might have drawn them away from the _Monmouth_, but in a few -minutes we could see search-lights and gun-flashes, and we knew that it -was the _Monmouth_ they were firing on." Under the growing light of a -full moon, which was now rising slowly in the stormy heavens, the -practically undamaged German squadron was seen bearing down directly on -the little _Glasgow_, which, as she could by no possibility be of any -assistance to the _Monmouth_, made off at full speed to avoid -annihilation, and by 8.50 had run the enemy out of sight. About half an -hour later a number of flashes were seen afar off, which, without doubt, -marked the death throes of the gallant _Monmouth_. The _Glasgow_ was -badly knocked about. She had an enormous gash in her side 9 feet long -and 3 feet wide, besides minor injuries. But she lived not only to fight -another day, but to take signal revenge on her opponents. - -"Nothing could have been more admirable than the conduct of the officers -and men throughout. Though it was most trying to receive a great volume -of fire without chance of returning it adequately, all kept perfectly -cool, there was no wild firing, and discipline was the same as at -battle-practice. When target ceased to be visible, gunlayers -spontaneously ceased fire."[95] - -It must be borne in mind that the only guns in the British squadron -equal in power to the sixteen 8·2-inch much more modern weapons of the -two big German armoured cruisers were the two 9·2-inch guns carried by -the _Good Hope_, one of which was knocked out ten minutes after the -battle began. - -The _Glasgow_, on the second day after her escape, had a curious -experience, if we are to believe the story of one of her men, as she ran -plump into a sleeping whale! "That was another shock for us. The ship -trembled and we all rushed up on deck to find out what had happened." -The _Glasgow_ picked up the pre-Dreadnought battleship _Canopus_, which -at the time of the fight was unfortunately 200 miles away to the -southward, and both ships proceeded in company to Port Stanley in the -Falkland Islands. The German ships do not appear to have followed them, -but went to Valparaiso, presumably to send home news of their victory. -The news of the disaster to Sir Christopher Cradock's squadron naturally -created great enthusiasm in Germany and corresponding grief in this -country. But the naval authorities, in dead secrecy, at once prepared to -settle accounts with Von Spee and his ships. On the 8th December, just -over a month after the catastrophe off Coronel, their efforts bore the -fullest fruit. On the previous day a squadron consisting of the -battle-cruisers _Invincible_ and _Inflexible_ and the cruisers -_Carnarvon_, _Cornwall_, _Bristol_, and _Kent_, under the command of Sir -F. C. Doveton Sturdee, had arrived at Port Stanley in the Falkland -Islands, their crews greeting the _Glasgow_, which was lying there in -company with the _Canopus_, with round after round of cheering. - -The inhabitants of these remote islands were unfeignedly glad to see the -new arrivals, since they had received warning that they might expect a -German raid. At 8 a.m. the look-outs on Sapper Hill to the south-west of -Port Stanley reported columns of smoke coming up over the south-west -horizon. Soon afterwards a two-funnelled ship and a four-funneller were -made out, and the _Kent_ was ordered out to the harbour mouth and orders -given for all ships to raise steam for full speed. The _Kent_, it is -interesting to note, went into action this day flying the silken ensign -and jack which had been presented by the ladies of Kent on her first -commission. To conceal the presence of the two big battle-cruisers, -which might be spotted by their tripod masts, these two ships were -ordered to stoke up with oil fuel, and the thick black greasy smoke -billowing from their funnels soon shrouded the harbour with a dusky -veil. Twenty minutes later other smoke columns were reported more to the -southward. - -The two ships first observed, which proved to be the _Gneisenau_ and -_Nürnberg_, continued to advance steadily towards the island, training -their guns on the wireless station, and about an hour and a half after -they had first been sighted came within 11,000 yards of the _Canopus_, -which let fly at them with her big guns, firing over the low-lying land -between the south side of the harbour and the open sea. The Germans at -once hoisted their colours and turned away. Then, seeing the _Kent_ at -the harbour mouth, they turned towards her, but very shortly afterwards -turned away again and went off at full speed towards their consorts, who -were now coming up. It is thought that they must have got a glimpse of -the "surprise packet", in the shape of the _Invincible_ and -_Inflexible_, that was awaiting their advent. - -At a quarter to ten the _Carnarvon_, _Inflexible_, _Invincible_, and -_Cornwall_ weighed and stood out to sea in the order named, and overtook -the _Kent_ and the _Glasgow_, which had gone out and joined her a few -minutes earlier. The German ships were now in full sight to the -south-east--hull down, and doing the "_Goeben_ glide" for all they were -worth. In the British ships the stokers were working furiously, the -smoke belching in thick volumes from the funnels; and, with every man at -his post, their decks flooded with water as a preventive against fire, -and hoses ready, the vessels gradually gathered way. - -At 10.25 the big ships were making 23 knots, and gradually drew ahead of -their consorts. The _Invincible_ led, the _Inflexible_ followed at some -little distance on her starboard quarter. The _Glasgow_--all on board -burning with eagerness to avenge their late squadron-mates--was ordered -to keep at 2 miles distance from the flagship. It was a fine, clear, -bright day, comparatively warm for those latitudes, and it was easy to -keep the enemy in sight. - -Shortly before one o'clock the two battle-cruisers opened fire with -their big guns, presently concentrating on the light cruiser _Leipzig_. -She was not hit, but the big shots crept closer and closer, till after -about a quarter of an hour she turned away to the south-west, followed -by the _Dresden_ and _Nürnberg_. At the same time the remaining German -ships, the two big armoured cruisers, turned slightly to port and began -to return the fire of our battle-cruisers. Thenceforward the fighting -resolved itself into two battles, one between the big ships, the other -between the smaller cruisers. - -As soon as the German light cruisers turned off to their starboard hand -the _Kent_, _Glasgow_, and _Cornwall_ started after them in accordance -with the orders they had received from Admiral Sturdee. The _Bristol_ -had previously signalled that three more Germans, looking like colliers -or transports, had appeared off the Falklands, and, having received -orders to take the armed auxiliary cruiser _Macedonia_ with her and -destroy them, had proceeded to chase them to the westward. The strangers -turned out to be two and not three ships, the _Baden_ and _St. Isabel_. -Both were captured and sunk after the removal of their crews. - -Meanwhile the _Invincible_ and _Inflexible_ were pressing closer and -closer on the _Scharnhorst_ and _Gneisenau_. "Suddenly we altered -course", wrote a midshipman on board the _Invincible_ to his father,[96] -"and made for the enemy. I had not noticed we were closing, and when -their first salvo went off I was still on the top of the turret. I could -see all the shells coming at us, and I felt they were all coming -straight at me. However, they all missed except one, which hit the side -of the ship near the ward-room, and made a great green flash, and sent -splinters flying all round. I hopped below armour quickly and started -working again. We were nearing the _Scharnhorst_ and began firing for -all we were worth. We hit again and again. First our left gun sent her -big crane spinning over the side. Then our right gun blew her funnel to -atoms, and then another shot from the left gun sent her bridge and part -of the forecastle sky-high. - -"We were not escaping free, however. Shots were hitting us repeatedly, -and the spray from the splashes of their shells was hiding the -_Scharnhorst_ from us. Suddenly a great livid flame rushed through the -gun-ports, and splinters flew all round, and we felt the whole 150 or -200 tons of the turret going up in the air. We thought we were going -over the side and would get drowned like rats in a trap. However, we -came down again with a crash that shook the turret dreadfully, and -continued firing as hard as ever. Nothing in the turret was out of order -at all. The range continued to come down, and the whistles of the shells -that flew over us grew into a regular shriek. Down came the range, -11,000, 10,000, 9000, 8800 yards. We were hitting the _Scharnhorst_ -nearly every time. One beauty from our right gun got one of their -turrets fair and square and sent it whizzing over the side." By 3.30 the -_Scharnhorst_ was in a bad way. She was on fire, smoke and steam poured -out of her in many places, and when a shell would knock a big hole in -her side a dull furnace-like glow was seen within. Several of her guns -were out of action and she now turned partially to starboard, apparently -with the idea of getting her starboard guns to bear. - -Just after four o'clock she was observed to give a heavy roll to port. -She slowly listed farther and farther over, till she lay on her -beam-ends, and at 4.17 disappeared below the waves in a dense cloud of -smoke and steam. The _Gneisenau_, passing on the far side of the mass of -scattered debris marking the grave of her consort, still spat out -defiance from her guns. But her hours were numbered, and everyone on -board must have known that it was only a matter of minutes before her -two huge opponents settled accounts with her. She put up a first-rate -fight for nearly two hours longer. She ranged her guns well and hit her -adversaries again and again. But each of them was much more than her -match, and their great 850-pound projectiles got her time after time. - -"5.10. Hit, hit!" wrote one of the _Gneisenau's_ officers in a pocket -diary.[97] "5.12. Hit! 5.14. Hit, hit, hit! again! 5.20. After-turret -gone. 5.40. Hit, hit! On fire everywhere. 5.41. Hit, hit! burning -everywhere and sinking. 5.45. Hit! men dying everywhere. 5.46. Hit, -hit!" The ship must have been an inferno. At last she could only fire a -single gun at intervals, and at 5.40 the _Invincible_, _Inflexible_, and -_Carnarvon_ closed in on the stricken leviathan and the "cease fire" was -sounded. At six o'clock she turned slowly, slowly, over to port till -only her rounded side was visible lying in the water like a great whale, -with those of her crew who survived walking and crawling over it. Then, -suddenly, down she went amid a swirl of waters, leaving those of her -crew who were not sucked down with her struggling amid the waves. During -the fighting the weather had changed for the worse, the sea had begun to -rise, and now a cold drizzle was falling. - -"Out boats," was the order on board the British ships, and no pains were -spared to rescue their late enemies. Some of them had their heads quite -turned and tried to kill their rescuers, or jumped into the sea again -and drowned themselves. "One officer tried to shoot us with an automatic -pistol, but it was wrenched from his hand and we escaped," wrote the -midshipman before quoted. It is thought that before she sank 600 of the -_Gneisenau's_ ship's company had been killed or wounded. The British -seamen, working indefatigably, were only able to save less than 200, -fourteen of whom subsequently died from the effects of cold and -exposure. - -We must now return to the other running fight which had been proceeding -between the smaller ships on both sides. The Germans had no notion of -fighting if they could avoid it, and seem to have gone off -"helter-skelter" without assuming any definite formation. The _Glasgow_ -was our fastest cruiser and was ordered to head off the _Nürnberg_ and -_Leipzig_. As for the _Dresden_, she seems to have got a very long start -from the first and was never overtaken. The _Glasgow_ opened fire on the -_Leipzig_ and _Nürnberg_ with her 6-inch guns about three o'clock, and -succeeded in making them alter course. The former turned to meet the -_Glasgow_, while the latter was obliged to turn in a direction which -rendered it easier for the _Kent_ to come up with her. The _Kent_, an -older and slower ship than the _Nürnberg_, made a record spurt and -succeeded in getting within range of the German. She had but little coal -on board. "The old _Kent_ set off and her engines worked up to 22 -knots--more than she had ever done on her trials. Then the word was -passed that there was hardly any coal left. 'Well,' said the captain, -'have a go at the boats.' So they broke up all the boats, smeared them -with oil, and put them in the furnaces. Then in went all the armchairs -from the ward-room and the chests from the officers' cabins. They next -burnt the ladders and all. Every bit of wood was sent to the stokehold. -The result was that the _Kent's_ speed became 24 knots."[98] But it was -five o'clock before she could get within range and both ships went at it -hammer and tongs for an hour, by which time the _Nürnberg_ was evidently -on fire. The sea was by now rather choppy and the atmosphere somewhat -misty. Just after half-past six the _Nürnberg_, well alight forward, -ceased firing. The _Kent_ thereupon ceased fire also and closed in to -3300 yards; but, as the German still kept her colours flying, she once -more set her guns to work. Five minutes of this and down fluttered the -German ensign, and the _Kent_ set herself to save as many of her late -opponents as she could; but she was, of course, handicapped by having -burnt her boats, and only twelve could be rescued with the assistance of -the _Cornwall_. It was nearly half-past seven before the _Nürnberg_ took -her final plunge. - -The _Kent_ was hit a considerable number of times and lost four killed -and a dozen wounded, nearly all by one shell. She had, moreover, a very -narrow escape from destruction, from which she was only saved by the -heroism of Sergeant Charles Mayes of the Royal Marines. In the words of -the notification awarding him the Conspicuous Gallantry Medal: "A shell -burst and ignited some cordite charges in the casemate. Sergeant Mayes -picked up a charge of cordite and threw it away. He then got hold of a -fire-hose and flooded the compartment, extinguishing the fire in some -empty shell-bags which were burning. The extinction of this fire saved a -disaster which might have led to the loss of the ship." - -While the _Kent_ was disposing of the _Nürnberg_, the _Glasgow_ and -afterwards the _Cornwall_ tackled the _Leipzig_. "We continued to fight -the _Leipzig_," writes one[99] of the _Glasgows_," and the _Cornwall_ -was now coming up to help us, so she hauled off again, and we followed. -We soon got close enough to open fire again, and this time we had begun -to make good shooting though it was at a long range. She had then turned -slightly towards us, and we began to get her range; but she was altering -her course so much that it made it extremely difficult to hit her. We -got one shell through our control and the splinters killed one man and -injured several others. This was the only shell that did much damage. We -were getting much closer now and our shells were hitting her as her fire -slackened, but we had to be careful owing to the enemy throwing mines -over the side. As we got closer ... our fire became even more effective, -she turned to port and we had to cease fire for a while. Then the other -battery had a chance and they made some very good shooting. By this time -she had altered course again and this allowed the _Cornwall_ to open -fire on her, but it looked to us as if her fire was going very short. -The _Leipzig_ now fired at the _Cornwall_ and we got up fairly close and -poured in a heavy fire. She then took fire on her stern, and her mast -and funnel went over the side. Then she was smoking amidships and a -shell knocked away the upper half of her second funnel. She was now -beaten but she refused to answer our signal to surrender, and after a -while we opened fire on her again, and, as it was by this time quite -dusk, we could see the shells strike and burst. She was lying quite -helpless now and burning fiercely from amidships to the after end. The -smoke which came from her in dense clouds, came across us and we could -smell the faint burning. - -"Then she fired one of her guns, and this was a signal for a fresh -outburst from us. We kept steaming round near the burning ship, and then -we saw them fire a white rocket. We and the _Cornwall_ then lowered -boats and went nearer to the now sinking ship." "When we went right -close to", says another eyewitness, "she looked just like a -night-watchman's bucket--all holes and fire. She was a mass of white -heat. You would not think an iron ship would blaze like that." To -continue to quote the previous narrator: "Our boats had just arrived -near the ship, when she rolled gently over and then sank. Our boats -picked up ten of them and the _Cornwall's_ four.... Everyone seemed -overjoyed to think we had avenged the loss of the _Good Hope_ and -_Monmouth_, and especially so later on when we heard that the _Kent_ had -sunk the _Nürnberg_!" - -The _Glasgow_, which had fought and escaped at Coronel, and participated -in the signal revenge taken upon Von Spee and his squadron off the -Falklands, was lucky enough to assist in the final act of retribution -when the _Dresden_, which had got away for a time, was caught and sunk -off Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe's island. The _Glasgow_ and _Orama_ -came up from the south-west, and presently the _Kent_ appeared hurrying -up from the south-east. After the exchange of some shots the _Dresden_ -appeared to be on fire and hoisted a very large white flag, while many -of her crew jumped overboard and made for her boats, which were in the -water at a little distance off. "As soon as it was clear she did not -intend to fight again, we lowered boats and sent medical aid, and -several of the wounded were brought alongside the ship for treatment." -Eventually the magazine seems to have been blown up--possibly -intentionally by her officers, as just previously the German ensign was -re-hoisted, and she sank with it and the white flag of surrender both -flying. - -With the sinking of the _Dresden_ the German Navy disappeared from the -ocean. Not a man-of-war of German nationality floated in the "Seven -Seas", and only in the security of their own fortified harbours and in -the mine-defended area of the Baltic dared the "black, white, and red -flag" show itself. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[94] Lance-Sergeant H. Blanchard, R.M.L.I., in _The Globe and Laurel_. - -[95] Captain Luce of the _Glasgow_ in his official report. - -[96] Mr. Esmonde, published in _Penny Pictorial Magazine_. - -[97] Quoted by Mr. Esmonde in his letter. - -[98] Mr. Esmonde's letter. - -[99] Lance-Sergeant H. Blanchard. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -German Raids and their Signal Punishment - - "I saw a mast abaft the light - In the tail of the offshore breeze, - A beacon flared on Dover Head, - A lean hull slipped the quays; - And out of the mist beyond the Fore, - Hell howled across the seas. - - "Sudden and terrible, in one night, - A fleet had sprung to grips; - Nor' and nor'-east the signal sped - To the scattered scouts and the ships; - And racking the Channel fog the war - Roared in apocalypse." - LEWIS HASTINGS in the _Navy_. - - -EARLY in November, 1914, a German squadron of considerable force made -what the Germans proudly termed a "hussar stroke", a number of big ships -approaching the English coast, driving off the _Halcyon_, an antiquated -gunboat, and firing a few futile shots at long range at Yarmouth. -Suddenly they turned tail and made off. They strewed mines behind them, -one of which blew up the submarine D5; but the so-called raid was a case -of "much cry, little wool", and finally ended by the _Yorck_, a very big -cruiser, running into a German mine defending the entrance to the Jahde -and being blown up with great loss of life. - -On the 23rd November a patrol vessel rammed the German submarine U 18 -off the north coast of Scotland. She was badly damaged and shortly -afterwards foundered. Five days later the navy suffered a severe loss in -the blowing up of the pre-Dreadnought battleship _Bulwark_ as she lay -at her buoy off Sheerness. The cause of this catastrophe was, of course, -impossible to ascertain with any certainty, as the ship was sunk and -destroyed with almost every soul on board. - -Encouraged by what they seem to have considered the success of their -vaunted "hussar stroke" at Yarmouth, the Germans thought they might as -well have another. This time their raid resulted in the deaths of a -large number of civilians, men, women, and children, at East and West -Hartlepool, Whitby, and Scarborough, upon which undefended places they -opened fire with their heavy artillery. Another "famous victory!" To -make it look more like an operation of war, and to excuse themselves to -neutrals, they tried to make out that these towns were fortified -positions. It is not very likely that anyone believed them, since these -places are well known to be nothing of the kind. - -As a matter of fact, it was a carefully-planned affair. "Practically the -whole fast-cruiser force of the German Navy, including some great ships -vital to their fleet and utterly irreplaceable," wrote Mr. Winston -Churchill to the Mayor of Scarborough, "has been risked for the passing -pleasure of killing as many English people as possible, irrespective of -sex, age, or condition, in the limited time available to this military -and political folly. They were impelled by the violence of feelings -which could find no other vent." - -There is little doubt that the First Lord's diagnosis of the cause of -the raid was absolutely correct, though it was perhaps more generally -considered that it had the ulterior motive of "frightening" the British -nation. So far from doing anything of the kind, it produced a perfect -rush to enlist. Men wanted to take a personal hand in the payment due -for such violence. The few British destroyers and patrolling vessels -that were encountered opened fire on the big German leviathans, but were -naturally in no position to put up anything of a fight against such -overwhelming odds. That the Germans were unable to sink them goes to -prove that they were in too great a hurry to fire carefully, as all they -wanted to do was to escape, for, to quote the official announcement, "on -being sighted by British vessels the Germans retired at full speed, and, -favoured by the mist, succeeded in making good their escape". What a -pity that mist intervened! But it merely postponed the evil day for the -raiders after all. - -Our men-of-war about this time set to work to give the German positions -along the Belgian coast another shaking up, and the year finished by a -brilliantly executed naval air raid on Cuxhaven and the German war-ships -lying in the Elbe, in the process of which their escorting flotilla had -a somewhat unique scrap with German submarines and Zeppelins, an account -of which will be found in a later chapter. - -The year 1915 opened badly for us with the loss of the _Formidable_--a -sister-ship to the _Bulwark_--which was torpedoed, it is supposed, by a -German submarine well down the Channel. At two o'clock in the morning -there was a heavy explosion, and the ship began to settle down to -starboard. There was no panic, the boats were got out, and some were -already in the water when there was a second explosion and a mass of -debris was shot into the air. The sea was rough, and the survivors, who -numbered less than a hundred, endured severe hardships. Some were -rescued by a Brixham trawler, and others managed to row ashore at Lyme -Regis. "The discipline was splendid," said a bluejacket survivor.[100] -"The last that I saw of Captain Loxley"--who was in command of the -ship--"was that he was on the bridge calmly smoking a cigarette. -Lieutenant Simmonds superintended the launching of the boats, and as he -got the last away I heard the Captain say: 'You have done well, -Simmonds'. The stokers must have done magnificently, as they drew all -the fires, and, steam being shut off, there was no boiler explosion when -the _Formidable_ sank. - -"Captain Loxley was as cool as a cucumber. He gave his orders calmly and -coolly, just as though the ship was riding in harbour with anchors down. -I thought nothing was amiss. The last words I heard him say were: -'Steady, men, it's all right. No panic, keep cool; be British. There's -life in the old ship yet!' Captain Loxley's old terrier 'Bruce' was -standing on duty at his side on the fore-bridge at the last." - -One of the few stokers who were saved said that they were expecting to -be relieved, and to have gone back to port, in about another hour. "An -officer passed down by us. He stopped and explained in a matter-of-fact -way that the ship had been struck, was sinking fast, and it was now a -question of saving as many lives as possible. He advised us to go on -deck and lay hold of anything we could." One of the finest examples of -self-sacrifice was given by Bugler S. C. Reed of the Royal Marines, a -mere boy, who, when advised to use his drum to keep himself afloat, -replied that he had thought of it, but had given it to one of the -bluejacket boys for that purpose, as the lad had nothing to keep himself -afloat in the heavy seas then prevailing, and _that he did not feel very -nervous_. Surely the cool courage in the face of death, superlative -bravery, and absolute self-devotion that have been displayed during the -last few months by officers and men--yes, and boys too--of navy and army -alike, have equalled, if not eclipsed, the finest deeds of our -forefathers "in the brave days of old". - -At last, on 24th January, our eager navy had its chance of castigating -the evasive enemy. The Battle-cruiser Squadron, consisting of the -_Lion_, _Princess Royal_, _Tiger_, _New Zealand_, and _Indomitable_, -under the command of Sir David Beatty, who flew his flag on the _Lion_, -in company with Commodore Goodenough's Light Squadron, comprising the -_Southampton_, _Nottingham_, _Birmingham_, and _Lowestoft_, was -patrolling in the North Sea, preceded some way ahead by the _Undaunted_, -_Arethusa_, and _Aurora_, with destroyer flotillas, when about half-past -seven in the morning the flashing of guns was observed to the -south-south-east. Presently came a message to the flagship from the -_Aurora_ that she was in action with the enemy. - -Speed was increased, and the British squadrons rushed at full speed -towards the scene of conflict. Other messages came in from the ships in -advance reporting that the enemy's force, consisting of the _Blücher_, -three battle-cruisers, and six light cruisers, had altered course to -south-east, while a number of destroyers were heading to the north-west. -The main body of the enemy very shortly came in sight, but they were at -a great distance, and making off as fast as they knew how. After them -ploughed the British leviathans and their satellites, but it was not -till nine minutes after nine that the _Lion_ got in her first hit on the -_Blücher_ at something like 10 miles distance! - -The enemy were in "line ahead", the _Blücher_ being the rearmost ship. -Their light cruisers were away ahead and their destroyers on their port -flank, apparently meditating a dash against the advancing British. Our -flotillas, with their attendant cruisers, were at this time away on the -port quarter of the battle-cruisers, where they had been placed so as -not to obstruct the aim of the big guns by their smoke, but the "M" -division of destroyers was now sent ahead in order to attend to the -German flotilla. - -By this time the leading German ship--supposed to be the _Seydlitz_--was -on fire, and so was the third ship in their line. The enemy's destroyers -now began to stoke up, and threw out thick black clouds of smoke, under -cover of which their big ships altered course to the northward. As soon -as this manoeuvre was apparent, the British ships, which by now were -tearing through the water at tremendous speed, turned to follow, -whereupon their destroyers again evinced a disposition to attack. But -upon the _Lion_ and _Tiger_ turning their guns upon them they thought -better of it, and returned to their former position. Our light cruisers -kept station on the port quarter of the enemy, ready to pounce upon any -cripples. Just after a quarter to eleven the _Blücher_, which had been -gradually falling astern, turned out of the line to port. She was on -fire, had a heavy list, and was evidently very badly mauled. A few -minutes later the periscopes of a number of submarines were noticed on -the starboard bow of our battle-cruisers, which at once turned to port -to avoid them. - -At the pace at which our ships were travelling these insidious foes -would soon be left behind. Soon afterwards the flagship, having received -damage which could not be at once repaired, was ordered to go off to the -north-west, the admiral calling the destroyer _Attack_ alongside and -going in her to the _Princess Royal_, on board of which he rehoisted his -flag. On arrival he was informed that the _Blücher_ had been sunk, and -that the remainder of the enemy's ships were making off to the eastward -in a badly-damaged condition. - -The _Seydlitz_ and _Derflinger_, particularly, were said to have been -desperately knocked about. But as the battle had now approached the area -of the German mine-fields, it was wisely determined to break it off and -return to English waters, the _Lion_, which had received a shot in her -condensers, being taken in tow by the _Indomitable_. The only ships on -our side that were hit were the _Lion_ and the _Tiger_, and the little -_Meteor_, which led the destroyers interposed between the German -destroyers and our main line; and the total casualties were only -fourteen officers and men killed and twenty-nine wounded. The German -losses must have been terrible. - -One of the survivors of the _Blücher_ gave a vivid account of the -effects of our gunnery.[101] "The British guns were ranging. Those -deadly waterspouts crept nearer and nearer. The men on deck watched them -with a strange fascination. Soon one pitched close to the ship, and a -vast watery pillar, a hundred metres high, fell lashing on the deck. The -range had been found. Now the shells came thick and fast, with a -horrible droning hum. At once they did terrible execution. The electric -plant was soon destroyed, and the ship plunged in a darkness that could -be felt. Down below there was horror and confusion, mingled with gasping -shouts and moans as the shells plunged through the decks. At first they -came dropping from the sky. They penetrated the decks, they bored their -way even to the stokehold. The coal in the bunkers was set on fire. -Since the bunkers were half-empty the fire burned merrily. In the -engine-room a shell licked up the oil, and sprayed it around in flames -of blue and green, scarring its victims and blazing where it fell. Men -huddled together in dark compartments, but the shells sought them out, -and there death had a rich harvest. - -"The terrific air-pressure resulting from explosion in a confined space -left a deep impression on the minds of the men of the _Blücher_. The -air, it would seem, roars through every opening and tears its way -through every weak spot. All loose or insecure fittings were transformed -into moving instruments of destruction. Open doors bang to and jamb, and -closed iron doors bend outwards like tin plates, and through it all the -bodies of men are whirled about like dead leaves in a winter blast, to -be battered to death against the iron walls." Has Dante beaten this -description of an Inferno? - -FOOTNOTES: - -[100] _Globe and Laurel._ - -[101] _Times._ - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -The Royal Naval Air Service - - "The human bird shall take his first flight, filling - the world with amazement, all writings with his fame, - and bringing eternal glory to the nest whence he - sprang." - - LEONARDO DA VINCI. - - "The feathered race on pinions skim the air, - Not so the mackerel, and still less the bear; - Ah! who hath seen the mailèd lobster rise, - Clap her broad wings, and claim the equal skies?" - Poem in _The Anti-Jacobin_. - - "The French are all coming, for so they declare; - Of their floats and balloons all the papers advise us; - They're to swim through the ocean and ride on the air, - On some foggy evening to land and surprise us." - _The Invasion._ DIBDIN. - - -WE have had a good many surprises during the Great War, and so also have -the enemy; but the fine record of the British air service is not the -least of them. It is not that we had not every confidence in the pluck -and resourcefulness of our gallant British flying-men, but, if we may -trust available sources of information, we began the war miles behind -our French friends and our German foes, both in numbers and -organization. - -Of course no exact figures can be quoted, but, according to an authority -on aeronautic matters,[102] Germany alone was in possession of a -thoroughly organized and equipped fleet of 1300 aeroplanes. According to -the same authority, Austria had about 100, France 800, and Russia 300, -while we ourselves are credited with 100 machines belonging to the -military wing of the air service, besides those in the naval wing, whose -number is not forthcoming, but which, I think, may fairly be put down -at well below a hundred. Neither we nor our allies had more than three -or four air-ships or dirigible balloons, while Germany had a fleet of -nearly twenty, most being of the famous Zeppelin type, from which very -great things were expected. The naval and military authorities in this -country either did not or would not believe in these "gas-bags", and, so -far, events seem to have proved that they were correct in their views. - -In every estimate of the strength of navies we must not only make -comparisons of material, but of personnel. "The man behind the gun" is a -factor of the highest importance, and it is here that we "came in", -handicapped as we were in other respects. I do not think that I can do -better than again quote the same authority on this point. As regards the -enemy, his estimate of the German air personnel is that its pilots were -"mediocre, with a few brilliant exceptions". The Austrians were "brave -and skilful pilots badly organized". As to our allies, he considers the -French to have had "a very uneven air service". "Many magnificent -fliers, many very bad"; while the Russians possessed "numerous skilful -and daring aviators, but not very well equipped". We must not overlook -the little Belgian squadron of five-and-twenty aeroplanes, which he -assesses as "good", both in men and machines. We may, without vanity, -accept his estimate of our own aerial establishment as "a small but -highly efficient flying corps", since its efficiency has been proved -over and over again. - -The "Royal Flying Corps" only dates from a few years ago, and we are -principally indebted to Major-General--then Lieutenant-Colonel--Sir -David Henderson, K.C.B., D.S.O., for its formation. He had no easy job -before him when he took the matter in hand, since neither Admiralty nor -War Office appeared to be in any hurry to attain a commanding position -in the novel arm, in spite of the great efforts being made by France, -and more especially by Germany. However, nothing daunted, he made the -very best possible of the small beginnings he was able to deal with, -and we are now reaping the harvest he sowed. For a time naval and -military officers and men worked together, but gradually, as numbers -increased, drew rather more apart, and the naval wing had its own -flying-schools at Eastchurch, near Sheerness, and at Upavon, near -Salisbury, its central air office at Sheerness, an establishment at -Hendon, and nine or ten air stations on the coast. - -At the beginning of the war, confident in their numbers and -organization, the German aviators showed considerable boldness, and -their skilfulness in picking out our guns and positions, and signalling -them by flares, strips of glittering tinsel, circling movements, and -other devices to their gunners, rendered the fire of their -artillery--which at first greatly outnumbered that of the Allies--very -deadly indeed. Our own airmen were by no means such adepts at this -particular work to begin with, but, few as they were, they soon proved -themselves the better men. They worked on the old principle that so -often brought us victory afloat in Nelsonian days. "Directly you see an -enemy go for him." This system of fighting enabled Sir John French to -report, quite early in the campaign, that "The British Flying Corps has -succeeded in establishing an individual ascendancy which is as -serviceable to us as it is damaging to the enemy.... Something in the -direction of the mastery of the air has already been gained." The fact -was that the very qualities of preciseness, method, painstaking, and -avoidance of risk which make the German so formidable in some respects -do not fit in where such warfare is concerned. - -The German cavalry was the same. It worked by the book. If it could mass -against ours at a strength of three to one, then by all the rules of the -game we ought to have retired or waited for their ponderous squadrons to -ride us down and overwhelm us by sheer weight of flesh and bone. But -when our dashing horsemen whirled into their masses in their -shirt-sleeves, and plied sabre and lance in a way that showed they meant -business, and then turned round and cut their way home again in the -same way, they did not like it. They have never dared to "take on" our -cavalrymen on anything approaching equal terms. Brave as we must admit -the Germans have shown themselves, they have not the same individual -dash and self-reliance as the British races. - -No German would ever attack single-handed like Sergeant O'Leary, V.C. If -any proof were wanted of this, one has only to consider that the mass -attack formations, which have proved so deadly to our enemies, were -deliberately designed by the German military experts, with full -knowledge of the growing power of modern guns and rifles, because from -their experience of the war of 1870 they had formed the reasoned opinion -that in no other formation could they keep their "cannon fodder" up to -the scratch. All their views are well set forth in a German pamphlet -published some years ago, entitled _A Summer Night's Dream_. It has been -translated into English, and is well worth perusal at the present time. - -Now look at our own men. Here is what Viscount Castlereagh wrote of them -from the front to his wife last autumn. "The thing that has impressed me -most here has been the aeroplane service; a splendid lot of boys who -really do not know what fear is."[103] The German army was provided with -a large quantity of guns especially designed for bringing down hostile -airmen; but they proved singularly ineffective, and our flying-men -simply laughed at them. And yet, with all their talk of air-raids and -the effect they were supposed to have on this country, the German fliers -have never attempted to attack any place over here where they thought -there might be any guns in waiting to receive them. - -The Naval Air Service, primarily intended for scouting at sea, not only -for hostile ships but for submarines--for from high up these deadly -craft are visible deep under water, just in the same way that one can -see fish from a bridge that are invisible from the bank--was originally -equipped with water-planes, fitted with floats instead of wheels, so -that the naval aeronauts could rise from or alight on the water. - -But though these machines proved of the greatest service in guarding and -watching the Channel and the Straits of Dover, the enterprising spirit -of the naval and marine officers who acted as air pilots, squadron -commanders, &c., was not content to devote itself entirely to such -necessary but perhaps rather monotonous work. The Naval Air Service -after the outbreak of war went ahead by leaps and bounds. Not only were -the numbers of sea-planes increased, but wheeled aeroplanes were -purchased as fast as they could be obtained, and supported by a whole -fleet of armoured motors fitted with machine-guns, a regular naval air -contingent appeared on the Continent ready to assist the army by raiding -in any direction likely to be of service. All sorts of mechanics, -motor-drivers, and other men were enlisted for special service with this -new organization, which lost no time in proving its great value and -efficiency. - -The leading spirit and commanding officer was Commander Samson, R.N., -and by 4th September, 1914, he was able to report that bombs had been -dropped on four German officers and forty men who had got rather too -near Dunkirk. Then, about a fortnight later, came the first raid in -force against the enemy's country, which created quite a scare in the -German frontier cities, since, judging our gallant airmen by their own -low-down standards, they feared for the lives and property of civilian -inhabitants. - -After carefully and successfully assisting in covering the transit of -the Expeditionary Force to France, a temporary base for the naval wing -was established at Ostend. It was to assist in establishing this base -that the three battalions of Royal Marines were dispatched to that place -in the early part of the war. Other outlying bases were gradually -established in Belgium. The naval motors, acting in conjunction with the -Belgians, made things very warm for the prowling Uhlans, and eventually -a regularly organized combined expedition of motors and aeroplanes was -directed against Cologne and Düsseldorf, with the object of destroying -the Zeppelin sheds at these places and, haply, any Zeppelins that might -be taking their repose within. - -It fell to Flight-Lieutenant Collet of the Royal Marine Artillery to -score the first "bull's-eye". This officer had attracted some attention -by the way he had handled a heavy German-built biplane which the -Admiralty had bought from a Leipzig firm in 1913. In the hands of the -German pilot who came over with her the new machine appeared but a slow -and lumbering affair, but flown by Collet she became endued with a new -life, and was made to perform all sorts of startling manoeuvres. "To see -him descend for a thousand feet or so," says an eye-witness, "in a -closely wound spiral, with the machine standing vertically on one -wing-tip, was an education in the handling of big aeroplanes." - -Accompanied by other aviators, Lieutenant Collet set out from their base -on 22nd September, and made for Düsseldorf, about 100 miles distant from -Antwerp. Here, flying very low, he dropped four bombs on the Zeppelin -shed which was the special object of attack. What damage was done was -not ascertained. The attacking machine was only struck by a single -bullet, which did no damage, and Collet and his companions regained -their base without difficulty. - -About a fortnight later another raid was made against the same sheds and -also against those at Cologne. - -The aviators on this occasion were Squadron-Commander Spencer-Grey and -Flight-Lieutenants Marix and Sippe, all belonging to the Royal Navy. The -last-named had trouble with his engine shortly after starting and had to -drop out, but the remaining two rushed along through the growing -light--the start had been made at the first streak of dawn--Grey making -for Cologne and Marix for Düsseldorf. There was a good deal of fog, -which, while it served them to a certain extent by concealing their -approach, at the same time made it no easy job to steer a correct -course. Travelling at 80 miles an hour Grey reached Cologne, but had no -luck. Owing to the fog he was unable to locate the Zeppelin shed of -which he was in search, and would not drop a bomb without a definite and -legitimate objective, for fear of harming women and children. He, -however, was able to do some damage to the railway station. - -As for Marix, he found his way to the shed already struck by Collet. -Rising to a great height, he made a spiral dive at the tremendous speed -of 140 miles an hour. He had been seen some time before, and was greeted -with a tremendous fusillade from machine-guns, anti-aeroplane guns, and -rifles. His machine was struck several times, but he descended to within -500 feet of the shed to which a Zeppelin had been recently removed from -that damaged by Collet, let go his bombs, and shot upwards again with -marvellous velocity. As he went he saw that at least one of his -projectiles had scored a success, for a volcano of flame was spouting -500 feet into the air. There was one Zeppelin the less. His "mount" had -been hit no less than twenty times and two of his control-wires cut, but -by the exercise of great judgment and skill he contrived to travel for -10 miles on his way back and to get across the frontier, where he was -met by a Belgian car and taken safely to Antwerp. - -A correspondent of the _Globe_ who was at Düsseldorf at the time gives -the following account of what an eyewitness saw of Flight-Lieutenant -Marix's exploit and its effect. "A friend of mine saw an aeroplane one -day near Düsseldorf. He followed its movements with great anxiety, and -saw that it dropped when it was close by the Zeppelin shed. He had an -idea that something was wrong, but about 200 metres from the ground the -machine turned again and disappeared. Almost at the same moment he heard -two explosions, and a few moments after saw big flames of a light -colour, giving him the impression that the whole shed was on fire. My -friend went down to the place as quickly as he could, but at a distance -of a few hundred metres the people who had already run to the spot were -kept away by a ring of soldiers. A few minutes later a rumour spread -through the crowd that two more enemy aeroplanes were reported from -Cologne, and immediately all the soldiers were ordered near the shed to -be ready for firing at the new-comers. My friend followed the soldiers, -and came quite near the place where he had seen the flames. He saw that -the contents of the shed had been entirely burnt out, and only the walls -of the building were erect. In the shed was the carcass of a Zeppelin, -burned and broken to pieces. It was one big heap of aluminium." - -The next exploit of the Naval Air Service was the attack on the Zeppelin -sheds at Friedrichshafen, on the Lake of Constance. There are three or -four big sheds here close together, with workshops and all appliances -for building and fitting out these monster air-ships. The newspapers had -for some time previously been publishing paragraphs giving accounts of -Zeppelin experiments at this place. Some may have been more or less -correct, while others bore the stamp of the usual "bogey-bogey" stories -set about by the Germans with the somewhat childish idea of frightening -us. Anyway the naval airmen made up their minds to go and see for -themselves. Of course their departure from the usual scene of their -activities in the north was made "without beat of drum", and, as -Friedrichshafen was something like 150 miles from the French frontier, -their visit was entirely unexpected. - -The raiders were Squadron-Commander Briggs, Flight-Commander Babbington, -and Flight-Lieutenant Sippe, all of the Royal Navy. They are supposed to -have started from the neighbourhood of Belfort, that very strongly -fortified town on the eastern frontier of France. They were mounted on -similar machines--Avro biplanes. Heading almost due east, they struck -the Rhine in the vicinity of Basle--where it turns almost at a right -angle from east to north--flew upstream as far as Schaffhausen with its -picturesque falls, and then struck across country to Ludwigshafen, at -the western extremity of Lake Constance, or the Boden See as the Germans -term it. Thence they steered directly down the lake at their objective, -the cluster of hangars and workshops on the lakeside, just east of the -town of Friedrichshafen. Their advent was both seen and heard, and the -whirr of their propellers was at once answered by the stutter of Maxims, -the banging of guns, and the popping of musketry. But it is not easy to -disable an aeroplane unless you are successful in damaging it in a vital -part; so, regardless of this very warm reception, the naval airmen -swooped down one after the other from the high altitudes at which they -were travelling, and, passing over their target at a height of about -1200 feet, discharged their cargoes of bombs. - -Commander Briggs was the first to arrive and drop his bombs, but his -petrol tank being pierced by a bullet the petrol ran out and he was -brought to the ground, where he was made prisoner and taken off to -hospital, having received some injuries from his fall. Babbington and -Sippe, following in his tracks, bombarded first the hangars and -afterwards the Zeppelin factory, and, circling round, flew off down the -Rhine and arrived safely at their starting-point, though their machines -had suffered some minor damages. Both were decorated on their return -with the Cross of the Legion of Honour, which was pinned on their -breasts by General Thevenet, the Governor of Belfort. All three, too, -appeared as recipients of the Distinguished Service Order in the New -Year's Honours List. And they had well earned their distinctions. -Putting on one side the risks inseparable from such an enterprise, they -had flown right into the enemy's country for a very considerable -distance, over a mountainous district and in quite unfavourable weather -conditions, and had created a tremendous moral effect in the enemy -nations. They had probably done a considerable amount of material -damage to the hangars and workshops, possibly to one or more Zeppelins -as well, but no certain details as to the extent have yet become -available. - -The Germans had been taught to expect great things from their -well-organized and numerous fleets of air-ships and aeroplanes. They -were to bombard London, defeat our fleets, and terrorize the whole of -our "right little, tight little island" with these monster gas-bags. -And, lo and behold! before anything of the kind had happened, here were -these pestilent English flying-men attacking them in their own country. -Not blindly dropping bombs just anywhere in haste to get rid of them, -frighten civilians, and get away as fast as possible, but deliberately -attacking--and hitting--selected targets. German opinion was profoundly -moved. No wonder that their airmen felt that it "was up to them" to show -their fellow-countrymen what _they_ could do. But what a poor show it -was! On 5th December one gallant airman got within sight of Dover, but -turned round and made off again. On the 24th this one, or another, -actually flew over the town and dropped a bomb into a cabbage-patch. He -was in too much of a hurry to select a more important target, much less -hit it. The British reply, if such an unimportant exploit could be -deemed worthy of receiving a reply, was prompt and effective. The very -next day--Christmas Day--the Naval Air Wing, working in conjunction with -its own branch of the service, carried out an extremely well-organized -attack upon Cuxhaven, the strongly-fortified port at the mouth of the -Elbe which protects the approaches to Hamburg. The following officers -participated in this exploit: Flight-Commanders Oliver, Hewlett, and -Ross, R.N., and Kilner, R.M.L.I., Flight-Lieutenants Miley and Edmonds, -R.N., and Flight Sub-Lieutenant Blackburn, R.N. - -The aeroplanes were all of an identical type--Shorts--just as those used -against Friedrichshafen were "Avros" and against Düsseldorf "Sopwiths". -They were carried on three very fast Channel steamers that had been -"taken up" by the Admiralty, each of which was commanded by a naval -officer belonging to the air service. It is interesting to note that the -navigating officer of one of these vessels was Mr. Erskine Childers, a -lieutenant in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, the author of that -fascinating novel _The Riddle of the Sands_, which deals most minutely -with the navigation of the German coastal waters between the Elbe and -the Zuyder Zee. The little expedition was convoyed by the _Undaunted_ -and the "saucy" _Arethusa_--a pair of new light cruisers which have -proved themselves a most effective type of war-vessel--and a cordon of -submarines and destroyers. Everything had been worked out in detail. - -[Illustration: THE BRITISH AIR RAID ON CUXHAVEN - -_Drawn by John de G. Bryan_] - -On approaching Heligoland, that German Gibraltar with which we so -foolishly parted some years ago, the sea-planes were hoisted out and -sped away on their errand of destruction. It was a misty morning, and on -arrival at Cuxhaven the aviators were much hampered by a fog which lay -in shallow patches over the town and harbour, but it is thought that -they succeeded in destroying a Parseval air-ship in its shed and in -badly knocking about some of the Zeppelin sheds. According to the German -account they also dropped bombs on a gasometer and on some men-of-war -lying in the river, of course "without doing any damage". The fog was, -however, much closer and thicker over the Elbe than over the town, so -that ships were in any case difficult targets. - -But while our aviators were carrying out their mission, under fire from -guns of all sorts and kinds, there was a most remarkable fight going on -outside--a battle unprecedented in the annals of warfare. - -The aviators left the flotilla sharp at daybreak, and it would seem that -neither they nor their escort were seen. But as the light grew, the -British ships were picked up by the look-outs on Heligoland, and an -instant attack was made upon them by submarines, sea-planes, and a -couple of the redoubtable Zeppelins. But the high speed of the -British vessels and the consummate seamanship and gunnery of their crews -defeated every attempt made to injure them. For three hours they fought -while waiting the return of the aviators. The white flash made by the -German torpedoes in the water was detected by sharp eyes, ships and -boats dodged and turned and cleared the "lurking death" by the "skin of -their teeth". The sea-planes whirred overhead and dropped their deadly -bombs, which exploded in fire, smoke, and fountains of water; but though -they often fell close alongside, none of the flotilla was touched. The -big bluffing Zeppelins also dropped a few, but they soon felt "they -could no longer stay", since the 100-pound shells from the _Arethusa_ -and _Undaunted_ were coming closer and closer, and their crews -knew--none better--that one fair hit would mean annihilation. So, as the -official report stated, they "were easily put to flight". None of the -German surface vessels dared to show their noses outside, or, perhaps, -were able to disentangle themselves from their elaborate defences in -time, and after three of the daring raiders had been safely re-embarked -with their machines, the flotilla stood out to sea again, leaving a -detachment of submarines to look out for the remainder. Three of the -four remaining airmen were rescued by this means, though their machines -had to be sunk. The seventh--Flight-Commander Hewlett, son of the famous -novelist--after dropping bombs on some of the German ships, one of -which, at any rate, he felt certain he had hit, lost his way in the fog, -missed the flotilla, and, having trouble with his engine, descended to -the sea not far from Heligoland. Here he was picked up by a Dutch -trawler. He destroyed his engine and sank his machine, and after -experiencing two or three days of very heavy weather on board the -fishing-vessel was landed safely at Ymuiden, in Holland. - -Curiously enough, the same day was selected for a somewhat feeble raid -up the Thames by a German Taube, which, apparently, was working -independently. The hostile air-craft was seen, fired on, and, after -harmlessly dropping a bomb here and there, was chased away by three of -our own airmen, and there is reason to believe that its return journey -ended at the bottom of the North Sea. - -[Illustration: _Photo. Cribb, Southsea_ - -THE BRITISH AIR RAID ON CUXHAVEN - -Seaplane 151, which was flown by Flight-Commander R. Ross in the raid -which shook up the Germans and gave them a dose of their own medicine.] - -The day before the big expedition to Cuxhaven a dashing attack was made -by Squadron-Commander R. B. Davies, R.N., on a hangar which the Germans -had erected at Etterbeek, a suburb of Brussels, probably on the -manoeuvre-ground of the crack Belgian cavalry regiments, the Guides. -This officer travelled on a Maurice-Farman biplane and dropped eight -bombs on a shed which was supposed to contain a Parseval air-ship, -circled round, and dropped four more on his return journey. He was -unable to see exactly what damage he had effected, on account of the -clouds of smoke which arose from the hangar. His machine was recognized -by the citizens of Brussels as belonging to the Allies, and his exploit -created great enthusiasm among them. - -At last the German airmen determined to have a raid of their own. A nice -quiet little trip this was to be, out of the way of nasty, unpleasant -guns and Maxims. And so we had the "great Zeppelin raid" on Yarmouth and -on a few quiet out-of-the-way villages in Norfolk, and the slaughter of -men, women, and children. The German aviators, however, did more -respectable work when considerable squadrons of aeroplanes twice -attacked Dunkirk in January, 1915. The first attempt would appear to -have been originally directed against Dover or some other place on this -side the Channel, as sixteen German aeroplanes were sighted hovering -over the Channel. But either by reason of the good look-out kept by our -own airmen and gunners, or on account of unfavourable weather -conditions, the "Boches" changed the direction of their flight and a -dozen of them attacked Dunkirk and dropped about thirty bombs. As usual, -most of the victims were civilians, but Dunkirk was a fortified town and -an important position of the allied armies, so that, but for the fact -that on one occasion the market-place seemed to be selected for an -especial target, we may consider these raids as legitimate military -operations. But the Germans were not able to carry them out at their -leisure. Belgian, French, and British airmen rushed their machines aloft -and engaged and drove off the raiders with the loss of one of their -machines, while a couple of our naval officers flew off and countered at -Zeebrugge, dropping twenty-seven bombs on a couple of submarines and on -the guns mounted on the mole. One of them, Squadron-Commander Davies, -R.N., was attacked during his approach by no less than seven hostile -aeroplanes, but got away from them with a slight wound and delivered his -bombs at their destination. - -The following letter, written shortly before, and referring to the first -German raid on Dunkirk, is interesting as showing the consciousness of -superiority in the minds of our airmen:-- - -"I must tell you something about the beano we had yesterday. It _was_ a -day! Engaged with three Taubes in the morning and in the afternoon--and -I went and dropped 18 bombs and 6 grenades on various works and the -railway at Ostend, with incidentally another scrap with a German -machine. Hope we tickled them up and gave them ---- at Ostend. We've got -'em scared stiff--absolutely. It's a great game entirely. I hope we get -to hear about what damage we did at Ostend, though I'm afraid it's -impossible. I know I got the railway with one bomb--a clinking shot -right in the middle. I tell you they let us have it. The machine was hit -in nine places."[104] - -The writer was evidently "keen as mustard", and against such airmen the -German air service could make no headway. - -The biggest air raid on record took place on Tuesday, 16th February, -1915, when no less than thirty-four sea-planes and aeroplanes belonging -to the Naval Wing made a combined attack on the German positions on the -Belgian littoral. They were assisted by eight French airmen, who made a -determined attack on the German aeroplane depot at Ghistelles, situated -inland and south of Ostend, thereby preventing the German airmen from -intercepting our main attack. This big "flight"--a regular "aery -navy"--was commanded by the redoubtable Wing-Commander Samson, R.N., who -had made things so hot for the Germans in Belgium that a price of £1000 -was set on his head; Wing-Commander Longmore, R.N., and -Squadron-Commanders Porte, R.N., and Courtney and Rathbone of the Royal -Marine Light Infantry. - -It was a great performance. Most of the British aeroplanes crossed the -Channel in the teeth of very violent winds, flying in the bitter cold of -high altitudes and obstructed by not infrequent "flurries" of snow. Once -over the water, they flew down over Ostend, Middelkirke, and Zeebrugge. -Bombs were dropped on the German guns hidden from the view of our ships -at all three places: the stations at Ostend and Blankenberghe were -either destroyed or much damaged, as well as the power-station and -mine-sweeping vessels at Zeebrugge and a Zeppelin shed. Unfortunately no -submarines were seen. All this was carried out in the face of a very -heavy gun-fire from every class of weapon that the Germans could get to -bear on our "wild ducks". But all got away without loss of life or limb, -and with only a couple of machines damaged. The celebrated airman -Grahame-White, who served in the expedition as a flight-commander, fell -into the sea off Nieuport, but was rescued by a French vessel. This is -the last big air raid carried out by the Naval Wing up to the time of -writing, and space forbids any mention of the hundred-and-one smaller -exploits carried out by its fliers, either aloft in the air or working -on the ground in their armoured motor-cars. The price set on Commander -Samson's head by the exasperated "Boches" sufficiently indicates what a -thorn in the side they proved to the German desecrators of Belgium and -France. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[102] Editor _Aeronautical Journal_. - -[103] Published in _The Sphere_. - -[104] _Naval and Military Record._ - - - - -Conclusion - - "The Fleet of England is her all in all: - Her fleet is in your hands, - And in her Fleet her fate." - - -HAVING now traced the beginnings of the Royal Navy, glanced at some -little-known episodes of the naval history of Great Britain, sketched -the development of our men-of-war and their weapons, and finally -endeavoured to portray--in a very inadequate way, I am afraid--the -gallant men who man them, and some of their deeds in the greatest and -most terrible war that has ever been known in the history of the world, -I have arrived at the time when I must hoist the signal "Permission to -part company" with my readers. - -But I cannot leave the subject of this book without some reference to -the part played by the navy in the Dardanelles. The outstanding points -in regard to the navy's participation in these operations were without -doubt the tremendous effect of the monster guns of the _Queen -Elizabeth_, the severe fighting which fell to the lot of the Naval and -Marine Brigades in the attack of the Turkish shore positions, and last, -but not least, the wonderful exploits of our submarines. The -achievements of Lieutenant Norman D. Holbrook, who, in the B11, crept -under five rows of mines and blew up the Turkish ironclad _Messudiyeh_; -and of Lieutenant Commander Martin Nasmith, who, in the E11, penetrated -right into the Sea of Marmora, torpedoing transports and creating a -scare in Constantinople itself, are examples of that brilliant daring -which has been exemplified again and again during the war. - -The operations against the Dardanelles forts opened on the 3rd November -last year, when an allied British and French squadron bombarded those -nearest to the entrance. Operations were then practically suspended -until the 19th February, when the allied fleets returned to the attack -in greater force, and made a resolute attempt to break down the defence -of the narrow waterway leading to Constantinople. The outer forts having -been silenced, the _Queen Elizabeth_, with four other battleships, -entered the Dardanelles and bombarded the defences of what are known as -the Narrows. But they were unable to advance farther, partly on account -of the heavy mobile batteries of the Turco-Germans, but more especially -from the great danger of floating mines and of torpedoes launched from -stations on shore. These submarine weapons began to take heavy toll of -the allied ships. The British battleships _Irresistible_, _Ocean_, and -_Goliath_ were all sunk--the two first on the same day. With them, too, -went down the French battleship _Bouvet_, and, later on, the _Triumph_ -and _Majestic_ succumbed to torpedoes said to have been fired from one -of two submarines which are supposed to have made their way to the scene -of action from Germany. Space forbids any further account of these -operations, which are still being continued; but, in order to give some -idea of what they were like, I cannot do better than quote from a letter -just written to his chum by a midshipman on board one of the ships -engaged in the Straits, so vivid an account does he give of the fighting -as it presented itself to his eyes: - -"Since we have been out we have been in four or five big actions and a -large number of small ones. I think the hottest one that this ship -personally has been in was on Sunday, ----. This ship and one other were -ordered to reduce, or attempt to reduce, two of the most powerful forts -going. The action commenced just when you--if you were a good boy--were -going to church. As usual we cleared for 'immediate action' on the way -in. I must say before the action I felt rather as if I was going to the -dentist to have a bad tooth out, but once the show started and we were -fighting I felt as happy as a lark, despite the infernal noise and -smell! - -"My action station is in No. -- turret, two -- guns. I wear the -officer's telepads, and have to sing out all the orders, ranges, &c., -that come down from the controls, and work all the voice pipes, &c. If -the lieutenant of the turret gets knocked out I am supposed to take -charge. The forts opened a heavy fire as soon as we were in range, and -as we were the leading ship we had the concentrated fire of _both_ forts -on us for the first quarter of an hour, one fort shifting to the second -ship later. The water round both ships soon became like an animated -moving fountain, with the ships as the centre, from the splashes made by -the falling shell, most of the splashes reaching as high as the foretop -(about 110 feet). We really had a most miraculous time, considering the -large amount of shells fired at us and the comparatively small number of -hits we received. Also the way we managed to avoid getting any -casualties was a miracle, some of the men having most marvellous -escapes. However, we let them have it pretty hot as well, and it was -absolutely ripping to feel the ship lurch and stop on her course as we -let rip broadside after broadside at them. After two and a half hours -the forts ceased firing altogether, and we drew off, having done our -job. - -"About the most exciting show I have had myself was when I had to go -away sweeping up the Straits one night in a picket-boat. Our objective -was to locate and blow up an electric cable which was connected to a -long row of mines at a certain point in the Dardanelles. We started off -at about 7.30 p.m., and it was an absolutely pitch-black night. There -were five other boats with us, and of course we could show absolutely no -lights. I was steering the boat, and it was hard to see anything at -all.... We arrived at about 10 p.m., and at the position for commencing -the sweep at about 11.15. The Turks had a lot of beastly search-lights -going. The first sweep up they did not discover us, but the second time -they fairly caught us and let rip with all sorts of things--Nordenfeldts, -rifles, pom-poms, and a few howitzers. It was beastly uncanny hearing -the shells shrieking and whizzing about in the still air of the -night--much worse than in daytime. However, a picket-boat is a very -difficult thing to hit even at the best of times, and in a pitch-black -night it wants a lot of luck despite all the search-lights. As soon as -they started firing I commenced zigzagging all over the place, and the -nearest we had was about ten yards away, although a lot of rifle bullets -went whistling overhead. I was never more pleased than when we turned -round and started back to the fleet. We blew up something, but whether -it was the cable or not I don't know. The boat next to us got into the -middle of a bunch of mines, and we had to stand by her; however, by -great luck she managed to clear, blowing up two mines with rifles. We -got back to the ship about 5 a.m., after quite an exciting night. I -really thought I looked quite ferocious that night; life-saving -waistcoat, overcoat, sea-boots, muffler, a huge revolver with 60 rounds -of ammunition, both my pockets full of sandwiches, and a Thermos flask -full of cocoa, which I kept on spilling all over myself in the dark. - -"We have been covering the landing and supporting the advance of the -troops. It is a pretty strenuous time, as we are at action stations on -and off from 5 or 6 a.m. till 7 or 8 p.m., with a night watch to keep as -well, so we are kept pretty busy. We also live in a constant state of -'immediate action'." - -But as it had been decided to supplement the naval attack by the landing -of an army, a disembarkation was effected towards the end of April at -five points on the Gallipoli Peninsula and one on the Asiatic shore. The -latter was carried out by the French, but it was only intended to be a -temporary measure to assist the British landings on the western shore. -The troops, which were composed of British, Australians, and New -Zealanders, effected their landing in the face of the most tremendous -opposition, making their way through masses of wire entanglements under -a terrible fire from all kinds of weapons. Their losses were very great, -but they effected their object and established themselves on shore, and -set about a series of operations against the Turkish positions which are -still continuing. The navy's share was to cover the landing with the -fire of its big guns, and to transport the soldiers to the shore. Its -work was magnificent. The Turkish entrenchments were plastered with -high-explosive shell, while the bluejackets and marines employed in the -actual business of landing the troops behaved with a coolness, energy, -and gallantry which has never been surpassed. Nor must it be forgotten -that the navy was represented in the landing force by the newly-formed -Naval Division, under the command of Brigadier-General Paris of the -Royal Marine Artillery, consisting of several battalions of the Royal -Marines and a number of others formed from the R.N.V.R. and other -reserves, and distinguished one from the other by bearing the names of -celebrated naval commanders--such as "The Drake Battalion". These had -all been organized and trained by the staff of the Royal Marines under -the Adjutant-General, Sir William Nicholls, and were commanded by naval, -marine, or in some cases army officers. As for their work in the -campaign, we have, so far, little or no information. Beyond extensive -mention in the casualty lists, the press seems to have overlooked them. -But their very losses prove that they have been well to the front, and -we may be sure that they have given a very good account of themselves. - -Everywhere the Royal Navy has proved itself worthy, nay, more than -worthy, of its gallant ancestors and their gallant deeds. To quote Lord -Charles Beresford, in a letter written to the London Chamber of -Commerce: "The brilliant work of the Navy in clearing the North Sea and -providing safety for the transport to France of their comrades in the -sister service will be gratefully appreciated by the country. Such work -could only have been effective by superb organization, loyalty to duty, -and discipline, requiring not only caution but courage. The watching -fleets of the present day have none of the charm and change to occupy -their mind which accompanied the sailing-ship navy, making and -shortening sail, trimming sails, tacking, and wearing, necessary for -cruising on the look-out. There were no air-vessels, mines, submarines, -or torpedoes in the old days, no under-water warfare. The strain upon -officers and men of the sea-going fleet in these days is terrific: -nothing to occupy their thoughts as in the days of sailing-ships." - -But with all this we know what the navy has done, and we know that it -will never be found wanting. Only let us all try to emulate the spirit -of thoroughness and devotion to duty which has made our navy what it is; -let us all try to "do our bit", however small, and, in those inspired -words of our great poet Shakespeare which we should always bear in -mind-- - - "Nought shall England rue, - If England to herself do prove but true". - - - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN - _At the Villafield Press, Glasgow, Scotland_ - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Obvious punctuation errors were corrected. - -The text uses both warships and war-ships. This, and other varied -hyphenation, was retained. - -The text uses both Zeebrügge and Zeebrugge. - -The remaining corrections made are listed below. - -Page 6 and also on actual illustration near 192, the hyphen was removed -from BLUE-JACKETS to reflect the many uses in the text. - -Page 44, "Mont-joie's" changed to "Mont-Joie's" (of the _Mont-Joie's_ -passengers) - -Page 105, "intollerable" changed to "intolerable" (too intolerable to -suffer the) - -Page 107, "ther" changed to "their" (written over to their) - -Page 130, "Greite" changed to "Griete" (_Dulle Griete_ or "Mad Marjery") - -Page 172, "fforged" changed to "forged" (forged cases to be shot) - -Page 182, "cassion" changed to "caisson" (caisson at least 17) - -Page 238, illustration caption, "Blucher" changed to "Blücher" (fate of -the _Blücher_ in) - -Page 245, "markmanship" changed to "marksmanship" (was the marksmanship -of her) - -Page 295, footnote 103, number of footnote added to citation. 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