Add files from ibiblio as of 2025-03-08 11:22:18HEADmain

1 files changed, 0 insertions, 3974 deletions

diff --git a/41676.txt b/41676.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index af40218..0000000
--- a/41676.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,3974 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg eBook, Armour & Weapons, by Charles John Ffoulkes
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-
-
-Title: Armour & Weapons
-
-
-Author: Charles John Ffoulkes
-
-
-
-Release Date: December 20, 2012  [eBook #41676]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMOUR & WEAPONS***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed Proofreading
-Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by
-Internet Archive (http://archive.org)
-
-
-
-Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
-      file which includes the original illustrations.
-      See 41676-h.htm or 41676-h.zip:
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41676/41676-h/41676-h.htm)
-      or
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41676/41676-h.zip)
-
-
-      Images of the original pages are available through
-      Internet Archive. See
-      http://archive.org/details/cu31924030737005
-
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration: Armour of Philip II. Madrid.
-
-_Photograph by Hauser & Menet._]
-
-
-ARMOUR & WEAPONS
-
-by
-
-CHARLES FFOULKES
-
-With a Preface by
-VISCOUNT DILLON, V.P.S.A.
-Curator of the Tower Armouries
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Oxford
-At the Clarendon Press
-1909
-
-Henry Frowde, M.A.
-Publisher to the University of Oxford
-London, Edinburgh, New York
-Toronto and Melbourne
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-Writers on Arms and Armour have approached the subject from many points of
-view, but, as all students know, their works are generally so large in
-size, or, what is more essential, in price, that for many who do not have
-access to large libraries it is impossible to learn much that is required.
-Then again, the papers of the Proceedings of the various Antiquarian and
-Archaeological Societies are in all cases very scattered and, in some
-cases, unattainable, owing to their being out of print. Many writers on
-the subject have confined themselves to documentary evidence, while others
-have only written about such examples as have been spared by time and
-rust. These latter, it may be noted, are, in almost all cases, such as the
-brasses and effigies in our churches, quite exceptional, representing as
-they do the defences and weapons of the richer classes. What the ordinary
-man wore, how he wore it, and how it was made are all questions worthy of
-attention. The works of our greatest romancers have so little regarded the
-development of armour, and even to-day such anachronisms are seen in
-pictures and books, that though many comfortable and picturesque notions
-may be disturbed by the actual truth, yet the actual truth will be found
-to be no less interesting than fiction. A handy work, not excessive in
-size or price, and giving really correct information, seems therefore to
-be needed and should be popular. Such a work is this which Mr. ffoulkes
-has undertaken, and if we recognize what an immense amount of information
-has to be condensed within the limits of a handbook, I think we shall
-fully appreciate his endeavours to give an appetite for larger feasts.
-
-DILLON.
-
-TOWER OF LONDON ARMOURIES.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                            PAGE
-
-  AUTHOR'S NOTE                                                9
-
-  LIST OF AUTHORITIES                                         10
-
-  INTRODUCTION                                                11
-
-  CHAPTER I
-    THE AGE OF MAIL (1066-1277)                               15
-
-  CHAPTER II
-    THE TRANSITION PERIOD (1277-1410)                         30
-
-  CHAPTER III
-    THE WEARING OF ARMOUR AND ITS CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS      47
-
-  CHAPTER IV
-    PLATE ARMOUR (1410-ABOUT 1600)                            68
-
-  CHAPTER V
-    HORSE ARMOUR                                              87
-
-  CHAPTER VI
-    THE DECADENCE OF ARMOUR                                   92
-
-  CHAPTER VII
-    WEAPONS                                                  100
-
-  INDEX                                                      110
-
-
-
-
-AUTHOR'S NOTE
-
-
-At the request of many of those who attended my course of lectures,
-delivered before the University of Oxford during the Lent Term, 1909, I
-have collected and illustrated some of the more important notes dealing
-with the Development of European Defensive Armour and Weapons. These pages
-are not a mere reprint of those lectures, nor do they aspire to the
-dignity of a History of Armour. They are simply intended as a handbook for
-use in studying history and a short guide to the somewhat intricate
-technicalities of the Craft of the Armourer.
-
-No work, even of the smallest dimensions, can be produced at the present
-day without laying its author under a deep sense of indebtedness to Baron
-de Cosson for his numerous notes on helms and helmets, and to Viscount
-Dillon for his minute and invaluable researches in every branch of this
-subject. To this must be added a personal indebtedness to the latter for
-much assistance, and for the use of many of the illustrations given in
-this work and also in my course of lectures.
-
-CHARLES FFOULKES.
-
-OXFORD, 1909.
-
-
-
-
-The following works should be consulted by those who wish to study the
-subject of Armour and Weapons more minutely:--
-
-_A Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour_, Sir Samuel Meyrick; _A Treatise
-on Ancient Armour_, F. Grose; _Ancient Armour_, J. Hewitt; _Arms and
-Armour_, Lacombe (trans. by Boutell); _Arms and Armour_, Demmin (trans. by
-Black); _Armour in England_, Starkie Gardner; _Waffenkunde_, Wendelin
-Boeheim; _Guida del Amatore di Armi Antiche_, J. Gelli; _Dictionnaire du
-Mobilier Francais_ (vols. ii and vi), Viollet-le-Duc; _Encyclopedia of
-Costume_, Planche; _A Manual of Monumental Brasses_, Haines; _Engraved
-Illustrations of Antient Armour_, Meyrick and Skelton; _Monumental
-Effigies_, Stothard; _The Art of War_, C. W. C. Oman; _Archaeologia_, _The
-Archaeological Journal_, _The Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries_;
-the Catalogues of the Armouries of Vienna, Madrid, Paris, Brussels, Turin,
-Dresden; the Wallace Collection, London and Windsor Castle.
-
-The author is indebted to the publishers of Wendelin Boeheim's
-_Waffenkunde_ for the use of the illustrations 33 and 35, and to Messrs.
-Parker, publishers of Haines's _Monumental Brasses_, for the figures on
-Plate III.
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-
-As a subject for careful study and exhaustive investigation perhaps no
-detail of human existence can be examined with quite the same completeness
-as can the defensive armour and weapons of past ages. Most departments of
-Literature, Science, and Art are still living realities; each is still
-developing and is subject to evolution as occasion demands; and for this
-reason our knowledge of these subjects cannot be final, and our researches
-can only be brought, so to speak, up to date. The Defensive Armour of
-Europe, however, has its definite limitations so surely set that we can
-surround our investigations with permanent boundaries, which, as far as
-human mind can judge, will never be enlarged. We can look at our subject
-as a whole and can see its whole length and breadth spread out before us.
-In other aspects of life we can only limit our studies from day to day as
-invention or discovery push farther their conquering march; but, in
-dealing with the armour of our ancestors, we know that although we may
-still indulge in theories as to ancient forms and usages, we have very
-definitely before us in the primitive beginnings, the gradual development,
-the perfection, and the decadence or passing away, an absolutely unique
-progression and evolution which we can find in no other condition of life.
-
-The survival of the fittest held good of defensive armour until that very
-fitness was found to be a source rather of weakness than of strength,
-owing to changed conditions of warfare; and then the mighty defences of
-steel, impervious to sword, lance, and arrow, passed away, to remain only
-as adjuncts of Parade and Pageant, or as examples in museums of a lost art
-in warfare and military history. As an aid to the study of History our
-interest in armour may be considered perhaps rather sentimental and
-romantic than practical or useful. But, if we consider the history of the
-Art of War, we shall find that our subject will materially assist us, when
-we remember that the growth of nations and their fortunes, at any rate
-till recent times, have depended to a large extent on the sword and the
-strength of the arm that wielded it.
-
-There is another aspect of historical study which is of some importance,
-especially to those who stand on the outskirts of the subject. This aspect
-one may call the 'realistic view'. The late Professors York Powell and J.
-R. Green both insisted on the importance of this side of the subject; and
-we cannot but feel that to be able to visualize the characters of history
-and to endow them with personal attributes and personal equipment must
-give additional interest to the printed page and other documentary
-evidences. When the study of defensive armour has been carefully followed
-we shall find that the Black Prince appears to us not merely as a name and
-a landmark on the long road of time; we shall be able to picture him to
-ourselves as a living individual dressed in a distinctive fashion and
-limited in his actions, to some extent, by that very dress and equipment.
-The cut of a surcoat, the hilt of a sword, the lines of a breastplate,
-will tell us, with some degree of accuracy, when a man lived and to what
-nation he belonged; and, at the same time, in the later years, we shall
-find that the suit of plate not only proclaims the individuality of the
-wearer, but also bears the signature and individuality of the maker; a
-combination of interests which few works of handicraft can offer us.
-
-From the eleventh to the end of the fourteenth century we have but a few
-scattered examples of actual defensive armour and arms; and the
-authenticity of many of these is open to doubt. The reason for this
-scarcity is twofold. Firstly, because the material, in spite of its
-strength, is liable to destruction by rust and corrosion, especially when
-the armour is of the interlinked chain type which exposes a maximum
-surface to the atmosphere. A second reason, of equal if not greater
-importance, is the fact that, owing to the expense of manufacture and
-material, the various portions of the knightly equipment were remade and
-altered to suit new fashions and requirements. Perhaps still another
-reason may be found in the carelessness and lack of antiquarian interest
-in our ancestors, who, as soon as a particular style had ceased to be in
-vogue, destroyed or sold as useless lumber objects which to-day would be
-of incalculable interest and value.
-
-For these reasons, therefore, we are dependent, for the earlier periods of
-our subject, upon those illuminated manuscripts and sculptured monuments
-which preserve examples of the accoutrements of the twelfth and thirteenth
-centuries. Of these, as far as reliability of date is concerned, the
-incised monumental brasses and sculptured effigies in our churches are the
-best guides, because they were produced shortly after the death of the
-persons they represent, and are therefore more likely to be correct in the
-details of dress and equipment; and, in addition, they are often portraits
-of the deceased.
-
-Illuminated manuscripts present more difficulty. The miniature painter of
-the period was often fantastic in his ideas, and was certainly not an
-antiquary. Even the giants of the Renaissance, Raphael, Mantegna, Titian,
-and the rest, saw nothing incongruous in arming St. George in a suit of
-Milanese plate, or a Roman soldier of the first years of the Christian
-epoch in a fluted breastplate of Nuremberg make. Religious and historical
-legends were in those days present and living realities and, to the
-unlearned, details of antiquarian interest would have been useless for
-instructive purposes, whereas the garbing of mythical or historical
-characters in the dress of the period made their lives and actions seem a
-part of the everyday life of those who studied them.
-
-This being the case, we must use our judgement in researches among
-illustrated manuscripts, and must be prepared for anachronisms. For
-example, we find that in the illustrated Froissart in the British Museum,
-known as the 'Philip de Commines' copy,[1] the barrier or 'tilt' which
-separated the knights when jousting is represented in the Tournament of
-St. Inglevert. Now this tournament took place in the year 1389; but
-Monstrelet tells us[2] that the tilt was first used at Arras in 1429, that
-is, some forty years after. This illustrated edition of Froissart was
-produced at the end of the fifteenth century, when the tilt was in common
-use; so we must, in this and in other like cases, use the illustrations
-not as examples of the periods which they record, but as delineations of
-the manners, customs, and dress of the period at which they were produced.
-
-The different methods of arming were much the same all over Europe; but in
-England fashions were adopted only after they had been in vogue for some
-years in France, Italy, and Germany. We may pride ourselves, however, on
-the fact that our ancestors were not so prone to exaggeration in style or
-to the over-ornate so-called decoration which was in such favour on the
-Continent during the latter part of the sixteenth and the first half of
-the seventeenth centuries.
-
-For a fuller study of this subject Sir Samuel Meyrick's great work on
-Ancient Armour is useful, if the student bears in mind that the author was
-but a pioneer, and that many of his statements have since been corrected
-in the light of recent investigations, and also that the Meyrick
-collection which he so frequently uses to illustrate his remarks is now
-dispersed through all the museums of Europe. Of all the authorities the
-most trustworthy and most minute and careful in both text and
-illustrations is Hewitt, whose three volumes on Ancient Armour have been
-the groundwork of all subsequent works in English. Some of the more recent
-writers are prone to use Hewitt's infinite care and research without
-acknowledging the fact; but they have very seldom improved upon his
-methods or added to his investigations. For the later periods, which
-Hewitt has not covered so fully as he has the earlier portion of his
-subject, the _Catalogues Raisonnes_ of the various museums of England and
-Europe will assist the student more than any history that could possibly
-be compiled.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER I
-
-THE AGE OF MAIL (1066-1277)
-
-
-With the Norman Conquest we may be said, in England, to enter upon the
-iron period of defensive armour. The old, semi-barbaric methods were still
-in use, but were gradually superseded by the craft of the smith and the
-metal-worker. This use of iron for defensive purposes had been in vogue
-for some time on the Continent, for we find the Monk of St. Gall writing
-bitterly on the subject in his _Life of Charlemagne_. He says: 'Then could
-be seen the Iron Charles, helmed with an iron helm, his iron breast and
-his broad shoulders defended by an iron breastplate, an iron spear raised
-in his left hand, his right always rested on his unconquered iron
-falchion. The thighs, which with most men are uncovered that they may the
-more easily ride on horseback, were in his case clad with plates of iron:
-I need make no special mention of his greaves, for the greaves of all the
-army were of iron. His shield was of iron, his charger iron-coloured and
-iron-hearted. The fields and open places were filled with iron, a people
-stronger than iron paid universal homage to the strength of iron. The
-horror of the dungeon seemed less than the bright gleam of the iron. "Oh
-the iron, woe for the iron," was the cry of the citizens. The strong walls
-shook at the sight of iron, the resolution of old and young fell before
-the iron.'
-
-The difficulty of obtaining and working metal, however, was such that it
-was only used by the wealthy, and that sparingly. The more common fashion
-of arming was a quilted fabric of either linen or cloth, a very
-serviceable protection, which was worn up to the end of the fifteenth
-century. Another favourite material for defensive purposes was leather. We
-read of the shield of Ajax being composed of seven tough ox-hides, and the
-word 'cuirass' itself suggests a leather garment. Now, given either the
-leather or the quilted fabric, it is but natural, with the discovery and
-use of iron, that it should have been added in one form or another to
-reinforce the less rigid material. And it is this reinforcing by plates of
-metal, side by side with the use of the interlaced chain armour, which
-step by step brings us to the magnificent creations of the armourer's
-craft which distinguish the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
-
-Sir Samuel Meyrick[3] leads us into endless intricacies with his theories
-of the various kinds of defensive armour in use at the time of the
-Conquest; but these theories must of necessity be based only upon personal
-opinion, and can in no way be borne out by concrete examples. If we take
-the pictured representations of armour as our guide we find certain
-arrangements of lines which lead us to suppose that they indicate some
-peculiar arrangement of metal upon a fabric. The first and oldest of these
-varieties is generally called 'Scale' or Imbricate armour. We find this
-represented on the Trajan Column, to give only one of the many examples of
-its use in very early times. That it was a very pliant and serviceable
-defence we may judge from the fact that, with some alteration in its
-application, it formed the distinguishing feature of the Brigandine of the
-fifteenth century. The scales were sewn upon a leather or quilted garment,
-the upper row overlapping the lower in such a manner that the attachment
-is covered and protected from injury (Plate I, 1). The scales were either
-formed with the lower edge rounded, like the scales of a fish, or were
-feather-shaped or square.
-
-Another method of reinforcing the leather defence has been named the
-'Trellice' coat. It is always difficult to discover exactly what the
-primitive draughtsman intended to represent in the way of fabrics, and it
-is quite open to question whether these diagonal lines may not merely
-suggest a quilting of linen or cloth. If it is intended to represent
-leather the trellice lines would probably be formed of thongs applied on
-to the groundwork with metal studs riveted in the intervening spaces
-(Plate I). This arrangement of lines is very common on the Bayeux
-Tapestry.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE I
-
-1. Model of Scale armour 2. From Bib. Nat. Paris MS 403 XIIIth cent. 3.
-Model of trellice 4. From Bayeux Tapestry 5. Model of Ringed armour 6.
-From Harl. MS. Brit. Mus. 603, XIth cent. 7. Model of Mail 8. From the
-Album of Wilars de Honecort. XIIIth cent. 9. Model of Banded Mail 10.
-Model of Banded Mail after Meyrick. 11. Model of Banded Mail after Waller
-12. Romance of Alexander Bib. Nat. Paris. circ. 1240 13. Figure on
-buttress of S. Mary's Church, Oxford.]
-
-Another variety to be found in early illuminated manuscripts goes by the
-name of 'Ringed' armour. It is quite probable that the circular discs may
-have been solid, but on the other hand, from the practical point of view,
-a ring gives equal protection against a cutting blow, and is of course
-much lighter. The illustration of this form of defensive armour is of
-rather earlier date than that at which we commence our investigations, but
-it appears with some frequency in manuscripts of the twelfth century. Mr.
-J. G. Waller, in his article on the Hauberk of mail in _Archaeologia_,
-vol. lix, is of opinion that all these arrangements of line represent
-interlinked chain armour. If this is the case chain-mail must have been
-much more common than we imagine. From the very nature of its construction
-and the labour expended on its intricate manufacture it would surely, at
-least in the earlier periods, have been only the defence of the wealthy.
-When we examine the protective armour of primitive races we find quilted
-and studded garments used, even at the present day, so it seems far more
-probable that our illustrations represent some similar forms of defensive
-garments than that they are all incompetent renderings of the fabric of
-chain-mail only.
-
-That the making of chain-mail must have been laborious in the extreme we
-may judge from the fact that the wire which formed the links had to be
-hammered out from the solid bar or ingot. As far as can be gathered, the
-art of wire-drawing was not practised till the fourteenth century, at
-which time Rudolph of Nuremberg is credited with its discovery. The
-roughly-hammered strips were probably twisted spirally round an iron or
-wood core and then cut off into rings of equal size (Fig. 1). The ends of
-the rings were flattened and pierced, and, when interlaced, the pierced
-ends were riveted together or sometimes, as is the case with Oriental
-mail, welded with heat. Links that are 'jumped', that is with the ends of
-the ring merely butted together and not joined, generally show either that
-the mail is an imitation, or that it was used for some ceremonial
-purpose; for this insecure method of fixing would be useless in the stress
-and strain of battle or active service. The most usual method of
-interlinking the rings is for each ring to join four others, as will be
-seen in the drawing on Plate I, No. 7. No. 8 on the same plate shows the
-mail as more generally depicted in illuminations. When we consider the
-inexperience of the scribes and illustrators of the Middle Ages we must
-admit that this representation of a very intricate fabric is not only very
-ingenious but follows quite the best modern impressionist doctrines.
-
-Portions of chain-mail survive in most armouries and museums, but their
-provenance is generally unknown, and much that is of Oriental origin is
-passed off as European. Chain-mail itself comes in the first instance from
-the East, but when it was introduced into Europe is difficult, if not
-impossible, to state. It is certainly represented as worn by the Scythians
-and Parthians on the Trajan Column, and is probably of greater antiquity
-still.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1. Probable method of making links for mail.]
-
-From the beginning of the thirteenth century, for about sixty or seventy
-years, we find a curious arrangement of lines intended to represent a form
-of defensive armour, both in illuminated manuscripts and also on carved
-monuments (Plate I, 12, 13).
-
-Mr. Waller, in the article on the Hauberk referred to above, gives it as
-his opinion that this 'Banded Mail', as it is called, was but a variety of
-the ordinary interlinked mail; but if we examine the illuminations of the
-period we shall find that it is shown side by side with the representation
-of what all authorities admit to be chain-mail. No. 12 on Plate I shows
-the arm and leg defences to be formed of this banded mail, while the head
-is protected with the ordinary chain-mail. We have then to try and
-discover how these horizontal bands dividing each row of links in the mail
-can be shown in a practical form. Meyrick vaguely suggests a row of rings
-sewn edgeways on the body garment and threaded with a leather thong
-(Plate I, 10), with the under fabric caught up between the rows of rings
-and formed into a piping through which a cord was threaded. This theory
-has been quoted by Viollet-le-Duc in his _Dictionnaire du Mobilier
-Francais_, by Dr. Wendelin Boeheim in his _Waffenkunde_, and by more
-recent writers; but none of these authorities seems to have taken the
-trouble to test its practicability. The human body being rounded, the
-tendency of these edge-sewn rings would be to 'gape' and thus give an
-opening for the weapon. In addition to this, the number of rings so used
-would make the weight of the defence, hanging as it did from the shoulders
-alone, almost insupportable. A third and perhaps the most conclusive of
-all the arguments against Meyrick's theory is that we frequently find the
-inside of a banded mail coif shown with the same markings as the outside,
-which aspect would be impossible if the rings were arranged as he
-suggests.
-
-From models specially made for this work we find that if leather was used
-at all it must be after the manner of No. 9 on Plate I. Here the rings are
-covered with the leather on both sides, so that there is no possibility of
-their gaping, and, in addition, the leather being pressed against the
-rings, on the outside by wear and usage and on the inside from the
-pressure of the body, would show ring-markings on front and back which
-might be represented in the manner shown in the illustration. The drawback
-to this theory is not only the weight of such a defence, but also the heat
-from lack of ventilation. By far the most practical theory put forward is
-that of Mr. Waller,[4] who gives an illustration of a piece of Oriental
-mail with leather thongs threaded through each alternate row of rings.
-This gives a certain solidity to the net-like fabric and yet does not add
-appreciably to its weight. No. 11 on Plate I shows this arrangement drawn
-from a model, and when we compare it with the figures below, taking into
-consideration the difficulty of representing such a fabric, we are forced
-to admit that this last theory is the most practical. This is especially
-so in No. 12; for the mail covering for the head is probably made in one
-piece with that of the arms and legs, but the leather thongs have been
-omitted on the head and hands to give greater ease of movement.
-
-Before leaving the subject of fabrics it may be well to warn those who
-consult Meyrick that this author is rather prone to enunciate theories of
-the different forms of mail which, like that of the banded mail, do not
-work well in practice. He mentions, among many other varieties, what he
-calls 'Mascled' mail. He asserts that this was formed of lozenge-shaped
-plates cut out in the centre and applied to linen or leather. He says that
-it was so called from its likeness to the meshes of a net (Lat. _macula_).
-Now when we consider that the word 'mail' itself comes to us from the
-Latin 'macula', through the French 'maille' and the Italian 'maglia', we
-find that Meyrick's 'Mascled mail' is but a tautological expression which
-can best be applied to the net-like fabric of the interlinked chain
-defence, and so his 'Mascled mail' would more correctly be styled a
-'Mascled coat', and this coat would probably be formed of the chain
-variety as resembling the meshes of a net more closely than any other
-fabric.
-
-Double mail is sometimes to be met with on carved monuments, and this
-would be constructed in the same manner as the single mail; but two links
-would be used together in every case where one is used in the single mail.
-
-Having briefly described the varieties of fabric and material which were
-in use at the time of the Conquest for defensive armour, we may pass to
-the forms in which those materials were made up. The first garment put on
-by the man-at-arms was the Tunic, which was a short linen shirt reaching
-usually to just above the knee; it is often shown in miniatures of the
-period beneath the edge of the coat of mail.
-
-At one period the tunic appears to have been worn inconveniently long, if
-we are to judge from the seals of Richard I, in which it is shown reaching
-to the feet. This long under-garment was quite given up by the beginning
-of the thirteenth century, and those representations of Joan of Arc which
-show a long under-tunic falling from beneath the breastplate are based
-upon no reliable authority.
-
-Next to the tunic was worn the Gambeson, called also the Wambais and
-Aketon, a quilted garment, either used as the sole defence by the
-foot-soldier, or, by the knight, worn under the hauberk to prevent the
-chain-mail from bruising the body under the impact of a blow. The gambeson
-is shown on Fig. 9, appearing beneath the edge of the hauberk just above
-the knee.
-
-The Hauberk, which was worn over the gambeson, was the chief body defence.
-It is true that we read of a 'plastron de fer', which seems to have been a
-solid metal plate worn over the breast and sometimes at the back; but it
-was invariably put on either under the hauberk itself or over the hauberk,
-but always beneath the Jupon or surcoat, which at this period was the
-outermost garment worn. In either case it was not exposed to view, so it
-is impossible to tell with any degree of accuracy what was its shape or
-how it was fixed to the wearer. Hewitt[5] gives two illustrations of
-carved wooden figures in Bamberg Cathedral, which show a plastron de fer
-worn over the jupon, which seems to be studded with metal. The figures
-were executed about the year 1370. The form of the hauberk, as shown on
-the Bayeux Tapestry, was of the shirt order (Plate I, 4, 6). It was
-usually slit to the waist, front and back, for convenience on horseback,
-and the skirts reached to the knee, thus protecting the upper leg. It is
-perhaps needless to point out that the extreme weight of mail with its
-thick padded undergarment made the use of a horse a necessity, for the
-weight was all borne upon the shoulders, and was not, as is the case with
-suits of plate, distributed over the limbs and body of the wearer. The
-sleeves of the hauberk were sometimes short; sometimes they were long and
-ended in fingerless mittens of mail. The three varieties of sleeve are
-shown on Plate I, while the mittens turned back to leave the hand bare
-appear on the Setvans brass (Plate III, 2).
-
-Wace, the chronicler, seems to suggest different forms of defensive
-habiliments, for we find mention of a short form of the hauberk, called
-the Haubergeon. In his _Roman de Rou_ he writes of Duke William at the
-Battle of Senlac:--
-
-  Sun boen haubert fist demander,[6]
-
-while of Bishop Odo he says:--
-
-  Un haubergeon aveit vestu
-  De sor une chemise blanche.
-
-The fact that he mentions the tunic ('chemise blanche') seems to imply
-that it was seen beneath the hem of the haubergeon, which would not be the
-case with the long-skirted hauberk. Occasionally in illuminated
-manuscripts the hauberk is shown slit at the sides; but for what purpose
-it is difficult to imagine, for it would impede the wearer when walking
-and would make riding an impossibility.
-
-The defences of the leg, made of mail like the hauberk, seem to have been
-used, at first, only by the nobles, if the Bayeux Tapestry is taken as a
-guide. The common soldiers wore linen or leather swathings, sometimes
-studded with metal, but in appearance closely resembling the modern
-puttee. The upper portion of the leg was protected at a later period with
-Chaussons, while the defences from knee to foot were called Chausses. Wace
-mentions 'chauces de fer', but we must remember, as was noticed in the
-introduction, that Wace wrote some seventy years after the Conquest, and
-probably described the accoutrements worn at his own time. The Bayeux
-Tapestry is nearer the period, as far as we can date it with any
-correctness, but here we are hampered to some extent by the crude methods
-of the embroideress. The chaussons are not often shown in illuminations,
-for the long-skirted hauberk covers the leg to the knee; but the chausses
-appear in all pictorial and sculptured records of the period, made either
-of mail or of pourpointerie, that is fabric studded with metal. Towards
-the end of the thirteenth century the chaussons and chausses were made in
-one stocking-like form covering the foot; this is shown on Plate I, 8, 12.
-In the first of these illustrations only the front of the leg is covered,
-and the chausses are laced at the back.
-
-As the manufacture of mail progressed the whole of the wearer's person
-came to be protected by it. In addition to the coverings of the body we
-find continuations that protected arms and legs, and in course of time the
-neck and head were protected with a Coif or hood of mail, which is shown
-in use in Plate I, No. 12, and thrown back on the shoulders on No. 8.
-Although of no protective use, the Surcoat is so essentially part of the
-war equipment of the knight that it needs more than a passing notice. It
-first appears on Royal seals at the beginning of the thirteenth century,
-in the reign of King John. Some modern writers have suggested that it was
-first used in the Crusades to keep the sun off the mail; however this may
-be, we have written proof that it was of use in protecting the intricate
-fabric of chain armour from the wet, which by rusting the metal played
-havoc with its serviceability. It will be seen in different lengths in the
-figures on Plate I. In _The Avowynge of King Arthur_, stanza 39, we find--
-
-  With scharpe weppun and schene
-  Gay gowns of grene,
-  To hold thayre armur clene
-  And were[7] hitte fro the wete.
-
-Like the hauberk, the surcoat was slit to the waist in front and behind
-for convenience on horseback, and was usually girt at the waist with a
-cord or belt. It was frequently decorated with the armorial bearings of
-the wearer. When the barrel helm was worn, concealing the whole face, some
-such cognizance was necessary that the knight might be recognized. The
-Setvans brass (Plate III) shows the armorial device powdered over the
-surcoat.
-
-The headpiece characteristic of the Norman Conquest is the conical nasal
-Helm. We should draw a distinction between the Helmet and the Helm. The
-former is, of course, a diminutive of the latter. At the time of the
-Norman Conquest the head covering would rank rather as a helmet, as it did
-not entirely cover the face. The Norman helmet was conical, usually formed
-of four triangular pieces of metal plate riveted in a ring and meeting at
-the apex. Sometimes a Nasal or nose-guard was added (Plate I, 4, 6). That
-this nasal must have been broad enough to conceal the face to a great
-extent we may judge from the story how the Norman soldiers believed their
-leader to be killed, and how William, raising his helm, rode along the
-lines crying 'I am here, and by God's help I shall conquer'. The Bayeux
-Tapestry illustrates this incident. On some of the Conqueror's seals we
-find the helmet tied on with laces. Earflaps were sometimes added, as may
-be seen on the chessmen found in the Isle of Lewis, now in the British
-Museum.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2. From the effigy of Hugo Fitz Eudo, Kirkstead,
-Lincs., thirteenth century.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3. From a figure in the Cathedral at Constance,
-thirteenth century.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4. From the Great Seal of Alexander II of Scotland,
-thirteenth century.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5. Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 20. D. i, thirteenth century.]
-
-During the twelfth century the helmet gradually became the helm. The
-ear-flaps were fixed, becoming an integral part of the defence, and closed
-round to join the nasal, this arrangement forming at length the ventail or
-visor. This gives us what is known as the 'Barrel helm' (Fig. 2), in which
-the whole head is enclosed and the only opening in the front is the
-'ocularium' or vision slit. Next we have the same kind of helm with the
-addition of holes for breathing in the lower portion (Fig. 3). In some
-varieties the back of the helm is shorter than the front, as on Fig. 4,
-and in this kind also we sometimes find breathing holes added. The Great
-Seals of the kings are a most useful guide in discovering the
-accoutrements of each period, and especially so for the helms and helmets,
-which are easier to distinguish than the more minute details of dress and
-equipment. It will be understood that in time the flat-topped helm was
-given up in favour of the 'Sugar-loaf' helm (Fig. 5), as it is generally
-called, when we consider the importance of a 'glancing surface' in armour.
-Although thickness of material was of some importance in defensive armour,
-this providing of surfaces from which a weapon would slip was considered
-to be of supreme importance by the armour-smiths of later periods. In the
-conical helm, as indeed in nearly all great helms, the vision and
-breathing apertures were pierced in the plates of the helm itself and were
-not part of a movable visor, as was the case in the helmet. The weight of
-these helms must have been great; for they do not seem to have been bolted
-on to the shoulders, as were the fifteenth and sixteenth century tilting
-helms, but to have rested upon the crown of the head. The drawing on Plate
-I, No. 8, shows a padded cap which was worn under the mail to protect the
-head from pressure. On No. 12 of the same plate we see the helm being put
-on over the mail coif; the padded cap is worn under the mail. For
-tournaments the helm was sometimes made of toughened leather, which was
-called 'cuirbouilli' from the fact that it was prepared by being boiled in
-oil and then moulded to shape. This material was very strong and
-serviceable and was used, as we shall see later on, for reinforcing the
-chain armour and also for horse armour. It was generally decorated with
-gilding and painting. For the tournament held at Windsor in 1278 we find
-mention of 'xxxviii galee de cor'.[8] As we have shown, these great helms
-were not attached to the body armour and were thus liable to be struck off
-in battle. In order to recover them a chain was sometimes stapled to the
-helm and fastened to the waist or some portion of the body armour (Fig.
-6).
-
-The usual form of helmet in the twelfth century is the cup-shaped
-headpiece of which the Cervelliere is a typical example (Fig. 7). It was
-either worn as the sole defence or was used in conjunction with the helm
-as an under-cap. The wide-rimmed hat of iron is found all through the
-period of defensive armour with which we deal. It appears in the
-thirteenth century (Fig. 8) and is also to be found in the fifteenth.
-There is an example of one of these war-hats (_Eisenhut_) in the museum at
-Nuremberg.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6. Detail from the brass of Sir Roger de Trumpington,
-Trumpington, Camb., 1290.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7. From the monument to Johan le Botiler, St. Bride's,
-Glamorganshire, 1300.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8. Add. MS. 11. 639, f. 520, thirteenth century.]
-
-The Shield at the time of the Conquest was kite-shaped. It was long enough
-to cover the body and legs of the warrior when mounted, but it must have
-been a most inconvenient adjunct to his accoutrements. As we have seen in
-the Monk of St. Gall's records, the shield was sometimes made of iron; but
-the more usual material was wood covered with leather or the tough
-cuirbouilli. Its broad flat surface was from the earliest times used by
-the painter to display his art, which at first was not systematized, but
-consisted of geometrical patterns and strange birds and beasts that had no
-special meaning. As time went on each knight retained the device which was
-borne upon his shield and came to be recognized by it, and from this
-sprung the complicated science of Heraldry, which has survived, with all
-its intricate detail, to the present day. The surface of the shield was
-often bowed so that it embraced the body of the wearer. That some must
-have been flat we may suppose from the fact that the soldiers in the
-Bayeux Tapestry are represented as using them for trays to carry cups and
-plates at the 'Prandium'. In St. Lucy's Chapel, at Christ Church Cathedral
-in Oxford, in the window depicting the martyrdom of St. Thomas of
-Canterbury, are to be seen two varieties of decorated shields. Two of the
-knights bear shields painted with geometrical designs, while Fitz Urse
-carries a shield on which are three bears' heads erased, a punning
-cognizance from the name of the wearer. The date of the window is about
-the end of the thirteenth century. The shield was attached to the wearer
-by a thong passing round the neck, called the Guige. When not in use it
-was slung by this thong on the back. When in use the arm and hand passed
-through the short loops called Enarmes (Fig. 10). The Royal blazon first
-appears on the shield in the reign of Richard I. Occasionally we find
-circular shields depicted in illuminations; but they were generally used
-by the foot-soldiers. As the development of defensive armour proceeds we
-shall find that the shield becomes smaller, and in time is discarded, the
-body defences being made sufficient protection in themselves.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9. From the _Romance of Alexander_, f. 150, Bod. Lib.,
-fourteenth century.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10. A, A. Enarmes. B. Guige.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II
-
-THE TRANSITION PERIOD (1277-1410)
-
-
-It will be readily understood that the change from mail to plate armour
-was not brought about at once. Difficulty of manufacture, expense, and
-conservatism in idea, all retarded the innovation. Some progressive knight
-might adopt a new fashion which did not come into general use till many
-years after, in the same manner that, from force of circumstances, or from
-a clinging to old methods, we find an out-of-date detail of armour like
-the coif of mail, shown on the brass of Sir W. Molineux, appearing in
-1548, or the sleeved hauberk in the Dresden Museum which was worn without
-plate defences for the arms by Herzog August at the Battle of Muehlberg in
-1546. Acting on the method adopted in the preceding chapter, we may first
-consider the materials used during the beginning of the Transition Period,
-and afterwards we shall show how those materials were made up.
-
-During the fourteenth century iron, leather, whalebone, and quilted
-fabrics were all employed for defensive purposes. The illustration from
-the _Romance of Alexander_ (Fig. 9) shows the gambeson still worn under
-the mail, and the legs are covered in one instance with a metal-studded or
-pourpointed defence; a second figure wears what appears to be scale
-armour, while the third has no detail shown upon the legs, which may be an
-oversight on the part of the artist, or may suggest that plain hose were
-worn. Iron was used for the mail and scale armour and was also employed in
-making a pliable defence called Splinted armour, which at a later period
-became the Brigandine (Plate II).
-
-There are several of these brigandines to be found in the Armouries of
-England and Europe, but the majority of them date about the middle of the
-fifteenth century. As will be seen in the illustration, the brigandine
-was made of small plates of iron or steel overlapping upwards and riveted
-on to a canvas-lined garment of silk or velvet. The plates were worn on
-the inside in most cases, and the rivet heads which showed on the silk or
-velvet face were often gilded, thus producing a very brilliant effect.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE II
-
-(Outside.)
-
-(Inside.)
-
-Brigandine in the Musee d'Artillerie, Paris.]
-
-We find many references to these splinted defences in the Inventories of
-the period, which form a valuable source of information on the subject of
-details of armour. The Inventory of Humphrey de Bohun,[9] Earl of
-Hereford, taken in 1322, gives:--'Une peire de plates coverts de vert
-velvet.' Again, in one of the Inventories of the Exchequer, 1331,[10] is
-noted:--'Une peire de plates covert de rouge samyt.' The Inventory of
-Piers Gaveston, dated 1313, a document full of interesting details,
-has[11]:--'Une peire de plates enclouez et garniz d'argent.' The 'pair of
-plates' mentioned in these records refers to the front and back defences.
-In the accounts of payments by Sir John Howard we find in the year 1465,
-11_s._ 8_d._ paid for 20,000 'Bregander nayles'.[12] Brass was employed
-for decorative purposes on the edges of the hauberk, or was fashioned into
-gauntlets, as may be seen in the gauntlets of the Black Prince, preserved
-at Canterbury. Chaucer writes in the 'Rime of Sir Thopas':--
-
-  His swerdes shethe of yvory,
-    His helm of laton bright.
-
-Laton, or latten, was a mixed metal, much resembling brass, used at this
-period for decorative purposes.
-
-Whalebone was employed for gauntlets and also for swords used in the
-tournament. Froissart uses the words 'gands de baleine' in describing the
-equipment of the troops of Philip von Arteveld at the Battle of Rosbecque.
-
-Quilted garments were still worn, either as the sole defence or as a
-gambeson under the mail. As late as the year 1460 we find regulations of
-Louis XI of France ordering these coats of defence to be made of from 30
-to 36 folds of linen.[13]
-
-Leather, either in its natural state or boiled and beaten till it could be
-moulded and then allowed to dry hard, was frequently used at this period
-for all kinds of defensive armour.
-
-In Chaucer's 'Rime of Sir Thopas', from which we have quoted before, occur
-the words, 'His jambeux were of quirboilly.' The jambeaux were coverings
-for the legs. This quirboilly, cuirbully, or cuirbouilli, when finished
-was an exceedingly hard substance, and was, on account of its lightness as
-compared to metal, much used for tournament armour and for the Barding or
-defence for the horse. In the Roll of Purchases for the Windsor Park
-Tournament, held in 1278, mention is made of cuirasses supplied by Milo
-the Currier, who also furnished helms of the same material.[14] In the
-Inventory of Sir Simon Burley, beheaded in 1338, we find under 'Armure de
-guerre':--'Un palet (a headpiece) de quierboylle.' There is a light
-leather helmet of the 'morion' type, dated sixteenth century, in the
-Zeughaus at Berlin.
-
-Banded mail still appears in drawings or on monuments up to the end of the
-fourteenth century.
-
-We may now turn to the making up of these varied materials, and will
-endeavour, step by step, to trace the gradual evolution of the full suit
-of plate from the first additions of plate defence to mail till we find
-that the mail practically disappears, or is only worn in small portions
-where plate cannot be used.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11. From Roy. MS. 16. G. vi, f. 387, fourteenth
-century.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12. Bib. Nat., Paris, _Lancelot du Lac_, fourteenth
-century.]
-
-Setting aside the plastron de fer, which, as has been noticed, is seldom
-shown in representations of armour, we find the first additional defence
-was the Poleyne or knee-cop. We must suppose that there was good reason
-for thus reinforcing the mail defence on this part of the body. Probably
-this was due to the fact that the shield became shorter at this period,
-and also because the position of the wearer when mounted exposed the knee,
-a very delicate piece of anatomy, to the attacks of the foot-soldier (Fig.
-11). Poleynes are mentioned in a wardrobe account of Edward I in 1300.
-They were frequently made of cuirbouilli, and this material is probably
-intended in the illustration (Plate III, 1), as elaborately decorated
-metal is rarely met with at this period. At the end of the thirteenth
-century appear those curious appendages known as Ailettes. On Plate III,
-2, the figure is shown wearing the poleynes and also the ailettes. For
-practical purposes they are represented on recumbent figures as worn at
-the back, but in pictorial illustrations they are invariably shown on the
-outside of the shoulder. Some writers consider that they were solely used
-for ornament, presumably because they are generally shown decorated with
-heraldic blazons. Against this, however, we may place the fact that they
-are depicted in representations of battles, and in Queen Mary's psalter
-(2. B. vii in the British Museum) the combatants wear plain ailettes. The
-German name for the ailettes (_Tartschen_) suggests also that they were
-intended for shoulder-guards. Fourteenth-century Inventories abound with
-references to ailettes. In the Roll of Purchases for Windsor Park
-Tournament are mentioned thirty-eight pair of ailettes to be fastened with
-silk laces supplied by one Richard Paternoster. In the Piers Gaveston
-Inventory before quoted are: 'Les alettes garnis et frettez de perles.'
-These, of course, would be only for ceremonial use. The illustration (Fig.
-11) shows different forms of ailette, and occasionally we find the
-lozenge-shaped, and once (Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 2. A. xxii, fol. 219) they
-assume a cruciform shape. The attachment of the ailettes with the laces
-referred to in the Windsor Park Inventory is shown on Fig. 12. In the
-_Chroniques de Charlemaine_, preserved in the Bibliotheque Royale at
-Brussels, the ailettes appear to be laced to the side of the helmet. This
-occurs in so many of the miniatures that it must be taken as a correct
-presentment of this detail in arming. It may be, however, that, as this
-manuscript was produced in the year 1460, it recorded a later method of
-using the ailette which, _per se_, disappears about the middle of the
-fourteenth century, as far as monumental records exist.
-
-The next addition of plate to the equipment of mail seems to have been on
-the legs. The only monumental brass that gives this fashion of arming is
-the Northwode brass at Minster, Sheppey. As the legs are of later date
-than the rest of the brass, although most probably correct in design, it
-may be better to trust to a monument which is intact, as is the statue of
-Gulielmus Berardi, 1289, which is carved in the Cloister of the Annunziata
-Convent, Florence (Fig. 13). Here we find the front of the leg entirely
-protected by plates which may be intended for metal, but which, from their
-ornate decoration, seem rather to suggest cuirbouilli. These jambeaux, or,
-as they are sometimes called, Bainbergs or Beinbergs, of leather have been
-before referred to as mentioned by Chaucer.
-
-Returning to monumental brasses again, we find on the Gorleston brass
-(Plate III, 3) that the plate additions are still more increased. Besides
-the poleynes and the ailettes there are traces of plate jambs on the legs,
-and the arms are protected by plates and circular discs on shoulder and
-elbow.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE III
-
-1. Sir John d'Aubernoun, 1277, Stoke D'Abernon, Surrey 2. Sir Robt. de
-Setvans, 1306, Chartham, Kent 3. A member of the de Bacon family, c. 1320,
-Gorleston, Suffolk 4. Sir John D'Aubernoun, 1327 Stoke D'Abernon, Surrey
-5. William de Aldeburgh, c. 1360, Aldborough, Yorks 6. A Knight, c. 1400,
-Laughton, Lincolnshire.]
-
-After 1325 ailettes are rarely met with. On No. 4 of Plate III these
-details seem to be advanced in some points, and are shown with the methods
-of attaching them to the wearer. The Rerebrace is strapped over the mail,
-and the disc at the bend of the Coude or elbow-piece is held in place by
-Aiguillettes or laces--called at a later period Arming-points. The
-poleynes overlap the jambs, and so cover the junction of the two pieces,
-and the latter are held to the leg with straps. The Solerets are among the
-earliest examples of a defence of laminated plates, that is, of strips of
-metal riveted upon leather in order to give more ease of movement than
-would be possible with a solid plate. The Vambrace is worn under the
-sleeve of the hauberk, and not, as in the preceding example, over the
-mail. This figure is especially interesting because it shows the different
-garments worn with the armour of this period. Above the knees appears the
-tunic; over this comes the hauberk of mail, in this instance banded mail;
-over the hauberk are shown the Upper Pourpoint, a quilted garment, and,
-above this, the surcoat, or, as this variety is called, the Cyclas. The
-difference between the surcoat proper and the cyclas is that the former is
-of even length all round, while the latter is shorter in front than behind
-(see also Fig. 14). The coif of mail has now given place to the Camail,
-which does not cover the head, but is attached to the helmet, and is not
-joined to the hauberk, but hangs over the cyclas.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13. Gulielmus Berardi, Florence, 1289.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14. Bib. Nat., Paris, _Tristan and Iseult_, fourteenth
-century.]
-
-In the next example (Plate III, 5) we find the mail still worn on the legs
-and arms, but on the latter the vambrace and the coude plate seem to be
-hinged in the manner adopted during the period of full armour. The upper
-part of the leg is protected by studded pourpointerie, which was
-frequently employed as being of more convenience on horseback. These thigh
-defences were called the Cuisses. The Bascinet is shown and also the short
-surcoat or Jupon.
-
-The brass of an unknown knight (Plate III, 6) is typical of what has come
-to be known as the 'Camail' period. The arm-and leg-pieces completely
-enclose the limb and are fastened with hinges and straps as in the later
-periods. The gauntlets show the Gadlings, or knuckle-knobs, which are a
-marked feature of this period, and the whole suit is richly decorated with
-engraved borders. Some writers divide the Transition Period of armour into
-'Surcoat', 'Cyclas', 'Jupon', and 'Tabard'. This, however, seems
-unnecessary if we are considering only the development of defensive
-armour, and not the whole question of costume. The camail is so marked a
-detail of the knightly equipment that it may reasonably be used to
-describe the fashion in armour from about 1360 to 1405. In this example
-the figure is clad in complete plate, though the hauberk is worn beneath,
-as may be seen at the lower edge of the jupon and also in the '_vif de
-l'harnois_', or portion of the body at the armpit, which was unprotected
-by plate. In some instances this vital spot was protected by a circular,
-oval, crescent-shaped, or square plate attached by laces, which modern
-writers call the Rondel, but which Viscount Dillon, in a most interesting
-article, proves to have been the Moton or Besague[15] (Fig. 15).
-
-The effigy of the Black Prince at Canterbury is a good example of the
-armour of this period, but it is interesting to note that, while the
-monumental brasses frequently give such details as straps, buckles, &c.,
-this effigy shows no constructional detail whatever. We find that in Spain
-there were minute regulations drawn up as to the manner in which a
-deceased warrior might be represented on his tomb. The details of sheathed
-or unsheathed sword, helm, spurs, &c., all had some significant reference
-to his life and achievements.[16] It is almost superfluous to point out
-that those details which referred to the knight's captivity, or the fact
-that he had been vanquished, were more honoured in the breach than in the
-observance.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15. Brass of Sir T. de S. Quentin, Harpham, Yorks,
-1420.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16. Knightly figure in Ash Church, Kent, fourteenth
-century.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17. Bib. Nat., Paris, _Tite-Live_, 1350.]
-
-The armour of this period was often richly decorated with engraving, as
-may be seen on the brass to an unknown knight at Laughton, Lincs., and
-also on the monument to Sir Hugh Calverley at Bunbury, Cheshire. Of the
-jupon, King Rene, in his _Livre des Tournois_, about the year 1450, writes
-that it ought to be without fold on the body, like that of a herald, so
-that the cognizance, or heraldic blazon, could be better recognized. The
-jupon of the Black Prince, preserved at Canterbury and admirably figured
-in _Monumenta Vetusta_, vol. vii, is embroidered with the Royal Arms, and
-is quilted with cotton padding. So general is the use of the jupon at this
-period that it is a matter of some conjecture as to what form the body
-armour took that was worn under it. The effigy of a knight in Ash Church,
-Kent (Fig. 16), elucidates this mystery and shows, through openings of the
-jupon, horizontal plates or splints riveted together. In Fig. 17 we see
-these plates worn without the jupon. The term Jazeran is often applied to
-such armour.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 18. _a._ The Camail attached to the helm. _b._ The
-Camail showing the staples.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 19. Bib. Nat., Paris, _Tite-Live_, 1350.]
-
-The camail, or hood of mail, which we have before referred to, was
-separate from the hauberk, and during the fourteenth century was worn over
-the jupon. It was attached to the bascinet by Vervelles or staples which
-fitted into openings in the helmet. A lace was passed through these
-staples, as is shown on Fig. 18. From a French manuscript of the early
-fifteenth century (Fig. 19) we see how the camail was kept from 'riding'
-over the shoulders. In the little wooden statuette of St. George of Dijon,
-which is a most useful record of the armour of this period, we find that,
-in addition, the camail is fastened to the breast with aiguillettes.
-
-The Great Heaume, or helm, of the fourteenth century differs but little
-from those of the late thirteenth century which were noticed in a
-preceding chapter. The shape was either of the sugar-loaf order or a
-cylinder surmounted by a truncated cone (Fig. 20). Notable examples of
-actual specimens in England at the present day are the helms of Sir
-Richard Pembridge at Hereford Cathedral and the helm of the Black Prince,
-surmounted by a crest of wood and cuirbouilli, preserved at Canterbury. In
-an Inventory of Louis Hutin, made in 1316, we find: 'ii heaummes d'acier,
-item v autres dans li uns est dorez.' This seems to suggest that the
-gilded helm was of some other material than steel, possibly leather. It is
-rare to come across constructional detail in illuminations, but the
-illustration (Fig. 21) from a French manuscript of about the year 1350
-shows a method of attaching the helm to the wearer's body. In the
-preceding chapter we noticed the chain used for this purpose on the
-Trumpington brass.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 20. Fourteenth-century helm, Zeughaus, Berlin.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 21. Bib. Nat., Paris, _Tite-Live_, 1350.]
-
-The most popular of the light helmets at this period was the Bascinet. It
-appears on nearly every monumental brass that depicts a military figure,
-and is an essential part of that style of equipment known as the 'camail'.
-The later form of bascinet has a movable visor which is known among armour
-collectors as the 'pig-faced' bascinet (Plate V). Sometimes the hinge is
-at the top, and sometimes, as in No. 2 of this plate, the visor is pivoted
-at the sides. Froissart calls the visor 'carnet' and 'visiere'. In the
-Bohun Inventory, before referred to, are given: 'ii bacynettes, lun covert
-de quir lautre bourni.' This shows that while some helmets were of
-polished metal, others were covered with leather, and indeed silk and
-velvet as fancy dictated. Frequent references to these 'covers' for
-helmets occur in Inventories and Wills. The helmet and other portions of
-the suit of plate armour were sometimes tinned to prevent rust, as is
-shown in one of the Dover Castle Inventories of 1361:--'xiii basynetz
-tinez.' Sometimes, in the case of Royalty or princes of rank, the bascinet
-was encircled with a fillet or crown of gold and gems. Among the payments
-of Etienne de Fontaine, in 1352, are mentioned 110 crowns for 'quarente
-grosses perles pour garnir le courroye du basinet de Monsieur le Dauphin'.
-The Orle, or wreath worn turban-wise round the bascinet, is sometimes
-shown, as on Fig. 22, of a decorative nature. It is supposed by some
-writers to have been devised to take the pressure of the great helm from
-the head, for the helm was often worn, as in the preceding century, over a
-lighter headpiece. From the usual position of the orle, however, and from
-the fact that it is invariably shown highly decorated and jewelled, this
-explanation can hardly hold good, for a padding worn as shown in the
-illustration would not be of much service in keeping off the pressure of
-the helm, and of course the jewelled decoration would be destroyed at
-once. Another theory is that the orle was made by wrapping the Lambrequin
-or Mantling--which hung from the back of the helmet and which is still
-used in heraldic drawings--much in the same manner as the modern puggaree
-is worn in India. In this illustration appears also the gorget of plate
-that was worn over the throat and chin with the bascinet.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE IV
-
-_Photograph by Hauser & Menet_
-
-Jousting armour of Charles V. Madrid.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 22. The Orle, from the monument of Sir H. Stafford,
-Bromsgrove, Kent, 1450.]
-
-The shields of the fourteenth century present an infinite variety in shape
-and decoration. The heraldic blazoning has by this time been systematized
-into somewhat of a science, which in Germany especially was carried to
-extravagant extremes. The long kite-shaped shield is to be found in
-records of the period, but the more common forms were the short pointed
-shield as shown on Plate III, and that which was rounded at the lower
-edge. Frequently the shield is represented as 'bouche', or notched, at the
-top right-hand corner, to enable the wearer to point his lance through
-this opening without exposing his arm or body to attack. In the Inventory
-of Louis Hutin are mentioned 'iii ecus pains des armes le Roy, et un
-acier', which shows that the shield was sometimes made of steel, though
-usually it was fashioned of wood and faced with leather, or of
-cuirbouilli. In a transcript of Vegecius (Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 18. A. xii)
-the young knight is advised to have 'a shelde of twigges sumewhat rounde'.
-The shield of the Black Prince at Canterbury is pointed at the lower edge,
-and is made of wood faced with leather, on which are set out the Royal
-arms in gesso-duro or plaster relief.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III
-
-THE WEARING OF ARMOUR AND ITS CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
-
-
-Before proceeding to examine the suit of Full Plate, with all its
-interesting details and differences as exemplified in the various
-armouries of England and Europe, it will be well to make clear the main
-principles which governed the manufacture of such armour. We should
-remember that the whole history of our subject is one long struggle of
-defensive equipment against offensive weapons. This is brought out clearly
-at the present day in the Navy, where the contest between gun and
-armour-plating is the dominant factor in naval construction. As the
-weapons of the Middle Ages became more serviceable, the armour was
-increased in weight. The Longbow and the Crossbow marked distinct periods
-in the development of defensive armour; for so important a factor did
-these weapons become, especially the latter, that they were used for
-testing the temper of the metal, large or small weapons being used as
-occasion demanded. Those writers who are prone to generalize upon such
-subjects tell us that the invention of gunpowder sounded the knell of
-defensive armour, but this is by no means accurate, for guns were used in
-sieges as early as 1382, and, as we shall find farther on in this chapter,
-the armour of the late sixteenth century was proved by pistol shot. The
-result of the improvement of firearms was that for many years armour
-became heavier and thicker till the musket was perfected, and then it was
-found that even highly-tempered steel would not resist the impact of a
-bullet.
-
-It is a safe assertion to make that a full suit of plate armour at its
-finest period--the fifteenth century--is the most perfect work of
-craftsmanship that exists.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 24. Maximilian breastplate and taces.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 25. Coude or Elbow-cop.]
-
-This assertion is not made without fully considering the real value of
-such work, which must fulfil all those essentials without which no true
-work of craftsmanship can have any merit. The first of these is that the
-work should fulfil its object in the best possible manner; secondly, that
-it should be convenient and simple in use; thirdly, that it should
-proclaim its material; and fourthly, and this is by no means the least
-important, that any decoration should be subservient to its purpose. To
-take our axioms in the order given, it may appear to the casual student
-that if armour were sufficiently thick it would naturally fulfil its
-primary reason for existence. But we find, on careful examination of plate
-armour, that there are other considerations which are of equal, if not
-greater importance. Of these the most noticeable is the 'glancing
-surface'. It is somewhat difficult to exemplify this by a line-drawing,
-though it is easy to do so with an actual example. Referring to the
-Maximilian breastplate (Fig. 24), we find that a lance, the thrusting
-weapon much favoured in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, would, on
-striking the breast be deflected along the grooved channel nearest to the
-point of impact till it reached the raised edge either at the top or at
-the sides, when it would be conducted safely off the body of the wearer.
-The same surface is to be noticed on all helms and helmets after the
-twelfth century, the rounded surfaces giving no sure hold for cutting or
-thrusting weapons. The Coude (Fig. 25) shows this same glancing surface
-used to protect the elbow, and, again, the fan-shaped plate on the outside
-of the knee effects the same result (see Frontispiece).[17] The great
-jousting helms are so constructed that the lance-point should glance off
-them when the wearer is in the proper jousting position, that is, bent
-forward at such an angle that the eyes come on a level with the ocularium
-or vision slit (Plate V, 5). These helms are also made of plates varying
-in thickness as the part may be more exposed to attack. The Great Helm in
-the possession of Captain Lindsay of Sutton Courtenay, near Abingdon, has
-a skull-plate nearly a quarter of an inch thick, for, in the bending
-position adopted by the wearer, this portion of the helm would be most
-exposed to the lance. The back-plate is less than half that thickness.
-This helm is one of the heaviest in existence, for it weighs 25 lb. 14 oz.
-Again, we may notice the overlapping Lames or strips of steel that are so
-frequently used for Pauldron, Rerebrace, Vambrace, Soleret, and Gauntlet;
-all present the same surface to the opposing weapon, and, except in the
-case of the Taces, where the overlapping from necessity of form must be in
-an inverse direction, the chance of a weapon penetrating the joints is
-reduced to a minimum (Fig. 23). A portion of the pauldron which is
-designed for this glancing defence, and for this only, is the upstanding
-Neck- or Shoulder-guard which is so generally described as the
-Passe-guard. It is curious, with the very definite information to hand
-(supplied by Viscount Dillon in the _Archaeological Journal_, vol. xlvi,
-p. 129), that even the most recent writers fall into the same mistake
-about the name of this defence. Space will not admit of quoting more fully
-Viscount Dillon's interesting paper; but two facts cited by him prove
-conclusively that the passe-guard is quite another portion of the
-armour. In the Tower Inventory of 1697 appears the entry, 'One Armour
-cap-a-pe Engraven with a Ragged Staffe, made for ye Earle of Leisester, a
-Mainfere, Passguard and Maineguard and Gantlett.' Now it is hardly
-reasonable to suppose that this ridge on the pauldron should be specially
-mentioned as the Passe-guard without any notice of the pauldron itself. In
-the Additional Notes to the above article Viscount Dillon gives, from a
-List of Payments made in connexion with jousts held on October 20, 1519,
-'9 yards of Cheshire cotton at 7_d._ for lining the king's pasguard.' That
-the neck-guard to which we refer should need lining on the inside, where
-it did not even touch the helmet, we may dismiss at once; and that the
-lining should be on the outside is of course absurd. As far as can be
-gathered from recent research the passe-guard is a reinforcing piece for
-the right elbow, used for jousting. It was lined to protect the ordinary
-arm defence underneath from being scratched, and also to lessen the shock
-to the wearer if it were struck. It is to be hoped, from this reiteration
-of Viscount Dillon's researches, that at any rate one of the many errors
-of nomenclature in armour may be corrected.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE V
-
-1. Bascinet from the tomb of the Black Prince, Canterbury, XIVth. cent. 2.
-Visored Bascinet from the statuette of S. George, Dijon, XIVth. cent. 3.
-Salade, Royal Armoury, Turin, XVth. cent. 4. Salade with visor and beavor,
-Musee de la porte de Hal, Brussels, XVth. cent. 5. The Brocas Helm,
-Rotunda Woolwich XVth.-XVIth. cent. 6. Armet, Royal Armoury, Turin 7.
-Burgonet, Brit. Mus. XVIth. cent. 8. Burgonet and Buffe, Royal Armoury,
-Turin XVIth. cent. 9. Morion, Brussels, XVIth. cent. 10. Cabasset, Turin,
-XVIth. cent. 11. Lobster-tailed Pot helmet, Turin, XVIIth. cent.]
-
-With regard to the thickness of plate armour, we should remember that it
-was forged from the solid ingot, and was not rolled in sheets as is the
-material of to-day from which so many forgeries are manufactured. The
-armourer was therefore able to graduate the thickness of his material,
-increasing it where it was most needed, and lessening it in those parts
-which were less exposed.
-
-With regard to the proving of armour an article in _Archaeologia_, vol.
-li, also by Viscount Dillon, is of great interest as showing the
-indifferent skill of the English ironsmiths of the sixteenth century. In
-1590 a discussion arose as to the quality of the English iron found in
-Shropshire as compared to the 'Hungere' iron which came from Innsbruck.
-After some delay Sir Henry Lee, Master of the Tower Armouries, arranged a
-test, and two breastplates were prepared, of equal make and weight. Two
-pistol charges of equal power were fired at the test breastplates, with
-the result that the foreign armour was only slightly dented, while the
-English plate was pierced completely, and the beam on which it rested was
-torn by the bullet. A bascinet in the Tower, which belonged to Henry VIII,
-bears two indented marks, signifying that it was proof against the large
-crossbow. In the Musee d'Artillerie in Paris, a suit made for Louis XIV
-bears proof marks which are treated as the centres for floriated designs
-(Plate VIII). No excuse need be offered for thus borrowing from papers by
-Viscount Dillon and other writers in _Archaeologia_ and the
-_Archaeological Journal_, for these publications are not always at hand to
-those interested in the subject of armour and equipments. They are,
-however, indispensable for careful study; for they contain reports of the
-most recent discoveries and investigations of the subject, and are
-written, for the most part, by men whose expert knowledge is at once
-extensive and precise.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE VI
-
-_Photograph by Viscount Dillon._
-
-Engraved suit of armour given to Henry VIII by the Emperor Maximilian.
-Tower.]
-
-Another detail of importance in connexion with the protective power of
-armour occurs in the great jousting helms, which invariably present a
-smooth surface on the left side, even when there may be some opening, for
-ventilation or other purposes, on the right. The reason for this was that
-the jouster always passed left arm to left arm with the lance pointed
-across the horse's neck. It was therefore important that there should be
-no projection or opening on the left side of the helm in which the
-lance-point could possibly be caught.
-
-We next turn our attention to Convenience in Use. Under this head the
-armourer had to consider that the human body makes certain movements of
-the limbs for walking and riding, or fighting with arm and hand. He had so
-to construct the different portions of the suit that they should allow of
-all these movements without hindrance; and at the same time he had to
-endeavour to protect the body and limbs while the movements were taking
-place. The arrangements for pivoting elbow- and knee-joints need scarcely
-be detailed; for it will be seen by a glance at any suit of plate armour
-how the cuisse and jamb are pivoted on to the genouilliere, and move with
-the leg to a straight or bent position without allowing these plates to
-escape from under the genouilliere. The coude is sometimes pivoted in the
-same manner, but more often it is rigid and of such circumference that the
-arm can bend within it and yet be very adequately protected. In the
-overlapping lames or strips of metal which give ease of movement to the
-upper arm, the hands, the waist, and the foot, we find that much careful
-work and calculation was needed to ensure comfort to the wearer. On the
-foot, the toepiece and four or more arches of metal overlap upwards on to
-a broader arch, while above this three or more arches overlap downwards,
-thus allowing the toe-joint and ankle to be bent at the same time (Fig.
-26). In a suit in the Tower, made for Prince Henry, son of James I, all
-the arches of the soleret overlap downwards. This points to a certain
-decadence in the craftsmanship of the armourer of the period, though the
-excuse might be offered for him that the suit was intended only for use on
-horseback. There are generally one, two, or more of these movable lames
-joining the genouilliere to the jamb, and above this the cuisse to the
-genouilliere to give greater flexibility to the knee fastenings. The
-separate arm- and leg-pieces are, when made in two halves to encircle the
-limb, hinged on the outside and closed with strap and buckle, or with
-locking hook or bolt on the inside. This, of course, is to ensure greater
-protection to these fastenings, especially on horseback. Higher up again
-we get the tuilles or taces, which, from the fact that to adapt themselves
-to the human form they must narrow at the waist and spread out below,
-overlap upwards. From the taces are hung the tassets, with strap and
-buckle, which give increased protection to the upper leg, and yet are not
-in any way rigid. When the tassets are made of more than one plate they
-are attached to each other by a most ingenious arrangement of straps and
-sliding rivets. On the inner edge of each plate the rivets are attached to
-a strap on the under side; but the outer edge, requiring more compression
-of the lames together, is furnished with rivets fixed firmly in the
-uppermost plate and working loose in a slot in the back plate, thus
-allowing an expansion or contraction of half an inch or more to each
-lame. It is somewhat difficult to explain this ingenious arrangement in
-words, but Fig. 27 will show how the straps and rivets are set. When the
-tassets were discarded about the end of the sixteenth century the cuisses
-were laminated in this way from waist to knee.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE VII
-
-1. Passe-guard 2. Grand-guard 3. Tilting cuisse 4. Half suit for the
-Stechzeug, Nuremberg 1450-1500 a. Polder mitton b. Lance rest c. Queue]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 26. Soleret.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 27. Method of using sliding rivets.]
-
-The gauntlet is generally found with a stiff cuff, and from wrist to
-knuckles the plates in narrow arches overlap towards the arm, where they
-join a wider plate which underlaps the cuff. The knuckle-plate is usually
-ridged with a rope-shaped crest or with bosses imitating the knuckles. The
-fingers are protected by small plates, from four on the fourth finger to
-six on the second finger (in some examples there are more or less), which
-overlap from knuckle to finger-tip. The thumb is covered in like manner,
-but has a lozenge-shaped plate to connect it to the cuff. This metal
-hand-covering was sewn on to a leather glove or attached to it with
-leather loops (Fig. 28). The vambrace is generally rigid, either a solid
-tube or hinged on the outside and fastened on the inside by straps or
-hooks. It is held to the lower edge of the coude by a rivet. The lower
-portion of the rerebrace is also tubular, while the upper portion, where
-it joins the pauldron, is often laminated, with the plates overlapping,
-downwards as a rule, though there are instances of these plates
-overlapping upwards. They are joined in the same way as the laminated
-tassets by a riveted strap on the inner side, and by sliding rivets at the
-back, thus giving the arm freedom of movement forwards in the direction
-most needed, but less freedom towards the back.
-
-These sliding rivets working in slots have come to be called 'Almain'
-rivets from the fact that the Almain rivet, a light half suit of armour,
-was put together to a great extent by this method. These suits will be
-referred to later in the chapter.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 28. Gauntlet.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 29. Turning 'lock-pins'.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 30. Gorget.]
-
-The Pauldron is hung on the shoulder by a strap from the gorget or the
-breastplate, or it is pierced with a hole which fits over a pin fixed in
-one of these portions of the armour. In most suits of plate of the
-fifteenth and early sixteenth century that portion of the pauldron which
-covers the breastplate is larger on the left side than on the right. The
-reason for this is that the position of the lance when held 'in rest',
-that is couched for the charge, necessitates a certain curtailment of the
-front plate of the pauldron, and, at the same time, the left arm being
-held rigid at the bridle, and being exposed to the attacking weapon,
-requires more protection than does the right, which, when using the lance,
-was guarded by the Vamplate or metal disc fixed to the lance above the
-Grip.
-
-Breast- and back-pieces are held together on the shoulders and sides by
-straps, but the lames of the taces, and in some cases the breast and back
-themselves, are fastened with turning pins which play an important part in
-holding the suit together (Fig. 29). The Gorget (Fig. 30) is made in two
-halves, each composed of a single plate or, sometimes, of two or three
-horizontal lames. The two portions are united by a loose-working rivet on
-the left side and are joined by a turning pin on the right. The gorget was
-worn either over or under the breast- and backplates.
-
-Perhaps the most ingeniously contrived suit in existence, which completely
-protects the wearer and at the same time follows the anatomical
-construction of the human body, is that made for Henry VIII for fighting
-on foot in the lists. It is numbered xxviii in the Armoury of the Tower.
-There are no parts of the body or limbs left uncovered by plate, and every
-separate portion fits closely to its neighbour with sliding rivets and
-turning pins to give the necessary play for the limbs. It is composed of
-235 pieces and weighs 93 lb.
-
-The wearing of the bascinet, salade, burgonet, and like helmets needs no
-detailed description. In the preceding chapter we noticed the method of
-attaching the camail to the bascinet. When the great helm was made a
-fixture in the fifteenth century, as distinct from the loose or chained
-helms of preceding periods, it was either bolted to the breast and back,
-as on Plate VII, or it was fastened by an adjustable plate which shut over
-a locking pin, as shown on Plate V, 5, and a somewhat similar arrangement
-at the back, or a strap and buckle, held it firmly in place, while if
-extra rigidity was needed it was supplied by straps from the shoulders to
-the lugs shown in the drawing of the Brocas Helm on Plate V. The Armet, or
-close helmet, fits the shape of the head to such an extent that it must be
-opened to be put on. This is arranged by hingeing the side plates to the
-centre, and, when fixed, fastening them with a screw at the back to which
-a circular disc is added as a protection to this fastening (Fig. 31). The
-armet shown on Plate V opens in the front and when closed is fastened with
-a spring hook. The different parts of the armet are the Ventail, A, and
-Vue, B, which together make the Visor; the Skull, C; and the Beavor, D
-(Plate V, 6).
-
-Having now arrived at some understanding of the construction of the suit
-of armour we will pass on to the wearing of the suit. A man could not wear
-his ordinary clothes under his armour; the friction of the metal was too
-great. In spite of the excellence of workmanship of the armourer any thin
-substance was bound to be torn, so a strong fabric was chosen which is
-called in contemporary records Fustian. Whether it at all resembled the
-modern fabric of that name it is difficult to determine, but certainly the
-wearing powers of this material or of corduroy would be admirably adapted
-for the purpose. Chaucer writes in the Prologue to the _Canterbury Tales_,
-line 75:
-
-  Of fustyan he wered a gepoun
-  Aile bysmoterud with his haburgeoun.
-
-This would refer to the rust-stains that penetrated through the
-interstices of the mail. In Hall's _Chronicles_ (p. 524) is mentioned a
-levy of troops ordered for the wars in France in 1543, for which it was
-enjoined: 'Item every man to hav an armyng doublet of ffustyean or
-canvas', and also 'a capp to put his scull or sallet in'. These last were
-coverings for the helmets which we have noted on page 42. The helmets had
-linings, either riveted to the metal or worn separately as a cap. The
-tilting helm was provided with a thick padded cap with straps to keep it
-in its place. Some of these caps exist in the Museum at Vienna.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 31. Armet.]
-
-King Rene, in his _Livre des Tournois_, advises a pourpoint or padded
-undergarment to be put on under the body armour, 'stuffed to the thickness
-of three fingers on the shoulders for there the blows fall heaviest.' It
-seems that in Brabant and the Low Countries the blows fell heavier, or
-that the combatants were less hardy, for he advises for them a thickness
-of four fingers, filled with cotton. Viscount Dillon mentions in his
-Armour Notes[18] the fact that a 'stuffer of Bacynetts' accompanied Henry
-V to Agincourt. He also quotes a letter from James Croft to Cecil on July
-1, 1559, which states that a man cannot keep his corselet and pay for the
-wear and tear of his clothes due to the rubbing of the body armour, under
-8_d._ per day.
-
-Sir John Smith, in his _Animadversions_ (1591), writes: 'No man should
-wear any cut doublets, as well in respect that the wearing of armour doth
-quickly fret them out, and also by reason that the corners and edges of
-the lames and joints of the armour do take such hold upon such cuttes as
-they do hinder the quick and sudden arming of men.'
-
-An interesting description of the arming of a man, entitled, '_Howe a
-manne schall be armed at hys ese when he schall fighte on foote_,' is
-preserved in the _Life of Sir John Astley_ (a manuscript in the possession
-of Lord Hastings).[19] The knight is first dressed in a doublet of
-fustian, lined with satin, which is cut with holes for ventilation. This
-satin was to keep the roughness of the fustian from the wearer's body; for
-he wore no shirt under it. The doublet was provided with gussets of mail,
-or Vuyders, attached under the armpit and at the bend of the elbow by
-Arming Points or laces. These mail gussets were to protect the parts not
-covered by the plate armour. The 'Portrait of an Italian Nobleman' by
-Moroni, in the National Gallery, shows the figure dressed in this arming
-doublet. A pair of thick worsted hose were worn, and shoes of stout
-leather. It must be noticed here that the soleret, or sabaton as it is
-sometimes called, covered only the top of the foot, and had understraps
-which kept it to the sole of the shoe. First the sabatons were put on,
-then the jambs, genouilliere and cuisses, then the skirt or breech of mail
-round the waist. This is sometimes known as the Brayette. Then the
-breast-and backplates were buckled on with the accompanying taces,
-tassets, and Garde-rein or plates to protect the loins. After this the arm
-defences, and, if worn over the breastpiece, the gorget; and, finally, the
-helmet completed the equipment. The sword was buckled on the left side and
-the dagger on the right.
-
-The armour for jousts and tourneys was much heavier than the Hosting or
-War harness. From the fact, which has been previously noticed, that the
-combatants passed each other on the left, this side of the armour was
-reinforced to such a degree that in time it presented a totally different
-appearance from the right side (see Plate VII). The weight of jousting
-armour was so great that it was impossible for the wearer to mount without
-assistance. De Pluvinel, in his _Maneige Royal_ (1629), gives an imaginary
-conversation between himself and the King (Louis XIV) as follows:--
-
-_The King._ 'It seems to me that such a man would have difficulty in
-getting on his horse, and being on to help himself.'
-
-_De Pluvinel._ 'It would be very difficult, but with this arming the
-matter has been provided for. In this manner at triumphs and tourneys
-there ought to be at the two ends of the lists a small scaffold, the
-height of a stirrup, on which two or three persons can stand, that is to
-say, the knight, an armourer to arm him, and one other to help him. The
-knight being armed and the horse brought close to the stand, he easily
-mounts him.'
-
-Reference has been made to the fact that modern writers call the sliding
-rivet the 'Almain' rivet. Whenever mentioned in Inventories and such-like
-documents, the Almain rivet stands for a suit of light armour. Garrard, in
-his _Art of Warre_ (1591), distinctly says, 'The fore part of a corselet
-and a head peece and tasses is the almayne rivet.' Among the purchases
-made on the Continent by Henry VIII in 1512 may be noted 2,000 Almain
-rivets, each consisting of a salet, a gorget, a breastplate, a backplate,
-and a pair of splints (short taces). In the Inventory of the goods of Dame
-Agnes Huntingdon, executed at Tyburn for murdering her husband in 1523, we
-find 'sex score pare of harness of Alman rivets'. The 'pare', of course,
-refers to the breast- and backplates. The word Alman, Almaine, or Almain,
-shows that the invention of this light armour and the sliding rivets
-which were used in its construction came from Germany.
-
-That the wearing of armour caused grave inconvenience to some, while to
-others it seems to have been no hindrance at all, we may gather from the
-following historical incidents. In 1526 King Louis of Hungary, fleeing
-from the Battle of Mohacz, was drowned while crossing the Danube because
-of the weight of his armour. On the other hand we find that Robert de
-Vere, Earl of Oxford, when forced to fly at the Battle of Radcot Bridge,
-escaped easily by swimming the river to safety in full armour. We should
-remember that the weight of plate armour was less felt than that of mail,
-because the former was distributed over the whole body and limbs, while
-the latter hung from the shoulders and waist alone. King Henry V, in
-courting Queen Katharine, says:--'If I could win a lady at leapfrog, or by
-vaulting into my saddle with my armour on my back,' which seems to imply
-that this feat was at any rate a possibility. Oliver de la Marche
-describes Galliot de Balthasin in 1446 as leaping clear out of his saddle
-'Arme de toute'. We may safely consign Sir Walter Scott's description of
-the feasting knights to the realms of poetic licence, for he writes:--
-
-  They carved at the meal with gloves of steel
-  And drank the red wine through their helmets barred.
-
-Now if there were two portions of the knight's equipment which would be
-put off at the first opportunity, and which could be assumed the most
-rapidly, they were the helmet and gauntlets. To drink through a visored
-helmet is a practical impossibility. The word Beavor, which is generally
-derived from the Italian _bevere_, to drink, has been considered by Baron
-de Cosson, with far more probability, to be derived from the Old French
-_baviere_ (originally = a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva).
-
-The cleaning of armour is frequently alluded to in Inventories. In the
-Dover Castle Inventory of 1344 is mentioned 'i barrelle pro armaturis
-rollandis'. Chain-mail was rolled in barrels with sand and vinegar to
-clean it, just as, inversely, barrels are cleaned in the country at the
-present day by rolling chains in them. The mending and cleaning of armour
-was of the first importance, and the travelling knight took with him an
-armourer who was provided with such things as 'oil for dressing my lord's
-harness, a thousand armyng nayles (rivets) a payre of pynsores, pomyshe
-(pumice stone), fylles, a hammer and all other stuffe and tools belonginge
-to an armorer'.[20]
-
-We can gather but little of the methods of the armourers in their work. It
-was so important a craft that its operations were most jealously guarded,
-and the term 'Mystery', which was applied to the Trade Gilds of the Middle
-Ages, can be most fittingly given to that of the armour-smith. In the
-_Weisskunig_ of Hans Burgkmair, the noted German engraver, appears an
-interesting woodcut of the young Maximilian in the workshop of Conrad
-Seusenhofer, the famous armourer. In the text the master-smith is
-described as being anxious to make use of the 'forbidden art', but the
-young king replies, 'Arm me according to my own taste, for it is I, not
-you, who have to take part in the tournament.' What this forbidden art may
-have been we have no suggestion given us. It seems, from this account, to
-be more than likely that Seusenhofer possessed some mechanical means for
-stamping out armour plate; for it goes on to say, 'So this young King
-invented a new art for warriors' armour, so that in the workshop 30 front
-pieces and 30 hinder pieces were made at once. How wonderful and skilful
-was this King!'
-
-A most interesting album of designs by one 'Jacobe', who has been
-identified by the late Herr Wendelin Boeheim as Jacobe Topf, is now, after
-many vicissitudes, in the Art Library of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
-South Kensington. From the somewhat naive treatment of the designs they
-can hardly be considered to be working drawings, but were more probably
-sketches submitted to the different patrons of the armourer and kept for
-reference. The Album has been reproduced in facsimile, with a preface
-giving its history and verifying the suits drawn on its pages, by
-Viscount Dillon, Curator of the Tower Armouries. Space will not admit of
-more notice of this unique volume. Its author seems to have worked almost
-entirely for the nobles of the court of Queen Elizabeth; only two of the
-designs were made for foreigners. Of the famous armourers of Italy, the
-Missaglias, Negrolis, and Campi; and of the great Colman family,
-Seusenhofer and Wolf, the master-craftsmen of Germany, we can do no more
-than mention the names. Experts in armour, like Baron de Cosson and Herr
-Boeheim, have in the various archaeological journals of England and
-Germany brought to light many interesting facts about these armourers, but
-the confines of this handbook do not admit of detailed quotation, nor,
-indeed, is it necessary to study these details till the primary interest
-in defensive armour has been aroused. When this has been achieved the
-student will certainly leave no records unexamined in following to its
-farthest extremes this most fascinating study.[21]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 32. Archer wearing jack. From the Beauchamp Pageants,
-fifteenth century.]
-
-It is almost superfluous to discuss the third of our axioms, namely, that
-which concerns the confession of material. All armour of the best periods
-does this to the full. It is only under the blighting influence of the
-Renaissance that we find metal so worked that it resembles woven fabrics,
-or, worse still, the human form and features. The limited space at our
-disposal precludes us from investigating the various Coats of Fence, or
-body protections of quilted fabrics with metal, horn, and other materials
-added. Mention has been made in the chapter on the Transition of the
-Brigandine, which formed a very serviceable defence without being so
-unwieldy as the suit of plate. There are several of these brigandines in
-English and European armouries. These defences weigh as much as 18 lb.,
-and are made of many small pieces of metal. An example in the Tower
-contains 1,164.[22] Fig. 32, from the Beauchamp Pageants (Cotton MS.,
-Julius E. iv), shows an archer of the year 1485 wearing the jack over a
-shirt of mail. The Jack was used by the rank and file, and was stuffed and
-wadded or composed of plates of metal or horn laced together with string
-between layers of leather or linen.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV
-
-PLATE ARMOUR (1410-about 1600)
-
-
-It is so very rare to be able to fix the date of a suit of armour at a
-particular year that we are forced, in dividing our periods of defensive
-armour with any degree of minuteness, to have recourse to the records
-existing in monumental effigies. The earliest brasses which show the whole
-suit of plate without camail or jupon are those of one of the d'Eresby
-family at Spilsby, Lincolnshire, and of Sir John Wylcotes at Great Tew,
-Oxon., both dated 1410. In these brasses we find that the camail has
-become the Standard of Mail, or collarette, worn under the gorget of
-plate. The hauberk is seen beneath the taces and, in the former brass, in
-the '_defaut de la cuirasse_', or unprotected part at the junction of arm
-and body. In the Great Tew brass this part is protected by oval plates
-which, as we have noticed in a preceding chapter, are called motons or
-besagues. Hewitt does not seem to have come across these terms in the
-course of his very minute investigations, but calls them Croissants or
-Gouchets. He quotes a passage from Mathieu de Coucy's _History of Charles
-VII_ (p. 560) which runs:--'au-dessous du bras at au vif de son harnois,
-par faute et manque d'y avoir un croissant ou gouchet.' Haines, in his
-_Monumental Brasses_, mentions the moton, but assigns this name to a piece
-of plate rarely met with, shaped to fit under the right armpit only. With
-the disappearance of the jupon we see the body defence exposed to view.
-The breastplate is globular in form, and below the waist we see the taces
-or laminated strips of plate overlapping each other, which at this early
-period were attached to a leather lining. As we have seen in the chapter
-on the Construction of Armour, at a later period these taces were held
-together by sliding rivets, which allowed a certain amount of vertical
-play. Plate armour, during the earlier years of the fifteenth century, was
-naturally in a somewhat experimental state, and we find frequent examples
-of the old forms and fashions in contemporary representations. About the
-year 1440 appears a distinct style, called 'Gothic', which, of all types
-of defensive armour, is perhaps the most graceful. This term, 'Gothic,' is
-as inappropriate, in the relation which it bore, to armour as to
-architecture; but its use is so general that we must perforce adopt it for
-want of a better. The salient points of Gothic armour are the sweeping
-lines embossed on its surfaces (Plate VIII). The cuirass is generally made
-in two pieces, an upper and a lower, which allows more freedom for the
-body. From the taces are hung Tassets, ending in a point towards the lower
-edge. The later form of Gothic breastplate is longer, and the taces fewer
-in number. Armour was so frequently remade to suit later fashions, or,
-from lack of antiquarian interest, so often destroyed, that there is
-little of this Gothic armour existing in England, except those suits which
-have been acquired from the Continent by private collectors or public
-museums. Almost all of them are incomplete, or, if complete, have been
-restored--particularly the leg armour--at a recent date. Perhaps the
-finest example of this style is to be found on the 'Beauchamp' effigy in
-St. Mary's Church, Warwick. Space will not allow of a full account of the
-documents connected with the making of this magnificent figure, which was
-executed by Will. Austin, a bronze-founder, and Bartholomew Lambespring, a
-goldsmith, in 1454, fifteen years after the death of the Earl. All these
-interesting details are given very fully in Blore's _Monumental Remains_.
-To students of the constructional side of armour this monument is
-particularly valuable because all the fastenings, rivets, and straps are
-conscientiously portrayed, not only on the front, but also at the back.
-Charles Stothard, the antiquary, when making drawings of the figure for
-his work on _Monumental Effigies_, turned it over and discovered this
-example of the care and technical ability of the makers. The breastplate
-is short, and consequently the taces are more numerous than when the
-breastplate is longer. They consist of five lames. From the taces hang
-four tassets, two bluntly pointed in front, and two much shorter, and more
-sharply pointed, over the hip-bones. The taces are hinged at the side for
-convenience in putting on and off. The coudes are large and of the
-butterfly-wing type, and the sollerets are of normal length. In many of
-the Gothic suits these sollerets, following the custom in civil dress,
-were extravagantly long and pointed. This form is called 'a la poulaine',
-while the shorter kind are known as 'demi-poulaine'.
-
-Some writers are apt to confuse this term 'poulaine' with 'poleyne', the
-knee-cop used in the earlier days of the Transition Period; it is needless
-to point out that they are quite distinct. Baron de Cosson has put forward
-a most interesting theory in connexion with this effigy. He finds a close
-resemblance between the armour here portrayed and that shown in the
-picture of St. George, by Mantegna, in the Accademia at Venice. The Earl
-of Warwick, who is represented on this monument, is known to have been at
-Milan in his youth, and to have taken part in tournaments at Verona; so it
-is more than probable that he ordered his armour from the Milanese
-armourers, of whom the famous Missaglia family were the chief craftsmen,
-and who made some fine suits of this Gothic style.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE VIII
-
-ARMOUR OF (1) Archduke Sigismond of Tyrol, 1470, (2) Louis XIV of France,
-1680.]
-
-The next distinctive style to be noticed is called the 'Maximilian'. It
-can hardly be said that this new design was evolved from the Gothic,
-though of necessity there must be a certain similarity between them, at
-least in constructional detail. It is more likely, when we consider the
-individuality of the young Maximilian, especially as recorded in Hans
-Burgkmair's _Weisskunig_, and his interest in every art, craft, and trade,
-that it was a fashion made, so to speak, to order. The Maximilian Period
-of armour may be said to last from about 1500 to 1540. It is distinguished
-by the radiating fluted channels that spread from a central point in the
-breastpiece, closely resembling the flutings of the scallop-shell (Fig.
-24). The main lines of the suit are heavier and more clumsy than those of
-the Gothic variety. The breastplate is shorter, globose in form, and made
-in one piece as distinct from the Gothic breastplate, which was generally
-composed of an upper and lower portion. The pauldrons are larger and the
-upstanding neck-guards more pronounced. The coude and genouilliere are
-both smaller than in the Gothic suit, and fit more closely to the limbs.
-In imitation of the civilian dress the solleret becomes shorter and
-broader in the toe. This variety is known as the 'bec de cane' or
-'bear-paw' soleret. Some writers use the term Sabaton for the foot-defence
-of this period. This term is found (sabataynes) in the Hastings manuscript
-referred to in the preceding chapter. The pauldrons of the Maximilian
-suit are generally of unequal size; that for the right arm being smaller,
-to admit of the couching of the lance under the armpit (Fig. 34). The
-tassets are made in two or more pieces, connected with the strap and
-sliding rivet described in the preceding chapter. The fluting on the
-Maximilian armour is not without practical purpose, for, besides
-presenting the 'glancing' surface, which has been before referred to, it
-gives increased strength and rigidity without much extra weight. A modern
-example of this is to be found in the corrugated iron used for roofing,
-which will stand far greater pressure than will the same thickness of
-metal used flat.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 33. Gothic suit. Turin Armoury.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 34. Maximilian suit. Vienna Armoury, 1523.]
-
-It is at this period of the history of defensive armour that we first find
-traces of that decadence which later on permeated every art and craft with
-its pernicious poison. It is to be found in the imitating of fabrics and
-also of the human face in metal. There exist suits of plate in many
-museums, both in England and on the Continent, in which the puffings and
-slashings of the civilian attire are closely copied in embossed metal,
-entirely destroying the important glancing surfaces on which we have laid
-such stress. It is alleged that this fashion in civilian dress was
-intended to suggest, by the cutting of the material to show an
-undergarment beneath, that the wearer was a fighting man who had seen
-rough service. If this be the case it is the more reprehensible that metal
-should be treated in a similar manner; for hard usage would dent, but it
-would not tear. A portion of one of these debased suits is drawn on Fig.
-42.
-
-It must not be supposed that all armour at this period was fluted. There
-was still a good deal which had a plain surface, and this plain armour
-continued to be used after the Maximilian armour had been given up. It may
-have been that the evil genius of the Renaissance pointed to the plain
-surfaces as excellent fields for the skill of the decorator, a field which
-the strongly-marked flutings of the Maximilian armour could not offer. At
-first this decoration was confined to engraved borders, or, if the design
-covered the whole suit, it was so lightly engraved that the smooth surface
-was in no way impaired, though perhaps some of the dignified simplicity
-of the plain metal was lost. An instance of this proper application of
-ornament to armour is to be found in the 'Seusenhofer' suit in the Tower
-(Plate VI), made to the order of the Emperor Maximilian for Henry VIII. It
-is one of the finest suits of this period in existence. The ornament is
-lightly engraved all over it, and includes representations of the legends
-of St. George and St. Barbara. Instead of taces and tassets the lower part
-of the body and the thighs are protected by steel Bases made in folds to
-imitate the skirts worn in civilian dress. It will be remembered that in
-the preceding chapter a conversation between Seusenhofer and the young
-Maximilian was quoted, and when we study this suit carefully we feel that
-the young king did wisely in the choice of his master-armourer. The
-craftsman's Poincon or mark is to be found at the back of the helmet.
-
-If space but permitted we might devote many pages to the work of the great
-armour-smiths as exemplified in the armouries of Madrid and Vienna. It is
-difficult, at this period of history, to generalize at all satisfactorily.
-Each suit is, in many ways, distinct from its neighbour, just as the
-character and personality of the wearers differed. The young Maximilian's
-words to Seusenhofer, 'Arm me according to my own taste,' is true of every
-suit that we examine, for it is evident that each man had his own
-favourite fashion or, from physical necessity, was provided with some
-special variation from the usual form. An instance of this may be noted in
-the Barendyne helm at Haseley Church, near Thame, in which an extra plate
-has been added at the lower edge of the helm to suit the length of neck of
-the last wearer.
-
-As the experience of the armourer increased, and as the science of war
-developed, the armed man trusted more to the fixed defences of his person
-than to the more primitive protection of the movable shield. In the
-tilt-yard and also in war the mounted man endeavoured to present his left
-side to his adversary. On consideration the reason for this will be plain,
-for the right arm was required to be free and, as far as possible,
-unhampered by heavy armour, but the left arm, held at rest at the bridle,
-could be covered with as heavy defences as the wearer might choose. This
-form of unequal arming is well shown on the Frontispiece. The left
-shoulder wears a large pauldron with a high neck-guard, and the elbow
-wears the passe-guard which we have noticed in detail in the preceding
-chapter. The leg armour in this suit should be noticed, for it is
-extremely fine and graceful in line, and yet proclaims its material. The
-suit of Henry VIII (Plate VI) is a good specimen of armour of the
-Maximilian period, but without the flutings which generally distinguish
-this style of plate. The neck-guards are high and the large coudes show
-the glancing surface plainly. This detail also is shown on the fan plates
-at the genouillieres, which in the Tower Inventories are called by the
-more English term 'knee-cops'. The bridle-hand of the rider wears the
-Manifer (main-de-fer). Those writers who still follow blindly the
-incorrect nomenclature of Meyrick give the name Mainfaire or Manefer to
-the Crinet or neck defence of the horse. How this absurd play upon words
-can ever have been taken seriously passes understanding.
-
-The manifer is solely the rigid iron gauntlet for the bridle-hand, where
-no sudden or complicated movement of the wrist or fingers was needed;
-another instance of the difference in arming the two sides of the body.
-This difference of arming is more noticeable in the jousting armour, for
-in military sports, especially during the sixteenth century, the object of
-the contestants was to score points rather than to injure each other. We
-find, therefore, such pieces as the Grand-guard, and with it the Volant
-piece, the Passe-guard, the Poldermitton--so called from its likeness to
-the 'epaule de mouton', and worn over the bend of the right arm--and the
-various reinforcing breastplates which were screwed on to the left side of
-the tilting suit to offer a more rigid defence and also to present
-additional glancing surface to the lance-point. In some varieties of joust
-a small wooden shield was fastened to the left breast, and when this was
-the case the heavy pauldron was dispensed with. The large Vamplate (Plate
-XI) sufficiently protected the right arm from injury. The Nuremberg suit
-(Plate VII) shows this form of arming for the joust. The great helm is
-firmly screwed to the back and breast, the two holes on the left side of
-the breastplate are for the attachment of the shield, the rigid
-bridle-cuff, covers the left hand, and the curved elbow-guard--this is not
-the passe-guard--protects the bend of the left arm as the poldermitton
-protects the right. The large circular disc defends the _vif de
-l'harnois_, and is _bouche_ or notched at its lower end to allow the lance
-to be couched, resting on the curved lance-rest in front and lodged under
-the Queue at the back. The legs, in this variety of joust, were not armed;
-for the object of the jousters was to unhorse each other, and it was
-necessary to have perfect freedom in gripping the horse's sides. Sometimes
-a great plate of metal, curved to cover the leg, was worn to protect the
-wearer from the shock of impact. This was called the Dilge, or Tilting
-Cuisse, which is shown on Plate VIII behind the figure of Count Sigismond,
-and also on Plate VII. The large-bowed saddle also was used for this end.
-There is one of these saddles in the Tower which measures nearly 5 feet in
-height. Behind the saddle-bow are two rings which encircled the rider's
-legs. It is needless to point out that in this form of joust the object
-was to break lances and not to unhorse; for, if the latter were intended,
-the rider stood a good chance of breaking his legs owing to his rigid
-position in the saddle.
-
-The Tonlet suit (Fig. 35) was used solely for fighting on foot. The
-bell-shaped skirt of plate was so constructed with the sliding rivets or
-straps which have been before referred to, that it could be pulled up and
-down. Sometimes the lower lame could be taken off altogether. When
-fighting with axes or swords in the lists this plate skirt presented a
-glancing surface to the weapon and protected the legs. The tonlet is
-variously called by writers upon armour, Bases, Lamboys, or Jamboys; of
-the two latter terms jamboys is the more correct. The Bases were
-originally the cloth skirts in vogue in civilian dress at the time of
-Henry VIII, and when defensive armour followed civilian fashion the name
-came to be applied to the steel imitation.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 35. Tonlet suit. Madrid.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 36. War suit, 1547. Vienna Armoury.]
-
-Towards the end of the sixteenth century we find the weight of the war
-harness gradually decrease. The richly-ornamented suits which mark this
-period were in no way suited for any practical purpose and were used only
-for parades. Extended campaigns and long marches necessitated lighter
-equipment, and we find in contemporary records instances, not only of the
-men-at-arms discarding their armour owing to its inconvenience, but also
-of commanders ordering them to lighten their equipment for greater
-rapidity of movement. Sir Richard Hawkins, in his _Observations_ on his
-voyage into the South Sea (1593), writes: 'I had great preparation of
-armours as well of proofe as of light corsletts, yet not a man would use
-them, but esteemed a pott of wine a better defence than an armour of
-proofe.' Again, Sir John Smythe, in his _Instructions, Observations and
-Orders Militarie_ (1595), writes: ... 'I saw but very few of that army (at
-the camp at Tilbury) that had any convenience of apparrell to arme
-withal.' Edward Davies, in 1619, mentions the fact that men armed 'with a
-heavie shirt of mail and a burganet, by that time they have marched in the
-heat of summer or deepe of winter ten or twelve English miles, they are
-apt more to rest than readie to fight'. As early as the year 1364 we find
-that at the Battle of Auray Sir Hugh Calverley ordered his men to take off
-their cuisses that they might move more rapidly. In the armour of the late
-sixteenth century one of the chief points of difference from the former
-fashions is to be found in the cuisses. Whereas these defences were
-formerly made of one, or possibly two plates, we now find them laminated
-from waist to knee and joined by the strap and sliding rivet arrangement
-which we have noted in the arm defences and tassets. The tassets are now
-no longer used (Fig. 36). Very soon the jambs were given up in favour of
-buff boots, and when once this was established the next step was the half
-suit which will be noticed in a succeeding chapter.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE IX
-
-Design for a suit of armour for Sir Henry Lee, from the _Almain Armourer's
-Album_.]
-
-After the fourteenth century the great helm was but seldom used for war,
-but for jousting it was still retained, and, as this form of military
-sport was practised more scientifically, so the weight and shape of the
-helm were made to suit the necessary conditions. The Brocas helm (Plate V)
-is the finest example of English helm of this period; it weighs 22 lb. The
-other known examples of home manufacture are the Westminster helm, which
-was discovered in the Triforium of Westminster Abbey in 1869, and weighs
-17 lb. 12 oz.; the Dawtray helm at Petworth (21 lb. 8 oz.); the Barendyne
-helm at Haseley, near Thame (13-1/2 lb.); the Fogge helm at Ashford,
-Sussex (24 lb.); the Wallace helm, in the collection at Hertford House (17
-lb.); and the great headpiece in the possession of Captain Lindsay of
-Sutton Courtenay, Abingdon, which turns the scale at 25 lb. 14 oz. It will
-be seen from the weight of these helms that they could only be used for
-the jousting course and were put off on the first opportunity. The details
-of their construction have been noticed in Chapter III.
-
-On referring to Plate V it will be seen that the bascinet was the
-precursor of the Salade, which may be considered the typical headpiece of
-the fifteenth century. The rear peak of the bascinet is prolonged over the
-neck, and in a later form of German origin the peak is hinged to allow the
-wearer to throw back his head with ease. The ocularium, or vision slit, is
-sometimes cut in the front of the salade, but more often it is found in a
-pivoted visor which could be thrown back. The Beavor is generally a
-separate piece strapped round the neck or, in tilting, bolted to the
-breastplate. Some writers call this the Mentoniere, but this name should
-rather be applied to the tilting breastplate which also protected the
-lower portion of the face. Shakespeare uses the term beavor very loosely,
-and frequently means by it the whole helmet.
-
-The German 'Schallern', or salade, so called from its shell-like form,
-seems to have been evolved from the chapel-de-fer or war-hat by
-contracting the brim at the sides and prolonging it at the back. In fact,
-in Chastelain's account of the fight between Jacques de Lalain and Gerard
-de Roussillon the salade worn by Messire Jacques is described as 'un
-chapeau de fer d'ancienne facon'.[23] The salade was often richly
-decorated. Baron de Cosson, in the preface to the Catalogue of Helmets
-exhibited at the Archaeological Institute in June, 1880[24], instances a
-salade made for the Duke of Burgundy in 1443, which was valued at 10,000
-crowns of gold. More modest decoration was obtained by covering the salade
-with velvet and fixing ornaments over this of gilded iron or brass. There
-are several of these covered salades in the various collections in England
-and on the Continent. Sometimes the salade was painted, as we see in an
-example in the Tower.
-
-The Armet, or close helmet, followed the salade, and is mentioned by
-Oliver de la Marche as early as 1443.[25] The name is supposed to be a
-corruption of 'heaumet', the diminutive of 'heaume', the great helm of the
-fourteenth century.[26] Whereas the salade is in form a hat-like defence,
-the armet fits the head closely and can only be put on by opening the
-helmet, as is shown on Plate V and Fig. 31. The various parts of the armet
-have been already described in Chapter III. The armet does not appear in
-monumental effigies in England before the reign of Henry VIII. The English
-were never in a hurry to take up new fashions in armour; being to a large
-extent dependent on the work of foreign craftsmen, they seem to have
-waited to prove the utility of an innovation before adopting it. Against
-this, however, we must place the fact that in the picture at Hampton Court
-of the meeting of Henry VIII and Maximilian, the English are all shown
-wearing armets, while the Germans still wear the salade. The armet on the
-Seusenhofer suit in the Tower, which has been noticed in this chapter, is
-a very perfect example of this style of headpiece.
-
-The Burgonet is an open helmet, and, as the name implies, of Burgundian
-origin. To those students who consult Meyrick it is advisable to give a
-word of warning as to this author's theory of the burgonet. He assumes
-that it is a variety of the armet, but with a grooved collar which fitted
-over the gorget. His authority for this assertion is a single reference in
-the _Origines des Chevaliers Armories et Heraux_, by Fauchet.[27] Space
-will not allow of the investigation of this authority, but Baron de Cosson
-in the Catalogue above quoted effectively disposes of Meyrick's
-theory.[28] The salient points of the burgonet, as may be seen on Plate V,
-are the Umbril or brim projecting over the eyes, and the upstanding comb
-or (in some cases) three combs that appear on the skull-piece. In the best
-examples these combs are forged with the skull out of one piece of metal,
-a _tour de force_ in craftsmanship that could hardly be surpassed. The
-ear-flaps are hinged at the sides, and at the base of the skull is fixed
-the Panache, or plume-holder. The faceguard, when used with the burgonet,
-is called the Buffe,[29] and, like the beavor worn with the salade, is
-held in place by a strap round the neck. This form of helmet was chiefly
-used by light cavalry.
-
-The Morion and the Cabasset are both helmets worn by foot-soldiers, and
-appear about the middle of the sixteenth century. The cabasset is
-generally to be distinguished by the curious little point projecting from
-the apex. Often the comb and upturned brim of the morion are extravagant
-in form and tend to make the helmet exceedingly heavy and inconvenient.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 37. Pavis. Cotton MS. Julius E. iv, 1485.]
-
-The shields of the fifteenth and sixteenth century were more for display
-than for use, except in the tilt-yard. As we have seen, the development of
-plate armour, especially on the left side, made the shield not only
-unnecessary, but also inconvenient. In the joust, however, where it was
-important that the lance should find no hold on a vital part of the body,
-such as the juncture of the arm, the shield was used to glance the weapon
-off, or, where unhorsing was the object, it was ribbed with diagonally
-crossing ridges to give the lance-point a surer hold. The Pavis or Pavoise
-(Fig. 37) was more generally used by archers and crossbowmen as a cover. A
-good specimen of the pavis exists in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, and
-there are two large examples of heavier make with peepholes for the
-archer, and wooden props as shown in our illustration, at Brussels and
-Berlin.
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE X
-
-_Photograph by Viscount Dillon._
-
-Horse armour of the Emperor Maximilian. Tower.]
-
-
-CHAPTER V
-
-HORSE ARMOUR
-
-
-The fully-equipped knight, whether in the cumbrous garments of mail or in
-the more adaptable suit of plate, was so entirely dependent on his horse,
-both in active warfare and in the tilt-yard, that some notice of the
-defences of the Destrier or war-horse is necessary in this short
-examination of the history of defensive armour. On the Bayeux Tapestry
-there is no suggestion of armour of any kind upon the horses, but Wace
-writes in the _Roman de Rou_ (line 12,627)--
-
-  Vint Williame li filz Osber
-  Son cheval tot covert de fer.
-
-We should remember, however, that Wace wrote in the second half of the
-twelfth century and, like the other chroniclers of the Middle Ages, both
-in picture and text, portrayed his characters in the dress of his own
-time. The Trapper of mail shown on Fig. 38 is taken from Stothard's
-drawing of one of the paintings in the Painted Chamber at Westminster, now
-destroyed.[30] These decorations are supposed to have been executed about
-the year 1237. Here the horse is shown covered with a most inconvenient
-housing of mail, which can hardly have been in very general use, in this
-particular form at any rate; for it would be almost impossible for a horse
-to walk, let alone to trot or gallop, with such a defence. The textile
-trapper was, of course, lighter, and was used merely for ornament and
-display, though it may have been designed, as the surcoat was, to protect
-the mail defence beneath from wet.
-
-Jean Chartier, in his _Histoire de Charles VI_ (p. 257), states that
-sometimes these rich trappings or housings were, after the death of their
-owner, bequeathed to churches, where they were used for altar hangings,
-or inversely, when trappings were needed, the churches were despoiled of
-their embroideries to provide them.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 38. Trapper of Mail, from the Painted Chamber,
-Westminster, thirteenth century.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 39. Ivory chessman, from Hewitt's _Ancient Armour_,
-fourteenth century.]
-
-The mailed horse appears as early as the Roman period, and is shown on the
-Column of Trajan, but in Europe he does not seem to have been commonly in
-use much before the thirteenth century. As the man was sometimes defended
-entirely by garments of quilted fabrics, so the horse also wore
-pourpointed housings. We can only surmise, from the folds and lines shown
-on seals or drawings, which variety is intended; but the stiff lines of
-the housing on the seal of Roger de Quinci, Earl of Winchester (1219-64),
-and its raised lozenges, seem to suggest a thicker substance than does the
-more flowing drapery on Fig. 11. Matthew Paris, in describing the Battle
-of Nuova Croce in 1237, writes that 'A credible Italian asserted that
-Milan with its dependencies raised an army of six thousand men-at-arms
-with iron-clad horses'. An ordinance of Philip the Fair, in 1303, provides
-that every holder of an estate of 500 livres rental should furnish a man
-at-arms well mounted on a horse 'couvert de couvertures de fer ou de
-couverture pourpointe'. The caparisoned horse first appears on royal seals
-in the reign of Edward I. In the Roll of Purchases of Windsor Park
-Tournament (1278), the horses are provided with parchment crests, and the
-Clavones or rivets used for fixing these crests are mentioned in the
-Wardrobe Accounts of Edward I in 1300: 'cum clavis argenti pro eodem
-capello.' The earliest note we have of a rigid defence for the horse is in
-the Windsor Roll, which contains the following item:--'D Milon le Cuireur
-xxxviij copita cor de similitud' capit equoz.' This headpiece was of
-leather, either used in its natural state or as cuirbouilli, and seems to
-be the material suggested in the ivory chessman (Fig. 39) illustrated in
-Hewitt (vol. ii, p. 314). In the Will of the Earl of Surrey (1347) is
-mentioned a breastpiece of leather for a horse. In the fifteenth century
-we find the horse protected with plate like his rider, and usually the
-lines of the Barding or horse armour follow those of the man. Fig. 40
-shows the armed horse with the various portions of his defence named.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 40. Horse armour. A, Chamfron; B, Crinet; C, Peytral;
-D, Flanchards; E, Arcon; F, Cantel; G, Crupper; H, Tail-guard; J, Metal
-rein-guard; K, Glancing-knob.]
-
-The Chamfron is sometimes provided with hinged cheek-plates and usually
-has a holder for a plume. On the forehead are often shown the arms of the
-owner or a tapered spike. Angellucci, in his preface to the Catalogue of
-the Turin Armoury, differentiates between the chamfron (tesera) and the
-Frontale or plate protecting the front of the head alone. There are fine
-suits of Gothic horse armour both in the Musee d'Artillerie in Paris and
-also in the Wallace Collection at Hertford House. The latter is one of the
-best-arranged mounted suits in existence. The different pieces of the
-horse armour bear the delicate sweeping lines embossed on the surface in
-the same way that the armour of the man is treated. The restored linings
-of leather and skin show how the horse was protected from the chafing of
-the metal. The Peytral or Poitrel is hung from the neck and withers, and
-is frequently provided with large bosses, called _Bossoirs_, _Pezoneras_,
-or _Glancing-knobs_, to direct the lance-thrust away from the horse. It is
-often hinged in three pieces. The Flanchards hang from the saddle on
-either side, and are sometimes, as on Plate IV and the Frontispiece,
-curved upwards in the centre to admit of the use of the spur. The back of
-the horse is protected by the Croupiere or Crupper, which is made up of
-several pieces riveted or hinged together. The root of the tail is covered
-by a tubular plate called the Gardequeue, which is often moulded into the
-form of a dragon or dolphin. All these plates were lined with leather or
-wadded with cotton to prevent chafing. Often, however, cuirbouilli was
-used instead of metal and was richly decorated with painting and gilding.
-A picture of the Battle of Pavia in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, shows
-many of these painted bards, and the same material is doubtless intended
-in the relief of the Battle of Brescia on the Visconti monument at Pavia.
-These leather bards have entirely disappeared and are not to be found in
-any collections except for a portion of a crupper of this material in the
-Tower. The saddle, with its high Arciones or peaks, back and front, was in
-itself an efficacious protection for the waist and loins. The term Cantle
-is sometimes used for either plate, but it is generally accepted as the
-name for the rear peak. Both this part and the front plate are often
-covered with metal. The great jousting saddles have been noticed in the
-preceding chapter. The reins are protected from being cut by hinged
-plates, as shown on Plate X.[31]
-
-These pieces constitute the armour of the horse as usually found in
-museums and in painting and sculpture. There is, however, in the Zeughaus
-in Vienna a curious portrait of Harnischmeister Albrecht, dated 1480. The
-horse on which he rides is armed completely with plate except for an
-aperture in the flanchards for using the spur. The legs are covered with
-hinged and bolted defences very similar to those of the armour for men. It
-might be supposed that this was but a fantastic idea of the painter, if
-Viscount Dillon had not discovered a Cuissard, or thigh-piece, which much
-resembles those shown on the picture, in the Musee de la Porte de Hal,
-Brussels. In the days of the Decadence, when the craft of the armourer was
-to a great extent overwhelmed by the riotous fancy of the decorator, the
-horse shared with his rider in this display. The armour shown on Plate X,
-known as the Burgundian armour from the badges of the Emperor Maximilian
-which adorn it, does not offend in this respect, because the embossing
-serves to give rigidity to the metal without interfering with its
-defensive qualities. The same may be said of the barding shown on the
-Frontispiece, but on Plate IV the loss of dignity in line, and the
-embossed hemisphere--which, for its purpose, should be smooth--show the
-beginning of the decay in constructional skill. The highly ornamented
-pageant armour made for the Elector Christian II, now in the Dresden
-Museum, though extraordinarily perfect in workmanship, should be classed
-rather as the work of goldsmith or sculptor than as that of the armourer.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI
-
-THE DECADENCE OF ARMOUR
-
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 41. Grotesque helmet, sixteenth century. Nuremberg.]
-
-In the practice of any of the crafts, or applied arts as they are now
-called, the surest and most manifest signs of decadence are to be found in
-two aspects of that craft. The first of these is that which refers to the
-material used. With regard to armour this consideration is faithfully
-adhered to in most examples of the armourer's work up to the end of the
-fifteenth century; but by the beginning of the sixteenth century we find
-the craftsman becoming wearied of his technical perfection and the
-simplicity and constructional dignity which invariably accompanies such
-perfection. His efforts are now directed to fashioning his metal into such
-forms as in no way suggest his material, but only show a certain
-meretricious skill in workmanship. Fig. 41 shows a very favourite form of
-this artistic incoherence. The defensive properties of the helmet are in
-no way increased, but rather are annulled by presenting hollows and
-projections where before a smooth surface existed. It is superfluous to
-point out the grotesque and bizarre effect of this human face in
-metal.[32] Another instance of this wilful disregard of material is to be
-noticed in those suits which imitate the puffed and slashed dress in
-fashion for civilian wear during the sixteenth century. Many of these
-suits exist in English and European armouries, which proves that they were
-popular, but to the true craftsman there is something degrading in the
-efforts of the expert ironworker, expending his energies, not to produce a
-finely constructed piece of work, but rather to imitate the seams and
-pipings of the work of a tailor or dressmaker; and, however much we may
-admire his technical skill, we must, perforce, place his artistic
-aspirations side by side with the 'grainer and marbler' who was so
-conspicuous a factor in domestic decoration in the middle of the
-nineteenth century. Fig. 42 shows this decadence carried to its furthest
-pitch. By the middle of the sixteenth century the Renaissance, which had
-been, in the first instance, the birth of all that is best in European art
-and craftsmanship, became a baneful influence. The expert painter, having
-mastered the intricacies of his art, turned them into extravagant channels
-and exaggerated action; foreshortened figures and optical illusions took
-the place of the dignified compositions of the earlier period. Nor could
-the crafts escape this deadly poison. To the credit of the craftsmen we
-may hope that the luxurious indulgence and ostentatious display of the
-princely patron was the cause of decadence in the crafts, rather than the
-inclination of the workers themselves. Still the fact remains that, as
-soon as the plain and constructionally sound work began to be overspread
-with ornament, architecture, metal-work, wood-carving, and all the allied
-arts began to be debased from their former high position. With the
-decoration of armour its practical utility began to decline. It must be
-admitted, however, that one reason for the decoration was that armour
-was, by degrees, less and less used for war and only retained for pageant,
-joust, and parade in which personal display and magnificence were
-demanded.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 42. Puffed suit, sixteenth century. Vienna.[33]]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 43. Casque after Negroli, sixteenth century. Paris.]
-
-The engraved and inlaid suits of the late sixteenth and seventeenth
-centuries, although they offend the craftsman's eye as does the decorated
-bicycle of the Oriental potentate to-day, do not transgress that important
-law, on which so much stress has been laid, of offering a glancing surface
-to the opposing weapon. It is when we come to the embossed suits with
-their hollows and projections that we find the true character of armour
-lost and the metal used only as a material for exhibiting the dexterity of
-the workman without any consideration for its use or construction. This
-interference with the glancing surface is noticeable in the suit
-illustrated in Fig. 42, but even here there is some excuse, in that the
-designer had reason for his embossing of the metal--if the imitation of
-the puffed suit was to be carefully portrayed. The same, however, cannot
-be urged for those suits which are simply covered with ornament with no
-purpose, little meaning, and less composition or design. If we set aside
-our opinions as to the suitability of the ornament, we are compelled to
-admire the wonderful technical skill which produced such pieces as the
-suit made for King Sebastian of Portugal by Anton Pfeffenhauser of
-Augsburg, and now in the Madrid Armoury. Here every deity of Olympus, the
-allegorical figures of Justice, Strength, and the Cardinal Virtues, crowd
-together with Navigation, Peace, and Victory; Roman warriors fighting with
-elephants are found among Amorini, Satyrs, and Tritons; while every inch
-of the metal not devoted to this encyclopaedia of history and legend is
-crowded with foliage and scroll-work of that debased and unnatural form
-which has become the branding mark of this period of the Renaissance.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 44. Pageant shield, sixteenth century. Vienna.]
-
-It will be sufficient to give one example of this prostitution of art and
-craftsmanship. This helmet after Negroli (Fig. 43), and a similar example,
-signed by Negroli, at Madrid, show how the canons of the armourer's craft
-were ignored at this period. It is true that the casque still provides a
-metal covering for the head, and that the comb gives an additional
-protection to the skull, but when we examine the embossed figures at the
-side--and marvellously good the embossing is--we find lodgements for the
-sword or spear which would most certainly help to detach the helmet from
-its wearer. As to the comb, it may fairly be cited as an example of all
-that is artistically worst in the late Renaissance. Its technical merits
-only emphasize this. The warrior is laid on his back to suit the required
-shape of the helmet, and to give point to his position his hair is held
-by two figures whose attributes seem to suggest that intercrossing of
-birds, beasts, and fishes which delighted the decadent mind of the period.
-The figures are human to the waist and end in a dolphin's tail. Angels'
-wings spring from their shoulders and leopards' claws from the junction of
-tail and waist. Not content with this outrage to the dignity of art, the
-craftsman ends his warrior in an architectural base which has not even the
-slight merit of probability which the tail of the merman might offer. In
-short it is an example of technical skill at its highest, and artistic
-perception at its lowest point. The shield from the Vienna collection
-(Fig. 44) is another example, like King Sebastian's suit, of meaningless
-decoration. The strap work does not in any way follow the lines of the
-shield, and the female figures seem to be introduced only to show that the
-craftsman could portray the human form in steel as easily as he could the
-more conventional ornament.
-
-As the armourer, weary of constructional skill, turned to ornament as a
-means of showing to what further extent his powers could expand, so, with
-this change in his point of view, his constructional skill itself
-declined. The headpiece, which in the golden age of the armourer was
-forged in as few pieces as possible, is in the late seventeenth century
-made of many pieces, as the art of skilful forging declines. The ingenious
-articulations of the soleret are changed, and the foot is cased in plates
-which, overlapping only in one direction, preclude the easy movement of
-the wearer. The fine lines of leg and arm defences, which in the fifteenth
-and sixteenth century follow the shape of the limbs, give place to
-straight tubular plates which can only be likened to the modern
-stove-pipe. The grace and symmetry of the Gothic suit shown on Plate VIII,
-especially the leg armour, exemplify this merit of the best period of
-armour, while the suit made for Louis XIV, and the gilt suit of Charles I
-in the Tower, offend in the opposite direction. Another sure indication of
-the decadence of the craftsman is to be found in the imitation of
-constructional detail with no practical purpose. Examples of this may be
-seen in late seventeenth-century armour, where a single plate is embossed
-to represent several overlapping plates or lames, and also in the
-plentiful use of '_clous perdus_' or false rivets which are scattered
-broadcast on some suits in places where no rivets are needed.
-
-To turn from the degradation of the simplicity and constructional
-perfection of armour to the reasons which led to its gradual disuse, we
-find that, after the Gothic period, armour became heavier, partly because
-of the shock tactics in vogue on active service and partly because, in the
-case of jousting armour, strength and great weight were needed to protect
-the wearer from vital injury, and partly because the improvement of
-firearms necessitated extra defence. The temper of the metal used was such
-that it would resist a pistol shot, as we have noticed in Chapter III; and
-on examining the surface of the metal we find, as in the Pembridge helm,
-that it is of so fine a texture that a modern knife will not leave a
-scratch when testing it. Therefore we must regard the weight of armour as
-one of the chief reasons for its disuse. Again, military tactics
-necessitated forced marches and longer expeditions than before; or at any
-rate it was discovered that when engaging in long expeditions the troops
-were chafed and hindered by their armour. It is somewhat curious to note
-that as the leg was the first part of the body to be armed with plate, so
-the leg armour was the first to be discarded. The jambs were the first
-pieces to go, and were replaced, in the case of the mounted man, by thick
-buff leather boots. The tassets were prolonged to the knee or--to describe
-this portion of the armour in a different way--the cuisses themselves were
-formed of riveted lames and the tassets discarded.
-
-The helmet at the latter end of the seventeenth century is generally open
-and of the burgonet type. The breastplate is usually short and projects
-downwards at the lower portion after the fashion of the 'peascod' doublet
-of civilian wear. As early as 1586, at the siege of Zutphen, we find
-officers discarding their armour and keeping only the cuirass. From the
-Hatfield MSS. we learn that a penny a day was allowed to each soldier in
-1590, over and above his pay, for the wearing and carriage of his armour,
-because it had become the custom for the troops to give their
-accoutrements to the baggage-carriers when on the march: 'a matter both
-unseemly for soldiers and also very hurtful unto the armour by bruising
-and breaking thereof, whereby it becometh unserviceable.' In Cruso's
-_Militarie Instructions for the Cavallrie_ (1632), we find that the
-arquebusiers had wholly left off their armour in favour of buff coats.
-Turner's _Pallas Armata_ (1670) mentions the armour of officers as 'a
-headpiece, a corslet and a gorget, the captain having a plume of feathers
-in his helmet, the lieutenant not'. Further on we read, 'now the feathers
-you may peradventure find, but the headpiece for the most part is laid
-aside.' Fig. 45 shows that half armour was still worn during the
-Commonwealth, but by the Restoration very little was retained except for
-ceremonial use. As far as can be gleaned from contemporary letters and
-histories, Charles I never wore either the somewhat cumbrous gilt suit
-which is shown at the Tower or the more graceful half suit of blued steel
-in which Vandyke represented him in his equestrian portrait. All the metal
-defence we can be sure he actually wore is a steel broad-brimmed hat
-covered with velvet. The headpiece used by the cavalry during the Civil
-War is of the same type as No. 11 on Plate IV, a variety of the burgonet
-with a movable nasal. The breastplate continued to be worn during the wars
-of Marlborough, but that, too, was discarded when the efficacy of the
-musket proved its uselessness. The last survival of plate armour is to be
-found in the gorget. This became smaller as the uniform was changed, and
-in the end was simply a small crescent of brass hung at the neck. It was
-worn by infantry officers up to the year 1830, at which date it was given
-up in England.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 45. Cromwellian pikeman. Tower.]
-
-The last official use of full plate armour was at the Coronation of George
-IV, when the King's Champion, Dymoke, entered Westminster Hall and threw
-down the gauntlet to challenge those who disputed the King's right to the
-crown. The suit worn on this occasion belonged originally to Sir
-Christopher Hatton, Captain of the Guard to Queen Elizabeth, and was made
-by Jacobe,[34] whose designs for armour have been referred to in Chapter
-III. The suit is now in the Guard Room at Windsor. The Guardia Nobile of
-the Pope still wear the picturesque half armour of the sixteenth century.
-The cuirass and helmet of the Household Cavalry of the present day are not
-survivals, for they were introduced at the time of the Coronation of
-George IV.
-
-The study of defensive armour and weapons must of necessity need much
-careful comparison of examples and investigation of documentary evidence,
-but, even when undertaken only superficially, it will add greatly to the
-interest of modern history and of the arts of war. Costume can only be
-studied from pictorial and sculptured records, but in the case of armour
-we have, after a certain period, actual examples not only of historical
-but also of personal interest. With modern methods of arrangement and with
-the expert care of those most learned in this subject these examples will
-be an ever-present record which may be examined with more interest than
-might be bestowed upon many branches of the applied arts; because, in
-addition to the interest centred in the personality of the wearers, we
-have the sure signs of the master-craftsman which are always evident in
-good craftsmanship, and, not infrequently, the sign-manual of the worker
-himself.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII
-
-WEAPONS
-
-
-The Sword. At the time of the Conquest the sword was straight, broad in
-blade, two-edged and pointed. The Quillons were straight and the grip
-ended in a Pommel which, as far as we can judge from illustrated records,
-was square, round, lozenge-shaped or trefoiled (Fig. 46). There is not
-much change in the general lines of the sword during the twelfth century
-except in the form of the pommel.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 46. Sword-hilts.]
-
-In the thirteenth century the point, instead of starting abruptly at the
-extreme end of the blade, is of a more gradual form, showing that the use
-of the sword for thrusting was more general than in the previous
-centuries. The Grip seems to be very short for the proper balance of the
-weapon, if we may judge from those shown on Plate III, 1, 2, 3.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 47. A, Pommel; B, Grip; C, Knuckle-bow; D, D,
-Quillons; E, Counter-guard; F, Pas d'ane; G, Ricasso; H, Blade.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 48. Schiavona.]
-
-The quillons curve upwards towards the point and the pommel is frequently
-decorated with the badge or arms of the owner. The symbol of the Cross is
-frequently found on the sword-pommel. At this period the handle and
-scabbard are frequently enriched with ornamental metal-work set with gems,
-as we find on the monument of King John in Worcester Cathedral. The
-cruciform shape of the sword-hilt continues through the fourteenth century
-without much radical change in its construction, but in the fifteenth
-century we find the 'Pas d'ane', which is formed of two rings curving
-above the quillons on each side of the Ricasso, or squared part of the
-blade above the hilt (Fig. 47). It is usual to describe the sword as it is
-held for use in hand; that is with the point as the highest part and the
-pommel as the lowest. After the fifteenth century sword-play began to be
-studied as a science, and we find that, besides being used for offensive
-purposes, the sword-hilt was so designed as to be a defence in itself.
-From this we get all the guards and counterguards, which are so varied and
-intricate that it would require more space than is at our disposal to
-treat of them with any degree of completeness.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 49. Two-hand sword.]
-
-The type of sword that was thus developed by practice in its use was
-purely for thrusting purposes. The sword for cutting alone is generally
-simpler in form. The Cutilax, Falchion, Dussack, and Cutlas are all
-weapons of this order and generally have a simple hilt. The modern
-Claymore is really an adaptation of the Italian Schiavona (Fig. 48), and
-is in no way derived from the Claymore proper, the Two-hand sword of the
-Middle Ages. This great weapon, often as much as 6 feet in length from
-point to pommel, was used by foot-soldiers, and special military
-arrangements were made for the space given to its users, who required a
-good sweeping distance between each man (Fig. 49). The Hand-and-half sword
-is a variety of cross-hilted sword, in which the grip is sufficiently long
-for two or three fingers of the left hand to be used to assist the right
-hand in delivering a swinging cut.
-
-The early Dagger is of much the same form as the sword; it was worn on the
-right side with the sword on the left. One variety of the dagger was
-called the Misericorde. It was finely pointed and, as its name grimly
-implies, was intended to penetrate the joints of the armour to give the
-_coup de grace_ to the fallen knight. The Main-gauche is also of the
-dagger order, but has a broad knuckle-guard and long straight quillons. It
-was used in conjunction with the rapier in duels with the point upwards,
-more as a means of warding off the sword-thrust than for actual stabbing.
-The Anelace and Cinquedea are broad-bladed short weapons used for stabbing
-only. The Baselard was the short sword carried by civilians in the
-fifteenth century.
-
-Of staff weapons the principal is, of course, the Lance. At the time of
-the Conquest and up to the fourteenth century the shaft of the lance was
-of even thickness with lozenge- or leaf-shaped point. During the
-fourteenth century we find the shaft swelling just above the grip and then
-tapering below it. Plate XI, 14, shows the lance provided with a vamplate
-or shield, which protected the hand and made the right gauntlet
-unnecessary. Tilting lances are sometimes as much as 15 feet in length,
-and one specimen in the Tower weighs 20 lb. An engraving by Lucas Cranach
-(1472-1553), which depicts a tourney or melee of knights, shows the
-combatants preceded by squires on horseback who support these weighty
-lances till the moment of impact, when, it is presumed, they moved aside
-out of danger. The lance-point was sharp for active service, but for
-tournaments it was supposed to be blunted. This practice, however, was so
-often neglected that ordinances were framed enjoining the use of the
-Coronal or trefoiled button, which is shown on Plate XI, 15.
-
-The other long-shafted staff weapons may be divided into those for
-stabbing and those for cutting. The Gisarme is a long-handled weapon which
-some writers consider to have been much the same as the Pole-axe. From
-Wace we learn that it was sharp, long, and broad.[35] It was in all
-probability a primitive form of the Bill. This was also a broad-bladed
-weapon and was used only by foot-soldiers. It seems to have been evolved
-from the agricultural scythe. The Godendag was the name given by the
-Flemings to the Halbard. It had an axe-blade with curved or straight
-spikes at the back and a long point to terminate the shaft. In this detail
-it differed from the pole-axe. The halbard proper was used as early as the
-thirteenth century and appears in the designs from the Painted Chamber at
-Westminster figured by Stothard.[36] From the seventeenth century onwards
-it was used only for ceremonial purposes and was richly decorated. It was
-carried on parade by infantry drum-majors in England as late as 1875. It
-was much favoured by the Swiss, who armed the front rank of the footmen
-with this weapon. Those used for parade purposes are elaborately engraved
-on the blades, while the shafts are often covered with velvet and studded
-with gilded nails. These ornate weapons are used still by the
-Gentlemen-at-Arms on State occasions. The Voulge is a primitive weapon
-evolved from an agricultural implement of the same class as the hedging
-bill in use at the present day. The Lochaber axe is of much the same form;
-its distinguishing feature being the hook at the top of the shaft, which
-was used in scaling walls. The Glaive is also a broad-bladed weapon, but
-where the bill and gisarme are more or less straight towards the edge, the
-glaive curves backwards. It is often to be found richly engraved for show
-purposes. In French writings the word glaive is sometimes loosely used for
-lance or sword.
-
-The stabbing or thrusting long-shafted weapons include the Lance, Spear,
-and Javelin. After these the most important is the Pike. This is very
-similar to the spear, but was used exclusively by foot-soldiers. In the
-seventeenth century it was carried by infantry interspersed among the
-arquebusiers. There are several works on pike-drill and treatises on its
-management. Lord Orrery, in his _Art of War_, comments on the differences
-in length and recommends that all should be 16-1/2 feet long. The shaft
-was made of seasoned ash and the head was fastened with two cheeks of
-iron, often 4 feet long, which ran down the shaft to prevent the head
-being cut off by cavalry. At the butt-end was a spike for sticking into
-the ground when resisting cavalry. In a treatise entitled _The Art of
-Training_ (1662) directions are given that the 'grip' of the shaft should
-be covered with velvet to afford a sure hold for the hand. This grip was
-called the Armin. There are also suggestions that a tassel should be fixed
-midway to prevent the rain running down the shaft and so causing the hand
-to slip. When we consider that the pikeman had to keep the cavalry at
-bay while the arquebusier was reloading--a lengthy process--we can
-understand the importance of these regulations. The pike was carried by
-the colour-sergeants in the British Army at the beginning of the
-nineteenth century, and was last used in the French Army in 1789. The
-Spontoon is a species of half-pike, which was carried by the
-colour-sergeants in the British Army up to the end of the eighteenth
-century, if not longer. The Spetum and the Ranseur are often confused. The
-names are usually given to those weapons which have sharp lateral
-projections fixed at a more or less acute angle to the point. They could
-not be used for cutting, but used for thrusting they inflicted terrible
-wounds. The Partizan is somewhat of the same order, but is known best in
-museums in its decorated form as used in ceremonial parades. These
-show-weapons were used by the Judge's guard in Oxford up to 1875, and are
-still carried by the Yeomen of the Guard on State occasions.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE XI
-
-1. Voulge 2. Halbard 3. Glaive 4. Ranseur or Spetum 5. Partizan 6.
-Spontoon 7. Gisarme 8. Pike 9. Mace 10. Lochaber axe 11. Pole axe 12. Holy
-Water sprinkler 13. Bill 14. Lance and Vamplate 15. Lance points for war
-and joust, Madrid 16. Sections of Lance shafts, Tower]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 50. Morning Star.]
-
-The Bayonet, although introduced in France in 1647, is so essentially a
-part of the firearm that we need do no more than mention it among the
-thrusting weapons. The scope of this work will not allow of any notice of
-firearms; that subject, owing to modern developments, is too wide to be
-treated in a few sentences.
-
-Of short-handled weapons the Club or Mace is to be found on the Bayeux
-Tapestry, and is generally quatrefoil or heart-shaped at the head. The
-mace was the weapon of militant ecclesiastics, who thus escaped the
-denunciation against 'those who fight with the sword'. It is generally
-supposed that the Gibet was of the same order. Wace, in the _Roman de Rou_
-(line 13459), writes:--
-
-  Et il le gibet seisi
-  Ki a sun destre bras pendi.
-
-The mace was usually carried slung by a loop to the saddle-bow or on the
-right wrist, so that, when sword or lance were lost, it could be used at
-once. A less ornamental weapon is the Holy-water Sprinkler. This is formed
-of a ball of iron studded with sharp projecting spikes, and fixed upon a
-long or short handle. The Morning Star is akin to the Military Flail, a
-weapon derived from the agricultural implement of that name. It is much
-the same as the Holy-water Sprinkler, except that the spiked ball is not
-socketed on the handle but hangs from a chain (Fig. 50). The names of
-these two weapons are often transposed, but we propose to adhere to the
-nomenclature used in the Tower Armouries as being more likely to be
-correct. The War-hammer and Battle-axe need but little description. They
-were generally used by horsemen, and their general form only varies in
-detail from implements in use at the present day. The Pole-axe was a
-weapon in great request for jousting on foot, in the 'champ clos'. The
-blade is much like the halbard, but at the back is a hammer-shaped
-projection with a roughened surface.
-
-The Longbow may be said to have gained the battles of Senlac, Crecy, and
-Agincourt, and so ranks as one of the most important of English weapons.
-It was from 5-1/2 to 6 feet in length and was made of yew, or, when this
-wood was scarce, of witch hazel. It is a popular tradition in the country
-that the yew-trees which were so important for the manufacture of this
-weapon were grown in churchyards because they were poisonous to cattle,
-and the churchyards were the only fenced-in spaces. There is, however, no
-documentary evidence to support this. The string was of hemp or silk. The
-archer carried twenty-four 'clothyard' shafts in his belt and wore a
-wrist-guard called a Bracer to protect his wrist from the recoil of the
-string. These bracers were of ivory or leather and were often decorated.
-The arrows were tipped with the goose-quill, but Roger Ascham, in his
-_Toxophilus_, writes that peacock arrows were used 'for gayness'. So
-notable were the English bow-makers for their productions that in 1363 we
-find the Pope sending to this country for bows.
-
-The Crossbow or Arbalest is first heard of in the twelfth century, and at
-this date was considered so 'unfair' a weapon that the Popes forbade its
-use. Innocent II in 1139 fulminated against this barbarous weapon, but
-allowed of its use by Christians against Infidels. By the end of the
-thirteenth century, however, it was in general use. At first the crossbow
-was strung by hand; but when it was made more powerful, mechanical means
-had to be resorted to to bend the bow, which was often of steel. There are
-two varieties of war crossbows: that strung with the 'goat's-foot' lever,
-which is shown on Fig. 51, and a heavier kind called the arbalest '_a
-tour_', which was strung with a cog-wheel and ratchet arrangement called
-the Moulinet or windlass (Fig. 52). The arbalest '_a cric_' is a larger
-form of this variety. The archer using these heavy weapons was entrenched
-behind a Pavis or shield fixed in the ground as shown on Fig. 37. The
-Quarel or bolt used for the crossbow is shorter and thicker than that used
-for the longbow.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 51. Crossbow and goat's-foot lever.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 52. Crossbow and windlass.]
-
-Of the other projectile-hurling weapons, such as the Fustibal or Sling,
-the different forms of Catapult used in siege operations, and the
-innumerable varieties of firearm, we have no space to write. The former,
-being mostly fashioned of wood and cordage, are seldom to be met with in
-museums, and we can only judge of their design and use from illuminated
-miniatures and paintings. The firearm, being, as it is, subject to further
-development, cannot be taken into full consideration in this work except
-so far as it affected the defensive armour and in time ousted the
-staff-weapon.
-
-With this bare enumeration of the principal weapons in use from the
-twelfth to the eighteenth century we draw our all too meagre notes to a
-conclusion. The subject is so vast, because each example is distinct in
-itself and because no general rule holds absolutely good for all, that
-many volumes might be produced with advantage on each epoch of the
-defences and weapons of Europe. No better advice to the would-be student
-can be given than that of Baron de Cosson in the Introduction to the
-Catalogue of Helmets and Mail (_Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxvii). He writes:
-'For the study of ancient armour to be successfully pursued it is of
-primary importance that a careful examination be made of every existing
-specimen within our reach.... Every rivet-hole and rivet in a piece must
-be studied and its use and object thought out. The reasons for the varied
-forms, thicknesses, and structure of the different parts must have special
-attention.... This alone will enable us to derive full profit from our
-researches into ancient authors and our examination of ancient monuments.
-This preliminary study will alone enable us to form a sound opinion on two
-important points. First, the authority to be accorded to any given
-representation of armour in ancient art ... whether it was copied from
-real armour or whether it was the outcome of the artist's imagination; and
-also whether a piece of existing armour is genuine or false, and whether
-or no it is in its primitive condition.'
-
-To this may be added that in studying armour at its best epoch, that is
-during the fifteenth century, we find the dignity of true craftsmanship
-proclaimed, and utility and grace attained without the addition of that
-so-called decoration which with the advent of the Renaissance was the bane
-of all the crafts.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-  A
-
-  Aiguillettes, 38, 41.
-
-  Ailettes, 35, 36.
-
-  Aketon, 23.
-
-  Albrecht, Harnischmeister, horse-armour of, 91.
-
-  Almain rivets, 59;
-    suits of, 63.
-
-  Anelace, 103.
-
-  Angellucci, on horse armour, 90.
-
-  Arbalest, _a cric_, 108;
-    _a tour_, ib.
-
-  Arciones, 90.
-
-  Armet, earliest use in England, 83;
-    parts of, 60, 82.
-
-  Armin, 104.
-
-  Arming-doublet, 61.
-
-  Arming-points, 38.
-
-  Armour: allowance for wear and tear, 98;
-    convenience in use of, 55;
-    details of construction of, 56;
-    engraved, 40;
-    essential points in its manufacture, 48;
-    fastenings of, 56;
-    for tournaments reinforced on left side, 55;
-    heavier on left side, 76;
-    inconvenience of, 63, 81;
-    last official use of, 98; making of, 65;
-    method of putting on, 62;
-    puffed, 92;
-    reason for increased weight, 97;
-    testing of, 52;
-    wearing of, 61.
-
-  Armourers, names of, 66;
-    workshop, 65.
-
-  Ascham, Roger, _Toxophilus_, 107.
-
-  Ashmolean Museum, pavis at, 84.
-
-  _Astley, Life of Sir J._, 62.
-
-  August, Herzog, armour of, 30.
-
-  Auray, Battle of, 81.
-
-  Austin, Will., 69.
-
-
-  B
-
-  Bainbergs or beinbergs, 36.
-
-  Balthasin, Galliot de, 64.
-
-  Bamberg, wooden figures at, 23.
-
-  Banded mail, 20.
-
-  Barding, 89.
-
-  Barrel helm, 25, 26.
-
-  Bascinet, 39;
-    of Henry VIII, proof marks on, 55;
-    'pig-faced,' 42;
-    precursor of salade, 82.
-
-  Baselard, 103.
-
-  Bases, 77;
-    of steel, 75.
-
-  Battle-axe, 107.
-
-  Bayeux Tapestry, 19, 23, 24, 26, 87, 106.
-
-  Bayonet, 106.
-
-  Beauchamp effigy, 69;
-    pageants, 66.
-
-  Beavor, 82;
-    derivation of, 64.
-
-  Berardi, Gulielmus, monument of at Florence, 36.
-
-  Berlin Zeughaus, 34.
-
-  Besague, 39, 68.
-
-  Bill, 103.
-
-  Black Prince, effigy of, 39;
-    gauntlets of, 33;
-    helm of, 41;
-    jupon of, 40;
-    shield of, 46.
-
-  Blore, _Monumental Remains_, 69.
-
-  Boeheim, Wendelin, _Waffenkunde_, 21, 65.
-
-  Bossoirs, 90.
-
-  Bracer, 107.
-
-  Brayette, 62, 93 (_note_).
-
-  Breast- and back-pieces, fastenings of, 59;
-    discarded, 98.
-
-  Breech of mail, 62.
-
-  Bregander nayles, 33.
-
-  Brescia, Battle of, on Visconti monument at Pavia, 90.
-
-  Brigandine, 16, 30, 66.
-
-  Brussels, horse cuissard at, 91.
-
-  Buffe, 83.
-
-  Burgkmair, Hans, _Weisskunig_, 65, 70.
-
-  Burgonet, 83, 97.
-
-  Burgundian horse armour in Tower, 91.
-
-  Burgundy, enriched salade of Duke of, 82.
-
-
-  C
-
-  Cabasset, 83.
-
-  Calverley, Sir H., at Battle of Auray, 81;
-    monument of, 40.
-
-  Camail, 38, 41.
-
-  Cantle, 90.
-
-  Cap worn under helm, 27.
-
-  Carnet, 42.
-
-  Cervelliere, 28.
-
-  Chain-mail harmed by rain, 25.
-
-  Chamfron, 89.
-
-  Chapel-de-fer, 82.
-
-  Charlemagne, armour of, 15.
-
-  Charles I, armour of, 96, 98.
-
-  Chartier, Jean, describes horse trappings, 87.
-
-  Chaucer, 33, 34, 36, 61.
-
-  Chausses, 24.
-
-  Chaussons, 24.
-
-  Christ Church, Oxford, window at, 29.
-
-  Christian II, enriched armour of Elector, at Dresden, 91.
-
-  _Chroniques de Charlemaine_, 36.
-
-  Cinquedea, 103.
-
-  Clavones, 89.
-
-  Claymore, 102.
-
-  'Cloth-yard' arrow, 107.
-
-  'Clous perdus,' 97.
-
-  Coat of defence, 34.
-
-  Coif of mail, 27.
-
-  Coronal, 103.
-
-  Coronation of George IV, 98, 99.
-
-  Corrugated iron similar to Maximilian armour, 74.
-
-  Cosson, Baron de, 64, 66, 70, 82;
-    advice to students of armour, 109;
-    disputes Meyrick's theory of burgonet, 83.
-
-  Coucy, Mathieu de, 68.
-
-  Coude, 36, 50.
-
-  Covers to helmets, 42.
-
-  Cranach, Lucas, tilting lances drawn by, 103.
-
-  Croissants, 68.
-
-  Crossbow, used for proving armour, 47;
-    varieties of, 108.
-
-  Crossbows forbidden by the Popes, 107.
-
-  Crupper or croupiere, 90.
-
-  Crusades, 25.
-
-  Cruso on the discarding of armour, 98.
-
-  Cuirass of leather, 15.
-
-  Cuirbouilli, 34;
-    crest of, 41;
-    helms of, 27;
-    horse armour of, 89;
-    leg armour of, 36;
-    poleynes of, 35;
-    shields of, 46.
-
-  Cuissard, 50;
-    for horse, 91.
-
-  Cuisses, 39, 50;
-    laminated, 58, 81;
-    taken off in battle, 81;
-    for tilting, 77.
-
-  Cutilax, 102.
-
-  Cutlas, 102.
-
-  Cyclas, 38.
-
-
-  D
-
-  Dagger, 102.
-
-  Davies, Edward, 81.
-
-  'Defaut de la cuirasse,' 68.
-
-  Destrier, 87.
-
-  Dilge, 77.
-
-  Dillon, Viscount, 39, 50, 52, 55, 61, 66, 91.
-
-  Dussack, 102.
-
-  Dymoke, 99.
-
-
-  E
-
-  Edward I, wardrobe account of, 34, 89.
-
-  Eisenhut, 28.
-
-  Elbow-cop, 50.
-
-  Enarmes, 29.
-
-  Eresby, d', brass of, 68.
-
-
-  F
-
-  Falchion, 102.
-
-  Fauchet, reference to burgonet, 83.
-
-  Fitz Urse, shield of, 29.
-
-  Flanchards, 90.
-
-  Fontaine, Etienne de, helmet of, 45.
-
-  Froissart, 13, 33, 42.
-
-  Frontale, as distinct from chamfron, 90.
-
-  Fustian worn under armour, 61.
-
-  Fustibal, 108.
-
-
-  G
-
-  Gadlings, 39.
-
-  Gambeson, 23, 30, 33.
-
-  Gardequeue, 90.
-
-  Garde-rein, 62.
-
-  Garrard, _Art of Warre_, 63.
-
-  Gauntlet, 50;
-    of Black Prince, 33;
-    construction of, 58.
-
-  Genouilliere, 50.
-
-  Gibet, 106.
-
-  Gisarme, 103.
-
-  Glaive, 104.
-
-  Glancing-knobs, 90.
-
-  Glancing surface, 48;
-    on helm, 27.
-
-  Godendag, 103.
-
-  Gorget, 60;
-    survival of, 98.
-
-  Gorleston brass, 36.
-
-  Gothic armour, 69;
-    horse armour in Wallace Collection, 90;
-    symmetry of, 96.
-
-  Gouchets, 68.
-
-  Grand-guard, 76.
-
-  Grip of lance, 59;
-    sword, 101.
-
-  Guardia Nobile of the Pope, 99.
-
-  Guige, 29.
-
-  Guns first used, 47.
-
-
-  H
-
-  Haines, Rev. H., _Monumental Brasses_, 68.
-
-  Halbard, 103.
-
-  Hall, _Chronicles_, 61.
-
-  Hand-and-half sword, 102.
-
-  Hatfield MS. as to wear and tear of armour, 98.
-
-  Hatton, suit of Sir C., 99.
-
-  Haubergeon, 24.
-
-  Hauberk, 19;
-    sleeves of, 23;
-    worn under plate, 38.
-
-  Hawkins, Sir R., _Observations_, 78.
-
-  Helm, great, or Heaume, 25, 41;
-    Barendyne, at Haseley, 75, 81;
-    Brocas, at Woolwich, 60, 81;
-    caps worn under, 27, 61;
-    chained to body, 27;
-    construction of jousting, 50-5;
-    Dawtray, at Petworth, 81;
-    decorated, 27;
-    Fogge, at Ashford, 81;
-    method of fixing, 60;
-    Pembridge, 41;
-    'sugar-loaf,' 27;
-    at Sutton Courtenay, 50, 81;
-    Wallace Collection, 81;
-    Westminster, 81.
-
-  Helmet, covers for, 42;
-    grotesque, 92;
-    jewelled, 45;
-    Norman, 25;
-    tied with laces, 26;
-    tinned to prevent rust, 45.
-
-  Henry V, 64.
-
-  Henry VIII and Maximilian, helmets worn at the meeting of, 83;
-    suit for fighting on foot, 60;
-    suit made by Seusenhofer, 76.
-
-  Heraldic devices on shields, 29.
-
-  Hewitt, John, 14, 23, 68;
-    ivory chessman illustrated by, 89.
-
-  Holy-water sprinkler, 106.
-
-  Horse armour, complete suit of, 91.
-
-  Horse trappings and church embroideries, 87;
-    first shown on English seals, 88.
-
-  Hosting harness, 63.
-
-  Household cavalry, 99.
-
-  'Hungere' iron, 52.
-
-
-  I
-
-  Imbricate armouries, 16.
-
-  Inventory of Humphrey de Bohun, 33, 42;
-    Sir Simon Burley, 34;
-    Dover Castle, 64;
-    Louis Hutin, 42, 46;
-    Piers Gaveston, 33, 35;
-    Tower Armouries, 52.
-
-
-  J
-
-  Jack, 67.
-
-  Jacobe, 65, 99.
-
-  Jambeaux, 34.
-
-  Jamboys, 77.
-
-  Jambs, 36;
-    discarded, 81.
-
-  Jazeran armour, 41.
-
-  Joan of Arc, 22.
-
-  John, King, 25.
-
-  Jupon, 23;
-    of Black Prince, 40.
-
-
-  K
-
-  Knee-cop, 50.
-
-
-  L
-
-  Lalain, Jacques de, 82.
-
-  Lambespring, Bartholomew, 69.
-
-  Lamboys. _See_ Jamboys.
-
-  Lambrequin, 45.
-
-  Lames, 50.
-
-  Lance, 103.
-
-  Laton, or latten, used for armour, 33.
-
-  Leather, used for armour, 34;
-    horse armour, 90;
-    morion at Berlin, 34.
-
-  Lee, Sir Henry, tests armour, 52.
-
-  Leg armour, of horse at Brussels, 91;
-    of plate, introduced and discarded, 97.
-
-  Lewis, Isle of, ivory chessmen found at, 26.
-
-  Lochaber axe, 104.
-
-  Longbow, 107.
-
-  Louis, King of Hungary, death by drowning of, 64.
-
-  Louis XIV, armour of, 96;
-    proof marks on armour of, 55.
-
-
-  M
-
-  Mace, 106.
-
-  Madrid, 94.
-
-  Mail, banded, 20;
-    chain, 19;
-    cleaning of, 64;
-    'mascled,' 22;
-    method of making, 20.
-
-  Main-guard, 52.
-
-  Mainfaire, wrong use of, 76.
-
-  Manifer or mainfere, 52, 76.
-
-  Main-gauche, 102.
-
-  Mantegna, St. George by, 70.
-
-  Mantling, 45.
-
-  Marche, Oliver de la, 64.
-
-  Maximilian I, 65;
-    armour, 70;
-    horse armour of, in the Tower, 91.
-
-  Mentoniere, 82.
-
-  Meyrick, Sir Samuel, 14, 16;
-    theory of banded mail, 20, 21;
-    theory of mascled mail, 22, 76;
-    theory of burgonet, 83.
-
-  Misericorde, 102.
-
-  Missaglias, 66.
-
-  Mohacz, Battle of, 64.
-
-  Molineux, Sir W., brass of, 30.
-
-  Monstrelet, 14.
-
-  Morion, 83;
-    of leather at Berlin, 34.
-
-  Morning Star, 107.
-
-  Moroni, portrait by, 62.
-
-  Moton, 39, 68.
-
-  Moulinet, 108.
-
-  Muehlberg, armour worn at the Battle of, 30.
-
-
-  N
-
-  Nasal, 26.
-
-  Negroli, helmet by, 95.
-
-  Northwode brass, 36.
-
-  Nuova Croce, Battle of, 88.
-
-  Nuremberg, tilting suit at, 77.
-
-
-  O
-
-  Ocularium, 26, 82.
-
-  Odo, Bishop, 24.
-
-  Orle, 45.
-
-  Orrery, Lord, _Art of Warre_, 104.
-
-
-  P
-
-  Painted Chamber, designs in the, 87, 103.
-
-  Palette, 50.
-
-  _Pallas Armata._ _See_ Turner.
-
-  Panache, 83.
-
-  Paris, Matthew, 88.
-
-  Partizan, 106.
-
-  Pas d'ane, 101.
-
-  Passe-guard, 50, 52, 76.
-
-  Pauldron, 50, 59, 73.
-
-  Pavia, picture of Battle of, at Oxford, 90.
-
-  Pavis or pavoise, 84, 108.
-
-  Peascod doublet, 97.
-
-  Pezoneras, 90.
-
-  Pfeffenhauser, suit by, 94.
-
-  Philip the Fair, ordinance of, 88.
-
-  Pike, 104;
-    last use of, 106.
-
-  Plastron-de-fer, 23, 34.
-
-  Plates, pair of, 33.
-
-  Pluvinel, de, _Maneige Royal_, 63.
-
-  Poitrel or peytral, 90.
-
-  Poldermitton, 76.
-
-  Pole-axe, 103;
-    used in 'champs clos', 107.
-
-  Poleynes, 34, 35, 36, 50.
-
-  Pommel of sword, 100.
-
-  Pourpointerie, 30;
-    for tourneys, 61.
-
-  Puffed armour, 74.
-
-
-  Q
-
-  Quarel, 108.
-
-  Queue, 77.
-
-  Quillons, 100, 101.
-
-
-  R
-
-  Radcot Bridge, Battle of, 64.
-
-  Ranseur, 106.
-
-  Rein-guards of metal, 91.
-
-  Renaissance, decadence of the armour of the, 95.
-
-  Rene, King, 40, 61.
-
-  Rerebrace, 36, 50;
-    construction of, 58.
-
-  Ricasso, 101.
-
-  Richard I, 22;
-    shield of, 29.
-
-  Ringed armour, 19.
-
-  Rivets, sliding, 56.
-
-  _Roman de Rou._ _See_ Wace.
-
-  Rondel, 39, 50.
-
-  Rosbecque, Battle of, 33.
-
-  Roussillon, Gerard de, 82.
-
-
-  S
-
-  Sabatons or sabataynes, 62, 73.
-
-  Saddle for jousting, in the Tower, 77.
-
-  St. Gall, Monk of, 15, 28.
-
-  St. George, statuette of, at Dijon, 41.
-
-  Salade, evolved from bascinet, 82;
-    decorated and painted, 82.
-
-  Scale armour, 16, 30.
-
-  Schiavona, 102.
-
-  Scott, poetic licence of Sir Walter, 64.
-
-  Sebastian, parade suit of King, 94.
-
-  Senlac, Battle of, 107.
-
-  Setvans brass, 25.
-
-  Seusenhofer, 65;
-    suit by, in the Tower, 75, 83.
-
-  Shield, temp. Norman Conquest, 28;
-    fourteenth century, 45;
-    faced with gesso, 46;
-    of twigs, 46.
-
-  Sigismund, armour of Count, 77.
-
-  Smythe, Sir John, _Animadversions_, 62, 78.
-
-  Solerets, 38, 50;
-    construction of, 56;
-    'a la poulaine,' 70;
-    'bear-paw,' 73;
-    'bec de cane,' 73;
-    'demi-poulaine,' 70.
-
-  Spain, regulations as to monuments in, 40.
-
-  Spetum, 106.
-
-  Splinted armour, 33;
-    on Ash monument, 41.
-
-  Spontoon, 106.
-
-  Standard of mail, 68.
-
-  Stothard, Charles, 69, 103.
-
-  Surcoat, 23, 25.
-
-  Surrey, Earl of, horse armour in Will of, 89.
-
-  Swords, 100;
-    and dagger play, 101, 102.
-
-
-  T
-
-  Taces, 50;
-    construction of, 56.
-
-  Tassets, 69;
-    and cuisses combined, 97;
-    discarded, 81.
-
-  Tonlet, 77.
-
-  Topf, 65, 99.
-
-  Tournament, of St. Inglevert, 14;
-    armour, 77;
-    helms, 27;
-    and swords, 33;
-    at Windsor Park, 27, 34, 35, 89;
-    crests used at, 89.
-
-  Trapper, of mail, 87;
-    textile, 87.
-
-  Trellice coat, 16.
-
-  Trumpington brass, 28, 42.
-
-  Tuilles, 56.
-
-  Tunic, 22, 38.
-
-  Turner, _Pallas Armata_, 98.
-
-  Turning pins, 59.
-
-  Two-hand sword, 102.
-
-
-  U
-
-  Umbril, 83.
-
-  Upper pourpoint, 38.
-
-
-  V
-
-  Vambrace, 38, 50;
-    construction of, 58.
-
-  Vamplate, 59, 76.
-
-  Vegecius, 46.
-
-  Ventail, 26.
-
-  Vere, escape of Robert de, 64.
-
-  Vervelles, 41.
-
-  Vienna, painting of horse armour at, 91;
-    pageant shield at, 96.
-
-  Vif de l'harnois, 39.
-
-  Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire du Mobilier Francais_, 21.
-
-  Visiere, 42.
-
-  Visor, 26.
-
-  Volant piece, 76.
-
-  Voulge, 104.
-
-  Vuyders, 62.
-
-
-  W
-
-  Wace, _Roman de Rou_, 23, 24, 87, 103, 106.
-
-  Waller, J. G., 19, 21.
-
-  Wambais, 23.
-
-  War-hammer, 107.
-
-  War-hat, 28.
-
-  Warwick, Earl of, 70.
-
-  Whalebone, used for gauntlets and swords, 33.
-
-  William the Conqueror, 24, 26.
-
-  Windsor Park. _See_ Tournament.
-
-  Wylcotes, Sir John, brass of, 68.
-
-
-  Z
-
-  Zutphen, armour discarded at siege of, 97.
-
-
-Oxford: Printed at the Clarendon Press by HORACE HART, M.A.
-
-
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] Harl. MS. 4379, Brit. Mus.
-
-[2] vi. 333, trans. Johnes, 1810.
-
-[3] _Archaeologia_, xix. 128-30.
-
-[4] _Archaeologia_, lix.
-
-[5] _Ancient Armour_, ii. 138.
-
-[6] _Roman de Rou_, 1. 13254 et seq.
-
-[7] Protect.
-
-[8] _Archaeologia_, xvii.
-
-[9] _Arch. Journ._, ii. 349.
-
-[10] Vol. iii. p. 165.
-
-[11] _New Foedera_, ii. 203.
-
-[12] _Arch. Journ._, lx. 95-136.
-
-[13] _Arch. Journ._, lx. 95-136.
-
-[14] _Archaeologia_, xvii.
-
-[15] _Arch. Journ._, lxiv. 15-23.
-
-[16] Carderera, _Iconografia_.
-
-[17] The terms 'coude' and 'genouilliere', 'palette', and such-like words
-of French origin, are open to some objection in an English work when
-'elbow-cop', 'knee-cop', or 'poleyne' and 'rondel' can be substituted.
-They are only employed here because of their general use in armouries at
-the present day, and because the English words are of rarer occurrence and
-are less likely to be met with by those beginning the study of armour.
-'Cuisse' and 'cuissard', however, are always used for the thigh-pieces,
-and no anglicized term is found in contemporary writings unless it be
-'Quysshews.'
-
-[18] _Arch. Journ._, lx.
-
-[19] _Archaeologia_, vol. lvii; _Arch. Journ._, vol. iv.
-
-[20] _Arch. Journ._, vol. lx.
-
-[21] Boeheim, _Meister der Waffenschmiedkunst_; De Cosson, _Arch. Journ._,
-vol. xlviii.
-
-[22] _Arch. Journ._, lx.
-
-[23] G. Chastelain, p. 679.
-
-[24] _Arch. Journ._, xxxvii.
-
-[25] Oliver de la Marche, p. 288.
-
-[26] N.E. Dict, gives Armette, a diminutive of Arme. Armez is also found.
-
-[27] Paris, 1606, fol. 42. See Cat. of Helmets, _Arch. Journ._, xxxvii.
-
-[28] _Arch. Journ._, xxxvii.
-
-[29] The term _Bufe_ is sometimes wrongly used for the upright
-shoulder-guards on the pauldron.
-
-[30] _Monumenta Vetusta_, vol. vi.
-
-[31] This is _not_ the 'garde-rein'. See p. 62.
-
-[32] That this fashion in helmets was a general one we may judge from the
-fact that most armouries possess examples of these human-faced helmets.
-
-[33] This suit is shown with the brayette attached; which for obvious
-reasons is exhibited in most armouries separate from the suit.
-
-[34] Considered to be the same as Topf.
-
-[35]
-
-  '... granz gisarmes esmolues' (_Roman de Rou_, l. 12907).
-
-  '... gisarmes lunges e lees' (ib., l. 13431).
-
-[36] _Monumenta Vetusta_, vol. vi.
-
-
-
-***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMOUR & WEAPONS***
-
-
-******* This file should be named 41676.txt or 41676.zip *******
-
-
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/1/6/7/41676
-
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
-will be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
-one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
-(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
-permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
-set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
-copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
-protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
-Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
-charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
-do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
-rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
-such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
-research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
-practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
-subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
-redistribution.
-
-
-
-*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-  www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-
-Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works
-
-1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
-all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
-If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
-terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
-entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
-
-1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
-paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
-and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
-or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
-collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
-individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
-located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
-copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
-works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
-are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
-Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
-freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
-this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
-the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
-keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
-a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
-the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
-before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
-creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
-Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
-the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
-States.
-
-1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
-access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
-whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
-copied or distributed:
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
-
-1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
-from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
-posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
-and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
-or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
-with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
-work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
-through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
-Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
-1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
-terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
-to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
-permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
-word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
-distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
-"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
-posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
-you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
-copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
-request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
-form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
-that
-
-- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
-     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
-     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
-     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
-     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
-     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
-     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
-     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
-     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
-     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-     License.  You must require such a user to return or
-     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
-     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
-     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
-     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
-     of receipt of the work.
-
-- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
-forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
-both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
-Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
-Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
-collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
-"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
-corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
-property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
-computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
-your equipment.
-
-1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
-your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
-the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
-refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
-providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
-receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
-is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
-opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
-WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
-WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
-If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
-law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
-interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
-the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
-provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
-with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
-promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
-harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
-that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
-or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
-work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
-Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
-
-
-Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
-including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
-because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
-people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
-To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
-and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
-Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
-permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
-Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
-throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at 809
-North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887.  Email
-contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the
-Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-     Chief Executive and Director
-     gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
-SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
-particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
-To donate, please visit:  www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-
-Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
-with anyone.  For forty years, he produced and distributed Project
-Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
-unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
-keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
-
-     www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.