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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41668 ***
+
+[Transcriber's Note
+Emphasis notation for italic is _Text_ and bold is =Text=.
+Whole and fractional parts of numbers is displayed as 2-1/4.
+Exponents are prefaced by a carat (^) as E^1.]
+
+
+
+
+ RUSTIC CARPENTRY
+
+
+ _WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS_
+
+
+ EDITED BY
+
+ PAUL N. HASLUCK
+
+ EDITOR OF "WORK" AND "BUILDING WORLD"
+ AUTHOR OF "HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS," ETC. ETC.
+
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+
+ CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITED
+
+ _LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE. MCMVII_
+
+ ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This Handbook contains, in a form convenient for everyday use, a number
+of articles on Rustic Carpentry contributed by various authors to
+WORK--one of the journals it is my fortune to edit.
+
+Readers who may desire additional information respecting special details
+of the matters dealt with in this Handbook, or instructions on kindred
+subjects, should address a question to the Editor of WORK, La Belle
+Sauvage, London, EC., so that it may be answered in the columns of that
+journal.
+
+ P. N. HASLUCK.
+
+ _La Belle Sauvage, London._
+ _April, 1907._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ CHAPTER PAGE
+
+ I.--Light Rustic Work 9
+
+ II.--Flower Stands, Vases, etc. 22
+
+ III.--Tables 36
+
+ IV.--Chairs and Seats 40
+
+ V.--Gates and Fences 52
+
+ VI.--Rosery Walk 66
+
+ VII.--Porches 71
+
+ VIII.--Canopy for Swing 77
+
+ IX.--Aviary 83
+
+ X.--Foot-bridges 92
+
+ XI.--Verandahs 98
+
+ XII.--Tool Houses, Garden Shelters, etc. 106
+
+ XIII.--Summer Houses 126
+
+ Index 159
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ FIG. PAGE
+
+ 1.--Photograph Frame and Wall Bracket Combined 10
+
+ 2.--Section of Bracket 11
+
+ 3.--Small Easel 12
+
+ 4.--Attaching Support to Easel 13
+
+ 5.--Mitred Joint 13
+
+ 6.--Mortise and Tenon Joint 14
+
+ 7, 8.--Flower Holder 14, 15
+
+ 9-11.--Rustic Hall Stand 17
+
+ 12, 13.--Plant Stool 18
+
+ 14-16.--Window Box 19, 20
+
+ 17.--Flower-pot Stand 23
+
+ 18.--Bending Saplings 24
+
+ 19.--Fixing Rails, etc., to Posts 24
+
+ 20.--Vase on Tripod Stand 25
+
+ 21.--Joint of Hexagon Sides of Vase 25
+
+ 22.--Securing Sides and Legs of Vase to Base 25
+
+ 23.--Section of Twigs at Angles of Vase 25
+
+ 24, 25.--Flower-pot Stand 26
+
+ 26.--Joining Rails to Uprights 27
+
+ 27.--Supporting End Shelves of Flower-pot Stand 27
+
+ 28.--Fixing Centre Shelves of Stand 27
+
+ 29.--Large Square Vase 28
+
+ 30.--Large Hexagonal Vase 28
+
+ 31.--Vase with Claw Foot 29
+
+ 32.--Foot of Rustic Table 30
+
+ 33.--Garden Plant Tub 31
+
+ 34, 35.--Mouldings 32
+
+ 36.--Plant Vase 32
+
+ 37.--Rectangular Garden Plant Stand 33
+
+ 38-40.--Rustic Pedestal 34
+
+ 41.--Flower-pot Stand 35
+
+ 42.--Square Table 36
+
+ 43.--Hexagon Table 37
+
+ 44, 45.--Top of Hexagon Table 38, 39
+
+ 46.--Armchair 40
+
+ 47.--Fixing Seat Rails to Leg of Armchair 41
+
+ 48.--Plan of Armchair Seat Frame 41
+
+ 49, 50.--Garden Seat 42, 43
+
+ 51.--Joints of Rails and Posts 43
+
+ 52.--Arm-rest for Garden Seat 44
+
+ 53.--Part Plan of Seat 44
+
+ 54, 55.--Garden Seat 44, 45
+
+ 56.--Front Rail, Cross Rail, and Battens 45
+
+ 57.--Part Plan of Seat 46
+
+ 58-60.--Garden Seat with Canopy 47-49
+
+ 61.--Plan of Canopy 50
+
+ 62, 63.--Canopy Panels 50
+
+ 64.--Plan of Seat 50
+
+ 65-67.--Garden Gate 52, 53
+
+ 68-70.--Joints in Gate Frame 54
+
+ 71, 72.--Fixing Ends of Twigs 54
+
+ 73.--Closing Stile 54
+
+ 74-77.--Rustic Gates 55, 56
+
+ 78-80.--Fences 57, 58
+
+ 81, 82.--Rustic Trellis with Seats and Gate 59
+
+ 83.--Vertical Section of Trellis 60
+
+ 84.--End Post and Trellis 60
+
+ 85.--Back of Seat for Trellis 60
+
+ 86.--Alternative Design for Gate 61
+
+ 87.--Hanging and Latching Gate 62
+
+ 88.--Catch for Gate 63
+
+ 89, 90.--Rustic Carriage Entrance 64, 65
+
+ 91.--Rosery Walk 67
+
+ 92.--Roof of Rosery Walk 68
+
+ 93.--Entrance to Rosery Walk 69
+
+ 94, 95.--Porch 72, 73
+
+ 96.--Seat and Floor of Cottage Porch 74
+
+ 97.--Porch at Gable 74
+
+ 98.--Porch at Eaves 75
+
+ 99.--Roof for Porch 75
+
+ 100.--Gable for Porch 76
+
+ 101, 102.--Rustic Canopy for Swing 77, 78
+
+ 103.--Fixing Middle Post of Canopy to Sill 79
+
+ 104.--Joints of Rails, Struts, and Posts for Canopy 79
+
+ 105.--Securing Cross Rails to Plates and Posts of Canopy 80
+
+ 106, 107.--Hook and Thimble for Canopy 80
+
+ 108, 109.--Fenced Seat for Canopy 81
+
+ 110.--Fixing Rope to Eyelet 81
+
+ 111, 112.--Aviary 84, 85
+
+ 113, 114.--Joint of Rails and Uprights for Aviary 85
+
+ 115.--Sectional Plan of Aviary 86
+
+ 116.--Cross Section of Aviary 87
+
+ 117.--Half Under View of Bottom of Aviary 88
+
+ 118.--Door Wires for Aviary 88
+
+ 119.--Part Longitudinal Section of Aviary 89
+
+ 120.--Half Plan of Aviary Roof 90
+
+ 121, 122.--Rustic Foot-bridge 92, 93
+
+ 123.--Girders for Foot-bridge 93
+
+ 124, 125.--Joint of Post and Girder 93
+
+ 126.--Middle Rail and Post of Foot-bridge 94
+
+ 127, 128.--Joint of Strut to Post of Foot-bridge 94
+
+ 129.--Twig Hollowed to Fit Rail 94
+
+ 130.--Elevated Bridge 95
+
+ 131.--Girder and Post bolted to Sleeper 96
+
+ 132.--Elevated Foot-bridge at Lower Step (Fig. 130) 96
+
+ 133, 134.--Verandah 99, 101
+
+ 135.--Bottom of Post for Glazed Verandah 103
+
+ 136.--Top of Post for Glazed Verandah 103
+
+ 137, 138.--Rustic Tool House 106, 107
+
+ 139.--Common Method of Using Slabs 108
+
+ 140.--Ground Plan of Rustic Tool House 109
+
+ 141.--Cap of Tool House Pilaster 111
+
+ 142.--Garden Snuggery 112
+
+ 143.--Ground Framework of Garden Snuggery 113
+
+ 144.--Back Framework for Garden Snuggery 113
+
+ 145.--Snuggery Porch 114
+
+ 146.--Window-board 115
+
+ 147, 148.--Sections of Snuggery Walls 117
+
+ 149-151.--Garden Retreat 118-121
+
+ 152.--Seat of Garden Retreat 122
+
+ 153.--Joint of Garden Retreat at C (Fig. 151) 123
+
+ 154.--Detail of Front Joints (see C, Fig. 151) 124
+
+ 155.--Alternative Method of Joining Rails to Posts 124
+
+ 156.--Section of Middle Rail at A (Fig. 152) 125
+
+ 157.--Detail of Middle Rail at B (Fig. 152) 125
+
+ 158-161.--Lean-to Summer House 126-131
+
+ 162-164.--Shelter for Tennis Lawn 133, 134
+
+ 165.--Connecting Plates to Corner Post 135
+
+ 166.--Fixing Sleeper to Posts 135
+
+ 167.--Section of Flooring 135
+
+ 168.--Finial 135
+
+ 169.--Garden Shelter at Front Eaves 135
+
+ 170.--Section of Seat 135
+
+ 171.--Strapping Cushion to Seat 137
+
+ 172-174.--Octagonal Summer House 137, 139
+
+ 175.--Collar Posts and Ends of Wall Plates 141
+
+ 176.--Timbers over Entrance of Octagonal Summer House 141
+
+ 177.--Window Side of Octagonal Summer House 143
+
+ 178, 179.--Table for Octagonal Summer House 145
+
+ 180.--Seat Side of Octagonal Summer House 147
+
+ 181.--Mosaic Seats 149
+
+ 182-184.--Octagonal Summer House with Three Gables 151-153
+
+ 185, 186.--Roof for Octagonal Summer House 153
+
+ 187.--Securing Glass to Rustic Casement 154
+
+ 188, 189.--Door for Octagonal Summer House 155
+
+ 190.--Part Plan of Octagonal Summer House 156
+
+ 191.--Horizontal Section through Door Posts 156
+
+ 192.--Part Section of Side Panel 157
+
+ 193.--Fixing Plate to Posts 157
+
+ 194.--Finial 157
+
+
+
+
+RUSTIC CARPENTRY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+LIGHT RUSTIC WORK.
+
+
+Rustic carpentry does not demand great skill in woodworking, but it does
+require a large amount of artistic perception. The tools needed are but
+few, and the materials employed are comparatively cheap, although in
+many districts they are becoming dearer every year.
+
+It may be said that any articles made from the now popular bamboo may be
+made quite as effectively in light rustic work.
+
+For light rustic work, sticks of hazel, cherry, yew, blackthorn, birch,
+larch, fir, and the prunings of many varieties of shrubs may be used;
+but it is necessary that the material should be cut at the proper
+season, and thoroughly dried before being worked up. The sticks should
+be cut in mid-winter, as at that time the sap is at rest; if cut in the
+summer time the bark will peel off. If peeled sticks are required, they
+should be cut in the spring, when the sap is rising, as at that time the
+rind will come off easily. In some districts the copses are cleared of
+undergrowth periodically, and the sticks (generally hazel) sold to
+hurdle and spar makers. A selection of these sticks would be very
+suitable for the purpose here described.
+
+The sticks should be stacked in an open shed in an upright position if
+possible, and in such a manner that the air can freely circulate around
+them. When they are required for fishing rods or walking sticks they are
+hung up to season--this keeps them straighter; but the hanging of them
+up is not necessary for the work about to be dealt with. When the sticks
+have been put away for from six to twelve months, according to size,
+they will be ready for use, after being rubbed with a cloth or brushed
+to clean off the dust and bring up the colour of the bark. Fir cones may
+often be worked into a design, and bits of rough bark and the warts and
+burrs found on old elm trees may be collected by the rustic worker and
+put by for future use.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Photograph Frame and Wall Bracket Combined.]
+
+One method of treatment for designs in light rustic work is to split the
+sticks and use them to overlay the work with a Swiss pattern, as shown
+by Fig. 1; another method is to work the sticks up after the manner that
+canes are used in bamboo furniture (see Figs. 3 and 42, pp. 12 and 36).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Section of Bracket, showing Fixing of Glass.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents a wall bracket with a photograph or mirror in the
+frame. To make this, the piece forming the back is first cut out of
+3/8-in. deal. The shelf, of 3/4-in. deal, is then nailed to the bottom
+edge. Some straight hazel, fir, or other sticks are next selected and
+split; these are nailed round the edges of the back, and round the
+opening at the centre. The pieces round the opening overlap the edges
+about 1/4 in., to form a rebate for the glass. The bare spaces at the
+sides and top may be covered in the following manner: Take a piece of
+brown elm bark and run a saw into it. Catch the sawdust, and, after
+warming the wood, cover it with thin glue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Small Easel in Rustic Work.]
+
+Sprinkle the brown sawdust on the glued surface, and sufficient will
+adhere to cover the deal and give the frame a rustic appearance.
+Cork-dust or filings may be used instead of sawdust. Bunches of fir or
+larch cones are nailed to the corners, as illustrated; these should be
+pared at the back with knife or chisel to a flat surface. The outer edge
+of the shelf is finished with an edging of short lengths of split stick
+nailed on. The general construction of the bracket, and the method of
+fixing the glass, will be clear from Fig. 2, which is a section through
+the centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Method of Attaching Support to Easel.]
+
+A small easel for photographs, or, if constructed larger, for a
+fire-screen, is shown by Fig. 3. It is made entirely of round sticks.
+Fig. 4 illustrates the method of attaching the back support--namely, by
+means of a couple of staples, which may be made out of a hairpin. In
+jointing round sticks together, the joints may be mitred by notching a
+=V=-shaped piece out of one stick and cutting the other to fit (Fig. 5);
+or a mortise and tenon, as represented by Fig. 6, may be used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5--Mitred Joint.]
+
+In making the easel (Fig. 3), the top and bottom bars are mitred to the
+sides, and the central upright to the top and bottom bars. The joints
+are secured by either brads or panel pins. Care must be taken to bore
+for the nails with a bradawl, as nothing looks worse than splits in the
+work. The upright piece in the centre of the top bar may be secured by
+driving a long panel pin into the lower upright through the top bar,
+filing the head to a point to form a dowel, and driving the top piece on
+with a hammer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Mortise and Tenon Joint.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Rustic Flower Holder for Table Decoration.]
+
+Where a small stick is joined to a larger one, as in the case of the
+filling-in pieces, a flat may be made with a knife or chisel on the
+larger stick, and the smaller one cut to fit and nailed on. In making a
+small easel, only a single stick attached to the centre upright will be
+required to form a back support, but for a larger one it will be
+preferable to frame it as shown by Fig. 3.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Rustic Flower Holder Complete, with Cocoanut
+Vase in Position.]
+
+The finished articles may be either stained and varnished or left plain.
+Cherry sticks look well if the bark is left the natural colour, and the
+ends, where exposed, cleaned off and varnished without being stained.
+Some sticks improve in colour if rubbed over with a rag moistened with
+linseed oil.
+
+If a stain is required, one that is sold in bottles would be suitable,
+but a little vandyke brown, ground in water, and applied with a sponge,
+answers the purpose. Sometimes, as in the case of the table top (see
+Fig. 42, p. 36), it is a good plan to stain the wood before nailing on
+the pattern work, or there will be danger, if the sticks are dark in
+colour, of the lighter wood showing through.
+
+If the rustic work is intended to be placed out of doors, it should be
+given two or three coats of hard outside varnish.
+
+The rustic flower-holder for table decoration, shown by Fig. 7, consists
+simply of a gipsy tripod formed with six rustic sticks, put together in
+the form shown, and tied with a length of bass. There is no attempt made
+at finish, but the sticks must be firmly tied together at the joints,
+and the ends of the bass can be left, either hanging loose or tied in a
+bow. The holder for the flowers is a cocoanut shell, which has been sawn
+in two, so as to leave one part a sort of cup or egg shape; three holes
+are bored with a bradawl at equal distances round the edge, and it is
+suspended from the tripod with three more pieces of the bass, which
+completes the arrangement. Of course, any small receptacle can be used
+in place of the cocoanut shell, but that, perhaps, carries out the
+rustic appearance the best, and is very easily obtained. Fig. 8 is an
+attempt to show the tripod when decorated.
+
+The rustic hall-stand shown by Figs. 9 to 11 was made actually from
+branches and twigs of an old apple tree. The uprights and principal
+cross-pieces are 7/8 in. thick, and the criss-cross pieces are 1/2 in.
+thick. The bottom is made of four pieces 1-1/2 in. thick. The longer
+ones measure 1 ft. 8 in., and the shorter ones 1 ft. 2 in.; they are
+nailed together in such a manner that the ends at the two front corners
+each cross and project 2-1/2 in. The front uprights are 2 ft. high, the
+back ones 2 ft. 2 in.; the longer cross-pieces are 1 ft. 8 in., the
+shorter 11 in. The ends intersect and project 3 in. at each of the front
+corners; only the longest piece projects 3 in. at the back corners, the
+shorter pieces being cut off flush with the frame to allow of the stand
+fitting close to a wall.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 9 and 10.--Front and Side Elevations of Rustic Hall
+Stand.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Plan of Rustic Hall Stand, showing Umbrella
+Pan.]
+
+These cross-pieces are nailed to the uprights to allow the top ends of
+the latter to project 2 in. above them, this bringing the measurement of
+the oblong inner framework to 1 ft. 10 in. by 1 ft. 2 in. The thin
+pieces are nailed on as shown in Fig. 9, being interlaced as much as
+possible. The back of the stand is treated in a similar manner. The
+whole of the wood is used as rough as possible, the bark being retained,
+with the knots, etc.; the ends are, however, pared off smooth with a
+chisel. Two coats of varnish finish the stand, save for the addition of
+a receptacle to catch the drainings from umbrellas, and for this the
+stand illustrated has a painted baking-tin A (Fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 12 and 13.--Elevation and Plan of Plant Stool.]
+
+The rustic stool (Figs. 12 and 13) is intended to be made in pairs, and
+placed one on each side of the umbrella-stand above described, each
+supporting a plant, such as a fern or palm. The top of each stool is cut
+from 9 in. square 1-in. wood (wood from an old box answers well), and is
+sawn into an octagonal shape. A double row of pieces of apple, maple, or
+some other wood with good bark, is nailed around the edges, thicker
+pieces being used at the bottom than at the top to give a graduated
+appearance. The entire top is then covered with straight pieces of
+stick, selected for the beauty of their bark. All pieces are nailed on
+with cut brads. The four legs are formed of 1-in. apple-wood 9 in. long.
+They are bevelled at the top to fit a square block of wood, 2 in. thick
+and 3 in. long, which is firmly secured to the top by two screws. This
+piece of wood should be fastened to the top before the rustic rods are
+placed in position. Two 2-1/2-in. wire nails through each of the legs
+hold them quite securely to the central block. Portions of rustic wood,
+from 1/4 in. to 3/8 in. in diameter, are then nailed across the legs, as
+shown in Fig. 12, the ends being allowed to cross each other and project
+about 1 in. all ways. The whole stool, when finished, stands 10-1/2 in.
+high, and is so strong that it will support a heavy man with safety. The
+block of wood to which the legs are attached should be stained to match
+the rustic wood; permanganate of potash solution will effect this.
+Finally, two coats of clear varnish give a good finish to the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Window Box.]
+
+Window boxes are illustrated by Figs. 14 to 16. That shown by Fig. 14 is
+made from a raisin box obtained from a grocer. Such boxes are not
+costly, and to buy and knock these up for rough uses is often more
+economical than buying new material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--More Elaborate Window Box.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Cross Section of Window Box in Position.]
+
+Take care that the boards are stout enough to hold the brads firmly. The
+box measures about 21 in. by 7 in. by 7 in., and is wholly covered with
+mosaic of dark and light strips in panels. Strips are also nailed on the
+upper edges.
+
+The more elaborate window box (Figs. 15 and 16) can be made of a size to
+fit the window for which it is intended. A few holes should be bored in
+the bottom for drainage, and the front board is cut to the shape shown
+and the rustic ornament is nailed to the box and forms no part of the
+construction. In Fig. 16 wedge pieces are shown fitted to the stone sill
+to bring the box level; it is kept in position by two metal angle-pieces
+screwed both to the wood sill and to the back of the box.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+FLOWER STANDS, VASES, ETC.
+
+
+The rustic-work flower stand (Fig. 17) may be 3 ft. high by 3 ft. 6 in.
+long by 9 in. wide. For the legs, select four curved saplings 3 ft. 3
+in. long by 2-1/2 in. in diameter; and as some difficulty may be
+experienced in obtaining them with the natural curves sufficiently
+alike, artificial methods of bending must be resorted to. Therefore get
+the saplings from 2 ft. to 3 ft. longer than the finished length, and
+bend them to shape by means of the Spanish windlass as shown in Fig. 18.
+Flexible six-strand fixing wire or stout hemp cord can be used; or a
+straining screw and link, as employed for tightening fencing wire, will
+answer equally well; keep the tension on till the wood is curved
+permanently, the time varying with the nature and condition of the wood,
+and the strain being applied gradually at intervals. The rails are
+tenoned to fit mortises in the legs, and battens are nailed to the lower
+long rails, to support the flower pots (see Fig. 19). The rustic work is
+then fixed diagonally to the rails. The ends that abut against the legs
+and centre-piece are pared away so as to make a neat joint, and angle
+boards are fitted to the under side of the lower rails to support the
+rustic work where it curves downwards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Flower-pot Stand.]
+
+The vase shown by Fig. 20 is hexagonal in shape, with vandyked sides
+fixed to a base supported upon tripod legs, and stands about 3 ft. 3 in.
+high. Elm boards are suitable for the sides and bottom; they are 1 ft. 3
+in. high by 9 in. wide at the top end, and 6-1/2 in. wide at the bottom
+by 1 in. thick. Shoot the edges of the boards to a bevel of 60째, and fix
+them with nails driven as shown at Fig. 21. When the six sides are
+completed, prepare the hexagon baseboard to suit. Bore holes in it for
+drainage, and also bore three equidistant holes, 1-1/4 in. in diameter,
+at an angle of about 60째, for the tenons of the legs to enter (see Fig.
+22). Next screw the base to the sides, and fix on the barked rustic
+work. The twigs for this should be seasoned at least one year before
+using. They are sawn in halves, straight twigs being selected for the
+purpose. If necessary, shoot the edges slightly, so as to obtain a
+closer fit when fixing them in parallel. Begin by attaching the lower
+border to the hexagonal base, then the upright pieces over the angles,
+hollowed as shown at Fig. 23; next fix the top sloping pieces, and
+finally the horizontal twigs. The legs are nailed at the base of the
+vase (see Fig. 22); and at the centre, where they cross, they are
+further secured with twigs, which do the duty of rungs, as shown in Fig.
+20.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Method of Bending Saplings.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Fixing Rails, etc., to Posts.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Vase on Tripod Stand.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Joint of Hexagon Sides of Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Securing Sides and Legs of Vase to Base.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Section of Twigs at Angles of Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 24 and 25.--Side and End Elevations of Flower-pot
+Stand.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Joining Rails of Flower-pot Stand to Uprights.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Method of Supporting End Shelves of Flower-pot
+Stand at A and B (Fig. 24).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Fixing Centre Shelves of Flower-pot Stand.]
+
+The flower stand shown in front and end view by Figs. 24 and 25 has
+accommodation for sixteen pots. The two uprights are 2 ft. 8 in. high by
+about 2-1/2 in. in diameter. The three rails are 2 ft. 9 in. long, and
+are tenoned to the posts as shown by Fig. 26; the posts are also tenoned
+and nailed to the sills (bottom rails), and strutted, as shown in Fig.
+25. The method of fixing the shelves A and B (Fig. 24) is shown in Fig.
+27, which is an under-side view; struts are also fitted, as shown in
+Fig. 25. The method of fixing the centre shelves is indicated at Fig.
+28. The shelf, and also the struts C, D, E, and E^1 (Figs. 24 and 25),
+are fixed to the centre rail; then the top diagonal braces are nailed to
+both the shelf and the top rail, thus keeping the whole secure. The
+remainder of the work calls for no special instructions. Split twigs are
+used for the fencing around the shelves.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Large Square Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Large Hexagonal Vase.]
+
+Fig. 29 shows a square vase constructed from elm boards 1-1/4 in. thick.
+A fair size for the sides will be 1 ft. 8 in. at the top and 1 ft. 5
+in. at the base by 2 ft. high, including the 2-1/2-in. plinth. The split
+twigs forming the decoration are 1-1/2 in. wide, and spaced about 2 in.
+apart edge to edge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Large Plant Vase with Claw Foot.]
+
+The vase shown by Fig. 30 is hexagonal in shape, the sides being 1 ft. 8
+in. high by 1 ft. 2 in. wide at the top edge, and 1 ft. 0-1/2 in. at the
+base. The sides and bottom of both vases are connected as in Figs. 21
+and 22. Five 1-in. holes are bored for drainage. The short feet having
+been secured with screws driven from the inside, the split rustic work
+is bradded on in the same order as that described for Fig. 20.
+
+The stands and vases should be given two coats of oil varnish, allowing
+the first coat to dry before applying the second.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Foot of Rustic Table.]
+
+A big plant vase made from half a paraffin cask is illustrated by Fig.
+31. An ordinary 40-gal. cask stands, roughly, some 3 ft. high, has a
+diameter of some 2 ft., and is made of good stout oak. Sawn through the
+middle, the paraffin barrel makes two admirable tubs. One such half is
+shown in Fig. 31. This it is proposed to render suitable for some large
+bushy plant, so it will have to be mounted on legs. The legs shown are
+simply so many pieces cut from rough branches. From a heap of stuff one
+can generally choose pieces sufficiently adapted to the purpose, though
+their exact contours will, of course, vary. Oak branches, technically
+known as "bangles," from which the bark has been taken to make tan, will
+do well; or if the bark is liked, apple-tree or elm boughs will be
+suitable. That these sticks should be rough and gnarled and knotted
+adds to their effect. As the tub will be only partly covered with
+rustic mosaic work, it will be well before nailing anything upon it to
+paint it. A good dark brown or chocolate will go well with the natural
+bark. The rustic pieces will have to be cut through with the saw, the
+lengths being too great to be safely split with the hatchet--that is,
+with the exception of those round the lip, which are of thicker rod than
+the zig-zags; say, 1-1/2 in. as compared with 1 in. In the zig-zags the
+light central strip is supposed to be of peeled withy, the darker ones
+on each side having the bark on, and being probably of hazel. Generally
+speaking, wrought brads are to be recommended for fixing rustic mosaic,
+but where, as in the present case, the strips have to be bent over a
+curved surface, small wire nails will be found more secure. Groups of
+fir cones, as shown, will prettily ornament the triangular spaces.
+
+A style of foot suitable for a one-leg flower stand or table is
+illustrated in plan and part section by Fig. 32.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Garden Plant Tub.]
+
+Fig. 33 shows the other half of the cask arranged for, say, a dwarf
+shrub, an orange-tree, or the like. In small town or suburban premises,
+such tubs are specially useful where there is a back court into which
+anything green cannot otherwise be introduced. In this, it will be seen
+that by way of variety the tops of the staves have been sawn to a
+zig-zag line, which is followed a little below by a moulding of split
+rods. Alternative styles of moulding are shown by Figs. 34 and 35.
+Half-way between this and the bottom a band of mosaic is arranged in
+light and dark strips of withy and hazel. The bits filling the
+diamond-shaped centres of this pattern are cut from thicker stuff than
+the rest, so that they may project as bosses beyond the general level.
+Over the unavoidable iron hoop at bottom, from which place short strips
+would, if nailed, be often detached, a rough "dry-cask" wooden hoop has
+been fixed. At the sides two pieces of rough branch stuff have been
+placed to serve as handles, and to resist strain these should be secured
+from within by strong screws.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 34 and 35.--Alternative Mouldings.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Ornamental Plant Vase.]
+
+The vase shown by Fig. 36 is intended for a somewhat low-growing
+flowering plant--say, a large bushy geranium. In its original character
+it is an American lard pail. As in the last tub, the staves have been
+sawn to a more ornamental outline, and they have also been perforated.
+The ornamental strips of split rod have been arranged in straight
+vertical lines, to avoid the difficulty of bending and keeping them in
+place if bent round so small a vessel. The bottom of the pail is screwed
+down to an octagonal slab of wood, to the under side of which four short
+bits of rough bough are nailed as feet. As neither this nor the last tub
+is wholly covered with mosaic, they should, of course, first be painted.
+The slab at bottom will look very well rough, as shown, but if painted
+it will be improved by strips of split rod nailed round its edges.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Rectangular Garden Plant Stand.]
+
+A garden plant stand, made from a soap box and mounted on legs is shown
+by Fig. 37. The easiest way to fix one of these legs on is to saw the
+piece of stuff in half to a distance from the top equal to the depth of
+the box, and then to cross-cut and remove one half. The corner of the
+box will be brought to the middle of the cross-cut, and the leg nailed
+on to the side of the box. The piece which has been sawn off will then
+be cut through (quartered), and the proper quarter replaced and nailed
+to the end of the box. Frets, such as those shown in these two examples,
+are patterns of a kind well adapted to be worked out in rustic mosaic.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 38 to 40.--Elevation, Section, and Horizontal
+Section of Rustic Pedestal.]
+
+A pedestal for a sundial or flower vase is shown by Figs. 38 to 40. It
+is a box of 1-in. elm boards, the top being a 2-in. thick slab.
+Suitable dimensions are 3 ft. 6 in. high, and 1 ft. square, the top
+being 16 in. square.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Rustic Flower-pot Stand in Imitation of
+Bamboo.]
+
+A design for a rustic flower-pot stand in imitation of bamboo is
+represented by Fig. 41. The height should be about 2 ft. 6 in. to the
+top, and the length from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. The box at the top may be
+about 9 in. wide and 8 in. deep. Care must be taken when putting the
+work together to get the frames true and square. Slovenliness in
+construction will completely spoil the appearance of the finished
+article. The box at the top is made to fit inside, and should be lined
+with a zinc tray. The outside may be covered with glue and brown
+sawdust.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+TABLES.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Square Table.]
+
+A small rustic table which may, if desired, be used as a flower-pot
+stand, is illustrated by Fig. 42. The top may be made of 3/4-in. stuff,
+and should have two ledges nailed underneath to prevent twisting. The
+table may be 1 ft. 10 in. high, with the top 15 in. square, or, if a
+larger size is required, 2 ft. 1 in. high, with the top 18 in. square.
+The design is not suitable for tables of a larger size.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Hexagonal Table.]
+
+The legs may be secured to the top by boring holes in the ledges and
+driving them in. The cross bars must be firmly secured to the legs, and,
+for the joints, the mortise and tenon shown at Fig. 6 (see p. 14) would
+be suitable. If the sticks used to form the legs are rather small, it
+will be better if the cross bars are kept a little higher on two of the
+sides, so that the mortises do not meet each other.
+
+The top is covered with a Swiss overlay pattern, made of split sticks.
+The design may be set out by drawing lines from corner to corner on the
+top, and across the top in the centre of each side. A smaller square is
+then drawn in the centre of the top, with diagonals at right angles to
+the sides of the top. Lines drawn from the corners of the small square
+to the corners of the top will form a four-pointed star. The pattern
+should be clearly outlined with a pencil. In nailing on the sticks,
+those round the outer edge of the top should be put on first and mitred
+at the corners. Next the outside sticks of the small square should be
+nailed on, then the eight pieces from the corners of the small square to
+the corners of the top.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Part Vertical Section of Top of Hexagonal
+Table.]
+
+In working up patterns of the above description, always nail on the
+sticks that follow the outline of the design first. The filling-in
+pieces may be put on afterwards. Variety may be given to the patterns by
+using sticks of different colours; for instance, the design may be
+outlined in hazel or blackthorn, and filled in with hawthorn or peeled
+willow. The edges of the table top are concealed by nailing on an edging
+of short sticks or cones.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Half Plans of Top of Hexagonal Table.]
+
+Fig. 43 shows a small hexagon-top table for use in a summer-house or on
+the lawn. The following dimensions are suitable: Height 2 ft. 6 in., and
+diameter of circle for the hexagon top 2 ft. 9 in. The top is made from
+two or three 7/8-in. boards cramped together to the required width and
+fixed underneath with two battens 3-1/2 in. wide by 1 in. thick. The
+four legs are dowelled and nailed to these battens and further stiffened
+by the rungs and the diagonal braces which are nailed to the legs. A
+corona is fixed around the edges of the table top, and the method of
+securing the board is shown in Fig. 44. In Fig. 45 the half plans show
+two ways of ornamenting the top. The twigs should be sawn so that in
+section they are less than a semicircle, and it will be an advantage to
+shoot their edges slightly, as then they will fit closer and cover the
+rough boards that form the table top.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+CHAIRS AND SEATS.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Armchair.]
+
+For the armchair (Fig. 46) select four slightly curved legs about 3 in.
+in diameter; the front pair are 2 ft. high and the back pair are 2 ft. 9
+in. high. The front seat rail is 1 ft. 2 in. long by 2-1/2 in. in
+diameter, the back rail is 1 ft. long, and the side rails are 1 ft. 3
+in. long, their ends being trimmed to fit the legs, and fixed with
+inserted ash or elm dowels 7/8 in. in diameter; see Fig. 47. The height
+from the ground line to the seat top is 1 ft. 4-1/2 in. The battens
+forming the seat rest on the side rails, and cleats are fixed to the
+inner sides of the four legs (see Fig. 48) to support the extreme back
+and front battens. The arms and back are made in three parts, the
+scarfed joints coming immediately over the back legs. The trellis work
+is then added, and finally the struts and dentils are fixed around the
+seat. The chair can be made from unbarked wood without any dressing, or
+the bark may be removed and the wood, when dry, can be finished in stain
+and outside varnish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Fixing Seat Rails to Leg of Armchair.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Plan of Armchair Seat Frame.]
+
+The garden-seats about to be described will look very effective if made
+of oak that has had the bark removed and the small twigs trimmed off
+clean; they should be finished in stain and varnish. In construction
+they are fairly simple.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.--General View of Garden Seat.]
+
+For making the seat shown by Fig. 49, first select the three back posts,
+with their natural curves as much alike as possible. In diameter they
+should be from 2-1/2 in. to 3 in. Select also two arm-posts and one
+centre leg for the front. Next cut two seat rails for the back and one
+rail for the front, 5 ft. or 6 ft. long as desired, and cut two side
+rails (see Fig. 50) and one centre rail, each 1 ft. 7 in. long. Work the
+ends of the rails to the shape of the posts as shown by Figs. 51 and 52,
+so that they make a fairly good joint, and bore the posts and rails with
+a 7/8-in. bit 1-1/4 in. deep, to receive dowels made of ash or elm.
+These are preferable to tenons formed on the rails themselves. Now try
+the whole together temporarily, and make good any defects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--End Elevation of Garden Seat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Joints of Rails and Posts for Garden Seat.]
+
+Then take the pieces apart, and coat the joints with a thick priming
+consisting of two parts of white-lead (ground in oil) and one part of
+red-lead thinned with boiled linseed oil. Drive the joints home and fix
+them with nails or screws and wipe off the surplus paint.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Arm-rest for Garden Seat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Part Plan of Seat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Another Garden Seat.]
+
+The top back rail and the arm-rest can next be fitted. The ends of the
+back rail are worked bird's mouth, to fit the posts. The arm-rests are
+treated in the same way at the back; they fit in vees cut in the front
+posts, and are fixed with nails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Vertical Section, showing Front Rail, Cross
+Rail, and Battens.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Cross Section of Garden Seat.]
+
+Measure off and mark equal spaces for the struts, the ends of which are
+trimmed to fit the rails and posts. Secure them with two nails at each
+end. The seat (Fig. 53) is made up of split saplings laid as shown, with
+the ends pared to fit the rails and bradded on. Finally, fit the struts
+between the seat rails and the lower part of the posts.
+
+The framework for the chair shown by Figs. 54 and 55 is on the same
+principle as that already described. The segmental battens forming the
+seat run longitudinally, and their ends are shaped to fit the outer
+rails. The battens rest on a flat worked on the centre cross rail (see
+Figs. 55, 56, and 57). Fig. 56 also gives a part cross section near the
+centre leg, and shows the front rail placed out of centre and the cross
+rail resting on the leg, to which it is firmly nailed. When the seat is
+more than 5 ft. in length the battens require intermediate supports,
+which can be cut from split saplings. The panelling on the back is fixed
+to the top and bottom rails and supported in the centre by a wide
+longitudinal rail and two vertical rails at the mitres of the diamond
+centres. These are fitted in and secured, and then the vertical split
+twigs are fixed partly on them and also on the rails. Finally, struts
+are fixed to the seat rails and legs and covered with short twigs, with
+their lower ends running in a regular curve.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Part Plan of Seat.]
+
+A rustic garden seat with canopy is illustrated by Fig. 58. Where shade
+is required, the back and canopy offer facilities for securing it, as
+they can be covered with climbers. Fig. 58 is not drawn to scale, but
+the explanatory diagrams (Figs. 59 to 64) are 3/4 in. to the foot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Garden Seat with Canopy.]
+
+The upright posts and all the more important pieces will best be formed
+of somewhat small larch stuff; the smaller straight sticks may be hazel,
+birch, or withy. The last named, stripped of its bark, and used in some
+parts only, will form a pretty contrast with the darker rods. In filling
+spaces in back and canopy, a few pieces of crooked stuff are used; these
+will probably be of apple-tree.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Front Elevation of Garden Seat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.--End Elevation of Garden Seat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Plan of Canopy for Garden Seat.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 62 and 63.--Back and Side Views of Canopy Panels.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Plan of Seat.]
+
+The two posts A, on which almost the entire weight is sustained, should
+be let into the ground not less than 2 ft. They rise 5 ft. above the
+ground-line. They are set at a distance, measuring from centre to
+centre, of 4 ft. apart. The smaller posts (marked B), which support the
+seat, stand 17 in. in advance of those last named, and should be let
+into the earth 1 ft. The broad seat thus given is essential to comfort
+when the back of the chair is upright, as it must be in this instance.
+
+Two principal cross-pieces are nailed against the main posts. The lower
+one, of halved stuff, is 15 in. from the ground, and carries the back of
+the seat. The other is close to the top of the posts, and carries the
+back of the canopy. The canopy is chiefly supported on the three
+wall-plates, C (Fig. 59), which rest at one end on the heads of the
+posts, and towards the other on the struts, D (Fig. 60). Fig. 61 shows
+in plan the arrangement of the principal pieces forming the canopy: E E
+are the rafters of the gables, the lower ends of which rest on the
+wall-plates, and the upper against the pinnacle, F (Fig. 61). The back
+rafters are marked G G, and these rest their lower ends on the
+cross-piece and their upper against the pinnacle. Fig. 62 shows the
+filling-in of the two back panels of canopy; Fig. 63 that of the four
+side panels.
+
+The filling-in of the back of the seat is clearly shown in Fig. 59.
+
+In Fig. 64 the seat proper appears in plan. Its front and ends are of
+halved stuff, nailed to the posts. The spars forming the seat are placed
+with spaces between them, that they may not hold moisture; for the same
+reason, it is advised that they should be of peeled withy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+GATES AND FENCES.
+
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 65 and 66.--Front View and Plan of Solid Garden
+Gate.]
+
+In many gardens there is a space devoted to the tool-house, potting
+shed, refuse head, etc. Shrubberies of course hide the unsightly
+appearance of this particular spot to a certain extent, but it may be
+found desirable to close the entrance to this part of the garden from
+the remainder, and the gate illustrated in front elevation by Fig. 65
+is, from its semi-rustic nature, particularly suitable. Fig. 66 shows a
+plan and Fig. 67 is a part back view. The gate is quite simple in
+construction, and should be of sufficient height to obstruct the view
+from each side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Part Back View of Frame for Solid Garden Gate.]
+
+Local circumstances will of course determine the width of the gate, but
+the one illustrated by Fig. 65 is constructed on a framework 6 ft.
+square, the total height being 8 ft. The timber for the frame need not
+be planed.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 68 to 70.--Joints in Frame of Solid Garden Gate.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 71 and 72.--Fixing Ends of Twigs.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig 73.--Detail of Closing Stile.]
+
+Cut the closing and hingeing stiles 6 ft. long out of stuff 6 in. wide
+by 2-1/2 in. thick. The three rails are of the same dimensions, and can
+be halved and dovetailed to the stiles or, better, mortised, tenoned,
+and wedged and braced, as shown in Figs. 68, 69, and 70. Separate pieces
+of stuff are fixed up the centre to form a muntin for supporting the
+rustic work; the necessity is obvious from Fig. 66, where it will be
+noticed the twigs are outlined on the frame. Each twig has a bearing on
+the frame, and can thus be nailed individually.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 74 and 75.--Designs for Rustic Gates.]
+
+Two stout gate hinges and hooks are required, and they can be bolted on
+with 7/16-in. Whitworth bolts and nuts, or secured from the back with
+square-headed coach screws. Now commence fixing on the unbarked twigs;
+they should be as straight as possible and used in their natural shape,
+without being split in halves.
+
+The terminations of the joints for circular stuff are slightly different
+from the ends of the half-round stuff; see Figs. 71 and 72. Start by
+fixing the outside square, then the two inner squares, and finally the
+diagonal filling.
+
+The posts are 9 in. or 10 in. in diameter by 9 ft. long, 3 ft. being
+underground. Cut three mortises in the posts to receive the rails for
+the side fencing. These rails are nailed flush to the secondary posts,
+nails also being driven through each mortise in the gate posts. Next
+dig the holes for the posts, these being kept at correct distances apart
+by nailing battens to the top and at the ground line while ramming in
+the posts. Two parts of old brickwork and one part of Portland cement
+will make a good concrete for the posts.
+
+A week or more should elapse before the gate is hung to the posts. This
+may then be propped up fair between the two posts, and the positions
+should be marked for the staple of the latch, and hooks for the hinges.
+A rebate is formed for the gate on the posts by nailing on split
+sapling; see Figs. 67 and 73. Finally, a short post can be driven in the
+ground and fitted with a hook for retaining the gate when open wide.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 76 and 77.--Designs for Rustic Gates.]
+
+Suitable designs for small rustic gates are given by Figs. 74 to 77. The
+wood for making gates to the two designs (Figs. 76 and 77) should have
+the bark removed. The chief rails and posts are about 2 in. thick,
+filled in with 1-1/2-in. or 1-in. pieces, halved and nailed together
+where they cross. The joints may be hidden by bosses of planed wood (see
+Fig. 77). If the gate is to be removable, fix a hook on the hanging
+stile to engage with a staple in the joint, and a pin in the bottom to
+turn round in a socket. The gate is then easily taken out of its
+hangings. Varnish the wood on completion.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 78 and 79.--Designs for Fences.]
+
+Rustic fences can be constructed as shown in Figs. 78 to 80.
+
+The garden trellis illustrated at Fig. 81 will form an attractive
+addition to the grounds of a suburban or country villa residence. In the
+case of new houses, the existence of such a trellis, with creepers ready
+planted, will often prove a deciding factor in effecting a quick sale or
+letting. The structure extends to a length of about 20 ft., but the
+dimensions may readily be altered to suit requirements. The material may
+be fir or other straight unbarked saplings and twigs. The posts are 12
+ft. long; the four for the arch being 4 in. in diameter, and the others
+3 in. or 3-1/2 in. The rails are 2-1/2 in. in diameter, and the twigs
+for the trellis, etc., 1-3/4 in. or 2 in. The bay seat with canopy is 6
+ft. long by 1 ft. 4 in. wide.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Design for Fence.]
+
+The position of the seats and posts and of the shores A, B, and C is
+clearly shown in the plan (Fig. 82). The arrangement of the double posts
+adds materially to the stiffness of the framework, making long shores
+unnecessary. The shores are placed 3 ft. 6 in. above the ground line,
+and are inclined at an angle of 50째. The posts are sunk into the ground
+a distance of 3 ft., and well rammed in; rubble stones being mixed with
+the earth, as shown in the vertical section (Fig. 83).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 81 and 82.--General View and Ground Plan of Rustic
+Trellis with Seats and Gate.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Vertical Section of Trellis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Section through End Post and Trellis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Detail of Back of Seat for Trellis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Alternative Design for Gate.]
+
+The arch may with advantage be entirely fitted together before being put
+in position, as a better job can thus be made of the joints of the short
+rails and struts. The joints in the remainder of the work, with the
+exception of the gate, are of the simplest description. The rail ends
+are bevelled and notched to the posts, and secured with nails as shown
+in the sectional view of the trellis at Fig. 84.
+
+Having erected the framework in position, next sink and well ram the
+shores deep into the ground, and splay and nail the top ends to the
+uprights. Also fix the shorter posts for the seats, letting them into
+the ground about 1 ft. 6 in. The end seat bearers are fixed to the end
+posts, and the centre bearers to the front and back central posts. The
+seat battens are saplings split in two, the flat portion being laid
+downwards and nailed to the bearers (see Fig. 83). Fig. 85 is an
+enlarged section through the seat back, showing the method of securing
+the smaller twigs to the rails. The fixing of the vertical pieces in the
+lower part, and the inclined lengths above, will complete this portion
+of the screen.
+
+The gate, shown enlarged at Fig. 86, which gives an alternative design,
+is 3 ft. 9 in. wide by 4 ft. 6 in. high. The stiles are 4 ft. 9 in. long
+and about 2-1/2 in. in diameter, and should be as straight as possible,
+with the twigs neatly trimmed on; the rails should be at least 2-1/4 in.
+in diameter, trimmed to fit the stiles, and secured with inserted
+hardwood dowels 1 in. in diameter, as shown at Fig. 26, p. 27.
+
+The diagonal struts in the top panel should be fitted and in place
+before the rails and stiles are finally secured; the vertical twigs in
+the lower panel should be similarly fitted and nailed before the rails
+are secured to the stiles. Ordinary forged hooks and eyes are used for
+hanging the gate; these are secured to the stile and post with nuts and
+washers, as shown in the enlarged horizontal section (Fig. 87).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Method of Hanging and Latching Gate.]
+
+A mortice is cut in the closing stile to receive the latch, the catch
+for the latter being a simple forging (see Fig. 88) with a pointed tang
+for driving into the post.
+
+A rustic carriage entrance is shown by Fig. 89. The intention is, of
+course, that the rustic archway above the gates shall be more or less
+clothed with climbing plants. It is for roses that the structure will be
+best adapted, though clematis or honeysuckle will look well upon it. Ivy
+would look too heavy, and, if neglected, might even prove too heavy in
+other respects. Light as the arch may appear, the four posts grouped to
+form the turret on either side are so tied and braced together as to be,
+to all intents and purposes, a solid pillar, 30 in. square, and fully
+equal to resisting any outward thrust of the rafters. In the elevation
+(Fig. 89), to avoid confusion, no indication is given of the work
+forming the farther side of the arch, though something of it would
+necessarily be seen from the front; the two sides will be alike. Figs.
+89 and 90 are drawn to a scale of 1/2 in. to the foot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Catch for Gate.]
+
+The posts, and at least all the more important straight pieces, should
+be of larch. The wood chosen for filling-in should have picturesque
+forks and contortions. Small oak bangles will, perhaps, be most
+appropriate.
+
+In the ground plan of the left-hand turret (Fig. 90) it will be seen
+that the posts used--four at each end--are some 5 in. or 6 in. in
+diameter, and that the largest is selected as hanging-post for the gate.
+From centre to centre they are set 2 ft. 3 in. apart. They are 13 ft.
+long--that is, 10 ft. 4 in. above ground and 2 ft. 8 in. below. The
+rafters of the arch spring from them 7 ft. from the ground, and at this
+point each post is surrounded by a cap, formed of four pieces of
+quartered stuff nailed upon it. The rafters are not mortised into the
+post, but if, instead of being merely nailed, they are attached by a
+bolt and nut, a stronger joint will be made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 89.--Elevation of Rustic Carriage Entrance.]
+
+The upper rafters, back and front, are connected by five straight
+cross-pieces, whose ends show in Fig. 89. The spaces between these are
+filled up very much at random with crooked stuff.
+
+The four posts of each turret are bound together close beneath their
+tops by cross-pieces nailed outside them, whilst from their tops, and
+nailed down to them, slant four short rafters, which meet pyramid-wise
+in the centre. The filling up of the upper parts of the turrets, as well
+as of the front and back of the arch, is with a mixture of straight and
+crooked stuff, the arrangement of which is clearly shown in the
+elevation (Fig. 89).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Plan of Left Side of Carriage Entrance.]
+
+The lower parts of the turrets and the gates must be constructed in such
+a way as to exclude animals; the palings are so arranged as not to leave
+a space between them wider than 3 in. The rails of the gates should, of
+course, be mortised into the heads and hinge-trees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ROSERY WALK.
+
+
+The rustic construction here illustrated is intended primarily as a
+trellis over which to train roses, and to form a shady and fragrant
+walk, and generally to contribute to the adornment of the flower garden.
+It can readily be adapted so as to form a roofed-in track from a door to
+the public roadway; and the means of so adapting it will be explained
+later.
+
+The materials will be entirely rough wood in its natural bark. For the
+posts fir poles of some kind should be chosen, and larch is especially
+to be preferred both as regards durability and appearance. All the
+smaller pieces which show as straight stuff may well be of the same kind
+of wood as the posts, though hazel is best for the finer rods. It will
+be seen that in the mere filling-in much crooked stuff is used, and for
+this apple branches, or indeed almost anything that comes to hand, will
+answer.
+
+The rosery walk (Fig. 91) is 4 ft. wide, and the rustic erection is
+carried on two rows of pillars or collar-posts ranged at intervals of 3
+ft. These posts should be let into the ground 2 ft., and well rammed in.
+They should have an average diameter of 3 in. or 3-1/2 in., except in
+the case of each third one, as that which in Fig. 91 is seen standing in
+the middle of the portion with the lower roof; such pillars may be
+smaller as having little weight to bear, and will look better than they
+would do if equal in size to the others. Resting on the line of posts
+lies the wall-plate (A A, Fig. 92), the top of which is 5 ft. 6 in. from
+the ground line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Elevation of Rosery Walk.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Plan of Roof of Rosery Walk.]
+
+From each group of four large collar-posts rise four rafters (B, B, Fig.
+92), meeting at top pyramid-wise. They rise to a height from the ground
+of 7 ft. 6 in., and have, therefore, to be 3 ft. 4 in. long. Half-way up
+them--that is, 6 ft. 6 in. from the ground line--the purlins (C, C, Fig.
+92) are nailed upon them. Figs. 91 and 92 alike show how the space
+between wall-plate and purlin is filled in, and Fig. 92 shows how the
+space, 7 ft. 3 in. long, stretching from one pyramidal portion to the
+next, is covered with a flat roof of open rustic work lying upon the
+purlins. This space, it will be observed, is chiefly filled in with
+crooked stuff.
+
+Fig. 93 shows how the upper part of the rosery would appear at one of
+its ends, and explains how the roof would be in section--the shaded
+parts give the form of the roof in its lower portions; whilst if the
+cross-piece, D (which is on a level with the purlins), is supposed to be
+removed, there is presented with the dotted lines, B, B, a section
+through the middle of one of the higher pyramidal portions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Entrance to Rosery Walk.]
+
+Over the middle of the entrance is a rough knot or a piece of root.
+
+The filling-in of the sides of the rosery is plainly shown in the
+elevation, Fig. 91. For its better preservation from damp, this work is
+kept 4 in. from the ground.
+
+Supposing that, as was suggested above, the design is to be utilised for
+a dry path with a covering of metal or other light material, it will be
+well to keep the whole roof to the level of the pyramidal portions--a
+ridge-piece will have to be used--and the rafters, instead of following
+the present arrangement, will meet in pairs opposite to the pillars.
+Instead of round stuff, also, use halved stuff for the rafters and
+purlins, the sawn side being uppermost. The space between ridge-piece
+and purlin can then be filled in the same manner as that between purlin
+and wall-plate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+PORCHES.
+
+
+The rustic porch shown in front elevation by Fig. 94 and in vertical
+section by Fig. 95 is constructed from straight, well-seasoned saplings
+and twigs, from which, in each case, the bark has been removed. The
+design is eminently suitable for a farmhouse or a country cottage. The
+porch is of large dimensions, and is provided with seating accommodation
+on each side. The seats do not appear in the elevations, but one side is
+shown in the part plan (Fig. 96).
+
+The seats are 1 ft. 6 in. high by 1 ft. 2 in. wide. The battens are
+1-3/4 in. wide by 1-1/2 in. thick, and are supported on cross-pieces
+fixed to the front posts and wall; a centre batten being fixed to the
+centre panel, and supported by a diagonal bracket running from the front
+down to the sill-piece. The floor space is 7 ft. wide, and stands out 5
+ft. from the walls.
+
+The posts are 7 ft. 6 in. long by 4 in. in diameter. The front posts are
+preferably dropped over metal dowels leaded into the stone floor, at 1
+ft. 2 in. centres, while the side posts are at 10-1/2 in. centres, and
+of smaller section--say about 3 in. in diameter. One post, 5 in. in
+diameter, sawn longitudinally through the centre, does duty for the two
+wall-posts, the flat portion being, of course, scribed to the wall, the
+latter having been previously plugged for the reception of the fixing
+nails.
+
+The rails are tenoned to the posts, and 1-1/4 in. diameter holes are
+bored in the posts, and also in the ends of the rails, for the reception
+of the inserted tenons. The ends of the rails are also hollowed to fit
+roughly the posts (see Fig. 97). The lower rail is 10 in. up from the
+floor, while the centre rail is 3 ft. 4 in. up. The rail immediately
+below (Fig. 95) is 10 in. below the centre rail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Front Elevation of Cottage Porch.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Vertical Section of Cottage Porch.]
+
+The top ends of the front posts are hollowed, and fitted with inserted
+dowels for the reception of the front rail. The six side-posts are
+finished off square, and have tenons which fit into the plates. The
+front ends of the plates are notched to the front top rail. The rafters
+are 5 ft. 7 in. long by 3 in. deep and 2 in. wide, wrought and
+chamfered and birdsmouthed to the plates as shown at Fig. 98. The ridge
+piece, 4 in. deep by 1-1/2 in. thick, projects 5 ft. 2 in. from the
+wall. On the front end of the ridge is fixed the finial, which is 2 in.
+square. The rafters are covered with 1-in. V-jointed, wrought, grooved
+and tongued boarding, cut in 5-ft. 4-in. lengths, and laid horizontally
+or at right angles to the rafters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Part Plan of Seat and Floor of Cottage Porch.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Section of Cottage Porch at Gable.]
+
+The roof may be covered with slates, with Broseley tiles, with wood
+shingles, or with thatch. A part plan of the roof is shown in Fig. 99.
+An enlarged section of the front angle of the gable is given in Fig.
+100. Two boards, each 1 ft. 1 in. wide by 1-1/4 in. thick, are fixed to
+the outer rafters and run parallel with them; the heels of the two
+boards abutting on the front top rail, to which they are nailed. The
+split-twig herringbone ornament is also nailed to these boards. On the
+inner edges of the boards are secured twigs of about 1-3/4-in. in
+diameter, which are rebated to fit to the edges as shown in Fig. 100.
+The front projecting ends of the roofing boards are concealed by split
+twigs of about 2-1/2-in. or 3-in. diameter, which do duty as
+bargeboards. The method is shown at A (Fig. 100).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Enlarged Detail of Cottage Porch at Eaves.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Part Plan of Roof for Cottage Porch.]
+
+The panels have now to be filled with stuff ranging from 1-1/2 in. to
+2-1/4 in. in diameter. The vertically placed twigs between the posts
+and rails should be fitted in place before the rails are finally jointed
+up to the posts. The ends are roughly hollowed, and are secured with cut
+nails. Alternatively, the vertical members could be fitted so that their
+inner edges coincided with the centre of the rails. The major portion of
+the twigs being on the outer side, the smaller diameter of the twigs
+will thus bring their front edges flush with the larger diameter edges
+of the rails. The herringbone and the diagonally placed twigs are quite
+easy to fit, the ends being simply pared off till they are sufficiently
+shortened to assume their correct position in the panels.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Section of Gable for Cottage Porch.]
+
+The decorative effect of the porch will be greatly improved by the
+addition of a suitable door, as shown in the front elevation (Fig. 94).
+The cost of manufacture of such a door is but slightly more than that of
+an ordinary six-panel door. The bottle ends in the top glazed panel form
+a quaint and pleasing feature of the general scheme.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+CANOPY FOR A SWING.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.--General View of Rustic Canopy for Swing.]
+
+
+Fig. 101 is a general view of the canopy and swing, and Fig. 102 a side
+elevation slightly more elaborate in design than Fig. 101, the chief
+members, however, being exactly the same. The material used is stripped
+fir saplings. Six of these are required for the uprights.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Side Elevation of Canopy for Swing
+(Alternative Design).]
+
+The middle posts are slightly larger in section, as they have to carry
+the cross rail supporting the swing; a good size for these is 6-in.
+diameter at the base by 10 ft. or 12 ft. high. The outer posts may be
+4-3/4-in. to 5-in. diameter at the base. The posts are sub-tenoned (see
+Fig. 103) to elm sills 10 ft. 6 in. long by 8 in. diameter. Tenons are
+formed on both ends of the posts, and seatings and mortices at 4-ft.
+centres are made in both the sills (bottom rails) and plates (top rails)
+to receive them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Fixing Middle Post of Canopy to Sill.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Details of Joints of Rails, Struts, and Posts
+for Canopy.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Securing Cross Rails to Plates and Posts of
+Canopy.]
+
+The short rails are 4 in. in diameter by 3 ft. 6 in. long, and are
+stub-tenoned and pinned to the posts at a height of 3 ft. 9 in. from the
+ground line. The struts also are tenoned and pinned to the middle posts
+and sills, as shown in Fig. 104, where, it will be noticed, the struts
+are in one piece and the braces in two, the latter being hollowed to fit
+in the angles and over the struts.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 106 and 107.--Hook and Thimble for Canopy.]
+
+When all the members are ready for the final drive home, the tenons of
+the rails should be just entered to the posts; the struts and braces are
+next placed in position and driven up, then the sill and plate are
+entered and driven home, and finally the several joints are secured with
+oak pins. This operation will be carried out better with the work in a
+horizontal position. When the two sides are so far completed, they may
+be erected in position and fixed with temporary battens, at a distance
+apart of 7 ft. 9 in. centres, while the top cross rails are being
+fitted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Front View of Fenced Seat for Canopy.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.--End View of Fenced Seat for Canopy.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Fixing Rope to Eyelet.]
+
+The middle cross rail which carries the swing is 6 in. in diameter and 8
+ft. 6 in. long. A seating is formed on the plates, and a shallow one
+upon the rails, which are secured with long 3/4-in. diameter bolts and
+nuts; the latter are let into the posts at a distance of 8 in. from the
+top, as shown in Fig. 105, which is a cross section through the plate
+near the middle rail. Short struts may also be fixed between the posts
+and cross rail, as in Fig. 105; they are not shown in Fig. 101. A floor
+is formed of saplings, connected to the sills, thus preventing them from
+spreading. The trellis-work, both on the roof and sides, is now fixed.
+This is composed of 1-3/4-in. and 2-in. twigs.
+
+The swing hooks (Fig. 106) pass right through the rails, and are secured
+with nuts and washers. Collars should be forged on the shanks to prevent
+the hooks being drawn too far into the wood when screwing up the nuts.
+The shank is screwed 3/4-in. Whitworth pitch thread, and the hook is
+1-1/4 in. in diameter at the thickest part. The hemp rope is spliced
+around galvanised iron thimbles (see Fig. 107), which take the wear on
+the hooks. The rope is usually secured to the seat by simply knotting
+the ends.
+
+Should the swing be used for very young children, a seat provided with a
+fence will be necessary, as shown at Figs. 108 and 109, which are front
+and end views respectively. The back rail and the two side rails are
+fixed to the seat with the balusters; but the front rail is tenoned to
+open-ended mortices in the side rails, and thus made to hinge, to
+facilitate the lifting of the children on and off the seat, the rail
+being secured in its closed position with a brass pin and retaining
+chain. The suspending rope in this case is passed through the end rails
+and knotted to the seat. Fig. 110 shows the rope passed around and
+whipped to an eyelet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+AVIARY.
+
+
+The outside dimensions of the rustic aviary shown by Figs. 111 and 112
+are--length, 3 ft. 2 in.; width, 1 ft. 6 in.; height, 1 ft. 10 in.
+
+Hazel sticks, with the bark on, should be used, the straightest
+obtainable being best for the frame; if at all crooked or bent, the
+sticks can be straightened by steaming, or, if not too dry, by the heat
+of a spirit lamp.
+
+Four uprights, 1 ft. 5-1/2 in. by 5/8 in., are first cut; then six
+rails, 1/2 in. thick, are made, with the ends shaped as shown in Fig.
+113, to fit the uprights, measuring 2 ft. 10 in. inside the hollow ends
+when finished. Four of these should be laid on the bench side by side,
+and marked with a pair of compasses for the wires, which are 5/8 in.
+apart. They are then drilled, the holes being bored right through the
+two sticks for the top rails, but only half through the bottom rails. If
+the stuff is not too hard, the holes may be pierced with a
+well-sharpened brad awl.
+
+The uprights are now secured to the rails with 2-in. wire nails, driven
+so as to avoid the holes (see Fig. 114), and glue is applied at the
+joints. The bottom rail is flush with the lower ends, the next one being
+placed 1-1/2 in. above it; the third is 1/4 in. from the top ends. These
+form the front and back frames, and should be quite square and out of
+winding. The rails for the ends, also six in number, measure 1 ft. 3
+in., and are bored and fixed to the uprights to correspond with the
+others in exactly the same way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Front Elevation of Aviary.]
+
+The two rails supporting the tree perches are placed about 7 in. from
+the ends. Before they are fixed, however, the tree perches must be
+arranged. These should be cut from the limb of a leafless tree, in
+winter, in order to retain the bark. Suitable pieces may be prepared by
+cutting off badly placed twigs and fixing them where required. They are
+then put on the perch rails, employing the same joint as the rails and
+upright, but securing with a strong screw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.--End Elevation of Aviary.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 113 and 114.--Details of Joint of Rails and Uprights
+for Aviary.]
+
+When all is ready, the perches are fixed in the framework (see Figs. 115
+and 116), and narrow strips of 1/4-in. board are fitted between the
+lower rails of the back and ends, to be faced with split stuff, put on
+diagonally as shown in Figs. 111 and 112. The best plan would be to take
+a sufficient quantity of material to the nearest sawmill to be divided
+by a circular or band saw; the material must be free from grit, or
+objections will be raised against cutting it.
+
+A stain, made by thinning down brunswick black with turps, should be at
+hand to stain the wood before fixing on the split stuff, which is
+secured with fine panel pins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Part Sectional Plan of Aviary.]
+
+The wood bottom is 3 ft. 1-1/2 in. by 1 ft. 5-1/2 in. by 3/8 in.; it is
+planed both sides, and secured in place with screws. The top side is
+treated round the margin, as shown in Fig. 115, and the under side as
+shown in Fig. 117. The centre of the design of the under side, covering
+a space of 2 ft. 3 in. by 8 in., is worked first; it is worked from the
+centre outwards, each strip being mitred as shown. The marginal strips
+are pieces of split cut slanting at the ends where they fit other
+pieces, and flush with the edge of the wood bottom, which is surrounded
+with the same stuff.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Cross Section of Aviary.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Half Under View of Bottom of Aviary.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Construction of Door Wires for Aviary.]
+
+The wiring is all straightforward work. The wires are passed through the
+top rails to those below and clipped off level at the top. Six
+feeding-holes are required, one in the centre at each end, and two at
+the back and front close to the perches. The top ends of these wires are
+pushed up through the rails; the circular ends are slightly sunk and
+fixed with small staples. Six wires are omitted from the middle of the
+front to allow for the door. The cross-wires, which should be of a
+stronger gauge, are then put in. In the back and ends it is immaterial
+whether they are put inside or out, but at the front they must be
+inside. The six wires above the door are inserted in twos, being
+returned in the same manner as the lower ends of the door wires (see
+Fig. 118), and soldered to the cross-wire, which is afterwards bound to
+the others with thin pliable coil wire. In making the sliding door, the
+returned ends of the wires are soldered to the base wire inside, so that
+the ends may fit round the wires of the doorway; the top ends fit round
+those above the cross-wire, and when the door is in place a scroll-piece
+is soldered on outside (see Fig. 111).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--Part Longitudinal Section of Aviary.]
+
+Eight corner-pieces of the split stuff are put on close against the
+wires, being secured to the uprights and rails with pins. Two pieces of
+1/4-in. board are next got out for the top, measuring 2 ft. 10 in.
+long, 4 in. across the centre, and slanting at the upper edge to 1/4 in.
+at the ends. The design is worked on these in split, the boards being
+kept in place with pins driven through the top rails, and the back and
+front connected at the top point by a length of wood of 2-in. by 1-in.
+section (see Fig. 119). The roof-pieces, 1 ft. 5-1/2 in. by 1 ft. 7-1/4
+in. by 1/4 in., are nailed on and covered with split stuff, as shown by
+Fig. 120.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.--Half Plan of Aviary Roof.]
+
+A sliding bottom or tray is required for cleaning purposes; this is of
+1/4-in. board, and is nailed to the strip that fits between the rails in
+front; other strips about 1 in. wide are nailed on the upper side at the
+extreme ends and back edge to form a tray for the sand, runners being
+put in against the lower end rails. The front strip is treated with the
+split, and to draw out the tray, the door may be slightly raised to
+admit the fingers to push it forward from the inside. Two additional
+perches put across from the wires, and fixed with staples, give strength
+to the front and back.
+
+The aviary is now gone over with fine glass-paper, all white places
+being touched up with the stain and nicely varnished, with the exception
+of the perches. The aviary will stand on a table, but may be hung from
+the ceiling if desired. For hanging purposes, four screw-eyes are put in
+the top, two on the ridge, about 3 in. from the front and back, and one
+towards each end, placed midway to catch the rails. The four ceiling
+hooks should screw into the joists, the aviary being suspended with
+chains.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+FOOT-BRIDGES.
+
+
+Very pleasing effects may be produced in public or private recreation
+grounds by the constructional use of rustic work of good design.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.--Rustic Foot-bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Cross Section of Foot-bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Enlarged Section of Girders for Foot-bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 124 and 125.--Parts of Joint of Post and Girder.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Detail of Middle Rail and Post of Foot-bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 127 and 128.--Joint of Strut to Post of Foot-bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.--Twig Hollowed to fit Rail of Foot-bridge.]
+
+Fig. 121 is a perspective view of a rustic foot-bridge suitable for a
+span of 8 ft. or 12 ft. The banks of the stream to be bridged are
+excavated to allow of the building of a low rubble wall, on which the
+sleepers rest, as shown in Fig. 122. The girders are formed of spruce or
+larch spars. In the present instance, four are used; and they may be 8
+in. or 10 in. in diameter, according to the length of the span. They are
+roughly adzed down to sit on the sleepers, and each girder is also
+worked down tolerably flat on the inner sides. The girders are then
+bolted together in pairs with six 3/4-in. diameter coach bolts, as
+shown by Fig. 123. The posts are tenoned and wedged to fit mortices in
+the girders. Figs. 124 and 125 show the mortice and tenon joint.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.--Elevated Foot-bridge.]
+
+The posts and top rails are 4-1/2 in. or 5-1/2 in. in diameter, and the
+intermediate rails 3 in. in diameter. Fig. 126 indicates the method of
+jointing the rails to the posts. The girder spars, with posts and rails
+fitted, having been placed in position on the sleepers, and plumbed up
+and stayed, the floor battens, 11 in. by 2-1/2 in., are fixed and the
+struts are fitted and pinned or spiked to the posts and sleepers. The
+joint for the struts is shown by Figs. 127 and 128.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Girder and Post of Elevated Foot-bridge Bolted
+to Sleeper.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Cross Section of Elevated Foot-bridge at Lower
+Step (Fig. 130).]
+
+If the bridge happens to be in a locality that is subject to periodical
+flooding, it should be anchored to prevent its being unseated by flood
+water. The anchoring can be best effected by driving four short piles
+into the soil on the inside of both girders and near their ends. The
+girders can be fastened to the piles with coach bolts. The tops of the
+piles will be concealed by the end floor battens. The smaller twigs
+forming the ornamentation are now fixed, and Fig. 129 shows the
+vertical piece hollowed to fit the rails.
+
+Fig. 130 gives a part view, in longitudinal section, of an elevated
+bridge, suitable for a span of 12 ft. to 18 ft., and raised on piles to
+enable small boats and canoes to pass under. Elm logs are suitable for
+the pile foundation. An iron ring must be fitted over the tops of the
+logs while they are being driven, and it will be necessary to use a
+pile-driver. The logs, having been sufficiently driven, are cut off to
+the required height from the ground line. Three piles on each side are
+required to carry the sleepers. The bridge is 5 ft. 6 in. wide, and the
+spars for girders are 12 in. in diameter. The sleepers are bolted to the
+piles, and the girders are also bolted to the sleepers as shown by Fig.
+131. A row of smaller piles is now driven, and a plank, 11 in. by 3 in.,
+is housed to the top ends of these piles, and also connected to the
+projecting ends of the girders. The treads of the steps rest upon the
+tops of the smaller piles, and the outer side of the piles and planks is
+covered with split saplings (see Fig. 130, and the cross-section, Fig.
+132). The handrails and balustrades are fixed in similar manner to those
+in Fig. 121.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+VERANDAHS.
+
+
+The front elevation of a rustic verandah is presented by Fig. 133, which
+shows a part only, which may be extended to any required length at
+either end. As to the width, that indicated is 3-1/2 ft. from the wall
+to the middle of the collar-posts, the eaves having a further projection
+of 6 in. For a cottage verandah the width given is a satisfactory one.
+It gives sufficient room for seats on a hot day, or for a promenade on a
+wet one. The width, as also the height, can easily be increased to suit
+a larger house. The verandah is supposed to be built on a raised
+platform of brick or stone.
+
+All parts of the actual framework are of straight natural wood,
+preferably larch; whilst the mere filling-in of rustic open-work is of
+small crooked stuff--probably oak or apple tree. The roof, as
+illustrated, is of tiles.
+
+It will be seen that the posts which support the verandah are arranged
+in pairs, so that 3 in. or 3-1/2 in. poles will suffice for them. Their
+bases are supposed to be dowelled to the masonry of the platform on
+which they stand; they are 6 ft. 6 in. high. Except at the entrances, a
+sill of half-stuff runs from post to post on the platform. At a height
+of 3 ft. 3 in. they are connected by a round bar of smaller material,
+and, again, by a second cross-bar of similar size to the last, at 6 in.
+from their upper ends. On the tops of the posts rests a lintel of
+half-stuff of larger diameter--say 5 in. The upper and lower cross-bars
+come opposite to the middles of the posts, but need not be mortised into
+them, for if their ends are cut V-shaped, so as to clip the posts, they
+can be nailed quite firmly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.--Front Elevation of Verandah.]
+
+The lower cross-rail is placed at a convenient height for leaning upon.
+At a height of 5 ft. 6 in. caps are formed by simply nailing four pieces
+of quartered stuff round each post. The diagonal braces which start from
+above the capitals pass in front of the upper cross-bars, to which and
+to the lintel they are nailed. Fig. 133 sufficiently shows how the
+panels between the pairs of posts and the frieze between the upper
+cross-bar and lintel are filled with open-work of small crooked
+branches, which contrasts in a pleasing manner with the straight pieces
+of the framework. This open-work may be made available for, and will be
+found useful as, a support for climbing plants.
+
+In so narrow a structure the rafters alone will suffice to keep all in
+place, without anything of the nature of a tie-beam being called for.
+These rafters will be of half-stuff, and for the given width a length of
+5 ft. will be enough; this will allow of such a projection beyond the
+lintel as will give the eaves a width of 6 in.; the pitch will be rather
+less than a true pitch, but amply steep for the purpose. A piece of
+half-stuff nailed to the wall will support the upper ends of the
+rafters.
+
+In forming the roof it is proposed to board over the whole space upon
+the rafters, and to nail the tiles or other covering upon the boards.
+The inside may be lined beneath the boarding with rush matting. This is
+an inexpensive material; its brownish-green hue is pleasing to the eye,
+and it is so inartificial in appearance as to harmonise well with the
+natural wood. After fixing the rafters, the matting is to be stretched
+tightly across them before the boards are nailed down. It is probable
+that the rafters will be arranged with intervals of about a foot between
+them, and to hold the matting more closely to the boards a strip of
+split rod may be nailed up the middle of each space, or strips may be
+nailed so as to form a simple ornamental pattern; an intricate one will
+not be desirable, as fixing it will be overhead work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.--Front Elevation of Glazed Verandah for Grape
+Culture.]
+
+A neat, but less characteristic, ceiling may be formed by painting the
+boards a suitable colour and slightly ornamenting them with split
+strips of rod. In this case the boards should be planed. None will
+be better for this purpose than 3/4-in. flooring boards, and these are
+commonly sold planed on one side. Other ways of lining the roofs of
+rustic buildings are discussed in Chapter XIII. For summer-houses thatch
+makes a good-looking roof, but a thatched verandah would scarcely be
+desirable unless attached to a thatched cottage. Practically the choice
+lies between shingles, metal, and tile or slate. A metal roof is,
+undoubtedly, that most easily fixed by the beginner; black sheet iron
+looks better than galvanised, and must be kept painted. As a matter of
+taste, metal looks thin and poor, but it becomes less objectionable when
+painted; a deep, dull red would be the colour to be preferred. Perhaps,
+of all available coverings, nothing will look better than tiles, as
+drawn. Red or buff tiles will in themselves look best, but the choice
+must, to an extent, be influenced by the general covering of the house.
+It may be, if that is of slate, that small slates will come in most
+appropriately; but whichever of these coverings is used, the best finish
+against the wall will be with a "flashing" of metal, as shown.
+
+It has been asserted by some who consider themselves authorities in
+matters of taste that nothing of the nature of a greenhouse ever
+harmonises with natural surroundings, or is otherwise than an eyesore in
+a garden in other respects beautiful. The hard, straight lines of wood
+or metal, and wide surfaces of shining glass, are not pleasing, and are
+too suggestive of the shop and factory to accord well with natural
+objects. It has been suggested that the difficulty might be overcome by
+combining rustic work with glass. This, at the first glance, looks
+fairly easy; but, on consideration, it will be seen to be otherwise.
+Rustic carpentry is in its nature irregular, and cannot be brought to
+those level planes and straight lines essential to glass-work; whilst
+for interiors, and especially those of houses intended for vines, rough
+bark-coloured surfaces afford too much shelter to insect pests--so that,
+in reality, rustic-work can only be made applicable to a very limited
+extent. In the grape-growing verandah shown by Fig. 134, therefore, only
+a limited amount of rustic-work has been introduced, and that on the
+outside.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.--Side View of Bottom of Post for Glazed
+Verandah.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.--Side View of Top of Post for Glazed Verandah.]
+
+Such of the materials as are of a rustic kind are, for the parapet and
+uprights, some rather small larch poles or other tolerably straight,
+round stuff, and for the panels, some of those "slabs," or rough outside
+planks. As to the posts, and such parts as are not rustic, they are
+supposed to be of good deal. The sash-bars, which carry the glass both
+in roof and walls, are to be bought struck by steam at a lower price
+than they can be worked by hand, or sashes may be bought ready glazed.
+For glazing work of this kind, 16-oz., or sometimes 20-oz., glass is
+used.
+
+As in the design for an open rustic verandah (see Fig. 133) it is
+intended that the collar-posts should be set upon and dowelled into a
+raised platform of masonry. The present structure is, of course,
+intended for the warmer sides of a house, south or west. The width, to
+meet particular cases, can be varied, but is, according to the drawings,
+4-1/2 ft. The posts are 6 ft. high and 3-1/2 in. square. They are set
+with spaces between them alternately of 3 ft. and 4-1/2 ft. On their
+tops rests a wall-plate of the same width as themselves, and 2-1/2 in.
+deep. The rafters, which are sash-bars rebated to carry the glass, rest
+on this wall-plate, and against a second vertical one fixed to the house
+wall.
+
+Fig. 134 is a front elevation of a portion of the verandah, whilst Fig.
+135 gives a side view of the lower half of one of the collar-posts. At
+_a_, in Fig. 135, is seen the section of the upper cross-rail, which has
+its top 2-1/2 ft. from the ground; at _b_ is the lower cross-rail, or
+sill. Both are of quartered rough stuff, and are mortised to the post
+3/4 in. from its inner edge, so that when the 3/4-in. boarding, _c_, is
+nailed against them, it will come flush with the inner side of the post.
+At _d_ is indicated the sash-frame, with its rebate for glass, which
+occupies the upper part of the opening; and at _e_ is a metal flashing
+between rail and sash to throw off rain. It is proposed that the sashes
+in the narrower openings only should be made to push outwards at bottom
+for ventilation. At _f_ is a piece of halved rough stuff nailed to the
+front of the post.
+
+The panels, which occupy the lower part of the space between the
+collar-posts, are filled with pieces of rough plank or "slab," as shown
+in Fig. 134. These pieces should wear their natural bark as far as
+possible; they are nailed to the inner boarding.
+
+In Fig. 136 the upper part of a post is in like manner shown in profile:
+_g_ is the wall-plate in section, and _h_ is the lower end of a rafter.
+At _i_ will be observed a strip of quartered stuff nailed across the
+post (with a fir-cone bradded beneath it), which gives a starting-point
+to the upright _k_, by which the openwork rustic parapet is supported.
+These uprights are of small round stuff, slightly flattened on the side
+towards the post. The openwork parapet is too plainly figured to need
+description; it is intended to break to a certain extent the straight
+lines, and partially to conceal the glass-work of the roof, without
+seriously interfering with sunshine.
+
+So much of the planed wood-work as shows outside should be painted of a
+good brown, to assimilate with the rustic-work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+TOOL HOUSES, GARDEN SHELTERS, ETC.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.--End Elevation of Rustic Tool House.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Side Elevation of Rustic Tool House.]
+
+For the small rustic tool house shown by Figs. 137 and 138 the materials
+used are what are known as "slabs" or "rough planks." These are cheap,
+and have, when judiciously handled, a good picturesque effect. These
+slabs are the outside slices cut from logs of rough timber. These slabs
+generally retain their bark (except in the case of oak), and in most
+districts they will commonly be of elm. Their thickness and outlines are
+necessarily irregular: one end will frequently be narrower than the
+other; and this will account for the arrangement seen in the walls and
+door of the tool house. They are to be bought at saw-mills, and often
+sold at a fire-wood price. Where their cost is not sensibly increased by
+carriage, no other material comes so cheaply for building rough sheds.
+The ordinary country way of using them is as in the horizontal section,
+Fig. 139. This plan, however, is not suitable for the present purpose.
+In so small a structure, rough planks on the inner side would take up
+too much space It is, therefore, proposed to straighten the edges,
+either by sawing or by chopping with the axe, according to
+circumstances, and lining their inner sides with thin board. If the cost
+be not objected to, 1/2-in. match-boarding will be neatest for this
+purpose; if economy is an object, the boards of packing-boxes, bought
+from the grocer, might suffice. There are, it will be seen, three sides
+only to be lined.
+
+Among a lot of rough planks, it is likely that stuff may be found
+sufficient for the posts and other scantling. As to the six pilasters,
+which are added for appearance merely, it is possible that stuff might
+be found which would, when sawn to width, do for them; in the
+illustration they are supposed to be fir poles or elm saplings; four
+sticks only are needed to supply the six halves and four quarters used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.--Common Method of Using Slabs.]
+
+At the corners are four main posts, 4 in. square (see _a_, Fig. 140).
+These enclose a space of 7 ft. by 5 ft. (outside measurement). They are
+let into the ground 2 ft., and rise 5 ft. 3 in. above the ground line.
+
+On their tops, and coming flush with their outer edges, rest the
+wall-plates, which are 3 in. deep; these are needed at the back and
+sides only, and not at the front. On the same three sides will also be
+cross-rails, 2 in. to 3 in. thick, the ends of which will be let flush
+into the posts about a foot from the ground. To the wall-plates and
+these rails the slabs are nailed. In the side elevation, Fig. 138, the
+nails driven into the cross-rails appear, but not those driven into the
+wallplate, a piece of rough stuff being there shown as fixed over the
+latter to support the eaves of the thatch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Ground Plan of Rustic Tool House.]
+
+To the front are to be seen the two door-posts, _b_, _b_, Fig. 140,
+which are 2 ft. 8 in. apart, and should be about 3 in. square. As their
+tops are nailed to the front pair of rafters, they rise to a height of 6
+ft. 6 in. The space between door-post and corner-post is filled up by a
+single slab nailed to the two--5 ft. 6 in. long by 10 in. broad. Above
+these, instead of a wall-plate, comes the piece of strong slab, shown in
+Fig. 137 as having an opening cut in it for the head of the door. This
+is nailed against the door-posts, rafters, etc.
+
+The pilasters are only a matter of ornament. As drawn, they are of
+halved stuff; the corner ones are so placed that their middles come
+opposite to the corners of the posts, on the other faces of which pieces
+of quartered stuff are nailed to meet them. The simple arrangement of
+the caps of these pilasters, with their decorations of fir cones, is
+shown on a larger scale in Fig. 141. The horizontal piece beneath the
+eaves, nailed over the slabs, has the effect of resting on the caps.
+Beneath the thatch at front and back corresponding pieces are fixed,
+those at the front being ornamented with fir cones nailed upon them.
+
+The roof is shown in the elevations as thatched. No other covering will
+look so well, or be so thoroughly in keeping with other parts. The
+non-professional builder finds it easy to prepare for thatch, any rough
+stuff serving as rafters and laths, and inequalities being of no
+account. The rafters for thatch should be arranged about 1 ft., the
+laths about 6 in. apart.
+
+Should there, however, be reasons for not employing thatch, the building
+may be more quickly and easily, if not more cheaply, roofed with
+galvanised iron; only the gables will then best be made sharp instead of
+blunt, as at present.
+
+Regarding the door, its outer slabs, which appear in Fig. 137, are
+simply nailed to three ledgers of the same. Being of such rough
+materials, it will open better if hung on hooks and thimbles than on
+butt hinges.
+
+The dotted line at _c_, Fig. 140, marks the projection of a set of
+shelves, about five in number, which fill the whole of the left-hand
+side. Of these, the lower will be for flower-pots, the upper for lines,
+setting-pins, trowels, etc. At _d_ is shown a strip of wood fixed
+across the floor to hold the wheel of the barrow from running back when
+that useful vehicle is tilted up against the end wall, which will be the
+place assigned for it. In the gable and upper part of this end will be
+hooks or pegs on which to hang the riddle, watering-cans, and such
+matters. At _e_ is an upright let into the ground, which, at the height
+of 2 ft., supports rails running to side and back; these form a kind of
+stand for spades, forks, and tools of that description. Above, against
+the wall-plate, may be more hooks or pegs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.--Enlarged Cap of Tool House Pilaster.]
+
+It is suggested that at _f_ a seat might be fixed to fold down like the
+leaf of a table when not wanted. As this building would form a snug
+shelter in a shower, such a seat would be a convenience; but the more
+important use of this space is that slightly below the level of the
+eaves it will be fitted with a rack for hoes, rakes, and similar
+implements. Such a rack is best made by boring 1/2-in. holes in a strip
+of wood at intervals of 3 in., and driving pegs into them 5 in. or 6 in.
+long. This has to be nailed so that the pegs will slope upwards, at an
+angle of about 45째. Rakes, etc., hung in a rack so made cannot fall.
+
+Figs. 137 and 138 are 1/3 in. to the foot; Fig. 140 is 1/2 in. to the
+foot; but Figs. 139 and 141 are not drawn to scale.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Garden Snuggery.]
+
+The garden snuggery, of which a general view is shown at Fig. 142, and a
+ground plan at Fig. 143, is built chiefly of wood, and measures 10 ft.
+by 7 ft. 8 in. inside, not including the porch, which is 3 ft. wide; it
+may serve as a summer-house. A building as small as this needs but
+little foundation. If the ground is level, it is only necessary to lay
+four large flat stones on the surface, A A (Fig. 144), to carry the
+timbers, the floor being thus raised enough to keep it dry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--Plan of Ground Framework of Garden Snuggery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.--Back Framework for Garden Snuggery.]
+
+The two side sills B (Fig. 143) are each 10 ft. 8 in. long, 6 in. wide,
+and 4 in. thick, and rest on the stones; on them lie the end sills C C,
+which are 8 ft. 2 in. long. These sills are halved together at the ends,
+and a hole is bored through them where the middle of the collar-post
+will rest. This hole should be bored a couple of inches into the stone,
+and an iron pin or dowel 8 in. long driven in; the pin will thus stand a
+couple of inches above the face of the sill, and will fit into a hole in
+the collar post.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.--Front Elevation of Snuggery Porch.]
+
+The joists D (Fig. 143) for supporting the floor are five in number,
+each being 8 ft. long, 2-1/2 in. wide, and 3 in. deep. They are halved
+for a distance of 2 in. at each end to fit into slots, 1-1/2 in. deep,
+made for them in the sills, and are nailed in place. When fixed their
+upper surfaces are level with the sills.
+
+The four collar-posts E (Figs. 143 and 144) are each 6 ft. 9 in. long
+and 4 in. square, and, when set up, their outer sides come flush with
+the sills. The uprights F (Figs. 143 and 144) are 3 in. square, and need
+to be 2 in. longer than the collar-posts, as their lower ends are halved
+for this distance to fit slots in the outer sides of the sills. There
+are four of such uprights at each side, three at the back and two at the
+front, the latter serving also as door cheeks. They are nailed in place
+with their outer sides flush with those of the collar-posts and sills.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--Side Elevation of Window-board.]
+
+For the rustic pillars of the portico G (Fig. 145) nothing will be more
+suitable than larch poles about 4-1/2 in. in diameter at the base;
+failing larch, fairly straight pieces of any rough, round wood could be
+used. The pillars are shown in Figs. 142 and 145 standing upon and
+dowelled to pieces of stone. When in position, their tops will be level
+with the collar-posts and uprights, their centres being 2 ft. 4 in. in
+advance of the front sill.
+
+On the collar-posts, uprights, and pillars are placed the wall plates H
+(Fig. 144), of which there are four belonging to the snuggery proper,
+each 5 in. wide and 3 in. thick. The side plates are 13 ft. 4 in. long,
+and are halved where they rest on the collar-posts and pillars, to
+receive the ends of the cross-plates, which are 8 ft. 2 in. long and
+halved to a distance of 5 in. from their ends. The wall-plates come
+flush with the collar-posts and uprights on which they rest, and to
+which they are nailed. There is also a fifth wall-plate which lies along
+the tops of the pillars in the front. The best material to use for this
+would be half of a pole like those used for the pillars, the flat side
+resting on the pillar tops. It will be observed that the front ends of
+the side wall-plates project about 4 in. beyond this piece.
+
+Ten rafters, K (Fig. 144), will be required for the roof, each 5 ft.
+long and 3 in. square. The two outer pairs come flush with the outer
+sides of the sills and wall-plates. A sixth pair of rafters to stand
+over the pillars and their wall-plates are made from a round pole cut in
+half, with the sawn side laid uppermost. The tops of the rafters butt
+against a ridge-piece L (Fig. 144), made of 1-in. board 4 in. deep and
+13 ft. 4 in. long. As shown in Fig. 144, continuations of the uprights
+are in the back carried from the wall-plate to the roof, the front being
+treated in a similar manner.
+
+The lintel of the doorway is 6 ft. above the sill, the door opening
+being 5 ft. 11-1/4 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. after the floor has been laid. The
+window shown in Fig. 142 is 3 ft. above the sill, and is 3 ft. high;
+including the two mullions, it is 5 ft. 10 in. wide. The board shown
+nailed in front of the window sill is sloped a little downwards to throw
+off the rain, whilst above there is a board 9 in. wide, nailed at a
+steeper slope upon brackets, as seen in Fig. 146, to shelter the window.
+The 3/4-in. flooring boards which are used for the floor should be
+bought ready planed on one side, and must be well seasoned, and cramped
+tightly together in laying, or there will be chinks between them.
+Similar boards may be used for the outside of the snuggery, being nailed
+to the uprights at the back and sides, as shown in Fig. 147. At the
+sides this weather-boarding will extend as far forward as the rustic
+pillars, thus enclosing the sides of the porch. For the inside of the
+snuggery use 1/2-in. matchboarding, as shown in Fig. 147. This may be
+carried up beneath the rafters to the ridge-piece. The porch may be also
+matchboarded throughout if desired, although this is not essential.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 147 and 148.--Sections of Snuggery Walls.]
+
+There are several methods of making the wooden walls non-conductors of
+heat, the most thorough being to pack the space between the inner and
+outer casings with sawdust. Shavings or similar materials could also be
+used, but less effectually. Another plan is to tack felt over the inner
+side of the weather-boarding before nailing up the interior casing. But
+even without any packing, two thicknesses of board with an air space
+between make a reasonably good non-conductor. Felt is fastened over the
+matchboard lining of the roof before the iron is put on.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Front View of Garden Retreat.]
+
+To reduce the cost, the snuggery can be cased with wood obtained from
+packing cases. Boards thus obtained will, of course, be in short
+lengths, and will involve more labour; but the design is so arranged
+that it will be quite practicable to carry it out with them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Plan of Garden Retreat.]
+
+The short lengths can be made to fit between the uprights instead of
+lying upon them, and the house will thus look as shown in Fig. 142, the
+section of the wall being as shown in Fig. 148, instead of as in Fig.
+147. A strip of lath--that sold for tiling--1 in. wide and 5/8 in.
+thick, is nailed to the sides of the uprights, as shown, and to this the
+weather-boarding and internal casing are fastened; the effect being
+that the walls both inside and out appear to be divided into long
+panels. The effect may be heightened by painting the framework a darker
+colour than the boarding. In boarding the roof with this material, the
+easiest plan will be to nail the pieces on the upper sides of the
+rafters, to cover them with felt, and upon that to screw the iron. The
+space between the two casings of the walls, although much narrower than
+before, can be packed with sawdust, etc.
+
+On reference to Fig. 145 it will be seen that the caps to the rustic
+pillars of the porch are formed by nailing round each pillar four short
+pieces of rough wood quartered, the two sawn sides being placed upwards
+and inwards. Four rough sticks crossing each other fill the space
+between wall-plate and the rafters. The bargeboards M M are sawn from
+3/4-in. board, 9 in. wide, and are nailed to the ends of the side
+wall-plates and ridge-piece. They thus project some inches beyond the
+line of the pillars. They are shown ornamented with fir cones bradded on
+them; virgin cork might be used instead. The porch may also have its
+interior decorated with virgin cork or with rustic mosaic work. At each
+side of the doorway there is a seat 16 in. high and 14 in. wide. The
+door is made by merely nailing the boards to four cross-ledgers.
+
+The window lights in Fig. 142 are shown filled with fancy lead work,
+which is the most suitable way of treating them for a building of this
+kind. A strip of lath is nailed around the window opening, as in Fig.
+148, and the leaded light fastened in the rebate thus formed with small
+wire nails, a little putty being used to make the joints waterproof. It
+will, of course, be much cheaper to glaze each light with a single sheet
+of glass puttied in the rebate, but the effect will not be so good. For
+the roof, fourteen 6-ft. sheets of corrugated galvanised iron and a
+14-ft. run of ridge capping will be needed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Side Elevation of Garden Retreat.]
+
+The iron should be screwed, not nailed, to the rafters, and should not
+cost more than 40s., including 1-1/2 gross of galvanised screws and
+washers. The dotted lines at N N (Fig. 143) indicate the area covered.
+Its low cost, the ease with which it is fixed, and the few timbers
+required to carry it, make an iron roof very suitable for a building
+erected by an amateur workman. It, however, has drawbacks, the chief of
+which are that it conducts heat too freely, and has not a very artistic
+appearance. Some precautions against the first defect have already been
+suggested, and if the snuggery is erected where it will be shaded by
+trees during the hotter part of the day, this disadvantage will be
+somewhat overcome. Its inartistic appearance is greatly due to its
+colour, and some improvement may be made by painting. If surrounded by
+trees, an iron roof looks very well when painted a reddish-brown colour,
+while in other situations a buff, or a dull sage green, might be
+suitable. The paint needs renewing often. Another method is to cover the
+roof with trellis work raised a few inches above the iron, and upon this
+to train ivy or other climbing plants.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Detail of Seat of Garden Retreat.]
+
+It will be better to paint the inside of the snuggery than to paper it,
+as paper would crack on the boards. Should the second and cheaper plan
+of boarding be adopted, the rafters, which are left exposed, might be
+coloured dark brown, and the intermediate spaces of the ceiling painted
+a buff colour, whilst on the walls a dark sage green might be used for
+the framework and a lighter sage green for the panels. If the whole
+interior is lined with matchboarding, according to the first method, the
+simplest and perhaps best finish would be to use a varnish that had raw
+or burnt umber ground into it. No fireplace has been provided, but in
+ordinary winter weather an oil stove would suffice to warm so small a
+room; if more warmth is wanted, a coal stove might easily be provided, a
+hole for its pipe being cut through the roof. In either case a
+ventilator, which can be opened or closed at pleasure, should be
+arranged near the ridge at each end of the building.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Joint of Garden Retreat at C (Fig. 151).]
+
+The garden retreat shown in front view by Fig. 149, and in plan and side
+elevation by Figs. 150 and 151, is constructed from straight unbarked
+fir saplings, the small twigs of which should be carefully trimmed off.
+As the bark is to be left on, it should not be cut or bruised; then no
+artificial finish will be necessary, the bark in itself being sufficient
+protection against climatic conditions, and presenting the desired
+rustic appearance. A new feature in the design is the introduction of a
+roof or canopy, which may be covered with a sun blind as shown in Fig.
+151; or a creeping plant may be trained over it.
+
+The two front posts are 3 in. in diameter at the base by 6 ft. high,
+and the back posts 3 in. in diameter by 5 ft. 6 in. high; the middle
+back post is 3 ft. 2 in. high, and the front leg 1 ft. 4 in. The seat
+rails are 2-1/2 in. in diameter. The front rail is 6 ft. long; the back
+is in two parts, dowelled to the middle post, which comes between. The
+side rails are 1 ft. 9 in. long; it is advisable to allow a fair margin
+for hollowing the ends to fit the posts--3 in. on the length would
+probably be sufficient. After the ends of the rails have been shaped
+roughly to fit the posts, they are bored for the reception of 1-1/8-in.
+oak or elm dowels; these are driven into the rails, and should also be a
+good fit in the posts. The dowel joint is shown in the top corner of
+Fig. 152.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.--Detail of Front Joints (See C. Fig. 151).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Alternative Method of Joining Rails to Posts.]
+
+The lower rungs, arm-rests, and back rails are jointed to the posts by
+tapering their ends slightly, and then tapering the dowel holes to suit
+with a gouge, so that the rails will just drive up nicely; this joint is
+shown in the bottom corner of Fig. 152. The rails, etc., are finally
+driven home, and secured with nails or screws inserted at suitable
+angles. The back and the side panels are filled with twigs about 1-1/4
+in. in diameter, the ends of the twigs being trimmed to fit the rails,
+and afterwards nailed in position.
+
+The seat battens are half-round in section, and are cut from 3-in.
+saplings, the flat part being placed downwards. The method of fixing
+them is shown in Figs. 152, 156, and 157. The seat having been fitted,
+the struts under the seat rails are next cut and fixed in position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 156.--Section of Middle Rail at A (Fig. 152).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig 157.--Detail of Middle Rail at B (Fig. 152).]
+
+The canopy must now be put together. The tops of the posts are first
+hollowed to form a seating for 2-1/4-in. saplings, 4 ft. 6 in. long;
+these act as principal rafters. Before nailing or screwing them to the
+posts, it is advisable to sight across them to see if they are in the
+same plane; any alteration that may be required to bring them to lie in
+the same angle can be effected at the seating on the top of the posts.
+The halved joint at each end of the principals should also be cut
+(before fixing up) for receiving the purlins; the principals are further
+steadied with struts, screwed or nailed to the posts. The purlins are
+about 2 in. in diameter by 8 ft. 6 in. long, and are fixed to the halved
+joint previously made on the principal rafters. Smaller twigs, which act
+as common rafters, are in turn fixed to the purlins. Fig. 153 shows the
+method of jointing at the back of the canopy at C (Fig. 151), and Fig.
+154 is the detail of the front joints. Fig. 129 (p. 94) is the top of
+the post hollowed to receive the principal rafter, Fig. 155 is an
+alternative method of joining the rails to the posts, Fig. 156 is a
+section near the middle rail at A (Fig. 152), while Fig. 157 is a detail
+of middle rail at B (Fig. 152).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+SUMMER-HOUSES.
+
+
+The lean-to summer-house shown by Fig. 158 is intended for a small
+garden. Perhaps in no better way can a dead wall or the back of some
+unsightly outhouse be better utilised than as the background for such a
+building. The dimensions of the structure are: length, 8 ft.; breadth, 3
+ft. 3 in.; height, 8 ft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158.--Lean-to Summer-house.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.--Ground Plan of Lean-to Summer-house.]
+
+Its general arrangement is seen in the ground plan (Fig. 159). Four
+pillars, A, B, B, A, occupy the front. These are poles 3-1/2 in. or 4
+in. in diameter. Any rough and tolerably straight wood will do, but
+larch is to be preferred. These rise 5 ft. above ground, and should not
+have less than 2 ft. below the surface. The dwarf pillars C supporting
+the seat are of similar stuff, but rather smaller. They show 14 in.
+above, and should be buried about 9 in. below ground. The pilasters D
+are of rather larger stuff sawn in half. These are only 5 ft. long, as
+they need not enter into the ground, being fixed only by strong nails to
+the wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 160.--Elevation of Inside of End of Lean-to
+Summer-house.]
+
+The ends of the summer-house (the space from A to D) are of smaller
+half-stuff, ranged side by side (as seen at E, E), and nailed to the
+cross-pieces, F and G, which appear in Fig. 160. In this last-named
+figure also appears one of the wall-plates, resting on and nailed to the
+tops of the pillars (H, at Fig. 160), and at I is seen where one of the
+front wall-plates meets it. There are two of these front wall-plates,
+each resting on the two pillars to right and left of the entrance, and
+their inner ends appear in Fig. 158, where the ends of the purlins which
+form the small gable rest upon them. The wall-plates are of large
+half-stuff, with the flat side above. In Fig. 160 will be seen how the
+short cross-piece which carries the sloping end of the roof is
+supported; and Fig. 161, which is a section through the centre of the
+building, explains how the ridge-piece of the small gable, E, rests at
+its inner end on a crosspiece M from rafter to rafter, seen in section
+only, whilst N shows the point at which the purlins meet and support the
+ridge-piece towards its outer end. The intersection of the diagonal
+braces in the gable is indicated at O, and P shows the course of one of
+the rafters, and how its upper end rests against the wall, and upon a
+ridge-piece of half-stuff, Q, strongly nailed to the masonry.
+
+The elevation (Fig. 158) explains pretty clearly the ornamental details
+of the front. They are not elaborate. It will be seen that the top of
+each pillar has a small cap, formed of four pieces of quartered stuff,
+mitred at the corners, and that across the opening on each side of the
+entrance, near the top, is a "transom" of straight wood, with a little
+arrangement of crooked bangles round it. Over the entrance are diagonal
+braces crossing, and also a little filling-in with bangles. The entrance
+is 5 ft. 10 in. high.
+
+In order that an ornamental and appropriate lining may be given to the
+back of our summer-house, it is recommended to plug the wall, and nail
+over it a level covering of thin boards--say, 1/2-in. matchboarding.
+Upon this the decorative work can be bradded. The back of the seat is
+shown in Fig. 158 to be of rustic mosaic. Above this, as well as under
+the seats, a covering of bark has been introduced. British-grown bark,
+such as elm, can be made to lie flat, but as in any but rural districts
+this may be difficult to get, virgin cork may be made to take its place.
+
+Fig. 160 gives an inside view of one of the ends, and from this it will
+be seen that the ornamentation of those parts varies little from that of
+the back. The lower band, however, answering to the strip under the
+seats, is not bark, which, in this place, would be liable to be kicked
+and destroyed by the feet, but of smaller half-stuff, so arranged as to
+break joint with the outside pieces. This will be seen by referring to
+the ground plan. Any chinks in the ends should be neatly tucked with
+moss, so as to make them wind-proof.
+
+The roof is of wooden shingles--things which any rough hand at carpentry
+can prepare and put on for himself. As will be seen from Fig. 158, it is
+easy to give an ornamental character to these. They will have a rustic
+look, which will go well with other parts of the structure, and, if
+clumsily made, the effect will be none the worse. For the present
+purpose, suppose the shingles to be 12 in. by 4 in. The lower ends may
+be sawn to a variety of ornamental shapes.
+
+If this covering is used, instead of nailing laths across the rafters,
+it is proposed to cover the whole roof with similar boarding to the
+back, and upon this it is a simple thing to nail the shingles, placing
+them just as tiles might be placed. Whilst nailing them on, it will be
+necessary to have some person within to hold a heavy hammer against the
+place, otherwise the vibration will jar off the shingles as fast as they
+are fixed. A 3/4-in. board, rather wider than half the length of the
+shingles, should first be nailed along the eaves to make up the required
+thickness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.--Section through Centre of Lean-to
+Summer-house.]
+
+It will be noticed that the ends of the rafters are made to project so
+as to give a good breadth of eaves--a desirable feature in so narrow a
+building, alike for shade, shelter, and the appearance of cosiness. If,
+however, the roof should be thatched, the projecting rafters will be
+unnecessary, as the thatch alone will form sufficient eaves.
+
+Down the "valleys" at the juncture of the main roof and the entrance
+gable a strip of zinc will, of course, be nailed before the shingles are
+put on, whilst along the ridges a strip of zinc will be nailed upon the
+shingles; and this latter will need painting to match the colour of the
+wood.
+
+Various suggestions may be given for finishing the inside of the roof.
+Supposing that round or half-round larch stuff has been used for the
+rafters (the latter is to be preferred for shingles, as giving a level
+surface to board upon), the space between the rafters may be covered
+with bark--virgin cork or otherwise--the chinks being stuffed with moss.
+But if this is done it will be well to fix the bark with screws, as the
+vibration caused by driving nails would displace or loosen the shingles.
+
+A second plan under the like circumstances would be before nailing the
+boards upon the rafters to stretch matting across the latter--either
+ordinary garden bast matting or, better, the more substantial rush
+matting, both of which are very inexpensive. These have a pleasant
+natural colour (the last-named especially, of a greenish hue), and are
+so unartificial in their structure as to appear in no way out of place
+among rustic work.
+
+Or it may so happen that suitable larch stuff is not to hand, and that
+ordinary sawn scantling has to be used for the rafters. If so, the whole
+roof may be hung with ling; or the rush matting may be stretched across
+the lower side of the rafters and tacked there, being afterwards more
+completely secured and finished by nailing a split hazel or other rod
+down the middle of each rafter. This last plan makes a neat and pleasing
+roof.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 162 and 163.--Front and Side Elevations of Shelter
+for Tennis Lawn.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Part Roof, Seat, and Floor Plans for Tennis
+Lawn Shelter.]
+
+It scarcely needs to be said that to make such a summer-house look its
+best the wall on each side ought to be covered with ivy or other
+creepers; and it will also be obvious that, if the height of the wall
+permits the floor of the summer-house to be raised a step or two above
+the surrounding level, the structure will gain thereby both in
+effectiveness of appearance and in pleasantness as a place in which to
+sit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.--Connecting Plates to Corner Post.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.--Fixing Sleeper to Posts.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig 167.--Section of Flooring.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.--Finial.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169.--Detail of Garden Shelter at Front Eaves.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig 170.--Section of Seat.]
+
+The rustic summer-house or tennis lawn shelter illustrated in front and
+side elevations by Figs. 162 and 163 is constructed from straight
+saplings and twigs that have had their bark removed, and have been
+subjected to a reasonable period of seasoning. A new feature in the
+design is the accommodation under the seats for the reception of the
+croquet or tennis gear, and also the extended eaves and floor (see Fig.
+164) and the open front, giving at once an uninterrupted view of the
+game and shelter from the direct rays of the sun.
+
+The shelter is 10 ft. long by 5 ft. 6 in. wide, the height from the
+floor to the eaves being 6 ft. 3 in., and from the floor to the ridge 9
+ft. The four posts are 6 ft. 9 in. long by 6 in. in diameter. The middle
+and lower end and the back rails are tenoned to the posts, a flat being
+formed on the post by the mortise and a corresponding shoulder on the
+rails. The remaining portion is worked to fit roughly the contour of the
+post.
+
+The plates are 5 in. by 5 in. in section, and are secured to the posts
+with long galvanised bolts and nuts and a 3-1/2-in. square washer under
+the heads of the bolts. When halving the front plate, allow it to house
+into the side plates 1-1/2 in.; by this method it will have a bearing on
+both posts. In Fig. 165 the left-hand plate represents the front. The
+front posts are connected at the floor line by a scantling, 4 in. by 3
+in., which also forms a sleeper for the floor joists; see Figs. 166 and
+167.
+
+The structure rests on a low plinth of bricks, spaces being left for the
+circulation of air under the floor.
+
+The extended floor also rests on bricks placed immediately below the
+joists; see Fig. 167, which is a section on C D (Fig. 164). The twig
+plinth nailed around the front will effectually conceal the sleeper and
+brick foundation.
+
+The rafters are 2-1/2 in. by 3 in., and the ridge and hip rafters 2 in.
+by 5 in., the finials (see Fig. 168) being nailed between the angles of
+the hips. The eaves in front project 2 ft. beyond the posts, and Fig.
+169 shows the method by which the additional width is obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Strapping Cushion to Seat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Front Elevation of Octagonal Summer-house.]
+
+The sides are filled with 5/8-in. vee-grooved and tongued boarding, to
+which is attached the rustic work.
+
+The stained glass windows are fixed, and on the outer side of the back
+are diagonal braces made from split saplings, while in the centre a
+vertical post runs from sill to plate.
+
+The braces and post are shown in the plan (Fig. 164).
+
+The seats are constructed to form lockers (see Fig. 170, which is a
+section at A B, Fig. 164), their height being 1 ft. 3 in., which, with
+the addition of a 3-in. cushion, will form comfortable sitting
+accommodation.
+
+The cushions are retained in place by straps passing through slots and
+fastening over suitable studs on the under side; see Fig. 171. This
+method provides a means of easily removing and quickly replacing the
+cushions when required for use. A space of 3 in., or a distance equal to
+the thickness of the cushions, must be left at the sloping back, to
+allow the seat to open properly.
+
+The nature of the locker is partly concealed by the rustic work of split
+twigs that is nailed to the front.
+
+Next fix the lattice work between the finials and under the front plate.
+The short struts on the front posts are more for effect than for any
+real support.
+
+The roof is boarded on the inside, the work being carried on the rafters
+as far as the collar ties, and continued flat on these. Moulding is
+fixed in the angles formed between the rafters and ties, and a cornice
+is fixed at the plates. The heels of the rafters and plates are also
+boarded around, as shown in Fig. 169.
+
+The roof may be covered with thatch of wheat, straw, reeds, broom, or
+heather, and the whole of the woodwork visible should be varnished.
+
+The summer-house illustrated by Fig. 172 is suited to a garden of
+moderate size, one in which space is not so restricted as to necessitate
+crowding the building close against a wall. This octagonal summer-house
+has a continuous seat some 15 ft. long. From side to side each way it
+measures 10 ft. Fig. 172 is an elevation of the front of the house.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Ground Plan of Octagonal Summer house.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Section of Octagonal Summer-house at Y Z
+(Fig. 173), showing Framework.]
+
+Its framework and the main part of it are of larch poles;
+other woods are, however, used for minor purposes. The roof is of
+thatch. In the arrangement of this building there is a certain
+resemblance to a tent. It has a central pillar, A, not unlike a tent
+pole, which sustains much of the weight of the roof. Being of first
+importance, this pillar is somewhat larger than any of the other
+timbers--say 6 in. in diameter near its bottom, and tapering as little
+as may be. A rod of iron or wood rises from its top to form the centre
+of the straw pinnacle seen crowning the roof in Fig. 172. This pillar
+shows a height of 11 ft. 2 in. above ground, and it should be let 3 ft.
+or more into the soil; for it will need to be firmly fixed, or it may be
+forced out of the perpendicular during the erection of the roof; when
+the roof timbers are once fixed in place, it will have little further
+chance of moving. The diagram Fig. 173 is a ground plan, and Fig. 174 is
+a section showing the timbers from the interior; both are drawn on a
+scale of 1/4 in. to the foot.
+
+The eight collar-posts (B, Figs. 173 and 174) at the corners of the
+octagon are of somewhat smaller stuff--say 4 in. They show 6 ft. above
+ground, and should have 2 ft. below. It will be well to gas-tar all the
+underground work.
+
+The ground plan of a building in this shape is readily laid out. The
+space being levelled, a string is taken which has a loop at each end,
+and is 5 ft. 2 in. long. With a stake driven through the loop at one end
+as a centre, and with a stick passed through the loop at the other to
+serve as the travelling leg of the compasses, a circle is struck 10 ft.
+4 in. in diameter, and into this pegs are driven at equal intervals (4
+ft. apart) to mark the centres of the eight collar-posts. Whilst digging
+the holes for the posts, these points are kept by drawing two straight
+lines on the ground which intersect at the peg.
+
+The cross-pieces which rest on the collar-posts, and which serve as
+wall-plates, are a trifle smaller stuff than the posts--say 3 in. Fig.
+175 shows how they are cut to fit the tops of the posts, and nailed
+there. In this building there are no mortise and tenon joints. On these
+ends above the posts rest the lower ends of the eight main rafters, D,
+the upper ends of which rest against and are nailed to the central
+pillar. The eight intermediate rafters, E, rest at the bottom on the
+middles of the side plates, and at top are cut to fit upon and between
+the tops of the main rafters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Collar Posts and Ends of Wall Plates.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.--Timbers over Entrance of Octagonal
+Summer-house.]
+
+The laths used are in this case in no way particular--any sticks will
+do; they will not be seen, and under thatch there is no necessity that a
+level surface should be formed by them, as for slates or tiles. They are
+nailed 6 in. or 8 in. apart.
+
+The gable over the entrance is arranged as in Fig. 176. The laths, when
+nailed on, will have to run over the little ridge formed by F, instead
+of keeping the level, as on the other sides. This will cause no special
+difficulties in the thatching.
+
+The walls are of larch poles sawn in half. To split a number of heavy
+poles with the handsaw is tedious work, and it is better to get them
+run through by the nearest steam saw. The quantity of half-stuff
+required may be easily calculated; one of these sides will take about
+five and a half 6-ft. lengths of 4-in. stuff. The tops of these
+wall-pieces are sawn obliquely to fit against the round wall-plates to
+which they are nailed. In their lower parts they are nailed to the lower
+cross-pieces, G, G, G, Fig. 174.
+
+These latter will best be made of rather large stuff quartered, since
+their upper sides on which the seat-boards rest should be level, as well
+as their backs, which go against the wall-pieces. The middle
+cross-pieces are of smaller half-stuff, and should be nailed to the
+wall-pieces rather than that the wall-pieces should be nailed to them;
+for they are in a conspicuous place, and nails driven through them and
+clenched would be unsightly.
+
+The front supports of the seats are let into the ground some 6 in., and
+rise 14-1/2 in. above the ground line. The seats should be cut from
+1-in. board, and should be about 16-1/2 in. wide.
+
+In the two window sides of the octagon (see Figs. 177 and 172), the
+space below the windows is filled with whole poles, their bottoms
+resting on a sill let in level with the ground, and their tops nailed
+into through a cross-piece of half-stuff (K, Fig. 177). The mullions and
+transoms of the windows--mere sticks--are of small straight larch stuff,
+but the ornamental filling in above is of crooked branches--oak bangles
+by preference, though apple-wood would do very well. It often happens
+that an old apple-tree is cut down, and at once condemned as firewood;
+yet its stem may have grotesque knots, and its branches picturesque
+contortions which would make it valuable for rustic work. Whenever
+rustic building is contemplated, it is well that such wood should be
+laid by; a single tree would supply all the small quantity of crooked
+stuff that is required in the present instance. Even the interlaced
+stems of ivy, when an old growth has covered a wall, have sometimes been
+utilised to excellent effect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.--Window Side of Octagonal Summer-house.]
+
+It may be observed that any chinks between the pieces beneath the
+windows, as well as in the walls generally, are most readily and
+appropriately rendered wind-proof by neatly stuffing with moss. Fig. 177
+gives a full front elevation of one of the window sides (they being only
+seen obliquely in Fig. 172), and it is on the 1/2-in. scale.
+
+Four stout crooked pieces are used as struts to support the table (drawn
+to 1 in. scale in Figs. 178 and 179); 3/4-in. board will suffice for
+the top of this table, and it will probably be cut from two widths. To
+give proper strength to the ornamental border (seen in Fig. 179), a
+second thickness of the board is attached below each corner, extending 3
+or 4 in. to each side, so as to allow each of the longer bits of split
+rod to be fixed, as shown, with two brads.
+
+A really satisfactory material in which to finish the top of a rustic
+table is not easily found; it must give a level surface, and at the same
+time be in harmony with its surroundings. Board, planed or painted,
+oilcloth, or any manufactured material, is felt to be out of place;
+marble or slate looks cold and hard. Nothing that is absolutely level
+satisfies the requirements; the best alternative is rustic mosaic. By
+this is meant split rods of wood so bradded down as to form patterns.
+For the present purpose, however, the mosaic must be kept more neat and
+smooth than usual. Fig. 178 shows the top of the table thus treated.
+
+The rods most in favour for rustic mosaic are those of the hazel. They
+are to be bought cheaply and abundantly when the undergrowth of woods is
+cut. They have a smooth and pretty bark, and the useful size is from 3/4
+in. to 1-1/2 in. Sticks of other kinds of the same size can also be
+used: birch and wild cherry may be named among those with smooth bark,
+and wych elm and maple among those with rough; willow or withy, again,
+is of most common growth, and exceedingly useful. In river-side
+neighbourhoods it is often the cheapest and most plentiful of all woods.
+For mosaic work, it is always peeled, for its bark is unattractive, and
+its light colour when stripped makes it tell well in contrast to the
+dark bark of other woods. If used, as it often is, for outdoor purposes
+in garden carpentry, it should always be peeled. Country carpenters have
+a saying that withy lasts twice as long without its bark as with it;
+and in this there is much truth, for the loose bark holds the wet to the
+wood and causes it to rot. To make it peel freely, it should be cut just
+as the young leaves make their appearance. The like holds good with
+other woods; but if it is desired that the bark should hold firmly, the
+wood should be cut down in dead of winter, when all the sap is down.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 178 and 179.--Plan and Elevation of Table for
+Octagonal Summer-house.]
+
+The top of the table is supposed to be mainly composed of peeled withy.
+The pattern contains only the double dark line bounding the star and the
+single strip round the edge in hazel. So much white will not look amiss
+in this place, and withy is easily worked. Hazel and most woods twist so
+much in the grain that it is rarely safe to split them except with the
+saw, but withy--in short lengths like these, at least--can be split with
+a hatchet.
+
+In rough carpentry there is no more pretty or interesting work than
+these mosaics. The backs of the seats (Fig. 180), and the seats
+themselves (Fig. 181), are decorated in this way. On the seats
+themselves, as on the table top, hazel and withy are contrasted, and
+form a design in alternate triangles; the separating bands, it may be
+noticed, have a light strip against the dark, and a dark strip against
+the light, triangle. Along the edge of the seats one or two strips
+merely are nailed lengthwise. In such a situation an ornamental edging
+like that round the table would be too liable to be broken. It is
+recommended that the back of the seats should be in dark bark-covered
+woods only, for the mosaic in that position will look better without any
+mixture of the light-coloured withy.
+
+The upper compartments of the sides with which the backs of those
+sitting down will not come in contact may be more quickly and yet
+pleasingly covered with sheets of bark. Elm bark is good for the
+purpose. It may be peeled in large sheets from the trunks of trees
+felled in spring, when the sap is rising; and whilst it is drying should
+have bricks or stones laid on it to press it flat. When dried, it is
+nailed to the walls, and any cracks which appear can be neatly filled
+with moss. The space beneath the seats is also shown as roughly covered
+with bark.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180.--Seat Side of Octagonal Summer-house.]
+
+The almost conical roof is thatched. No other covering is so pleasing as
+thatch for a rustic building. Its colour and rough texture harmonise
+well with the natural wood, and all its associations are of a rustic
+character; no other covering so effectually excludes the summer heat,
+and nowhere can one find a retreat so suggestive of coolness, quiet,
+and repose, as under the low eaves of a thatched building. Thatch has,
+it must be admitted, certain practical disadvantages--birds and winds
+are apt to scatter fragments from it, and it needs renewing at
+comparatively short intervals. The common saying is that a thatched roof
+needs re-coating every ten years. Often, no doubt, this is near the
+truth, yet really good work will frequently stand for almost twenty
+years. The materials in use in this country are reeds, straw, and
+stubble. Reeds make a strong thatch, but are not easily to be procured,
+except in fenny districts. Stubble, which is the lower and stronger part
+of the wheat stem, stands better than straw, which is its upper and
+weaker portion; to last properly, however, stubble should be cut
+immediately after harvest, and should not be left standing, as it
+frequently is, till the spring, for then the winter rains, collecting in
+its hollow stems, cause it to rot before it is cut. On small buildings
+like summer-houses especially, stubble makes a much more compact and
+sightly roof than straw.
+
+Thatching is not costly or difficult work. In agricultural districts a
+load of stubble--sufficient to thatch three such buildings as the one
+illustrated--costs 30s., and a thatcher expects the wages of a
+first-class labourer only, not those of a mechanic. He needs an
+assistant, whose business it is to straighten the material into
+convenient bundles (called "yelvens"), and to supply him as he requires
+them. If he is re-thatching an old building, he merely thrusts the ends
+of his new material into the old thatch with a wooden spud; but if he is
+covering a new roof he sews down his "yelvens" to the laths and rafters
+with a huge needle and stout tarred string. He begins at the eaves,
+laying as wide a breadth as he can conveniently reach on one side of his
+ladder, this breadth being called a "stelch." He works upwards, each
+new layer covering the tar-cord which secures that beneath it; and thus
+he goes on till he has reached the ridge.
+
+In his second "stelch" he is careful to blend together its edge and the
+edge of that already laid, so that no rain may find its way between
+them; and in doing this completely lies much of the superiority of good
+over bad thatching. When laid, the thatch is smoothed down and
+straightened with a gigantic comb, like the head of a large rake, one
+end being without teeth, and serving as a handle. In the present
+instance, the tops of all the stelches meeting in a point are finished
+and capped by the little bundle of thatching material forming the
+pinnacle, which is tightly bound round the rod of wood or iron in its
+centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Mosaic Seats for Octagonal Summer-house.]
+
+It is usual to bind thatching down with at least two belts of buckles
+and runners. In the summer-house (Fig. 172) two double belts are shown.
+The buckles have some resemblance to ladies' hair-pins on a colossal
+scale. They are made of slips of withy, twisted and doubled in their
+middles and pointed at their ends; the runners are long straight slips
+of the same. These latter are laid across the thatch, and the buckles,
+being placed over them, are pushed tightly into it--their points being
+driven upwards, that wet may not be let into the roof by them. The
+short diagonal runners seen in the illustration crossing each other
+between the horizontal lines are used in ornamental thatching only, and
+are rather for appearance than for use. Lastly, the eaves are cut to
+shape, and trimmed with paring-knife and shears.
+
+The roof looks most pretty and cosy within if lined with ling. The ling
+is fixed in a way somewhat akin to thatching. A layer is placed along
+the bottom opposite to the eaves, and secured by a strip of wood nailed
+from rafter to rafter; the layer next above hides this strip, and so the
+work is carried on to the apex, where a knot cut from an apple-tree
+trunk, a bunch of fir-cones fastened together, or some such matter,
+finishes the whole. In districts where ling is not to be had, gorse or
+furze in short pieces may serve instead, but stout gloves are required
+to handle it; or the ends of fir branches may do, if nothing better
+offers.
+
+It is not always easy to decide on the best way of forming a floor.
+Boards may look out of place. A pitching of pebbles is more in
+character: it is dry and cleanly, and especially if some variety of
+colour is obtainable, and the stones are arranged in some geometrical
+design, it may add to the ornamental effect. Pebbles are not, however,
+pleasing to the feet of those who wear thin shoes. Gravel, where it is
+always dry, is apt to become dusty, and to disagree with ladies'
+dresses. If, however, gravel should be used, perhaps the best plan to
+prevent the rising of damp, and to obviate dust as far as possible, is
+to asphalt it: on the foundation of broken stones and a layer of coarse
+gravel to put a course of asphalt or of ordinary gas tar, and on this to
+sift enough fine _washed_ gravel to hide it. Yet a wood pavement of
+small larch poles, cut into 5-or 6-in. billets, and pitched with some
+attention to geometrical arrangement, will make the most dry and
+comfortable of floors, and one which will not harmonise badly with any
+of the decorative work of our summer-house.
+
+The octagonal house illustrated by Fig. 182 is made up of varnished
+rustic work. The saplings and twigs should be as straight and as regular
+as possible, and divested of their bark.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.--Octagonal Summer-house with Three Gables.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.--Vertical Section of Octagonal Summer-house
+through Lower Part of Door and Sill.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.--Vertical Section of Octagonal Summer-house
+through Side Casement.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 185 and 186.--Elevation and Plan of Roof for Octagonal
+Summer-house.]
+
+The eight posts are 4 in. in diameter by 6 ft. 8 in. long. The short
+sill pieces are also 4 in. in diameter, while the middle rails are 3-1/2
+in. in diameter, and the plate is 3 in. by 4-1/2 in. The floor and roof
+are constructed from ordinary scantlings.
+
+The posts form a circle 6 ft. 6 in. in diameter. They are spaced about 2
+ft. 3 in. apart, except the door-posts, which are 2 ft. 7 in. centres.
+Flats may be worked on the posts for the better fitting of the door,
+panels, and casements, and the top edge of the sill is also planed flat
+to receive the floorboards, and a rebate is formed for the 5/8-in.
+matchboard (see Fig. 183).
+
+The sill and middle rails are scribed and stub-tenoned to the posts. The
+plate is halved, dowelled, and nailed to the posts. The joists are 2 in.
+by 4 in., and are notched to the sills (Fig. 184) and covered with 1-in.
+floorboards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187.--Securing Glass to Rustic Casement.]
+
+The roof is formed with three gables, four being deemed unnecessary, as
+a summer-house is generally fixed with its back to a shrubbery. Eight
+hip rafters are required, and by fixing the heels of each pair of
+rafters on the sides of the plate marked 1, 2, 3, and 4 (see Fig. 185)
+more space is acquired for the gables. The ridges and valley-pieces of
+the gables are attached to a wide batten screwed to the under side of
+the hip rafters (see Figs. 185 and 186). Some of the small battens are
+omitted from Fig. 185 to give a better view of the gables, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Half Front and Half Back View of Door for
+Octagonal Summer-house.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Section of Door for Octagonal Summer-house.]
+
+The roof-covering is generally wheat straw, with a top dressing of
+either broom or heather. The dark colour of the two latter materials
+harmonises much better with a varnished house than does a covering
+wholly of straw. The four lower panels are filled in with matchboarding,
+which is carried right up to the plate in the three back divisions. The
+rustic work, excepting the back panels, is then fitted and nailed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Part Plan of Octagonal Summer-house.]
+
+There are four casement windows, which open outward. A section of
+casement and frame enlarged is shown in Fig. 187. A shallow rebate is
+formed to receive the leaded lights, which are retained in position with
+split bamboo fixed with round-headed brass screws.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Horizontal Section through Door Posts.]
+
+The door (Figs. 188 and 189) is 6 ft. 1 in. by 2 ft. 3 in. The rustic
+work is overlaid on the frame of the door. The centre of the
+diamond-shaped panel is filled with cork. The top panel is glazed with
+stained glass. Three butts and a rim lock are fitted on the inside of
+the door, and the lower panel is filled with matchboarding.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Part Section of Side Panel.]
+
+Some further illustrations may be noted. Fig. 190 is a part plan of the
+octagonal summer-house; Fig. 191, horizontal section through door-posts;
+Fig. 192, part section of a side panel; Fig. 193, method of fixing plate
+to posts; and Fig. 194, finial.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193.--Fixing Plate to Posts.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194.--Finial.]
+
+A seat 13 in. wide, supported on wide battens, which in turn rest on
+shaped brackets, is fixed at each angle. A sloping back (see Fig. 183)
+is fitted, which adds to the general comfort. The decoration of the
+inside should now receive attention. The floor may be covered with
+linoleum, the seats carpeted or cushioned. The sloping backs of the
+seats and the walls will look well if covered with Indian matting or
+Japanese leather paper. Split cane or bamboo may be used with good
+effect at the joints or angles. The under side of the roof or ceiling
+should be first covered by stretching canvas across the rafters, and to
+this is attached the decorative material.
+
+The summer-house stands on stone slabs raised about 1 in. above the
+ground. The lower ends of the posts are dressed with pitch, or are stood
+on sheet lead. The triangular spaces in the gables can be made to open
+inwards if desired, and used for ventilation.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+ Anchoring Foot-bridges, 96
+
+ Armchair, 40, 41
+
+ Aviary, 83-91
+ ----, Bottom, 86
+ ----, Perches for, 83, 85
+ ----, Sliding Tray for, 90
+ ----, Wiring for, 87, 88
+ ----, Wood for, 83
+
+
+ "Bangles," 30
+
+ Bending Wood with Spanish Windlass, 22
+
+ Boxes, Window, 19-21
+
+ Bracket for Wall, 11, 12
+
+
+ Canopied Garden Seat, 47-51
+
+ Canopy for Garden Retreat, 123, 125
+ ---- for Swing, 77-82
+
+ Carriage Entrance, 63-65
+
+ Chair, Arm, 40, 41
+
+ Chairs and Seats, 40-51
+
+ Collar-posts, 114, 115, 140
+
+ Cottage Porch, 76
+
+
+ Door of Tool House, 110
+
+
+ Easel, Mitred Joint for, 13
+ ----, for Photographs, 13-16
+ ----, Stain for, 15, 16
+
+ Elevated Foot-bridges, 97
+
+ Entrance, Carriage, 63-65
+
+
+ Fenced Seat for Swing, 82
+
+ Fences, 57
+
+ Fire-screen, 13
+
+ Flower-holder, Tripod, 16
+
+ Flower-pot Stand, 27, 28, 35
+
+ Foot-bridges, 92
+ ----, Anchoring, 96
+ ----, Elevated, 97
+ ----, Girders for, 94, 95
+
+
+ Gables to Octagonal Summer-house, 141, 150-158
+
+ Garden Gate, 52-56, 62
+ ---- Plant Tub, 31, 32
+ ---- Retreat, 123-125
+ ---- Seat with Canopy, 47-51
+ ---- Seats, 41-51
+ ---- Snuggery, 112-123
+ ---- ----, Collar-posts for, 114
+ ---- ----, Door for, 116, 117
+ ---- ----, Joists for, 114
+ ---- ----, Pillars, Caps for, 120
+ ---- ----, Rafters for, 116
+ ---- ----, Roof, Boarding, 120
+ ---- ---- ----, Coverings for, 121, 122
+ ---- ----, Rustic Pillars of, 115, 120
+ ---- ----, Walls, Non-conducting, 117
+
+ Garden, Tool House for (see Tool House)
+ ---- Trellis with Seats and Gate, 58-62
+
+ Gates and Fences, 52-65
+
+ Girders for Rustic Footbridges, 94, 95
+
+ Grape Culture, Glazed Verandah for, 104
+
+
+ Hall Stand, 16-18
+
+ Hazel Rods for Rustic Mosaic Work, 144
+
+ Hexagonal Table, 38, 39
+ ---- Vase, 29, 30
+
+ House, Tool, Door for, 110
+ ----, ----, Doorposts for, 109
+ ----, ----, Folding Seat for, 111, 112
+ ----, ----, Pilaster for, 110
+ ----, ----, Plan of, 108, 109
+ ----, ----, "Rough Planks" for, 106
+
+
+ Joint, Mitred, 13
+
+ Joists for Garden Snuggery, 114
+
+
+ Lean-to Summer-house, 126-134
+ ---- ---- ----, Lining for Walls of, 129
+ ---- ---- ----, Mosaic Work for Walls of, 130
+ ---- ---- ----, Roof of, 130
+
+ Lining Roof with Ling, 150
+ ---- Summer-house Walls, 129
+
+
+ Mitred Joint, 13
+
+ Mosaic Work, 144-146
+ ---- ----, Hazel Rods for, 144
+ ---- ----, Withy for, 146
+ ---- ----, for Summer-house Walls, 130
+
+
+ Octagonal Summer-house, 138-158
+ ---- ---- ----, Collar-posts for, 140
+ ---- ---- ----, Gable for, 141
+ ---- ---- ----, Ground Plan of, 140
+ ---- ---- ----, Roof for, 147
+ ---- ---- ----, Table for, 143
+ ---- ---- ----, Thatched, 138-150
+ ---- ---- ----, Three-gabled, 150-158
+ ---- ---- ----, Walls for, 141
+
+
+ Pedestal for Sundial, 35
+
+ Pilaster for Tool House, 110
+
+ Pillars of Garden Snuggery, 115, 120
+
+ Plant Stand, Rectangular, 34
+ ---- Tub for Garden, 31, 32
+ ---- Vase, Large, 30, 31
+ ---- ----, Ornamental, 33, 34
+
+ Porches, 71-76
+
+
+ Rectangular Garden Plant Stand, 34
+
+ Retreat, Garden, 123-125
+
+ Roof for Garden Snuggery, 120-122
+ ---- for Lean-to Summerhouse, 130
+ ----, Materials for, 102
+ ---- for Tennis Lawn Shelter, 138
+ ---- of Tool House, 110
+ ---- for Verandah, 100
+
+ Rosery Walk, 66-70
+
+ "Rough Planks" for Tool House, 106
+
+
+ Seats and Chairs, 40-51
+
+ Shelter for Tennis Lawn, 135
+
+ "Slabs," Fixing, 107, 108
+
+ Snuggery, Garden, 112-123
+ ----, ----, Collar-posts for 114, 115
+ ----, ----, Door for, 116, 117
+ ----, ----, Joists for, 114
+ ----, ----, Pillars for, 120
+ ----, ----, Rafters for, 116
+ ----, ----, Roof for, 120-122
+ ----, ----, ---- Coverings for, 121, 122
+ ----, ----, Rustic Pillars of, 115
+ ----, ----, Walls of, 117
+
+ Spanish Windlass for Bending Wood, 22
+
+ Stain for Easel, 15, 16
+
+ Stand, Flower, 27, 28
+ ----, Flower-pot, in imitation of Bamboo, 35
+ ----, Hall, 16-18
+ ----, Rectangular Plant, 34
+
+ "Stelch" for Thatching, 148
+
+ Stool, 18, 19
+
+ Summer-house, Lean-to, 126-134
+ ---- ----, ----, Lining for Walls, 129
+ ---- ----, ----, Mosaic Work for Walls of, 130
+ ---- ----, ----, Roof of, 130
+ ---- ----, Octagonal, 138-158
+ ---- ----, ----, Collar-posts for, 140
+ ---- ----, ----, Floor for, 150
+ ---- ----, ----, Gable for, 141
+ ---- ----, ----, Ground Plan of, 140
+ ---- ----, ----, Roof for, 147
+
+ Summer-house, Octagonal, Table for, 143, 144-147
+ ---- ----, ----, Thatched Roof of, 147
+ ---- ----, ----, with Three Gables, 150-158
+ ---- ----, ----, Walls for, 141
+ ---- ----, ----, Windows for, 142
+ ---- ----, Thatched Octagonal, 138-150
+
+ Swing, Canopy for, 77-82
+ ----, Fenced Seat for, 82
+
+
+ Table for Octagonal Summer-house, 143-147
+ ----, Hexagon, 38, 39
+ ----, Square, 36-38
+
+ Tables, 36-39
+
+ Tennis Lawn Shelter, 135-138
+ ---- ---- ----, Roof for, 138
+
+ Thatched Octagonal Summer-house, 138-150
+
+ Thatching, Cost of, 148
+ ----, "Stelch," 148
+ ----, Roof of Octagonal Summer-house, 147-150
+ ----, "Yelvens," 148
+
+ Tool House, 106-112
+ ---- ----, Door, 110
+ ---- ----, Doorposts, 109, 110
+ ---- ----, Folding Seat for, 111, 112
+ ---- ----, Pilaster, 110
+ ---- ----, Roof, 110
+ ---- ----, "Rough Planks" for, 106
+
+ Trellis, Garden, with Seats and Gate, 58-62
+
+
+ Vase, Hexagonal, 29, 30
+ ----, Plant, 30, 31, 33, 34
+ ----, Square, 28, 29
+ ----, on Tripod Stand, 22-27
+
+ Verandahs, 98-105
+ ----, for Grape Culture, 104
+ ----, Open, 104
+ ----, Posts Supporting, 98, 99
+ ----, Rafters for, 100
+ ----, Roof for, 100
+ ----, ---- Materials for, 102
+
+
+ Walk, Rosery, 66-70
+
+ Wall Bracket, 10, 11
+
+ Windlass, Spanish, 22
+
+ Window Boxes, 19-21
+
+ Wiring Aviary, 87, 88
+
+ Withy for Rustic Mosaic Work, 144
+
+ Wood Bending with Spanish Windlass, 22
+ ---- for Rustic Work, 9
+
+
+ "Yelvens" in Thatching, 148
+
+
+
+PRINTED BY CASSELL AND COMPANY, LTD., LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rustic Carpentry, by Paul N. Hasluck
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41668 ***
generated by cgit v1.2.3 (git 2.25.1) at 2026-03-15 19:44:06 +0000