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diff --git a/41649.txt b/41649.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 001ec27..0000000 --- a/41649.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8158 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The New Stone Age in Northern Europe, by John -M. Tyler - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: The New Stone Age in Northern Europe - - -Author: John M. Tyler - - - -Release Date: December 18, 2012 [eBook #41649] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW STONE AGE IN NORTHERN -EUROPE*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) and by the Google Books -Library Project (http://books.google.com) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 41649-h.htm or 41649-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41649/41649-h/41649-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41649/41649-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/newstoneageinnor00tyleuoft - - - - - -[Illustration: RECONSTRUCTED LAKE-DWELLINGS] - - -THE NEW STONE AGE IN NORTHERN EUROPE - -by - -JOHN M. TYLER - -Professor Emeritus of Biology, Amherst College - - - - - - - -New York -Charles Scribner's Sons -1922 - -Copyright, 1921, by -Charles Scribner's Sons - -Printed in the United States of America - -Published March, 1921 - - - - - TO - - JOSEPH DECHELETTE - - PATRIOT AND ARCHAEOLOGIST - - KILLED IN BATTLE AT VINGRE (AISNE) - OCTOBER 3, 1914 - - - - -PREFACE - - -The dawn of history came late in Northern Europe and the morning was -stormy. We see the Roman Empire struggling in vain to hold back -successive swarms of barbarians, pouring from a dim, misty, mysterious -northland. Centuries of destruction and confusion follow; then gradually -states and institutions emerge, and finally our own civilization, which, -though still crude and semibarbarous, has its glories as well as its -obvious defects. - -The growth, development, and training of these remarkable destroyers and -rebuilders was slowly going on through the ages of prehistoric time. -Most of the germs, and many of the determinants, of our modern -institutions and civilization can be recognized in the habits, customs, -and life of the Neolithic period. Hence the importance of its study to -the historian and sociologist. It has left us an abundance of records, -if we can decipher and interpret them. It opens with savages living on -shell-heaps along the Baltic. Later we find the stone monuments of the -dead rising in France, England, Scandinavia, and parts of Germany. They -begin as small rude shelters and end as temples, like that at -Stonehenge. People were thinking and cooperating, and there must have -been no mean social organization. - -We find agriculture highly developed in the valleys of the Danube and -its tributaries. We see villages erected on piles along the shores of -the Swiss lakes--probably a later development. We find implements, -pottery, and bones of animals; charred grains of wheat and barley and -loaves of bread; cloth and ornaments--almost a complete inventory of the -food and furnishings of the people of this period. We should call them -highly civilized, had they been able to write their own history. What -was their past and whence had they come? - -Implements and pottery tell us of exchange of patterns and ideas, or may -suggest migrations of peoples, and finally map out long trade-routes. -Some day the study of the pottery will give us a definite chronology, -but not yet. - -We can reconstruct, to some extent, these phases of prehistoric life. -Our greatest difficulties begin when we attempt to combine these -separate parts in one pattern or picture, to trace their chronological -succession or the extent of their overlappings and their mutual -influence and relations in custom and thought. Here, we admit, our -knowledge is still very vague and inadequate. Twenty years ago the -problem seemed insoluble; perhaps it still remains so. But during that -time explorations, investigations, and study have given us many most -important facts and suggestions. Some inferences we can accept with a -fair degree of confidence, others have varying degrees of probability, -sometimes we can only guess. But guesses do no harm, if acknowledged and -recognized as such. - -I venture to hope that historian and sociologist may find valuable facts -and suggestions in this book. But, while writing it, I have thought more -often of the eager young student who may glance over its pages, feel the -allurement of some topic and resolve to know more about it. The -bibliography is prepared especially for him. It is anything but -complete. The literature of the period is almost endless. I have -referred to only a few of the best and most suggestive works. They will -introduce him to a chain of others. If he studies their facts and -arguments he will probably reject some of my opinions or theories, -modify others, and form his own. If I can do any young student this -service, my work will have been amply repaid. America has sent few -laborers into this rich harvest field. - -I wish that this little book might play the part of a good host, and -introduce many intelligent, thoughtful, and puzzled readers to the -company and view-point of the prehistorian. - -In prehistory we find man entering upon course after course of hard and -rigid discipline and training, usually under the spur of necessity, the -best of all teachers. Every course lasts through millennia. Their chief -end is to socialize and humanize individual men. Environment, natural or -artificial, is a means to this end. It compels men to struggle, each -with himself; only as men improve is any marked change of conditions -possible or desirable. Men must "pass" in the lower course before they -can be promoted to the next higher, to find here a similar field of -struggle on a somewhat higher plane. Human evolution, as a process of -humanizing and socializing man, is and must be chiefly ethical; for -ethics is nothing more nor less than the science and art of living -rightly with one's neighbor. And man is incurably religious, always -feeling after the power or powers in or behind nature, whose essential -character she is compelling him to express, as her inadequate but only -mouthpiece. He will gradually become like what he is feeling after, -dimly recognizing, and rudely worshipping. These are the most important -departments of the school of prehistoric man. - -The story told us by the evolutionist and prehistorian is full of -surprises. It tells us of the failure of dominant species of animals and -of promising races of men. It shows men plodding wearily through -hardship and discouragement, and finding therein the road to success. -The apparently dormant peoples and periods often prove in the end to -have been those of most rapid advance. "The race is not to the swift nor -the battle to the strong." But it enables us to plot the line of human -progress by points far enough apart to allow us to distinguish between -minor and temporary oscillations and fluctuations and the law of the -curve. The torch is passed from people to people and from continent to -continent, but never falls or goes out. There is always a "saving -remnant." We have grounds for a reasonable hope, not of a millennium, -but of success in struggle. The economist, sociologist, and even the -historian, are lookouts on the ship; evolution and prehistory must -furnish chart and compass, and tell us our port of destination. - -Many or most of the best thoughts in this book are borrowed. Some of -these borrowings are credited to their owners in the bibliography. Of -many others I can no longer remember the source. The recollection of -successive classes of students in Amherst College, with whom I have -discussed these topics, will always be a source of inspiration and -gratitude. I owe many valuable suggestions to my colleagues in the -faculty, especially to Professor F. B. Loomis. To the unfailing kindness -and ability of Mr. and Miss Erb, of the Library of Columbia University; -to Professor H. F. Osborn for his generous hospitality; to the staff of -the Boston Public Library; to Doctor L. N. Wilson, of the Library of -Clark University; most of all, to Mr. R. L. Fletcher and his assistants, -of the Library of Amherst College, my debt is greater than can be -expressed in any word of thanks. - - - - -CONTENTS - Page - - PREFACE vii - - CHAPTER - - I. THE COMING OF MAN 3 - - THE ANCESTORS OF MAN. THE PRIMATES AND ARBOREAL - LIFE. THE DESCENT FROM THE TREES. - PITHECANTHROPUS. THE ORIGINAL HOMELAND. - HUMAN RACES AND EARLIEST MIGRATIONS. THE - ARRIVAL IN EUROPE. THE GREAT ICE AGE. HEIDELBERG - MAN. NEANDERTHAL AND CRO-MAGNON - RACES. - - - II. THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. SHELL-HEAPS 36 - - THE RETREAT OF THE GLACIERS. DANISH SHELL-HEAPS. - MUGEM. MAGELMOSE. RINNEKALNS. - AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN EPOCH OF TRANSITION. - CAMPIGNY. THE FIRST IMMIGRANTS. - - - III. LAND HABITATIONS 53 - - NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLERS. PIT-DWELLINGS AND - HUTS. GROSGARTACH. FORTIFIED VILLAGES, - FOREST, AND STEPPE. LOESS. - - - IV. LAKE-DWELLINGS 69 - - PLATFORMS AND HOUSES. DOG, CATTLE, PIGS, - SHEEP. CULTIVATED PLANTS. FRUITS, SPINNING - AND WEAVING-EPOCHS. - - - V. A GLANCE EASTWARD 91 - - CRADLE OF NEOLITHIC CULTURE. BABYLONIA. - ANAU, SUSA. THE BEGINNINGS OF AGRICULTURE. - PLATEAUS AND PIEDMONT ZONES. HOE-TILLAGE. - THE PLOUGH. SUMMARY. - - - VI. MEGALITHS 114 - - DOLMENS. "GALLERY CHAMBERS." MENHIRS. - DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. INCINERATION. - - - VII. NEOLITHIC INDUSTRIES 131 - - DRESS. FLINT AND BONE IMPLEMENTS. AXES. - MATTOCKS. FLINT MINES. SALT. GOLD. COPPER. - TRADE. WARES. AMBER. TRADE-ROUTES. POTTERY, - BANDED, CORDED AND CALCYCIFORM, INCRUSTED - POTTERY. - - - VIII. NEOLITHIC CHRONOLOGY 160 - - FINAL RETREAT OF GLACIERS. YOLDIA EPOCH. - ANCYLUS EPOCH--LITTORINA DEPRESSION. DATE - OF BEGINNING AND OF END OF NEOLITHIC PERIOD. - FOREST SUCCESSIONS. MAGELMOSE AND SHELL-HEAPS. - SUCCESSIVE TYPES OF AXE. CHARTS. - - - IX. NEOLITHIC PEOPLES AND THEIR MIGRATIONS 179 - - PALAEOLITHIC RACES AND MIGRATIONS. MEDITERRANEAN - RACE. ROUTES OF MIGRATION. AFRICAN, - MEDITERRANEAN, SOUTH RUSSIAN STEPPE ROUTE. - NEOLITHIC PEOPLES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. - NORDIC PEOPLES. THE DANUBE VALLEY. THE - "MELTING-POT" OF CENTRAL EUROPE. PIONEER - LIFE. - - - X. NEOLITHIC RELIGION 206 - - PALEOLITHIC RELIGION, THE AGE OF WONDER: - NEOLITHIC RELIGION AND EXPERIENCE. RITUAL. - TABOO AND TRIBAL RESPONSIBILITY. GREEK MYSTERIES. - THE COMING OF THE OLYMPIANS, AND - THE RETURN OF THE ANCIENT CULTS, SOURCES - OF THEIR VITALITY. CULT OF THE GODDESS AND - MOTHER-RIGHT. RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. - SOCIAL POSITION OF WOMEN. - - - XI. PROGRESS 228 - - THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE BALTIC. SOURCE - OF PROGRESS NOT IN WAR. AGRICULTURE. HOME - TRAINING. THE NEIGHBORHOOD. RELIGION. PHILOSOPHY. - MINGLING OF CULTURES AND PEOPLES. - - - XII. THE COMING OF THE INDO-EUROPEANS 246 - - ARYAN AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. ORIGINAL - LANGUAGE; SPREAD AND MODIFICATIONS. EARLIEST - MIGRATIONS. THE ACHAEANS. THE AGE OF - HEROES. CITY-STATES IN GREECE. ABSORPTION - OF INVADERS. HOMELAND. INDO-EUROPEAN RELIGION. - PERSISTENCE OF NEOLITHIC SURVIVALS. - FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY-TALE. COMMON PEOPLE. - LEGISLATION. THE CHURCH. LIFE CURRENTS. - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 293 - - INDEX 309 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Reconstructed Lake-Dwellings _Frontispiece_ - FACING PAGE - - Human Figures, Spain--Early Neolithic 32 - - Drawings of Animals (Cro-Magnon) from Altamira 32 - - Shell-Heap 40 - - Shell-Heap Axe 40 - - Shell-Heap Jar 40 - - Weaving and Plaiting from Lake-Dwellings 84 - - "Crouching Burial" (Hockerbestattung), Adlerborg, - near Worms 116 - - Menhir, Carnac, Brittany 116 - - Dolmen, Haga, Island of Borust 116 - - Alignment, Carnac, Brittany 124 - - Modern Albanian Peasants in Neolithic Garments 132 - - Axes from Lake-Dwellings Showing Attachment to - Handles 136 - - Boats from Rock Carvings in Bohuslan, Sweden. - (Early Bronze Age) 146 - - Pottery from Neolithic Graves 154 - - Pottery 158 - - Successive Stages and Forms of Baltic Sea 162 - - Forms of Prehistoric Axe 174 - - Female Idols, Thrace 218 - - Female Idol, Anau 218 - - Ancient Fishermen 232 - - Early Agriculture 236 - - -MAP - - Migrations of Peoples 184 - - - - - THE NEW STONE AGE - IN NORTHERN EUROPE - - The first of the two numbers and the letter in the footnotes - designate the position in the Bibliography at the end of the - volume of the title referred to; the second refers to the page of - the book or article. - - -THE NEW STONE AGE IN NORTHERN EUROPE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE COMING OF MAN - - -Man has been described as a "walking museum of paleontology." He is like -a mountain whose foundations were laid in a time so ancient that even -the paleontologist hardly finds a record to decipher; whose strata -testify to the progress of life through all the succeeding ages; whose -surface, deeply ploughed by the glaciers, is clothed with grass and -forest, flower and fruit, the harvest of the life of to-day. - -Some of his organs are exceedingly old, while others are but of -yesterday; yet all are highly developed in due proportion, knit and -harmonized in a marvellously tough, vigorous, adaptable body, the -instrument of a thinking and willing mind. Most surviving animals have -outlived their day of progress; they have "exhausted their lead," to -borrow a miner's expression, and have settled down in equilibrium with -their surroundings. But discontented man is wisely convinced that his -golden age lies in the future, and that his best possessions are his -hopes and dreams, his castles in Spain. He is chiefly a bundle of vast -possibilities, of great expectations, compared with which his -achievements and realizations are scarcely larger than the central point -of a circle compared with its area. - -Physically he belongs to the great branch or phylum of vertebrate -animals having a backbone--sometimes only a rod of cartilage--an internal -locomotive skeleton, giving the possibility of great strength and -swiftness, and of large size. Large size, with its greater -heat-producing mass relative to its radiating surface, implies the -possibility of warm blood, or constant high temperature, resulting in -greater activity of all the organs, especially of the glands and the -nervous system. Large size, as a rule, is accompanied by long -life--giving opportunities for continuous and wide experience, and hence -for intelligence. Yet most vertebrates have remained cold-blooded, and -only a "saving remnant" even of men is really intelligent. Man belongs -to the highest class of vertebrates, the Mammals, which produce living -young and suckle them. Among the highest mammals, the Primates, or apes, -the length of the periods of gestation, of suckling the young, and of -childhood, with its dependence upon the mother, have become so long that -she absolutely requires some sort of help and protection from the male -parent. From this necessity have sprung various grades and forms of what -we may venture to call family life, with all its advantages. How many -mammals have attained genuine family life and how many men have realized -its possibilities?[1] - -The upward march of our ancestors was neither easy nor rapid. They were -anything but precocious. They were always ready to balk at progress, -stiff-necked creatures who had to be driven and sternly held in the line -of progress by stronger competitors. The ancestors of vertebrates -maintained the swimming habit, which resulted in the development of the -internal skeleton and finally of a backbone, not because it was easiest -or most desirable, but because any who went to the rich feeding-grounds -of the sea-bottom were eaten up by the mollusks and crabs. Our earliest -air-breathing ancestors were crowded toward, and finally to the land, -and into air-breathing by the pressure of stronger marine forms like -sharks, or by climatic changes.[2] Reptiles, not mammals, dominated the -earth throughout the Mesozoic era, and harried our ancestors into -agility and wariness; at a later period the apes remained in the school -of arboreal life mainly because the ground was forbidden and policed by -the Carnivora. They and their forebears were compelled to forego some -present ease and comfort, but always kept open the door to the future. - -In spite of all this vigorous policing, malingerers and deserters turned -aside from the upward line of march at every unguarded point or fork in -the road, escaped from the struggle, and settled down in ease and -stagnation or degeneration, like our very distant cousins, the monkeys -and lower apes. Long-continued progress is a marked exception, not the -rule, in the animal world, and is maintained only by the "saving -remnant." And these continue to progress mainly because Nature is -"always a-chivying of them and a-telling them to move on," as Poor Joe -said of Detective Bucket, and her guiding wand is the spur of necessity. - -The Primates, or apes, are, as we have seen, the highest order of the -great class of mammals. Most of them, like other comparatively -defenseless vertebrates, are gregarious or even social.[3] They have a -feeling of kind, if not of kindness, toward one another. This -sociability, together with the family as a unit of social structure, has -contributed incalculably to human intellectual and moral development. -Man is a Primate, a distant cousin of the highest apes, though no one of -these represents our "furry arboreal ancestor with pointed ears." -Arboreal life was an excellent preparatory training toward human -development. Our primate ancestor was probably of fair size. In climbing -he set his feet on one branch and grasped with his hands the branch -above his head. Foot and leg were used to support the body, hand and arm -for pulling. Thus the hand became a true hand and the foot a genuine -foot, opening up the possibility of the erect posture on the ground and -the adaptation of the hand to higher uses. Meanwhile the climbing and -leaping from branch to branch, the measuring with the eye of distances -and strength of branches, the power of grasping the right point at the -right instant, and all the complicated series of movements combined in -this form of locomotion furnished a marvellous set of exercises not only -for the muscles but for the higher centres in the cortex of the brain. -Very probably gregarious life and rude play, so common among apes, was -an extension course along somewhat similar lines. - -Our ancestors became at home in and well adapted to arboreal life, but -the adaptation was never extreme. It was rather what Jones[4] has called -a "successful minimal adaptation." They used arboreal life without -abusing it by over-adaptation, which would have enslaved them, and made -life on the ground an impossibility when the time came for their -promotion to this new and more advanced stage. - -At the close of his arboreal life the ape had inherited or acquired the -following assets: His vertebrate and mammalian structure had given him a -large, vigorous, compact, athletic, adaptable body. The mammalian care -of the young had insured their survival, but only at the expense of -great strain and risk of the mother. Something at least approaching -family life was already attained. Arboreal life with its gymnastic -training had moulded the body, differentiated hand and foot, given the -possibility of erect posture, emancipating the hand from the work of -locomotion and setting it free to become a tool-fashioning and -tool-using organ. The ape has keen sense-organs, an eye for distances, -and other conditions; and the use of these powers has given him a brain -far superior to that of any of his humbler fellows. These are full of -great possibilities and opportunities, if he will only use them. - -But why did our ancestor descend from his place of safety in the trees -and live on the ground, exposed to the attacks of fierce, swift, and -well-armed enemies? Very few of the Primates, except the rock and -cliff-inhabiting baboons, ever made this great venture. There must have -been some quite compelling argument to induce him to take so great a -risk. The change took place probably at some time during the latter half -of the Cenozoic or Tertiary period, the last great division of -geological time, the Age of mammals.[5] The earliest Tertiary Epoch, the -Eocene, was a time of warm and equable climate, when apes lived far -north in Europe, and doubtless in Asia also. Some of these apes were of -fair or large size, showing that conditions were favorable and food -abundant. The next epoch, the Oligocene, was similar but somewhat -cooler. The third, the Miocene, was cooler still and dryer. Palms now -forsook northern Europe, being gradually driven farther and farther -south. Life became more difficult, food scarcer. Apes could not longer -survive in northern Europe, but had to seek a warmer, more favorable, -environment farther south, for many of the fruit and food trees had -been crowded out and famine threatened.[6] But insects and other small -and toothsome animals remained on the ground, and were abundant along -the shores of rivers and lakes. There, too, were fruits and berries, -roots and tubers. There the food supply was still more than sufficient. - -Thus far we have glanced at Europe only. But the same changes are taking -place in Asia, the cradle and home of most placental mammals, the main -area of a huge zoological province of which Europe was but a westward -projection, and with which America had direct connection from time to -time in the region of Behring's Straits. Here, during late Miocene and -early Pliocene times, in the latter part of the Cenozoic era, a dryer -and somewhat harsher climate had been accompanied by the appearance of -wide plains fitted for grazing animals, as well as stretches of forest, -with all varieties of landscape favoring great diversity as well as -abundance of mammalian life. It was, perhaps, the golden age for most -mammals, when food was plenty, climate not too severe, and every -prospect pleased. This slow and gradual, but fairly steady, lowering of -temperature was to culminate in the Great Ice Age of the Pleistocene -Epoch, so destructive to mammalian life in the northern hemisphere. - -A second climatic change, perhaps even more important than the lowering -temperature, was the increase of aridity. Even during the Oligocene -Epoch "the flora indicates a lessening humidity and a clearer -differentiation of the seasons,"[7] The great trough of the inland sea -which had stretched from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean began to -rise, the first uplift taking place along the Pyrenees and western Alps. -The Miocene was marked by a series of great movements. The old inland -sea was displaced, subsidence gave place to uplift, and the greatest -mountain system of the globe, including the Alps and the Himalayas, -began to grow through vast repeated uplifts in the crust.[8] The -continents were elevated and widened. The forest-dwelling types became -restricted and largely exterminated, and animals of the plains, in the -form of horses, rhinoceroses, and the cloven-hoofed ruminants, expanded -in numbers and in species. This profound faunal change implies dryer -climate. There was now a lesser area of tropic seas to give moisture to -the atmosphere. The mountains were now effective barriers, shutting off -the moisture-bearing winds from the interior of the continents. - -These changes would have been noticeable in Europe north of the Alps, -but were far more so in central Asia along the northern face of the -great plateau of Thibet, with its eastern and western buttresses, and -its towering rampart of the Himalayas on the south, cutting off the warm -moisture of the Indian Ocean. Northward of this vast plateau and -westward over the far less elevated Iranian plateau and Afghanistan, -forest was fast being replaced by parklands of mingled groves and -glades, or by grassy plains, or even by dry steppes. Dessication, -aridity of climate, was fast compelling forest and arboreal mammals to -migrate or radically change their habits of life.[9] - -Almost all the apes found their old environment and continued their -arboreal life by migrating far southward through India or into Africa. -But at the rear of the retreating host were forms from the cooler -northern regions. They were hardy and vigorous, and probably larger than -most of their fellows. Possibly some of them were caught in isolated -decreasing areas of forest surrounded by steppe or plain. Some of them, -at least, began to descend from the trees, to seek the new food -supplies of riversides, glades, and thickets, and thus gradually to -become accustomed to life on the ground. It was a very hazardous -experiment; only the most hardy and wary and the quickest in perception, -wit, and movement survived. Among these were our ancestors, driven like -all their forebears by the spur of necessity into a new mode of life -under trying conditions. - -They were still only apes, with long arms and short legs, and probably -scrambled mostly on all fours. They had heavy brows, retreating -foreheads, projecting jaws, and a brutal physiognomy. Of the mental life -of the man who was to be descended from them there were few signs. They -were bundles of very slight possibilities. - -But let us not "despise the day of small things." They were still far -from the invisible line between apedom and manhood. Physically they -resembled man quite closely. They had hand and foot, and a fair-sized -brain, though they had scarcely begun to realize the possibilities of -these structures. - -Arboreal life could teach them little more; continuance in that school -would have meant a very comfortable stagnation. They were now promoted -to a new school of vastly more difficult problems, greater risks and -dangers, and more severe and trying discipline. They had had an -excellent course of manual and sensory training; now they must continue -this and add to it the use of whatever wits they had, under peril of -death. Nature was still compelling them to "move on." - -This descent to the ground probably was accomplished either in India or -on the Iranian plateau, or somewhat farther to the northeast, somewhere -in the great horseshoe of parkland which curved around the western -buttress of the great central Asiatic plateau of Thibet. Can we locate -it somewhat more definitely?[10] - -At this time, during the Pliocene Epoch, there were being deposited in -India the so-called Siwalik strata--vast, ancient flood-plains, -stretching for a distance of 1,500 miles along the southern foot-hills -of the Himalayas. They are composed of materials washed down from the -mountains by a system of rivers, persisting with little change into the -present. Says Osborn of the mammals found here: "It is altogether the -grandest assemblage of mammals the world has ever seen, distributed -through southern and eastern Asia, and probably, if our vision could be -extended, ranging westward toward Persia and Arabia into northern -Africa. It is the most truly cosmopolitan aggregation because in its -Upper Pliocene stage it represents a congress of mammals from four great -continents.... The only continents which do not contribute to this -assemblage are South America and Australia."[11] The older, Miocene, -portions of this fauna are chiefly browsing forest forms, emphasized by -the absence of both horses and Hipparion, as well as of grazing types of -cattle and antelopes. Grazing forms, showing the decline of the forest -and the spread of open parkland and grassy areas, become abundant during -the Pliocene Epoch. "Among the Primates we find the Orang, an ape now -confined to Borneo and Sumatra; also the Chimpanzee, another ape, now -confined to Africa, the Siwalik species displaying a more human type of -dentition than that of the existing African form." - -In the older, Miocene, portion we find Sivapithecus, an ape which -Pilgrim considers as more nearly resembling man than any other genus of -anthropoids, while Gregory speaks of it as belonging to the anthropoid -line.[12] Somewhat later, in late Pliocene or early Pleistocene, there -was living not far away, in Java, a far more renowned form, -_Pithecanthropus erectus_, _Du Bois_, which seems to stand almost -exactly midway between higher apes and man. The remains consisted of two -molar teeth, a thigh-bone, and the top of a skull. The cranium is low, -the forehead exceedingly retreating, giving but very small space for the -frontal lobes of the brain. But the brain-cast, made from the cranial -cavity, shows, according to Du Bois, that the speech area is about twice -as large as in certain apes, though only one-half as large as in man. In -size the brain stands somewhat above midway between the highest recent -apes and the lowest existing men. The thigh-bone shows that -Pithecanthropus could have stood and walked erect quite comfortably. -There has been and still is much difference of opinion regarding the -position of this most interesting being. Opinion was long divided nearly -equally between those who considered it as the highest ape and others -who held it to be the very lowest man. - -It is worthy of notice that, when Pithecanthropus was alive, "Java was a -part of the Asiatic continent; and similar herds of great mammals roamed -freely over the plains from the foot-hills of the Himalaya Mountains to -the borders of the ancient Trinil River, while similar apes inhabited -the forests. At the same time the Orang may have entered the forests of -Borneo, which are at present its home."[13] Where man's distant cousins, -the anthropoid apes, and his still nearer relation, Pithecanthropus, -were all living and some, at least, apparently progressing, could hardly -have been far from his original home. But the climatic conditions of -that time lead us to seek his original cradle somewhat farther northward -than India, or even Beluchistan, and nearer to, if not in, the great -steppe zone of central Asia. We lose sight of our ape-man as he is -advancing toward the threshold of manhood, not far away. Whether we -think that Pithecanthropus was approaching or had already passed it -depends much upon where we draw the line between ape and man, a line -largely artificial and as difficult to fix as the day and hour when the -youth becomes of age, and what human characteristics we select to mark -it. In his erect posture and some other physical traits he seems already -to have attained manhood; mentally he was probably far inferior to even -the lowest savage races of to-day. We are not sure whether he was our -ancestor or merely a cousin of our ancestor, once or twice removed; we -still lack foundations for any hypotheses as to exactly when, where, or -how the erect ancestral ape-man emerged into real manhood. - - -Millennia passed between the days of Pithecanthropus and the first human -migrations, and we may imagine primitive man as having become fairly -well accustomed to life on the ground, and as having mastered his first -lessons in meeting its dangers and difficulties. He had probably taken -possession of a much wider area than the home of the ape-man, perhaps of -the whole of the parkland zone curving around the western buttresses of -the plateau of Thibet. From this region routes of migration radiated in -all directions, all the more open because of the elevation of land which -lasted through Upper Pliocene and early Pleistocene times.[14] Sumatra -and Java then formed an extension of the Malay Peninsula, reaching more -than 1,000 miles into the Indian Ocean; while the Orang seems to have -been able to reach Borneo somewhat earlier. The way was equally clear -westward into Europe, the Dardanelles being then replaced by a land -bridge, while a second bridge spanned the Mediterranean over Sicily into -Italy, and a third existed at Gibraltar.[15] These routes were evidently -followed by herds of great herbivora, and probably by the earliest -human emigrants into Europe. - -Following Keane,[16] we shall divide mankind into four great groups or -races, and then glance at their radiation from southwestern Asia toward -all parts of the globe. These great primitive divisions are: - -I. _Negroids._ Color yellowish brown to black, stature large or very -small. Hair short, black or reddish brown, frizzly, flattened-elliptical -in cross-section. Nose broad and flattened. Cheek-bones small, somewhat -retreating. Examples: Negritoes, Negroes. - -II. _Mongoloids._ Color yellowish. Stature below average. Hair coarse, -lank, round in cross-section. Nose very small. Cheek-bones prominent. -Examples: Malays, Chinese, Japanese, Thibetans, Siberian "Hyperboreans." - -III. _Americans._ Color reddish or coppery. Stature large. Hair long, -lank, coarse, black, round in cross-section. Nose large, bridged, or -aquiline. Cheek-bones moderately prominent. (Probably a branch of II.) -Examples: Indians of North and South America. - -IV. _Caucasians._ Color pale or florid. Hair long, wavy or straight, -elliptical in cross-section. Nose large, straight or arched. Cheek-bones -small, unmarked. Examples: Hamitic, Semitic, and European peoples. - -We may now imagine quite primitive human beings starting from their -early home and seeking their fortunes widely apart. They came under -quite different climatic and other physical conditions. Their -environment, problems, stimuli, and opportunities were unlike. Thus, -having become more or less unlike in the homeland, they gradually became -differentiated into the present great groups or races already mentioned. -Some started earlier or marched more rapidly than others. Many proved -unequal to the dangers and difficulties of the journey or new place of -settlement, and disappeared. Many stagnated or degenerated. Only the -comparatively successful or fortunate have survived. Hence, our scheme -is hardly an adequate expression of prehistoric racial groups and their -characteristics, except in very general outline. - -We have seen that the apes, retreating before the approach of harsh and -dry climatic conditions and diminished forest areas and food supply, -migrated southward into India and Africa. The Orang settled in Borneo, -Pithecanthropus in Java, the Chimpanzee and Gorilla went into Africa. -These routes presented the fewest difficulties and demanded the least -readaptation or change of habit. The climate was mild and food -generally abundant and easily obtained. Their environment was neither -stimulating, trying, nor exacting. Progress was hardly to be expected, -but survival was far easier than in more northerly regions. - -The Negritos followed almost exactly the same routes. We find them -purest and perhaps least modified in the "Pygmies" of the African -forests; but also in the Malay Peninsula, the Andaman Islands, and the -Philippines. De Morgan believes that he has found proofs of their -presence on the Iranian plateau at a comparatively late date. - -Behind them Negroid peoples poured into Africa, apparently in successive -waves. Some of them went into the Malay Peninsula, probably generally -submerging the Negritos, and reached New Guinea and Australia. -Inhabiting a series of islands and other more or less isolated areas, -mingling often with Negritos, probably later also more or less with the -Malays, they became much modified, and their relations to the African -Negroes and to one another are still anything but clear. - -The Mongoloids pushed eastward. The earliest migrations seem to be those -of the Malays, a great, very interesting, and little-known though -much-studied group of peoples. They followed the oceanic Negritos along -the Malay Peninsula and occupied the great chains of islands stretching -through the Indian Ocean and far into the Pacific, through more than -ninety degrees of longitude along the equator. But much of this spread -is probably of quite recent date. - -The Mongoloid peoples seem to have passed along the northern front of -the Central Asiatic plateau into Siberia, China, and Japan, and to have -sent off the great American branch. Even before the Mongols had started -on their eastward journey the Caucasians may have turned westward, -following the old Negroid route. There was probably also more or less of -an eastern dispersal, but we cannot consider the problem of these -Oriental Caucasic remnants and traces. The great body went westward. The -Hamitic peoples distributed themselves along the southern shore of the -Mediterranean, and many may well have occupied a large part of the -Sahara region, then a land of watercourses capable of supporting a -large population. Behind them came the Semitic folk. Judging from their -languages the Hamitic and Semitic peoples seem to have been in contact -over a wide area, and for a long space of time. The Semites found a new -and permanent home in Arabia, on whose plateaus and surrounding -grasslands they increased and multiplied, and sent off fresh waves of -migration and conquest in all directions. - -We have already noticed that our classification of races is based upon a -study of recent and still surviving peoples. The very earliest -inhabitants of Europe would find no place in it. Probably they long -antedated the Hamites. African Negroids and Caucasians came from a -common home, and journeyed for a time over a common road, though -probably at far different times. It would be strange if the earliest -inhabitants of Europe showed no traces of this common home and ancestry. -Since the remote period which we are considering Negroes and Caucasians -have become widely different, and their racial characters have become -clear and sharp. This may not have been altogether the case with the -first peoples to arrive in Europe. But attempts to relate the -Neanderthal crania with those of modern Australians or Tasmanians, or -any existing race, have met with no great success. In regard to these -questions we are still in the dark. - -Beside the African routes into Europe, along the south shore of the -Mediterranean and over the Sicilian and Gibraltar land bridges, while -they lasted, two others must be noticed. One of these extended through -Asia Minor and across the land bridge at the Dardanelles, while the -second led westward along the northern border of the Caspian and Black -Seas and the Caucasus Mountains. The most southerly of these four routes -through Africa were probably the first to be travelled, the most -northerly last of all. We shall have to study these routes more closely -in a later chapter. - - -It was at some time during the Glacial period, the Great Ice Age, when a -vast ice-cap covered northern Europe with glaciers extending far -southward and advancing or retreating according to climatic conditions, -that man arrived in Europe. During the first Glacial Epoch the advance -of the ice covered the most northern part of Great Britain and the Rhine -valley almost as far south as Cologne; Scandinavia was completely -buried, like central Greenland to-day, and North Germany probably to the -Harz Mountains. Eastward the southern edge of the ice sheet ran nearly -along the line of 50 deg. N. lat. across Russia. In Siberia the effects -were less marked and the limits were much farther northward. Between the -parallel of 50 deg. and the northern edge of the Alpine glaciers a zone -was left ice-free, but three-fifths of Germany was overwhelmed. Southern -England and France, not yet separated by the English Channel, formed one -great habitable province, and but a small part of France was glaciated. -The climate was tempered by proximity to the sea.[17] The average yearly -temperature of northern Europe was probably not more than 4 deg.-6 deg. -Cent. (39 deg.-43 deg. Fahr.), which is colder than at present. But the -formation of these enormous masses of ice demanded heavy snowfall and -a moist or very damp climate. Hence the edge of the great ice sheet -advanced or retreated according to climatic conditions. - -There were four periods of advance before the final retreat of the ice, -not counting minor oscillations.[18] These are known as the Gunz, -Mindel, Riss, and Wurm Glacial Epochs. Alternating with these were the -interglacial epochs of ice retreat--the Gunz-Mindel, Mindel-Riss, and -Riss-Wurm; while the final retreat is usually termed Post-glacial. -During the first and second interglacial epochs the climate appears to -have been warmer than at present. But at times dryness may have -contributed to the retreat of the ice even more than warmth, and then -the climate would have been continental, harsh, and extreme. - -Even during epochs of glacial advance conditions in France and in the -German zone must have been better than we should expect. Some kind of -grazing or browsing pasturage must have been rich and abundant to -support large animals like the reindeer or even the woolly mammoths -characteristic of the second and third glacial epochs, which furnished -abundant food for prehistoric hunters. Farther south the glacial epochs -may well have been times of heavy rainfall, transforming the Sahara -desert and the dryer steppes and plateaus of Asia into veritable -gardens. - -The retreating ice left behind it a land covered with rocks, clays, -gravels, and sands brought by the glaciers and their streams. Here and -there basins had been gouged out where lakes or ponds long remained--as -in Maine and Minnesota to-day--to be later drained, or, if shallow, to be -overgrown with sphagnum and changed into great bogs. Scattered thickets -of shrubs and stunted hardy trees, poplars, willows, and others -occurred. In sheltered and well-drained valleys and mountainsides the -trees grew larger and even forests began to appear. This tundra -landscape still characterizes wide areas of northern Canada and -Siberia.[19] - -The tundra was followed by steppe conditions, where elevation of land to -the north and northwest had cut off the tempering oceanic winds. The -climate was harsh, dry, continental, with cold winters and hot summers. -The winds carried great storms of dust and piled it up in drifts in -valleys and on suitably situated mountainsides in the form of loess, so -important to the future agricultural development of Europe, though its -most massive accumulation is seen in China, which received and held the -driftings from the great elevated plains of central Asia. As the climate -became moister, if the temperature did not fall too low, steppe finally -gave way to the meadow and forest of modern Europe. Tundra, steppe, and -forest had each its special types of animal as well as plant life. The -characteristic tundra animal is the reindeer, though musk-ox, woolly -mammoth, and others were wide-spread at this time. The peculiar steppe -animal is the horse. The characteristic forest and meadow animals are -the deer and their allies; the wolf and bear; the wild boar and cattle -seem to be at home in forest and glade and along the streams. - -In France, where there was far less glaciation, the succession of -tundra, steppe, and forest is less apparent. Here we find a mingling of -varied forms which have come in from very different regions, driven from -their original homes by change of climate or drawn by favorable -conditions. - -The first unmistakable relic of man in Europe is a human lower jaw found -in the Mauer sands near Heidelberg, some seventy-nine feet below the -surface of the bluff.[20] It seems to belong to the second or -Mindel-Riss interglacial epoch, and its age is estimated by Osborn at -about 250,000 years. Remains characteristic of the oldest Paleolithic -epochs occur between thirty and forty-five feet below the surface. If we -are to find an archaeological name for this epoch, there seems to be no -better one than Eolithic, the dawn of the Stone Age, when European man -had hardly more than begun to chip a stone implement, although we must -recognize the unreadiness of many or most archaeologists to find a place -for such rude products.[21] - -The third interglacial period (Riss-Wurm) and the fourth period of -advance (Wurm) cover what is known as Lower Paleolithic time, which is -the earlier four-fifths or more of the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic -period, extending approximately from 125,000 B. C., to 25,000 B. C. -During the greater part of this period Europe was occupied by the -Neanderthaloid people. Neanderthal man had a very large head with heavy, -overhanging eyebrows meeting above the nose, and a markedly retreating -forehead. The face was high and the large nasal opening indicates a -broad, flat nose. The lower jaw was heavy and the chin retreating. The -trunk was short, thick, and robust, the shoulders broad; the limbs short -and heavy, the arms and lower legs relatively short, and the hands very -large. Although the much-discussed Piltdown skull may quite probably be -regarded as belonging to the earliest part of this period, the finer -form of cranium seems to testify to a higher race of better mental -development than the Neanderthaloids, huddling in their caves and -shelters. It may easily represent a far more progressive ancestral race, -of which they are somewhat degenerate descendants, though Osborn -dissents from this view.[22] - -Their remains are found in caves and rock-shelters all over Europe. Here -we find their hearths; the bones of the animals which they had hunted -for their food; their almond-shaped flint axes, "hand-stones" -(_Coups-de-Poing_), the scrapers for dressing skins and shaving wooden -tools, and a variety of other forms. Here they buried their dead. During -the third warm interglacial epoch they lived in the open, as at the -station of Chelles, which has given its name to the earliest Paleolithic -epoch.[23] Their origin and route of migration is quite uncertain, but -it seems probable that they entered Europe from the southern shore of -the Mediterranean. - - -The post-glacial period is characterized by the final retreat of the -ice. The change of climate was not steady but marked by a series of -oscillations, repeating on a much smaller scale the glacial and -interglacial epochs of the long past. The climatic change is accompanied -by the appearance of tundra and steppe, followed by meadows and the -forest conditions of modern times. Game was abundant and general -conditions severe but healthy and fairly favorable. - -A new race has appeared on the scene which replaced the Neanderthal -folk, and had practically none of their primitive or degenerate, -ape-like characteristics.[24] The Cro-Magnon people have excited the -wonder and admiration of all anthropologists. They were of tall stature, -had long legs, especially below the knee, giving swiftness in running. -The forehead is broad and of good height, the features are rugged but -attractive, and the brain is very large. They seem to represent a new -race and new immigration, probably from Asia, which spread over Europe. - -The Cro-Magnon brain was anything but dull. In this remote time, more -than 20,000 years ago, there sprang up an art never since surpassed in -its own field except, perhaps, by that of the Greeks. Their bone -implements are adorned with the most lifelike carvings or sculptures. On -the walls of caves we find paintings as realistic and alive, and often -as finely executed in detail and coloring, as the best animal painters -of our day could produce. These people must have had a high and keen -appreciation of the beauty of form and proportion. All this artistic -movement must have had its source in new ideas and conditions, springing -from a thinking as well as a feeling and observing mind. They also -frequently buried their dead, decorated with strings of perforated -shells, and surrounded by flints or sometimes by a layer of red earth or -ore. With them were the bones of food animals and the flint weapons -needed for the journey into or use in the life beyond. - -The life of the Cro-Magnon hunters on their arrival in Europe was -anything but unendurable, especially along the Riviera. There were -open-air encampments where men passed at least the summer months in -tents or huts. The race seems to have culminated during the cold middle -Magdalenian epoch, which indicates that they were well adapted to its -conditions. Game was abundant and relatively easily captured. They had -food and raiment, fair shelter, excellent art, alert brains, and -probably a fair degree of social life. They may well have been content, -courageous, and full of hope for themselves and their descendants. - -[Illustration: HUMAN FIGURES, SPAIN--EARLY NEOLITHIC] - -[Illustration: DRAWINGS OF ANIMALS (CRO-MAGNON) FROM ALTAMIRA] - -Upper Paleolithic time, beginning with the arrival of the Cro-Magnons, -about 25,000 years ago, is divided into four epochs, or, better, -four culture-stages: Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian, and -Azilian-Tardenoisian. Even in late Magdalenian days, after a cold and -dry interval accompanied by steppe conditions and a new formation of -loess, the air became moister and the temperature gradually moderated -until it became much like that of to-day. Tundra and steppe animals -became more rare; a forest and meadow fauna took possession of Europe. -Instead of the reindeer we find stag and roe-deer, cattle, wild boar, -bears and wolves, beaver and otter. These were less easily hunted and -probably less abundant than the reindeer and horse had been. As -hunting became less profitable, fishing grew more attractive. The -streams probably swarmed with fish, and the salmon was probably as -abundant throughout northern Europe as in Scandinavia to-day. A change -of life is suggested by the implements. The harpoons became ruder. The -beautifully flaked lance-heads and the smoothed bone daggers give place -to small flints, "microliths," less fitted for attacking large and -dangerous animals. The country seems to have supported a smaller and -decreasing population. Cro-Magnon man had always been a reindeer hunter, -accustomed and well adapted to the life and conditions of tundra or -steppe. The changes were not in his favor or to his liking. Many -probably left France and Germany. Those who remained deserted the -rock-shelters and cave-mouths, where every spring the water seeping down -and dripping through the roof dislodged masses of stone.[25] The shelter -was less needed. Men dwelt more in the open, and fewer records of their -presence were preserved. - -But Europe was not deserted. There was no "hiatus." Other peoples were -coming in, perhaps better suited to the new conditions, probably mostly -of Asiatic origin. Broad-heads, as well as new long-heads, appear, less -attractive physically and mentally, but apparently of tougher fibre and -greater staying power than our more striking and charming -Cro-Magnons.[26] A new grand mingling of peoples had already begun or -was in its last stages of preparation already advancing from afar in -successive waves. In Italy genuine Neolithic culture may already have -been introduced. It steals very slowly into northern Europe and -overspreads it. The Cro-Magnon race generally migrated or died out, but -left its traces in the physical characters of the people of Dordogne and -elsewhere. - -The Azilian-Tardenoisian epoch leads over to the Neolithic, our chief -object of study. Its relative position in prehistoric time is shown in -the following scheme: - -_A._ _Eolithic Period._ Stone implements exceedingly rude, hardly -recognizable as artificially chipped; otherwise like _B_. - -_B._ _Paleolithic Period._ Stone implements chipped or flaked, never -polished. No domesticated plants or animals. No pottery. Man a collector -or hunter, more rarely a fisherman. - -_C._ _Transition Period_, resembling _B_ in most respects. - -[_A_, _B_, and _C_ make up the Old Stone Age, before the use of metals.] - -_D._ _Neolithic Period._ Some stone implements polished. No metal except -that copper is introduced toward the end of the period. Agriculture with -domestic plants and animals. Pottery but no potter's wheel. Dawn of -Civilization. - -_E._ _Bronze Period._ Bronze implements or utensils. Dawn of History. -Begins about 2500 B. C. in northern Europe. - -_F._ _Iron Period._ Iron introduced. Historic Times. Begins about 1000 -B. C. in northern Europe. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. SHELL-HEAPS - - -During the last great advance of the ice in the earlier Magdalenian -epoch the Scandinavian peninsula had been buried beneath a great mass of -ice, and resembled the central portion of Greenland to-day. A great -glacier extended southward, obliterating the Baltic Sea and crowding -into northern Germany. As the glaciers withdrew, North Germany became a -vast tundra, across which we may imagine the reindeer and other Arctic -and subarctic mammals retreating northeastward before the milder forest -and meadow conditions already prevailing in France and Russia.[27] The -low temperature of the water of the emerging Baltic is shown by the -presence of an arctic bivalve, _Yoldia arctica_, which has given its -name to the epoch. A few scattered bone implements show the presence of -reindeer hunters in Germany at this time. - -Before the close of the Yoldia period Germany began to pass from tundra -to forest--a transformation which was also now progressing in Denmark. -The temperature moderated slowly. The land rose in such a way that it -separated the Baltic from the North Sea and the Arctic Ocean, with which -it had been connected, and made of it a great fresh-water lake. The -characteristic animal of this lake was a small pond animal, _ancylus_, -which has given its name to both lake and epoch. - -The next epoch--the Litorina (or Tapes) depression--was characterized by a -sinking of the land in which the barrier between the Baltic and the -North Seas gave place to a wide communication. The Baltic became more -salt than at present, and the oyster-banks became abundant. It was -during this epoch that the shell-heaps were accumulated. - -The following chart gives a condensed view of the succession of events -(in reverse order):[28] - - +------------------------------+---------------------------+-------+ - | WESTERN AND MIDDLE | | DATE | - | EUROPE | NORTHERN EUROPE | B. C. | - +------------------------------+---------------------------+-------+ - | 4. Typical Neolithic. | Typical Neolithic. | 6000- | - | | Beech and fir forests. | 2500 | - | 3. Daun Stage. | Litorina Epoch. | | - | | Oak forests. | | - | | Northern climatic | | - | | optimum. | 8000 | - | Campignian | Shell-heaps. | | - | 2. Gschnitz Stage. | Ancylus Epoch. Birch and | | - | | pine forests. | 10,000| - | Azilian-Tardenoisian. | Magelmose. | | - | 1. Buehl Stage. | Yoldia Epoch. | | - | | Swedish-Finnish Moraines | 16,000| - | Magdalenian (later) | Tundra. Dryas Flora. | | - +------------------------------+---------------------------+-------+ - -The growth and succession of the forests of Denmark, accompanying -changes in conditions of soil and climate, have been clearly traced by -Steenstrup.[29] The scene of his investigations was a moraine country -broken by low ranges of hills in the island of Zealand, north of -Copenhagen. The hills are often strewn with erratic blocks of rock -brought by glaciers, with here and there small lakes, ponds, or -peat-bogs often giving place to meadow or forest. - -Some of these depressions are filled with a poor variety of peat, dug -for fuel, and the sides are often abrupt, steep, and deep. These sides -furnish a calendar by showing the different layers which have been -formed by successive generations of tree-growth falling into the bog. -Thus, in the upper layers we find remains of trees which still flourish -in Denmark, while the deepest strata contain the remains of reindeer. -The thickness of these layers is between five and seven metres. Their -formation, according to Steenstrup, occupied 10,000 to 12,000 years.(1) - -The following layers are found in these "calendars," beginning at the -surface: - -1. Surface layer. Remains of the beech, which furnishes the chief beauty -of the forests of Denmark to-day. - -2. Oak. The beginning of this layer was contemporary with the Litorina -depression. - -3. Scotch pine (_pinus sylvestris_). The earliest pines were dwarfed, -the trunks showing as many as seventy rings to the inch. In upper strata -their trunks were a metre or so in diameter. In the Lillemose moor, near -Rudesdal, the whole eastern side, twenty metres deep, was filled with -pines. While no human remains have been found in these moors, a stone -axe embedded in a pine trunk, and a stone arrow-head in a bone of the -_bos primigenius_ (which, like the auerhahn or pine partridge lived on -the young pine shoots) have been discovered. The soil best adapted to -the pine is a damp soil, poor in humus, whereas the present rich, -fertile soil of Denmark is best suited to the beech. This explains the -fact that pine forests no longer grow there. - -4. At the bottom, poplars and aspens. The clay underlying the pines and -poplars contains leaves of arctic willows and saxifrages. - -Through these types of strata we may trace the epochs described -at the beginning of the chapter. The pine characterizes the -Azilian-Tardenoisian-Ancylus Epoch; at the time of the Litorina -depression it was fast giving place to the oak, which remains -characteristic of the Neolithic and Bronze periods, yielding to the -beech during the Iron Age. But this advance must have been gradual and -the boundary of advance irregular. - -Blytt has traced a very similar succession of changes in flora and -climate in southern Norway, and Geikie in Scotland.[30] These changes -are very important in our study of the traces of man's first appearance -in Denmark as furnishing not only their setting but also their -chronology. - -Shell-heaps are found all over the world in favorable sheltered -localities where sea food is abundant, especially near clam flats. Hence -they are not characteristic of any one race or time. Some are very -ancient, some comparatively or very modern. They merely show the remains -of the camping-grounds of people in a low stage of culture. Every one -has its own history and its own slight or marked peculiarities. - -The Danish shell-heaps or kitchen-middens are mounds generally about -fifty metres wide and one hundred metres long, and perhaps one metre in -thickness. But, as we should naturally expect, the size varies greatly -according to the advantages of the situation, the number of inhabitants, -and the length of time that it was inhabited. - -[Illustration: SHELL-HEAP] - -[Illustration: SHELL-HEAP AXE] - -[Illustration: SHELL-HEAP JAR] - -The age of these shell-heaps is shown approximately by the presence of -the auerhahn, proving the neighborhood of pine forests. The charcoal in -the fireplaces came from oak wood, showing that oak forests are -overspreading the country. The Baltic was more salt than at present, and -the shore line was depressed. These facts indicate a period of -transition from the Ancylus to the Litorina Epoch. The stone implements -resemble those of western Europe during the late transition epoch, and -do not occur in the oldest graves. There are no domestic animals except -the dog, and no cultivated plants except some wheat in the later -remains. All this seems to prove that genuine Neolithic culture had not -yet reached the shores of the Baltic. They are composed mostly of oyster -shells with a mingling of those of scallops, mussels, and periwinkles. -The oyster has now disappeared from large parts of the coast and in -others has decreased in size. Land elevation has narrowed the connection -of the Baltic with the North Sea, and the water contains less salt. - -Remains of cod and herring show that the fishermen who lived on or near -these harbors ventured out to sea in dugouts or on rafts, and that they -must have made lines for fishing in fairly deep water. Remains of other -fish occur. Bones of birds are often very abundant, especially swamp, -shore, and swimming species; wild geese and ducks, swans and gulls, the -_Alca impennis_ or wingless auk, now extinct. The blackcock, or "spruce -(pine) partridge," was then common, but has now disappeared from Denmark -with the pine whose buds formed a large part of its food. - -Bones of stag, deer, and wild boar form, according to Steenstrup, 97 per -cent of all those of mammals found at Havelse.[31] Bones of seal, otter, -wolf, fox, bear, beaver, and wildcat also occur. There are no traces of -reindeer or musk-ox. These animals had already migrated or died out. -Steenstrup noticed that the long bones of birds are about twenty times -as numerous as others of their skeletons, and that the heads or ends of -the long bones of mammals are generally missing. These were exactly the -parts which are gnawed by dogs, whose remains also occur. Hence he drew -the inference, now universally accepted, that the dog was domesticated -in Denmark at this time. It was a small species, apparently akin to the -jackal and of southeastern origin. No remains of other domesticated -animals have been found, nor of cultivated plants, except a few casts of -grains of wheat in the pottery of the upper layers of some of the -heaps. - -Daggers, awls, and needles were made of bone; also combs apparently used -for stretching sinews into long threads. The flint implements are rudely -chipped, never polished. We find long flakes used as knives, and -numerous scrapers and borers.[32] The axe, if we may call it so, was of -peculiar form, approaching the triangular and looking as if made out of -a circular disk of flint by breaking away two sides of the periphery, -leaving a somewhat flaring cutting edge. The middle was thick, the edge -tapered somewhat rapidly, making a rough but quite durable instrument. -Longer implements in the form of chisels or picks were also roughly -flaked with skilfully retouched edges, often with one end narrowed or -bluntly pointed. In all cases the work is very rude compared with the -best specimens of Paleolithic time. Arrow-heads are common, usually with -a broad edge instead of a point, well suited to killing birds and small -mammals. The bone harpoon seems to have gone out of use. - -The pottery is thick, heavy, crude, with practically no ornament, except -finger-prints around the upper edge. The jars are sometimes of large -size; often the base is pointed instead of flat or rounded. Hearths of -calcined stones are abundant. Sometimes these are surrounded by circular -depressions in the heaps, which may mark the form and position of huts -or shelters; or these may have been placed under the lee of the near-by -forests. No graves or human remains of this period have been found. - -Shell-heaps quite similar to those of Denmark were discovered at Mugem, -in Portugal, in the valley of the Tagus, twenty-five to thirty metres -above sea-level, and thirty to forty miles from the mouth of the river. -The shells are of marine origin, and indicate a considerable elevation -of land since their accumulation. The stone implements are very -primitive and of Azilian-Tardenoisian type. Large flat stones, perhaps -for grinding, perhaps for dressing skins, occur. Pottery occurs only in -the upper layers, where the bones of mammals increase in number. There -are no polished implements, no traces of domesticated animals, not even -of the tame dog. Graves were found here and there; and while the skulls -were badly contorted, they seemed to show that the inhabitants were -partly long-headed, partly broad-heads. Remains, apparently of the same -age, have been found in Great Britain. - -Even the Danish shell-heaps are not all of the same age. According to -Forrer, Havno is ancient; Ertebolle is also old, but was long inhabited, -and some of its uppermost layers may be full Neolithic; Aalborg and -others are younger. Mugem strikes us as more ancient than the similar -Danish remains. Other remains near the Baltic suggest very strongly -quite marked differences in age or in the culture of their inhabitants, -or in both these respects. We can notice only two of these. - -Maglemose lies on the west coast of Zealand near the harbor of Mullerup. -Here a peat-bog has encroached upon a fresh-water lake and has covered a -mud bottom strewn with shells of pond-snails and mussels. Pines had -grown in the swamp, and their stumps still protrude into or above the -moss. The implements were found a little above the old lake bottom -between seventy centimetres and one metre below the surface of the peat. -The remains of the settlement were distributed over an area about one -hundred feet long and broad. The charred or burned wood was very largely -(eighty per cent) pine, ten per cent hazel, a little elm and poplar. No -oak was found here, but oak-pollen grains were found in the same level -as the settlement, or slightly higher and later. Flint cracked by heat -and charred fragments of wood were found, but no definite hearths. Bones -of fresh-water fish and of swamp turtles occur. The shore could not have -been very distant even if it stood considerably higher, but no bones of -marine fish have been found. Many birds were hunted. The mammals include -boar, deer, stag, and urus. The dog is the only domesticated animal. - -Flint chips are abundant at Maglemose; long knife-flakes and axes are -rare. Scrapers and nuclei are numerous. The arrow-heads are long and -pointed instead of broad and edged, as in the usual Danish shell-heap. -Many of these so-called arrow-heads may have been nothing more than -microliths used for a great variety of purposes. No flint implements or -fragments show any trace of polishing. Bone implements are numerous. We -find rude harpoons of a very late Magdalenian type. Also, some of the -bone implements are ornamented with various patterns of incised lines, -and even one or two rude drawings of animals occur. The culture -evidently differs quite markedly from that of the ordinary shell-heaps. -It is worthy of notice that the mud of the lake bottom and the overlying -peat were continuous over and around the whole area of the settlement; -there is no sign of any island at this point and the settlement was -some 350 metres from the original shore of the lake. There are abundant -traces of fire but no hearths. No traces of piles have been discovered. -All this seems to corroborate Sarauw's view that the people lived on a -raft all the year round. Sarauw considers the remains as of the same age -as the oldest shell-heaps. But there is a wide-spread tendency to -consider Maglemose as considerably older, belonging probably to the -close of the Ancylus Epoch. - -Virchow has described a heap composed of mussel-shells on the outlet of -Burtnecker Lake, east of Riga, called Rinnekalns.[33] Its most -interesting feature is its pottery made of clay mixed with powdered -mussel-shells, giving it a peculiar glitter. It is ornamented with lines -arranged in an angular geometrical pattern encircling the vessel. -Similar pottery can be followed far southward into Russia and westward -as far as East Prussia, but not farther into Germany. Bored teeth used -for ornaments occur. Bone implements are numerous, often ornamented with -fine lines in zigzag or network. We find harpoons also. The flint -industry was poorly and sparingly developed. Graves were discovered, but -their contents proved that they belonged to a much later period. - -The culture is peculiar, paralleled to a certain extent but not repeated -in western Europe. We still seem to detect the influence of a decadent, -late Magdalenian style of ornament. Virchow considered them as very late -Paleolithic or very early Neolithic. - -The shell-heaps of different regions resemble one another in general -features, but differ and show their individuality in details of culture. -These peculiarities may be due to difference of age or of culture or -population, or to both. We must first attempt to find some place for -them in the chronological succession discovered in France. They cannot -be much older than the French period of transition, when Scandinavia -first became habitable. But good cave-series covering the transition -epoch are rare, and usually very incomplete. In 1887 Piette found a -remarkable series in a cave or natural tunnel at Mas d'Azil, near -Toulouse.[34] The most important strata were the following: - -1. A dark layer evidently Magdalenian. - -2. A yellow layer deposited by river floods. - -3. Dark Magdalenian layer, with reindeer harpoons, engravings, and -sculptures. Reindeer becoming rare; stag increasing. - -4. Barren yellow layer, like 2. - -5. Reddish layer (Azilian). No reindeer. Stag abundant. Flints nearly -all of Magdalenian types. Flattened stag-horn harpoons perforated at -base. Bone points and smoothers. Pointed flat pebbles. Bones of stag, -bear, boar, wildcat, beaver. - -6. Bones of wild boar, stag, horse. Flints similar to those in 5. -Beginnings of pottery and of polishing; but not of polished axes. -Piette's Arisian. Beginning of Neolithic. - -7. Neolithic and Bronze remains. - -Layer 5 evidently represents a period posterior to the Magdalenian and -anterior to the real Neolithic. Hence Piette considered it as marking a -distinct Azilian Epoch, resembling the Magdalenian in most of its flint -implements, in the absence of pottery and of polished axes. But the -reindeer has here given place to the stag, and the harpoon has changed -correspondingly and is less skilfully made. Bone implements are -decadent. - -Another culture, the Tardenoisian, was of exceedingly wide range. It -took its name from Fere-en-Tardenois, Department of Aisne, northeast of -Paris, and was characterized by its very small "pygmy" flints of -various, usually geometric forms.[35] This microlithic industry was -found in France, Belgium, England, Germany, Russia, and along the -southern shore of the Mediterranean. The culture was well represented -along rivers and inlets, and seemed to characterize a fishing rather -than hunting folk. - -In 1909 Breuil and Obermaier found in the grotto of Valle, in northern -Spain, a classic Azilian deposit, forming the lower levels of a series -rich in these microliths or pygmy flints. The Azilian was more nearly a -continuation of the Magdalenian culture, while the Tardenoisian, in -France, seemed to be an importation from the Mediterranean region. Since -the two were so closely related in point of time it seemed safe and wise -to combine the two names and call the epoch the Azilian-Tardenoisian, -the Azilian representing the older portion. - -The station of Campigny, on the lower Seine, seems to be somewhat later -than the Azilian-Tardenoisian.[36] Here, in a pit oval in outline, with -a long diameter of 4.30 metres, evidently an ancient dwelling, there -were found bits of pottery, utensils of older stone epochs, no polished -implements, but the tranchet or axe and the pick (pic) characteristic of -the Danish shell-heaps. These Campignian remains are hardly widely -enough diffused or sufficiently definite to give name to a distinct -epoch. They may well be nearly contemporaneous with the (older?) -shell-heaps. - -The whole transition epoch, which we have hastily surveyed, shows us a -series or mixture of disconnected cultures, yet with curious and -striking interrelations. This may be partly due to the fact that the -population of Europe was diminished and scattered. Little groups of -people formed more or less isolated communities, and developed their own -special peculiarities according to situation, needs, and opportunities. -Connecting links, or intermediate cultures, which may once have existed, -have been completely lost or still remain to be discovered. The general -desertion of the caves destroyed one of our best sources of continuous -records. - -But the cause of this diversity lies deeper. New cultures and new waves -of migration of peoples were pouring into Europe, especially into the -Baltic region now left free of ice, enjoying a mild climate, and -offering an abundance of food along the shores of its rivers, lakes, and -seas. The Tardenoisian culture had spread northward from the -Mediterranean. The broad-headed people of Furfooz, Grenelle, and Ofret -had apparently crossed Europe from the east and had settled in a long -zone extending northward and southward through Belgium and France and -probably southward into Spain, for we remember the broad-heads found at -Mugem, in Portugal. But their distribution was far wider than this strip -of territory. New Neolithic types of culture had already entered Italy, -perhaps as early as Magdalenian times. Series of waves appear to have -passed into Poland, Russia, and Siberia, and to have moved northward -until they reached the coast in Scandinavia and to the eastward. In all -these cases we may probably imagine a gradual and perhaps slow -infiltration or "seeping" in of the new population rather than an -invasion in crowds or masses, such as we are likely to imagine. Vast -stretches of habitable land had been newly opened, and there was plenty -of room for all comers. In many regions the old population may have -remained comparatively undisturbed until a much later date. But even -they slowly came under the influence of the new and improved technique -and mode of life. All this collision of culture and conflict of peoples -meant stimuli, awakening, the jogging of dull minds, a veritable spur of -necessity. A new day was beginning to break. The dawn was dim and -cloudy, but there was the possibility and prospect of clear shining. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -LAND HABITATIONS - - -Our history of Paleolithic times is drawn very largely from the -successive strata of remains found in rock-shelters and near the mouths -of caves, where the succession of epochs is clear and indubitable. We -naturally look for similar reliable testimony concerning the -chronological succession of Neolithic utensils, pottery and other -remains. Here, however, we have been disappointed to a large degree. -Paleolithic layers were generally or frequently overlaid by beds of -stalagmite or fallen rocks, which have saved them from disturbance. But -the Neolithic and Bronze layers are superficial, usually of no great -thickness; they have been less solidified and protected, and far more -exposed to the disturbing work of burrowing mammals and of men digging -for buried treasures. These circumstances, combined with far less -continuity of occupation, have greatly diminished the chronological -value of their study. - -Neolithic cave remains occur in somewhat limited areas scattered all -over Europe.[37] They have been studied in England, France, Spain, -Austria, and Germany in at least fairly large numbers. In Austria the -cave province extends through Galicia, Moravia, and Bohemia. Here we -find primitive pottery; rude stone and numerous bone implements; -domesticated cattle, goats, and pigs. Game was evidently very abundant. -The cave-dwellers, apparently, were pioneers in the less habitable -regions, living mostly by hunting and fishing, from the increase and -products of their herds, and from agriculture to a far less degree. The -pottery and implements remind us somewhat of those of the earliest -lake-dwellings. But we often find bits of copper and bronze, suggesting -a later date or a series of inhabitants whose relics have become much -mixed. It would not be at all surprising if primitive manufactures had -remained here longer in use than in less isolated regions. A deposit of -quite similar general character has been found at Duino, near -Monfalcone, at the head of the Gulf of Trieste. - -A second province lies in Bavaria, between Bamberg and Baireuth. Hoernes -considers its remains as also of the same age as the oldest -lake-dwellings, but with peculiarities due to the different geographical -conditions. The cave provinces of other countries are equally -interesting. Every one has its own features and problems. We would -naturally expect that these cave-dwellers would represent the least -progressive and prosperous members of the population of any country. In -our general survey we can afford to give them only a hasty glance. We -can easily understand that where chalk or other soft rock occurred -artificial grottos were often excavated.[38] - -Remains of dwellings are common all over Europe, and are likely to be -uncovered wherever excavations are made in grading or for the -foundations of buildings. They are of two forms: the rectangular house -and the round hut. The rectangular form is the rule in the -lake-dwellings, though with exceptions; on the land the reverse is true. -The pit-dwelling at Campigny was elliptical in form with a longest -diameter of 4.30 metres. We remember that the settlement at Campigny is -probably little, if at all, younger than the shell-heaps. But by far the -commoner form of pit-dwelling is circular, with a diameter rarely -exceeding two metres. Such small circular pits are exceedingly common. -At the bottom we find ashes, bones of animals, implements, and fragments -of clay once forming a part of the superstructure, baked hard when the -hut was burned, and still having marks of the twigs and branches over -which the clay had been plastered. We picture to ourselves the hut as -mostly underground, with a diameter usually not exceeding one and -one-half to two metres, excavated to a depth of one or two metres, the -pit often surrounded by a rude wall of field stones. In the centre was -the hearth. The superstructure was merely a cone composed of a framework -of poles interlaced with branches and twigs plastered with clay. In the -primitive hut there was no perpendicular side wall above ground, though -in some the roof may have been raised somewhat on the earth thrown out -from the pit. Such differences of detail are of slight importance. The -huts are of all ages. They were probably erected far back in Paleolithic -time. They seem to be figured in Magdalenian cave-frescoes.[39] Even the -Chellean hunters could hardly have erected more primitive shelters. But -equally rude huts are still inhabited in the Balkan Peninsula,[40] and -are described by classical writers as inhabited by the Germans. - -Says Tacitus (_Germania_, XLVI) of the Finns of his day: "They lead a -vagrant life: their food the common herbage; the skins of beasts their -only clothing; and the bare earth their resting-place.... To protect -their infants from the fury of wild beasts and the inclemency of the -weather, they make a kind of cradle amidst the branches of trees -interwoven together, and they know no other expedient. The youth of the -country have the same habitation, and amidst the trees old age is rocked -to rest. Savage as this way of life may seem, they prefer it to the -drudgery of the field, the labor of building, and the painful -vicissitudes of hope and fear, which always attend the defense and the -acquisition of property. Secure against the passions of men, and fearing -nothing from the anger of the gods, they have attained that uncommon -state of felicity, in which there is no craving left to form a single -wish. The rest of what I have been able to collect is too much involved -in fable...." - -Let us hope that the reports which Tacitus had been able to collect -concerning the dwellings, as well as the ferocity, filth, and poverty of -the Finns, were somewhat exaggerated. Evidently conical, largely -subterranean huts have been common in Europe down to far later than -Neolithic times. The age of any pit-dwelling can be determined only by -its contents. - -In addition to these circular pits, long or short trenches occur. Forrer -found at Stutzheim one cellar more than ten metres long, and varying -from one to three metres in width, with several lateral enlargements as -pantries and storehouses.[41] Forrer considers this as the home of the -chief man, the "manor-house" of the settlement. Around it he found -remains of huts such as we have already described. Frequently space for -storage as well as dwelling was gained by clustering small huts. This -plan would have had the advantage of protection against loss of -everything by fires, which must have been frequent. Such cramped -dwellings, with the garbage scattered over the bottom of the hut, or in -the huts of the most highly cultured deposited in a special hole in one -corner, could hardly have been attractive, clean, or sanitary. But they -were cool in summer and warm in winter, and afforded protection against -wind and weather. People asked and expected no more. Housekeeping was -simple, if not easy. But we can imagine that the return of spring, -allowing them to emerge from their burrows, must have been hailed with -delight. - -We have still much to learn concerning these Neolithic dwellings. They -have been discovered by chance, and usually studied only hastily and -superficially. A pit discovered and examined may have been only one of a -large cluster or village, of which the rest remained undiscovered. -Wooden houses of logs, or with a strong frame of poles seem to have -existed in Bronze, or even late Neolithic times. Sophus Mueller[42] -describes settlements in Denmark where the abundance of ashes and -utensils prove long-continued habitation, and yet no pits seem to have -been found--this may be due to insufficient investigation--strongly -suggesting, at least, houses entirely above ground built of perishable -materials. It is very hard to believe that even a Neolithic family could -have lived through the winter in one, mainly subterranean, dwelling only -two metres in diameter, with a fireplace in the middle. They would have -been compelled to sleep sitting or standing! Probably Stutzheim and -other similar settlements which have been discovered, represent the real -general average of pit-dwellings, while besides these there were many of -far superior style and comfort. The development of the Greek house is -still a problem, much more that of a North German dwelling. - -As an example of late Neolithic settlement of the better or best class, -we may take Grosgartach, near Heilbronn, in the Neckar valley.[43] Here, -where now are low meadows, was once a lake connected with the Neckar. -The Neolithic village was carefully and skilfully explored by Hofrath -Schliz, whose report is a model of careful observation and clear -description. - -The situation was very favorable, with loess-clad hills sloping to rich -meadows, and the lake furnishing fish and a line of communication. The -areas occupied by the houses and stalls were clearly marked by the dark -"culture-earth" contrasting sharply with the yellow loess. The principal -house was rectangular. The outer wall was composed of posts with a -wattling of twigs. This was plastered with clay, mixed with chaff and -straw. The inner face of the wall was smoothly finished, and then -"kalsomined" reddish yellow, and still further decorated with fresco in -geometrical designs. The house--5.80 metres by 5.35 metres--was divided -into two rooms. The larger part of the house was occupied by the -kitchen, with its floor about one metre below the surface of the ground, -and entered by an inclined plane or ramp. The other chamber, the -sleeping-room, was nearly a metre above the kitchen and separated from -it by a partition. Benches cut out of the loess were found in both -kitchen and sleeping-room. Stalls for cattle and barns or granaries were -also found. Virchow, in his review of Schliz's monograph, emphasizes -the fact that apparently Grosgartach was deserted by its inhabitants and -fell into decay without leaving any signs of destruction by fire or -violence. - -The villages of Butmir, Lengyel, Jablanica, and others in southeastern -Europe show us a condition of advanced culture here also.[44] -Dechelette, speaking of the culture of this region, notices "the -striking analogies between these old walled villages of the Balkans and -the Danube valley, and those of the Aegean villages of the Troad and -Phrygia." Primitive idols, painted pottery, frequent use of the spiral -in decorative art, all these reappear here and there in the Neolithic -stations of southeastern Europe, and in the eastern basin of the -Mediterranean in pre-Mycenaean and Mycenaean days. Evidently houses, -settlements, modes of life, and stages of culture differ greatly during -the same epoch of the Neolithic period in different parts of Europe. -Italy was always far in advance of Europe north of the Alps. But even in -northern Europe there was great diversity. Shell-heap dwellers still -remained long after a much higher culture prevailed throughout most of -Denmark. The life and thought of the pioneer hunters of northern -Germany, and still more of northern Russia, were very different from -those of the agriculturists along the valley of the Danube and in the -Balkan Peninsula. In Greece little city-states began to arise early. -Even in northern Europe density of population and size of settlements -varied greatly. One illustration of these differences can be seen in the -occurrence of fortified villages and refuges.[45] The age of these -fortifications is as great a problem as that of the remains found in a -pit-dwelling. The village may be, probably usually is, much older than -the surrounding wall, and an earthen wall may contain Neolithic or even -perhaps Paleolithic implements. The custom of fortifying villages -evidently spread rapidly during the Bronze and Iron periods. Sophus -Mueller tells us that all walled settlements north of the Alps are far -younger than the Neolithic period.[46] This statement, often disputed or -neglected, is probably an exaggeration, but may well be true of the -region surrounding the Baltic. The sparse and scattered hunting and -pioneer population of Scandinavia and Germany had no need of building -permanent walls around their single houses or small villages. They had -very little wealth to protect. - -But an agricultural population inhabiting a fertile region open to -attack might well surround their villages with a wall, or provide a -burg, or fortified place or "refuge," whither they might drive their -cattle or transport their grain. Examples of this are Stutzheim and -Urmitz, in the Rhine valley, always a great thoroughfare, and in -Switzerland and along the maritime Alps villages of this sort seem to -have been fairly frequent. Apparently they were still more numerous in -the valley of the Danube and in the Balkan Peninsula. It is not at all -surprising to find them in Thessaly, so near to the advanced -civilization of Greece. - -Another class of settlements usually well protected were the workshops -(ateliers) and manufacturing villages, especially those where flint -was mined, or where flint implements were made in large quantities and -distributed by trade over wide areas.[47] During the Neolithic period -these settlements would have held much the same place and importance -as our centres of coal, iron, manufacturing, and business have with us -to-day. Grand Pressigny and Camp de Chassey, in France, and Cissbury, -in England, are single examples of a great number of such fortified -mining and manufacturing villages. For a further study of these very -interesting remains the reader is referred to the manuals of -Dechelette and Hoernes. - -Even before the close of the Paleolithic period tundra and steppe were -giving place to forests, which were advancing even into Scandinavia. The -forest looms large and terrible in the works of classical writers and -German antiquarians. Says Tacitus: "Who would leave the softer climes of -Asia, Africa, or Italy to fix his abode in Germany, where Nature offers -nothing but scenes of ugliness, where the inclemency of the seasons -never relents?... The face of the country, though in some parts varied, -presents a cheerless scene, covered with the gloom of forests, or -deformed with wide-extended marshes." He says that the soil produces -grain and is well stocked with cattle, though of small size. But grain -does not grow in primeval forests, and herds of cattle need at least -open glades for pasturage. It is an extreme picture tinged by the -homesickness of a citizen of sunny Italy. Northern Europe was generally -heavily forested until long after Tacitus's time. The Romans began in -earnest the work of deforesting France, and the work was carried on all -over Europe in mediaeval times. The Neolithic immigrants probably made -small clearings with the aid of fire, especially where the trees were -low and not too thick, as on many light-soiled areas. They could make -but little impression on the heavy forest growth, though they could -limit its spread. They probably did not need to make wide clearings of -dense forest. There were many open stretches of country of greater or -less extent awaiting occupants and culture. This was true especially of -districts occupied by the loess, whose origin from dust drifted by -Paleolithic wind-storms we have already noticed. - -Geikie describes loess as typically a "fine-grained, yellowish, -calcareous, sandy loam, consisting very largely of minute grains of -quartz with some admixture of argillaceous and calcareous matter."[48] -It is for the most part a wind-blown deposit. It is widely developed -over low-lying regions, but sweeps up to heights of 200 to 300 feet and -more above the bottoms of the great river valleys. Again, in many places -we find it heaped up under the lee of hills, the exposed windward slopes -of which bear no trace of it. Wherever there is loess we are likely to -find the remains of steppe plants and animals. The ancient steppe area -which generally covers, and probably extends considerably beyond, the -loess district, is the region occupied by most of the primitive -settlements. Even to-day it is less wooded than the rest of northern -Europe. Such steppe regions in the North German plain are the great -diluvial river terraces, especially the terraces of the Saale and Elbe -and the eastern edge of the Harz Mountains; in South Germany the lower -Alpine "Vorland" from Switzerland to lower Austria, the uplands of -Suabia and Franconia, the valleys of the Main and Neckar, and much of -northern Bohemia. These steppe regions of Germany, northern Austria, and -Switzerland extended southeastward in a zone following the Danube, -widening out in the great Hungarian plain into the vast steppe region -extending eastward from the Black Sea or Pontus. From this Pontic steppe -a band of more or less open country extended northward along the -Carpathians until it almost or quite joined the open regions of the Elbe -and along the Harz. A farther extension of this same band seems to have -opened the way from the Harz region through northwest Germany into -Belgium and northern France, and very probably into Brittany. We see at -once the importance of these long lines of open or thinly forested -country to the immigrations and settlement of Neolithic peoples. -Periodical floods or other conditions kept open many river valleys, -whose importance we shall estimate in a later chapter. All this land, -except the uplands of Suabia and Franconia, and some similar areas, was -comparatively fertile, the loess areas particularly so, and suited to a -primitive agriculture. - -In England the valleys of the Thames and other rivers were heavily -wooded and not populated until much later. But the long lines of -chalk-downs and oolitic uplands were far less favorable to forest -growth. In Norfolk and Suffolk there were apparently open spaces. -Yorkshire and Derbyshire had very similar landscapes. The forest was -held back wherever the porous chalk formation made a large outcrop. In -these places man could settle and find pasturage for his flocks and -attempt a poor sort of agriculture, even in Neolithic days. Hence we -find these regions dotted with Neolithic settlements. The immigrants who -came in during the Bronze period settled in the same regions. Here again -clearing of the forest on any large scale was apparently not attempted -until Roman times, but along its boundaries, where the forest growth was -not too heavy, these primitive agriculturists may well have cut off the -lighter growth for fuel and buildings, and thus have gradually -appreciably extended the arable area. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -LAKE-DWELLINGS - - -The winter of 1853-1854 was exceedingly cold and dry. The surface of the -Swiss lakes sank lower than at any time during many preceding centuries. -The lowering of the water tempted the inhabitants along the shore to -erect dikes and thus fill in the newly gained flats. During this process -the workmen along the edge of the retreating water came upon the tops of -piles, and between those great quantities of horn and stone implements -and fragments of pottery. Aeppli, a teacher in Obermeilen, called the -attention of the Antiquarian Society in Zurich to these discoveries. The -society recognized at once their importance, and under the leadership of -its president, Ferdinand Keller, began a series of most careful -investigations which have contributed more to our knowledge of life -during the Neolithic period than any discoveries before or since. - -The number of these lake-dwellings is very large. Lake Neuchatel has -furnished over 50; Lake Leman (Geneva) 40; Lake Constance over 40; Lake -Zurich 10. The shores of the smaller lakes have also contributed their -full quota.[49] In some of the lakes where the shore was favorable, -remains of a lake-dwelling have been found before almost every modern -village. Sometimes we find the remains of two villages, one somewhat -farther out than the other. In these cases the one nearer the shore is -the older, usually Neolithic, while the one farther out belongs to the -Bronze period. - -These settlements are by no means limited to Switzerland. They stretch -in a long zone along the Alps from Savoy and southern Germany through -Switzerland into Austria.[50] Herodotus mentions them in the Balkan -Peninsula. The amount of bronze seems to increase as we pass from east -to west. They are found frequently in the Italian lakes, mostly -containing relics of the Bronze Age, though here the western settlements -contain little or no metal. A second series has been discovered in -Britain and northern Germany, and extending into Russia. These are -considerably younger. The scheme of the lake-dwelling was used in -historic times in Ravenna and Venice. Large numbers are still inhabited -in the far east. - -A sunny, sheltered shore, protected by hills from storms and action of -waves, was always an attractive site.[51] The character of the land, if -open and suitable for pasturage and cultivation, was doubtless -important. Much depended on the character of the bottom. Where the shore -shelved off gradually and was composed of marl or sand, the piles could -be easily driven, and could hold their place firmly. Even if the shore -was somewhat too hard and the piles could be driven only a little -distance, they were strengthened by piles of stones, often brought from -a considerable distance. When a suitable location had been discovered -and selected the trees were felled partly by the use of stone axes, and -partly by fire, and one end of the log was pointed by the same means, -according to Avebury. Their diameter was from three to nine inches, and -their length from fifteen to thirty feet. During the Bronze period -larger trees were felled and split, and larger piles had to be used in -the deeper water farther from the shore.[52] - -These rudely sharpened piles were driven into the bottom by the use of -heavy stone mallets. This must have involved an immense amount of hard -labor, for at the settlement of Wangen 50,000 piles were used, though -not all probably at the same time. Messikommer calculated that at -Robenhausen over 100,000 were used. We find sometimes a different -foundation. It consists of a solid mass of mud and stones, with erect -and also horizontal logs binding the whole structure firmly together. -This is evidently a ruder, simpler, and perhaps more primitive, mode of -building. It was less suited to an open situation, exposed to heavy -waves, and seems to occur more often in smaller lakes now often filled -with peat.[53] Wauwyl and Nieberwyl are good illustrations of such a -"_Packwerkbau_." Some have considered them as originally floating rafts. - -When the piles had been firmly driven, cross-pieces were laid over the -top, and on this a "flooring" of smaller poles, or of halved logs or -even split boards, whose interstices were probably filled with moss and -clay, forming a solid and fairly even surface, on which the dwellings -could be erected. The framework of the houses was of small piles, some -of which have been found projecting considerably above the -platforms.[54] "The size of the house is further marked out by boards -forced in between the piles and resting edgeways on the platform, thus -forming what at the present day we should call the skirting boards -(mop-boards) of the hut or rooms. The walls or sides were made of a -wattle or hurdle work of small branches, woven in between the upright -piles, and covered with a considerable thickness of loam or clay." This -is proved by numbers of pieces of clay half-burnt, or hardened in the -fire, with the impressions of the wattle-work still remaining. These -singularly illustrative specimens are found in nearly every settlement -which has been destroyed by fire. The houses were rectangular except in -a few cases. They were apparently thatched with straw or reeds. The -hearths consisted of three or four stone slabs. - -These houses were calculated by Messikommer at Robenhausen to have been -about 27 by 22 feet, a very respectable size. One was excavated at -Schussenried, whose side-walls and floor were fairly well preserved. -This was a rectangle about 33 by 23 feet (10 by 7 metres), and was -divided into two chambers. The front room, 6-1/2 by 4 metres, opened by -a door facing south, and with remains of a hearth in one corner. The -rear room, 6-1/2 by 5 metres, was without outer door, and was apparently -a bedroom.[55] Beside these houses, or forming a part of them, were -stalls for the cattle, granaries, and probably workshops. (The -distribution of different remains is well shown in Keller's _Lake -Dwellings_, I, p. 45.) The stone and bone implements, and the pottery of -the lake-dwellers can be more conveniently considered in connection with -those of other regions. - -We pass now to the remains of animals and plants found here, especially -in their relations to the food supply of the people.[56] Altogether -about 70 species of animals have been discovered. Of these 10 are fish, -4 reptiles, 26 birds, and 30 mammals, of which 6 were probably -domesticated. The largest of these were the great _Cervus alces_ or -moose--sometimes called elk--the wild cattle, and the stag (_Cervus -elaphus_). Bones of the stag and ox are very numerous and equal those of -all others together. Of the horse very few remains are found until the -Bronze period. Wild horses seem to have lived on in certain parts of -Europe until a late date, but apparently they had emigrated almost -altogether from this region. The horse of the Bronze Age was -domesticated. The lion had left this region, but lingered on in the -Balkans down to historic times. The brown bear and the wolf still roamed -in the forest. In the oldest lake-dwellings the bones of wild animals -make up a far larger proportion of the remains than in the latest ones. - -We find a somewhat small dog (_Canis familiaris palustris_) closely -resembling that of the Danish shell-heaps. It was apparently of the -jackal type, and much like the modern Spitz. This would have been an -excellent watch-dog to give warning of the approach of enemies. But at -the close of the Neolithic, with the increase of flocks of sheep, a -larger dog more closely related to the wolf seems to have spread widely -through the country (_Canis familiaris matris optimae Juit_). This form -was much like, and probably the ancestor of, our present sheep-dogs. A -third form (_Canis intermedius_) also occurs. The origin and -relationships of the various forms of this oldest domesticated animal -are still anything but clear. That they all go back to the jackal and -the wolf rather than to a form like the Australian dingo, still seems to -be most generally accepted. (But see Schenk.[57]) - -Man gained the dog by domesticating the jackal and different species of -wolves in different parts of the world and then by crossing, or, by a -more or less unconscious selection, bred different varieties, until we -have at present a chaos of intermingled forms. Something similar but on -a smaller scale was true of the domestic cattle. One kind of domestic -cattle appears fully domesticated in the oldest lake-dwellings. It is -unlike any wild European form. This is the _Bos brachyceros_. It was -almost certainly imported. Mingled with its forms we find those of the -_Bos primigenius_, a native of Europe and North Asia, but apparently not -domesticated. This is the urus, which was common in Europe in Caesar's -day, and lasted in central Europe until 1000 A. D. and still lingers in -Poland.[58] This was a very large and powerful form with long spreading -horns, whose domestication appears to have commenced toward the close of -the Neolithic period. It is not improbable that it was domesticated, or -at least tamed, independently in different countries at quite different -times. Raising of cattle was at its height during the Bronze Age; -afterward the results seem to decline and the cattle to degenerate. - -One of the Vaphio vases of about 1500 B. C. represents the capture of -large, long-horned cattle in a net, while the second shows similar -animals tamed. Apparently the smaller and lighter brachyceros was first -tamed, and this success led to a series of experiments with the larger -and more difficult form.[59] - -If we draw a line from northwestern Russia diagonally across Europe -southwestward to the mouth of the Rhone, it will divide fairly well the -distribution of the descendants of those two forms. To the eastward in -Russia and Austria, also generally through Germany, and extending also -along the shores of the Baltic, we find the large, heavy, usually -long-horned descendants of the primigenius stock. The cattle of Spain, -and southward into Africa, of France and England, are more of the -short-horned, light-built, smaller brachyceros type. Holstein and Jersey -are good representatives of the two types, though the Holsteins are, -perhaps, a somewhat marked variety. Some regard the cattle of the Scotch -highlands as the best representatives of the _primigenius_ type, though -reduced in size. This same type, on account of its size and endurance of -harsh climate, has furnished the range cattle of our Western plains. - -Two fairly distinct forms of swine occur in the lake-dwellings. The -first is the so-called turbary pig (_Sus scrofa palustris_). This is a -small form with comparatively long legs. It differs markedly from the -wild boar, and was probably imported already domesticated. Being more or -less left to feed and shift for itself, it may well have declined in -size from its primitive oriental ancestors. Remains of the larger -European wild boar (_Sus scrofa ferus L._) also occur from the beginning -as products of the hunt. But during the Bronze period domesticated -descendants of this variety grow numerous, and are crossed with the -smaller turbary pig. - -"The domestic sheep," says Brehm, "is a quiet, gentle, patient, simple, -will-less, cowardly, wearisome animal. It has no character. It -understands and learns nothing; is incapable of helping itself."[60] It -is certainly absolutely dependent upon man for guidance and protection. -This lies partly in its inherited nature and original surroundings, but -suggests long domestication. Like the goat, it is originally a mountain -form, but adapts itself readily to the dry herbage of the steppe. It is -not a native of central Europe but introduced. It is much rarer than the -goat in the oldest lake-dwellings, but gradually becomes more abundant, -especially in the Bronze period. - -The turbary sheep (_Ovis aries palustris_) is very small, with slender -legs, long narrow skull, and bones somewhat like those of the goat. It -was certainly not developed in Switzerland, and before it arrived there -it had apparently been much modified by conditions of life or by -crossing. Its anatomical characteristics are made up of at least three -wild forms. The first of these is the goat-like maned sheep (_Ovis -tragelaphus_) ranging over the mountains of northern Africa, extending -across into Abyssinia. This form seems to have been domesticated in -Egypt before the middle of the fourth millennium. At a much later date, -in Homeric times, herds of sheep of a similar form were kept in Greece. -It was much larger than the turbary form. - -The arkal (_Ovis arkal_) is the steppe sheep of central and western -Asia. It is the ancestor of the oriental and African fat-tailed sheep. -The western Asiatic forms seem to have developed the fine wool at the -expense of the coarse hair, like that of the goat and of many other -forms. - -A third form is the Moufflon, of the mountains around the Mediterranean -and of its larger islands--here probably introduced. Similar forms appear -in Europe during the Bronze period. - -Other species are found in different parts of Asia. The balance of -probabilities seems to incline toward the view that the turbary sheep -came into Europe from western and central Asia with other "turbary" -forms, that it had been long domesticated, and either here or on its -westward migration may have more or less crossed with the descendants of -other varieties. The oldest domesticated goats seem to be descended from -the Bezoar goat (_Capra aegagrus_), from the mountains of southwestern -Asia. - -The presence of oxen, sheep, and goats is enough to prove that the -people must have practised agriculture to some extent to have kept these -animals alive through the winter. That they were kept on the platform is -shown by the presence of manure in the remains underneath. Whether this -was used for fertilizer we do not know, nor their method of cultivating -the ground. No agricultural implements have come down to us. - -"The small-grained, six-rowed barley (_Hordeum hexastichum sanctum_) and -the small lake-dwelling wheat (_Triticum vulgare antiquorum_) were the -most ancient, most important, and most generally cultivated farinaceous -seeds of our country. Next to them come the beardless compact wheat (_T. -vulg. compactum muticum_) and the larger six-rowed barley (_Hordeum -hexastichum densum_), with the two kinds of millet, the common millet -(_Panicum miliaceum_) and the Italian millet (_Setaria italica_). The -Egyptian wheat (_Triticum turgidum L._), the two-rowed wheat (emmer, -_Triticum dicoccum Schr._), and the one-grained wheat (_Trit. -monococcum_) were probably, like the two-rowed barley, only cultivated -as experiments in a few places; and the spelt (_Triticum spelta L._), -which at present is one of the most important cereals, and the oat -(_Avena sativa L._) appeared later, not till the Bronze Age, while rye -was entirely unknown among the lake-dwellings of Switzerland."[61] - -Oats occur in the Bronze period in western, middle, and northern Europe, -in the Alpine lake-dwellings, and in the Danish islands. The ancient -Egyptians and Hebrews, Indians and Chinese, did not cultivate them; they -were raised in Asia Minor and America only since historic times. We -remember that wheat and barley are mentioned in the oldest records of -the Old Testament--as in Gideon's barley loaf--but rye and oats not at -all. - -The grains seem to show a gradual improvement in productiveness from the -very oldest settlements to those of the Bronze period. They are found -charred and perfectly preserved wherever the houses were destroyed by -fire. Even the ears and stalks have been saved for us in the same -manner. Charred loaves of bread, and cake made of poppy-seeds, were also -found. "Bread was made only of wheat and millet, the latter with the -addition of some grains of wheat, and, for the sake of flavoring it, -with linseed also. Bread made of barley has not yet been found, and it -is probable that barley was chiefly eaten boiled, or more probably -parched or roasted."[62] Flint sickles made of a long flake set at a -right angle with the wooden handle have been found in Denmark, and -others whose blade is formed by a row of small, sharp flints set in the -edge of a wooden block occur in Egypt. The hand-mills or mealing-stones -are very abundant, as might be expected. - -The occurrence of the seeds of the Cretan catchfly (_Silene cretica L._) -is interesting, as it is not found wild in Germany or in southeastern -Europe, but over all the countries of the Mediterranean. Similarly, the -corn-bluebottle (_Centaura cyanus L._) is found wild in Sicily. This -seems to show that these plants came in with the wheat from Italy. But -it is still possible that both Switzerland and Italy received them from -a source somewhat or considerably farther east or south. - -Apples and pears, split and dried, occur abundantly. Some of the apples -are so large that they suggest a certain amount of care and cultivation. -Sour crabapples, and the stones of cherries, plums, and sloes are found -accompanied by the seeds of the wild grape; of elderberries, -raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries. Acorns, beechnuts, and -hazelnuts were stored up. Besides the seeds of the poppy, already -mentioned, those of caraway were used apparently to flavor the bread. -Altogether some 170 plants have been discovered and determined from -these localities.[63] - -Basket-making and the weaving of mats from bast-fibres had led up to a -highly developed weaver's art. Few or no remains of wool have come down -to us from Neolithic time, though it occurs in graves of the Bronze Age -farther north. It would not preserve by charring, as all other -lake-dwelling organic remains have been saved for us, and our failure to -discover it is not surprising. We can hardly believe that these people -did not use the wool of their flocks of sheep, or failed to felt the -hair of their goats. But flax has been found in all stages of -preparation and manufacture in great quantities. Says Messikommer of -Robenhausen: "Every house had its loom." We find not only threads, -cords, and ropes, twine and nets, but cloth of varying pattern and -design. Some pieces were so finely woven and well preserved that their -discoverers could hardly believe that they were not of modern make. -Fringes and embroidery occur.[64] - -Linen alone could hardly have furnished sufficient protection against -the cold and dampness of the Swiss winter climate. The more primitive -inhabitants had an abundance of furs. Garments of sheepskin were -doubtless in use. And probably wool and goat's-hair were woven or felted -into outer garments. Dye-stuffs of black, yellow, red, and blue coloring -furnished a variety of tints and shades. - -Very few human bones have been found among those lake-dwelling remains; -and only a few burial-places, or rather tombs, in the neighboring -mainland. The discussion of their mode of burial and racial -characteristics may well be deferred to a later chapter. - -Of their religious cult we know almost nothing.[65] No idols or fetiches -have been recognized. Certain "crescents" of clay, supported with the -horns turned upward, have been considered by some as head-rests, for -which purpose they are still used by certain African tribes. Others have -considered them as representatives of the crescent moon; still others as -conventionalized ox heads and horns. It seems highly probable that -they had some religious significance, but its exact nature is still -uncertain. We shall return to them later. - -[Illustration: WEAVING AND PLAITING FROM LAKE-DWELLINGS] - -A lake-dwelling of any size is inconceivable without a well-advanced -social development. It could hardly be founded, builded, or maintained -without close co-operation. Families had to live closely crowded -together, almost as in our modern cities. Neighbors had learned to get -on with one another and live together in peace, and to submit to a close -regulation or discipline by law or custom. They seem to have been a -peaceful folk and exposed to no great dangers from outside attack, at -least in Neolithic time. When the ice fringed the shores or covered the -small lakes, they must have been easily open to attack. A few brands -thrown into the thatched roof would have brought sure destruction. -Traces of conflagration occur, as at Robenhausen, which was twice -destroyed by fire.[66] But these occurrences are rare. Neolithic -settlements seem to have been more frequently abandoned because of the -growth of peat than by any sudden or violent destruction. Conditions -probably changed in this respect during the Bronze period. - -Their food was varied and more than fairly abundant. They had their -domestic animals to furnish flesh, milk, probably butter and cheese. -Agriculture was primitive, but in some cases we find large stores, we -might say granaries, of wheat; and wild fruits and vegetable foods were -abundant. The forests offered game, and the lakes were well-stocked with -fish. There may have been times of hardship and dearth, but famine could -hardly have ravaged a people with these three sources of supply. - -The lake offered a thoroughfare for their canoes, and communication was -easy for long distances. To cite only one illustration: flint was -brought from Grand Pressigny, in France, and manufactured in certain -Swiss localities. There was much variety and division of labor between -different villages. One manufactured flint very largely--so at and around -Moosseedorf; while Robenhausen and Wangen have furnished great -quantities of cloth. Others were rather centres for the manufacture of -pottery. Even in the same village one area is richer in one product, a -second in another. There was much variety as well as freedom of -intercommunication. The whole region lay a little back from the great -Danube thoroughfare, but near enough to it to retain connection with the -larger world. Life was not altogether monotonous. - -The lake-dwellings have been divided according to their age into three -groups or stages, representing three epochs more or less marked.[67] - -_Stage I._ _Archaic Epoch._--Axes small and made out of indigenous -material. "Hammer-axes" and utensils of horn and bone rude. No -decorations on weapons, utensils, nor on the crude pottery. Plaiting and -weaving practised. Population in Switzerland at this time seems to have -been sparse. Food obtained from hunt more than from domestic animals. -Examples: Chavannes (Schafis) Moosseedorf, Wauwyl. People -brachycephalic. - -_Stage II._ _Middle Neolithic Epoch._--Weapons and utensils more perfect. -Stone axes finely polished, often with hole for handle, sometimes very -large. Beside the commoner minerals five to eight per cent of implements -made of nephritoids (nephrite, jadeite, and chloromelanite). These are -almost absent in Epochs I and III. Pottery of far better material and -manufacture, with traces of ornament. Remains of domestic and wild -animals nearly equal. Domestic animals are turbary pig, goat, sheep, -turbary cattle, but _primigenius_ form present though less common. -Brachycephalic and dolichocephalic people nearly equal in number. -Examples: Robenhausen and Concise. - -_Stage III._ _Copper Epoch._--Hammer-axes, beautifully finished. Bone and -horn implements. Nephritoid minerals less used. Pottery more artistic. -Cord-decoration appears. Certain ornaments, weapons, and implements are -made of copper. Domesticated animals improve and form a larger part of -the food than game. Cattle especially increase in numbers, and a new -race of sheep has arisen. Long-heads more numerous than broad-heads. -Examples: Roseax, at Morges. Locraz, Ferril (Vinelz).[68] - -It is interesting to notice that remains of domestic cattle are abundant -in all ages, that goats are more abundant than sheep in the earliest -lake-dwelling, but that the sheep became equally numerous in the second -epoch, while they decidedly outnumbered the goats during the Bronze -period. This is what we should expect from the advance of culture. - -Says Keller:[69] "The shores of the western portion of Lake Constance -are probably more thickly studded with settlements than those of any -other Swiss lake. In fact, here are found happily united all the -requirements necessary for the erection of dwellings of this nature. A -deposit of marl stretches along nearly the whole of its shores and of -tolerable breadth. A rich tract of country between the shore and the -hills which rise quietly behind; forests of pine and oak; pleasant bays -with a gravelly bottom; a great abundance of fish in the lake, and a -superfluity of game in the surrounding forests, were circumstances -highly favorable to the colonization of these shores." - -Could we have sat on one of these village platforms of a summer -afternoon and looked out to the wheat-fields on the shore, and seen the -canoes come in with fish or game, and the cattle returning from the -mainland pasture; could we have watched the men fashioning implements -and all manner of woodwork, and the women grinding the grain or moulding -pottery, or spinning and weaving; we should have found a great deal to -please and interest us. The fruits and berries, the smell of roasting -fish and baking bread, of cakes well flavored with the oil from beechnut -or flax, or perhaps sifted over with the seeds of poppy or caraway, -would have been far from disagreeable. We should have felt that it was a -goodly land, and that life was well worth living. We should not have -been disturbed by shrieking steamboats, puffing and groaning -locomotives, or honking automobiles, or by telegraphs or telephones, by -letters which must be answered or books which must be read. There were -no stocks and bonds, bills or notes, strikes or lockouts. There was no -labor question; all simply had to work. No one went to school, except to -nature, and there were no lectures. "The name of that chamber was -peace." - -We ought not to forget in our comfort that everybody could not live in a -lake-dwelling, that all over Europe there were other settlements or -dwellings, more lonely or isolated, where food was never abundant and -sometimes very scarce, where labor was unremitting and the reward -scanty. But even in those less civilized regions there was probably -usually much rude comfort; and if there were times of scarcity and want, -there were also times of feasting and abundance. All over Europe there -were, even in Neolithic time, children, boys and girls playing around -the houses; and young men and women looking out on life with the same -inexperience and illusions, courage and hopes, which lure us onward -to-day. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -A GLANCE EASTWARD - - -The culture of the oldest lake-dwellings appears suddenly in Europe, and -its beginnings are exotic in all their essentials. The turbary cattle -were quite different from the wild _primigenius_ race of the surrounding -regions; and we find no remains of the intermediate forms which should -occur if domestication had taken place here. The same is true of the -turbary pig. Wild sheep are unknown in northern Europe, and the moufflon -of the Mediterranean islands can hardly have been the ancestor of our -Swiss flocks, and is very possibly descended from domesticated ancestors -which reverted to wild life. Something very similar may be said of our -oldest cereals, wheat and barley. - -We must evidently turn eastward or southward to find the cradle of the -whole culture. Even if it came partly from Italy, it could hardly have -developed there. Egypt may have made contributions, but mostly at a -later date. We naturally turn first to Asia, the great centre of -mammalian evolution, probably the oldest seat of cattle-raising and -agriculture, cradle of man and centre of his earliest development. The -true Neolithic cultures in northern Europe can hardly be older than -about 6000 B. C.; the lake-dwellings are probably far younger. We must -first inquire into the location, age, and character of the oldest -agriculture in nearer Asia, where great discoveries have been made -during the last twenty years. - -We naturally turn first to Babylonia. Under the temple of Bel, at -Nippur, was an immense platform constructed of sun-dried bricks, most of -them stamped with the name of Sargon or of Naram Sin. The date of Sargon -seems still uncertain; many historians place it at 2800 B. C.; others, -and apparently most archaeologists, like Obermaier, still hold to the old -date, 3750 B. C.[70] Without any attempt to decide this question, we -will hold in this chapter to the older date; and believers in the latter -date can subtract 1,000 from our figures for earlier times, though this -does not apply to Pumpelly's estimates. - -Says Delitzsch[71] of this mound: "In the deepest layers of these -remains, or what amounts to the same, back many centuries beyond the -fifth millennium, everywhere interesting and valuable remains of human -civilization come to light, fragments of vessels of copper, bronze, and -clay, a quantity of earthenware so beautifully lacquered in red and -black that we might consider them of Greek origin, or at least -influenced by Greek art, had they not been found eight metres deep under -Naram Sin's pavement." Here we find the Bronze period, or possibly late -Copper, before 5000 B. C. A city with a high and complex culture had -already arisen. No one believes that the culture could have originated -in the rank, almost untamable, primitive jungle of Mesopotamia. Its -beginnings must be sought elsewhere and earlier. But the age and -character of Babylonian civilization encourage one to seek further in -western Asia. - -In 1904 Pumpelly[72] made most thorough and careful investigations at -Anau, near Askabad in Turkestan, about 300 miles east of the southeast -corner of the Caspian Sea, and 200 miles west of Merv. The remarkable -results of his work are described in two large volumes, and have not -received the attention which they deserve. He excavated in two large -Kurgans or mounds. The north Kurgan is the older and chiefly concerns -us. The Neolithic remains occur in thin compact strata aggregating some -forty-five feet in thickness. The earliest settlement was a town -covering at least five acres, possibly nearly ten. - -At the time of the beginning of the settlement, which Pumpelly estimated -as somewhat before 8000 B. C., the inhabitants lived in rectangular -houses built of uniform sun-dried bricks. They were skilful potters, -though unacquainted with the potter's wheel, making different grades of -coarse and fine vessels. These were unglazed, but often painted with a -definite series of geometrical patterns. They had the art of spinning, -for whorls are found in all strata from the lowest up. They cultivated -cereals, for the casts of the chaff of wheat and barley are found in the -clay of the thicker pots. At first they had no domestic animals, only -the bones of wild forms being found. When ten feet of culture strata had -been accumulated the remains of a tame _Bos namadicus_, the Asiatic -variety of the _Bos primigenius_, or urus, occurred. That this animal -had already been domesticated is inferred from the less compact -microscopic structure of the bones modified by artificial conditions. At -this time the change of structure, if not complete, was evident. It had -been for some time under the new conditions. The turbary pig appears -about 7500 B. C.,[73] the turbary sheep about 1500 years later, but -preceded by varieties of the great horned mountain sheep. The turbary -cattle appear to have been a small variety of the _Bos namadicus_, -somewhat dwarfed by drought and hardship. - -The camel appears at Anau somewhat after 6000 B. C., and seems to be a -means of intercourse and transport far antedating the horse, in a region -already showing signs of dessication. - -Spherical mace-heads occur reminding us of those used in Egypt. But no -lance-head or arrow-point or other stone weapon was found in the lower -levels. We do not know how they killed or captured the larger animals; -they may have used the sling or bolero. In the lowest strata we find the -bones of young children, but not of adults, buried in a contracted -position under the floors of the dwellings. The first objects of copper -and lead appear about 6000 B. C., and, open the Aeneolithic period. -Pumpelly distinguishes a Copper period, here longer and more distinctly -marked than in Europe. The turquoise bead found in one of the graves -came, in all probability, from the Iranian plateau, as did probably the -copper and lead also. - -He has shown us that even on the steppe the cultivation of cereals -precedes the domestication of sheep and cattle. The nomadic life -follows instead of preceding agriculture. The pioneers in this region -cultivated the zone of steppe, into which rivers poured from the -mountains. When cattle and sheep and goats had multiplied, the herdsmen -drove them farther and farther on the rich pasturage of the boundless -steppe. Thus nomads gradually appear. There are also different varieties -of nomadism. Nomadic tribes were far less active and dangerous neighbors -even after the domestication of the camel than when, about 2000 B. C., -they had domesticated the horse. The first herdsman may have differed -from the latter nomad almost as much as the most pacific sheep-herder of -our Western plains differs from the liveliest cowboy. - -Pumpelly's time-estimates have been criticised by Doctor H. Schmidt, of -Berlin.[74] He makes the rate of growth far more rapid than Pumpelly -thought and shortens the periods. In determining length of periods he -relies far more on artifacts and less on probable rate of accumulation. -The criticisms seem hardly well founded. Pumpelly's estimate of rate of -increase was based upon a careful and broad comparison of accumulations -in the deserted city, Anau, in Merv, and other localities. They seem -conservative, but we must recognize that such estimates are always only -approximate. His estimates result in a series of dates generally in -close agreement with those of most students of oriental archaeology. - -In the Third Culture Epoch there was found "copper, with sporadic -appearance of low percentage of tin." This describes well the close of -the Copper period or the beginning of the Bronze Age, the rest of which -is not represented at Anau, the settlement being deserted, probably -because of aridity. Pumpelly thinks that the last strata deposited -before the desertion comes down to the Bronze Age, and, assuming the -latest possible date for the beginning of this period, places it about -2200 B. C. This is almost surely much too late. Obermaier dates the -beginning of the Bronze period at 4000 B. C.[75] (If we substitute the -later date, 2750 B. C., for Sargon's region, the Bronze period would -begin about 3000 B. C., the date accepted by Montelius.[76]) Pumpelly -places the beginning of the Copper Epoch at 5000 B. C., again agreeing -with Montelius. His estimates seem generally somewhat too conservative, -as he doubtless intended they should be; the earliest remains may be -considerably older than he thought. Investigations made during the last -twenty years seem generally to lead us to believe that the beginnings -of Neolithic culture are far older in western Asia than we had supposed, -while in middle and northern Europe they are probably somewhat younger -than we had thought. In this connection we may well remember that Evans -found eight metres of Neolithic remains under the palace at Cnossus, in -Crete, and estimated their age at about 14,000 years. - -The culture at Anau is very similar in all its essentials to that of the -European lake-dwellers, and is much older. The same cereals and the same -kinds of domesticated animals appear in both. The brick houses are -better and the very fine painted pottery is new and peculiar. These and -the art of spinning and the cultivation of cereals were brought hither -by the first settlers; their development to this stage must have taken -place elsewhere and occupied a long period of time. Sheep could not have -been domesticated here, for they and the goats are natives of the -mountains, and could not survive wild on the steppe. Neither is the pig -a steppe animal, but lives naturally in forest glades and along -watercourses. Pumpelly has evidently discovered a very old and -interesting station in the spread of this ancient culture, but not its -cradle. This was apparently in some mountainous region. The nearest and -most likely place to search for it is somewhere on the Iranian plateau, -to which the turquoise bead and the later-introduced copper and lead -found at Anau also point. - -Here at Susa (Shushan), about one hundred miles from the apex of the -Persian Gulf, de Morgan excavated in a mound rising about thirty-four -metres above the level of the plain and continuing some six metres below -the surface, which has been raised that amount since the first -settlement was made.[77] The total thickness of the remains is therefore -about forty metres. The lowest strata as yet have been only slightly -studied. The uppermost ten to fifteen metres cover a period of about -6,000 years. If the lower strata were accumulated at the same rate, the -first settlement was begun about 18,000 years ago at a conservative -estimate. Montelius, the best authority on European prehistoric -chronology, basing his conclusions on de Morgan's discoveries, places -the date of the beginning of Neolithic culture in this part of Asia at -about 18,000 B. C., or somewhat earlier.[78] - -Over twenty metres of these remains are purely Neolithic. There was the -usual abundance of flint nuclei, flakes, and utensils. There was -obsidian, evidently brought from a distance--de Morgan thinks from -Armenia, a thousand miles away. This is not impossible; we shall find -that trade or barter was far more extensive at this time than has -usually been supposed. - -Here again we find abundant pottery in the lowest strata. It is of a -"dark brown pattern painted on a pale ground, partly imitating basketry -and textiles, partly rendering plants and animals with childish -simplicity.... It resembles in a striking way a few widely scattered -series which are all that have been secured hitherto from a very -ill-explored area: from a Neolithic site underlying the Hittite castle -at Sakye-Giezi, in North Syria, from the surface of early mounds in -Cappadocia, and from low levels of the Hittite capital, at Boghaz-Keui; -and, more surprising still, from an important site, also Neolithic, at -Anau, on the northern edge of the Persian plateau looking over into -Turkestan; and at a number of points scattered over the flat lowland on -the north side of the Black Sea, and thence into the Balkan Peninsula as -far south as Macedonia and Thessaly. These resemblances are general and -their value may be overestimated; there are differences in detail, but -the general similarity seems to link the peoples over this wide area at -the same time in one region of kindred art and culture, if not of -blood."[79] - -The discoveries at Susa and elsewhere in this region seem to prove that -compact settlements of fair size had arisen in western Asia long before -the founding of Anau.[80] Such settlements could have been formed only -by sedentary peoples practising agriculture, not by mere wandering -hunters. Our definite knowledge of the domestic animals of Susa is very -small. But, as we have just seen, the peculiar, fine, decorated pottery -found in the oldest strata of Susa, Anau, and many other localities -scattered over a wide area, is certainly a strong argument for believing -that an agriculture in general very similar to that of the oldest strata -at Anau was wide-spread over the Iranian plateau, Asia Minor, and -elsewhere. Where or when it began we do not know. We can only conjecture -as to the place and mode of its beginning. It may not be out of place to -mention a very general hypothesis of this sort, and this we will now -attempt to frame. - -The Buehl moraines, in Lake Lucerne, are estimated as having been -deposited between 16,000 and 24,000 B. C., during the Early Magdalenian -stage of post-glacial time, which would, therefore, be contemporaneous -with the earliest settlement at Susa.[81] The climate of Europe was then -somewhat colder and much moister than at present. The ice-cap extended -much farther south in middle Europe than in Russia or Siberia. Under -these circumstances central Asia probably enjoyed a much moister climate -than at present, without extreme cold. The Caspian and Aral Seas -occupied a much larger area than at present, and were very likely -connected. The Tarim basin may well have been a great lake surrounded by -a zone of garden instead of the sandy waste which it is to-day. -Conditions of increased moisture would have made the now parched regions -of the Iranian plateau an exceedingly rich and favored region. Toward -the close of the Post-glacial Epoch the mountains were probably well -forested, but alternating dryer times would have brought open glades, -with lakes interspersed. - -When Europe changed from tundra to forest man became largely a -fisherman, more or less settled at some favorable spot, and collecting -his vegetable food in all directions. The same may well have been true -of life at this early date in Persia. The man hunted or fished, the -woman and the children gathered all kinds of animals and plant food, -berries and other fruits, acorns and other nuts. One of the richest -sources of food must have been the roots, tubers, and other underground -stems. If there were any patches of richly seeded grasses or grains on -the near-by glade or hill, we may be sure that the woman did not fail to -beat off the ripe seed with a stick, and carry it home with her. The -primitive family was not dainty or particular in its appetite. The women -were the first botanists, the first to notice the nutritive, medicinal, -or poisonous qualities of plants, and the first physicians.[82] - -When she turned homeward with her load of spoil, some berries, seeds, -and small bulbs doubtless fell to the ground and escaped her notice. -These grew and flourished in the richer soil around the hut or shelter, -for all the garbage could not have accumulated in the hut. Some -unusually observing woman noticed this, and protected the plants, or -even cultivated them a little with her digging-stick, and pulled out -some of the largest smothering weeds. She began to plant a few others, -and gradually started a garden. The garden is older than the farm, and -hoe and digging-stick vastly older than the plough. This woman had -discovered, and almost created, a new world of science and culture -which was to revolutionize life. - -Rice growing wild in large fields under suitable conditions is still -gathered by all savages. This grain needed no preparation except -boiling, while wheat and barley must be crushed or ground between -stones, probably used at first for grinding dry nuts. Peas and beans, -many vetches, and other members of this family so characteristic of the -dryer uplands, were gathered very early, and may have been cultivated -before wheat. Melons and many of the gourds always must have been eaten. -We shall notice later that the zone of Persia and Asia Minor lay on the -boundary line between two great botanical provinces, a northern and a -southern, and furnished a very wide range of plants for this earliest -experiment station.[83] A great variety of plants were tested sooner or -later, and only a few of the very best and most capable of improvement -have been retained to our day. On the steppe at a later date wheat and -barley were most profitable, and most widely cultivated. But even here -hoe-culture was for a long time the only mode. It still exists in -Africa, Asia, and Japan; and was the only mode of culture known in -America at the time of its discovery. Hoe-culture was at first, and has -generally remained, woman's work; ploughing with cattle was a man's -job. This had far-reaching results to which we must return in a later -chapter. - -But we must not think that the Iranian plateau, with its great zone of -piedmont steppe stretching eastward and westward along its northern -border across the continent of Asia, was the only place where -agriculture could start and reach a high degree of development in -ancient times. Its possibility lay in the habit of the woman of -collecting the vegetable food and smaller animals, while the men hunted -and fished. Useful food plants furnishing large amounts of food are to -be found in all continents, and differ markedly in different soils and -climatic zones. Hence even the beginnings of agriculture were probably -not confined to any one region, but were wide-spread, manifold, and -independent. The Chinese migrating eastward and southeastward down the -great river valleys from eastern Turkestan may have carried with them -the cultivation of wheat, or adopted it independently. The rice culture -of China may have been borrowed from India or independently evolved. -India and the Malay Archipelago and Africa have every one its own -agriculture, of whose origin and early development we know nothing. - -But western Asia, or more precisely the Iranian plateau, had another -piedmont region beside the zone stretching along its northern border. -This second piedmont zone of grass-land, or oasis, as Breasted has -pointed out, bends in the form of a horseshoe along the western slope of -the Iranian plateau, then northward and westward around the headwaters -of the Tigris and the Euphrates, and southward through Syria.[84] Here -it dries out in the great Syrian and Arabian deserts. But these also, as -well as the Arabian plateau stretching along the Red Sea, may have been -well watered and inhabitable in early post-glacial time. The Arabian -plateau and its piedmont zone in those days may well have been an -independent centre of agricultural development, which gave place to the -nomadism so characteristic of the Semitic peoples only at a later date. -Of the early history of Arabia we are still completely ignorant. But in -the twilight of history we see those Semites coming into the -Mesopotamian valley from the west while the Sumerians entered from the -east. Those two streams of migration, mingling, founded the great -Babylonian Empire, to which all oriental peoples looked up with an awe -and reverence, as well as fear, which we can scarcely appreciate. -Evidently, and this is the fact of chief importance to us, parts of the -nearer east were highly civilized before anything better than savagery -had developed in northern Europe. - -But far older than these cities of the Mesopotamian river valleys is the -culture of the forests, glades, lakes, and riversides of the plateaus. -Evidence seems steadily to accumulate that here we are to seek for the -beginnings of agriculture and the domestication of animals which were -slowly to change the face of the earth and the life and character of -man. - -Hoe-tillage of the ground is evidently far older than cattle-raising or -nomadic life. It had been brought to Anau before 8000 B. C., and had -probably already been practised at Susa and elsewhere thousands of years -earlier. But we cannot help asking whether other plants may not have -been cultivated long before cereals. Roots and tubers are much more -conspicuous than the smaller grains. These underground storehouses of -nutriment adapted to give the plant a quick and sure start, during a -short spring period of growth and flowering, are abundant everywhere. -They still form the staple crop in many parts of the world. We remember -the potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams, the cassava, and a host of others. -In our northern regions we still cultivate beets, turnips, and carrots, -though now becoming more and more food for cattle. These plants also are -less closely limited to the steppes and plateaus. They occur all through -the mountain or shore regions, and for this reason would have been -likely to attract the attention of "collectors." - -Primitive woman had no plough, only the digging-stick, the agricultural -implement of the Australians. Later they learned to make a hoe, -sometimes out of a tine of deer's horn, sometimes of stone or other -material, something half-way between a hoe and a pick. With such an -implement a fair amount of soil could be broken up and well stirred. -When domestic animals were introduced into Africa the plough followed -only in the eastern regions; all through the rest of Africa the old -hoe-culture held its own. Europeans introduced the plough into America. -As a means of breaking up the ground the plough is infinitely superior; -for tillage and cultivation the hoe is far more useful. When wheat has -once been sown it cares for itself; further cultivation is -unnecessary--it is the lazy man's crop. Perhaps that, with a touch of the -spur of necessity, persuaded the male to undertake ploughing. When the -plough was invented many vegetables formerly cultivated probably became -less profitable or attractive, and were given up. A revolution took -place in agriculture. Probably the plough was at first dragged by women. -It is impossible to say just when it was invented. It was used during -the Bronze period, for it is represented in rock-carvings of that age. -Some stone ploughshares may be Neolithic. - -Studying European Neolithic agriculture in the light of the methods of -savage and barbarous peoples, or even of our pioneer ancestors, we -imagine them living on the border of the forests which furnished food -and wood for buildings and implements. The first step was to burn and -clear a place where the undergrowth was not too heavy, and to break up -the soil with pick or hoe. Here the patch of grain was sowed. The soil -fertilized by the ashes gave him a fair crop, but became exhausted after -a few years of cultivation, and he was compelled to break up a new -field. Some investigators have thought that the lake-dwellers used the -manure from their cattle on their fields, but in most parts of Europe -cultivation of the soil was probably crude and superficial. On the chalk -downs of England, chief places of settlement by Neolithic peoples in -this region, we find terraces and narrow strips which may have been -prepared at this time, though their age is very uncertain. They often -are of a size and form not well adapted to plough-culture. They have a -look of permanent occupation. These may well have been fertilized. The -evidence is very uncertain. When the loess soil was of fair depth -cultivation may have gone on for many years without fertilizers of any -sort. - -The primitive plough was hardly more than a pointed stout branch or stub -of a tree, whose longer fork was fastened to the yoke. It made a furrow -triangular in cross-section, broad at the top and narrowing to an edge -at the bottom. It did not "turn" a strip, and between two furrows a long -ridge was left unbroken. Even in Roman times cross-ploughing was common -or usual. Even this rude culture needed the strength of cattle to draw -the plough. The plough is associated in our minds with oxen, and the -first man who made his cow, instead of his wife, draw the plough was a -great benefactor. - -Even the domestication of cattle was less easy than it seems at first -sight. Wild animals rarely reproduce in captivity. Pumpelly thinks that -the way toward the domestication of our larger cattle may have been -paved by a long period of drought driving them from the steppe into the -better-watered oases, and thus into association with man. But this -could hardly have been true of the mountain sheep and goats, on which -man may well have experimented before he attempted the more difficult -task of domesticating the larger, more powerful, and less manageable -_Bos namadicus_. How did man hit upon the plan of castrating the bull -and thus changing this intractable, ugly beast into the docile and -patient ox? There seems to be a good amount of plausibility in Hehn's -brilliant suggestion that this may have come about in connection with -some ancient systems of religious rites and beliefs.[85] There is -nothing impossible or very improbable in this view. But the very -brilliancy of the conjecture and the clearness with which it is -expressed, and the wealth of learning used to support it, warns us -against too ready acceptance. We can only confess our complete ignorance -and wait for future discoveries as patiently as we can. - -At present nearly all our knowledge of what was going on in this dim and -remote past must be gained by a study of savages still holding the -customs of the past in a somewhat or greatly modified form and spirit. -Certain very general inferences may be made without great danger. But to -frame clear and exact conceptions of life in these remote ages from -these sources would demand a union of the boldest genius with the most -wary caution. All these peoples have changed greatly during past -millennia both for better and worse, usually probably in the latter -direction. Customs have all been modified by changed conditions, -surroundings, and inferences. It is exceedingly difficult to distinguish -between what is really primitive and what is degenerate, perhaps of -comparatively recent origin. The problem bristles with tantalizing -questions, which tempt us to spin fascinating hypotheses all the more -dangerous because of their attractiveness and apparent simplicity. Our -great need is new facts and discoveries, and a clearer knowledge and -understanding of old ones. - -We may well connect and condense the chief results of our study in this -chapter. It seems to be clear that a culture essentially similar to that -of the European lake dwellers existed at Anau, in the piedmont zone, a -little north or northeast of the Iranian plateau, with which it had -trade relations. The oldest turbary forms of domesticated animals appear -here at least 1,500 years before the founding of the Swiss lake -dwellings. They were mostly introduced from some mountain region, the -nearest probable source being the Iranian plateau, but their first -domestication may have taken place equally well elsewhere in western or -central Asia, or even in Arabia. Susa shows similar remains extending -back into a far more remote past; and the similarity or kinship of the -pottery in the oldest strata at Susa and Anau and elsewhere leads us to -believe that a culture similar in other respects also was widely -distributed at this time. We can hardly doubt that agriculture was -practised by the founders of all these settlements. - -We can only frame conjectures as to the origin of agriculture. It seems -to have been introduced by the women of hunting and fishing tribes. The -first agricultural implement was probably the digging-stick, which was -followed by the hoe. Hoe-culture is still common in Asia and Africa. -Finally, during the first part of the Bronze period, or perhaps somewhat -earlier, the plough drawn by cattle and guided by a man superseded the -hoe as a means of breaking up the soil for the culture of grain. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -MEGALITHS - - -Megaliths, those great stone monuments of prehistoric time, have always -excited the wonder and interest of all observers.[86] Under the name of -dolmens or stone chambers, cromlechs or stone circles, tumuli or mounds, -they form a striking contrast to the insignificant and ephemeral -thatched huts of wood and clay which formed the homes of the living. -These chambers, especially those of later date, are often accompanied by -circles or radiating lines of rude pillars, the Menhirs or standing -stones. In the more fertile and densely populated regions the great -blocks have been removed and used in the foundations of buildings. They -must once have been far more numerous. But Dechelette reports nearly -4,500 as still existing in France;[87] England contains almost or quite -as many; and they are very numerous in Denmark and Sweden. We will -mainly follow Sophus Mueller in his study of these monuments in -Denmark.[88] - -The simplest, and apparently the oldest, dolmens are the small -rectangular chambers consisting of four stones set up on edge with one -large one forming the roof. These are usually between 5 and 7 feet in -length, 2 to 3-1/2 feet wide, and 3 to 5 feet in height. One of the end -stones is shorter, leaving an opening under the roof through which one -may reach or even crawl into the chamber. Somewhat larger chambers of -the same type and having five or six wall stones are not uncommon. - -Even these small chambers were intended for long use, and to contain -more than one body; some contain the remains of a dozen. The bones lie -in layers covered with flint chips, or in little heaps where they have -been collected to give room for new interments. Many of the smaller -chambers were too short to allow the body to lie fully extended; in some -it was evidently placed in a sitting posture leaning against the wall. - -These smaller dolmens were surrounded by a heap of earth reaching nearly -to the top of the side stones, but not covering the roof, and hardly -deserving to be called a tumulus. The roof was usually composed of one -great stone, flat below but arching above and forming a sort of -monument. In one chamber this roof-stone is eleven feet long and three -feet thick. On each side of the doorway a stone is often set upright to -keep back the earth of the tumulus, and a covering stone may be laid -across them. Here we have a form intermediate between the small dolmen -without entrance-stones and the large chambers, which we shall consider -later. - -The earthern tumulus may be round in outline or elliptical, forming the -long grave--the _Hunnenbett_ of popular German speech. The round tumuli -rarely exceed 40 feet in diameter. They were as a rule surrounded by a -circle of upright stones, now generally removed. The long tumuli are -rarely more than 5 or 6 feet high, and 20 to 30 feet wide. The length -varies greatly: usually between 50 and 100 feet, but infrequently from -100 to 200 feet; one is 500 feet long with over 100 of the marginal -stones still standing. - -The chambers in the round and long tumuli in Denmark are very similar, -but in the long tumuli there are usually two or more dolmens, often -symmetrically located. In other cases it looks as if a tumulus had been -lengthened to cover chambers added later. A large amount of variety in -such details is not surprising. More rarely we find two or more small -tumuli side by side, each with one or two chambers. That those smaller -dolmens or chambers are the oldest is suggested not only by their -simplicity but even more by the pottery and implements contained in -them, though this is not invariably true, as the small dolmens continued -in use throughout the Neolithic period, in some regions far later. The -gifts which they contain are usually not numerous and often very scanty. - -[Illustration: "CROUCHING BURIAL" (HOCKER-BESTATTUNG) ADLERBORG, NEAR -WORMS] - -[Illustration: MENHIR, CARNAC, BRITTANY] - -[Illustration: DOLMEN, HAGA, ISLAND OF BORUST] - -The wide distribution of these simplest stone monuments is exceedingly -interesting. They occur in Denmark and Sweden, in North Germany and -Holland, in Great Britain and France, Portugal and Spain, in North -Africa, in the Aegean Islands, in Palestine and farther eastward, in -Thrace and Crimea, along the eastern shore of the Black Sea. They are -very numerous in India.[89] Throughout this wide extent they agree not -only in general form and structure, but also in certain interesting -details. For instance, the oriental and southern dolmens frequently have -a round opening in the upper part of the slab closing the entrance, -corresponding to the wide opening above the door of the Scandinavian -dolmens. The difference in the form of the opening may be explained by -the difficulty of cutting a circular opening in the hard granite rocks -of the northern area. There was a general unity of thought in -essentials, especially in those oldest forms. There was much diversity -in execution or expression in later structures. Some of them took the -form of pyramids in Egypt. In Mycenae we find the "Tomb of Atreus," a -magnificent building in the form of a beehive. The large chambers, -"Giant Chambers" or _Riesenstuben_ of northern Europe, especially of -France, are connected with the older small dolmens by many intermediate -forms. For example, if another pair of stones is added to the sides of a -fair-sized dolmen, we have a chamber six to eight feet in length. Such -dolmens always have a covered entrance to the doorway of at least two -pairs of upright stones extending out through the tumulus. Then the -number of stones in the sides of the chamber is increased to seven, -eight, or nine; and the entrance passage is at right angles to the main -axis of the chamber, giving a rude T-shaped form to the whole structure. -The number of stones in the roof of the chamber increases with its -length. Chambers fifteen to twenty feet long are not uncommon, a length -of twenty to thirty feet is rare, a very few attain forty feet. The -height was between five and seven feet. - -The inner surface of the great stones forming the sides of the chamber -is fairly flat. It could have been no easy matter to find in any region -a sufficient number of suitable great blocks of the right form. They -evidently had some method of splitting large boulders. In some chambers -both halves of the same block have been found. These blocks could have -been split by heat or by freezing water in a groove or by wooden wedges. -But we do not know the exact method. Near the top the blocks often -failed to meet exactly. Large holes were filled with bits of wall of -small stones and small chinks were stuffed with clay and moss. - -It is surprising to find that these smaller and larger chambers were -erected without any deep foundation for the upright stones. Many of them -have fallen from the heaving of the frost. The monuments were generally -adequately protected against this by the thick tumulus. - -The tumulus was enlarged proportionately and usually completely covered -the chamber. Its height averages ten to fifteen feet, and its diameter -over ninety. The culvert-like entrance had to be lengthened accordingly. - -But one large chamber did not suffice for successive generations. It was -often extended or additions were made so that quite complicated forms -occur. In England we find frequently a row or cluster of small chambers. -Here the roof is sometimes made of successive layers of stone -approaching as they ascended until one slab covered the "false arch." In -Brittany we find great diversity as well as complexity of form. In some -parts of France the entrance continues the main line of the chamber -instead of being at right angles to it. The French have well -characterized these as "_Allees couvertes_." - -Some of these "gallery chambers" were very large and contained a large -number of bodies; sometimes from 40 to 60, in one case 100. The tumulus -at Mont St. Michel measures 115 by 58 metres, and forms a veritable -hill. Thirty-five thousand cubic metres of stone were employed in the -construction of the chamber. Other chambers are from 30 to 50 feet in -length. The celebrated chamber at Bagneux, 25 feet long, is composed of -fourteen great blocks, of which three form the roof. The great tumulus -at _Fontenay-le-Marmion_ in Normandy covered eleven chambers in two -parallel rows. All the material for these great structures could hardly -have been found in the same vicinity. In one case it appears to have -been brought from a quarry two miles away. Some large stones, weighing -thousands of tons, seem to have been transported many miles. - -Some of the latest structures show a certain amount of degeneration. -Certain galleries were apparently roofed with timber. We find "dry" -masonry, of smaller stones laid in courses but without mortar, -alternating with or replacing the great blocks, especially in structures -of Aeneolithic or Bronze Age. The custom was declining and soon after -this disappeared.[90] - -The age of these stone monuments can generally be fairly closely -determined by the contents, unless these have been removed or destroyed -by treasure-hunters, as is often the case. In many cases the objects -originally deposited seem to have been few and insignificant. Later, -secondary interments were often made in tumuli, but these usually betray -their later date by their position above the original chamber or near -the side of the mound. We must keep in mind that chambers in the north -containing only stone implements may be often of the same age as those -farther south containing copper or even bronze, for metal made its way -northward only gradually. The custom of building dolmens seems to have -persisted later in England than in France. The English round tumuli or -barrows belong to the Bronze period. It is not surprising that one -country should be more conservative than another, especially if it is -somewhat remote. - -In Brittany we find the Menhirs or "standing stones," unhewn pillars, -regularly accompanying the dolmens. They are by far most abundant in -northwestern Europe, but occur elsewhere also. The largest known is the -Menhir of Locmariaquer in Morbihan, now fallen and broken. It was almost -21 metres long, and weighed nearly 300,000 kilograms. But specimens are -usually much smaller. They seem to characterize the Aeneolithic Epoch and -the early Bronze Age. - -Their meaning is often uncertain. Some of them standing singly were -probably erected much later, serving merely to mark boundaries. When -associated with dolmens they are probably objects of a religious cult -associated with the burial, rather than mere monuments to the dead. They -may well be examples of the world-wide pillar-cult. They remained -objects or centres of worship until late in historic time. The church -had a long and hard battle with their cult. Some of them appear to have -been thrown down and churches to have been erected over them. On some of -them Christian symbols have been carved. Among the people they are still -held in reverence or awe. Whatever may have been their origin, they must -have had some religious significance or association. - -These pillars may be grouped in circles, cromlechs, or in long radiating -rows, alignments. Stone circles occur in the Mediterranean region, in -Syria, Upper Egypt, and in India. But circles and alignments belong -especially to Brittany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia. The most -noteworthy are the three adjacent or connected at Carnac, in Morbihan, -extending nearly 4,000 metres, and composed of nearly 3,000 Menhirs. -Stonehenge and Avebury in England are almost equally celebrated. They -represent the culmination of megalithic development, but are essentially -places of worship and assembly rather than of burial, though tumuli may -be clustered around them like graves in a churchyard. - -The changes in the mode of disposal of the dead are evidently the -results of changed views concerning the future life. In early -Paleolithic times man buried his dead with the best flint axe in his -hand, with his ornaments and a supply of food, and often a quantity of -shells brought from a distance and evidently objects of value. The dead -man took with him his weapons and all his wealth. For the living to keep -back a portion of what belonged to the departed was robbery, which might -be avenged by all sorts of evils and plagues; for all this material -wealth and ornament was as much needed and as useful there as here. -Apparently, though this is anything but certain, the dead were buried at -first in Europe, extended at full length, and in the caves not far from -the abode of the living. - -Soon we find them buried in a crouching position, with knees and hands -brought close to the chin. Sometimes we find rows of shells, which may -have been attached to cords or bands used to hold the body in this -forced position. This mode of burial in a contracted or crouching -position (_Hockerbestattung_) was usual in Europe in Neolithic time, but -has been discovered in all continents, even in America and Australia. -Very different explanations of this peculiar custom have been offered by -different observers, _e. g._, that it saved the labor of digging a -larger grave, an excellent economic argument; that the dead was laid in -its Mother Earth in the same position which as a foetus it had -maintained in the maternal body, etc., etc. But the predominant thought -appears to have been that the spirit remained in, with, or near the -body, and that binding the body prevented the spirit from walking and -returning to see the survivors. To the same end the most valuable -possessions of the dead had been buried with him. This does not -necessarily argue that there was no affection of the living for the -departed, or no belief in their possible helpfulness. But the community -generally felt that it was a wise precaution, and generally well to be -on the safe side. This belief in the possible return of the dead in -their bodily form and presence is still deeply imbedded in our modern -minds, ready to spring up as a conscious belief; and the departed are -still rarely expected to bring good tidings or benefits. - -[Illustration: ALIGNMENT, CARNAC, BRITTANY] - -This mode of burial continued common through upper Paleolithic time; was -very common, if not the rule during the Neolithic period in various -parts of Europe. Pumpelly found at Anau children, and only children, -buried under the floors of the houses, and notices that this custom was -general throughout the life of the Kurgan.[91] He gives instances of -this custom reported elsewhere. Whether this custom was as wide-spread -as the pottery of Anau and Susa seems doubtful. I can find no reports of -it. But conditions at Anau seem to have been unusually favorable to the -preservation of these perishable remains. It is not impossible that we -have here one of the ways in which the fear of the dead may have been -gradually dispelled. May we not imagine that one of the first steps was -the refusal of the mother to allow her dead child to be banished from -the house? The evidence is too slight to allow of more than a guess. - -As time went on and communities became more closely united leaders must -have arisen for whom the people had only affection, in whose wisdom and -willingness to help they had full confidence, and who were gratefully -remembered as fathers, elders, and wise in counsel, and whose return -would have been gladly welcomed. This thought seems to be the foundation -of the wide-spread and ancient cult or worship of ancestors. Such cases -were certainly common at a somewhat later date, as in the Greek cities, -where the bones of the dead leader or hero were guarded as the chief -protection of the state. This feeling seems to find expression in the -dolmen or house of the dead, with a carefully prepared opening in the -door as if inviting the spirit to free egress. Anniversary feasts in -honor of the departed were certainly common in ancient days. Close -friendship and social relations were cultivated with the departed as -knowledge and culture increased. - -The Egyptian pyramids and mummies, the graves and older dolmens, seem to -testify to a very close and dependent relation between spirit and body. -The spirit hovered around the body and returned to it, and where the -mouldering bones lay there was the spirit's home. Its life was a very -direct continuance of the life in the body. Hence also the food and -libations and the rich burial gifts. But toward the close of the -Neolithic period we find the great stone chamber giving place to a small -cyst or vault, hardly more than a stone coffin, and entirely -underground. At the same time the great stone circles seem at least to -be changing from burial places to temples or centres of worship. A new -method of disposal of the dead has appeared in different parts of -Europe, in Brittany, for example. Up to this time the body has been of -great importance; it has been scrupulously preserved, and provision made -in the grave for the supply of all bodily needs, though the burial gifts -have steadily diminished in number and value. Now the body is burned -immediately after death, as if its preservation were no longer of any -importance but a clog and hindrance from which the spirit was to be set -free as soon as possible. The custom of incineration gains ground in -Europe until in the Bronze Age it is the rule and inhumation the -exception. The old crass materialistic view has evidently given place to -a far higher and more spiritual conception of life after death, and -probably also before it. We here catch a fascinating glimpse of the -steady bold working and tendency of the mind of Neolithic man. It is -only a glimpse of one aspect of his thought and tendency. We lack the -facts to enable us to widen or deepen it. But it is enough to promise a -broad field of future discoveries. - -But one fact leads us to hazard a question. Not very far in the Bronze -Age the first great wave of Celtic migration seems to have broken into -northern Europe, as the Achaeans had already found their way toward or -into Greece. The Celts seem to have had their Vale of Avalon and Islands -of the Blessed, whither the spirits of the departed migrated. We -remember that when Ulysses went in search of the spirit of Achilles, and -of other comrades in the war before Troy, he sought him in no -underground world, but sailed far across the seas into the west. Such -beliefs, and customs like incineration, are a slow growth, probably far -older in origin than the Indo-European or Aryan migrations, of which -some have thought them characteristic. May not this old and wide-spread -belief be merely a continuance of views and conceptions already held by -our Neolithic folk? - -We have already noticed the wide distribution of these megalithic -structures.[92] They stretch along the shore of the Baltic, North Sea, -and Atlantic Ocean down to the Mediterranean. Here they form a band -along the south shore. We find them also in Soudan. In Egypt and Greece -a far more precocious culture made it possible to replace them by -pyramids and "treasure-houses." We find them in Palestine and farther -eastward, along the Black Sea, and in India. In Europe they follow the -coast lines, and do not seem to have been erected by the dwellers in the -valley of the Danube. Their distribution is very similar to that of the -great Mediterranean race and its extensions, but they extend far beyond -the boundaries of any one tribe or people. They are the expression of a -certain thought or conception which spread widely. It might be more -correct to say that the general underlying conception was practically -universal, but found expression in this form in one area, while in other -regions it could not find this expression because conditions were -unfavorable. - -It is exceedingly difficult to say just where the first dolmens were -built. Opinions differ widely. They could have been built only in an -area which had a fairly large and settled population who could unite in -a large and difficult work, and had the means of carrying it out. The -people were agriculturists who possessed no low grade of natural -material or mental culture. Many such general considerations lead us to -look for their first appearance somewhere in the region east of the -Mediterranean, which was evidently the home of many other very ancient -forms of culture.[93] - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -NEOLITHIC INDUSTRIES - - -Our very hasty glance at different aspects of Neolithic culture has -shown its marked diversity in different regions. Its essential and -fundamental characteristic was the introduction of tillage and -cattle-raising, gradually replacing the mere collecting stage of hunting -life, and accompanying a steady growth of independence or control of -nature's bounty or stinginess of food supply. This change increased -rather than diminished the diversity of culture in different regions. In -the rich soil of the loess country and the Danube valley there were -genuine farms; in the north cattle and hog-raising probably prevailed, -gradually shading over into hunting as one neared the forests. Along the -Baltic and the great lakes of Sweden and on all the European rivers -fishing was an important source of food. Differences in size, form, and -comfort of dwellings tell the same story. In the north we find -half-underground huts, probably with shelters of logs or skins in or -along the forests. At Grosgartach and in the lake-dwellings and -elsewhere we find rectangular houses, veritable homes rather than mere -shelters. Primitive man bound the body of his dead with thongs and -buried it away in the earth. Then he deposited it in a small stone hut -much like his shelter. He enlarged and improved it. Finally the great -monument with its circle and alignments seems to have become a temple, -and the body, placed in a small cyst or vault, is completely buried, or -is burned. These marked changes in burial customs and rites in western -and northern, not in eastern or central, Europe, must have been -accompanied by changes in the conception of the after life, whether we -can trace and interpret them or not. - -The same must be said of all industrial products. Every one of them -tells a story, if we can understand and interpret it. We are not -surprised to find in the late Paleolithic (or early Neolithic) paintings -at Cogul women dressed in waist and short skirt not unlike those worn -to-day. The dress represented in the idols of southeastern Europe has -persisted in the peasant dress of certain isolated regions, especially -in Albania, almost or quite into the present.[94] We have noticed the -spinning, weaving, and dyeing of the lake-dwellers, and a similar -industry was spread all over Europe. The costume of the Bronze period -has been preserved in the oak coffins of Scandinavia.[95] We do not know -how much it had changed and improved since Neolithic times. The use of -wool had doubtless increased greatly. Our northern Neolithic hunters -were probably clad largely in skins and furs. - -[Illustration: MODERN ALBANIAN PEASANTS IN NEOLITHIC GARMENTS] - -Two manufactured articles are of especial interest to the archaeologist: -the stone axes and the pottery. They occur in every settlement. Stone is -imperishable, and clay well fired lasts almost as well. They vary -according to age, place, fashion, and conditions, and form the -foundation for all comparative, "typological" study.[96] Their remains -play the same part in archaeology as the characteristic fossils, -"_Leit-fossilien_," in paleontology, not only determining age but -throwing light on the migrations, relations, life, and thought of their -makers. - -The Neolithic period gained its name from the polished stone implements -which then appeared. Paleolithic man had learned by long experience the -value of flint as the best material for his tools. He had learned to -chip and flake it; first by blows, then by pressure, until the -Solutrean lance-heads or "points" showed a beauty of form and finish -unsurpassed by the best craftsmen of any later date. He had learned to -give it a fair cutting edge by small "retouches." It seems never to have -occurred to him to grind or whet the edge of his tools. If the axe -thickened rapidly from the edge and was somewhat like a wedge, it was a -good remedy against the brittleness of the flint, its great defect; and -he put the more strength into the blow. The extreme hardness of flint -made polishing very difficult. Most utensils of daily use were not -polished at all. Many of the beautiful daggers, genuine works of art, -were finished by a uniform, fine flaking down to the close of the -period. Flint implements were not polished in Italy, Greece, Spain, and -large parts of eastern Europe;[97] they increase in abundance in -Scandinavia and England. Other kinds of less brittle but somewhat softer -rock were generally used for polished axes. - -During the upper Paleolithic period, especially in the Magdalenian -Epoch, daggers, lance-heads, awls, and needles were made of bone. For -pointed implements, flint, while sometimes used, was far less suitable, -except when the point was very short, as in engraving and carving tools. -These bone implements were scraped into shape and often well smoothed. -It seems but a step from smoothing a bone to polishing the edge of an -axe, if not of too hard rock. But the chipped flint axe was very good, -and they were accustomed to it. Forrer thinks that the change must have -been made where flint was scarce and pebbles abundant.[98] - -In Scandinavia the kitchen-midden period was followed by an "arctic" -culture, so called because of its distribution in the far north. Here we -find implements of slate or schist polished only along the edges. This -seems like a very natural intermediate stage. We do not know just where -those attempts were first made. They may have been made at different -points in Asia and Europe and at different times, and thus there may -have been several independent centres of discovery and of radiation. - -The lake-dwellers used a variety of material; indeed, they seem to have -been quite expert practical mineralogists. Characteristic is their use -of certain rocks which combined great toughness and hardness, and were -thus superior to flint; so chloromelanite, saussurite, nephrite, and -jadeite. These minerals are rare, and the implements made of them were -small chisel-like blades, rarely exceeding an inch in length. They were -usually mounted in a socket of horn fastened into a wooden handle. We -shall see that the source of these minerals is still anything but clear. - -The axe of the kitchen-midden[99] is hardly more than a disk struck off -from a flint nucleus, with two sides broken off and the top of the -triangular remnant removed. The axe of later Neolithic time was at first -nearly of the shape of a flattened almond, but gradually changed and -took more of the form of a chisel. The stages in this process of change -are of value in determining the chronology of the period, and will be -discussed in the next chapter. These axes were rudely shaped by flaking -and then ground and polished on large flat stones, which still show the -grooves left by the implement as it was rubbed back and forth. The -different steps in shaping and finishing such axes are well shown by -Hoernes in specimens selected from the rich collections made at Butmir, -Bosnia. - -[Illustration: AXES FROM LAKE-DWELLINGS SHOWING ATTACHMENT TO HANDLES] - -The lake-dwellers followed a different and improved method. They -selected from the bed of a stream a smooth pebble of somewhat flattened -and elongated egg shape. With a flint flake or saw[100] and sand they -cut a groove in the edge, and split the stone by a sharp blow, -somewhat as a peanut or almond falls apart. The rounded surface of each -half was nearly of the desired form, and only the flat surface required -much shaping. A skilful workman now can finish an axe of this kind in -half a day.[101] - -We cannot trace the variety of axes characteristic of different times, -places, and uses. One, which from its resemblance to a shoemaker's last -has been called by the Germans the "_Schuhleistenbeil_," demands -mention.[102] This is a heavy, thick, clumsy implement, with one end -edged or pointed. The lower surface is flat or slightly concave, the -upper nearly semi-circular in cross-section. It reminds us somewhat of -the grub-hoe or mattock, and probably served a similar purpose--to break -up the ground. It is very common in the loess regions of southeastern -Europe, but in the more stony soils of the uplands was generally -replaced by a pick made of a stout tine of deer's horn. Broader and -flatter hoes are found, and stone ploughshares. We must clearly -recognize the distinction between the mattock and a somewhat similar but -lighter polished concave axe, with sharp transverse cutting edge, used -along the Baltic and elsewhere for hollowing out boats. Adze and -mattock are similar in general form, but the carpenter's tool is a much -finer instrument than the agricultural implement, and serves a very -different purpose. - -Bone was still used for pointed tools and weapons. A bundle of sharp -pointed ribs found at Robenhausen had probably been used for hackling -flax, Horn was used for sockets for the smaller chisels, and for a -variety of other purposes. Wooden bowls, scoops, and other articles -occur among the remains of the lake-dwellings. - -Flint held much the same place in Neolithic industry as iron or steel -with us. Its quality varied greatly in different localities. Our -Neolithic ancestors had discovered that it worked better when freshly -mined than when long exposed and weathered. Hence a mine of flint of the -best quality was as valuable as a field of iron ore or a gold mine -to-day. The most celebrated source of flint in France was Grand -Pressigny, near Tours, Department of Indre-et-Loire.[103] The color and -texture of this flint enables us to recognize it wherever found. It was -exported as far as Brittany, Normandy, Belgium, and western Switzerland. - -At Spiennes, in Belgium, they sunk shafts sometimes to a depth of forty -feet. Here horizontal galleries extended out into the layers of chalk -containing the best quality of flint. Similar mines were located at -Grimes Graves and at Cissbury, in England.[104] The flint was exported -sometimes in blocks, sometimes as half or completely finished -implements. Around Grand Pressigny workshops are numerous. But they are -by no means limited to the immediate vicinity of the mines. In some -localities the manufacture was almost limited to one particular article. -Here the product was exported in finished form. - -During the Bronze period Halle was a seat of wealth, and the large -amount of copper found here suggests that the production of salt had -begun here before the close of Neolithic times. Hoernes says that the -production of salt at Hallstadt, a source of great wealth and luxury -during the earliest Iron Epoch, and of no small extent during the Bronze -period, had its beginnings in Neolithic days. The value of salt in trade -or barter can hardly be overestimated. - -A very small amount of gold, mostly in the form of beads, has been found -in the Neolithic monuments of France erected at the very close of this -period. Occurring native in small nuggets in the beds of streams and -rivers of many parts of Europe, its color and malleability must have -attracted the notice of the searchers after new material for implements. -Large nuggets were found in Spain at a much later date with callais, a -mineral resembling turquoise, which occurs from Portugal to -Brittany.[105] - -Objects of copper were found by Pumpelly at Anau contemporary with the -appearance of turbary sheep, about 6000 B. C.[106] It appears in Egypt -perhaps 1,000 years later. We find traces of it in the oldest city of -Troy (Hissarlik). It may well have entered southeastern Europe by way of -Troy, or northward from Greece through the Balkan Peninsula to the -Danube valley. A more westerly route lay open through Italy, or the -islands west of it, into Spain. Native metallic copper seems to fail in -Europe proper, but mines for ore were opened in Tyrol, and probably -elsewhere, before the end of the period. - -Copper was very useful for ornaments, especially rings, armlets, and -bracelets; for pointed objects like needles, pins, awls, and even -daggers; to a certain extent for knives and razors. Copper axes were -modelled at first after old stone patterns. This metal had one fatal -defect, however; it would not hold an edge. Copper utensils were -beautiful, but generally less useful than similar ones made of stone. -They were largely for display and luxury, though this may hardly be true -of its use in Egypt and the Orient. In Europe it could not shake the -hold of the old, established flint. When the copper ore contained -impurities of antimony or zinc, the alloy was harder. Then we find a -very small percentage of tin, which slowly increases. There must have -been long searching and experimenting before the classical recipe for -bronze, ninety per cent copper and ten per cent tin, was established. We -cannot well speak of a new copper culture or period. This began with the -introduction of the harder and more beautiful, but always rare and -expensive bronze. Still the great characteristic of the Bronze Age lay -not so much in the introduction of a new metal as in the wider -relations, communications, exchange of goods, and knowledge, and freer -movements of individuals and peoples, which had brought it about. The -discovery of metals, of salt, of minerals, and other materials useful -for ornament and of the Baltic amber, was gradually furnishing -considerable material which could be readily exchanged for the products -of other sometimes distant and more advanced provinces and lands. The -centres of distribution were often at some or considerable distance -from the sources of the raw material, so especially in the case of flint -implements. The location of the seat of manufacture and distribution -depends largely on freedom and ease of communication. This leads us to -glance at trade and trade-routes during this period. - -We must bear in mind that the means of transportation were few and -inadequate. The wheeled cart appeared during the Bronze period, but we -have no proof of its use earlier. The horse was not yet domesticated -in Europe, and did not come into use in the Orient much before 2000 B. -C.[107] Cattle may have been used as beasts of burden at an early -period, but of this we know nothing. Roads of a certain kind, often -probably hardly more than mere trails, almost certainly existed, -especially in the neighborhood of the great stone monuments and larger -villages. The great bar to free communication was the forest. To avoid -this almost impassable barrier the roads and trails seem usually to -have kept to the uplands, especially those where the chalk prevented a -heavy forest growth. Certain river valleys, like that of the Thames, -were heavily forested almost or quite to the shore, and hardly -inhabited at this time. But when the forest drew back somewhat from -the water's edge there was a most attractive place for human -settlement. The river bottoms were fertile and easy of cultivation. -There was grass for herds, wood for buildings and fuel. The rivers -swarmed with fish down to recent times, and there was a great variety -and abundance of smaller animal life. Such valleys formed natural -routes of trade and migration.[108] We are not surprised to find that -the earliest settlers of Sweden made their way from shore to interior -along the rivers and lakes, whose shores are dotted with settlements -of this age.[109] Dechelette tells us that this was true of the -grouping of the Neolithic stations of France in three great provinces -in the basins of the Seine, the Garonne, the Rhone, the Saone and the -Loire. We remember the lake-dwellers. The valley of the Danube has -been the great thoroughfare since the arrival of man in Europe. The -great ancient civilizations of Egypt and Chaldea arose in the valleys -of the Nile and the Euphrates. - -We know that the people of the shell-heaps must have ventured some -distance from shore, fishing for cod. The transition from Paleolithic to -Neolithic might almost be characterized as a time of change from a -hunting life to one very largely of fishing. Long before this emigrants, -probably from Asia Minor, had sailed out into the Mediterranean and -settled Crete. Here, before 3000 B. C., a veritable sea-power had arisen -carrying on trade with Egypt and the shores of the Aegean. The voyage of -the Argonauts, a "much-sung" story and saga in Homer's time, may well -have had a historical foundation in expeditions for trade and plunder -along the shores of the Black Sea, up its rivers, and extending as far -as distant Colchis. Hence the importance of Troy in ancient times and of -Constantinople to-day. - -Returning to the Baltic region,[110] we find that a cave on the island -of Stora Karlso, close to the west shore of Gothland, contained -Neolithic deposits nearly three metres thick. In the upper layers there -were remains of domestic animals, in the lower only wild forms. This -island lies some thirty miles from Oland, just off the east coast of -Sweden. Montelius tells us that before the end of the Neolithic period -there was communication between Sweden and Finland, as well as with -Denmark and Germany; that trade between these regions was active, and -that there is reason for thinking that there was communication between -the west coast of Sweden and England. It seems highly probable that -boats were creeping along the coast of Spain and France from harbor to -harbor, although the evidence is here less clear and compelling. - -Our knowledge of Neolithic boats is still very incomplete.[111] Those of -the lake-dwellers seem to have been usually hardly more than dugouts -hollowed by fire. One, however, from Lake Chalain (Jura) was about -thirty feet long and two and one-half wide, made out of an oak-trunk. -Such boats served well for river navigation, but were too shallow and -clumsy for the open sea. It would have been a comparatively easy matter -to add one or two planks along each side of such a dugout and thus -build up a fairly seaworthy craft. The rock-sculptures of Bohuslan, -Sweden, which probably date from early in the Bronze Age, represent -boats of fair size carrying as many as thirty men.[112] - -The wares exchanged in this trade were limited in material and value. -Metals and metallic objects were still unknown, except as copper and -gold came in before the end of the period. Still, there were many -objects which met a fairly wide demand. We have already seen that -different lake-dwellings differed markedly in their products. Some were -almost purely agricultural. In others we find remains of pottery -evidently manufactured on the spot in larger quantities than the village -could use. Much of this must have been exported along the lake, perhaps -farther. Schliz distinguished at Grosgartach a rude home-made pottery -from a finer ware apparently brought from some centre of finer and more -artistic work. The Neolithic housewife was probably very proud of this -"china." The finer grades of cloth manufactured at Robenhausen and -elsewhere were probably carried far and wide, but it is impossible to -trace it. The flint mined at Grand Pressigny was transported to greater -or less distances, as well as manufactured at the mouth of the mine. At -the various workshops the implements were made in great numbers and -still more widely disseminated. This was equally true of flint regions -in other parts of Europe. Stone arm-rings, mace-heads and other fine -articles found sparsely in northern Europe may well have been copies of -a few articles brought from Italy or even farther.[113] - -The nephrite and jadeite of the lake-dwellings were long supposed to be -imports from eastern Asia--until it was discovered that the material of -many of those implements differed in microscopic structure from the -Asiatic, and then were supposed to be of indigenous material. Probably -both extreme views are untenable. A certain amount of communication with -the Orient is shown by the occurrence of rings made of recent shells of -Tridacna or Spondylus in Egypt, throughout the Mediterranean region, in -France, and occasionally in middle Europe. The material apparently came -from the Red Sea or the Indian Ocean. The same is true of a shell of -Meleagrinia found in a hut-foundation in Rivatella, Italy.[114] -Ornaments in the form of Mediterranean shells strung as necklaces are -not uncommon in France, and occur elsewhere. The Mediterranean lands -were in close communication with Egypt and Asia Minor; Spain with -Africa, which furnished ivory and carved ostrich egg-shells carried -farther north in rare instances. Stone palettes similar to those found -in Egyptian graves occur in southern France and elsewhere. More careful -search and study will doubtless greatly increase the number of similar -illustrations. - -Scandinavia was already showing its appreciation of beauty of form and -finish, which made its products unsurpassed during the Bronze period. -Its marvellous flint daggers and hammer-axes were widely distributed and -excite our admiration to-day. But the product which it was later to -export to Greece and Italy in payment for the metal and art-treasures of -the south was amber, an admirable material for jewelry, easily cut, -transparent, of various hues, and taking a brilliant polish. So Homer -speaks of a royal necklace, "golden, adorned with amber, like a blazing -sun." Far back in Neolithic times we find jars containing large -quantities of amber in the form of rude beads. One such hoard contained -4,000 articles, and weighed 17 pounds. The amber was evidently used for -necklaces, and was common in the graves of the earlier epochs. It seems -to have made its way slowly over North Germany. Amber beads occur very -sparingly in the lake-dwellings. During the Bronze period it disappears -largely in Scandinavian graves and is here less used for ornaments, but -appears in Greece and Italy, where its beauty and possibilities could be -properly appreciated. The value of amber in Scandinavia as an article of -export rose to such an extent that the inhabitants largely gave up the -use of it and exchanged it wholesale for the more attractive and useful -metal. During this period there was a regular trade-route between the -Baltic and the Mediterranean. - -[Illustration: BOATS FROM ROCK CARVINGS IN BOHUSLAN, SWEDEN. (EARLY -BRONZE AGE)] - -As Hoernes[115] says, it was this new trade which brought with it the -close of the Neolithic period in northern Europe. But the change from -the age of stone to that of bronze was anything but abrupt or sudden; in -fact, it extended over more than 1,000 years. It was apparently not -brought about by the invasion of a conquering race, though it was -accompanied and followed by marked change and shifting of the population -of central Europe. First we find a few copper ornaments and implements -stealing into France and southern Europe. Then the metal becomes more -abundant as people increase in wealth and can afford luxuries. Then -bronze comes in from southeast and south, and very slowly north of the -Alps. It meets the current of amber from the north. - -Thus the two most beautiful, precious, and desirable materials of the -time have come together. Both are easy of transport. A trade which has -long been preparing or proceeding on a small scale expands rapidly, -perhaps suddenly, and ushers in a new period, which, after all, chiefly -carries on or brings into prominence that which had begun or advanced -during the preceding age. - -More interesting and, perhaps, more important than exchange of flint -axes and amber is the spread of patterns, methods, influences; of new -ideas and stimuli from mind to mind and people to people. A new -implement, like the mace-heads and arm-rings, of which we have spoken; a -new form of axe or dagger; the form and ornament of pottery; the -building of dolmens or the spread of immigration with the accompanying -change of cult and thought--all these brought not only economic -improvement but growth of mind. Sophus Mueller, and Montelius in a less -degree, may have been somewhat extreme in their emphasis on the -importance of oriental and Mediterranean influences and leadership, but -their main thesis was correct.[116] Civilization and culture were far -older in the Orient than in Europe, and far more advanced south than -north of the Alps. These were the centres of radiation of ideas and -stimuli as well as patterns, inventions, and discoveries. - -This does not mean that northern Europe was a passive recipient. It -accepted and adopted whatever and only what it would, and probably -refused many a valuable suggestion. In many cases it improved on the -patterns or example of its teacher and inspirer. The art of polishing -stone implements and the use of bronze may not have been indigenous in -Scandinavia; but here, as time went on, genuine works of art were -produced superior to any in the world, far more artistic than the -beautiful technique of the Egyptians. Prehistoric domestic animals were -almost certainly introduced from the East. But the lake-dwellers usually -improved the breed by intercrossing with forms derived from their own -fauna. They increased the list of cultivated plants. The idea or -conception passed from tribe to tribe, but the new stimulus did its -fermenting work differently, according to the mind or medium into which -it fell. There was always readaptation and more or less change. To be a -wide borrower and at the same time to usually improve on one's teacher -requires something very close to genius, though the originality may be -less obtrusive. We have no reason to be ashamed of our Neolithic -ancestors. - -The result of this exchange of products and ideas will be more apparent -during the next period. Trade-routes and lines of communication will -then become far more clear and fixed. But it is important to notice that -these routes are already opening in all directions, perhaps more -numerous because still experimental, tentative, and somewhat vague. The -routes of transportation during prehistoric times, as usually in pioneer -periods, were mainly along river valleys. Where basins almost or quite -touch one another centres of contact and distribution naturally arise. -Hence the prosperity of the Department of Saone-et-Loire, in France. A -study of any good relief-map of Europe will show the chief routes of -trade almost at a glance. The great east-and-west artery is the valley -of the Danube, with its tributaries extending far northward, almost -touching the headwaters of rivers flowing into the North Sea or Baltic. -The westernmost north-and-south route is by sea along the Atlantic coast -from Spain to England or Denmark. A second was formed by the Rhone and -Rhine, eastward and parallel to the French highlands extending from the -Mediterranean to Belgium, broken by the pass of Belfort. A third ran up -the valley of the Elbe and down the Moldau to the Danube. This was the -most important route in Europe, especially for amber. A fourth, from the -Baltic to the Black Sea, followed the Vistula and the Dniester. From -ancient times the Black Sea and its tributaries have been the great -route of communication between the Aegean and southern Russia as well as -parts of the Balkan Peninsula. During the greater part of the Neolithic -period it was probably only a sluggish and irregular current of trade -which trickled along most of these routes, put it was the beginning and -promise of larger and better things, and must not be despised or -neglected. - -In any study of the industries of this period the manufacture of pottery -is of the greatest interest and most fundamental importance. Pottery is -to the archaeologist what characteristic fossils are to the -paleontologist. It is almost indestructible. In its texture, form, and -ornament it affords wide scope for individual or tribal skill and -invention, and yet over wide areas the general type shows a remarkable -unity and persistency. A single sherd may often tell a long and reliable -story. The pottery of the Mediterranean basin and of many oriental -localities is a fairly sure guide to the age of a long-buried settlement -and to the relations of its people with other, often distant regions. -The chronology and much of the history of Egypt, Troy, and Crete, and -many ancient settlements of Greece and Italy, are based largely on the -study of their pottery. It is far more expressive and informing than the -average stone or bone implement. - -The time is not yet ripe, however, for such deductions from the study of -the pottery of northern and middle Europe. A good foundation has been -laid, much material gathered which is being built up into a firm system. -But in this pioneer work many rash generalizations have been based upon -a foundation of facts drawn from a very narrow area, often incompletely -understood. Here we must proceed cautiously and can give only a very -brief and inadequate outline sketch of the most important results in -which we may have a fair degree of confidence and which are needed in -our further study. - -Pottery appears first in the transition epoch from Paleolithic to -Neolithic, at Campigny and in the kitchen-middens. Long before this time -there must have been containers for fluids. A concavity in the rock may -have been the first reservoir and a mussel-shell the first drinking-cup. -Wherever gourds occurred they were doubtless hollowed out and made most -convenient jars and dishes. Vessels of bark and wood probably came into -use early in the north. Skins of animals tightly sewn with sinew and -with well-greased seams formed excellent bottles, still used in the -Orient. Where the art of plaiting twigs, splints, or reeds into mats and -baskets had been discovered, it was not a long step to coat the inside -with clay and dry or finally burn it before the fire. The potter's -wheel did not come into use until the Bronze period. Pottery had been -used in the Orient long before this time. It is found well made and -beautifully decorated in the oldest strata at Susa. The art may have -been introduced from Asia or lost during the long migration and then -reacquired. Here we are still in the dark. - -[Illustration: POTTERY FROM NEOLITHIC GRAVES] - -The pottery of northern Europe can be distributed into a few groups or -general types, every one of which is wide-spread and fairly distinct, -though mixture or combination of types is not uncommon, especially along -the boundaries of distribution where two types meet. There is much -difference of opinion and discussion concerning details, but general -agreement as to fundamentals and essentials.[117] - -Intermediate or "hybrid" forms also occur. The classification is hardly -natural and is responsible for much confusion and dispute. It can have -only temporary and provisional value. These three groups are: - -1. Banded pottery, _Ceramique rubanee_, _Bandkeramik_. - -2. Corded pottery, _Ceramique cordee_, _Schnurkeramik_. - -3. Calyciform pottery, _Vases caliciforms_, _Zonenbecher._ - -They differ mostly in ornamentation, but often also as distinctly in -form. - -1. _Banded pottery_ occurs all over Europe except northeast of the Oder, -perhaps also in Great Britain. Its shape is usually that of a spheroidal -gourd with the upper fourth removed; and its system of ornament may have -been derived from the system of cords by which the jar was once -suspended. Sometimes we find a low neck, rim, or collar around the large -mouth. The ornament in what seems to be its most primitive form consists -of lines marked in the clay, arranged parallel to one another in bands -covering most of the body of the jar. These bands, either broad or -narrow, run in a zigzag or saw-tooth pattern horizontally around the -base. By doubling each saw-tooth we get a diamond-shaped area. Even this -simple ornament admits of a large variety of patterns. But the bands may -be curved instead of angular, forming scrolls, meanders, or spirals. -Logically, these should represent the latest development of the type. -But the spiral may yet prove to be actually older than the angle. The -bands may be raised and projecting (Bosnia) or be merely painted on a -flat, sometimes burnished, surface. The incised lines may be plain or -filled with a white material (encrusted). The briefest consideration -shows that we have here a very generalized type or group of types which -made its first appearance in Europe on the lower Danube and then -underwent development by simplification or sometimes, perhaps, by -increased complexity, as it radiated from this centre, becoming more and -more modified as it went westward or northward. - -The banded pottery of southwest Germany and the Rhine region is found in -dwellings as well as graves, usually accompanied by the mattock or the -deer-horn pick, but lance-heads fail. The rectangular houses belonged to -people of a settled and quite advanced agriculture. We find cellars, and -barns or granaries. The dwellings are single or in groups, sometimes, as -at Grosgartach, forming quite a village or town. They are situated by -preference on the loess terraces of the streams and rivers, near enough -to the water for boat communication. The pottery varies in fineness and -beauty according to the size of the dwelling and therefore the wealth of -its owner. Social differences, rank, and fashion are appearing in truly -modern form. - -2. _Corded Pottery._ The most characteristic and, perhaps, culminating -form is the Amphora or flasklike vase with wide neck, which starts -abruptly from a globose portion with flat base. Its prototype may have -been the leathern flask or bottle. Here the ornament consists of -parallel lines arranged in a band or in bands around the neck, but often -extending somewhat on to the upper surface of the bulb. The lines look -as if made by winding a cord around the neck while the clay was still -soft; hence the name of the group. It seems to have been originally a -purely northern product, which toward the close of the Neolithic period -was carried southward by a distinct movement of population. It is found -almost entirely in graves, often accompanied by calyciform cups. Schliz -says that it is never found in remains of dwellings. The household -pottery was apparently crude and coarse, with no distinctive type of -ornament. The carriers of the culture were apparently herdsmen rather -than tillers of the soil, and always more or less hunters. Their finest -implements were their weapons. - -3. _Calyciform Pottery, Zonen-or Glocken-becher_, has been by some -united with Corded Pottery. It has the shape of a goblet or inverted -bell with flaring rim and flat base. - -[Illustration: POTTERY - - _A._ Banded pottery. - - _B._ 1. Origin of banded ornament from cords suspending a more - or less hemispherical vessel derived from the hollow gourd. - - 2. Corded ornament derived from suspension of flask (Amphora). - - _C._ Cups and Kugelamphore (globular flask) from Groszgartach.] - -The ornament is in circular zones separated by bands of well-polished -surface covering the whole outside. It is found in Asia Minor, Egypt, -Italy, and in western Europe along the whole zone of megalithic -monuments, whence it spread northward and eastward into middle Europe. - -The incrusted pottery characterized by incised lines filled with a white -material may have had a distinct origin and development, though its -technique has often been borrowed and applied to other types. The -pottery of the oldest lake-dwellers is crude, coarse, with little or no -ornament. Hence it is difficult to connect it with any other type. - -Form and shape of pottery are often quite or very persistent. We cannot -understand why the base of so many jars was left rounded, or in some old -lake-dwellings pointed, when it might easily have been flattened, -apparently to good advantage. But even the form, and still more the -ornament, changes according to time, place, and fashion; hence these are -very useful in tracing periods and cultures and their relations. Where -different types meet there is usually more or less change or -modification, often difficult to interpret. Our knowledge of European -pottery is still small and unsatisfactory, but it has already been of -much use in tracing migrations of culture and relations between -provinces often widely separated. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -NEOLITHIC CHRONOLOGY - - -"We must imagine Europe in upper Paleolithic times again as a terminal -region, a great peninsula toward which the human emigrants from the east -and from the south came to mingle and to superpose their cultures. These -races took the grand migration routes which had been followed by other -waves of animal life before them; they were pressed upon from behind by -the increasing populations from the east; they were attracted to western -Europe as a fresh and wonderful game country, where food in the forests, -in the meadows, and in the streams abounded in unparalleled -profusion.... Between the retreating Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers -Europe was freely open toward the eastern plains of the Danube, -extending to central and southern Asia; on the north, however, along the -Baltic, the climate was still too inclement for a wave of human -migration, and there is no trace of man along these northern shores -until the close of the Upper Paleolithic, nor of any residence of man in -the Scandinavian peninsula until the great wave of Neolithic migration -established itself in that region."[118] - -We must now attempt to determine the succession of these great changes -in the climate and face of Europe, and then see if we can fix any dates -for some of the changes and for the introduction of new cultures. - -In the oscillations of the ice-front marking the final retreat of the -Alpine glaciers there were three epochs of advance. Two of these, the -Buehl and Gschnitz advances, with the interval of retreat between them, -were occupied by the Magdalenian or last epoch of Upper Paleolithic -time. The third advance, the Daun Epoch, or perhaps the latter part of -the Gschnitz and the first part of the Daun, is represented by the -Azilian-Tardenoisian Epoch, a period of transition from Paleolithic to -Neolithic time. These changes have been clearly traced by Osborn.[119] - -We are most closely concerned with the changes which took place around -the Baltic in Denmark and Scandinavia during this post-glacial retreat -of the ice. Here also we find the same disappearance of the tundra and -"barren-ground" fauna already noticed in France, and the appearance of a -park-flora of forests interspersed with open glades or meadows. But we -need not be surprised if we find that the retreat of the great Baltic -or Scandinavian ice-sheet does not keep step exactly with that of the -Alpine.[120] - -1. The last ice-sheet had covered most of Scandinavia except the western -half of Denmark and, perhaps, the most southern portion of Sweden. But a -broad mass of ice covered most of Schleswig, at least the eastern half -of Holstein, and a fairly wide zone of land south of and more or less -parallel to the south shore of the Baltic. To the eastward and northward -a great sea extended to the Arctic Ocean. This earliest stage marked the -farthest advance of the ice just before the final retreat. - -2. Slowly and gradually the ice retreated until finally it occupied only -the mountains of the backbone of Scandinavia. The region of the Baltic -Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, a large part of Sweden and a good portion -of Finland were covered by a great sheet of water, the Yoldia Sea, -connected by a broad sound at the present Skager Rack with the North Sea -and Atlantic, and still opening widely into the Arctic Ocean -northeastward. The submerged regions had been greatly depressed, -especially in the north. The clays deposited along the shores of the sea -are now raised often to a height of one hundred metres above -tide-level. But to the southward the depression was only slightly -marked. - -[Illustration: SUCCESSIVE STAGES AND FORMS OF BALTIC SEA - - 1. Culmination of last advance of ice. - 2. Yoldia Sea during retreat of ice. - 3. Yoldia Sea at greatest size. - 4. Scandinavia during Ancylus Epoch. - -(The white represents the ice; dark gray represents the land; light gray -the Baltic Sea.)] - -It is important to our later study to notice that these clays, which are -thick and fine-grained, are composed of thin layers of alternating dark -material deposited in fall or winter, and lighter, more sandy, brought -down by the spring freshets. The temperature of the sea could hardly -have been much above freezing-point, as is shown by the presence of -arctic forms of mollusks, like _Yoldia arctica_ and _Astarte borealis_. -The land-plants of this epoch, the so-called Dryas flora, are dwarf cold -tundra forms, now occurring in Spitzbergen, Lapland, and Arctic Russia -and Siberia. But certain plants, especially in Sweden, lead us to infer -that while the winters were long and severe, the short summers were warm -or even hot. This does not surprise us in northern tundra regions. -Reindeer still lived in the region. This Yoldia Epoch is our second -great post-glacial stage. Man had apparently not yet reached Denmark, -though some reindeer hunters probably roamed over Germany. - -3. Toward the end of the Yoldia Epoch the land rose in southwest Sweden, -connecting this country with Denmark and cutting the connection of the -remains of the Yoldia Sea with the North Sea. A similar emergence in -Finland completed the change of this sea into a great landlocked body -of water called the Ancylus Lake, from the most common and -characteristic mollusk, _Ancylus fluviatilis_. The glaciers had shrunken -to a narrow band covering the mountains between Norway and Sweden. The -climate, while moderating, was still cold. The Arctic flora retreated -northward and was followed in Denmark by woods and even forests of -willows, aspens, and poplars, entering from the south and southeast. -These were followed by pines, especially in the dryer districts, later -by alders, coming from the east across Finland, according to Hoops.[121] -The Ancylus Epoch forms our third stage. The settlement at Maglemose -probably took place toward its close. - -4. The elevation and emergence of land so characteristic of the Ancylus -Epoch was followed by a depression of this region, especially in its -southern portions. That part of the Ancylus Lake corresponding to the -Baltic regained broader and deeper connections with the North Sea than -it has at present. Hence the waters of the Baltic contained a larger -percentage of salt than now. The marine life, _Littorina littorea_, -_Tapes_, and others, testifies to a rise in temperature since the -Ancylus Epoch. Oaks had already begun to crowd out the pines, and will -be followed after a time by the beeches loving a soil rich in humus, -rather than the sandy barrens occupied by the pines. A similar evidence -is furnished by other plants, some of which reached a higher latitude -than now. The summer temperature was perhaps 2-1/2 deg. Cent. higher than -at present, an "optimum temperature" for the plant life of this region. -This improvement of climate is most marked in northeastern Europe and -seems far less noticeable even in Germany. Our fourth stage is marked by -a greatly improved climate and the spread of the shell-heaps. - -5. A fifth stage ushers in the full Neolithic period. Between the -Littorina stage and the genuine Neolithic culture of lake-dwellings and -megaliths there is a considerable gap in our knowledge, a period during -which agriculture and domestic animals were brought in and utensils and -pottery and general conditions were greatly improved. - -We may now venture to attempt to gain an absolute chronology of more or -less definite dates for the appearance of the cultures which we have -noticed. We must clearly recognize that our best results can be only -tentative and provisional. A careful study and comparison of the pottery -of northern Europe will some day furnish data for a reliable system. -For the sake of convenience we will begin by attempting to set a date -for the close, rather than the beginning, of the whole Neolithic period. -We have seen that this was brought about by the introduction of the -metal bronze. Copper had come into use somewhat or considerably earlier, -but it seems hardly worth while to consider it as characterizing a -distinct period. It is rather the last phase of the Stone Age, when -wider communications and trade were making the transition to the use of -metals like bronze and iron. - -According to Montelius,[122] who is our best authority on chronology, -the use of bronze in sufficient quantities to mark the beginning of a -new period took place in different countries at the dates given in the -second column of the following table, the first column showing the date -of the first use of copper:[123] - - +-------------------------------+-----------------+ - | REGION | YEAR B. C. | - +-------------------------------+--------+--------+ - | | COPPER | BRONZE | - | +--------+--------+ - | Egypt and Chaldaea | 5000 | 3000 | - | Troy, Greece, and Sicily | 3000 | 2500 | - | Hungary and Spain | 3000 | 2000 | - | Middle Europe and France | 2500 | 2000 | - | North Germany and Scandinavia | 2500 | 1900 | - +-------------------------------+--------+--------+ - -These dates mark the beginning of the more or less general use of -metals, not the first appearance of a few imported articles. Some -authorities would place the beginning of the Bronze period a few -centuries earlier, and that of the introduction of copper some 500 years -earlier.[124] Forrer dates the beginning of both epochs a little later -than Montelius. The date 2000 B. C. would seem to mark the end of the -Neolithic period in middle Europe with approximate accuracy. - -In attempting to determine the date of the beginning of the Neolithic -period we may begin with a remote point of departure for comparison and -select the Buehl stage and the beginning of the Magdalenian Epoch. Nuesch -made a careful estimate from the deposits at Schweizersbild near -Schaffhausen, Switzerland. His method of estimating is described fully -by Obermaier.[125] He places the beginning of the Neolithic deposits -here at 6000 B. C., and considers 20,000 years as a fair estimate for the -time elapsed since the first occupation of this locality by Magdalenian -hunters at some time during the Buehl Epoch. Obermaier, summing up the -evidence, concludes that the beginning of the Magdalenian Epoch could -not have been later than 16,000-18,000 B. C., and that it ended not far -from 12,000 B. C. Osborn says: "Buehl moraines in Lake Lucerne are -estimated as having been deposited between 16,000 and 24,000 years B. C." -He also appears to place the Maglemose culture at about 7000 B. C.[126] - -We may now turn to the great Scandinavian ice-sheet, whose retreat may -have begun somewhat later and proceeded more slowly on account of its -more northerly position. Here De Geer has made a report based on a very -careful study of the annual layers of deposition formed during the -glacial retreat. We have already seen that the material brought down by -the spring freshets differs in color and texture from that of late -summer and autumn. Hence these annual layers are almost as distinct and -as easily counted as the rings in the trunk of a tree. This method -promises great accuracy of results, and the thickness and character of -the layers and their included organic remains throw much light on the -climatic and other conditions under which they were laid down. But even -here the length of certain periods of halt in the glacial retreat can be -only very roughly approximated. The number of annual layers of deposit -in the Swedish Lake Ragunda lately drained shows the number of years -since the lake was uncovered almost at the end of the retreat of the -Scandinavian ice. - -Says Sollas: "The Ancylus Lake was in existence at a time when the ice -had very nearly, though not quite, accomplished its full retreat, _i. -e._, a little more than 7,000 years ago (the length of post-glacial -time); and Baron de Geer, although he has not yet been able to bring the -beach of the lake into connection with his system of measurements, -thinks, as he has kindly informed me, that its probable date may be -7,500 years counting from the present."[127] - -Menzel, in a chart embodying the results of his study of De Geer's work, -places the beginning of the retreat of the ice in Germany at 21,000 B. -C., the maximum of the Littorina depression and epoch of kitchen-middens -at 6000 B. C., full Neolithic at 4500 B. C., beginning of Bronze period -1700 B. C.[128] - -Keilhack, basing his study on the silting and dune-formation at -Swinepforte, estimates that the time elapsed since the maximum of the -Littorina depression down to the present has been about 7,000 years, -making the date of the depression about 5000 B. C. He considers his -estimate as somewhat more probable than De Geer's. - -Anderson has called attention to the change of position of the earth's -axis at different times. When the position of the earth's axis was such -as to give most sunlight in Sweden, the midnight sun was above the -horizon at Karesuanda, the most northern astronomical station, 62 days. -During the time of most unfavorable position it was above the horizon -only 38 days, a difference of 24 days. This change should influence -climate and vegetation. The period of maximum sunshine, according to -this view, was 9,000 years ago, about 7000 B. C., somewhat earlier than -the maximum of the Littorina depression. It would tend to give a -climatic optimum at nearly the same time as estimated by Menzel. - -Steenstrup[129] discovered the succession of forest growths in the -peat-bogs or moors of Zealand, north of Copenhagen. In the layers of -some of the depressions he found what seemed to be almost a complete -record of forest life from the time of the retreat of the glaciers. The -upper layers of peat contained remains of trees still flourishing in the -surrounding country: alders, birches, and beeches. Then came oaks, and -still deeper the pines. Beneath these were aspens, arctic willows, and -other plants of the far north. Remains of the reindeer occur in their -lowest layer. The pines hardly, if at all, reached Denmark before the -Ancylus Epoch, preceding periods showing only the Dryas flora. - -The pines had a hard struggle for life at first. They are dwarfed and -their rings of annual growth are very thin, sometimes as many as seventy -to the inch of thickness. Still some of these dwarfs attain the very -respectable age of 300 to 400 years. Gradually they prospered, and in -the upper layers there are trunks more than a metre in diameter. All -these facts point to early and long occupation. Steenstrup reckoned the -age of the oldest layers of these accumulations at 10,000 to 12,000 -years, dating their beginnings therefore at 8000 to 10,000 B. C. Pine -was still growing in the neighborhood of the shell-heaps, or the -capercailzie or pine partridge would probably not have occurred. - -But in the shell-heaps we find only oak charcoal, not pine. This was at -least beginning to retreat and give place to the oak. At Maglemose we -find pine charcoal but oak pollen grains in layers apparently of the -same age as the settlement. Placing the shell-heaps in the early part of -the pine epoch would date them as early as 7000 B. C., or even earlier, -according to this chronometer. Hence the older writers, who placed the -shell-heaps in the pine epoch, dated them considerably farther back -than we do now. - -Steenstrup's study, a work of genius, is entirely compatible with and -probably implies a considerably later date than we used to accept. - -The following table shows the dates assigned by different students to -Maglemose and the shell-heaps: - - +---------------+-------------------+------------------------+ - | | B. C. | B. C. | - | Obermaier | Maglemose, 10,000 | Shell-heaps, 8000 | - | Forrer | | Shell-heaps, 8000-6000 | - | Sollas | Maglemose, 7,500 | | - | Osborn | Maglemose, 7,000 | | - | Menzel (Chart)| | Shell-heaps, 6000 | - | Keilhack | | Shell-heaps, 5000 | - +---------------+-------------------+------------------------+ - -The shell-heaps and Maglemose hardly seem to differ in age as much as -Obermaier thinks; De Geer's study was very careful and certainly demands -respectful attention. The tendency toward later dates for these cultures -seems to be strong and increasing. If we place Maglemose at 7000 to 7500 -B. C., and the shell-heaps 6500 to 6000 we have probably made them as -ancient as the facts can well allow. It is better to hold judgment still -somewhat in suspense. Even if Obermaier should yet prove to be correct -in his apparently extreme dates, it is still evident that the Neolithic -period began late and was of short duration compared with the millennia -in which Paleolithic time was reckoned. - -Our records are scanty for the earlier portions of the more or less than -5,000 years which we have allowed for the Neolithic period.[130] We find -the shell-heap culture spreading from Denmark into Sweden and Norway. -Following closely, or overlapping it, crossing Norway from the region of -Christiania, we find the Nostvet and Arctic cultures, perhaps nearly -related, perhaps distinct, but leading over to the genuine Neolithic -Scandinavian culture. Here we find forms intermediate between the axe -and "pick" of the shell-heap and the axes of later epochs. - -We have already described the rude, somewhat triangular axe of the -shell-heaps. The axe of Paleolithic time had had nearly the shape of an -almond. We will compare the pointed end to the back, and the cutting -edge to the edge of our axe or carpenter's hatchet. The earliest -polished axes of Denmark still retained nearly the shape of a somewhat -long and thin almond.[131] Their cross-section might be compared to an -ellipse with pointed instead of rounded ends. This is the -"_spitznackiges Beil_" of Mueller and Montelius. It occurs all over -Europe and still farther, while the two following forms have a -continually more restricted distribution. It is not found in the -village settlements or stone graves, and evidently characterizes a -period between these and the shell-heaps. - -The second form, the _dunn_--or _schmalnackiges Beil_--may be compared to -a long and flattened almond with a small part at the pointed end removed -and a narrow strip cut off from each side. The flatter surfaces nearly -meet at the end opposite the cutting edge, leaving this end thin. The -surfaces have become much more nearly flat, and the cross-section a -rectangle with somewhat short ends and slightly curved sides. These -belong to the period of the earliest stone graves or still earlier. They -could be easily fastened in a wooden handle. This form is very common in -Scandinavia. - -The third form, the _breit_--or _dick_--_nackiges Beil_, has almost -exactly the shape of a thick chisel-blade with broad and thick back -opposite the edge, and is rectangular in cross-section. It appears in -the later megalithic tombs and the underground stone vaults or cists. - -[Illustration: FORMS OF PREHISTORIC AXE - -Hammer axes--Late Neolithic. - -Thin-backed axe. Dunn-nackiges Beil--Early and Mid-Neolithic. - -Palaeolithic hand-stones--"Coups-de-Poing."] - -Late in the Neolithic period, usually after the introduction of -copper, we find an axe--or "hammer-axe"--shorter and much thicker, -somewhat in the shape of a very light stonemason's hammer, and with a -hole for the handle. These axes sometimes had two cutting edges, -sometimes one edged and the other blunt for hammering. Many of them -were exceedingly beautiful in form, design, and finish. But this -method of fastening the head to the handle greatly weakened the -brittle stone. Many of them were probably merely articles of luxury or -adornment. The hole was made by twirling a stick or bone, with plenty -of sand, water, and patience. - -We have thus in the axes and the megaliths a well-established sequence -of forms, but no means of fixing dates except at the beginning and end -of the whole period. Apparently there was a long time between the -Scandinavian shell-heaps and the fully established Neolithic culture, of -which we have practically no records. - -Peculiar types of axes (except the mattock), and the megaliths do not -occur in the province of the banded pottery, which itself will probably -some day give us the clew to a system of chronology. The pottery of -Thessaly, Thrace, and certain parts of the Balkan Peninsula is being -gradually synchronized with that of Mycenaean and pre-Mycenaean Greece. -Important discoveries seem reasonably certain in a not distant future. -We can only wait for them with what patience we can assume. - -Our real and definite knowledge of the age of the lake-dwellings is -hardly better. Hoops tells us that they belong to the Beech period of -the Swiss flora. But this period may be much older in Switzerland than -in Scandinavia; how much older we do not know. The underground stone -burial-cysts of Switzerland look late. The small number of the villages -containing no trace of copper and the high grade of household arts and -technique in even the oldest of them suggest the same conclusion. Here -again it seems dangerous to even conjecture a date. - -Montelius, whose opinion on these subjects is certainly of great value, -says: "All things considered, I am convinced that the first stone graves -were erected here in the north more than 3,000 years before -Christ."[132] (It may be safe, therefore, to date them provisionally -between 3000 and 4000 B. C.) "The epoch of the dolmens with covered -entrance (_Gangraeber_) begins about the middle of the third millennium -B. C., and the epoch of the stone vaults or cysts (_Steinkisten_) -corresponds to the centuries about 2000 B. C." - -CHART I. POSTGLACIAL STAGES - -RETREAT OF ICE AND CHANGES - - +----------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+ - | | | PARALLELS IN | | - | SCANDINAVIA | WESTERN AND | ASIA AND | DATE | - | | MIDDLE EUROPE | ELSEWHERE[133] | | - +----------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+ - | | 1. Aachen Stage. | | 24,000 (to | - | | | | 40,000) B. C. | - | Ice-retreats in| Solutrean. Dry | | [134] | - | northern | and Cold. | | | - | Germany. | Steppe and | | | - | | Tundra Fauna. | | | - | | | | | - | Swedish-Finnish| 2. Buehl Stage. | | 16,000 (to | - | Moraines. | Early | | 24,000) B. C. | - | | Magdalenian. | | [135] | - | | Moist and cold. | | | - | | Tundra. | | | - | | | | | - | Yoldia Period. | Middle Magd. | | | - | Dryas Flora. | Steppe | | | - | | Loess formed. | Susa founded. | | - | | | | | - | Glaciers in | 3. Gschnitz Stage. | Anau founded.[136]| 10,000 B. C.? | - | Mountains. | Late Magdalenian.| Neolithic | [137] | - | | | Settlements in | | - | Ancylus | | Crete. | | - | Dryas, Birch, | | | | - | Pine | | | | - | Maglemose. | | | | - | | | | | - | Littorina | 4. Daun Stage. | | 6,000 B. C.? | - | Depression. | | | | - | Optimum | Azilian-Tard. | | (7,000) B. C.? | - | Climate. | | | | - | Oak. | Campignian. | Sumerians in | | - | Shell-heaps. | | Babylonia. | | - | | | | | - | Full Neolithic.| Full Neolithic. | Predynastic | 4,000 | - | Beech. | | Egyptians. | (-6,000) B. C.?| - | | | Copper Period. | | - | | | | | - | Bronze Period. | Bronze Period. | XI-XIII Egyptian | 1,900- | - | | | Dynasties. | 2,500 B. C. | - +----------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+ - - -CHART II. CHANGES OF CLIMATE IN DENMARK[138] - - 1. Arctic climate. Temperature about 8 deg. Cent. Younger Yoldia - layers, Older Dryas period. Flora: _Dryas octopetala_, _Salix - polaris_. - - 2. Subarctic climate. Temp. 8 deg.-12 deg. Cent. Older Dryas. Flora - as in 1. - - 3. Climate becomes moderate, continental. First maximum temp. - 12 deg.-15 deg. Cent. Birches, poplars, junipers. - - 4. Climate subarctic. Temp. 8 deg.-12 deg. Cent. Birches. - - 5. Climate arctic. Temp. 8 deg. Cent. _Salix polaris._ - - 6. Climate subarctic. Temp. 8 deg.-12 deg.. Younger Dryas period. - - 7. Temperature moderates. Dry continental climate. _a._ Aspen - Epoch; _b._ Pine period with oaks beginning to appear=Ancylus - period. - - 8. Moderate insular climate. Temp. 15 deg.-17 deg. Cent. Climatic - optimum. Older Tapes layers, Maximum of Littorina depression. - Shell-heaps. - - 9. Temp. 15 deg.-17 deg. Cent. Probably slightly cooler than 8. Oak - Epoch. Beech begins to appear but is still rare. Younger Tapes - (Dosinia) layers. - - 10. Moderate insular climate about 16.1 deg. Cent. Beech Epoch. - Mya layers. - -These climatic changes seem to argue for a comparatively recent date for -the Littorina depression and the shell-heaps. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -NEOLITHIC PEOPLES AND THEIR MIGRATIONS - - -The study of history without a thorough knowledge of geography is almost -as futile as the hope of interpreting the structure of the ape without -thinking of his arboreal life.[139] Contour lines are of vast, often -dominant, importance in the life of every nation. John Bull has been -moulded, if not made, by his island. Italy could never be safe until its -boundary followed the crest of the Alps. Great mountain chains mark -limits, and river valleys are thoroughfares. Whoever holds -Constantinople controls the trade of a boundless area. If this is true -to-day, it must have been far more important in prehistoric times, when -man had only begun to gain a certain degree of independence or mastery -of nature. Culture was then very largely determined by position and -routes of communication. The Alps and Pyrenees formed a long, impassable -barrier between northern and southern Europe, broken only by the Rhone -valley; and northern Europe was split into an eastern or middle and a -western province by the Juras, the Vosges, and the forested Ardennes. -Then, as now, the Pass of Belfort was the narrow opening, and Belgium, -always the battle-ground of nations, the great thoroughfare between -middle Europe and France. From the south, and to a certain degree from -the west, middle Europe was not easy of access. But to the eastward -there are few or no natural boundaries as it goes over into the great -Russian plain, of which North Germany is practically a westward -projection. We might possibly go farther and accept literally the -somewhat exaggerated statement that all Europe is only a peninsula of -Asia. - -Osborn has called attention to the fact that from Paleolithic to -Neolithic time Europe gave rise to no new races.[140] The immigrants -entered their new home with all their physical and mental characters -already fixed or determined. The routes of migration of the successive -waves of lower Paleolithic immigrants are still unknown. Remains of -Chellean and Acheulean cultures are rich and widely distributed -everywhere around the Mediterranean, especially in northern Africa, at -this time well watered. The entrance of Neanderthal man into Europe may -well have been from this direction. - -The Cro-Magnon race very probably came along the northern or southern -shores of the Mediterranean, and then pushed northward into France; -though the evidence is far from compelling. The race is evidently -Asiatic in its physical characters, reminding us of tribes still living -along the Himalayas, most strikingly of the Sikhs. If they entered from -the south, northern Africa was a station on their march, not their -original home. The Solutrean culture may have been brought by the Bruenn -people, who probably came through Hungary and up the Danube, but its -origin and route of migration is still very obscure. Breuil's arguments -for the migration of Magdalenian culture from Poland across Europe are -very strong, and his view seems to accord well with the facts, though -Osborn seems to lean toward a somewhat different interpretation.[141] -The broad-headed people of Furfooz and Grenelle apparently came by the -central European route. The only race showing any Negroid characters is -that of Grimaldi, apparently accompanying the Cro-Magnons, few in number -and having little or no influence on the population of Europe. Evidently -the Mediterranean region was far more precocious than northern Europe, -and the genuine Mediterranean race may have arrived here bringing the -Neolithic culture almost or quite as early as the beginning of the Upper -Paleolithic Epoch in France. - -Sergi is of the opinion, though he does not press it, that the -Mediterranean race originated in Africa, perhaps in the region of the -great lakes, and that its most primitive representatives of to-day are -the Hamitic peoples along the southern shore of the Mediterranean.[142] -His definition of the race is based less upon mere breadth and length of -skull than upon contours and form and development of regions. It was a -work of observation, insight, and genius, and was a landmark in the -progress of the science of anthropology. - -The area of distribution of the race takes the form of a Y, the arms -following the north and south shores of the Mediterranean while the stem -or lower portion extends through Asia Minor. It includes the Hamitic -peoples, also the Pelasgi and the Hittites, but leaves out the Semites. - -Huxley had described the distribution of his Melanochrooi, or dark -Europeans, very similarly, except that in his group the stem of the Y -lay farther south and extended into Arabia. In locating the origin of -the Mediterranean race in Africa, Sergi was doubtless influenced by the -opinion of Darwin and others that man's birthplace was in Africa. Nearly -all paleontologists to-day favor the Asiatic origin; and the stem of the -Y stretching eastward toward Asia Minor or Arabia points to a possible -or probable primitive route of migration. The Asiatic cradle is really -in better accord with Sergi's theory, and meets some objections or -difficulties better, than the African. - -We vaguely located this Asiatic cradle somewhere westward or -northwestward of the great plateau of Thibet. We may call it the Iranian -plateau, using the term in the broadest possible sense, including -Afghanistan and perhaps western Turkestan: a great area extending more -than 1000 miles from northwest to southeast, where it sinks into the -valley of the Euphrates. We found a branch of the great Negroid race -starting very early from this region and migrating westward past Arabia -into Africa. This was an easy line of least resistance through regions -where the moist, cooler climate of the glacial period brought only -blessing instead of calamity and curse. The Hamitic and Semitic peoples -naturally followed the same route, travelling as one people or nearly -together, if the relations between the languages are as fundamental and -close as some good authorities think. The Semites settled in Arabia, -while the Hamites went on westward and found a home along the southern -shore of the Mediterranean. We do not know when this migration took -place. - -This route was easy and wide, and led into a broad, favored continent. -It would not be surprising if for a very long time most of the travel -went this way. We may venture to guess that Neanderthal man may have -followed it long before the beginning of the Hamitic-Semitic migrations, -but this is only a guess. While rich, well-watered, and probably -park-like in its flora during the moist climate of the glacial epochs, -it was sure to degenerate into desert as the climate became warmer and -dryer; as the Sahara Desert is dotted with the remains of Paleolithic -settlements where the explorer to-day is in danger of perishing from -thirst. Any traveller by this southern route must pass through Italy or -Spain before reaching northern Europe. - -[Illustration: _F. B. Loomis, del._ - -MIGRATIONS OF PEOPLES - - 1. The southernmost route to the Mediterranean and Africa. The - middle part of this route follows roughly Breasted's "Fertile - Crescent," as shown in his History of the Ancient World, - around the headwaters of the Euphrates and Tigris. 2. Middle - route through Asia Minor. 3. Northern route around Caspian Sea - to Carpathians. _A._ Grass-lands and steppe. _B._ Iranian - Plateau (central portion). _C._ Valley of Mesopotamia.] - -A second great western route must have begun very early to compete with -the African. This led along the curve of the mountain ranges of Persia -and Armenia, with Breasted's fertile crescent at their base, up the -valley of the Euphrates and elsewhere into Asia Minor. This route -continued in use as a great thoroughfare for migrating peoples and -invading armies through historic times. Xenophon and his 10,000 explored -it. It is surrounded on three sides by water, although mountain chains -cut off the influence of the sea to some extent. It is a plateau of -glade and forest, though the forests have now largely disappeared. It -has the features of a semitropical climate; here the flora of northern -and southern provinces meet and overlap. One great characteristic of the -region is the abundance and variety of its fruit-trees. It was -apparently the original home of apricot, peach, fig, and orange, as well -as of other fruits introduced into Italy from this region by the Romans. -The vine is luxurious. Somewhere along the line of this great -thoroughfare the wild olive was domesticated, improved, and transformed. -Oaks, walnuts, chestnuts, and many smaller growths furnish a variety of -nuts. The open glades tempted to agriculture and furnished no small -contributions of grain to Rome. Though suffering from dessication, it -may yet again become the garden of the world. - -When once a wave of westward migration had entered Asia Minor it was -walled in on the north and south by mountain and sea. There were no -by-roads. Crowded and pressed from behind, it could not stop until they -reached the shores of the Aegean Sea. - -Here there were two possible outlets. One was by sea, using as stations -the islands with which the sea is dotted and leading to Crete and to -Greece. Crete, according to Evans, was settled some 14,000 years ago, -and is on the whole less easily reached by short voyages than Attica. A -second outlet led across the Hellespont and around the Aegean Sea into -Greece, or still farther northward and westward around the Adriatic and -down into Italy. We might add still a third fork of this great highway -running northward to the Danube. When we remember how Neolithic -settlements in northern Europe clustered around the lakes and dotted the -river valleys, the primitive minor routes of communication, how early -islands like Crete in the south and Gothland in the Baltic were settled, -we can imagine the importance of a city--or even a village--like Troy even -in prehistoric times. Here a sea route running east and west crossed a -great land route running north and south. Here was a point of exchange, -trade, and transshipment--if we may use the word. We do not wonder that -before the close of the Neolithic period, and perhaps far earlier, -patterns and influences were radiating through the Balkan region, far up -the Danube, and we know not how far into Russia. - -It is hardly an exaggeration to say that Greece, and Italy to a less -extent, were in climate and many other features bits of Asia Minor, -almost shut off from northern Europe by the great Alpine barrier. The -two regions were entered by different routes, each of which had left its -mark on its travellers. Immigrants seeped into Italy and Greece through -broken and rough mountain regions. Great invasions were difficult or -impossible. They were sunny, smiling lands compared with the grim and -dreary north. Men living in this milder climate did not need to be gross -eaters. They lived from the fruits of their orchards to a far larger -extent. Nuts were in early times almost a surrogate for grain. The olive -furnished a delicious oil, and the grapes wine. The butter and cheese of -northern Europe were neither needed nor desired.[143] Most of these -habits, tastes, and desires had become fixed during the march through -Asia Minor. - -The peoples which gradually went westward from the Iranian plateau -through Asia Minor, across or around the Aegean Sea into Greece and Italy -and Spain, generally found a very similar environment from beginning to -end of their long journey. There was little in food, climate, or -conditions to compel or stimulate change. Everything tended to more -firmly fix in their structure the already long-inherited characters of -their Iranian ancestors. These characteristics thus fixed have become -stable and persistent, and have remained so in modern times in spite of -repeated invasions and infusions of northern blood. We are perhaps -justified in speaking of a Mediterranean race. - -It seems strange that Sergi should find traces of his Mediterranean race -in Russia. Did these find their way so far northward directly from the -Mediterranean area or are they merely sporadic groups more resistant to -modifying influences; or are they perhaps groups which have separated -from the westward migration at the Hellespont and turned northward? The -Nordic peoples of Europe are perhaps after all not so far from their -Mediterranean cousins. The Mediterranean race still holds its own around -the Mediterranean. In France its blood is much mixed and greatly diluted -with later infusions. In England it has generally been almost completely -swamped by Aryan invasions. - -Neither of the two routes already sketched leads directly into middle or -northern Europe. The trend in both is toward the Mediterranean. We must -now consider the third and last route, which is of chief interest to us. -We have already seen that the Black Sea prevented all migrations -northward from Asia Minor except at the Hellespont. Eastward from the -Black Sea lies the Caspian, probably much larger in glacial times. The -two seas are separated by the forbidding, almost unbroken, mountain -barrier of the Caucasus; but a narrow passage at each end is left. East -of the Caspian Sea must lie the point where a more northerly westward -route diverges from the road through Asia Minor. Our third route starts, -therefore, from the northern edge of the Iranian plateau, perhaps mostly -from Turkestan, and runs westward north of the great barrier of seas and -mountains just described. It follows the great steppe or prairie which -stretches through southern Siberia and Russia into Hungary. Its western -portion lies along the valley of the lower Danube, the great east and -west artery of communication and migration through Europe. It lies -farther north than any other great route, and leads over steppe instead -of through forest. As the Arabia-Africa route was the first to be -traversed, this may well have been the last. Furthermore, the route -through Asia Minor, ending in a sort of _cul de sac_, may easily have -become well inhabited and hence less open before the Neolithic period -had begun in northern Europe. - -It was by no means the most attractive route. It offered far less to -people in the collecting stage than the well-watered parklands of Asia -Minor. The steppe offers to the hunter few means of concealment or -approach to the game. The animals are swift and wary. In any migration -of peoples toward the frontier, the hunters lead the advance and spread -out like an army of scouts. Every river which crossed the steppe would -offer to them a tempting by-road leading off into the forests of Siberia -or Russia. How deeply they would penetrate into the primeval forest or -away from the river valleys is still a question. Very likely they would -find their best hunting-grounds not very far from the northern edge of -the steppe, where the forest is less dense. This question we cannot yet -answer. But most of European Russia is well watered, and here these -hunters would find themselves at home. The main route of the steppe -would be left for a very different population. The piedmont zone of -grasslands in Turkestan was an ideal land for primitive agriculturists -practising a hoe-culture, as at Anau. The northern edge of this steppe -zone, where it joined the forest, may have been equally favorable. - -But the piedmont zone and the river banks of the steppe must have been -occupied by agriculturists before 10,000 B. C., probably much earlier. -Pumpelly's explorations seem to warrant this view. Alongside of -agriculture, but at a somewhat later date, sheep-herding and -cattle-raising were practised. But the nomad of these days was a less -dangerous neighbor than at later times because the horse had not yet -been domesticated. During these post-glacial times he would be less -dangerous here than farther south around Arabia, when the dryness which -finally produced the Arabian desert was making itself felt, burning up -the pastures and leaving only the choice between starvation and -migration in mass. Again comparing this migration with the pioneer -movements of peoples in historic times, we have good reason to believe -that the sheep-herders and cattle men--and they were probably both at the -same time--advanced faster than the agriculturists, who were more bound -to the soil. Between herdsmen and farmers there were almost certainly -many intermediate grades. We may be fairly confident, therefore, that -the movement or tide along this route did not take the form of a -procession marching in lock-step, but of a series of waves, generally -with hunters in front and along the forest flank, herdsmen in the -middle, and farmers bringing up the rear and making permanent -settlements at favored spots. - -Hunters had been spreading northward at least as early as the beginning -of Upper Paleolithic times. Farming on the lowest grades of agriculture -is essentially Neolithic. A town or village had risen at Susa 20,000 -years ago. Neolithic civilization probably reached Crete nearly or quite -15,000 years ago. Small Sumerian cities were being founded in southern -Babylonia at or before 5000 B. C. Population was increasing in density in -the Iranian plateau, as almost every mountain region with its healthy -atmosphere and low death-rate quickly becomes overpopulated. Our pioneer -column was continually pressed forward by new recruits from the rear as -well as by its natural increase. We have practically no records of the -march. But our sketch is no mere invention of fancy. It applies to every -great migration of peoples extending over centuries or millennia. The -last illustration was the great westward movement in America beginning a -century or two ago, and still far from completed. - -The Hungarian plain is the last extension of the great south Russian -steppe far into Europe. West of this anything like nomadic life was -practically impossible. Here our pioneers scattered and followed the -river valleys, settling more or less permanently the loess deposits as -farmers, but on less favorable soils devoting themselves more largely to -cattle-raising. The latter form of life seems to have been more common -on the great North German plain, though accompanied by much hunting, a -genuine pioneer life. - - -We may now turn to Europe and consider the distribution of its races and -peoples. - -Of the route of migration of the Neanderthal race we have no sure -knowledge. The wide and rich distribution of ancient Paleolithic -implements in Egypt and northern Africa tempts us to guess that it -represents a very early migration along the Arabian route after the -negroids and before the Hamites and Semites. We have glanced at the -origin of the Cro-Magnon people, and have discovered our uncertainty. -The Tardenoisian culture, with its pygmy flints, is exceedingly -wide-spread,[144] and seems to have started in Europe in the -Mediterranean region, arriving from still farther east. We are tempted -to guess that the great bulk of westward migrations in Paleolithic -times followed the southern, Arabian, route, but there were probably -exceptions. - -Coming down to Neolithic times we find the Hamitic peoples in Africa, -apparently representing the first wave in the migration of the -Mediterranean race. It may well have arrived at its present home long -before the beginning of the Neolithic period. It had followed the -southern route. Peoples physically and racially closely akin to the -Hamites followed, probably in successive waves. The Tardenoisian people, -if their culture was carried by a distinct people, may represent an -early wave. The bulk of the population of Greece, Italy, and Spain -followed, but migration seems to shift gradually from the Arabian route -to that through Asia Minor, as the zone of most favorable climatic -conditions moved slowly northward. Before the close of the Neolithic -period the relations between Greece, Crete, and western Asia Minor have -become so marked and close that they almost represent one culture and -people. - -The Mediterranean race, thus established in Europe, spread northward. It -could not cross the Alpine barrier. It followed the Rhone valley and the -Atlantic coast, and furnished the basic population in France and Great -Britain, though here frequently crowded back into corners or submerged -by later invasions, peaceful or otherwise. It furnished the great link -or means of communication between the Mediterranean basin and the far -north of Europe. Schliz has some reason for calling these megalith -people largely traders. - -In a cave near Furfooz, Belgium, there were found crania, probably of -Azilian-Tardenoisian time, noticeably distinct from those of the -long-headed or dolichocephalic Paleolithic peoples in being short--and -broad-headed, brachycephalic.[145] Brachycephalic crania, perhaps early -Neolithic, were also found at Grenelle near Paris. We remember their -occurrence in the shell-heaps at Mugem, Portugal. Similar crania were -found of about the same age at Ofnet, Bavaria, on a tributary of the -Danube. - -Somewhat later we find broad-headed people occupying the higher lands of -southeastern France, the _Massif_, Juras and Vosges, forming thus a -north-and-south zone separating France from middle Europe. They seem -later to have gradually spread westward, somewhat irregularly, and to -have mingled with the Mediterranean peoples of France. - -The relation of these "Protobrachycephals" to the great Alpine race, -most of which arrived later, is still a matter of discussion, and the -whole problem of the brachycephalic peoples bristles with interesting -questions. They seem to have originated in the mountain regions of -western Asia, possibly in or near the Armenian highlands, though this -has been disputed.[146] It looks as if they came originally from a -region bordering on or overhanging the steppe route and came into Europe -by way of the valley of the Danube. There were certainly several if not -many waves of brachycephalic migrations into Europe, of which this was -the first. Other waves may have come from different parts of a great -area, and hence show modifications of type. Everywhere the Neolithic -brachycephals seem to inhabit mountainous or rough country, perhaps -because of preference, perhaps because as they gradually made their way -they found these regions unoccupied. They seem to be an unassuming, -unpretentious, peaceable, exceedingly persistent and enduring stock, -which has held on its way with remarkable pertinacity. Some still -maintain that brachycephaly is everywhere largely an adaptation to -conditions and habits of life.[147] The rough country, generally heavily -forested, and well populated with this quiet but firm and solid people, -greatly hindered free communication between France and central Europe. - -No human remains have been found in the Danish kitchen-middens, which -may well have been heaped up by broad-heads from Belgium but apparently -mingled with eastern immigrants who brought with them the domesticated -dog not found at Mugem. They left their axes and picks in Sweden and -across into Norway. Behind them came people bearing the Nostvet -culture.[148] Our knowledge of Russian prehistory is still very scanty. -But we find here a variety of cultures, such as we should expect from a -confusion of hunting tribes far from their original home much broken up -and remingled during the long migration. We find in Poland the remains -of a culture akin in its carvings to the Magdalenian culture of western -Europe. - -It would hardly have crossed Europe from the west. Breuil[149] seems to -consider it as the station from whence it was carried to France. The -question is exceedingly interesting and important, but is one to which -we can give no sure answer. The carved bone implements are certainly to -be found in Poland and to the northward. - -Behind these bits and wrecks of tribes and cultures, for they were -hardly more, came the first great recognizable body of Nordic peoples, -probably also in successive waves mingling on this northern coast toward -which they had been drawn by the climatic optimum. Kossina,[150] who has -given an excellent account of these early northern migrations, speaks of -them as _Urfinnen_ and _Urgermanen_, primitive Finns and Germans. -_Urskandinavier_, primitive Scandinavians, would seem to be a more -appropriate name. For the centre of the least mixed blood of this group -is to be found in the Scandinavian peninsula. - -These Scandinavian representatives of the so-called Nordic race or stock -are characterized by tall stature, blond complexion, light hair, blue -eyes, and long head and face. Their origin is still a matter of much -discussion. Kossina and others derive them from Cro-Magnon people, -following the reindeer in its migration northeastward from France at or -toward the end of the Magdalenian epoch. Some suggest that the -Cro-Magnon people were also blonds. If this were so they formed a marked -exception to the color of Paleolithic stocks coming from and through -southern regions. The possibility cannot be denied. But, if the -Cro-Magnons were light-colored, they have left no traces of this in -their descendants at Perigeux and elsewhere. The face of the Cro-Magnon -was short and broad, that of the Scandinavian long and narrow. It might -have changed but has not done so at Perigeux. The Cro-Magnon race was -already declining in physique and numbers during the Magdalenian. Even -if all migrated, could they have furnished enough descendants to give -rise to the Scandinavian population? It seems to me far more probable -that the Scandinavians were hunters or partially herdsmen, who had -wandered by the steppe route through the forests or along their edge, -and had lost the dark pigmentation in the northern climate. This has -been noticed, perhaps to a less extent among Asiatic steppe-dwellers. - -The study of prehistoric anthropology in Russia, a vast territory, is -still in its infancy. We have touched upon only one or two of the -questions concerning this so-called Nordic race, which is probably -hardly more than a name for a mixture of peoples.[151] We must not -forget that even in Scandinavia we find traces of a very early -immigration of short-headed people.[152] We still know little concerning -life in North Germany during the Neolithic period. It was probably what -we should call pioneer life, where hunting and cattle-raising and a rude -tillage combined to furnish support. - -We must now turn to the valley of the Danube. Here we find a population -characterized by similar ground form of skull, although according to -Schliz[153] showing two fairly distinct varieties, a longer and a -shorter cranium. Probably this population arrived in several successive -waves. Its culture is evidently homogeneous. They are agriculturists -forming fixed and permanent settlements, practising farming of a high -grade. The characteristic implement is the mattock. Daggers and -lance-heads are rare, or fail. They were a peaceful folk settling by -preference, though not exclusively, in the loess districts, as at -Grosgartach. We find, as we had every reason to expect, that northern -Germany and Scandinavia were peopled by a pioneer folk not yet -completely agricultural. The Danube people represent the farmers of the -steppe whose migration probably went on more slowly and gradually, and -who always remained more homogeneous physically and culturally. They -may, or may not, have reached the Danube valley as early as the Germans -and Scandinavians arrived at the Baltic, for they had far less distance -to march. They spread out westward and northward. Here we trace them by -their pottery. Starting from Hungary and the surrounding regions we find -them in Moravia, Bohemia, Silesia, across south and middle Germany as -far as the Rhine. We have already noticed that the banded pottery -covered all this region, while the home of the corded pottery was North -Germany. - -But, while the form of the banded pottery is quite constant, the -ornament varies greatly. We find the plain, often rude, saw-tooth -pattern, the meander and scroll, the spiral-painted pottery--sometimes in -the southeast plant patterns, perhaps introduced. I regret that I cannot -find any clear or definite theory as to the exact relations of any of -this pottery to that of Anau or Susa. The greatest variety, as well as -the most complex patterns, seem to occur in most southeasterly regions, -which, at least in later Neolithic times, were much under the influence -of the Aegean culture, just as western Europe borrowed from Italy and -Spain. - -Here there was evidently a great and very complex mixture of cultures, -and probably of peoples all of one great primitive stock, shown least -modified in the Mediterranean race, here more influenced, changed, and -varied by steppe climate and conditions, and more or less admixture. - -Along the Swiss lakes we find the lake-dwellers. The few human remains -from the earliest lake-dwellings are all brachycephalic--short-heads. -Then in the period when copper was beginning to come in we find -long-heads arriving in greater numbers, but the short-heads regain their -superiority during the Bronze period. The weight of evidence seems to -favor the view that these settlers did not come from the zone of -"proto-brachycephals" inhabiting eastern France, but represent a new -immigration from the east, and, according to Schliz, founded fortified -settlements on the heights of Baden, Wurtemberg, and along the valley of -the Rhine as far as Cologne.[154] We have seen that the pottery of these -earliest immigrants was crude and almost or quite without definite -ornament. - -Northern and central Europe seem to have been settled mainly or almost -entirely directly from the east, along western Russia and the Danube -valley. But, especially toward the close of the period, people from the -megalithic zone seem to have penetrated much farther southward into -Germany than their monuments would prove. Schliz thinks that he has -recognized their skulls as well as calyciform pottery over a wide -region. Their presence seems fairly clear, but whether they were -comparatively very few in number, or fairly numerous, is still -uncertain. - -There seems to be good reason for believing that in late Paleolithic -time the population of middle Europe north of the Alps was very sparse -and the Baltic region hardly inhabited. A hunting population without -domestic animals except the dog pressed northward through Russia in -waves and fragments, and along the Baltic mingled with a strain coming -from the west, probably broad-heads from Belgium. The great Scandinavian -and North German peoples followed with a frontier culture, a combination -of hunting, fishing, cattle-raising, and agriculture mingled in -proportions varying according to time and place. Their exact route of -migration from the region of the steppes must yet be traced. But the -weight of evidence favors an eastern origin. At a time probably not so -very far from their arrival in the north, agriculturists--we might safely -speak of them as farmers--were coming into the Danube valley and -spreading along its tributaries. Apparently somewhat or considerably -later the lake-dwellers appear along the northern piedmont zone of the -Alps as broad-heads, marking the arrival of the advance guard of the -great Alpine race of to-day. But here again our certainty is not as firm -as we could wish. They extend northward toward and along the Rhine -valley. The close of the period is marked by the southward spread of -peoples from northern Germany crowding back the farmers characterized by -the banded pottery. This movement is augmented somewhat, perhaps very -little, by recruits from the megalithic zone of northwestern Europe and -Denmark. All these people are closing in on central or middle western -Europe. In the Rhine valley along the middle of the course of the river -we find a region of mingling or overlapping cultures which have not yet -been satisfactorily disentangled. - -We have spoken of them as pioneers. It was a time and place of pioneer, -frontier life. And frontier men and life have their peculiar physical, -cultural, mental, and temperamental characteristics, almost apart from -time and place. The people have something, at least, in common with the -great American westward migrations and frontiersmen of a far later date. -We have the successive waves of hunters, herdsmen, and farmers often -overlapping or mingling. We have a grand mixing of peoples and cultures, -if not of races. Many a fine art or technique is left behind. Life is -rude, hard, vigorous, vital, joyous. It was so yesterday, it was -probably so millennia ago. For the stratum of frontiersman and -barbarian--not to say savage--lies just below the surface in us all, and a -scratch exposes it. This was a period of vitality, hope, and promise. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -NEOLITHIC RELIGION - - -Man's ancestors, as we have seen, owed their progress to their training, -policing, and harassing by stronger and better-armed competitors. The -earliest vertebrates developed a notochordal rod of cartilage, and then -a backbone, by the habit of swimming forced upon them by the mollusks -and crustacea which held the rich feeding-grounds of the ocean bottom -along the shores. In early Paleozoic time the sharks crowded the ganoids -in successive waves toward and into fresh water, until finally some -crawled out on the shore as amphibia. - -Land life and air-breathing gave the possibility of warm blood and high -development of brain, and a strong tendency toward viviparous and -finally intrauterine development of the embryo. Reptiles harassed -mammals into the attainment of a certain amount of wariness and -intelligence. The comparatively weak Primates were kept in the trees and -forced to develop hand and brain by the fierce and well-armed -Carnivora. Only a "saving remnant" has progressed, and these mostly -under stern and strenuous pressure. The "aspiring" ape exists only in -our imagination. - -The apes had become accustomed to life in the trees, and found it safe -and comfortable. A change of climate compelled those dwelling farthest -north to seek their living on the ground. Most of them fled southward, -many became extinct, a few came down and adapted themselves to the new -mode of life. Nature was in no sense a "fairy god-mother" to them, but a -stern, harsh disciplinarian whose method of education was "not a word -and a blow and the blow first, but the blow without the word, leaving -the pupil to find out why his ears had been boxed"[155]; and nature's -cuffs were frequently fatal. The pupil had to learn by others' -experience. Paleolithic man lived in France poorly armed and -ill-protected against a threatening climate steadily changing for the -worse. Food may have been abundant, but enemies hunting for him were -also numerous. He was compelled to be keen, watchful, prying, wary; to -discover distant danger, and to notice every trace of its approach. He -learned the habits and behavior of animals, and the ways of things--an -excellent course of study. He had to rely on his wits, and they were -none too keen or many. - -Some things he could understand: he learned to avoid or to ward off many -dangers. Others seemed altogether beyond his understanding or control. -Here he could only wonder; but the wise old Greeks knew that wonder was -the mother of wisdom. He wondered at storm, lightning, hail, and flood; -at disease and death, and a hundred other things. He sat in the mouth of -his cave and watched that strange creature fire devouring the wood and -sending smoke and sparks skyward. He thought a very little in a dull, -stupid way, dozed and dreamed and awaked to wonder again. Or he saw fire -raging through the forest and fled for his life. But it was warming and -fascinating, and somehow akin to himself. Did it not devour wood and lap -up water on the hearth? - -He seems to have come to feel rather than recognize that he was -surrounded by invisible powers, in some respects like himself but vastly -more powerful, who knew what he was doing, and who would hurt him if he -did certain things and might help him if he did others. Certain places -were to be strictly avoided, certain objects must not be touched, -certain things must never be done, or could be permitted only at -certain times. They were taboo. He has started on a long journey of -exploration, experiment, and discovery. - -How had he come to believe this? Largely through hard experience of -nature's buffets, whenever he acted contrary to this hypothesis or -feeling. His religion was largely one of fear fitted for a savage mind, -though not without a mingling of hope. - -Of course in us cultured folk perfect love, sentimentality, softness of -fibre, heedlessness, forgetfulness, and general superficiality of -life--to make a very inadequate list--have combined to cast out fear, "for -fear hath torment"; and we thank God loudly that we are so much wiser -than our benighted ancestors. Even our New England fathers feared God, -though they feared nothing else, but we fear only everything else except -God and law. But the unlucky scientific wight living and working in the -shadow of adamantine law remains in hopeless bondage to fear. - - "Nach ewigen ehernen, grossen Gesetzen - Mussen wir alle unseres Daseins Kreise vollenden."[156] - -These great powers might not necessarily be hopelessly hostile. They -might be appeased or won over, possibly controlled. What could he do to -please them? For something must be done. Here ritual arises.[157] -Possibly he offers to one or more of them a share in the feast which he -so much enjoys after a successful hunt. In time this may become a -sacrifice, sent up and out on the wings of fire.[158] Or he practises a -wind or rain dance as the outlet and expression of his intense desire; -and to awaken, encourage, and help the powers of these elements. He -holds a hunting-dance to rehearse and gain power for the killing of the -bear. Call it objectification of his heart's desire, or magic if you -prefer. Magic and religion grow up side by side, and probably from the -same root in these early stages: as alchemy and chemistry, astrology and -astronomy will spring up later. - -The pictures on the cave-walls of France probably had a magical or -religious purpose. Here we find very few representations of human -beings. But in a rock-painting at Cogul, possibly Neolithic though -probably older, we see a group of women apparently engaged in some rite -of magic or religion. The occurrence of amulets also does not surprise -us. - -We cannot make a study of primitive ritual magic and religion, their -origin, form, and content. But even our hasty glance shows us that man -had been wondering and thinking about this subject during millennia -before our Neolithic time, had been forced to accept many profound -convictions, containing germs of sublime truth overlaid, like our own, -with many errors; he had elaborated a system of ritual, and had -travelled far along the road of religious experience and discoveries -long before this comparatively recent epoch. - -The conspicuous features of the religion of this ancient period of -primeval stupidity, or _Urdummheit_, to borrow the German word, were the -host of invisible powers or daemons, and the law of taboo, the forbidden -thing. Breach of taboo rendered not only the individual lawbreaker but -the whole tribe, however innocent, liable to punishment. The whole -community was responsible for every deed of any and every one of its -members, and suffered or prospered accordingly. When Agamemnon had -wronged the priest of Apollo, the god shot his arrows not at Agamemnon -but throughout the innocent Greek host. The children of Israel were -routed at Ai, because Achan had taken the devoted or forbidden thing. -This stage of tribal responsibility seems to be practically universal. -It gave the law an iron grip on the people, tamed them, and made them -march in lock-step, a necessary stage of terrible discipline. But only -under the protection and stimulus of this tribal feeling of common -responsibility and resulting tribal conscience could the individual -conscience be gradually awakened and developed, and finally break -through the cake or crust of custom into freedom and light. - -All these forces and influences were acting throughout the Neolithic -and later periods, and are still with us. Perhaps we can gain a -tolerably distinct and correct view of Neolithic religion among the -Mediterranean peoples by a glance at the ancient Greek mysteries. -Students of Greek art and literature quite naturally have been very -slow to take interest in these crude, often ugly and indecent, -rituals. But for this very reason the primitive stands out all the -more sharply defined against the brilliant, beautiful, artistic -Olympian religion of Greek art and literature, and particularly of -Homer. Students like Professor Murray could hardly be expected to -explore these lower strata with great sympathy. For this very reason, -as somewhat unwilling witnesses to whatever is good or great in -primitive Greek ritual, their testimony is all the more valuable, -though probably hardly as just as that of Miss Harrison.[159] We shall -follow mainly Professor Murray's vivid portrayal.[160] In his -_Saturnia Regna_ he pictures the ritual and belief of the ancient -Greeks before the arrival of Achaeans or Hellenes in any strict sense -of the word. Strictly speaking, it is a description of the religion of -the Bronze Age during the earlier part of the second millennium B. C. -It has been growing, developing, and undergoing modifications since -Neolithic time, but in all its essential features it is ancient. - -We find here very few traces of the chief Olympian divinities, which -belong to a later age than the objects of worship or cult of these -ancient peoples whom we venture to call Pelasgi. They worshipped powers -or daemons in indefinite numbers, but with no individual names: -represented, if at all, by emblems or symbols, very rarely in bodily -human form. Of these spirits of death, disease, madness, and calamity -there were "thousands upon thousands, from whom man can never escape or -hide." So much is mainly a heritage from Paleolithic times. But the -conception of spirit has grown more clear, distinct, and elevated, as we -saw in our study of burial rites. - -But Neolithic men lived in communities and devoted themselves largely to -tillage of the ground and to raising sheep, goats, swine, and cattle. -Their life was still precarious. "Their food depended on the crops of -one tiny plot of ground. All the while they knew almost nothing of the -real causes that made crops succeed or fail. They only felt sure it was -a matter of pollution, of unexpiated defilement. It is this state of -things that explains the curious cruelty of agricultural works, which -like most cruelty had its roots in terror, terror of the breach of -taboo--the 'Forbidden Thing.'" - -Neolithic man, with his new discoveries and industries, had given new -hostages to fortune, and a new and wider scope of application to the old -doctrine of taboo and of tribal responsibility. This strengthened the -hold of the priest or magician on the hopes, fears, and faith of his -people. The law is going deeper as well as wider. There arises an -individual feeling of pollution and of the need of expiation which will -blaze out in the oldest Greek tragedies as almost a veritable sense of -sin. We might almost say that a sense of morality toward the spirit -world is now appearing in a religion previously almost or quite unmoral. -We may easily overestimate the extent and power of the change, but we -can hardly be mistaken in recognizing its dawn and the vast germinal -possibilities of this dim feeling or conception. - -In agriculture and throughout nature seed-time was followed by harvest, -fall, and winter's gloom and death. Then in the next spring there was a -return, a rebirth or a resurrection. If the seed failed to come up, if -the blade withered or was blighted, it was because the vegetation spirit -or daemon had failed to reappear or had been reborn weak or sickly, and -all this because some one had broken taboo, had touched the forbidden -thing. This must be prevented at all cost, they must help the spirit. -Hence there must be every year a time of purification, of renovation, -when the old garments and utensils and everything which could carry the -pollution of death were cast off or cleansed. - -All these conclusions, and some others of equal importance to which we -will return later, are expressed or symbolized in the great Dromena, -festivals, mysteries, or whatever you may call these rites of -pre-Homeric Greece. Then, for a time, they are partially, though never -totally, eclipsed, by the brilliant beauty of the Olympian religion with -its glorious temples, statues, and other works of art. - -The Olympian gods had conquered the world. They practise neither -agriculture nor industry, nor any honest work. They fight and feast and -drink and play. They are conquering chieftains, royal buccaneers. The -Olympian religion had its time and place, and did its work. It swept -out many indecent features of the older cults, many superstitions and -abuses. It suited the Achaeans and their civilization exactly, and we can -never forget its "sheer beauty," But it went bankrupt, lost its hold on -men's minds and hearts, failed and faded out. Professor Murray compares -its end to that of a garden of rare exotic flowers overrun by the rank -weeds which it had temporarily displaced. Miss Harrison more justly -compares it to a flower withering because cut off from its roots. - -There was vastly more vitality in the ancient crude symbols and chaos of -conceptions than in the ordered and artistic Olympian hierarchy with its -marvellous representations of the gods in human or superhuman form and -beauty. Even its art and literature could not save it. It had lost its -mysticism. The old Neolithic religion, handed down by peasants and -artisans reoccupied the field, transformed sometimes almost beyond -recognition, like the Ugly Duckling of the fairy tale. It returned -triumphant through sheer power of unlimited vitality and adaptability. -Plato draws his finest illustrations from its mysteries, out of which, -also, the Greek drama arose. Paul quotes from them or from a similar -stratum of belief. - -Some of the many sources of its vitality are obvious. It was rooted in -the firm conviction of the existence of a spiritual world toward and -into which its every rootlet was forcing its way and from which it drew -nourishment and power. We might better change the illustration and say -that it was slowly developing a spiritual eye which peered into a higher -world and developed in keenness and clearness of vision in response to -the higher pulsations. By patient experiment and experience, which -produced a hope that could not make ashamed and a faith in which hope -and experiment combined, it was feeling its way into spiritual -knowledge. It knew nothing of practical science or of material cause and -effect. But its world pulsated with the universal life. It recognized -the law of forbidden things and the sure penalty of law-breaking. It had -a tribal conscience and recognized the need of purification. It had the -promise, at least, of individual conscience and consciousness of sin. - -Its symbol was the mystery which lifted only a corner of the veil and -left an abundant opportunity for wonder, imagination, thought, and -mysticism, which was entirely lacking in the perfect statue and the -finished creed. It made man, through its sympathetic magic, a coworker -with his divinities or daemons in gaining the answer to an intensive -desire or prayer acted by all the members of the community with all -their united might, instead of expressed merely in words, the utterance -of his whole being and life. Such a system or chaos overflows with -sublime possibilities. - -The introduction of agriculture had produced another most important -change in religious views and ritual. In tillage the earth brought forth -and gave birth to the crops which furnished their chief food supply, and -probably, in their view, to animals and men also; just as the human -mother gives birth to the child. Hence there was a wide-spread belief -in, and cult of, an earth divinity, of course female, or in a goddess or -daemon of fertility. She is sometimes or usually accompanied by a male -partner, companion or son, but he occupies a lower place. - -[Illustration: FEMALE IDOLS, THRACE] - -[Illustration: FEMALE IDOL, ANAU - -Reproduced from "Explorations in Turkestan." Carnegie Institute of -Washington, Publishers.] - -This cult of the goddess seems to have been a marked feature of -Neolithic religion.[161] We find it in the remains of the Minoan periods -in Crete; Isis and her companion god Osiris were very prominent in -Egypt. The cult was wide-spread throughout Asia Minor: Diana, or better -Artemis, of the Ephesians, Ma in Anatolia, the great goddess of the -Hittites are a few examples. Farther eastward we find Astarte. Pumpelly -found a female idol (Astarte?) at Anau. The cult dots, if it does not -cover, the old middle migration route. We remember the wide-spread -distribution of the painted pottery from Susa to Anau and over to -Boghaz-keui in the land of the Hittites. Art and religion are closely -related during the early times and a wide-spread type of art suggests, -though it does not prove, an accompanying form of religion similar -throughout the same wide area. In Greece we find Demeter, and in -"Pelasgic Athens" the goddess Athena always held the highest place. Hera -may well have been another great goddess of the Pelasgi. When the -conquering Achaeans came in and their chieftains wedded the princesses of -the land, they married their god Zeus to the goddess of the land. Hence -this cult has been displaced and its records blotted out by later -changes. That so many traces of it outlasted the Bronze Age is a proof -of its firm hold and great vitality. - -We have studied these ancient cults in Greece and the Mediterranean -basin because here they are easily discovered and can be restored. They -are covered by only a thin layer of later cults which could not destroy -their vitality. When we attempt to explore northern Europe the -situation is quite different. Christianity blotted out all traces of the -worship of Odin and Thor; what it could not blot out it took over into -its own service in a modified form. Behind Thor and Odin we see the -shadowy form of Dyaus (Ziu?), perhaps a sky-god akin to the Hellenic -Zeus, whose name has come down to us in our weekday, Tuesday. Behind all -these we must search for traces of the deeply buried and almost -obliterated genuine Neolithic cults. These traces could persist only as -superstitions of peasants. - -We notice first of all that we find one race extending northward along -the coast of France into England and Denmark, the zone of the megalithic -monuments. In this zone we find figurines and carvings of divinities. -Here Dechelette tells us that the female divinity was undoubtedly -preferred as the guardian of the tombs.[162] This zone was so closely -connected with the Mediterranean region that we should expect nothing -else. - -In southeastern Europe, around the valley of the Danube, at Cucuteni, -Jablanica, and elsewhere, we find figurines, and here again the female -divinity is at least the more prominent, if not decidedly -dominant.[163] Dechelette tells us as to its source: "From the earliest -times striking analogies have been proven between the old villages of -the Danube and the Balkans and the Aegean settlements of the Troad and -Phrygia. Primitive idols, painted pottery, frequent employment of the -spiral in decorative art: all these occur scattered through the stations -of southeastern Europe in Neolithic times and in the eastern -Mediterranean basin in pre-Mycenaean and Mycenaean days. Between Butmir -(near Sarajevo, Bosnia) and Hissarlik (Troy) these discoveries mark the -routes which without doubt were already opening communication between -the pre-Hellenic peoples and the pre-Celtic tribes." Reinach adds: -"Eastern Europe, part of Asia Minor and of Egypt, have been revealed as -very intense centres of Neolithic civilization."[164] They may be traced -in rare examples still farther northward into Bohemia and even in -Thuringia. But their distribution outside of southeastern Europe is very -sparse. Traces of the worship of an earth mother,[165] though vague and -few, can still be discovered in the superstitions of the peasant folk of -northern Germany. A primitive belief in spirits of the earth, of -vegetation, of fertility--of daemons who preside over the crops, who die -in the autumn or winter and reappear in the spring--is common in the -folk-lore and customs of the peasants in many parts of Europe. Our -Maypole has an interesting history and is probably the last survival of -an ancient cult. Still other more interesting illustrations might easily -be cited.[166] - -The Balder-myth is familiar to us all. He is a "rare exotic," entirely -out of place in that circle of berserker gods and brutal giants who -lived in or over against the Norse Valhalla, but would have found -himself at home in the land and times of Dionysus. Have we possibly here -an intrusion of a far more ancient religious element which even the rude -dwellers in a harsh Northland could not forget, and would not allow to -die? - -Usually accompanying the cult of the goddess we find frequent and -wide-spread traces of a related trend of thought, mother-right -(Mutterrecht), maternal kinship, matriarchy: under which were generally -included the reckoning of descent in the female line, rights of -inheritance by the daughter, hence female rights of property and general -high social and economic position of woman. These features need not be -united--they may appear separately, one here and another there. We are -probably not studying a system of thought or law, but a general tendency -of life.[167] - -Mother-right, to use the most general term, survived, partially at -least, down to historic time in Egypt. It persisted in Asia Minor. -Perhaps it crops out in the story of the Amazons. We find traces of it -in ancient law and custom in northern Europe. Says Hoernes: "Among the -Greeks, Romans, Celts, Germans, and Slavs, remains of mother-right occur -even in historic times."[168] Wundt thinks that maternal kinship was -once universal.[169] We have no time or room to discuss the origin of -mother-kinship. We may yet find that it and mother-right represent -distinct forms of a deep-seated universal tendency, often of independent -origin, occurring usually together but sometimes separate. - -Something akin to mother-right, and to a high position and dominating -influence of woman in the family and in society, is only what we should -expect at this time. We have seen that women were the first great -discoverers and inventors; discoverers and founders of all our household -arts and crafts as well as of most of our science. Women were the first -spinners and weavers, the first potters. They were the first herbalists -and botanists and the first household physicians. In the care of the -children they were compelled to be alert, quick-minded, ready for all -sorts of emergencies. Paleolithic man was a mere hunter; the rest of the -time he ate and loafed. The woman provided the vegetable food, as well -as much of the animal, and became the first gardener or farmer. She -introduced tillage of the ground, and thus became economically by far -the more important member of the partnership, and she probably had by -far the more alert, quick-witted brain. - -The establishment of agriculture was followed by the cult of the -earth-mother, who gave birth to all the fruits of the ground and -probably to all life. The goddess, with or without a male companion, was -the head of the hierarchy. This again could not have been without its -influence. Says Miss Harrison: "Woman to primitive man is a thing at -once weak and magical, to be oppressed, yet feared. She is charged with -powers of child-bearing denied to man, powers only half understood, -sources of attraction but also of danger and repulsion, forces that all -over the world seem to fill him with dim terror. The attitude of man to -woman and, though perhaps to a less degree, of woman to man is still -essentially magical. Man cannot escape being born of woman: but he can, -and if he is wise he will, as soon as he comes to manhood, perform -ceremonies of riddance and purgation."[170] - -One other fact deserves notice. In times of dearth the savage man always -eats up all the grain reserved as seed for the next year, and there is -none to sow. This is the rock on which attempts to introduce agriculture -among savages or nomads have usually been shipwrecked. Here the priest, -or perhaps priestess, of the goddess came to her aid, armed with the -weapon of taboo. Against this alliance the poor, stupid, clumsy, and -slow-witted Neolithic man struggled in vain. He could vent his fury by -pulling his wife about by the hair, but this availed little or naught. -He had to submit and be resigned. - -Female magic increases in power as we approach the frontier and frontier -life. At the fall of the Roman Empire northern tribes swept away the old -civilization. Grass grew in the ruined cities, only villages remained -inhabited. The priests, by a liberal preaching of hell and other dire -torments, attempted to subdue these barbarians to law and to introduce -order. Agriculture and industry rearose or returned slowly. Finally -after the "dark ages" great cathedrals sprang up, dedicated not to -apostles or martyrs but to the Virgin, Queen of Heaven. Mr. Adams tells -us that at this time the women of France were the real leaders. Is this -apparent parallelism mere chance, or is it due to a certain amount of -similarity in conditions? - -Some one has said that our Neolithic ancestors, especially the -megalith-builders, were priest-ridden. If he had added that they were -tamed and led, and very possibly diligently hen-pecked, by a veritable -matriarchate, I suspect that he would have discovered and correctly -estimated the two great sources of their marvellous progress. For at -this stage, as at some others, the priests and the women were the elite, -and the government was, therefore, ideal for its day. - -But the tendency was based upon something far broader and deeper than -changing social and economic conditions and religious feeling. Even the -"mere man" must admit that it was biological and natural. "Nature," says -Humboldt, "has taken woman under her special protection." She has always -been partial to the female. Throughout the long period of mammalian -evolution she has showed very little regard for the males. The more they -fight and kill one another off, the fewer useless individuals to feed. -The same tendency reaches its logical conclusion in the parthenogenesis -of insects. Havelock Ellis says of woman: "She bears the special -characteristics of humanity in a higher degree than man, and represents -more nearly than man the human type which man is approximating." He -boldly asserts that man seems to be the "weaker vessel," and brings -strong arguments for his assertion.[171] - - "Das Ewig-weibliche - Zieht uns hinan." - -The buried Pelasgic religion regained its rightful place. It had more -vital reality than the Olympian. Has the great Roman Catholic Church, in -its worship of the Virgin, retained at least the symbol of an element of -vital reality which we Protestants, in our recoil from so-called -"Mariolatry," have neglected to our cost in favor of a purely paternal -conception of God? We leave this question to the theologians. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -PROGRESS - - -It is a far cry and long and weary road from the ape descending from the -trees and the ape-man shuffling over the ground, keeping close to his -arboreal refuge, to the lake-dweller and builder of stone monuments. -There was very little in the appearance or structure of the ape-man to -encourage great hopes for the future. The sleek, graceful, wiry, -well-armed cats were far more attractive, promising, and thrilling -actors on the world's stage. Why did not they progress, win the future, -and insure that all the future meetings of art and learning should be -held on the back fence? They certainly did not progress--that is a -stubborn fact. - -They had largely or completely exhausted the possibilities of their -special line of development; as cats they were perfect and could -dominate the portion of the world in which as cats they were solely -interested. This was an impassable bar to progress. Why should they -change? They were so thoroughly conformed to the environment of their -time and conditions that any marked change would have been a -disadvantage. But when conditions did change, and the fashion of the -world which had produced them passed away, they became out of fashion, -"back numbers," incapable of meeting new emergencies and crises--like -men, parties, and governments in all ages of human history. They -suffered from over-adaptation and the resulting limitations. - -Man did not make this mistake. Isolated tribes and even races might -settle down in contentment, become completely adapted to easy conditions -of life, and stagnate or degenerate. But a saving remnant was always -marching out into new physical or social surroundings, exposed to new -needs, fears, and opportunities, and readapting itself to meet and -profit by them. Man was not, and could not be, precocious. He was always -a bundle of possibilities and great expectations, which he has even now -only begun to realize. - -Overpopulation, or other pressure in his primeval home, resulted in -great racial migrations, sending him all over the world to seek his -fortune. He became one of the very few physically cosmopolitan animals, -living everywhere from the equator to the Arctic zone. He became -toughened and hardened and adaptable, able to live under the most trying -circumstances. Everywhere he had to be a close observer, watchful and -wary. He was weak and defenseless, and his life depended upon his quick -recognition of "nature's signs of displeasure," upon the full exercise -of his few small wits. He learned to be faithful in a few things. We -need not repeat or review this weary chapter of his history. - - "There were years that no one talked of. There were times - of horrid doubt. - There was faith and hope and whacking and despair." - -Man was experimenting with all kinds of climates and conditions. It was -in the hard and cold northern regions that he developed farthest, though -less rapidly at first. We have already glanced at the educational -results of language, of family life in the rock-shelter around the fire, -of the fashioning and use of tools, of his love of ornaments and -display, of his dawning and clearing self-consciousness, of the -beginnings of ownership. We have noticed his burial rites and their -suggestions. All these may have been rude and crude, but they contained -the germs of vast possibilities, though painfully slow of development. -His "castles in Spain" were his richest possessions, though he probably -never knew or suspected them. One hundred thousand years of human life -in Europe produced nothing higher than Neanderthal man. - -Suddenly, at the beginning of Upper Paleolithic time Cro-Magnon man -appeared. His splendid physique and large brain, his production and -appreciation of art, and many other qualities, have led some one to -speak of him as the "prehistoric Greek." In our enthusiasm we may easily -overestimate his powers; but, as we study him and his work, we feel that -here was a great race, and that now some great human possibilities are -to be fully attained and made permanent. Apparently he had come from the -plateau region of western Asia. Near his birthplace there must have been -other peoples capable of great things. We remember that Susa was -probably founded not much later than the beginning of the Magdalenian -epoch in Europe. But the Cro-Magnon folk decreased in numbers, in -stature, apparently also in ability and vitality. During the period of -transition to Neolithic time Europe was occupied only by a sparse -population of fishermen along the rivers, while barbarous hunting tribes -were working their way northward toward the Baltic. The shell-heaps of -Denmark are the monuments of the attainments of this epoch. - -A higher civilization had already entered the Mediterranean basin. It -was building houses, villages, possibly forerunners of the Greek -city-states. Especially in Greece they were sufficiently separated to -allow independence of development and great variety, and yet near enough -to one another to prevent the ill effects of complete isolation. Here -there was rapid interchange and improvement of physical and mental -attainments, mental stimulation and rivalry, change and progress. -Implements, weapons, pottery; new discoveries, inventions, ideas, arts, -and habits of life and thought spread slowly and gradually from these -centres of progressing culture far to the northward. This was -undoubtedly one important source of stimuli. But we must not -overestimate its influence.[172] - -It spread through France into England and Denmark. As time went on this -northward current increased and strengthened until, during the Bronze -period, the Baltic region, especially Denmark, became almost a second -Mediterranean centre of culture and art; just as at a far later time -Flemish cities became the Venices of the north. But the north was never -a beggarly dependent and imitator of the south. It selected and accepted -only what it would, almost always modified and frequently improved what -it had selected. - -[Illustration: ANCIENT FISHERMEN - -From the mural painting by Fernand Cormon in the Museum d'Histoire -Naturelle, Paris.] - -The larger part of central and northern Europe lay outside of this -great current and was reached by it only slightly and very indirectly. -These regions or provinces were largely working out their own -civilization and culture. - -What then was the real source of Neolithic progress?[173] It is not to -be sought in great wars and revolutions. Genuine wars are carried on by -nations with a national government, and as yet there were no nations, -and even tribal government--outside of religion, the great bond of tribal -unity at this stage--was probably weak, loose, and inefficient. There -were no such strong towns or city-states as sprang up later in Greece. -There were here no nomadic hordes to be driven by drought from their -withering pastures to migrate _en masse_ and force their way into less -thirsty and starving regions. There was, as yet, no great overpopulation -of mountainous areas compelling raids or forays into piedmont zones. The -nearest approach to this condition is the slow, evidently peaceful -penetration of parts of France by broad-heads from its eastern uplands -filtering in and mixing with the long-headed older population, and -betraying their arrival mainly by a change in form of head and rise of -cephalic index. - -There was little wealth to tempt invasion. There were no cities or -large towns to plunder. There were wide stretches of land thinly or not -at all populated and open to any newcomer. All that we know of Neolithic -religion, far more dominant in tribal life and action than the very -feebly developed political or social organization, the cult of the -goddess, and the accompanying mother-right, suggest peace. The great -invasions of the Bronze and Iron periods introduced or stimulated the -cult of war gods and patriarchal family life and kinship. But these were -still in the future. The picture of Europe at this time as a great arena -of roving savages, thirsting for blood and always at war, seems to be a -caricature. - -The people of the banded pottery were evidently peaceful. They left no -weapons except mattocks and hammers. No one, I believe, has ever accused -the broad-heads of blood-thirst. The graves of northern hunters with -corded pottery are all about Grosgartach. The little village was -deserted and decayed. It showed no signs of having been burned. The -lake-dwellings were open to attack at all times, especially after the -ice had formed during the winter. Robenhausen during its long history -burned several times; hardly as often as most of our New England -villages. Here a single brand or fire-tipped arrow in a thatched roof -would have destroyed the whole settlement. - -Only in northern Europe, in the country of the corded pottery, do we -find great attention paid to the making of fine weapons like the flint -daggers and axes. Here we have chiefly herdsmen and hunters. Here there -were probably village incompatibilities--Donnybrook fairs, -cattle-lifting, and forays. But these should hardly be dignified with -the name of wars. We find then some North German peoples at the very end -of the Neolithic period pushing southward, often by peaceable -infiltration, sometimes perhaps by violent incursions, when the -resistance was great.[174] - -Says Wundt:[175] "So long as he is not obliged to protect himself -against peoples that crowd in upon him, primitive man is familiar with -the weapon only as an implement of the chase. The old picture of a war -of all with all, as Thomas Hobbes once sketched the natural state of -man, is the very reverse of what obtained. The natural condition is one -of peace, unless this is disturbed by external circumstances, one of the -most important of which is contact with a higher culture." - -We remember, also, the fewness of fortified villages in northern Europe -until toward the end of the Neolithic period, and then mainly along -great routes of migration; and around mines and workshops. They seem to -fail altogether in Scandinavia at this time. Even the wars, battles, or -quarrels which occurred probably hindered progress far more than they -aided it. Haeckel in his younger days was fierce in his denunciations of -the stupidity of war. - -Political or economic revolutions could hardly occur when there was -probably little organized government and even less wealth and class -difference. - -Conditions in France may have been somewhat different. Here the great -stone monuments suggest a denser population under a more advanced -organization, religious or political, or both, reminding us of -conditions in the Mediterranean region, with whose culture it was -closely connected. Here fortifications seem to have been quite -numerous.[176] But our knowledge is too slight to allow even a -conjecture. - -[Illustration: EARLY AGRICULTURE - -From the mural painting by Fernand Cormon in the Museum d'Histoire -Naturelle, Paris.] - -In the southeastern part of Europe we find the people of the banded -pottery who practised an advanced form of agriculture. Here apparently -the men as well as the women worked in the fields. We find their stone -mattocks and ploughshares. Hoe-culture was giving place to ploughing. -Here men were receiving a very different education and training from the -hunters, fishermen, and herdsmen of the north, though there also a -gradual increase of tillage was doubtless taking place. They were -tilling the ground laboriously, monotonously, doing what was wearisome -and disagreeable for a reward sometimes large, sometimes scanty. The -peasant farmer learns forethought, thrift, economy, industry, and a host -of homely virtues, far less known to hunter or herdsman. He is no more a -collector taking what he finds: he has gone into partnership with -nature. He is studying her ways, moods, and whims. He amasses a steadily -increasing store of most valuable lore concerning climate, weather, -soil, plants, animals, and things. He is rooted in a little patch of -ground. His outlook is narrow and he is slow to change. But he learns -his lessons thoroughly. He may enter the school unwillingly but he stays -in it. - -He has a permanent home even if it is hardly more than a hut, which is -the centre of his life and thought. It is a hard, healthy life, and -population increases rapidly under such conditions. He probably has a -large family of children, and they educate and socialize him and one -another. He is trained and moulded by "home surroundings." Is not this -the history of the frontiersman or homesteader everywhere at all times? -The home and family attachments and instincts are deeply rooted because -very ancient and entirely natural. - -He lives in a village or neighborhood, which is hardly more than a great -patriarchal family, closely united by intermarriage, and by the pressure -of common work to satisfy common needs, common ownership of the soil, -mutual aid in hard times. The religious rites and ceremonies, the feasts -and mysteries, the prayers or magic, are all community affairs. Many of -the divinities are local. These religious bonds are all the firmer and -more compelling because, in the lack of any developed and permanent -political organization, religion is the great tribal bond. We easily -forget the civilizing, refining, and improving unremitting pressure and -power of these simple, uninteresting peasant influences. He is learning -to get on with the members of the family and neighborhood. He is -experimenting upon his neighbors: his experiments and experiences may -often be very trying to himself and them; the results may sometimes be -discouraging. But he is not only practising the essentials and -fundamentals of morality, very incomplete and without code; but a sort -of preparatory course in government. It may easily be self-government in -these small villages. The town-meeting originated here or somewhat -farther north. - -We have already seen that his religion had grown out of the experiences -of his daily life. May we not claim that science and a sort of -philosophy may have sprung from the same source? He knew nothing of -cause and effect in the material world. But he was seeking diligently -the invisible bond of relations of things and events. The relation, -according to his views, was mainly of a spiritual character through the -agency of daemons. His ritual, call it magic if you will, was the -expression of his conviction that results in the material world might be -modified by his lending a helping hand to all the beneficent spirits. He -indulged freely in hypotheses, but these were the outgrowth of millennia -of experience and life, a very healthy form of pragmatism. He who has -never laughed at a modern scientific theory, useful and fruitful in its -time but now outgrown and replaced by a somewhat better one, may cast -the first stone at his "benighted" Neolithic ancestor. - -We might even venture to suspect that in his own crude way he was a -philosopher. He must have had something like a philosophy of life, even -if it was hardly more than a dumb instinct. - -Says Miss Harrison: "Dike" (usually translated justice), "in common -Greek parlance is the way of life, normal habit. Dike is the way of the -world, the way things happen, and Themis is that specialized way for -human beings which is sanctioned by the collective conscience, by herd -instinct. A lonely beast in the valley, a fish in the sea, has his Dike, -but it is not till man congregates together that he has his Themis. -Greeks and Indians alike seem to have discovered that the divine way was -also the truth and the life. This notion of the way, which was also the -truth and the life, seems to have existed before the separation of -Indian from Iranian. Closely allied to Dike and to Vedic Rta is the -Chinese Tao, only it seems less moralized and more magical. Deep-rooted -in man's heart is the pathetic conviction that moral goodness and -material prosperity go together, that if man keep the Rta, he can -magically affect for good nature's ordered going."[177] - -Thus primitive man, long before the dawn of anything like civilization, -was seeking, finding, clearing, and treading out the "way" to an -ordered, right, and healthy individual and social life--not through, but -to, codes of morals and systems of philosophy. His thought was more or -less chaotic, perhaps; it was crudely, often indecently, expressed in -ugly form or action; but it was always acted upon, kept close to life. -We might possibly call him an "Ur-pragmatist," if you will pardon the -barbarism. He had neither the language nor the "conveniences for -thinking" and other things, to write out a cool, logical abstract system -in long words. In this we have outrun him until we have left him out of -sight. His philosophy was not a guidebook or map, but a rough and often -miry trail. - -We have tried to express briefly the results of a glance at the -agriculturists of southeastern Europe. Before the close of the Neolithic -period they were in fairly close communication with Aegean culture and -owed considerable or much progress to stimuli from this source. In the -great essentials of human training and development something quite -similar might be said of the lake-dwellers and the broad-heads of -eastern France. North Germany had a different culture and probably -somewhat different religious cults and general views and conceptions. -France and England, too, represented a quite distinct province whose -peoples were always under Mediterranean influence. Denmark was already -a meeting-place for a variety of cultures, thoughts, and influences. - -Peoples were gradually closing in from all directions on the central -provinces of northern Europe, and here apparently they met. We find here -a mixture of head-forms, of culture; mixture or modifications of styles -of ceramic ornament, of burial customs--all suggesting a mingling of -peoples of a variety of cultures. Here at or toward the end of the -Neolithic period was the "melting-pot" for the fusion of these peoples -and their cultures. There was conflict of customs and ideas, of _ways_ -of life. There was probably much incompatibility, many broken heads. The -pacific people of the banded pottery seem largely to have withdrawn, or -been driven out, before the infiltration or invasions of northern folk. -It was hardly a comfortable place for conservative pacificists. There -were doubtless battles in many regions--perhaps now and here we might -speak of wars. In some places there may have been extermination of the -fighting men. But in most parts there was large fusion, and out of this -mixture of cultures, ideas, thoughts, and habits of life came the -culture of the beginning of the Bronze Age. - -The great characteristic of Neolithic culture seems to be a rude, often -barbarous, sometimes ugly but generally healthy, always hardy and -vigorous growth--it grew "like a weed"--the manifestation of an intense -vitality. Because it was healthy it was essentially and generally fairly -sane, matter-of-fact, whole, and balanced. The Neoliths were certainly -no "reversed cripples," in whom one or two of the less essential powers -had outgrown and dwarfed the man. It was an adaptable stock giving rise -to many marked and vigorous varieties, from whose intercrossing -something great and good could hardly fail to arise. - -Green refuses to write a "trumpet-and-drum history of England." "Happy -the people--here we cannot say nation--that has no annals." Here is surely -a certain amount of truth which we may be in danger of forgetting. In -plants, and often in men, a long period of silent unnoticeable growth -usually precedes the brief season of flowers and fruit. Is this the rule -in racial, or internal, development? - -Is it true, as some historians tell us, that a dormant period of -national history best repays investigation, and that dormant peoples -will bear watching? Is the dormant nation often storing up nutriment, -strength, vitality, just as the plant is doing in its ugly underground -roots and stem? Are fallow periods necessary to its fertility and -apparently dormant times essential to its life and growth? Must periods -of energetic action and effort be followed by times of exhaustion and -rest, as in the history of the strong athlete rejoicing to run a race? - -Is China awakening from just such a dormant period? What of India, still -the home of philosophy? Because a nation, after bearing a marvellous -harvest of culture, thought, art, or religion, seems barren and -exhausted, does this discourage or arouse the hope that it will some day -produce an equal or greater fruitage? - -How about "darkest Africa"? Here surely we have a case of degeneration -beyond all hope of recovery, not to mention a great future. But is this -quite as certain as some of us seem to think? Is not much of our -so-called Occidental progress really an orgy of wasted energy, neurotic -excitement, half-camouflaged decadence, which will end in degeneration? -We do not know yet. May there some day be a family rather than league of -nations to which every one will contribute according to its special -ability? If this be granted, will Huxley's statement concerning the -individual be applicable to races and peoples: "Its aim will be not so -much the survival of the fittest as the fitting of as many as possible -to survive"? These are sphinx questions demanding an answer from -statesmen. Unfortunately most of our statesmen are only waiting to be -gathered to their fathers in the graveyard of dead politicians. We will -turn homeward after our excursion, gladly leaving our little bundle of -facts and questions at the door of the philosopher of history. - -But one question confronts us directly. Is our whole estimate and -valuation of Neolithic life, work, and progress extreme and practically -worthless? Were they, in spite of all our arguments, a mob of crude, -worthless barbarians, undeserving of any gratitude or sympathy, much -less of respect? Do we really owe anything to them? - -One historic event of great importance had its growth and rise during -the Neolithic period out of Neolithic life, conditions, and culture. -This was the Aryan culture of Persia and India, of Greece and Rome, and -of our northern ancestors. No one seems to deny its importance and -value. We must glance at its origin and growth, and see if it supports -at all the tentative and often conjectural conclusions at which we have -arrived. This will be the object of our work and study in the next and -closing chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE COMING OF THE INDO-EUROPEANS - - -Said Max Mueller in his _Biographies of Words_: "I have declared again -and again that, if I say Aryan, I mean neither blood nor bones, nor hair -nor skull; I mean simply those who speak an Aryan language. The same -applies to Hindus, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts, and Slavs. When I -speak of them I commit myself to no anatomical characteristics. The -blue-eyed and fair-haired Scandinavians may have been conquerors or -conquered, they may have adopted the language of their darker lords or -their subjects, or vice versa. I assert nothing beyond their -language.... To me an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, -Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a -dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar." - -We may well take this warning to heart, and remember that the first and -most noticeable, if not the one essential, characteristic of the Aryans -was their language. For the sake of convenience and clearness, and of -avoiding misunderstanding or prejudice, we will use the word -Indo-European for the whole group of languages to which Mueller applied -the word Aryan. These languages fall into two great divisions or -branches: (1) the Indian and Iranian (Persian), which we will call -Aryan; and (2) the European branch, including Greek, Latin, German, -Slavic, and others. Our first question is: what inferences can we safely -draw from a study and comparison of these different European and Asiatic -languages? Evidently they have all sprung from a parent language no -longer adequately represented by any one of them. They have all been -considerably or greatly modified during the lapse of time. They, and -others whose names we have omitted, are all sister languages descended -or developed from a parent language which must once have been spoken by -a people, very probably representing a mixture of races, having a -definite local habitation, cradle, or home. Here the language originated -as the expression of a certain culture or civilization, and from this -region, large or small, it spread into Persia and India and throughout -Europe. The wide spread of the language testifies to the superiority in -some important respects of either language, culture, people, or all -three. We may well recognize two homes, the first, original cradle of -the language and culture, and the second homeland, far more extensive, -over which the original language, probably with well-marked dialects, -was used just before the final separation and dispersal. - -In its distribution from India to western Europe it must often have -wandered far from its original home. Its introducers must often have -been few compared with the large and dense populations among which they -came. The Aryans could have been hardly more than a handful among the -peoples of India. Something similar may be said of its introduction into -Europe about the close of the Neolithic period. Middle Europe was at -this time fairly well populated, at least in its more fertile regions. -The bearers of the new language must have represented a ruling, -conquering, or otherwise very influential class, else it would never -have been accepted by the mass of the people. - -When the original or modified Indo-European language, perhaps in several -distinct dialects, was introduced into Europe, it was carried to peoples -of several or many stocks and languages. These had to learn and acquire -it as we acquire a foreign language, but only as a spoken, unwritten -language. Probably no one of them acquired it exactly in its original -form. It was almost impossible for them to pronounce all its consonants -or combinations, its "shibboleths." They retained much of the stress and -accent and more of the cadence of their own tongue. Similarly at a far -later date Latin developed into the various Romance Languages of modern -Europe. - -Under the new conditions content and meanings changed as well as forms -of language. Words little used in the new home, especially names of -objects, might easily be lost, while others would be replaced by -favorite apt words from the aboriginal language. A name might be applied -to a new object and thus change its meaning. To cite a familiar modern -instance, the robin redbreast of America is quite a different bird from -that of England. For a long time it was supposed that the occurrence of -the root of the word "beech" in the European languages proved beyond -doubt that the language must have originated in a region where the -beech-tree was common. But the Greek word derived from the same root -means oak; a similar, perhaps not the same, root word in Kurdish means -elm. Our knowledge of the original meaning of the word is very -uncertain. Through all the languages there runs a single word for -weaving or plaiting, but whether the original word referred to the -weaving of cloth or to the plaiting of mats or baskets we do not know. - -The work of discovering and restoring the original language is difficult -and far from finished. But the comparative philologists or "linguistic -paleontologists" have established certain facts, or at least theories, -on which we may rely with a fair degree of confidence. We find names for -all the most important domestic animals, including the horse. There are -words for the wagon, its wheels, and various other parts. Words for -tillage and land cultivation agree in the Western branch, but are far -less noticeable in the Aryan languages. Here the vocabulary is rather -that of the herdsman. This seems to allow us to conclude that, when -Eastern and Western branches separated, and probably long before that -time, the Eastern people were herdsmen paying slight attention to -agriculture: the Western predominantly tillers of the ground. - -The linguist, as we have already seen, is frequently or usually unable -to discover the exact meaning of the word in the original language, and -hence is uncertain as to the degree of development of any art or -technique. But the culture, as far as discovered, seems to be that of -the average of Neolithic peoples, perhaps fairly well represented by -that of the Swiss lake-dwellers. It may have varied in different areas -or provinces. The language seems to represent most clearly features of -the undivided life and settlement of the people or peoples when it had -spread over a wide territory and become the property of a large -population, otherwise it would be impossible to explain the successive -great waves of Indo-European migration. The cradle where the language -originated and took form must have been far more limited and the culture -simpler. - -The original language contains words for summer and winter, ice and -snow; it tells of a fairly cold climate. They had a common word for -metal, probably copper, hence they were living together after the -introduction of this metal. They lived in villages apparently surrounded -by a hedge or wall, or some sort of fortification. - -The family was decidedly patriarchal. Of the older mother-right scarcely -more than traces remain, survivals from an older alien culture. The -goddess is no longer supreme. A new divinity, a sky-god, or sun-god, or -manifestation of light or brightness had already appeared--the Greek -Zeus, Latin Ju-piter, with the same root appearing in all the languages. -The earth-goddess is not banished, but remains as consort of the male -divinity. The supreme divinity of the religious cult is no longer local. -There is in it an element or germ of universality overleaping all -provincial boundaries, in many respects a vast improvement over the old -Neolithic religions. It generally held its own, but only by adopting -much from the older native religions on which it was superimposed, as -was the case in Greece. - -Indo-Europeanism must have had something to recommend it and make it -highly attractive to enable it to spread so fast and far. The language -itself, while apparently somewhat clumsy, was certainly rich in -conceptions and shades of expression. The clearness and beauty of the -religious cult may have attracted some, though this seems doubtful. All -these features are inadequate to explain the rapidity and extent of its -spread. We must leave this problem for the present. - -Even the original language frequently describes the same object or even -action by words having very different roots. It shows great variety in -synonyms and inflections. Feist compares it with English and considers -it a "mixed language" almost from the start, and many facts seem to -favor this view. This does not surprise us when we remember that its -growth and development were late, during the latter half of Neolithic -time, when great movements and minglings of people were taking place and -long routes of trade and communication had opened. - -The date of the earliest migrations of Indo-European peoples is roughly -indicated by the presence of a word for metal, probably copper, in the -original undivided language. Aryan names appear in western Asia about -1400 or 1500 B. C. Meyer says that the Achaeans had arrived in the -southern Balkans as early as 2000 B. C. and reached Greece about 1200 or -1300 B. C.; the Dorians followed about 1100 B. C. We can hardly be far -from the truth if we consider that they were in their original home -until about 2000 B. C., and that the separation began very soon after. -Their development was a product of the Neolithic period, their spread -was the striking event of earliest historic times. - -Inasmuch as their migrations are so recent, especially when compared -with those of the Semites, it ought to be possible for us to discover -certain traits which they brought with them from the homeland. The -Achaeans had apparently marched southward from Hungary or thereabouts -through the Balkans into Greece, arriving there not far from 1200 B. C. -They did not come in one invading horde but in successive waves, each -crowding the other before it. Behind the Achaeans came the Dorians, -behind them were the Thracians and other wayfarers. Their unit of -organization was the band, brotherhood, or clan, each with its own -leader, reminding us of the Scotch clans of a century or two ago. They -came with their horses and carts, perhaps with war-chariots. They were -the "horse-taming" Achaeans. They were youthful, red-blooded, -irresponsible and irresistible, careless, untamed barbarians, swaggering -in from hard battles and long campaigns, having seen the manners and -tested the might of many peoples. They came in contact with ancient, -settled, staid, conservative Pelasgic wealth and culture. They were the -rough riders of their day. They were hard drinkers and fighters; loud, -boastful talkers, good-natured if not opposed; good "mixers." - -Their chieftains married the princesses of the old regime, who seem to -have held the right of succession in the kingdom or city-state. The -wooing was rough and more or less forceful; but I suspect that the -princesses yielded not altogether unwillingly, even if the course of -true love did not always continue to run smooth in after years. They -married their gods to the goddesses of the land, and made little -further interference with the old Aegean religion or popular life. - -In comparison with the native peoples who had builded Tiryns and Mycenae -the Achaeans were probably few, scattered over Greece. They probably -robbed the subject peoples with one hand, but with the other they -defended them against the forays of sea-pirates and other enemies. They -were no worse than former native rulers, far better watch-dogs of the -city, attractive leaders of an admiring crowd, the best possible -missionaries of a new culture and language. They turned the old -Neolithic world upside down. Evolution had brought revolution: old -things passed away and, for a time, all things became new. We cannot -easily overestimate the extent and importance of the change. - -The leaders, and naturally their followers to a less degree, show -clearly the characteristics of the new era, which Wundt has called the -Age of Heroes in distinction from the Age of Totemism and the iron -supremacy of tribal custom. The chief feature was the rise, development, -and dominance of individual personality in the leaders and the -enthusiastic, individual loyalty of the members of the brotherhood or -clan. Up to this time the individual has been entirely submerged in the -customs and culture of the tribe, whose control has been mostly in the -hands of the old men and the priests; now the young warrior and champion -has grasped the reins. In all Homer's pictures the ranks of the common -people, however firm, count for little. The battle is won in single, -hand-to-hand combat by the leader--a dour giant of an Ajax, a dashing -Menelaus, "good at the rescue," a crafty Ulysses, a heroic Hector. The -wisdom of old Nestor is endured with kindly tolerance, hardly with -enthusiasm. It is an age of young men with all their virtues and vices. -But every leader is a distinctly marked individual; no two are alike. - -City-states are beginning to appear, but their success depends very -largely on the wisdom and power of the ruler, who seems at first to be -largely irresponsible, a despot in the ancient sense of the word. It is -anything but a true democracy, but it is government by the elite of -their day and world. The new era or _Zeitgeist_ is putting its stamp on -all its peoples. Homer's description of the Achaeans would apply almost -equally well to the Celts when they first appear in history; and kindred -spirits are marching and fighting in India and Persia. All seem to -represent a new type which all brought from the common homeland. - -The chieftains, with this clan or brotherhood of warlike followers, came -into a country occupied by agriculturists or peasants unused and -untrained to war, such as we have found in the Mediterranean region and -in most of northern Europe. Conquest was usually easy and left little -bitterness. There was no national consciousness or pride to arouse -resistance. It was a totally different kind of invasion from that of -nomadic Semites in Asia, or of Mongols into Europe. It came almost as a -new movement, a renaissance for which the people were ready. Celt and -Greek alike were usually absorbed and lost in the masses of the people -to whom they came. Physically they produced little permanent change in -the people with whom they mingled. They seem to have accepted fully as -much as they contributed, and may often have received credit for many -improvements which they really had little share in bringing about. - -We have already seen that Greek philosophy and religion, while retaining -much of the Olympian or Indo-European form, sprang essentially from the -old Pelasgic cults with their greater vitality. How far were Achaeans and -Dorians responsible for the glory of Greek art, especially in "Pelasgic -Athens"? The answer can hardly be as obvious and sure as it has appeared -to some. - -How far was Roman government and law due to Indo-European influence? -Neither Greeks nor Celts seem to have been very successful in founding -great or permanent states. Italy was far less easy of access from the -north than from Greece, and Rome lay well southward beyond the -Apennines. Some of its most important political features seem to have -sprung from uprisings of the _Plebs_, the common people, probably mostly -of native stock; others, perhaps, from the Etruscans. I cannot attempt -to answer this question or any one of many similar ones. The -Indo-Europeans brought in a new era and started a new world; but just -what was their definite and permanent contribution to European culture? - -Europe had been long enough in the school of Neolithic discipline. -Agriculture and settled home life had trained peasants to do many things -which they disliked to do, to observe taboo and to obey ancient custom, -to march in rank and file, and even in lock-step. It was a hard school -in which savage man had been tamed, home-broken, and socialized, and he -had learned its lessons thoroughly. It was high time that men should be -promoted to a higher grade of education the aim of whose training should -be the development of free and vigorous personality. The crust or cake -of custom must yield or be broken and allow the individual to enter upon -the possession of his rights. - -It was a critical and revolutionary change. It had been rendered easier -by the accumulation of wealth, and of a certain amount of personal -property in cattle and other goods. In centres of trade the individual -was thrown more and more on his own resources and initiative. With -exchange of goods came exchange of knowledge, ideas, and methods -undermining the ancient customs and traditions. Movements or migrations -of peoples or smaller bands called for leadership by the most capable. -And those became more and more numerous about the close of the Neolithic -period. Neolithic culture had been largely the product of peace and -isolation; it was inadequate to the new conditions. Matriarchy and the -cult of the goddess were unsuited to times of struggle and migration; -with the rise of the chieftain comes the worship of the war-god. - -Where did this change or revolution and the rise of this new language -and culture and remarkable people take place? All agree that the cradle -or original homeland must have been somewhere on our third route of -migration, the great zone of steppe and parkland stretching from western -Turkestan westward along the Caspian and Black Seas into the valley of -the Danube, and from the Hungarian extension of the Asiatic steppe -northward to the great plain of North Germany and to Scandinavia. In our -study of racial migrations we found that the great Mongoloid branch went -eastward from the neighborhood of the Iranian plateau, while successive -waves of migration turned westward into Europe, both following a zone of -steppe and parkland enjoying unusually favorable climatic conditions in -early Post-glacial times. - -The discovery of Sanskrit and the belief that it represented the parent -of the Indo-European languages led students to place the original centre -of their dispersal far toward the eastern end of this zone. When it -became evident that this view of Sanskrit was untenable, they began to -locate the centre in Europe. Finally some or many students have sought -it in the extreme west and north in Germany or also in Scandinavia. When -careful and thorough scholars have arrived at so many and so different -conclusions, we may well be cautious and remember that new discoveries -may necessitate a change in our own views. - -The chief argument in favor of the North German homeland is -anthropological. The earliest Indo-Europeans both in Europe and Asia -were apparently blonds, with light hair and eyes; and such people have -lived along the shore of the Baltic since early Neolithic times. - -The claim that the ancient Celts and Achaeans were physically more like -Germans and Scandinavians than any other European people is certainly -not without foundation. It has been urged that the Indo-Europeans were -acquainted with the sea and with the eel, which is said to be unknown in -the tributaries of the Black and Caspian Seas, as also their -acquaintance with the beech. Other arguments can be found in special -articles. We have seen that arguments based on the meaning of words like -beech, eel, and sea, rest on a very insecure foundation. The Finns are -almost as blond as the Germans, and Kossina[178] places them with the -Germans as ancestors of the Indo-Europeans. There are in Europe also -blond brachycephals, generally acknowledged to have been of western -Asiatic origin. The arguments for a Germanic origin are attractive, but -hardly convincing, and anything but conclusive. - -The objections to this view are weighty. One marked feature of -Indo-European culture was the use of the horse, which held the highest -rank among their domestic animals. But the domestic horse seems to have -been introduced into Europe from the East. The few traces of its -presence in northern Europe during Neolithic times are usually explained -as remains of wild animals killed in the hunt. If they played so large a -part in Indo-European culture, it is strange that they have left so few -remains. - -Kossina, in one of his studies, places the cradle of Indo-European -culture in "Scandinavia, Denmark, and northwest Germany, wherever -megalithic monuments with their characteristic pottery occur." Wherever -such monuments occur we find incineration coming in late in Neolithic -time, or more exactly with the Bronze period, except in Brittany and -England, of which later. But incineration seems to accompany the -progress of the European branch, and must have come into use among these -peoples well back in their history to explain its wide occurrence. - -The word town, in the original language, seems to signify a settlement -surrounded by a hedge or wall, or some sort of defense. But fortified -towns are hardly known in North Germany at this time. All these cultural -features seem to appear somewhat or considerably too late in North -Germany to suit Kossina's theory. - -A second feature of Indo-European culture is the rise of the chieftain. -But the Germans seem to have borrowed the name for king and other -expressions for military organizations, as well as many culture-words, -from the Celts. This fact has led some good authorities to declare that -the Germans received their Indo-European language from the Celts. - -The homeland of the Indo-Europeans must have supported a large -population to send out all the tribes which went out from it. Only such -a region can satisfy our requirements, and such was Germany, an -_Officina gentium_, some 2,000 years later. But we notice that the -migrations of peoples have always set westward into Europe, not in the -reverse direction. Similarly the new discovery or idea has come westward -or northward from western Asia or from the Mediterranean region. The -north has almost never been a centre of origination of new ideas and -movements. It has borrowed from the richer south. We would not expect -that the Indo-European movement would form an exception to this rule. -Moreover, the peoples of the banded pottery who had filled southeastern -Europe, coming in, as is generally acknowledged, from the East, had -brought with them a good knowledge of agriculture which could support a -large population. - -Now Kossina finds evidence of the spread of the corded pottery southward -at the close of the Neolithic period, and infers that it was carried by -a migration from the north. I am inclined to think that his conclusion -is correct, though it may be doubtful whether the invasion went so far -into the province of the banded pottery as he thinks. He sees in this -the first stage of the Indo-European movement which was to sweep -eastward as far as India. The people of the banded pottery apparently -retreated eastward before this movement, and thus tended still further -to increase the density and power of resistance in these regions. -Furthermore, had this southeastward movement continued, it would have -met the first of a series of waves of invasion which would surely have -turned it backward. - -We have seen that all through the Neolithic period brachycephals of the -Furfooz or Grenelle race have been spreading from Belgium and the rough -eastern part of France. At the end of the Neolithic period they are -being crowded by the long-heads. During the Bronze Age the cephalic -index rises all over middle and western Europe. At its very beginning we -find a new people in England--tall, rugged, heavy-faced round-heads, who -burned their dead and deposited the ashes in round barrows. They seem to -have come from the Rhine valley, and may well have introduced -incineration into Brittany, where it appears early. They differ markedly -in stature and features from the Furfooz people. They have quite -certainly come from the east, perhaps from the region of the Armenian -highlands. They have crossed Europe in sufficient numbers and -compactness to retain their anthropological characters until they strike -England and crowd back the old Iberian or Mediterranean peoples. The -movement looks like an invasion in mass, not like a quiet, slow -infiltration. They were the forerunners of a general advance and spread -of the broad-heads. - -Were these people Celts or at least partially celticized? To express an -opinion on a Celtic question is to accept an invitation to a Donnybrook -fair. Anthropologically they differ markedly from the later Celtic -invaders. But their custom of incineration is certainly suggestive, and -it is not at all impossible that they spoke a Celtic dialect. They -certainly seem to prove that the westward migration from the region of -the Black Sea or from farther eastward had not ceased or been turned -backward at this time. The spread of North German people southward at -this time would have brought them where they would mingle with Celts -coming westward and receive their first lesson in Indo-European language -and culture, if it came from the east. - -There is at present a strong tendency to seek the original Indo-European -homeland neither in the extreme east or extreme west or north, but -somewhere in the open country of southern Russia lying to the north of -the Black Sea or farther eastward toward the Caspian. Here they locate -them mainly in a long zone of parkland extending along the southern edge -of the forest zone and in the valleys of the great rivers. Here at a -much later date Scythians were settled who raised large quantities of -wheat, while others were nomadic. We remember that Neolithic -trade-routes followed mainly rivers and seashore. The islands of the -Mediterranean were occupied early and sea commerce found a centre in -Crete. A great centre of trade arose very early at Troy (Hissarlik), on -the highway between the Aegean and the settlements along the shores of -the Black Sea and in the valleys of the rivers descending from the -interior. - -Dechellette has called attention to the striking analogies in form of -settlement, in primitive idols, in pottery with painting and spiral -ornament between the villages of the Balkans, Troy (Hissarlik) and of -the Troad and Phrygia, and of the pre-Mycenaean culture of Crete and -Greece. "Between Butmir and Hissarlik these discoveries mark the routes -which already undoubtedly connected pre-Hellenic peoples and pre-Celtic -tribes." - -Meyer tells us that the banded pottery shows the same motives in -ornament in Butmir and Tordos as in Troy and the Aegean, and spreads -thence northward and westward; and that painted pottery in Europe starts -at the end of the Neolithic (2500-2000 B. C.) in the great plain east of -the Carpathians in the region of the Dniester and Dnieper, a region of -high culture in other respects. "Here the connection with the Aegean -world is evident (_augenfaellig_)." This people was agricultural. They -burned their dead, and Meyer thinks that incineration spread northward -and westward from this centre. They show no use of metal. Their culture -breaks off suddenly at the end of the Neolithic period. - -Here is a region which stands in free communication with the -agricultural population of the parkland zone, open to influences from -the steppe, accepting the higher civilization of Phrygia and the Aegean. -It is a people of advanced agriculture, hence probably of rapidly -increasing population, open to trade and commerce. Here wide and free -communications would be likely to prevent the formation of an unyielding -cake or crust of custom. People meeting from all lands and cultures -might well make and use a language capable of expressing a great variety -of shades of thought peculiar to a variety of peoples and cultures; we -might safely call it a mixed language springing from a mixture of -peoples. Here, as in the Aegean region, the more or less fortified town -or village would be a necessity. Here the horse and wagon would be early -introduced from the east. Here the patriarchate, so characteristic of -nomadic tribes, would be early imported from the steppe, or may have -been developed independently. - -There is a universality in the Indo-European religion, a sanity and -proportion in their whole mode of thought, a broad sympathy, a -willingness to accept new ideas and conditions--in general, a breadth of -mind which could hardly be the product of isolation but rather of men -who had "seen the customs of many men and many cities," and could look -with tolerance and charity on alien cultures and fully appreciate their -worth and advantages. Our Teutonic ancestors carried their mental and -cultural environment with them wherever they went. They were apostles of -purity of blood and hence of isolation. They were never good mixers, as -were Celt and Achaean. All three migrated and conquered far and wide, and -both usually disappeared in the alien population. But the Teuton left -little impression on the alien culture, while Achaean and Celt leavened -the whole mass. Here, as in other respects, Celt and Teuton show an -incompatibility and oppositeness which strongly suggest difference of -origin. - -But we must carefully avoid too great certainty and definiteness of -assertion. The weight of probability seems to be against any theory -which locates the first, original homeland in the far east or in the far -northwest. But we deal only with probabilities, and may well "carry our -theories on our finger-tips." If the cradle was somewhere in southern -Russia north of the Black Sea, or somewhat farther east or west, its -second homeland just before the great dispersal was vastly larger. Myres -thinks that it extended far to the eastward of the Volga, which perhaps -was the boundary between the eastern and western branches, and whose -upper waters drained a very early home of the Finns. - -The Indo-Europeans were settled in a goodly land capable with their -improved agriculture of supporting a very large population. Why did they -migrate in all directions? Here, again, we are left much in the dark. -But Pumpelly, in his explorations at Anau, found the settlement deserted -during the Bronze period about the same time when we find the -Indo-Europeans leaving the homeland. At Anau there are signs that the -desertion was due primarily to aridity or to disturbances accompanying -such a change. It seems highly probable that climatic changes may have -played a most important part in this movement, as they seem to have done -in the later historical migrations from this region or from farther -eastward. - -We may close this chapter of uncertainties with one deduction which -seems fairly evident. If the Germans were the first and original -Indo-Europeans, the movement developed here directly out of preceding -Neolithic conditions. If, as seems more probable, it originated farther -to the southeast, and was introduced by the Celts, or in connection with -the amber trade, it made little marked interruption in the development -of the Germans. They and the Scandinavians continued to take from the -south whatever they would, but their development was largely -independent. A complete conquest of Germany and Scandinavia by the Celts -seems very improbable. - -The Teutonic and Scandinavian peoples were not precocious, and appear in -history very late. But here apart, in the misty northland, a people was -very slowly developing who, after the decadence and fall of Rome, could -come forward and slowly and wearily rebuild a civilization better than -that which had fallen, and a government of, by, and for the people, -guaranteeing to the individual the right of free action and development, -the grandest feature of Indo-European culture. This, rather than any -precocity, is the glory of the northern peoples. Once again we find -history in the making in an inconspicuous people during an apparently -dormant period. - -He that believeth will not despise the day of small things, neither will -he make haste. If the vision tarries long, he will wait for it. "It -shall come and shall not tarry." It will probably come by the way which -he least suspects. - - -There seems to be a wide-spread opinion that the rise of the -Indo-Europeans was the first dawn of day in a benighted world. Their -migrations were a missionary movement on a grand scale. They dispelled -darkness, ignorance, and superstitions, broke the crust of a stagnant -conservatism, overthrew outworn customs, brought an entirely new -culture, and revolutionized life and the world. We might call attention -to the fact that Indo-European culture and life were a product of -Neolithic experience, that it was the blossoming of Neolithic growth, -that it represented only one part or phase of Neolithic attainment. "The -best traditions make the best rebels."[179] The question remains: Was -Neolithic thought and feeling destroyed by their coming, or did it still -persist, like a river flowing underground, and is most of our deepest -life to-day a fairly direct continuation of the older current only -somewhat modified by the revolution? - -We notice first of all the commonness or community of Neolithic feeling -and life, its almost monotonous uniformity, over Europe, eastern Asia, -and probably even far wider areas. We may easily exaggerate this. The -cultures of the Mediterranean basin, of Spain and France, of the Danube -valley, of northern Germany and Scandinavia, not to mention smaller, -more isolated provinces, showed well-marked differences. There was -probably more diversity in the people of every one of these provinces, -especially at centres of trade, even in every larger village, than our -hasty study would lead us to suspect. But in fundamental characters -there was wide-spread and marked similarity; and this, like the wide -range of dominant genera and species of animals, is a sign of vitality -and fitness. - -The Neolithic period coincides roughly with the latter part of Wundt's -Totem Age: the Bronze period ushered in his Age of Heroes.?[180] -During the first period the individual counted for very little, -everything was tribal. In the second period the great leaders of -popular migrations emerge, young, vigorous, hot-blooded. With the -appearance of these "kings of men" comes the rise of nations. Tribal -control wanes, and the slow development of individual, personal -judgment and conscience, self-control, and responsibility replaces it -to a great extent. - -We read in the history of Israel that the long Egyptian bondage of a -stiff-necked nomad people, being broken to the rudiments of order and -civilization, was followed by an exodus and a period of judges or -popular leaders, when "there was no king in Israel, but every man did -that which was right in his own eyes." It was a period of lawlessness -and anarchy; recovery was slow and painful, and finally only partially -attained by the appointment of a king. A similar education, on a vastly -larger scale both of area and time, was going on all over Europe. - -Prehistoric man was guided and controlled by feelings usually expressing -the dictates of a long experience out of which instincts had -crystallized. His feelings were his instinctive responses to new -emergencies. He could not analyze them, reason or argue about them; he -was spared the "malady of thought." He had little or no logic or -science; his philosophy, as we have seen, was a _way_ smoothed by the -feet of his ancestors. He was a man of taste in the literal sense of the -word. He knew what he liked and what he disliked; probably he could not -have explained the reason for either feeling. He was wise in following -these instinctive feelings and tastes; they represented the accumulated -and assimilated experience of millennia. - -Of course the experience had been that of individuals. Neolithic man's -school and laboratory of education was mostly the family and the -neighborhood. Here he had to learn to get on with other individuals, to -live and let live, to practise co-operation and mutual aid. Here he -learned the first and grandest lessons in morals; that he would be done -by as he did, and hence that it was best to do as he would be done by. -He has never lost or forgotten the lessons learned in this excellent -"dame's school." - -Most of his higher education--and hence of his feeling, conscience, -religion, and life--was tribal. Laws, or rather customs, were propounded -by the elders of the tribe or priests, an exceedingly conservative -court. The chief aim was not rapidity of progress, but confirming and -practising that which long experience had proved to be good. Slowly but -surely the fund of wisdom increased. "It is the three-per-cent man who -gets all the money in the end." - -Responsibility was tribal. The man who tried experiments or "fooled" -with the forbidden thing was a common nuisance summarily and thoroughly -abated by the tribe. - -Land was common property, though the individual had probably gained some -rights of use. It is doubtful whether he could use the whole or any -part of it entirely as he would. Even at a much later date his use was -largely limited and controlled by ancient custom. - -The ritual which still made up most of his religion was also -tribal.[181] Dance and song were practised by the whole community. His -creed, so far as he had one, was a belief in spiritual beings, daemons, -of great power and marvellous efficiency. Some or many were beneficent; -more were probably maleficent; but those might be appeased, mollified, -bribed, won over, or controlled, if rightly approached through magical -rites or ceremonies. - -These daemons seem to have been supposed to be almost innumerable. No one -was supreme, but some were more important than others. Here then was -room for variety of opinion, of ritual, of the spirit occupying the most -important place; hence also of change and development. The gods in one -country were those of the hills; in another, those of the plains; in a -third, of the forest. Fishing and agricultural tribes had different -daemons. The wandering trader, passing from tribe to tribe, in his own -heart respected or neglected all alike. Every land had its own gods or -goddesses. When a man migrated to another country he usually left his -old gods at home. If he was adopted into the brotherhood of another -tribe, he changed his religious allegiance also. - -A religious hierarchy seems to have grown up during the Neolithic period -headed by the goddess-mother of life. Her rise seems to have accompanied -the introduction of agriculture, which must have brought great changes -in religious ritual and belief. Daemons who had heretofore held a high -place in the fear or affection of hunting tribes gradually lost their -supremacy or were neglected. - -The dethronement of gods or daemons was usually not sudden or -revolutionary. The new mode of life and its accompanying cult gained -ground slowly. Probably it was at first an extension or modification of -some older one. The dethroned divinity long retained his hold on the -fears or affections of many of the tribe. Finally he was remembered only -by certain old wives in remote or isolated settlements. With the rest of -the people he, or she, was fast becoming an imp, kobold, or fairy--the -subject of fascinating stories, still tinged with mystery, joy, or fear, -but not to be taken too seriously. - -Here, apparently, is one, by no means the only, source of folk-lore and -fairy-tale. Folk-lore is an exceedingly wide field and our path leads -through only a little corner of it. It was the growth of millennia. It -preserves for us remnants of ancient beliefs and practices, whose -original meaning had been forgotten long before the birth of the -story-teller. Fossil beliefs of the most widely separated ages may be -found jumbled together in the same story. - -It was always intended to be told to a group of sympathetic listeners or -to the whole community. It is genuine literature, but when reduced to -writing or cold print it chills and dies. The story-teller must feel at -once the sympathy or coldness of his listeners. The substance may remain -unchanged, but the shading and emphasis must vary with the feeling and -temper of the audience. Thus in a very true sense it was moulded by the -people. If a story survived with certain forms and content, it was -because it was essentially common and human, appealing to that which is -not individual but at least tribal or racial. - -Says Mr. Chesterton: "Our modern novels, which deal with men as they -are, are chiefly produced by a small and educated section of the -society. But this other literature (the kind now called folk-lore, the -literature of the people) deals with men greater than they are--with -demigods and heroes--and that is far too important a matter to be -trusted to the educated classes. The fashioning of these portents is a -popular trade, like ploughing or bricklaying; the men who made bridges, -the men who made ditches, were the men who made deities. Men could not -elect their kings, but they could elect their gods. So we find ourselves -faced with a fundamental contrast between what is called fiction and -what is called folk-lore. The one exhibits an abnormal degree of -dexterity, operating within our daily limitations; the other exhibits -quite normal desires extended beyond those limitations. Fiction means -the common things as seen by the uncommon people. Fairy-tales mean the -uncommon things as seen by the common people. - -"As our world advances through history toward its present epoch, its -becomes more specialist, less democratic, and folk-lore turns gradually -into fiction. But it is only slowly that the old elfin fire fades into -the light of common realism. For ages after our characters have dressed -up in the clothes of mortals they betray the blood of the gods."[182] - -The charm and wisdom of folk-lore and fairy-tale are mostly due to the -commonness, in the best sense, of their subject, thought, and feeling. -They suit all times and places, and are immortal and timeless like -their heroes. When we attempt to reclothe them in modern form or -language to suit "private interpretation" their strength is departed -from them. - -Neolithic feeling, belief, ritual, religion; its music, art, and -literature; its customs, institutions, morals, ways, and life--all these -sprang from the life and experience of the tribe or community. They were -essentially growths in and from the mass of the people, usually owing -comparatively little to the genius of any individual inventor or -discoverer. We have called them Neolithic, but some or many of them were -old far back in Paleolithic time. Like the tree Ygdrasil their roots lay -hold on the foundations of the world. - -So deeply rooted a growth or culture is almost ineradicable, though it -has a marvellous adaptability and possibilities of growth and -modification. It could never have been destroyed by its own -Indo-European children, however rebellious. It must survive somewhere -though probably changed for the better. We have found reasons to doubt -whether Roman capacity for discipline and government, Roman laws and -institutions, were predominantly of Indo-European origin. We were still -more doubtful whether the glory of Teutonic or Scandinavian history is -due to its being Indo-European, or whether it was the result of a -continuous, unbroken development from Neolithic times. If ever any -culture seems largely native and indigenous, responsive to outside -influences but always retaining its independent self-determination and -power of selection and choice as to what and how far it will assimilate, -that culture is to be found in northern Germany and Scandinavia. - -We have seen the fate of Olympian religion and Achaean thought in Greece. -The Achaeans were a small minority completely outnumbered by an -exceedingly conservative native population. They were absorbed and -became a part of the Greek people, and their contribution must not be -underestimated. We have noted the marvellous vitality of the old -Neolithic thought, its re-emergence, its influence on Greek philosophy. -We remember that the great seat of progress was not in Dorian Sparta but -in "Pelasgic Athens," almost unknown to Homer. - -The Celt was, if anything, a better "mixer" and more adaptable than even -the Achaean. His prejudices and zeal in regard to morals and religion -seem not to have been deep or strong. The Celts were finally absorbed, -affecting the temper of the people far more than their daily life. - -Through all these revolutions, as well as those which were to follow, -family and neighborhood retained their compact unity, perhaps with all -its mutual attractions strengthened by the pressure of the conquerors. -They were still the controlling influence in the life and education of -the individual, as they probably remain to this day. The power of these -smaller communities may have waxed, as tribal control waned. What they -had lost in the mutual support within the tribe they made good by -leaning more closely on their neighbors. - -This solidarity makes the common people very stiff-necked, in an -excellent sense of the word. Like the Neolithic folk of Scandinavia, -they select and accept from their more cultured neighbors only that -which they can assimilate to the stores of experience and instincts -which they already possess. The fickleness, of which they are often -accused, is characteristic of a very different class or stratum of the -population, and of far later origin and development. Their own -development is naturally slow, gradual, and continuous. - -We have ventured the opinion that the essentials of Neolithic culture -survived the conquests of the Indo-Europeans in a but slightly modified -form. If this is granted, we have every reason to think that the effects -of all succeeding invasions and conquests, changes of dynasties and -governments, international or national policies, internal legislation -and reforms, have been even more temporary, slight, and superficial. -Modern revolutions have been more and more uprisings of the people -asserting the inalienable rights and privileges of their dignity as men. -The trend of popular life and feeling has resembled the flow of a river -or the incoming of the tide. It turns or winds as it meets obstacles in -its path, but keeps in the main to a fairly clear course and direction. -The people may not be against the government, they merely go their way -regardless of it. But we must not trespass on the field of the -historian. - -During the Neolithic period everybody, except perhaps certain priests -and elders, belonged to the common people. But accumulation of wealth, -the rise of leaders, the conquest of new lands developed a distinct -aristocracy of birth, wealth, prowess, leadership, and genius. The -common people of to-day, whom, as Mr. Lincoln said, "God must have loved -or he never would have made so many of them," seem to be the whole -population minus the uncommon aristocracy. It is not easy to see just -where we ought to draw the line between mass and class. - -All the virtues, brains, and possibilities of progress can hardly be -confined to this upper stratum. Can we define or describe our common -people? They are a very mixed multitude. There is probably more -individual variety than among the conventional refined and cultured, and -this makes them more original and interesting. Hence any composite -picture is usually a blur; a definite picture of any group or part would -be partial and one-sided, very possibly a caricature of the whole. We -dare not try to offer one. - -Men and women like Mr. Robert Woods, of Boston, and Miss Jane Addams, of -Chicago, have set themselves patiently, persistently, sympathetically, -respectfully, and wisely to study and help these people. They can and -will describe them, if we will listen. Their faith in the people seems -to be deep and strong. - -We all recognize that in times of trial and emergency, when great -testing moral issues are at stake, the people are practically unanimous -in recognizing and supporting the cause of justice and right, unless -befogged, divided, or misled by statesmen. Their taste for right ends -is keen and reliable. Their feelings ring true, and they act -accordingly, whatever the cost. - -They are not inarticulate, though their speech is often interjectory. -They are only beginning to produce a large number of spokesmen. Now and -then their demands are voiced by a prophet, asserting that what Jehovah -demands is "to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy -God"; or the prophecy is sung by a poet, like Burns. They may sometimes -or often be misled; but if their heart and feeling is not healthy we may -well despair of the republic. - -But the true prophet is very rarely a statesman. His feeling and taste -for ends is marvellously good. Here his word, like the feeling of the -people from whom he sprang, is almost infallible. But the choice of -means and policy, the selection of the next step toward the attainment -of the end, is the real business of the statesman. - -The _elite_ of wealth, learning, and culture to-day have generally given -up the search for ends in life. The old question: "What is man's chief -end?" sounds archaic. We are doubtful as to the existence or -desirability of such a thing. We are, in the language of the broker, -very "long" on means, but terribly "short" on ends, for which there is -no market. Some day we shall again find a place for end and purpose in -our philosophy and science, as in the systems of Paul, Plato, and -especially of Aristotle, with his "passion for the obvious," but at -present these thinkers are back numbers. Yet we must have ends of life -beyond mere survival, comfort, or luxury, and getting a living. Some -scale of values, not solely and purely mercantile, would also be useful. - -If the aristocracy of wealth, learning, and culture can provide us no -adequate system of ends and values in life, would it not be well for us -to borrow temporarily a few from the people? Might we not to good -advantage even go into partnership with them, cordially accepting their -ends, and loyally and honestly attempting to find the means of attaining -them? The result might be a solidarity of thought, feeling, action, and -final attainment superior even to those of our Neolithic ancestors. - -You may possibly say: "We in America are already living under a -democratic form of government--'of the people, by the people, and for the -people.'" Is this the statement of an accomplished fact or the -definition of a dim, far-off event toward which we hope we are moving? - -How far did the framers of our Constitution desire or intend that the -will of the people should govern? Was the method of choosing and -electing the President of the United States, as originally devised, -intended to make that election popular or not? We have changed that. Did -they intend that the Senate of the United States should be a means of -carrying out the will of the people, or rather that it should defer or -check its becoming the law of the land? Does our governmental action -to-day represent the will of the people? Is it truly representative? - -Perhaps our ancestors were wise in their caution. Perhaps a change has -become advisable. We are asking how far government changes or modifies -the people; how far governmental action, change of President or -controlling party, their legislation and policies, affect the deeper -currents of character and life. The people seem to me to be still -continuing to go their own way and to follow quietly but firmly their -own line of development, largely regardless of the votes of national -Congress or State legislature, perhaps sometimes with a slight sigh of -relief at their adjournment. It may be best that it is so. The -independence and continuity of popular development is still maintained -to-day as throughout prehistoric times. - -How far do our vast accumulations of learning and discovery, our deep -or superficial systems of philosophy, our splendid or decadent _fin de -siecle_ art and literature reach and affect these people? Their chief -characteristic is an attempt at distinction, an artificial uncommonness, -a self-consciousness entirely foreign to the thinker of the common mind. - -The institution which has the widest and deepest influence on their -feeling, thought, and life is the church. They generally love it, for -they are "incurably religious." It is conservative in the best sense of -the word. It represents, of course imperfectly, the feelings, -aspirations, and hopes of all men everywhere in all ages--in one word, of -humanity. It stands for the worth, dignity, and brotherhood of man, and -the fatherhood of God. It is almost alone to-day in recognizing that -there are ends in life. It offers a way of progress and a reasonable -ground of hope in a somewhat weary age inclined to indulge in criticism, -fault-finding, and pessimism. The fact that it is generally roundly -abused for its defects, mistakes, and sins of omission, for its -inability to accomplish the impossible, is a sign of the great hope and -confidence which we have rightly reposed in it. - -The discordant chorus of mutually destructive criticisms arising from -the cultured and intellectual classes seems to show that it is -following fairly well a straight, right, and wise course, as Mr. Lincoln -is said to have suggested concerning his own experience, plans, and -leadership in a similar situation. "Wisdom is justified of her -children," but the families of the elect are small. That the church does -not conform to all the theories--not to say vagaries and fads--of to-day -is no discredit. Most of them will be very unfashionable to-morrow. "The -fashion of this age passeth away." - -The existence of our nation evidently depends far more upon the -fundamental and essential, nay obvious, old and common human virtues of -very common people than upon our art and learning, the shrewdness of our -politicians and profiteers, the amount of our wealth and exports, our -inventions or luxuries, the winning of an election, or the defeat of any -party. In one word, which we have already repeated _ad nauseam_, our -chief business to-day is to continue the line of development clearly -marked out by our benighted ancestors of prehistoric days--to exercise, -develop, and strengthen the best instincts and feelings crystallized out -of millennia of experience; to see to it that they are expressed in the -law and practices of the land and commonwealth; and that they are not -smothered under a mass of inventions of yesterday and of conventions of -to-day. The fact that all this is entirely obvious should not conceal -its importance. - -The old message comes to us: "If thou altogether holdest thy peace at -this time, then shall there enlargement and deliverance arise from -another place; but thou and thy father's house shall be destroyed; and -who knoweth whether thou art come to the kingdom for such a time as -this?" - -In the northern ocean we see icebergs moving slowly southward. They are -not driven by the winds which to-day are blowing against their broad -fronts. The most conspicuous feature of our field of vision is the white -foam capping the waves. To-morrow it will be blown away, evaporate, and -disappear in the shifting winds which have tossed it into view. The berg -is carried by the great polar current, silent, inconspicuous, -irresistible, unchanging in its course, guided by still deeper and more -ancient and permanent cosmic forces. - -We know something about oceanic currents. Of the current of the -evolution of life we know almost nothing; but hope that our theories are -no more inadequate than the feelings of our Neolithic ancestors. -Certainly the current has not yet been charted. We catch glimpses of the -direction of its sweep. Over what stormy and dangerous seas and to what -undiscovered island or continent it is carrying us we do not know. It -seems to set toward fairer climes beyond our vision. We set sail -millions of years ago; we shall not arrive to-morrow. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -A FEW SUGGESTIONS - -The first series of books referred to in the following lists (A-O) are -general, and every one covers a large field. The works of Dechelette and -Hoernes (A and B) contain a very rich bibliography down to 1907 or 1908. -They should be carefully studied first of all; afterward the remainder -of the list. I have omitted from the following list many excellent -articles to which they refer. This list will satisfy the needs of the -ordinary reader. - -The second list (1-378) contains references to articles or books on -special subjects which I have been obliged to treat very briefly in this -small book. These will introduce the reader to other writers on the same -subject. He is urged to make his own bibliography, and will find that he -has started on an endless chain of most fascinating research, for which -I hope he may form an insatiable appetite. - -The following list of abbreviations and corresponding complete titles -may save the reader some inconvenience. In this connection he may well -consult the Introduction to Dechelette's _Manuel_ (A) I, pp. xv-xix. - - - _Amer. Nat._ _American Naturalist._ - _Amer. Anth._ _American Anthropologist._ - _Sci. Mo._ _Science Monthly._ (Continuation of - _Popular Science Monthly_.) - _A. f. A. (Arch. f. Anth.)_ _Archiv fuer Anthropologie._ - _Zts. f. Eth._ _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie._ - _L'Anth._ _L'Anthropologie._ - _R. E. A._ _Revue d'ecole d'Anthropologie_, Paris. - _Rev. Arch._ _Revue Archeologique._ - _Korr.-bl. d. d. Ges._ _Korrespondenz-blatt der deutschen_ - _Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie._ - _Cong. Int._ _Congres international d'Anthropologie_ - _et d'Archeologie._ - - -GENERAL - - A. Dechelette, J. _Manuel d'Archeologie Prehistorique._ Paris, - 1908. 3 vols. Vol. I. _Archeologie Prehistorique._ - - B. Hoernes, M. _Natur-und Urgeschichte des Menschen._ Vienna, - 1909. 2 vols. - - C. ---- _Urgeschichte des Menschen_, Vienna, 1892. - - D. Obermaier, H. _Der Mensch aller Zeiten._ Berlin, 1911-12. - Vol. I. _Der Mensch der Vorzeit._ - - E. Forrer, R. _Urgeschichte des Europaeers._ Stuttgart, 1908. - - F. ---- _Reallexikon der praehistorischen, klassichen und - fruehchristlichen Alterthuemer._ Stuttgart, 1907-08. - - G. Mueller, S. _Nordische Aelterthumskunde_ (trans. Jiriczek). - Strassburg, 1897. Vol. I. Steinzeit-Bronzezeit. - - H. ---- _Urgeschichte Europas_ (trans. Jiriczek). Strassburg, - 1905. - - I. ---- _L'Europe prehistorique_ (trans. Philipot). Paris, 1907. - - J. Montelius, O. _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens._ Leipsic, 1906. - - K. ---- _Les Temps prehistoriques en Suede_ (trans. Reinach). - Paris, 1895. - - L. Avebury, Lord (Sir John Lubbock). _Prehistoric Times._ New - York, 1913. - - M. Elliot, G. F. S. _Prehistoric Man and His Story._ London, - 1915. - - N. Schwantes, G. _Aus Deutschland's Urzeit._ Leipsic, 1913. - - O. Wundt, W. _Elements of Folk Psychology_ (trans. Schaub, - E. L.). London, 1915. - - -CHAPTER I--THE COMING OF MAN - - 1. Lull, R. S. _Organic Evolution._ New York, 1917. - - 2. Wilder, H. H. _History of the Human Body._ New York, 1909. - - 3. Cope, E. D. _Primary Factors of Evolution._ Chicago, 1895, - p. 150. - - 5. Osborn, H. F. _Age of Mammals._ New York, 1910. - - 6. Loomis, F. B. "Adaptation of Primates," _Amer. Nat._, XLV, - 1911, 479. - - 7. Gregory, W. K. "Studies in the Evolution of Primates," - _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._, XXV, 1916, Art. XIX, 239. - - 8. Barrell, J. "Probable Relations of Climatic Changes to - Origin of Tertiary Ape-Man," _Sci. Mo._, N. S., IV, 1917, 16. - - 9. Matthew, W. D. "Climate and Evolution," _Ann. N. Y. Acad. - Sci._, XXIV, 1915, 170. - - 10. Pilgrim, G. E. "New Siwalik Primates," _Records of Geol. - Survey of India_, XLIII, 1913, Part IV, 264. - - 11. Chamberlain, T. C., and Salisbury, R. D. _Geology._ New - York, 1904, Vol. III, 534. - - 12. Lydekker, L. K. _Geographical History of Mammals._ - Cambridge, 1896, 201, 265, 288, 334. - - 13. Pirsson, L. V., and Schuchert, C. _Text-Book of Geology._ - New York, 1915, Part II, 925, 948, 964, 976. - - 14. Smith, G. E. _Presidential Address_, Brit. Assoc. Adv. - Sci. Dundee, 1912, 575. - - 15. Heinemann, T. W. _Physical Basis of Civilization._ - Chicago, 1908. - - 16. Fiske, J. _Destiny of Man._ Boston, 1884. - - 17. Drummond, H. _Ascent of Man._ New York, 1894. - - 18. Kropotkin, P. A. _Mutual Aid a Factor in Evolution._ New - York, 1903. - - 19. Jones, F. W. _Arboreal Man._ New York and London, 1916. - - PITHECANTHROPUS - - See A, I, 273; B, I, 181; D, I, 370; 40, 73. - - 24. Du Bois, E. _Smithson. Report_, 1897-98, 445. - - 25. Berry, E. W. "Environment of Ape-Man," _Sci. Mo._, N. S., - III, 1906, 161. - - 26. Keith, A. _Ancient Types of Man._ New York, 1911. - - PRIMITIVE HUMAN MIGRATIONS - - 30. Keane, A. H. _Ethnology._ Cambridge, 1901. - - 31. Deniker, J. _Races of Man._ London, 1900. - - 32. Haddon, A. C. _The Wanderings of Peoples._ Cambridge, - 1911. - - 33. ---- _Races of Man and Their Distribution._ New York, 1910. - - MAN'S ARRIVAL IN EUROPE - - 40. Osborn, H. F. _Men of the Old Stone Age._ New York, 1915. - - 41. Ranke, J. _Der Mensch._ Leipsic, 1900. - - 42. Geikie, J. _Antiquity of Man in Europe._ Edinburgh, 1914. - - 43. ---- _The Great Ice Age._ 3d ed. London, 1894. - - 44. Reinhardt, L. _Der Mensch zur Eiszeit in Europa._ Munich, - 1906. - - 45. Geikie, J. "Tundras and Steppes of Prehistoric Europe," - _Smithson. Report_, 1897-98, 321. - - 46. Nehring, A. _Tundren u. Steppen der Jetzt-und Vor-zeit._ - Berlin, 1890. - - 47. Schoeetensack, O. _Der Unterkiefer des "Homo - Heidelbergensis."_ Leipsic, 1908. - - 48. MacCurdy, G. G. "The Eolith Problem," _Amer. Anth._, N. - S., VII, 1905, 425. - - 49. Sollas, W. J. _Ancient Hunters._ 2d ed. London, 1915. - - 60. Hoops, J. _Waldbaeume und Kulturpflanzen, im german. - Alterthum._ Strassburg, 1905. - - Danish Shell-heaps. See D, 465-476; G, I, 4; L, 226. - - 61. Steenstrup, J. _Arch. f. Anth._, XIX, 1891, 361. - - 62. Sarauw, F. C. "Maglemose," _Praehist. Zeits._, III, 1911, - 52; VI, 1914, 1. - - 63. Virchow, R. "Rinnekalns," _Korresp.-blatt. der deutschen - Ges. f. Anthrop._, XXVIII, 1897, 147. - - 64. Ebert, M. "Die baltischen Provinzen," _Praehist. Zeits._, - V, 1913, 498; Mugem, C, 232. - - 65. Cartailhac, E. _Ages prehistoriques de l'Espagne et du - Portugal_, p. 48. - - 66. Munro, R. _Palaeolithic Man and Terramara Settlements in - Europe._ New York, 1912. - - 67. Morlot, A. _Societe Vandoise des Sci. Nat._, VI, No. 46. - "Etudes geologico-archeologiques." (Shell-heaps and - Lake-dwellings.) Lausanne, 1860. - - - CHAPTER III--LAND HABITATIONS - - CAVE-DWELLINGS - - B, 31; C, 258; E, 120, 139. - - 75. Dawkins, W. B. _Cave Hunting._ London, 1874. - - 76. Fraipont, J. _Les Cavernes et leurs Habitants._ Paris, - 1896. - - HUTS AND VILLAGES - - B, 51, 65, 84. - - 80. Montelius, O. "Zur aeltesten Geschichte des Wohnhauses in - Europa," _Arch. f. Anth._, XXIII, 1895, 451. Cf. H, 25, 68; J, - 15. - - 81. Schliz, A. "Der Bau vorgeschichtlicher Wohnanlagen," - _Mitt. d. Anth. Ges. Wien_, 1903, 301. - - 82. Castelfranco, P. "Les Fonds des Cabanes," _Rev. d'Anth._, - XVI, 1887, 182. Cf. A, 347, 350; E, 139. - - 83. Schliz, A. _Das steinzeitliche Dorf Grosgartach._ - Stuttgart, 1901. Rev. Virchow, R., _Arch. f. Anth._, XXVII, - 1892, 435. Rev. Reinach, S., _L'Anth._, XII, 1901, 704. - - 84. Possler, W. "Die Abarten des Altsaechsischen Bauernhauses," - _Arch. f. Anth._, XXXVI, 1909, 157. - - 85. Mielke, R. "Entwickelungsgeschichte der saechsischen - Hausform," _Zts. f. Eth._, XXXV, 1903, 509. - - - CHAPTER IV--LAKE-DWELLINGS - - 90. Munro, R. _Lake Dwellings of Europe._ London, 1890. Full - Bibliography until 1890. See also L, 180; A, 363; E, 158; B, - 98; C, 234; D, 515. - - 91. Keller, F. _Lake Dwellings of Switzerland._ 2d ed. London, - 1878. - - 92. Troyon, F. _Habitations lacustres du Lac de Neuchatel._ - Paris, 1865. - - 93. Gross, V. _Les Protohelveites._ Paris, 1883. - - 94. Schuhmacher. _Arch. f. Anth._, N. F., VII, 1903, 254. - - 95. Heierlei, J. _Urgeschichte der Schweiz._ Zurich, 1901. - - 96. Schenk, A. _La Suisse Prehistorique._ Lausanne, 1912. - - 97. Boelsche, W. _Mensch der Pfahlbauzeit._ 8th ed. Stuttgart, - 1911. - - 98. Heer, O. _Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten_, 1886. See 91, I, - 518. Cf. 60. - - - CHAPTER V--A GLANCE EASTWARD - - 110. Pumpelly, R. _Explorations in Turkestan_, Carnegie Inst. - Pub., Washington, No. 73, 1904, 2 vols., vol. I, p. 50, chaps. - I, III, V. - - 111. Rev. by Schmidt, H. _Praehist. Zeits._, I, 1909-10, 413. - - 112. Capitan, L. "L'Histoire d'Elam," _Rev. d'ec. d'Anth._, - XII, 1902, 187. - - 113. Duessaud, R. "Anciennes Civilisations orientales," _Rev. - d'ec. d'Anth._, XVII, 1907, 97. - - 114. Schrader, Fr. "Questions d'Orient," _Rev. d'ec. d'Anth._, - XVIII, 1908, 267; XX, 1910, 73. - - 115. Delitzsch, F. _Rep. Smithson. Inst._, 1900, 535. - - 116. Morgan, J. de. _Premieres Civilisations._ Paris, 1909. - - 117. _Memoires de la Delegation en Perse, I_, 1900, 181-190 - (Susa). - - 118. _Memoires de la Delegation en Perse I_ (Tepeh Moussian), - VIII, 1906. Cf. B, II, 168. - - 119. Morgan, J. de. "Les Ages de la Pierre dans l'Asie - mineure," _Bull. Soc. d'Anth._ Paris, Ser. V, III, 1902, 708. - - 121. King, L. W. _History of Babylonia and Assyria_, Part I. - New York, 1910. - - 122. Sayce, A. H. _Archaeology of Cuneiform Inscriptions._ - London, 1907, 67-100. - - 123. Hall, H. R. "Discoveries in Crete, and Their Relations to - Palestine and Egypt," _Proc. Soc. Bib. Arch._, XXXI, 1909, - 311. - - 124. Myres, J. L. _Dawn of History._ New York, 1911, 121, 202. - - 125. Breasted, J. H. _Ancient Times._ New York, 1914, 100. - - ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE AND CATTLE-RAISING - - See B, I, 535-591; M, chaps. XII, XIII. - - 135. Reinhardt, L. _Die Erde und die Kultur._ Munich, 1912(?). - a. Vol. I, _Die Erde und ihr Wirthschaftsleben._ - b. Vol. II, _Kulturgeschichte des Menschen._ - c. Vol. III, _Kulturgeschichte der Nutzthiere._ - d. Vol. IV, _Kulturgeschichte der Pflanzen._ - - 136. _La Grande Encycl._, Art. "Agriculture." - - 137. Hehn, V. _Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere._ Berlin, 1911. - - 138. Mason, O. T. _Woman's Share in Primitive Culture._ New - York, 1907, 146, chap. II. - - 139. Buschan, G. "Heimat und Alter der europaeischen - Kulturpflanzen," _Korr.-bl. d. d. Ges._, XVIII, 1889, 128. - - 140. Roth. "Origin of Agriculture," _Journ. Anth. Inst._, XVI, - 102. - - 141. Zaborowski, M. S. "Le Ble en Asie et en Europe," _Rev. - d'ec. d'Anth._, XVI, 1906, 359. - - 142. Much, M. "Vorgeschichtliche Naehr-und Nutz-Pflanzen in - Europa," _Mitt. Anth. Ges. Wien_, XXXVIII, 1908, 195 ff. - Favors European origins. - - - CHAPTER VI--MEGALITHS - - See A, I, chap. III; B, II, 440; D, 500; G, chap. V; J, 43; L, - chap. V. - - 150. Peet, T. E. _Rude Stone Monuments and Their Builders._ - New York, 1912. - - 151. Windle, B. C. A. _Remains of Prehistoric Age in England._ - London, 1904. - - 152. Krause, E., und Schoetensack, O. "Die megalithischen - Graeber Deutschlands," _Zts. f. Eth._, XXV, 1893, 105. - - 153. Lienau, M. M. "Megalithgraeber u. sonstige Grabformen der - Lueneburger Gegend," _Mannusbib._, XIII, 1914. - - 154. Montelius, O. _Orient und Europa._ Stockholm, 1899. - - 155. Wilke, G. "Sudwesteurop. Megalithkultur," _Mannusbib._ - VII. - - 156. Hermet (Abbe), "Statues-Menhirs," _L'Anth._, XII, 1901, - 595. - - 157. Cartailhac, E. _La France Prehistorique._ Paris, 1889. - - DISPOSAL OF DEAD - - 164. Helm, K. _Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte_. - Heidelberg, 1913, 132, Bib. - - 165. Schliz, A. "Steinzeitliche Bestattungsformen in - Suedwestdeutschland," _Korr.-bl. d. d. Ges._, XXXII, 1901, 60. - - 166. Andree, R. "Hockerbestattung und Ethnologie," _A. f. A._, - XXXIV, 1907, 282, 303. - - 167. Schoetensack, O. "Bedeutung der Hockerbestattung," _Zts. - f. Eth._, XXXII, 1901, 522. - - 168. Goetze, A. "Ueber Hockergraeber," _Korr.-bl. d. d. Ges._, - 1899, 321. - - 169. Olshausen, O. "Leichenverbrennung," _Zts. f. Eth._, 1892, - 129. - - 170. Seger, H. "Entstehung der Leichenverbrennung," _Korr.-bl. - d. d. Ges._, XLI, 1910, 115. - - - CHAPTER VII--NEOLITHIC INDUSTRIES - - 179. Veblen, T. _The Instinct of Workmanship._ New York, 1914. - Clothing. G, I, 268; J, 19; 90, F. - Ornaments. B, II, 328; A, II, 570. - Implements. A, 513; B, II, 168; D, 472, 478; E, 178; F, Art. - "Axt"; G, 22; 46, 133; J, 24. - Salt. B, II, 23, 89; F, Art. "Salz"; N, 114. - Gold. A, 627; B, II, 207; C, 320. - Copper. A, II; B, II, 546; D, 494, 499, 545; E, 278. - - 180. Much, _M. Die Kupferzeit in Europa._ 2 Auf. Jena, 1893. - - 181. Hampel, J. "Neue Studien ueber die Kupferzeit," _Zts. f. - Eth._, XXVIII, 1896, 57. - - 182. Montelius, O. "Die Chronologie der aeltesten Bronzezeit," - _Arch. f. Anth._, XXV, 443; XXVI. - Ships, rock-carvings of. J, 126; C, 389; G, 466; E, 347. - Nephrite and Jadeite. A, I, 519, 573; B, II, 504; D, 510; 95, - 116; 96, Index. - - 185. Mehlis, C. "Exotische Steinbeile der neol. Zeit," _Arch. - f. Anth._, XXVII, 1902, 519. - - 186. Peet, T. E. _Stone and Bronze Ages of Italy._ Oxford, - 1909. - Amber. A, 623; B, I, 513; II, 345, 353; D, 556; G, I, 52. - Trade. B, II, 466-529; A, I, 619; 228; 154. - Pottery. A, 547; D, 481; 116, 195-207; F, Art. "Gefaesse," 95, - 184. - - 190. Hoernes, M. "Die neol. Keramik in Oestreich," _Zts. f. - Eth._, 1903, 438. - - 191. Smith, R. A. "Development of Neolithic Pottery," - _Archaeologia_, LXII, 340. - - 192. Meyer, E. _Geschichte des Alterthums_, II, 824. 2d ed. - Stuttgart, 1909. - - 193. Schuchhardt, C. "Das technische Element in den Anfaengen - der Kunst," _Praehist. Zeits._, I, 37. - - 194. Verworn, M. _Kulturkreis der Bandkeramik._ II, 145. - - 195. Reche, O. "Zur Anthropologie der juengeren Steinzeit in - Boehmen," _Arch. f. Anth._, XXXV, 1908, 220. - - 196. Seger, H. "Steinzeit in Schlesien," _Arch. f. Anth._, N. - F. V., 1906. - - 197. Goetze, A. "Neolithische Kugelamphoren," _Zts. f. Eth._, - XXXII, 154, 1900. - - 198. ---- "Eintheilung der neol. Periode in Mitteleuropa," - _Korr.-bl. d. d. Ges._, XXXI, 1900, 133. - - 199. Schuchhardt, C. "Neol. Haeuser bei Lissdorf," _Zts. f. - Eth._, XLIII, 1911, 998. - - 200. Wosinsky, M. _Die inkrustierte Keramik._ Berlin, 1904. - - 201. Closmadeuc, G. de. "La Ceramique dans les Dolmens de - Morbihan," _Rev. Arch._, I, 257. - - 202. Schmidt, H. "Vorgeschichte Spaniens," _Zts. f. Eth._, - XLV, 238, 1913. - - 203. Volkow, Th. "L'Industrie premycenienne des Stations - neolithiques de l'Ukraine," _L'Anth._, XIII, 1902, 57. - - 204. Zaborowski, M. S. "Industrie Egeenne sur le Dnieper et le - Dniester," _Bull. Soc. Anth._, Paris, 1900, 481. - - - CHAPTER VIII--NEOLITHIC CHRONOLOGY - - 214. Menzel, H. "Geologische Entwickelungsgeschichte der - aelteren Postglacialzeit," _Zts. f. Eth._, XLVI, 1914, 206-240. - - 215. Montelius, O. "Chronologie der juengeren Steinzeit in - Skandinavien," _Korr.-bl. d. d. Ges._, XXII, 1891, 99-105. - - 216. ---- "Chronologie der aeltesten Bronzezeit," _Arch. f. Anth._, - XXVI, 1899, 905. - - 217. ---- "Preclassical Chronology of Greece and Italy," _Journ. - Anth. Inst._, 1897. - - 218. ---- "Chronologie prehistorique," _Cong. Int. d'Anth. et - d'Arch._, XII, 339. Cf. Mueller, S. Ibid., X. Paris, 228. - - 219. Scheitelig, H. "Vorgeschichte Norwegens," _Mannus._, III, - 1911, 29. - - 220. Kossina, G. "Urfinnen und Urgermanen," _Mannus._, I, 17. - - 221. Worsaae, J. J. A. "Arctic Cultures," _Cong. Int. d'Anth. - et d'Arch._ Stockholm, VII, 1874, 208. Also, J, 63; M, 317 and - _Bib._, 323. - - 222. Types of Axe, G, I, 48; B, II, 184; A, I, 334; F, Art - "Aexte." Cf. also "Zeitalter." - - 223. Montelius, O. "Les differents Types des Haches," _Cong. - Int. d'Anth. et d'Arch._ Stockholm, VII, I, 238. - - 226. Schmidt, R. R. "Die Grundlagen fuer die Diluviale - Chronologie u. Palaeethnologie Westeuropas," _Zts. f. Eth._, - XLIII, 1911, 945. Cf. _Korr.-bl. d. d. Ges._, XLI, 1910. - - 227. Holst. "Commencement et Fin de la Periode Glacieuse," - _L'Anth._, XXIV, 1913, 353. - - 228. Wilke, G. "Kulturbeziehungen zwischen Indien, Orient und - Europa," _Mannusbibliothek_, X, 1913. - - 229. Schmidt, H. "Troja, Mykene, Ungarn," _Zts. f. Eth._, - XXXVI, 1904, 608, 645. - - 230. Anthes, E. "Alte und neue steinzeitliche Funde aus - Hessen," _Praehist. Zeits._, II, 1910, 60. - - - CHAPTER IX--NEOLITHIC PEOPLES AND THEIR MIGRATIONS - - ATLASES - - 240. Bartholemew, J. G. _Advanced Atlas of Physical and - Political Geography._ London, 1917. - - 241. ---- _International Student's Atlas_. London,----? - - 242. See 40, 489; 457 and 278, 261, 300, 500; B, I, 241, - 268-360; _Bib._ E, 256; J, 57; M, chaps. X-XIV, 211; _Bib._ - 49, 435. - - 243. Breuil, L'Abbe, H. "Les Subdivisions du Paleolithique - superieur et leur Signification," _Cong. Int. d'Anth. et - d'Arch_. Session XIV, Geneve, 1912, 165. - - 244. Sergi, G. _The Mediterranean Race_, London, 1901, chaps. - II, X, 40. - - 245. Myres, J. L. Essay II, 51-54, in Marvin, F. S. _The Unity - of Western Civilization._ - - 246. Ripley, W. L. _The Races of Europe._ New York, 1899. - - 247. Deniker, J. "Les Races Europeennes," _Journ. Anth. - Inst._, XXIV. - - 248. ---- "Les six Races composant la Population de l'Europe," - _ibid._ - - 250. Schliz, A. "Vorgeschichtliche Schaedeltypen deutschen - Laender," _Arch. f. Anth._, XXXVI (N. F. IX), 1910, 239. Cf. B, - II, 101. - - 251. ---- "Beitraege zur praehistorischen Ethnologie," _Praehist. - Zeits._, IV, 1912, 36. - - 252. ---- "Bedeutung der somatischen Anthropologie," _Korr.-bl. d. - d. Ges._, XL, 1909, 66. - - 253. ---- "Vorstufen der Nordisch-europaeischen Schaedelbildung," - _Arch. f. Anth._, XLI, 1914, 169. - - 254. ---- "Der schnurkeramische Kulturkreis," _Zts. f. Eth._, - XXXVIII, 1906, 312. - - 260. Reche, O. "Zur Anthropologie der juengeren Steinzeit in - Schlesien und Boehmen," _Arch. f. Anth._, 1908. - - 261. See 351. - - 262. Klassen, K. _Die Voelker, Europas zur juengeren Steinzeit._ - Stuttgart, 1912, Bib. - - 263. Fleure, H. J. _Human Geography in Western Europe._ - London, 1918. - - 264. Montelius, O. "Die Einwanderung unserer Vorfahrer im - Norden," _Arch. f. Anth._, XVII, 151. - - 265. ---- "Sur les Tombeaux et la Topographie de la Suede pendant - l'age de pierre," _Cong. Int. d'Anth. et d'Arch._, Session - VII, Stockholm, I, 74. - - 266. Virchow, R. "Altnordische Schaedel zu Kopenhagen," _Arch. - f. Anth._, 1870. - - ---- "Die aeltesten Einwohner von Nordeuropa," _Arch. f. Anth._, - XXV, 1898, 88. - - 267. Arbo, C. O. E. "Anthropo-ethnologie des - Suedwestnorwegens," _Arch. f. Anth._, XXXI, 1905, 313. - - 268. Herve, G. "L'Ethnographie des populations francaises," - _R. E. A._, VI, 1896, 97. - - 269. ---- "Les brachycephales neolithiques," _Rev. Ec. An._, IV, - 1894, 393; V, 1895, 18. - - 270. Hamy, E. T. "L'Anthropologie de Nord-France," _L'Anth._, - XIX, 1908, 46. - - 271. Bloch, A. "Origines des brachycephales en France," - _L'Anth._, XII, 1901, 541. - - 272. Luschan, F. von. "Beziehung zwischen der Alpinen - Bevoelkerung und den Vorderasiaten," _Korr.-bl. d. d. Ges._, - XLIV, 1915, 118. - - 272a. A, 482; B, 298-303; 246. - - 273. Studer, T. H., und Bannwarth, E. _Crania Helvetica - antiqua._ Leipsic, 1894. Reviewed R. E. A., IV, 1894, 410. - - 274. Herve, G. "Les populations lacustres," _R. E. A._, V, - 1895, 137. - - FOR EFFECTS OF GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT - - 275. Ratzel. _Anthropogeographie._ 3te Auf. Stuttgart, 1909. - - 276. Semple, E. _Influences of Geographical Environment._ New - York. - - 277. Demolins, E. _Les Francais d'Aujourd'hui._ Paris, 1898. - - 278. ---- _Les grandes Routes des Peuples._ Paris, 1901. - - - CHAPTER X--NEOLITHIC RELIGION - - 290. Huxley, T. H. _Science and Education_, Essays. New York, - 1897, p. 85. - - 291. ---- _Method and Results_, Essays. New York, 1901. Essay I, - p. 18. - - 292. Goethe, J. W. _Gedichte, Das Goettliche._ - - 293. Harrison, J. E. _Ancient Art and Ritual._ New York, 1913. - - 294. Smith, W. R. _Religion of the Semites._ Edinburgh, 1889. - Origin of Religion. See O, 75. - - 295. Durkeim, E. _Elementary Forms of the Religious Life_. - Trans. J. W. Swain, London, Bib. - - 296. Tylor, E. B. _Primitive Culture._ 4th ed. New York, 1903. - - 297. ---- _Anthropology._ New York, 1916. - - 298. Frazer, J. G. _The Golden Bough._ 3d ed. London, 1914, - Bib. - - 299. Mueller, F. M. _Origin and Growth of Religion._ New York, - 1879. - - 300. Bagehot, W. _Physics and Politics._ New York and London. - - 301. Montgomery, J. E. (Editor). _Religions of the Past and - Present._ Philadelphia, 1918. Bib. - - 302. Lang, A. Myth, _Ritual and Religion._ London, 1901. - - 307. Murray, G. _Four Stages of Greek Religion._ New York, - 1912. - - 308. Harrison, J. E. _Themis._ Cambridge, 1912. - - 309. ---- _Prolegomena to Greek Religion. Cambridge, 1903._ - - CULT OF GODDESS AND MOTHER-RIGHT - - O, Index "Maternal descent"; B, II, 584. - - 315. Farnell, L. R. _Greece and Babylon._ Edinburgh, 1911, - chap. V. - - 316. Dietrich, R. _Muttererde._ Berlin, 1905. - - 317. Frazer, J. G. _Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Studies in History - of Oriental Religion._ London, 1906. See Index, - "Mother-right." - - 318. Hartley, C. G. (Mrs. W. M. Gallichan). _The Position of - Woman in Primitive Society._ London, 1914. - - 319. Bennett, F. M. "Religious Cults Associated with Amazons," - _Col. Univ. Press._ New York, 1912. - - 320. Reinach, S. "La Station neolithique," _Le Jablanica - l'Anth._, 1901, 333. - - 321. Smith, W. R. _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia._ - Cambridge, 1885. - - 322. Mannhard, W. _Wald-und Feld-kulte._ 2d ed. Berlin, 1905. - - 323. Helms, K. _Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte._ - Heidelberg, 1913, I. Cf. 179, 93. - - 325. Ellis, H. _Man and Woman_. London, 1894. Cf. 4th ed., - 1917. - - - CHAPTER XI--PROGRESS - - 335. Marvin, F. S., Editor. _Unity of Western Civilization._ - London, 1915. - - 336. ---- _Progress and History._ London, 1916. - - 337. ---- _The Living Past._ 2d ed. Oxford, 1915. - - 338. Murray, G. _Religio Grammatici._ Boston, 1918. - - - CHAPTER XII--THE COMING OF THE INDO-EUROPEANS - - 340. Mueller, F. Max. _Biographies of Words and Home of - Aryans._ London, 1888. - - 341. Meillet, A. _Les Langues dans l'Europe nouvelle._ Paris, - 1918. - - 342. ---- _Les Dialectes Indo-europeens._ Paris, 1908. - - 343. ---- _Introduction a l'Etude comparative des Langues - Indo-europeennes._ 4th ed. Paris, 1915. - - 346. Meyer, E. _Geschichte des Alterthums._ 2d ed. Stuttgart, - 1909. Vol. I, Pt. 2, p. 722. - - 347. Schrader, O. _Reallexikon der indogermanischen - Alter-thumskunde._ Strassburg, 1902. - - 348. ---- _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte._ 3d ed. Jena, - 1906. - - 349. ---- _Die Indogermanen._ Leipsic, 1911, 165 pp. - - ---- (Trans. Jevons, F. B.) _Prehistoric Antiquities of the - Aryan Peoples._ London, 1890. - - 350. Feist, S. Kultur. _Ausbreitung und Herkunft der - Indogermanen._ Berlin, 1913. - - 351. ---- _Europa im Lichte der Vorgeschichte._ Berlin, 1910. - - 352. Hirt, H. _Die Indogermanen_. 2 vols. Strassburg, 1905-07. - - 353. Kossina, G. "Die indogermanische Frage archaeologisch - beantwortet," _Zts. f. Eth._, XXXIV (1902), 161, N. B. Cf. - 220. - - 354. Much, M. _Heimat der Indogermanen._ 2d ed. Berlin, 1904. - - 355. Reinach, S. _Origine des Aryens._ Paris, 1892. - - 356. Wilser, L. _Die Germanen_. Leipsic, 1903. - - 357. ---- _Herkunft und Urgeschichte der Arier._ Heidelberg, 1899. - - 358. Zaborowski, Moindron S. "La Patrie originaire des Aryens," - _R. E. A._ Paris, XIII (1903), 253. - - 359. ---- _Les Peuples aryens d'Asie et d'Europe._ Paris, 1908. - - 360. Brunnhofer, G. H. _Arische Urzeit._ Bern, 1909. - - 361. Laponge, G. V. de. _L'Aryen, Son Role social._ Paris, 1899. - - 362. Hehn, V. _Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere._ 5th ed. Berlin, 1887. - - 363. Holmes, T. R. _Ancient Britain._ Oxford, 1907. Chap. III and - pp. 424-455. - - 364. Veblen, T. _Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution._ - New York, 1915. - - 365. Huntington, E. _The Pulse of Asia._ Boston, 1911. - - 366. ---- _Palestine and Its Transformations_. Boston, 1907. - - 367. ---- _World Power and Evolution._ New Haven, 1919. - - 375. Murray, G. _Euripides and His Age._ New York, 1913. - - 376. Chesterton, G. K. _Charles Dickens._ London, 1917. - - 377. Lang, A. _Custom and Myth._ New York, 1885. - - 378. Gummere, F. B. _The Beginnings of Poetry_. New York, 1901. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] 16, 17. - -[2] 1: 477; 671, chap. XXIX. - -[3] 18. - -[4] 19. - -[5] 5. - -[6] 6. - -[7] 8: 20 - -[8] 5: 58-60 - -[9] M: chap. V. - -[10] 1: 671. - -[11] 5: 321, 327, 275. - -[12] 7, 10. - -[13] 24-26. - -[14] 5: 373. - -[15] 40: 35. - -[16] 30: 228. - -[17] 40: chap, II. D: I, 17-110. - -[18] For maps showing extent of ice at different glacial epochs, see 41: -vol. II, p. 419. 42: end of volume. - -[19] See Charts, 40: 41-48. 5. Also 40: 45, 46; 412-427; 386. - -[20] 40: 95. 47. - -[21] D: I, 380-412. 48. - -[22] 40: 130, 244. - -[23] D: I, 113. - -[24] 40: 290, 316. - -[25] E: 110-117. - -[26] 40: 475-500. - -[27] D: 466, 476; 40: 281. - -[28] D: 466, 476; 40: 281. - -[29] C:225; 60. - -[30] 42: 270. - -[31] L: 235. - -[32] A: 329. - -[33] 63. - -[34] 40: 459; A: I, 314; D: 213. - -[35] 40: 465. - -[36] A: I, 326. - -[37] C: 258. - -[38] 76. - -[39] 40: 283. - -[40] B: 53. - -[41] E: 139. - -[42] G: 198; J: 15. - -[43] 83. - -[44] B. See Bibliography. - -[45] I: 368. - -[46] H: 68. - -[47] A: I, 351. - -[48] 42: 122; 60; 110: I, 6-13. - -[49] 97: 11, 19. - -[50] 95: 102. - -[51] 91: 475. - -[52] L: 190. - -[53] B: 251. - -[54] 91: 8. - -[55] 96: 366. - -[56] L: 199; 96: 265; D: 452; 97: 45-60. - -[57] 97: 47; 96: 289. - -[58] 135; C: 65 and 116. - -[59] 97. - -[60] Quoted in 135: chap. III, 116. - -[61] 91: 519; 141. - -[62] 91: 521. - -[63] 96: 295. - -[64] 95: 175. - -[65] L: 222; 91: 175-178, 338. - -[66] 91: 47. - -[67] 95: 135; 96: 189, 219, 191. - -[68] For a study of examples grouped according to epoch, see 96: p. -220-264. - -[69] 91: II, 432. - -[70] D: 527, 549. - -[71] 115: 535. - -[72] 110. - -[73] 110: Plate 5, opposite pp. 50, 67. - -[74] 111. Cf. 110: I, 48. - -[75] D: I, 545. - -[76] B: II, 242; D: 527. - -[77] 116-120. - -[78] B: II, 168. - -[79] 124: 121; 123; D: 526. - -[80] 116: 195 _ff._, 197 _Bib._ - -[81] 40: 281. - -[82] 139: chap. II, 146. - -[83] M: 217. - -[84] 125: 100, map. - -[85] O: 291. - -[86] L: chap. V. - -[87] A: I, 386. - -[88] G: cf. J: 43. - -[89] A: 421. - -[90] D: 503. - -[91] 110: I, 40. - -[92] B: II, 102. - -[93] A: I, 423. - -[94] B: 310. - -[95] G: I, 268; J: 90. - -[96] B: I, 398. - -[97] H: 20. - -[98] F: Article "Axt." - -[99] G: 30; E: 129. - -[100] E: Plate 60; A: 506; 96: 330. - -[101] B: 177. - -[102] Figs. 107a, 108. - -[103] A: 355, 629. - -[104] M: 347. - -[105] A: 627; B: 207. - -[106] 110: 50 (chart). - -[107] 124: 105. - -[108] B: II, 468; D: 511. - -[109] G: 60. - -[110] G: 16, 24. - -[111] B: II, 483. - -[112] G: 127. - -[113] H: 27. - -[114] 186: 168. - -[115] B: I, 513. - -[116] H: 49. - -[117] A: 547; D: 482. - -[118] 40: 279. - -[119] 40: 281. - -[120] D: 465; 49: 540. - -[121] 60. - -[122] 215-218. - -[123] B: II, 242. - -[124] E: 563. - -[125] D: I, 335. - -[126] 40: 281. - -[127] 49: 565. - -[128] 214. - -[129] C: 225. - -[130] 219-221. - -[131] 222, 223. - -[132] J: 65. - -[133] See D: 545. - -[134] 40: 281, 333, 361; D: 476, 41. - -[135] 40: 350, 361. - -[136] 110: I, 50. - -[137] 40: 281, 449. - -[138] See 214. Chart 219., cf. 210. - -[139] 240, 241. - -[140] 242. - -[141] 243. - -[142] 244: 39-43. - -[143] 245. - -[144] 40: 465. - -[145] 268-272 _a._ - -[146] 272. - -[147] B: I, 302. - -[148] 220. - -[149] 220. - -[150] 220. - -[151] B: I, 334-337, 307. - -[152] 246. - -[153] 250: 202, 206. - -[154] 250: 205. - -[155] 290: 85. - -[156] 292. - -[157] 293. - -[158] 294. - -[159] 309. - -[160] 307. - -[161] 315-319. - -[162] A: 594-603, 362. - -[163] B: II, 563. - -[164] 320. - -[165] 316. - -[166] 322. - -[167] 318, 321. - -[168] B: II, 585. - -[169] O: 173. - -[170] 308: 36. - -[171] 330. - -[172] H: 20. - -[173] 179: 122 _n._ - -[174] 260. - -[175] O: 111, 33. - -[176] A: 368. - -[177] 308. - -[178] I have selected for examination Professor Kossina's article, and -that not his latest, because it seems to furnish the strongest and -clearest brief statement of the theory of the Germanic origin of the -Indo-Europeans. Hirt's work and his references should also be consulted. -It is to be regretted that the judgment and work of some of the North -German prehistorians on this question are tinged by national prejudice. -We must make allowance for their omissions and remember that we have our -own pet prejudices. - -The dogma of the superiority of the dolichocephalic blond has been made -a cult by Mr. J. H. Chamberlin and other far less brilliant writers. It -has received little support in Scandinavia. The works of this school -should not be taken too seriously. - -[179] 375: 14. - -[180] O. - -[181] 293. - -[182] 376: 67; 377: 177; cf. 378. - - -INDEX - - Achaeans, 253, 281. - - Adaptation, extreme, 228. - - Agriculture, origin of, 101, 108; - and religion, 218. - - Amber, 148. - - Anau, 93, 100, 125. - - Ancylus Epoch, 37, 164, 169. - - Apes, 4, 12. - - Arboreal life, 7, 13. - - Aryans, 246. - - Asia, 10, 91. - - Axe, 43, 136, 173. - - Azilian-Tardenoisian, 39, 48, 193. - - - Babylonia, 92. - - Balder, myth of, 222. - - Balkans, 61, 100, 267. - - Baltic culture, 131, 144, 203, 232, 271. - - Baltic Sea, changes of, 36, 41, 161. - - Barley, 80, 94. - - Boats, 145. - - Brachycephals, 44, 51, 181, 195, 262; - in lake-dwellings, 87. - - Bread, 82. - - Bronze, 141; - age of, 166. - - Burial of dead, 31, 123. - - - Campigny, 50. - - Cattle, domestic, 76, 91, 110. - - Cave frescoes, 31; - remains, 53. - - Celts, 128, 263. - - Chronology, 37, 94, 101, 160, 166, 192, 253. - - Climatic changes, 4, 26, 32, 102. - - Copper, 140; age of, 166. - - Crescents of clay, 84. - - Crete, 144, 186. - - Cro-Magnon race, 29, 181, 231. - - - Daemons, 213, 276. - - Danube, 200. - - Dead, disposal of, 31, 123, 127. - - Dog, 42, 75. - - Dolichocephals, 44, 87, 198. - - Dolmens, 114. - - Domestic animals, 91, 110, 112. - - Dormant periods and nations, 243. - - Dress, 132. - - - Education, Neolithic 237, 275. - - - Family, Aryan, 251. - - Flax, 83. - - Flint, 86, 134, 138. - - Folk-lore and fairy-tales, 277. - - Forests, 32, 64; - succession of, in Denmark, 38. - - Fortifications, 62, 236, 263. - - - Glacial period, 24. - - Goddess, cult of, 220. - - Gold, 139. - - Greek mysteries, 212. - - Grosgartach, 59, 157, 234. - - - Hamites, 19, 22, 182. - - Heidelberg man, 28. - - Hoe-culture, 104. - - Horse, 74. - - Houses and huts, 55, 72. - - - Incineration, 127. - - Indo-Europeans, 247; - homeland, 259; - language, 246; - religion, 251, 268. - - Industries, 131. - - Iranian plateau, 12. - - - Lake-dwellings, 69, 202. - - Littorina Epoch, 37, 165. - - Loess, 27, 65. - - - Magelmose, 45, 172. - - Mattock, 137. - - Mediterranean race, 182, 187, 194; culture, 231. - - Megaliths, 114. - - Menhirs, 122. - - Microliths, 49. - - Migrations, Indo-European, 253; routes, 18, 20, 52, 183. - - Millet, 80. - - Mother-right, 223. - - Mugem, 44. - - - Neanderthal race, 29. - - Neolithic culture, persistence of, 272, 280. - - Nephrite and Jadeite, 146. - - - Oaks in Denmark, 37, 171. - - Oats, 81. - - - Paleolithic Age, Lower, 29; Upper, 32. - - Peace, 85, 235. - - Pelasgi, 257. - - Piedmont zones, 105. - - Pig, 77. - - Piltdown skull, 29. - - Pines in Denmark, 37, 171. - - Pioneer life, 191, 204, 237. - - Pithecanthropus, 15. - - Plough, 108. - - Pottery, 43, 88, 100, 153, 201. - - Primates, 6, 20. - - Progress, 228. - - - Races, human, 19; Paleolithic 180; Neolithic 193. - - Religion, Paleolithic, 208; Neolithic, 206, 276; of - lake-dwellings, 84; of Indo-Europeans, 268, 276. - - Rinnekalns, 47. - - Ritual, 210. - - River-valleys as trade-routes, 143, 190. - - Roman law, 258. - - - Sahara, once well-watered, 22. - - Salt, 139. - - "_Schuhleistenbeil_" (mattock), 137. - - Semites, 19, 22, 106. - - Sheep, 78, 91. - - Shell-heaps, 40, 172, 197. - - Siwalik strata, 14. - - Social development, 85. - - Steppe, 27, 32, 65, 189. - - Stutzheim, 57, 59. - - Susa, 99. - - - Taboo, 211. - - Tertiary period, 9. - - Trade, 144; routes, 152. - - Tribal education, 275. - - Tridachna shells in Europe, 147. - - Tumuli, 116. - - Tundra, 26, 36. - - - Weaving, 83. - - Wheat, 80, 94. - - Women, position in Neolithic time, 224, 249. - - - Yoldia Epoch, 37, 162. - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - -In the Bibliography, p. 294, under "CHAPTER I", there was no number 4 -in the original. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW STONE AGE IN NORTHERN -EUROPE*** - - -******* This file should be named 41649.txt or 41649.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/1/6/4/41649 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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