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diff --git a/41567.txt b/41567.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 60d26df..0000000 --- a/41567.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19829 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 5, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 5 - "Letter" to "Lightfoot, John" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: December 6, 2012 [EBook #41567] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 16 SLICE 5 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters; [dP] for partial differential symbol. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LIBRARIES: "... to be called the Nationale Bibliotheek. In - 1805 the present name was adopted; and since 1815 it has become the - national library." 'Nationale' amended from 'National'. - - ARTICLE LIBRARIES: "Tijdschrift voor boek- en bibliotheekwezen - (Hague, 1903); ..." 'boek- en bibliotheekwezen' amended from - 'boekund bibliothekwezen'. - - ARTICLE LICHENS: "... thus Chroolepus umbrinus is found as the - gonidia of 13 different lichen genera." 'Chroolepus' amended from - 'Chroolepns'. - - ARTICLE LICHENS: "The soredia are the most successful method of - reproduction in lichens, for not only are some forms nearly always - without spore-formation and in others the spores largely abortive - ..." 'largely' amended from 'laregly'. - - ARTICLE LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON: "... but of the mineral constituents - the supply is limited because the soil cannot afford an indefinite - amount of them ..." 'constituents' amended from 'constitutents'. - - ARTICLE LIGHT: "... and also to the study of achromatism, the - principles of which followed from Newton's analysis and synthesis - of white light." 'synthesis' amended from 'snythesis'. - - ARTICLE LIGHT: "It follows from these principles that, in an - isotropic dielectric, transverse electric vibrations can be - propagated with a velocity ..." 'dielectric' amended from - 'dialectric'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVI, SLICE V - - Letter to Lightfoot, John - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - LETTER LIAS - LETTERKENNY LIBANIUS - LETTER OF CREDIT LIBATION - LETTERS PATENT LIBAU - LETTRES DE CACHET LIBEL and SLANDER - LETTUCE LIBELLATICI - LEUCADIA LIBER and LIBERA - LEUCIPPUS LIBERAL PARTY - LEUCITE LIBER DIURNUS ROMANORUM PONTIFICUM - LEUCTRA LIBERIA - LEUK LIBERIUS - LEUTHEN LIBER PONTIFICALIS - LEUTZE, EMANUEL LIBERTAD - LEVALLOIS-PERRET LIBERTARIANISM - LEVANT LIBERTINES - LEVASSEUR, PIERRE EMILE LIBERTINES, SYNAGOGUE OF THE - LEVECHE LIBERTY - LEVEE (river embankment) LIBERTY PARTY - LEVEE (reception) LIBITINA - LEVELLERS LIBMANAN - LEVEN, ALEXANDER LESLIE LIBO - LEVEN (Scotish burgh) LIBON - LEVEN, LOCH LIBOURNE - LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF LIBRA - LEVER, CHARLES JAMES LIBRARIES - LEVER LIBRATION - LEVERRIER, URBAIN JEAN JOSEPH LIBYA - LEVERTIN, OSCAR IVAN LICATA - LEVI, HERMANN LICENCE - LEVI, LEONE LICHEN - LEVIATHAN LICHENS - LEVIRATE LICHFIELD - LEVIS LICH-GATE - LEVITES LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH - LEVITICUS LICHTENBERG (German principality) - LEVY, AMY LICINIANUS, GRANIUS - LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL LICINIUS - LEVY (money raising) LICINIUS CALVUS STOLO, GAIUS - LEWALD, FANNY LICINIUS MACER CALVUS, GAIUS - LEWANIKA LICODIA EUBEA - LEWES, CHARLES LEE LICTORS - LEWES, GEORGE HENRY LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE - LEWES (town of England) LIDDESDALE - LEWES (Delaware, U.S.A.) LIDDON, HENRY PARRY - LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL - LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS - LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK LIEBER, FRANCIS - LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY LIEBERMANN, MAX - LEWIS, MERIWETHER LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON - LEWISBURG LIEBKNECHT, WILHELM - LEWISHAM LIECHTENSTEIN - LEWISTON LIEGE (province of Belgium) - LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS LIEGE (Belgian city) - LEXICON LIEGE (feudal term) - LEXINGTON, BARON LIEGNITZ - LEXINGTON (Kentucky, U.S.A.) LIEN - LEXINGTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) LIERRE - LEXINGTON (Missouri, U.S.A.) LIESTAL - LEXINGTON (Virginia, U.S.A.) LIEUTENANT - LEYDEN, JOHN LIFE - LEYDEN JAR LIFE-BOAT, and LIFE-SAVING SERVICE - LEYS, HENDRIK LIFFORD - LEYTON LIGAMENT - LHASA LIGAO - L'HOPITAL, MICHEL DE LIGHT - LIAO-YANG LIGHTFOOT, JOHN - - - - -LETTER (through Fr. _lettre_ from Lat. _littera_ or _litera_, letter of -the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably -no connexion with the root of _linere_, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an -inscription with a stilus), a character or symbol expressing any one of -the elementary sounds into which a spoken word may be analysed, one of -the members of an alphabet. As applied to things written, the word -follows mainly the meanings of the Latin plural _litterae_, the most -common meaning attaching to the word being that of a written -communication from one person to another, an epistle (q.v.). For the -means adopted to secure the transmission of letters see POST AND POSTAL -SERVICE. The word is also, particularly in the plural, applied to many -legal and formal written documents, as in letters patent, letters -rogatory and dismissory, &c. The Latin use of the plural is also -followed in the employment of "letters" in the sense of literature -(q.v.) or learning. - - - - -LETTERKENNY, a market town of Co. Donegal, Ireland, 23 m. W. by S. of -Londonderry by the Londonderry and Lough Swilly and Letterkenny railway. -Pop. (1901) 2370. It has a harbour at Port Ballyrane, 1 m. distant on -Lough Swilly. In the market square a considerable trade in grain, flax -and provisions is prosecuted. Rope-making and shirt-making are -industries. The handsome Roman Catholic cathedral for the diocese of -Raphoe occupies a commanding site, and cost a large sum, as it contains -carving from Rome, glass from Munich and a pulpit of Irish and Carrara -marble. It was consecrated in 1901. There is a Catholic college -dedicated to St Ewnan. The town, which is governed by an urban district -council, is a centre for visitors to the county. Its name signifies the -"hill of the O'Cannanans," a family who lorded over Tyrconnell before -the rise of the O'Donnells. - - - - -LETTER OF CREDIT, a letter, open or sealed, from a banker or merchant, -containing a request to some other person or firm to advance the bearer -of the letter, or some other person named therein, upon the credit of -the writer a particular or an unlimited sum of money. A letter of credit -is either general or special. It is general when addressed to merchants -or other persons in general, requesting an advance to a third person, -and special when addressed to a particular person by name requesting him -to make such an advance. A letter of credit is not a negotiable -instrument. When a letter of credit is given for the purchase of goods, -the letter of credit usually states the particulars of the merchandise -against which bills are to be drawn, and shipping documents (bills of -lading, invoices, insurance policies) are usually attached to the draft -for acceptance. - - - - -LETTERS PATENT. It is a rule alike of common law and sound policy that -grants of freehold interests, franchises, liberties, &c., by the -sovereign to a subject should be made only after due consideration, and -in a form readily accessible to the public. These ends are attained in -England through the agency of that piece of constitutional machinery -known as "letters patent." It is here proposed to consider only the -characteristics of letters patent generally. The law relating to letters -patent for inventions is dealt with under the heading PATENTS. - -Letters patent (_litterae patentes_) are letters addressed by the -sovereign "to all to whom these presents shall come," reciting the grant -of some dignity, office, monopoly, franchise or other privilege to the -patentee. They are not sealed up, but are left open (hence the term -"patent"), and are recorded in the Patent Rolls in the Record Office, or -in the case of very recent grants, in the Chancery Enrolment Office, so -that all subjects of the realm may read and be bound by their contents. -In this respect they differ from certain other letters of the sovereign -directed to particular persons and for particular purposes, which, not -being proper for public inspection, are closed up and sealed on the -outside, and are thereupon called _writs close_ (_litterae clausae_) and -are recorded in the Close Rolls. Letters patent are used to put into -commission various powers inherent in the crown--legislative powers, as -when the sovereign entrusts to others the duty of opening parliament or -assenting to bills; judicial powers, e.g. of gaol delivery; executive -powers, as when the duties of Treasurer and Lord High Admiral are -assigned to commissioners of the Treasury and Admiralty (Anson, _Const._ -ii. 47). Letters patent are also used to incorporate bodies by -charter--in the British colonies, this mode of legislation is frequently -applied to joint stock companies (cf. Rev. Stats. Ontario, c. 191, s. -9)--to grant a _conge d'elire_ to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop, -or licence to convocation to amend canons; to grant pardon, and to -confer certain offices and dignities. Among grants of offices, &c., made -by letters patent the following may be enumerated: offices in the -Heralds' College; the dignities of a peer, baronet and knight bachelor; -the appointments of lord-lieutenant, custos rotulorum of counties, judge -of the High Court and Indian and Colonial judgeships, king's counsel, -crown livings; the offices of attorney- and solicitor-general, -commander-in-chief, master of the horse, keeper of the privy seal, -postmaster-general, king's printer; grants of separate courts of -quarter-sessions. The fees payable in respect of the grant of various -forms of letters patent are fixed by orders of the lord chancellor, -dated 20th of June 1871, 18th of July 1871 and 11th of Aug. 1881. (These -orders are set out at length in the _Statutory Rules and Orders Revised_ -(ed. 1904), vol. ii. _tit._ "Clerk of the Crown in Chancery," pp. i. et -seq.) Formerly each colonial governor was appointed and commissioned by -letters patent under the great seal of the United Kingdom. But since -1875, the practice has been to create the office of governor in each -colony by letters patent, and then to make each appointment to the -office by commission under the Royal Sign Manual and to give to the -governor so appointed instructions in a uniform shape under the Royal -Sign Manual. The letters patent, commission and instructions, are -commonly described as the Governor's Commission (see Jenkyns, _British -Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas_, p. 100; the forms now in use are -printed in Appx. iv. Also the _Statutory Rules and Codes Revised_, ed. -1904, under the title of the colony to which they relate). The Colonial -Letters Patent Act 1863 provides that letters patent shall not take -effect in the colonies or possessions beyond the seas until their -publication there by proclamation or otherwise (s. 2), and shall be -void unless so published within nine months in the case of colonies east -of Bengal or west of Cape Horn, and within six months in any other case. -Colonial officers and judges holding offices by patent for life or for a -term certain, are removable by a special procedure--"amotion"--by the -Governor and Council, subject to a right of appeal to the king in -Council (Leave of Absence Act, formerly cited as "Burke's Act" 1782; see -_Montagu_ v. _Governor of Van Diemen's Land_, 1849, 6 Moo. P.C. 491; -_Willis_ v. _Gipps_, 1846, 6 St. Trials [N.S., 311]). The law of -conquered or ceded colonies may be altered by the crown by letters -patent under the Great Seal as well as by Proclamation or Order in -Council (_Jephson_ v. _Riera_, 1835, 3 Knapp, 130; 3 St. Trials [N.S.] -591). - -_Procedure._--Formerly letters patent were always granted under the -Great Seal. But now, under the Crown Office Act 1877, and the Orders in -Council made under it, many letters patent are sealed with the wafer -great seal. Letters patent for inventions are issued under the seal of -the Patent Office. The procedure by which letters patent are obtained is -as follows: A warrant for the issue of letters patent is drawn up; and -is signed by the lord chancellor; this is submitted to the law officers -of the crown, who countersign it; finally, the warrant thus signed and -countersigned is submitted to His Majesty, who affixes his signature. -The warrant is then sent to the Crown Office and is filed, after it has -been acted upon by the issue of letters patent under the great or under -the wafer seal as the case may be. The letters patent are then delivered -into the custody of those in whose favour they are granted. - -_Construction._--The construction of letters patent differs from that of -other grants in certain particulars: (i.) Letters patent, contrary to -the ordinary rule, are construed in a sense favourable to the grantor -(viz. the crown) rather than to the grantee; although this rule is said -not to apply so strictly where the grant is made for consideration, or -where it purports to be made _ex certa scientia et mero motu_. (ii.) -When it appears from the face of the grant that the sovereign has been -mistaken or deceived, either in matter of fact or in matter of law, as, -e.g. by false suggestion on the part of the patentee, or by misrecital -of former grants, or if the grant is contrary to law or uncertain, the -letters patent are absolutely void, and may still, it would seem, be -cancelled (except as regards letters patent for inventions, which are -revoked by a special procedure, regulated by S 26 of the Patents Act -1883), by the procedure known as scire facias, an action brought against -the patentee in the name of the crown with the fiat of the -attorney-general. - - As to letters patent generally, see Bacon's _Abridgment_ - ("Prerogative," F.); Chitty's _Prerogative_; Hindmarsh on _Patents_ - (1846); Anson, _Law and Custom of the Const._ ii. (3rd ed., Oxford and - London, 1907-1908). (A. W. R.) - - - - -LETTRES DE CACHET. Considered solely as French documents, _lettres de -cachet_ may be defined as letters signed by the king of France, -countersigned by one of his ministers, and closed with the royal seal -(_cachet_). They contained an order--in principle, any order -whatsoever--emanating directly from the king, and executory by himself. -In the case of organized bodies _lettres de cachet_ were issued for the -purpose of enjoining members to assemble or to accomplish some definite -act; the provincial estates were convoked in this manner, and it was by -_a lettre de cachet_ (called _lettre de jussion_) that the king ordered -a parlement to register a law in the teeth of its own remonstrances. The -best-known _lettres de cachet_, however, were those which may be called -penal, by which the king sentenced a subject without trial and without -an opportunity of defence to imprisonment in a state prison or an -ordinary gaol, confinement in a convent or a hospital, transportation to -the colonies, or relegation to a given place within the realm. - -The power which the king exercised on these various occasions was a -royal privilege recognized by old French law, and can be traced to a -maxim which furnished a text of the _Digest_ of Justinian: "Rex solutus -est a legibus." This signified particularly that when the king -intervened directly in the administration proper, or in the -administration of justice, by a special act of his will, he could -decide without heeding the laws, and even in a sense contrary to the -laws. This was an early conception, and in early times the order in -question was simply verbal; thus some letters patent of Henry III. of -France in 1576 (Isambert, _Anciennes lois francaises_, xiv. 278) state -that Francois de Montmorency was "prisoner in our castle of the Bastille -in Paris by verbal command" of the late king Charles IX. But in the 14th -century the principle was introduced that the order should be written, -and hence arose the _lettre de cachet_. The _lettre de cachet_ belonged -to the class of _lettres closes_, as opposed to _lettres patentes_, -which contained the expression of the legal and permanent will of the -king, and had to be furnished with the seal of state affixed by the -chancellor. The _lettres de cachet_, on the contrary, were signed simply -by a secretary of state (formerly known as _secretaire des -commandements_) for the king; they bore merely the imprint of the king's -privy seal, from which circumstance they were often called, in the 14th -and 15th centuries, _lettres de petit signet_ or _lettres de petit -cachet_, and were entirely exempt from the control of the chancellor. - -While serving the government as a silent weapon against political -adversaries or dangerous writers and as a means of punishing culprits of -high birth without the scandal of a suit at law, the _lettres de cachet_ -had many other uses. They were employed by the police in dealing with -prostitutes, and on their authority lunatics were shut up in hospitals -and sometimes in prisons. They were also often used by heads of families -as a means of correction, e.g. for protecting the family honour from the -disorderly or criminal conduct of sons; wives, too, took advantage of -them to curb the profligacy of husbands and vice versa. They were issued -by the intermediary on the advice of the intendants in the provinces and -of the lieutenant of police in Paris. In reality, the secretary of state -issued them in a completely arbitrary fashion, and in most cases the -king was unaware of their issue. In the 18th century it is certain that -the letters were often issued blank, i.e. without containing the name of -the person against whom they were directed; the recipient, or mandatary, -filled in the name in order to make the letter effective. - -Protests against the _lettres de cachet_ were made continually by the -parlement of Paris and by the provincial parlements, and often also by -the States-General. In 1648 the sovereign courts of Paris procured their -momentary suppression in a kind of charter of liberties which they -imposed upon the crown, but which was ephemeral. It was not until the -reign of Louis XVI. that a reaction against this abuse became clearly -perceptible. At the beginning of that reign Malesherbes during his short -ministry endeavoured to infuse some measure of justice into the system, -and in March 1784 the baron de Breteuil, a minister of the king's -household, addressed a circular to the intendants and the lieutenant of -police with a view to preventing the crying abuses connected with the -issue of _lettres de cachet_. In Paris, in 1779, the _Cour des Aides_ -demanded their suppression, and in March 1788 the parlement of Paris -made some exceedingly energetic remonstrances, which are important for -the light they throw upon old French public law. The crown, however, did -not decide to lay aside this weapon, and in a declaration to the -States-General in the royal session of the 23rd of June 1789 (art. 15) -it did not renounce it absolutely. _Lettres de cachet_ were abolished by -the Constituent Assembly, but Napoleon re-established their equivalent -by a political measure in the decree of the 9th of March 1801 on the -state prisons. This was one of the acts brought up against him by the -_senatus-consulte_ of the 3rd of April 1814, which pronounced his fall -"considering that he has violated the constitutional laws by the decrees -on the state prisons." - - See Honore Mirabeau, _Les Lettres de cachet et des prisons d'etat_ - (Hamburg, 1782), written in the dungeon at Vincennes into which his - father had thrown him by a _lettre de cachet_, one of the ablest and - most eloquent of his works, which had an immense circulation and was - translated into English with a dedication to the duke of Norfolk in - 1788; Frantz Funck-Brentano, _Les Lettres de cachet a Paris_ (Paris, - 1904); and Andre Chassaigne, _Les Lettres de cachet sous l'ancien - regime_ (Paris, 1903). (J. P. E.) - - - - -LETTUCE, known botanically as _Lactuca sativa_ (nat. ord. Compositae), a -hardy annual, highly esteemed as a salad plant. The London -market-gardeners make preparation for the first main crop of Cos -lettuces in the open ground early in August, a frame being set on a -shallow hotbed, and, the stimulus of heat not being required, this is -allowed to subside till the first week in October, when the soil, -consisting of leaf-mould mixed with a little sand, is put on 6 or 7 in. -thick, so that the surface is within 4(1/2) in. of the sashes. The best -time for sowing is found to be about the 11th of October, one of the -best varieties being Lobjoits Green Cos. When the seeds begin to -germinate the sashes are drawn quite off in favourable weather during -the day, and put on, but tilted, at night in wet weather. Very little -watering is required, and the aim should be to keep the plants gently -moving till the days begin to lengthen. In January a more active growth -is encouraged, and in mild winters a considerable extent of the planting -out is done, but in private gardens the preferable time would be -February. The ground should be light and rich, and well manured below, -and the plants put out at 1 ft. apart each way with the dibble. Frequent -stirring of the ground with the hoe greatly encourages the growth of the -plants. A second sowing should be made about the 5th of November, and a -third in frames about the end of January or beginning of February. In -March a sowing may be made in some warm situation out of doors; -successional sowings may be made in the open border about every third or -fourth week till August, about the middle of which month a crop of Brown -Cos, Hardy Hammersmith or Hardy White Cos should be sown, the latter -being the most reliable in a severe winter. These plants may be put out -early in October on the sides of ridges facing the south or at the front -of a south wall, beyond the reach of drops from the copings, being -planted 6 or 8 in. apart. Young lettuce plants should be thinned out in -the seed-beds before they crowd or draw each other, and transplanted as -soon as possible after two or three leaves are formed. Some cultivators -prefer that the summer crops should not be transplanted, but sown where -they are to stand, the plants being merely thinned out; but -transplanting checks the running to seed, and makes the most of the -ground. - -For a winter supply by gentle forcing, the Hardy Hammersmith and Brown -Dutch Cabbage lettuces, and the Brown Cos and Green Paris Cos lettuces, -should be sown about the middle of August and in the beginning of -September, in rich light soil, the plants being pricked out 3 in. apart -in a prepared bed, as soon as the first two leaves are fully formed. -About the middle of October the plants should be taken up carefully with -balls attached to the roots, and should be placed in a mild hotbed of -well-prepared dung (about 55 deg.) covered about 1 ft. deep with a -compost of sandy peat, leaf-mould and a little well-decomposed manure. -The Cos and Brown Dutch varieties should be planted about 9 in. apart. -Give plenty of air when the weather permits, and protect from frost. For -winter work Stanstead Park Cabbage Lettuce is greatly favoured now by -London market-gardeners, as it stands the winter well. Lee's Immense is -another good variety, while All the Year Round may be sown for almost -any season, but is better perhaps for summer crops. - -There are two races of the lettuce, the Cos lettuce, with erect oblong -heads, and the Cabbage lettuce, with round or spreading heads,--the -former generally crisp, the latter soft and flabby in texture. Some of -the best lettuces for general purposes of the two classes are the -following:-- - -_Cos:_ White Paris Cos, best for summer; Green Paris Cos, hardier than -the white; Brown Cos, Lobjoits Green Cos, one of the hardiest and best -for winter; Hardy White Cos. - -_Cabbage:_ Hammersmith Hardy Green; Stanstead Park, very hardy, good for -winter; Tom Thumb; Brown Dutch; Neapolitan, best for summer; All the -Year Round; Golden Ball, good for forcing in private establishments. - -_Lactuca virosa_, the strong-scented lettuce, contains an alkaloid which -has the power of dilating the pupil and may possibly be identical with -hyoscyamine, though this point is as yet not determined. No variety of -lettuce is now used for any medicinal purpose, though there is probably -some slight foundation for the belief that the lettuce has faint -narcotic properties. - - - - -LEUCADIA, the ancient name of one of the Ionian Islands, now Santa Maura -(q.v.), and of its chief town (Hamaxichi). - - - - -LEUCIPPUS, Greek philosopher, born at Miletus (or Elea), founder of the -Atomistic theory, contemporary of Zeno, Empedocles and Anaxagoras. His -fame was so completely overshadowed by that of Democritus, who -subsequently developed the theory into a system, that his very existence -was denied by Epicurus (Diog. Laert. x. 7), followed in modern times by -E. Rohde. Epicurus, however, distinguishes Leucippus from Democritus, -and Aristotle and Theophrastus expressly credit him with the invention -of Atomism. There seems, therefore, no reason to doubt his existence, -although nothing is known of his life, and even his birthplace is -uncertain. Between Leucippus and Democritus there is an interval of at -least forty years; accordingly, while the beginnings of Atomism are -closely connected with the doctrines of the Eleatics, the system as -developed by Democritus is conditioned by the sophistical views of his -time, especially those of Protagoras. While Leucippus's notion of Being -agreed generally with that of the Eleatics, he postulated its plurality -(atoms) and motion, and the reality of not-Being (the void) in which his -atoms moved. - - See DEMOCRITUS. On the Rohde-Diels controversy as to the existence of - Leucippus, see F. Lortzing in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, vol. cxvi. - (1904); also J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_ (1892). - - - - -LEUCITE, a rock-forming mineral composed of potassium and aluminium -metasilicate KAl(SiO3)2. Crystals have the form of cubic icositetrahedra -{211}, but, as first observed by Sir David Brewster in 1821, they are -not optically isotropic, and are therefore pseudo-cubic. Goniometric -measurements made by G. vom Rath in 1873 led him to refer the crystals -to the tetragonal system, the faces o being distinct from those lettered -i in the adjoining figure. Optical investigations have since proved the -crystals to be still more complex in character, and to consist of -several orthorhombic or monoclinic individuals, which are optically -biaxial and repeatedly twinned, giving rise to twin-lamellae and to -striations on the faces. When the crystals are raised to a temperature -of about 500 deg. C. they become optically isotropic, the twin-lamellae -and striations disappearing, reappearing, however, when the crystals are -again cooled. This pseudo-cubic character of leucite is exactly the same -as that of the mineral boracite (q.v.). - -[Illustration] - -The crystals are white (hence the name suggested by A. G. Werner in -1791, from [Greek: leukos]) or ash-grey in colour, and are usually dull -and opaque, but sometimes transparent and glassy; they are brittle and -break with a conchoidal fracture. The hardness is 5.5, and the specific -gravity 2.5. Enclosures of other minerals, arranged in concentric zones, -are frequently present in the crystals. On account of the colour and -form of the crystals the mineral was early known as "white garnet." -French authors employ R. J. Hauy's name "amphigene." (L. J. S.) - - _Leucite Rocks._--Although rocks containing leucite are numerically - scarce, many countries such as England being entirely without them, - yet they are of wide distribution, occurring in every quarter of the - globe. Taken collectively, they exhibit a considerable variety of - types and are of great interest petrographically. For the presence of - this mineral it is necessary that the silica percentage of the rock - should not be high, for leucite never occurs in presence of free - quartz. It is most common in lavas of recent and Tertiary age, which - have a fair amount of potash, or at any rate have potash equal to or - greater than soda; if soda preponderates nepheline occurs rather than - leucite. In pre-Tertiary rocks leucite is uncommon, since it readily - decomposes and changes to zeolites, analcite and other secondary - minerals. Leucite also is rare in plutonic rocks and dike rocks, but - leucite-syenite and leucite-tinguaite bear witness to the possibility - that it may occur in this manner. The rounded shape of its crystals, - their white or grey colour, and rough cleavage, make the presence of - leucite easily determinable in many of these rocks by simple - inspection, especially when the crystals are large. "Pseudo-leucites" - are rounded areas consisting of felspar, nepheline, analcite, &c., - which have the shape, composition and sometimes even the crystalline - forms of leucite; they are probably pseudomorphs or paramorphs, which - have developed from leucite because this mineral, in its isometric - crystals, is not stable at ordinary temperatures and may be expected - under favourable conditions to undergo spontaneous change into an - aggregate of other minerals. Leucite is very often accompanied by - nepheline, sodalite or nosean; other minerals which make their - appearance with some frequency are melanite, garnet and melilite. - - The plutonic leucite-bearing rocks are leucite-syenite and missourite. - Of these the former consists of orthoclase, nepheline, sodalite, - diopside and aegirine, biotite and sphene. Two occurrences are known, - one in Arkansas, the other in Sutherlandshire, Scotland. The Scottish - rock has been called borolanite. Both examples show large rounded - spots in the hand specimens; they are pseudo-leucites and under the - microscope prove to consist of orthoclase, nepheline, sodalite and - decomposition products. These have a radiate arrangement externally, - but are of irregular structure at their centres; it is interesting to - note that in both rocks melanite is an important accessory. The - missourites are more basic and consist of leucite, olivine, augite and - biotite; the leucite is partly fresh, partly altered to analcite, and - the rock has a spotted character recalling that of the - leucite-syenites. It has been found only in the Highwood Mountains of - Montana. - - The leucite-bearing dike-rocks are members of the tinguaite and - monchiquite groups. The leucite-tinguaites are usually pale grey or - greenish in colour and consist principally of nepheline, - alkali-felspar and aegirine. The latter forms bright green moss-like - patches and growths of indefinite shape, or in other cases scattered - acicular prisms, among the felspars and nephelines of the ground mass. - Where leucite occurs, it is always eumorphic in small, rounded, - many-sided crystals in the ground mass, or in larger masses which have - the same characters as the pseudo-leucites. Biotite occurs in some of - these rocks, and melanite also is present. Nepheline appears to - decrease in amount as leucite increases. Rocks of this group are known - from Rio de Janeiro, Arkansas, Kola (in Finland), Montana and a few - other places. In Greenland there are leucite-tinguaites with much - arfvedsonite (hornblende) and eudyalite. Wherever they occur they - accompany leucite- and nepheline-syenites. Leucite-monchiquites are - fine-grained dark rocks consisting of olivine, titaniferous augite and - iron oxides, with a glassy ground mass in which small rounded crystals - of leucite are scattered. They have been described from Bohemia. - - By far the greater number of the rocks which contain leucite are lavas - of Tertiary or recent geological age. They are never acid rocks which - contain quartz, but felspar is usually present, though there are - certain groups of leucite lavas which are non-felspathic. Many of them - also contain nepheline, sodalite, hauyne and nosean; the much rarer - mineral melilite appears also in some examples. The commonest - ferromagnesian mineral is augite (sometimes rich in soda), with - olivine in the more basic varieties. Hornblende and biotite occur - also, but are less common. Melanite is found in some of the lavas, as - in the leucite-syenites. - - The rocks in which orthoclase (or sanidine) is present in considerable - amount are leucite-trachytes, leucite-phonolites and leucitophyres. Of - these groups the two former, which are not sharply distinguished from - one another by most authors, are common in the neighbourhood of Rome - (L. Bracciano, L. Bolsena). They are of trachytic appearance, - containing phenocysts of sanidine, leucite, augite and biotite. - Sodalite or hauyne may also be present, but nepheline is typically - absent. Rocks of this class occur also in the tuffs of the Phlegraean - Fields, near Naples. The leucitophyres are rare rocks which have been - described from various parts of the volcanic district of the Rhine - (Olbruck, Laacher See, &c.) and from Monte Vulture in Italy. They are - rich in leucite, but contain also some sanidine and often much - nepheline with hauyne or nosean. Their pyroxene is principally - aegirine or aegirine augite; some of them are rich in melanite. - Microscopic sections of some of these rocks are of great interest on - account of their beauty and the variety of felspathoid minerals which - they contain. In Brazil leucitophyres have been found which belong to - the Carboniferous period. - - Those leucite rocks which contain abundant essential plagioclase - felspar are known as leucite-tephrites and leucite-basanites. The - former consist mainly of plagioclase, leucite and augite, while the - latter contain olivine in addition. The leucite is often present in - two sets of crystals, both porphyritic and as an ingredient of the - ground mass. It is always idiomorphic with rounded outlines. The - felspar ranges from bytownite to oligoclase, being usually a variety - of labradorite; orthoclase is scarce. The augite varies a good deal in - character, being green, brown or violet, but aegirine (the dark green - pleochroic soda-iron-augite) is seldom present. Among the accessory - minerals biotite, brown hornblende, hauyne, iron oxides and apatite - are the commonest; melanite and nepheline may also occur. The ground - mass of these rocks is only occasionally rich in glass. The - leucite-tephrites and leucite-basanites of Vesuvius and Somma are - familiar examples of this class of rocks. They are black or ashy-grey - in colour, often vesicular, and may contain many large grey phenocysts - of leucite. Their black augite and yellow green olivine are also - easily detected in hand specimens. From Volcanello, Sardinia and - Roccamonfina similar rocks are obtained; they occur also in Bohemia, - in Java, Celebes, Kilimanjaro (Africa) and near Trebizond in Asia - Minor. - - Leucite lavas from which felspar is absent are divided into the - leucitites and leucite basalts. The latter contain olivine, the former - do not. Pyroxene is the usual ferromagnesian mineral, and resembles - that of the tephrites and basanites. Sanidine, melanite, hauyne and - perofskite are frequent accessory minerals in these rocks, and many of - them contain melilite in some quantity. The well-known leucitite of - the Capo di Bove, near Rome, is rich in this mineral, which forms - irregular plates, yellow in the hand specimen, enclosing many small - rounded crystals of leucite. Bracciano and Roccamonfina are other - Italian localities for leucitite, and in Java, Montana, Celebes and - New South Wales similar rocks occur. The leucite-basalts belong to - more basic types and are rich in olivine and augite. They occur in - great numbers in the Rhenish volcanic district (Eifel, Laacher See) - and in Bohemia, and accompany tephrites or leucitites in Java, - Montana, Celebes and Sardinia. The "peperino" of the neighbourhood of - Rome is a leucitite tuff. (J. S. F.) - - - - -LEUCTRA, a village of Boeotia in the territory of Thespiae, chiefly -noticeable for the battle fought in its neighbourhood in 371 B.C. -between the Thebans and the Spartans and their allies. A Peloponnesian -army, about 10,000 strong, which had invaded Boeotia from Phocis, was -here confronted by a Boeotian levy of perhaps 6000 soldiers under -Epaminondas (q.v.). In spite of inferior numbers and the doubtful -loyalty of his Boeotian allies, Epaminondas offered battle on the plain -before the town. Massing his cavalry and the 50-deep column of Theban -infantry on his left wing, he sent forward this body in advance of his -centre and right wing. After a cavalry engagement in which the Thebans -drove their enemies off the field, the decisive issue was fought out -between the Theban and Spartan foot. The latter, though fighting well, -could not sustain in their 12-deep formation the heavy impact of their -opponents' column, and were hurled back with a loss of about 2000 men, -of whom 700 were Spartan citizens, including the king Cleombrotus. -Seeing their right wing beaten, the rest of the Peloponnesians retired -and left the enemy in possession of the field. Owing to the arrival of a -Thessalian army under Jason of Pherae, whose friendship they did not -trust, the Thebans were unable to exploit their victory. But the battle -is none the less of great significance in Greek history. It marks a -revolution in military tactics, affording the first known instance of a -deliberate concentration of attack upon the vital point of the enemy's -line. Its political effects were equally far-reaching, for the loss in -material strength and prestige which the Spartans here sustained -deprived them for ever of their supremacy in Greece. - - AUTHORITIES.--Xenophon, _Hellenica_, vi. 4. 3-15; Diodorus xi. 53-56; - Plutarch, _Pelopidas_, chs. 20-23; Pausanias ix. 13. 2-10; G. B. - Grundy, _The Topography of the Battle of Plataea_ (London, 1894), pp. - 73-76; H. Delbruck, _Geschichte der Kriegskunst_ (Berlin, 1900), i. - 130 ff. (M. O. B. C.) - - - - -LEUK (Fr. _Loeche Ville_), an ancient and very picturesque little town -in the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is built above the right bank of -the Rhone, and is about 1 m. from the Leuk-Susten station (15(1/2) m. -east of Sion and 17(1/2) m. west of Brieg) on the Simplon railway. In -1900 it had 1592 inhabitants, all but wholly German-speaking and -Romanists. About 10(1/2) m. by a winding carriage road N. of Leuk, and -near the head of the Dala valley, at a height of 4629 ft. above the -sea-level, and overshadowed by the cliffs of the Gemmi Pass (7641 ft.; -q.v.) leading over to the Bernese Oberland, are the Baths of Leuk -(_Leukerbad_, or _Loeche les Bains_). They have only 613 permanent -inhabitants, but are much frequented in summer by visitors (largely -French and Swiss) attracted by the hot mineral springs. These are 22 in -number, and are very abundant. The principal is that of St Laurence, the -water of which has a temperature of 124 deg. F. The season lasts from -June to September. The village in winter is long deprived of sunshine, -and is much exposed to avalanches, by which it was destroyed in 1518, -1719 and 1756, but it is now protected by a strong embankment from a -similar catastrophe. (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LEUTHEN, a village of Prussian Silesia, 10 m. W. of Breslau, memorable -as the scene of Frederick the Great's victory over the Austrians on -December 5, 1757. The high road from Breslau to Luben crosses the marshy -Schweidnitz Water at Lissa, and immediately enters the rolling country -about Neumarkt. Leuthen itself stands some 4000 paces south of the -road, and a similar distance south again lies Sagschutz, while Nypern, -on the northern edge of the hill country, is 5000 paces from the road. -On Frederick's approach the Austrians took up a line of battle resting -on the two last-named villages. Their whole position was strongly -garrisoned and protected by obstacles, and their artillery was numerous -though of light calibre. A strong outpost of Saxon cavalry was in Borne -to the westward. Frederick had the previous day surprised the Austrian -bakeries at Neumarkt, and his Prussians, 33,000 to the enemy's 82,000, -moved towards Borne and Leuthen early on the 5th. The Saxon outpost was -rushed at in the morning mist, and, covered by their advanced guard on -the heights beyond, the Prussians wheeled to their right. Prince Charles -of Lorraine, the Austrian commander-in-chief, on Leuthen Church tower, -could make nothing of Frederick's movements, and the commander of his -right wing (Lucchesi) sent him message after message from Nypem and -Gocklerwitz asking for help, which was eventually despatched. But the -real blow was to fall on the left under Nadasdy. While the Austrian -commander was thus wasting time, the Prussians were marching against -Nadasdy in two columns, which preserved their distances with an -exactitude which has excited the wonder of modern generations of -soldiers; at the due place they wheeled into line of battle obliquely to -the Austrian front, and in one great _echelon_,--the cavalry of the -right wing foremost, and that of the left "refused,"--Frederick advanced -on Sagschutz. Nadasdy, surprised, put a bold face on the matter and made -a good defence, but he was speedily routed, and, as the Prussians -advanced, battalion after battalion was rolled up towards Leuthen until -the Austrians faced almost due south. The fighting in Leuthen itself was -furious; the Austrians stood, in places, 100 deep, but the disciplined -valour of the Prussians carried the village. For a moment the victory -was endangered when Lucchesi came down upon the Prussian left wing from -the north, but Driesen's cavalry, till then refused, charged him in -flank and scattered his troopers in wild rout. This stroke ended the -battle. The retreat on Breslau became a rout almost comparable to that -of Waterloo, and Prince Charles rallied, in Bohemia, barely 37,000 out -of his 82,000. Ten thousand Austrians were left on the field, 21,000 -taken prisoners (besides 17,000 in Breslau a little later), with 51 -colours and 116 cannon. The Prussian loss in all was under 5500. It was -not until 1854 that a memorial of this astonishing victory was erected -on the battlefield. - - See Carlyle, _Frederick_, bk. xviii. cap. x.; V. Ollech, _Friedrich - der Grosse von Kolin bis Leuthen_ (Berlin, 1858); Kutzen, _Schlacht - bei Leuthen_ (Breslau, 1851 ); and bibliography under SEVEN YEARS' - WAR. - - - - -LEUTZE, EMANUEL (1816-1868), American artist, was born at Gmund, -Wurttemberg, on the 24th of May 1816, and as a child was taken by his -parents to Philadelphia, where he early displayed talent as an artist. -At the age of twenty-five he had earned enough to take him to Dusseldorf -for a course of art study at the royal academy. Almost immediately he -began the painting of historical subjects, his first work, "Columbus -before the Council of Salamanca," being purchased by the Dusseldorf Art -Union. In 1860 he was commissioned by the United States Congress to -decorate a stairway in the Capitol at Washington, for which he painted a -large composition, "Westward the Star of Empire takes its Way." His -best-known work, popular through engraving, is "Washington crossing the -Delaware," a large canvas containing a score of life-sized figures; it -is now owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. He became a -member of the National Academy of Design in 1860, and died at -Washington, D.C., on the 18th of July 1868. - - - - -LEVALLOIS-PERRET, a north-western suburb of Paris, on the right bank of -the Seine, 2(1/2) m. from the centre of the city. Pop. (1906) 61,419. It -carries on the manufacture of motor-cars and accessories, carriages, -groceries, liqueurs, perfumery, soap, &c., and has a port on the Seine. - - - - -LEVANT (from the French use of the participle of _lever_, to rise, for -the east, the orient), the name applied widely to the coastlands of the -eastern Mediterranean Sea from Greece to Egypt, or, in a more restricted -and commoner sense, to the Mediterranean coastlands of Asia Minor and -Syria. In the 16th and 17th centuries the term "High Levant" was used of -the Far East. The phrase "to levant," meaning to abscond, especially of -one who runs away leaving debts unpaid, particularly of a betting man or -gambler, is taken from the Span. _levantar_, to lift or break up, in -such phrases as _levantar la casa_, to break up a household, or _el -campo_, to break camp. - - - - -LEVASSEUR, PIERRE EMILE (1828- ), French economist, was born in Paris -on the 8th of December 1828. Educated in Paris, he began to teach in the -lycee at Alencon in 1852, and in 1857 was chosen professor of rhetoric -at Besancon. He returned to Paris to become professor at the lycee Saint -Louis, and in 1868 he was chosen a member of the academy of moral and -political sciences. In 1872 he was appointed professor of geography, -history and statistics in the College de France, and subsequently became -also professor at the Conservatoire des arts et metiers and at the Ecole -libre des sciences politiques. Levasseur was one of the founders of the -study of commercial geography, and became a member of the Council of -Public Instruction, president of the French society of political economy -and honorary president of the French geographical society. - - His numerous writings include: _Histoire des classes ouvrieres en - France depuis la conquete de Jules Cesar jusqu'a la Revolution_ - (1859); _Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France depuis la Revolution - jusqu'a nos jours_ (1867); _L'Etude et l'enseignement de la - geographie_ (1871); _La Population francaise_ (1889-1892); - _L'Agriculture aux Etats-Unis_ (1894); _L'Enseignement primaire dans - les pays civilises_ (1897); _L'Ouvrier americain_ (1898); _Questions - ouvrieres et industrielles sous la troisieme Republique_ (1907); and - _Histoire des classes ouvrieres et de l'industrie en France de 1789 a - 1870_ (1903-1904). He also published a _Grand Atlas de geographie - physique et politique_ (1890-1892). - - - - -LEVECHE, the name given to the dry hot sirocco wind in Spain; often -incorrectly called the "solano." The direction of the Leveche is mostly -from S.E., S. or S.W., and it occurs along the coast from Cabo de Gata -to Cabo de Nao, and even beyond Malaga for a distance of some 10 m. -inland. - - - - -LEVEE (from Fr. _lever_, to raise), an embankment which keeps a river in -its channel. A river such as the Mississippi (q.v.), draining a large -area, carries a great amount of sediment from its swifter head-streams -to the lower ground. As soon as a stream's velocity is checked, it drops -a portion of its load of sediment and spreads an alluvial fan in the -lower part of its course. This deposition of material takes place -particularly at the sides of the stream where the velocity is least, and -the banks are in consequence raised above the main channel, so that the -river becomes lifted bodily upwards in its bed, and flows above the -level of the surrounding country. In flood-time the muddy water flows -over the river's banks, where its velocity is at once checked as it -flows gently down the outer side, causing more material to be deposited -there, and a long alluvial ridge, called a natural levee, to be built up -on either side of the stream. These ridges may be wide or narrow, but -they slope from the stream's outer banks to the plain below, and in -consequence require careful watching, for if the levee is broken by a -"crevasse," the whole body of the river may pour through and flood the -country below. In 1890 the Mississippi near New Orleans broke through -the Nita crevasse and flowed eastward with a current of 15 m. an hour, -spreading destruction in its path. The Hwang-ho river in China is -peculiarly liable to these inundations. The word levee is also sometimes -used to denote a riverside quay or landing-place. - - - - -LEVEE (from the French substantival use of _lever_, to rise; there is no -French substantival use of _levee_ in the English sense), a reception or -assembly held by the British sovereign or his representative, in Ireland -by the lord-lieutenant, in India by the viceroy, in the forenoon or -early afternoon, at which men only are present in distinction from a -"drawing-room," at which ladies also are presented or received. Under -the _ancien regime_ in France the _lever_ of the king was regulated, -especially under Louis XIV., by elaborate etiquette, and the various -divisions of the ceremonial followed the stages of the king's rising -from bed, from which it gained its name. The _petit lever_ began when -the king had washed and said his daily offices; to this were admitted -the princes of the blood, certain high officers of the household and -those to whom a special permit had been granted; then followed the -_premiere entree_, to which came the secretaries and other officials and -those having the _entree_; these were received by the king in his -dressing-gown. Finally, at the _grand lever_, the remainder of the -household, the nobles and gentlemen of the court were received; the king -by that time was shaved, had changed his linen and was in his wig. In -the United States the term "levee" was formerly used of the public -receptions held by the president. - - - - -LEVELLERS, the name given to an important political party in England -during the period of the Civil War and the Commonwealth. The germ of the -Levelling movement must be sought for among the Agitators (q.v.), men of -strong republican views, and the name Leveller first appears in a letter -of the 1st of November 1647, although it was undoubtedly in existence as -a nickname before this date (Gardiner, _Great Civil War_, iii. 380). -This letter refers to these extremists thus: "They have given themselves -a new name, viz. Levellers, for they intend to sett all things straight, -and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom." - -The Levellers first became prominent in 1647 during the protracted and -unsatisfactory negotiations between the king and the parliament, and -while the relations between the latter and the army were very strained. -Like the Agitators they were mainly found among the soldiers; they were -opposed to the existence of kingship, and they feared that Cromwell and -the other parliamentary leaders were too complaisant in their dealings -with Charles; in fact they doubted their sincerity in this matter. Led -by John Lilburne (q.v.) they presented a manifesto, _The Case of the -Army truly stated_, to the commander-in-chief, Lord Fairfax, in October -1647. In this they demanded a dissolution of parliament within a year -and substantial changes in the constitution of future parliaments, which -were to be regulated by an unalterable "law paramount." In a second -document, _The Agreement of the People_, they expanded these ideas, -which were discussed by Cromwell, Ireton and other officers on the one -side, and by John Wildman, Thomas Rainsborough and Edward Sexby for the -Levellers on the other. But no settlement was made; some of the -Levellers clamoured for the king's death, and in November 1647, just -after his flight from Hampton Court to Carisbrooke, they were -responsible for a mutiny which broke out in two regiments at Corkbush -Field, near Ware. This, however, was promptly suppressed by Cromwell. -During the twelve months which immediately preceded the execution of the -king the Levellers conducted a lively agitation in favour of the ideas -expressed in the _Agreement of the people_, and in January 1648 Lilburne -was arrested for using seditious language at a meeting in London. But no -success attended these and similar efforts, and their only result was -that the Levellers regarded Cromwell with still greater suspicion. - -Early in 1649, just after the death of the king, the Levellers renewed -their activity. They were both numerous and dangerous, and they stood -up, says Gardiner, "for an exaggeration of the doctrine of parliamentary -supremacy." In a pamphlet, _England's New Chains_, Lilburne asked for -the dissolution of the council of state and for a new and reformed -parliament. He followed this up with the _Second Part of England's New -Chains_; his writings were declared treasonable by parliament, and in -March 1649 he and three other leading Levellers, Richard Overton, -William Walwyn and Prince were arrested. The discontent which was -spreading in the army was fanned when certain regiments were ordered to -proceed to Ireland, and in April 1649 there was a meeting in London; but -this was quickly put down by Fairfax and Cromwell, and its leader, -Robert Lockyer, was shot. Risings at Burford and at Banbury were also -suppressed without any serious difficulty, and the trouble with the -Levellers was practically over. Gradually they became less prominent, -but under the Commonwealth they made frequent advances to the exiled -king Charles II., and there was some danger from them early in 1655 when -Wildman was arrested and Sexby escaped from England. The distinguishing -mark of the Leveller was a sea-green ribbon. - -Another but more harmless form of the same movement was the assembling -of about fifty men on St George's Hill near Oatlands in Surrey. In April -1649 these "True Levellers" or "Diggers," as they were called, took -possession of some unoccupied ground which they began to cultivate. They -were, however, soon dispersed, and their leaders were arrested and -brought before Fairfax, when they took the opportunity of denouncing -landowners. It is interesting to note that Lilburne and his colleagues -objected to being designated Levellers, as they had no desire to take -away "the proper right and title that every man has to what is his own." - -Cromwell attacked the Levellers in his speech to parliament in September -1654 (Carlyle, _Cromwell's Letters and Speeches_, Speech II.). He said: -"A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these; that is a -good interest of the nation, and a great one. The 'natural' magistracy -of the nation, was it not almost trampled under foot, under despite and -contempt, by men of Levelling principles? I beseech you, for the orders -of men and ranks of men, did not that Levelling principle tend to the -reducing of all to an equality? Did it 'consciously' think to do so; or -did it 'only unconsciously' practise towards that for property and -interest? 'At all events,' what was the purport of it but to make the -tenant as liberal a fortune as the landlord? Which, I think, if -obtained, would not have lasted long." - - In 1724 there was a rising against enclosures in Galloway, and a - number of men who took part therein were called Levellers or - Dyke-breakers (A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. iv.). The word was - also used in Ireland during the 18th century to describe a secret - revolutionary society similar to the Whiteboys. (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LEVEN, ALEXANDER LESLIE, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1580-1661), Scottish general, -was the son of George Leslie, captain of Blair-in-Athol, and a member of -the family of Leslie of Balquhain. After a scanty education he sought -his fortune abroad, and became a soldier, first under Sir Horace Vere in -the Low Countries, and afterwards (1605) under Charles IX. and Gustavus -Adolphus of Sweden, in whose service he remained for many years and -fought in many campaigns with honour. In 1626 Leslie had risen by merit -to the rank of lieutenant-general, and had been knighted by Gustavus. In -1628 he distinguished himself by his constancy and energy in the defence -of Stralsund against Wallenstein, and in 1630 seized the island of Rugen -in the name of the king of Sweden. In the same year he returned to -Scotland to assist in recruiting and organizing the corps of Scottish -volunteers which James, 3rd marquis of Hamilton, brought over to -Gustavus in 1631. Leslie received a severe wound in the following -winter, but was able nevertheless to be present at Gustavus's last -battle at Lutzen. Like many others of the soldiers of fortune who served -under Gustavus, Leslie cherished his old commander's memory to the day -of his death, and he kept with particular care a jewel and miniature -presented to him by the king. He continued as a general officer in the -Swedish army for some years, was promoted in 1636 to the rank of field -marshal, and continued in the field until 1638, when events recalled him -to his own country. He had married long before this--in 1637 his eldest -son was made a colonel in the Swedish army--and he had managed to keep -in touch with Scottish affairs. - -As the foremost Scottish soldier of his day he was naturally nominated -to command the Scottish army in the impending war with England, a post -which, resigning his Swedish command, he accepted with a glad heart, for -he was an ardent Covenanter and had caused "a great number of our -commanders in Germany subscryve our covenant" (Baillie's _Letters_). On -leaving Sweden he brought back his arrears of pay in the form of cannon -and muskets for his new army. For some months he busied himself with the -organization and training of the new levies, and with inducing Scottish -officers abroad to do their duty to their country by returning to lead -them. Diminutive in size and somewhat deformed in person as he was, his -reputation and his shrewdness and simple tact, combined with the -respect for his office of lord general that he enforced on all ranks, -brought even the unruly nobles to subordination. He had by now amassed a -considerable fortune and was able to live in a manner befitting a -commander-in-chief, even when in the field. One of his first exploits -was to take the castle of Edinburgh by surprise, without the loss of a -man. He commanded the Scottish army at Dunse Law in May of that year, -and in 1640 he invaded England, and defeated the king's troops at -Newburn on the Tyne, which gave him possession of Newcastle and of the -open country as far as the Tees. At the treaty with the king at Ripon, -Leslie was one of the commissioners of the Scottish parliament, and when -Charles visited Edinburgh Leslie entertained him magnificently and -accompanied him when he drove through the streets. His affirmations of -loyalty to the crown, which later events caused to be remembered against -him, were sincere enough, but the complicated politics of the time made -it difficult for Leslie, the lord general of the Scottish army, to -maintain a perfectly consistent attitude. However, his influence was -exercised chiefly to put an end to, even to hush up, the troubles, and -he is found, now giving a private warning to plotters against the king -to enable them to escape, now guarding the Scottish parliament against a -royalist _coup d'etat_, and now securing for an old comrade of the -German wars, Patrick Ruthven, Lord Ettrick, indemnity for having held -Edinburgh Castle for the king against the parliament. Charles created -him, by patent dated Holyrood, October 11, 1641, earl of Leven and Lord -Balgonie, and made him captain of Edinburgh Castle and a privy -councillor. The parliament recognized his services by a grant, and, on -his resigning the lord generalship, appointed him commander of the -permanent forces. A little later, Leven, who was a member of the -committee of the estates which exercised executive powers during the -recess of parliament, used his great influence in support of a proposal -to raise a Scottish army to help the elector palatine in Germany, but -the Ulster massacres gave this force, when raised, a fresh direction and -Leven himself accompanied it to Ireland as lord general. He did not -remain there long, for the Great Rebellion (q.v.) had begun in England, -and negotiations were opened between the English and the Scottish -parliaments for mutual armed assistance. Leven accepted the command of -the new forces raised for the invasion of England, and was in -consequence freely accused of having broken his personal oath to -Charles, but he could hardly have acted otherwise than he did, and at -that time, and so far as the Scots were concerned, to the end of the -struggle, the parliaments were in arms, professedly and to some extent -actually, to rescue his majesty from the influence of evil counsellors. - -The military operations preceding Marston Moor are described under GREAT -REBELLION, and the battle itself under its own heading. Leven's great -reputation, wisdom and tact made him an ideal commander for the allied -army formed by the junction of Leven's, Fairfax's and Manchester's in -Yorkshire. After the battle the allied forces separated, Leven bringing -the siege of Newcastle to an end by storming it. In 1645 the Scots were -less successful, though their operations ranged from Westmorland to -Hereford, and Leven himself had many administrative and political -difficulties to contend with. These difficulties became more pronounced -when in 1646 Charles took refuge with the Scottish army. The king -remained with Leven until he was handed over to the English parliament -in 1647, and Leven constantly urged him to take the covenant and to make -peace. Presbyterians and Independents had now parted, and with no more -concession than the guarantee of the covenant the Scottish and English -Presbyterians were ready to lay down their arms, or to turn them against -the "sectaries." Leven was now old and infirm, and though retained as -nominal commander-in-chief saw no further active service. He acted with -Argyll and the "godly" party in the discussions preceding the second -invasion of England, and remained at his post as long as possible in the -hope of preventing the Scots becoming merely a royalist instrument for -the conquest of the English Independents. But be was induced in the end -to resign, though he was appointed lord general of all new forces that -might be raised for the defence of Scotland. The occasion soon came, for -Cromwell annihilated the Scottish invaders at Preston and Uttoxeter, and -thereupon Argyll assumed political and Leven military control at -Edinburgh. But he was now over seventy years of age, and willingly -resigned the effective command to his subordinate David Leslie (see -NEWARK, LORD), in whom he had entire confidence. After the execution of -Charles I. the war broke out afresh, and this time the "godly" party -acted with the royalists. In the new war, and in the disastrous campaign -of Dunbar, Leven took but a nominal part, though attempts were -afterwards made to hold him responsible. But once more the parliament -refused to accept his resignation. Leven at last fell into the hands of -a party of English dragoons in August 1651, and with some others was -sent to London. He remained incarcerated in the Tower for some time, -till released on finding securities for L20,000, upon which he retired -to his residence in Northumberland. While on a visit to London he was -again arrested, for a technical breach of his engagement, but by the -intercession of the queen of Sweden he obtained his liberty. He was -freed from his engagements in 1654, and retired to his seat at Balgonie -in Fifeshire, where he died at an advanced age in 1661. He acquired -considerable landed property, particularly Inchmartin in the Carse of -Gowrie, which he called Inchleslie. - - See LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF, below. - - - - -LEVEN, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 5577. It is -situated on the Firth of Forth, at the mouth of the Leven, 5(3/4) m. E. -by N. of Thornton Junction by the North British railway. The public -buildings include the town hall, public hall and people's institute, in -the grounds of which the old town cross has been erected. The industries -are numerous, comprising flax-spinning, brewing, linen-weaving, -paper-making, seed-crushing and rope-making, besides salt-works, a -foundry, saw-mill and brick-works. The wet dock is not much used, owing -to the constant accumulation of sand. The golf-links extending for 2 m. -to Lundin are among the best in Scotland. Two miles N.E. is Lundin Mill -and Drumochie, usually called LUNDIN (pop. 570), at the mouth of Kiel -Burn, with a station on the Links. The three famous standing stones are -supposed to be either of "Druidical" origin or to mark the site of a -battle with the Danes. In the vicinity are the remains of an old house -of the Lundins, dating from the reign of David II. To the N.W. of Leven -lies the parish of KENNOWAY (pop. 870). In Captain Seton's house, which -still stands in the village of Kennoway, Archbishop Sharp spent the -night before his assassination (1679). One mile east of Lundin lies -LARGO (pop. of parish 2046), consisting of Upper Largo, or Kirkton of -Largo, and Lower Largo. The public buildings include Simpson institute, -with a public hall, library, reading-room, bowling-green and lawn-tennis -court, and John Wood's hospital, founded in 1659 for poor persons -bearing his name. A statue of Alexander Selkirk, or Selcraig -(1676-1721), the prototype of "Robinson Crusoe," who was born here, was -erected in 1886. Sir John Leslie (1766-1832), the natural philosopher, -was also a native. Largo claims two famous sailors, Admiral Sir Philip -Durham (1763-1845), commander-in-chief at Portsmouth from 1836 to 1839, -and Sir Andrew Wood (d. 1515), the trusted servant of James III. and -James IV., who sailed the "Great Michael," the largest ship of its time. -When he was past active service he had a canal cut from his house to the -parish church, to which he was rowed every Sunday in an eight-oared -barge. Largo House was granted to him by James III., and the tower of -the original structure still exists. About 1(1/2) m. from the coast -rises the height of Largo Law (948 ft.). Kellie Law lies some 5(1/2) m. -to the east. - - - - -LEVEN, LOCH, a lake of Kinross-shire, Scotland. It has an oval shape, -the longer axis running from N.W. to S.E., has a length of 3{2/3} m., -and a breadth of 2{2/3} m. and is situated near the south and east -boundaries of the shire. It lies at a height of 350 ft. above the sea. -The mean depth is less than 15 ft., with a maximum of 83 ft., the lake -being thus one of the shallowest in Scotland. Reclamation works carried -on from 1826 to 1836 reduced its area by one quarter, but it still -possesses a surface area of 5(1/2) sq. m. It drains the county and is -itself drained by the Leven. It is famous for the Loch Leven trout -(_Salmo levenensis_, considered by some a variety of _S. trutta_), which -are remarkable for size and quality. The fishings are controlled by the -Loch Leven Angling Association, which organizes competitions attracting -anglers from far and near. The loch contains seven islands. Upon St -Serf's, the largest, which commemorates the patron saint of Fifeshire, -are the ruins of the Priory of Portmoak--so named from St Moak, the -first abbot--the oldest Culdee establishment in Scotland. Some time -before 961 it was made over to the bishop of St Andrews, and shortly -after 1144 a body of canons regular was established on it in connexion -with the priory of canons regular founded in that year at St Andrews. -The second largest island, Castle Island, possesses remains of even -greater interest. The first stronghold is supposed to have been erected -by Congal, son of Dongart, king of the Picts. The present castle dates -from the 13th century and was occasionally used as a royal residence. It -is said to have been in the hands of the English for a time, from whom -it was delivered by Wallace. It successfully withstood Edward Baliol's -siege in 1335, and was granted by Robert II. to Sir William Douglas of -Lugton. It became the prison at various periods of Robert II.; of -Alexander Stuart, earl of Buchan, "the Wolf of Badenoch"; Archibald, -earl of Douglas (1429); Patrick Graham, archbishop of St Andrews (who -died, still in bondage, on St Serf's Island in 1478), and of Mary, queen -of Scots. The queen had visited it more than once before her detention, -and had had a presence chamber built in it. Conveyed hither in June 1567 -after her surrender at Carberry, she signed her abdication within its -walls on the 4th of July and effected her escape on the 2nd of May 1568. -The keys of the castle, which were thrown into the loch during her -flight, were found and are preserved at Dalmahoy in Midlothian. Support -of Mary's cause had involved Thomas Percy, 7th earl of Northumberland -(b. 1528). He too was lodged in the castle in 1569, and after three -years' imprisonment was handed over to the English, by whom he was -beheaded at York in 1572. The proverb that "Those never got luck who -came to Loch Leven" sums up the history of the castle. The causeway -connecting the isle with the mainland was long submerged too deeply for -use, but the reclamation operations already referred to almost brought -it into view again. - - - - -LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF. The family of Melville which now holds -these two earldoms is descended from Sir John Melville of Raith in -Fifeshire. Sir John, who was a member of the reforming party in -Scotland, was put to death for high treason on the 13th of December -1548; he left with other children a son Robert (1527-1621), who in 1616 -was created a lord of parliament as Lord Melville of Monymaill. Before -his elevation to the Scottish peerage Melville had been a stout partisan -of Mary, queen of Scots, whom he represented at the English court, and -he had filled several important offices in Scotland under her son James -VI. The fourth holder of the lordship of Melville was George (c. -1634-1707), a son of John, the 3rd lord (d. 1643), and a descendant of -Sir John Melville. Implicated in the Rye House plot against Charles II., -George took refuge in the Netherlands in 1683, but he returned to -England after the revolution of 1688 and was appointed secretary for -Scotland by William III. in 1689, being created earl of Melville in the -following year. He was made president of the Scottish privy council in -1696, but he was deprived of his office when Anne became queen in 1702, -and he died on the 20th of May 1707. His son David, 2nd earl of Melville -(1660-1728), fled to Holland with his father in 1683; after serving in -the army of the elector of Brandenburg he accompanied William of Orange -to England in 1688. At the head of a regiment raised by himself he -fought for William at Killiecrankie and elsewhere, and as -commander-in-chief of the troops in Scotland he dealt promptly and -effectively with the attempted Jacobite rising of 1708. In 1712, -however, his office was taken from him and he died on the 6th of June -1728. - -Alexander Leslie, 1st earl of Leven (q.v.), was succeeded in his earldom -by his grandson Alexander, who died without sons in July 1664. The -younger Alexander's two daughters were then in turn countesses of Leven -in their own right; and after the death of the second of these two -ladies in 1676 a dispute arose over the succession to the earldom -between John Leslie, earl (afterwards duke) of Rothes, and David -Melville, 2nd earl of Melville, mentioned above. In 1681, however, -Rothes died, and Melville, who was a great-grandson of the 1st earl of -Leven, assumed the title, calling himself earl of Leven and Melville -after he succeeded his father as earl of Melville in May 1707. Since -1805 the family has borne the name of Leslie-Melville. In 1906 John -David Leslie-Melville (b. 1886) became 12th earl of Leven and 11th earl -of Melville. - - See Sir W. Fraser, _The Melvilles, Earls of Melville, and the Leslies, - Earls of Leven_ (1890); and the _Leven and Melville Papers_, edited by - the Hon. W. H. Leslie-Melville for the Bannatyne Club (1843). - - - - -LEVER, CHARLES JAMES (1806-1872), Irish novelist, second son of James -Lever, a Dublin architect and builder, was born in the Irish capital on -the 31st of August 1806. His descent was purely English. He was educated -in private schools, where he wore a ring, smoked, read novels, was a -ringleader in every breach of discipline, and behaved generally like a -boy destined for the navy in one of Captain Marryat's novels. His -escapades at Trinity College, Dublin (1823-1828), whence he took the -degree of M.B. in 1831, form the basis of that vast cellarage of -anecdote from which all the best vintages in his novels are derived. The -inimitable Frank Webber in _Charles O'Malley_ (spiritual ancestor of -Foker and Mr Bouncer) was a college friend, Robert Boyle, later on an -Irish parson. Lever and Boyle sang ballads of their own composing in the -streets of Dublin, after the manner of Fergusson or Goldsmith, filled -their caps with coppers and played many other pranks embellished in the -pages of _O'Malley_, _Con Cregan_ and _Lord Kilgobbin_. Before seriously -embarking upon the medical studies for which he was designed, Lever -visited Canada as an unqualified surgeon on an emigrant ship, and has -drawn upon some of his experiences in _Con Cregan_, _Arthur O'Leary_ and -_Roland Cashel_. Arrived in Canada he plunged into the backwoods, was -affiliated to a tribe of Indians and had to escape at the risk of his -life, like his own Bagenal Daly. - -Back in Europe, he travelled in the guise of a student from Gottingen to -Weimar (where he saw Goethe), thence to Vienna; he loved the German -student life with its beer, its fighting and its fun, and several of his -merry songs, such as "The Pope he loved a merry life" (greatly envied by -Titmarsh), are on _Student-lied_ models. His medical degree admitted him -to an appointment from the Board of Health in Co. Clare and then as -dispensary doctor at Port Stewart, but the liveliness of his diversions -as a country doctor seems to have prejudiced the authorities against -him. In 1833 he married his first love, Catherine Baker, and in February -1837, after varied experiences, he began running _The Confessions of -Harry Lorrequer_ through the pages of the recently established _Dublin -University Magazine_. During the previous seven years the popular taste -had declared strongly in favour of the service novel as exemplified by -_Frank Mildmay_, _Tom Cringle_, _The Subaltern_, _Cyril Thornton_, -_Stories of Waterloo_, _Ben Brace_ and _The Bivouac_; and Lever himself -had met William Hamilton Maxwell, the titular founder of the genre. -Before _Harry Lorrequer_ appeared in volume form (1839), Lever had -settled on the strength of a slight diplomatic connexion as a -fashionable physician in Brussels (16, Rue Ducale). _Lorrequer_ was -merely a string of Irish and other stories good, bad and indifferent, -but mostly rollicking, and Lever, who strung together his anecdotes late -at night after the serious business of the day was done, was astonished -at its success. "If this sort of thing amuses them, I can go on for -ever." Brussels was indeed a superb place for the observation of -half-pay officers, such as Major Monsoon (Commissioner Meade), Captain -Bubbleton and the like, who terrorized the _tavernes_ of the place with -their endless peninsular stories, and of English society a little -damaged, which it became the specialty of Lever to depict. He sketched -with a free hand, wrote, as he lived, from hand to mouth, and the chief -difficulty he experienced was that of getting rid of his characters who -"hung about him like those tiresome people who never can make up their -minds to bid you good night." Lever had never taken part in a battle -himself, but his next three books, _Charles O'Malley_ (1841), _Jack -Hinton_ and _Tom Burke of Ours_ (1843), written under the spur of the -writer's chronic extravagance, contain some splendid military writing -and some of the most animated battle-pieces on record. In pages of -_O'Malley_ and _Tom Burke_ Lever anticipates not a few of the best -effects of Marbot, Thiebaut, Lejeune, Griois, Seruzier, Burgoyne and the -like. His account of the Douro need hardly fear comparison, it has been -said, with Napier's. Condemned by the critics, Lever had completely won -the general reader from the Iron Duke himself downwards. - -In 1842 he returned to Dublin to edit the _Dublin University Magazine_, -and gathered round him a typical coterie of Irish wits (including one or -two hornets) such as the O'Sullivans, Archer Butler, W. Carleton, Sir -William Wilde, Canon Hayman, D. F. McCarthy, McGlashan, Dr Kenealy and -many others. In June 1842 he welcomed at Templeogue, 4 m. south-west of -Dublin, the author of the _Snob Papers_ on his Irish tour (the _Sketch -Book_ was, later, dedicated to Lever). Thackeray recognized the fund of -Irish sadness beneath the surface merriment. "The author's character is -not humour but sentiment. The spirits are mostly artificial, the _fond_ -is sadness, as appears to me to be that of most Irish writing and -people." The Waterloo episode in _Vanity Fair_ was in part an outcome of -the talk between the two novelists. But the "Galway pace," the display -he found it necessary to maintain at Templeogue, the stable full of -horses, the cards, the friends to entertain, the quarrels to compose and -the enormous rapidity with which he had to complete _Tom Burke_, _The -O'Donoghue_ and _Arthur O'Leary_ (1845), made his native land an -impossible place for Lever to continue in. Templeogue would soon have -proved another Abbotsford. Thackeray suggested London. But Lever -required a new field of literary observation and anecdote. His _seve -originel_ was exhausted and he decided to renew it on the continent. In -1845 he resigned his editorship and went back to Brussels, whence he -started upon an unlimited tour of central Europe in a family coach. Now -and again he halted for a few months, and entertained to the limit of -his resources in some ducal castle or other which he hired for an off -season. Thus at Riedenburg, near Bregenz, in August 1846, he entertained -Charles Dickens and his wife and other well-known people. Like his own -_Daltons_ or _Dodd Family Abroad_ he travelled continentally, from -Carlsruhe to Como, from Como to Florence, from Florence to the Baths of -Lucca and so on, and his letters home are the litany of the literary -remittance man, his ambition now limited to driving a pair of novels -abreast without a diminution of his standard price for serial work -("twenty pounds a sheet"). In the _Knight of Gwynne_, a story of the -Union (1847), _Con Cregan_ (1849), _Roland Cashel_ (1850) and _Maurice -Tiernay_ (1852) we still have traces of his old manner; but he was -beginning to lose his original joy in composition. His _fond_ of sadness -began to cloud the animal joyousness of his temperament. Formerly he had -written for the happy world which is young and curly and merry; now he -grew fat and bald and grave. "After 38 or so what has life to offer but -one universal declension. Let the crew pump as hard as they like, the -leak gains every hour." But, depressed in spirit as he was, his wit was -unextinguished; he was still the delight of the _salons_ with his -stories, and in 1867, after a few years' experience of a similar kind at -Spezia, he was cheered by a letter from Lord Derby offering him the more -lucrative consulship of Trieste. "Here is six hundred a year for doing -nothing, and you are just the man to do it." The six hundred could not -atone to Lever for the lassitude of prolonged exile. Trieste, at first -"all that I could desire," became with characteristic abruptness -"detestable and damnable." "Nothing to eat, nothing to drink, no one to -speak to." "Of all the dreary places it has been my lot to sojourn in -this is the worst" (some references to Trieste will be found in _That -Boy of Norcott's_, 1869). He could never be alone and was almost -morbidly dependent upon literary encouragement. Fortunately, like -Scott, he had unscrupulous friends who assured him that his last -efforts were his best. They include _The Fortunes of Glencore_ (1857), -_Tony Butler_ (1865), _Luttrell of Arran_ (1865), _Sir Brooke Fosbrooke_ -(1866), _Lord Kilgobbin_ (1872) and the table-talk of _Cornelius -O'Dowd_, originally contributed to Blackwood. His depression, partly due -to incipient heart disease, partly to the growing conviction that he was -the victim of literary and critical conspiracy, was confirmed by the -death of his wife (23rd April 1870), to whom he was tenderly attached. -He visited Ireland in the following year and seemed alternately in very -high and very low spirits. Death had already given him one or two -runaway knocks, and, after his return to Trieste, he failed gradually, -dying suddenly, however, and almost painlessly, from failure of the -heart's action on the 1st of June 1872. His daughters, one of whom, -Sydney, is believed to have been the real author of _The Rent in a -Cloud_ (1869), were well provided for. - -Trollope praised Lever's novels highly when he said that they were just -like his conversation. He was a born raconteur, and had in perfection -that easy flow of light description which without tedium or hurry leads -up to the point of the good stories of which in earlier days his supply -seemed inexhaustible. With little respect for unity of action or -conventional novel structure, his brightest books, such as _Lorrequer_, -_O'Malley_ and _Tom Burke_, are in fact little more than recitals of -scenes in the life of a particular "hero," unconnected by any continuous -intrigue. The type of character he depicted is for the most part -elementary. His women are mostly rouees, romps or Xanthippes; his heroes -have too much of the Pickle temper about them and fall an easy prey to -the serious attacks of Poe or to the more playful gibes of Thackeray in -_Phil Fogarty_ or Bret Harte in _Terence Deuville_. This last is a -perfect bit of burlesque. Terence exchanges nineteen shots with the Hon. -Captain Henry Somerset in the glen. "At each fire I shot away a button -from his uniform. As my last bullet shot off the last button from his -sleeve, I remarked quietly, 'You seem now, my lord, to be almost as -ragged as the gentry you sneered at,' and rode haughtily away." And yet -these careless sketches contain such haunting creations as Frank Webber, -Major Monsoon and Micky Free, "the Sam Weller of Ireland." Falstaff is -alone in the literature of the world; but if ever there came a later -Falstaff, Monsoon was the man. As for Baby Blake, is she not an Irish Di -Vernon? The critics may praise Lever's thoughtful and careful later -novels as they will, but _Charles O'Malley_ will always be the pattern -of a military romance. - -Superior, it is sometimes claimed, in construction and style, the later -books approximate it may be thought to the good _ordinary_ novel of -commerce, but they lack the _extraordinary_ qualities, the -incommunicable "go" of the early books--the elan of Lever's untamed -youth. Artless and almost formless these productions may be, but they -represent to us, as very few other books can, that pathetic ejaculation -of Lever's own--"Give us back the wild freshness of the morning!" We -know the novelist's teachers, Maxwell, Napier, the old-fashioned -compilation known as _Victoires, conquetes et desastres des Francais_ -(1835), and the old buffers at Brussels who emptied the room by uttering -the word "Badajos." But where else shall we find the equals of the -military scenes in _O'Malley_ and _Tom Burke_, or the military episodes -in _Jack Hinton_, _Arthur O'Leary_ (the story of Aubuisson) or _Maurice -Tiernay_ (nothing he ever did is finer than the chapter introducing "A -remnant of Fontenoy")? It is here that his true genius lies, even more -than in his talent for conviviality and fun, which makes an early copy -of an early Lever (with Phiz's illustrations) seem literally to exhale -an atmosphere of past and present entertainment. It is here that he is a -true romancist, not for boys only, but also for men. - -Lever's lack of artistry and of sympathy with the deeper traits of the -Irish character have been stumbling-blocks to his reputation among the -critics. Except to some extent in _The Martins of Cro' Martin_ (1856) it -may be admitted that his portraits of Irish are drawn too exclusively -from the type depicted in Sir Jonah Barrington's _Memoirs_ and already -well known on the English stage. He certainly had no deliberate -intention of "lowering the national character." Quite the reverse. Yet -his posthumous reputation seems to have suffered in consequence, in -spite of all his Gallic sympathies and not unsuccessful endeavours to -apotheosize the "Irish Brigade." - - The chief authorities are the _Life_, by W. J. Fitzpatrick (1879), and - the _Letters_, ed. in 2 vols. by Edmund Downey (1906), neither of - which, however, enables the reader to penetrate below the surface. See - also Dr Garnett in _Dict. Nat. Biog.; Dublin Univ. Mag._ (1880), 465 - and 570; Anthony Trollope's _Autobiography; Blackwood_ (August 1862); - _Fortnightly Review_, vol. xxxii.; Andrew Lang's _Essays in Little_ - (1892); Henley's _Views and Reviews_; Hugh Walker's _Literature of the - Victorian Era_ (1910); _The Bookman Hist. of English Literature_ - (1906), p. 467; _Bookman_ (June 1906; portraits). A library edition of - the novels in 37 vols. appeared 1897-1899 under the superintendence of - Lever's daughter, Julie Kate Neville. (T. Se.) - - - - -LEVER (through O. Fr. _leveour_, _levere_, mod. _levier_, from Lat. -_levare_, to lift, raise), a mechanical device for raising bodies; the -"simple" lever consists of a rigid bar free to move about a fixed point, -termed the _fulcrum_; one point of the rod is connected to the piece to -be moved, and power is applied at another point (see MECHANICS). - - - - -LEVERRIER, URBAIN JEAN JOSEPH (1811-1877), French astronomer, was born -at St Lo in Normandy on the 11th of March 1811. His father, who held a -small post under government, made great efforts to send him to Paris, -where a brilliant examination gained him, in 1831, admittance to the -Ecole Polytechnique. The distinction of his career there was rewarded -with a free choice amongst the departments of the public service open to -pupils of the school. He selected the administration of tobaccos, -addressing himself especially to chemical researches under the guidance -of Gay-Lussac, and gave striking proof of ability in two papers on the -combinations of phosphorus with hydrogen and oxygen, published in -_Annales de Chimie et de Physique_ (1835 and 1837). His astronomical -vocation, like that of Kepler, came from without. The place of teacher -of that science at the Ecole Polytechnique falling vacant in 1837, it -was offered to and accepted by Leverrier, who, "docile to circumstance," -instantly abandoned chemistry, and directed the whole of his powers to -celestial mechanics. The first fruits of his labours were contained in -two memoirs presented to the Academy, September 16 and October 14, 1839. -Pursuing the investigations of Laplace, he demonstrated with greater -rigour the stability of the solar system, and calculated the limits -within which the eccentricities and inclinations of the planetary orbits -vary. This remarkable debut excited much attention, and, on the -recommendation of Francois Arago, he took in hand the theory of Mercury, -producing, in 1843, vastly improved tables of that planet. The -perturbations of the comets discovered, the one by H. A. E. A. Faye in -November 1843, the other by Francesco de Vico a year later, were -minutely investigated by Leverrier, with the result of disproving the -supposed identity of the first with Lexell's lost comet of 1770, and of -the other with Tycho's of 1585. On the other hand, he made it appear all -but certain that Vico's comet was the same with one seen by Philippe de -Lahire in 1678. Recalled once more, by the summons of Arago, to -planetary studies, he was this time invited to turn his attention to -Uranus. Step by step, with sagacious and patient accuracy, he advanced -to the great discovery which has immortalized his name. Carefully -sifting all the known causes of disturbance, he showed that one -previously unknown had to be reckoned with, and on the 23rd of September -1846 the planet Neptune was discerned by J. G. Galle (d. 1910) at -Berlin, within one degree of the spot Leverrier had indicated (see -NEPTUNE). - -This memorable achievement was greeted with an outburst of public -enthusiasm. Academies vied with each other in enrolling Leverrier among -their members; the Royal Society awarded him the Copley medal; the king -of Denmark sent him the order of the Dannebrog; he was named officer in -the Legion of Honour, and preceptor to the comte de Paris; a chair of -astronomy was created for his benefit at the Faculty of Sciences; he was -appointed adjunct astronomer to the Bureau of Longitudes. Returned to -the Legislative Assembly in 1849 by his native department of Manche, he -voted with the anti-republican party, but devoted his principal -attention to subjects connected with science and education. After the -_coup d'etat_ of 1851 he became a senator and inspector-general of -superior instruction, sat upon the commission for the reform of the -Ecole Polytechnique (1854), and, on the 30th of January 1854, succeeded -Arago as director of the Paris observatory. His official work in the -latter capacity would alone have strained the energies of an ordinary -man. The institution had fallen into a state of lamentable inefficiency. -Leverrier placed it on a totally new footing, freed it from the control -of the Bureau of Longitudes, and raised it to its due rank among the -observatories of Europe. He did not escape the common lot of reformers. -His uncompromising measures and unconciliatory manner of enforcing them -raised a storm only appeased by his removal on the 5th of February 1870. -On the death of his successor Charles Eugene Delaunay (1816-1872), he -was reinstated by Thiers, but with authority restricted by the -supervision of a council. In the midst of these disquietudes, he -executed a task of gigantic proportions. This was nothing less than the -complete revision cf the planetary theories, followed by a laborious -comparison of results with the most authentic observations, and the -construction of tables representing the movements thus corrected. It -required all his indomitable perseverance to carry through a purpose -which failing health continually menaced with frustration. He had, -however, the happiness of living long enough to perfect his work. Three -weeks after he had affixed his signature to the printed sheets of the -theory of Neptune he died at Paris on the 23rd of September 1877. By his -marriage with Mademoiselle Choquet, who survived him little more than a -month, he left a son and daughter. - - The discovery with which Leverrier's name is popularly identified was - only an incident in his career. The elaboration of the scheme of the - heavens traced out by P. S. Laplace in the _Mecanique celeste_ was its - larger aim, for the accomplishment of which forty years of unremitting - industry barely sufficed. He nevertheless found time to organize the - meteorological service in France and to promote the present system of - international weather-warnings. He founded the Association - Scientifique, and was active in introducing a practical scientific - element into public education. His inference of the existence, between - Mercury and the sun, of an appreciable quantity of circulating matter - (_Comptes rendus_, 1859, ii. 379), has not yet been verified. He was - twice, in 1868 and 1876, the recipient of the gold medal of the Royal - Astronomical Society, London, and the university of Cambridge - conferred upon him, in 1875, the honorary degree of LL.D. His - planetary and solar tables were adopted by the _Nautical Almanac_, as - well as by the _Connaissance des temps_. - - The _Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris_, the publication of which was - set on foot by Leverrier, contain, in vols. i.-vi. (_Memoires_) - (1855-1861) and x.-xiv. (1874-1877), his theories and tables of the - several planets. In vol. i. will be found, besides his masterly report - on the observatory, a general theory of secular inequalities, in which - the development of the disturbing function was carried further than - had previously been attempted. - - The memoirs and papers communicated by him to the Academy were - summarized in _Comptes rendus_ (1839-1876), and the more important - published in full either separately or in the _Conn. des temps_ and - the _Journal des mathematiques_. That entitled _Developpemens sur - differents points de la theorie des perturbations_ (1841), was - translated in part xviii. of Taylor's _Scientific Memoirs_. For his - scientific work see Professor Adams's address, _Monthly Notices_, - xxxvi. 232, and F. Tisserand's review in _Ann. de l'Obs._ tom. xv. - (1880); for a notice of his life, J. Bertrand's "Eloge historique," - _Mem. de l'Ac. des Sciences_, tom, xli., 2^(me) serie. (A. M. C.) - - - - -LEVERTIN, OSCAR IVAN (1862-1906), Swedish poet and man of letters, was -born of Jewish parents at Norrkoping on the 17th of July 1862. He -received his doctorate in letters at Upsala in 1887, and was -subsequently _docent_ at Upsala, and later professor of literature at -Stockholm. Enforced sojourns in southern Europe on account of health -familiarized him with foreign languages. He began by being an extreme -follower of the naturalist school, but on his return in 1890 from a two -years' residence in Davos he wrote, in collaboration with the poet C. G. -Verner von Heidenstam (b. 1859), a novel, _Pepitas brollop_ (1890), -which was a direct attack on naturalism. His later volumes of short -stories, _Rococonoveller_ and _Sista noveller_, are fine examples of -modern Swedish fiction. The lyrical beauty of his poems, _Legender och -visor_ (1891), placed him at the head of the romantic reaction in -Sweden. In his poems entitled _Nya Dikter_ (1894) he drew his material -partly from medieval sources, and a third volume of poetry in 1902 -sustained his reputation. His last poetical work (1905) was _Kung Salomo -och Morolf_, poems founded on an eastern legend. As a critic he first -attracted attention by his books on the Gustavian age of Swedish -letters: _Teater och drama under Gustaf III._ (1889), &c. He was an -active collaborator in the review _Ord och Bild_. He died in 1906, at a -time when he was engaged on his _Linne_, posthumously published, a -fragment of a great work on Linnaeus. - - - - -LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900), German orchestral conductor, was born at -Giessen on the 7th of November 1839, and was the son of a Jewish rabbi. -He was educated at Giessen and Mannheim, and came under Vincenz -Lachner's notice. From 1855 to 1858 Levi studied at the Leipzig -conservatorium, and after a series of travels which took him to Paris, -he obtained his first post as music director at Saarbrucken, which post -he exchanged for that at Mannheim in 1861. From 1862 to 1864 he was -chief conductor of the German opera in Rotterdam, then till 1872 at -Carlsruhe, when he went to Munich, a post he held until 1896, when -ill-health compelled him to resign. Levi's name is indissolubly -connected with the increased public appreciation of Wagner's music. He -conducted the first performance of _Parsifal_ at Bayreuth in 1882, and -was connected with the musical life of that place during the remainder -of his career. He visited London in 1895. - - - - -LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888), English jurist and statistician, was born of -Jewish parents on the 6th of June 1821, at Ancona, Italy. After -receiving an early training in a business house in his native town, he -went to Liverpool in 1844, became naturalized, and changing his faith, -joined the Presbyterian church. Perceiving the necessity, in view of the -unsystematic condition of the English law on the subject, for the -establishment of chambers and tribunals of commerce in England, he -warmly advocated their institution in numerous pamphlets; and as a -result of his labours the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, of which Levi -was made secretary, was founded in 1849. In 1850 Levi published his -_Commercial Law of the World_, being an exhaustive and comparative -treatise upon the laws and codes of mercantile countries. Appointed in -1852 to the chair of commercial law in King's College, London, he proved -himself a highly competent and popular instructor, and his evening -classes were a most successful innovation. He was called to the bar at -Lincoln's Inn in 1859, and received from the university of Tubingen the -degree of doctor of political science. His chief work--_History of -British Commerce and of the Economic Progress of the British Nation_, -1763-1870, is perhaps a rather too partisan account of British economic -development, being a eulogy upon the blessings of Free Trade, but its -value as a work of reference cannot be gainsaid. Among his other works -are: _Work and Pay_; _Wages and Earnings of the Working Classes_; -_International Law, with Materials for a Code_. He died on the 7th of -May 1888. - - - - -LEVIATHAN, the Hebrew name (_livyathan_), occurring in the poetical -books of the Bible, of a gigantic animal, apparently the sea or water -equivalent of behemoth (q.v.), the king of the animals of the dry land. -In Job xli. 15 it would seem to represent the crocodile, in Isaiah -xxvii. 1 it is a crooked and piercing serpent, the dragon of the sea; -cf. Psalms civ. 26. The etymology of the word is uncertain, but it has -been taken to be connected with a root meaning "to twist." Apart from -its scriptural usage, the word is applied to any gigantic marine animal -such as the whale, and hence, figuratively, of very large ships, and -also of persons of outstanding strength, power, wealth or influence. -Hobbes adopted the name as the title of his principal work, applying it -to "the multitude so united in one person ... called a commonwealth.... -This is the generation of that Leviathan, or rather ... of that mortal -God, to which we owe under the immortal God, our peace and defence." - - - - -LEVIRATE (Lat. _levir_, a husband's brother), a custom, sometimes even a -law, compelling a dead man's brother to marry his widow. It seems to -have been widespread in primitive times, and is common to-day. Of the -origin and primitive purpose of the levirate marriage various -explanations have been put forward:-- - -1. It has been urged that the custom was primarily based on the law of -inheritance; a wife, regarded as a chattel, being inherited like other -possessions. The social advantage of providing one who should maintain -the widow doubtless aided the spread of the custom. The abandonment of a -woman and her children in the nomadic stage of civilization would be -equivalent to death for them; hence with some peoples the levirate -became a duty rather than a right. Among the Thlinkets, for example, -when a man dies, his brother or his sister's son must marry the widow, a -failure in this duty occasioning feuds. The obligation on a man to -provide for his sister-in-law is analogous to other duties devolving on -kinsfolk, such as the vendetta. - -2. J. F. McLennan, however, would assume the levirate to be a relic of -polyandry, and in his argument lays much stress on the fact that it is -the dead man's _brother_ who inherits the widow. But among many races -who follow the custom, such as the Fijians, Samoans, Papuans of New -Guinea, the Caroline Islanders, and some tribes in the interior of -Western Equatorial Africa, the rule of inheritance is to the brother -first. Thus among the Santals, "when the elder brother dies, the next -younger inherits the widow, children and all the property." Further, -there is no known race where it is permitted to a son to marry his own -mother. Inheriting a woman in primitive societies would be always -tantamount to marrying her, and, apart from any special laws of -inheritance, it would be natural for the brother to take over the widow. -In polygamous countries where a man leaves many widows the son would -have a right of ownership over these, and could dispose of them or keep -them as he pleased, his own mother alone excepted. Thus among the -Bakalai, an African tribe, widows may marry the son of their dead -husband, or in default of a son, can live with the brother. The Negroes -of Benin and the Gabun and the Kaffirs of Natal have similar customs. In -New Caledonia every man, married or single, must immediately marry his -brother's widow. In Polynesia the levirate has the force of law, and it -is common throughout America and Asia. - -3. Another explanation of the custom has been sought in a semi-religious -motive which has had extraordinary influence in countries where to die -without issue is regarded as a terrible calamity. The fear of this -catastrophe would readily arise among people who did not believe in -personal immortality, and to whom the extinction of their line would be -tantamount to annihilation. Or it is easily conceivable as a natural -result of ancestor-worship, under which failure of offspring entailed -deprivation of cherished rites and service.[1] Thus it is only when the -dead man has no offspring that the Jewish, Hindu and Malagasy laws -prescribe that the brother shall "raise up seed" to him. In this sense -the levirate forms part of the Deuteronomic Code, under which, however, -the obligation is restricted to the brother who "dwelleth together" -(i.e. on the family estate) with the dead man, and the first child only -of the levirate marriage is regarded as that of the dead man. That the -custom was obsolescent seems proved by the enjoining of ceremony on any -brother who wished to evade the duty, though he had to submit to an -insult from his sister-in-law, who draws off his sandal and spits in his -face. The biblical story of Ruth exemplifies the custom, though with -further modifications (see RUTH, BOOK OF). Finally the custom is -forbidden in Leviticus, though in New Testament times the levirate law -was still observed by some Jews. The ceremony ordained by Deuteronomy is -still observed among the orthodox. Among the Hindus the _levir_ did not -take his brother's widow as wife, but he had intercourse with her. This -practice was called _niyoga_. - -4. Yet another suggested origin of the levirate is agrarian, the motive -being to keep together under the levirate husband the property which -would otherwise have been divided among all the brothers or next of kin. - - See J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_ (London, 1886) and - "The Levirate and Polyandry," in _The Fortnightly Review_, n.s. vol. - xxi. (1877); C. N. Starcke, _The Primitive Family in its Origin and - Development_ (London, 1889); Edward Westermarck, _History of Human - Marriage_ (London, 1894), pp. 510-514, where are valuable notes - containing references to numerous books of travel; H. Spencer, - _Principles of Sociology_, ii. 649; A. H. Post, _Einleitung in das - Stud. d. Ethnolog. Jurisprud_. (1886). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] An expression of this idea is quoted from the _Mahabharata_ - (Muir's trans.), by Max Muller (Gifford Lectures), _Anthropological - Religion_, p. 31-- - - "That stage completed, seek a wife - And gain the fruit of wedded life, - A race of sons, by rites to seal, - When thou art gone, thy spirit's weal." - - - - -LEVIS (formerly Pointe Levi), the chief town of Levis county, Quebec, -Canada, situated on the precipitous south bank of the St Lawrence, -opposite Quebec city. Pop. (1901) 7783. It is on the Intercolonial -railway, and is the eastern terminus of the Grand Trunk and Quebec -Central railways. It contains the Lorne dock, a Dominion government -graving dock, 445 ft. long, 100 ft. wide, with a depth on the sill of -26(1/2) and 20(1/2) ft. at high water, spring and neap tides -respectively. It is an important centre of the river trade, and is -connected by steam ferries with the city of Quebec. It is named after -the marechal duc de Levis, the last commander of the French troops in -Canada. - - - - -LEVITES, or sons of Levi (son of Jacob by Leah), a sacred caste in -ancient Israel, the guardians of the temple service at Jerusalem.[1] - -1. _Place in Ritual._--In the developed hierarchical system the -ministers of the sanctuary are divided into distinct grades. All are -"Levites" by descent, and are thus correlated in the genealogical and -other lists, but the true priesthood is confined to the sons of Aaron, -while the mass of the Levites are subordinate servants who are not -entitled to approach the altar or to perform any strictly priestly -function. All access to the Deity is restricted to the one priesthood -and to the one sanctuary at Jerusalem; the worshipping subject is the -nation of Israel as a unity, and the function of worship is discharged -on its behalf by divinely chosen priests. The ordinary individual may -not intrude under penalty of death; only those of Levitical origin may -perform service, and they are essentially the servants and hereditary -serfs of the Aaronite priests (see Num. xviii.). But such a scheme finds -no place in the monarchy; it presupposes a hierocracy under which the -priesthood increased its rights by claiming the privileges which past -kings had enjoyed; it is the outcome of a complicated development in Old -Testament religion in the light of which it is to be followed (see -HEBREW RELIGION). - -First (a), in the earlier biblical writings which describe the state of -affairs under the Hebrew monarchy there is not this fundamental -distinction among the Levites, and, although a list of Aaronite -high-priests is preserved in a late source, internal details and the -evidence of the historical books render its value extremely doubtful (1 -Chron. vi. 3-15, 49-53). In Jerusalem itself the subordinate officers of -the temple were not members of a holy gild, but of the royal body-guard, -or bond-slaves who had access to the sacred courts, and might even be -uncircumcised foreigners (Josh. ix. 27; 1 Kings xiv. 28; 2 Kings xi.; -cf. Zeph. i. 8 seq.; Zech. xiv. 21). Moreover, ordinary individuals -might serve as priests (1 Sam. ii II, 18, vii. 1; see 2 Sam. viii. 18, -deliberately altered in 1 Chron. xviii. 17); however, every Levite was a -priest, or at least qualified to become one (Deut. x. 8, xviii. 7; -Judges xvii. 5-13), and when the author of 1 Kings xii. 31, wishes to -represent Jeroboam's priests as illegitimate, he does not say that they -were not Aaronites, but that they were not of the sons of Levi. - -The next stage (b) is connected with the suppression of the local -high-places or minor shrines in favour of a central sanctuary. This -involved the suppression of the Levitical priests in the country (cf. -perhaps the allusion in Deut. xxi. 5); and the present book of -Deuteronomy, in promulgating the reform, represents the Levites as poor -scattered "sojourners" and recommends them to the charity of the people -(Deut. xii. 12, 18 seq., xiv. 27, 29, xvi. 11, 14, xxvi. 11 sqq.). -However, they are permitted to congregate at "the place which Yahweh -shall choose," where they may perform the usual priestly duties together -with their brethren who "stand there before Yahweh," and they are -allowed their share of the offerings (Deut. xviii. 6-8).[2] The -Deuteronomic history of the monarchy actually ascribes to the Judaean -king Josiah (621 B.C.) the suppression of the high-places, and states -that the local priests were brought to Jerusalem and received support, -but did not minister at the altar (2 Kings xxiii. 9). Finally, a scheme -of ritual for the second temple raises this exclusion to the rank of a -principle. The Levites who had been idolatrous are punished by exclusion -from the proper priestly work, and take the subordinate offices which -the uncircumcised and polluted foreigners had formerly filled, while the -sons of Zadok, who had remained faithful, are henceforth the legitimate -priests, the only descendants of Levi who are allowed to minister unto -Yahweh (Ezek. xliv. 6-15, cf. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xlviii. 11). "A -threefold cord is not quickly broken," and these three independent -witnesses agree in describing a significant innovation which ends with -the supremacy of the Zadokites of Jerusalem over their brethren. - -In the last stage (c) the exclusion of the ordinary Levites from all -share in the priesthood of the sons of Aaron is looked upon as a matter -of course, dating from the institution of priestly worship by Moses. The -two classes are supposed to have been founded separately (Exod. xxviii., -cf. xxix. 9; Num. iii. 6-10), and so far from any degradation being -attached to the rank and file of the Levites, their position is -naturally an honourable one compared with that of the mass of -non-Levitical worshippers (see Num. i. 50-53), and they are taken by -Yahweh as a surrogate for the male first-born of Israel (iii. 11-13). -They are inferior only to the Aaronites to whom they are "joined" -(xviii. 2, a play on the name Levi) as assistants. Various adjustments -and modifications still continue, and a number of scattered details may -indicate that internal rivalries made themselves felt. But the different -steps can hardly be recovered clearly, although the fact that the -priesthood was extended beyond the Zadokites to families of the -dispossessed priests points to some compromise (1 Chron. xxiv.). -Further, it is subsequently found that certain classes of temple -servants, the singers and porters, who had once been outside the -Levitical gilds, became absorbed as the term "Levite" was widened, and -this change is formally expressed by the genealogies which ascribe to -Levi, the common "ancestor" of them all, the singers and even certain -families whose heathenish and foreign names show that they were once -merely servants of the temple.[3] - -2. _Significance of the Development._--Although the legal basis for the -final stage is found in the legislation of the time of Moses (latter -part of the second millennium B.C.), it is in reality scarcely earlier -than the 5th century B.C., and the Jewish theory finds analogies when -developments of the Levitical service are referred to David (1 Chron. -xv. seq., xxiii. sqq.), Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix.) and Josiah -(xxxv.)--contrast the history in the earlier books of Samuel and -Kings--or when the still later book of Jubilees (xxxii.) places the rise -of the Levitical priesthood in the patriarchal period. The traditional -theory of the Mosaic origin of the elaborate Levitical legislation -cannot be maintained save by the most arbitrary and inconsequential -treatment of the evidence and by an entire indifference to the -historical spirit; and, although numerous points of detail still remain -very obscure, the three leading stages in the Levitical institutions are -now recognized by nearly all independent scholars. These stages with a -number of concomitant features confirm the literary hypothesis that -biblical history is in the main due to two leading recensions, the -Deuteronomic and the Priestly (cf. [b] and [c] above), which have -incorporated older sources.[4] If the hierarchical system as it existed -in the post-exilic age was really the work of Moses, it is inexplicable -that all trace of it was so completely lost that the degradation of the -non-Zadokites in Ezekiel was a new feature and a punishment, whereas in -the Mosaic law the ordinary Levites, on the traditional view, was -already forbidden priestly rights under penalty of death. There is in -fact no clear evidence of the existence of a distinction between priests -and Levites in any Hebrew writing demonstrably earlier than the -Deuteronomic stage, although, even as the Pentateuch contains ordinances -which have been carried back by means of a "legal convention" to the -days of Moses, writers have occasionally altered earlier records of the -history to agree with later standpoints.[5] - - No argument in support of the traditional theory can be drawn from the - account of Korah's revolt (Num. xvi. sqq., see S 3) or from the - Levitical cities (Num. xxxv.; Josh. xxi.). Some of the latter were - either not conquered by the Israelites until long after the invasion, - or, if conquered, were not held by Levites; and names are wanting of - places in which priests are actually known to have lived. Certainly - the names are largely identical with ancient holy cities, which, - however, are holy because they possessed noted shrines, not because - the inhabitants were members of a holy tribe. Gezer and Taanach, for - example, are said to have remained in the hands of Canaanites (Judges - i. 27, 29; cf. 1 Kings ix. 16), and recent excavation has shown how - far the cultus of these cities was removed from Mosaic religion and - ritual and how long the grosser elements persisted.[6] On the other - hand, the sanctuaries obviously had always their local ministers, all - of whom in time could be called Levitical, and it is only in this - sense, not in that of the late priestly legislation, that a place like - Shechem could ever have been included. Further, instead of holding - cities and pasture-grounds, the Levites are sometimes described as - scattered and divided (Gen. xlix. 7; Deut. xviii. 6), and though they - may naturally possess property as private individuals, they alone of - all the tribes of Israel possess no tribal inheritance (Num. xviii. - 23, xxvi. 62; Deut. x. 9; Josh. xiv. 3). This fluctuation finds a - parallel in the age at which the Levites were to serve; for neither - has any reasonable explanation been found on the traditional view. - Num. iv. 3 fixes the age at thirty, although in i. 3 it has been - reduced to twenty; but in 1 Chron. xxiii. 3, David is said to have - numbered them from the higher limit, whereas in vv. 24, 27 the lower - figure is given on the authority of "the last words (or acts) of - David." In Num. viii. 23-26, the age is given as twenty-five, but - twenty became usual and recurs in Ezra iii. 8 and 2 Chron. xxxi. 17. - There are, however, independent grounds for believing that 1 Chron. - xxiii. 24, 27, 2 Chron. xxxi. 17 belong to later insertions and that - Ezr. iii. 8 is relatively late. - -When, in accordance with the usual methods of Hebrew genealogical -history, the Levites are defined as the descendants of Levi, the third -son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxix. 34), a literal interpretation is -unnecessary, and the only narrative wherein Levi appears as a person -evidently delineates under the form of personification events in the -history of the Levites (Gen. xxxiv.).[7] They take their place in Israel -as the tribe set apart for sacred duties, and without entering into the -large question how far the tribal schemes can be used for the earlier -history of Israel, it may be observed that no adequate interpretation -has yet been found of the ethnological traditions of Levi and other sons -of Leah in their historical relation to one another or to the other -tribes. However intelligible may be the notion of a tribe _reserved_ for -priestly service, the fact that it does not apply to early biblical -history is apparent from the heterogeneous details of the Levitical -divisions. The incorporation of singers and porters is indeed a late -process, but it is typical of the tendency to co-ordinate all the -religious classes (see GENEALOGY: _Biblical_). The genealogies in their -complete form pay little heed to Moses, although Aaron and Moses could -typify the priesthood and other Levites generally (1 Chron. xxiii. 14). -Certain priesthoods in the first stage (S 1 [a]) claimed descent from -these prototypes, and it is interesting to observe (1) the growing -importance of Aaron in the later sources of "the Exodus," and (2) the -relation between Mosheh (Moses) and his two sons Gershom and Eliezer, on -the one side, and the Levitical names Mushi (i.e. the Mosaite), Gershon -and the Aaronite priest Eleazar, on the other. There are links, also, -which unite Moses with Kenite, Rechabite, Calebite and Edomite families, -and the Levitical names themselves are equally connected with the -southern tribes of Judah and Simeon and with the Edomites.[8] It is to -be inferred, therefore, that some relationship subsisted, or was thought -to subsist, among (1) the Levites, (2) clans actually located in the -south of Palestine, and (3) families whose names and traditions point to -a southern origin. The exact meaning of these features is not clear, but -if it be remembered (a) that the Levites of post-exilic literature -represent only the result of a long and intricate development, (b) that -the name "Levite," in the later stages at least, was extended to include -all priestly servants, and (c) that the priesthoods, in tending to -become hereditary, included priests who were Levites by adoption and not -by descent, it will be recognized that the examination of the evidence -for the earlier stages cannot confine itself to those narratives where -the specific term alone occurs. - -3. _The Traditions of the Levites._--In the "Blessing of Moses" (Deut, -xxxiii. 8-11), Levi is a collective name for the priesthood, probably -that of (north) Israel. He is the guardian of the sacred oracles, -knowing no kin, and enjoying his privileges for proofs of fidelity at -Massah and Meribah. That these places (in the district of Kadesh) were -traditionally associated with the origin of the Levites is suggested by -various Levitical stories, although it is in a narrative now in a -context pointing to Horeb or Sinai that the Levites are Israelites who -for some cause (now lost) severed themselves from their people and took -up a stand on behalf of Yahweh (Exod. xxxii.). Other evidence allows us -to link together the Kenites, Calebites and Danites in a tradition of -some movement into Palestine, evidently quite distinct from the great -invasion of Israelite tribes which predominates in the existing records. -The priesthood of Dan certainly traced its origin to Moses (Judges xvii. -9, xviii. 30); that of Shiloh claimed an equally high ancestry (1 Sam. -ii. 27 seq.).[9] Some tradition of a widespread movement appears to be -ascribed to the age of Jehu, whose accession, promoted by the prophet -Elisha, marks the end of the conflict between Yahweh and Baal. To a -Rechabite (the clan is allied to the Kenites) is definitely ascribed a -hand in Jehu's sanguinary measures, and, though little is told of the -obviously momentous events, one writer clearly alludes to a bloody -period when reforms were to be effected by the sword (1 Kings xix. 17). -Similarly the story of the original selection of the Levites in the -wilderness mentions an uncompromising massacre of idolaters. -Consequently, it is very noteworthy that popular tradition preserves the -recollection of some attack by the "brothers" Levi and Simeon upon the -famous holy city of Shechem to avenge their "sister" Dinah (Gen. -xxxiv.), and that a detailed narrative tells of the bloodthirsty though -pious Danites who sacked an Ephraimite shrine on their journey to a new -home (Judges xvii. sq.). - - The older records utilized by the Deuteronomic and later compilers - indicate some common tradition which has found expression in these - varying forms. Different religious standpoints are represented in the - biblical writings, and it is now important to observe that the - prophecies of Hosea unmistakably show another attitude to the - Israelite priesthood. The condemnation of Jehu's bloodshed (Hos. i. 4) - gives another view of events in which both Elijah and Elisha were - concerned, and the change is more vividly realized when it is found - that even to Moses and Aaron, the traditional founders of Israelite - religion and ritual, is ascribed an offence whereby they incurred - Yahweh's wrath (Num. xx. 12, 24, xxvii. 14; Deut. ix. 20, xxxii. 51). - The sanctuaries of Shiloh and Dan lasted until the deportation of - Israel (Judges xviii. 30 seq.), and some of their history is still - preserved in the account of the late pre-monarchical age (12th-11th - centuries B.C.). Shiloh's priestly gild is condemned for its iniquity - (1 Sam. iii. 11-14), the sanctuary mysteriously disappears, and the - priests are subsequently found at Nob outside Jerusalem (1 Sam. xxi. - seq.). All idea of historical perspective has been lost, since the - fall of Shiloh was apparently a recent event at the close of the 7th - century (Jer. vii. 12-15, xxvi. 6-9). But the tendency to ascribe the - disasters of northern Israel to the priesthood (see esp. Hosea) takes - another form when an inserted prophecy revokes the privileges of the - ancient and honourable family, foretells its overthrow, and announces - the rise of a new faithful and everlasting priesthood, at whose hands - the dispossessed survivors, reduced to poverty, would beg some - priestly office to secure a livelihood (1 Sam. ii. 27-36). The sequel - to this phase is placed in the reign of Solomon, when David's old - priest Abiathar, sole survivor of the priests of Shiloh, is expelled - to Anathoth (near Jerusalem), and Zadok becomes the first chief priest - contemporary with the foundation of the _first_ temple (1 Kings ii. - 27, 35). These situations cannot be severed from what is known - elsewhere of the Deuteronomic teaching, of the reform ascribed to - Josiah, or of the principle inculcated by Ezekiel (see S 1 [b]). The - late specific tendency in favour of Jerusalem agrees with the - Deuteronomic editor of Kings who condemns the sanctuaries of Dan and - Bethel for calf-worship (1 Kings xii. 28-31), and does not acknowledge - the northern priesthood to be Levitical (1 Kings xii. 31, note the - interpretation in 2 Chron. xi. 14, xiii. 9). It is from a similar - standpoint that Aaron is condemned for the manufacture of the golden - calf, and a compiler (not the original writer) finds its sequel in the - election of the faithful Levites.[10] - -In the third great stage there is another change in the tone. The -present (priestly) recension of Gen. xxxiv. has practically justified -Levi and Simeon from its standpoint of opposition to intermarriage, and -in spite of Jacob's curse (Gen. xlix. 5-7) later traditions continue to -extol the slaughter of the Shechemitcs as a pious duty. Post-exilic -revision has also hopelessly obscured the offence of Moses and Aaron, -although there was already a tendency to place the blame upon the people -(Deut. i. 37, iii. 26, iv. 21). When two-thirds of the priestly families -are said to be Zadokites and one-third are of the families of Abiathar, -some reconciliation, some adjustment of rivalries, is to be recognized -(1 Chron. xxiv.). Again, in the composite story of Korah's revolt, one -version reflects a contest between Aaronites and the other Levites who -claimed the priesthood (Num. xvi. 8-11, 36-40), while another shows the -supremacy of the Levites as a caste either over the rest of the people -(? cf. the prayer, Deut. xxxiii. 11), or, since the latter are under the -leadership of Korah, later the eponym of a gild of singers, perhaps over -the more subordinate ministers who once formed a separate class.[11] In -the composite work Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah (dating after the -post-exilic Levitical legislation) a peculiar interest is taken in the -Levites, more particularly in the singers, and certain passages even -reveal some animus against the Aaronites (2 Chron. xxix. 34, xxx. 3). A -Levite probably had a hand in the work, and this, with the evidence for -the Levitical Psalms (see PSALMS), gives the caste an interesting place -in the study of the transmission of the biblical records.[12] But the -history of the Levites in the early post-exilic stage and onwards is a -separate problem, and the work of criticism has not advanced -sufficiently for a proper estimate of the various vicissitudes. However, -the feeling which was aroused among the priests when some centuries -later the singers obtained from Agrippa the privilege of wearing the -priestly linen dress (Josephus, _Ant._ xx. 9. 6), at least enables one -to appreciate more vividly the scantier hints of internal jealousies -during the preceding years.[13] - -4. _Summary._--From the inevitable conclusion that there are three -stages in the written sources for the Levitical institutions, the next -step is the correlation of allied traditions on the basis of the -genealogical evidence. But the problem of fitting these into the history -of Israel still remains. The assumption that the earlier sources for the -pre-monarchical history, as incorporated by late compilers, are -necessarily trustworthy confuses the inquiry (on Gen. xxxiv., see -SIMEON), and even the probability of a reforming spirit in Jehu's age -depends upon the internal criticism of the related records (see JEWS, SS -11-14). The view that the Levites came from the south may be combined -with the conviction that there Yahweh had his seat (cf. Deut. xxxiii. 2; -Judges v. 4; Hab. iii. 3), but the latter is only one view, and the -traditions of the patriarchs point to another belief (cf. also Gen. iv. -26). The two are reconciled when the God of the patriarchs reveals His -name for the first time unto Moses (Exod. iii. 15, vi. 3). With these -variations is involved the problem of the early history of the -Israelites.[14] Moreover, the real Judaean tendency which associates the -fall of Eli's priesthood at Shiloh with the rise of the Zadokites -involves the literary problems of Deuteronomy, a composite work whose -age is not certainly known, and of the twofold Deuteronomic redaction -elsewhere, one phase of which is more distinctly Judaean and -anti-Samaritan. There are vicissitudes and varying standpoints which -point to a complicated literary history and require some historical -background, and, apart from actual changes in the history of the -Levites, some allowance must be made for the real character of the -circles where the diverse records originated or through which they -passed. The key must be sought in the exilic and post-exilic age where, -unfortunately, direct and decisive evidence is lacking. It is clear that -the Zadokite priests were rendered legitimate by finding a place for -their ancestor in the Levitical genealogies--through Phinehas (cf. Num. -xxv. 12 seq.), and Aaron--there was a feeling that a legitimate priest -must be an Aaronite, but the historical reason for this is uncertain -(see R. H. Kennett, _Journ. Theolog. Stud._, 1905, pp. 161 sqq.). Hence, -it is impossible at present to trace the earlier steps which led to the -grand hierarchy of post-exilic Judaism. Even the name Levite itself is -of uncertain origin. Though popularly connected with _lavah_, "be -joined, attached," an ethnic from Leah has found some favour; the -Assyrian _li'u_ "powerful, wise," has also been suggested. The term has -been more plausibly identified with _l-v-_' (fem. _l-v-'-t_), the name -given in old Arabian inscriptions (e.g. at al-'Ola, south-east of Elath) -to the priests and priestesses of the Arabian god Vadd (so especially -Hommel, _Anc. Heb. Trad._, pp. 278 seq.). The date of the evidence, -however, has not been fixed with unanimity, and this very attractive -and suggestive view requires confirmation and independent support. - - AUTHORITIES.--For the argument in S 1, see Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, - pp. 121-151; W. R. Smith, _Old Test. in Jew. Church_ (2nd ed., Index, - s.v. "Levites"); A. Kuenen, _Hexateuch_, SS 3 n. 16; 11, pp. 203 sqq.; - 15 n. 15 (more technical); also the larger commentaries on - Exodus-Joshua and the ordinary critical works on Old Testament - literature. In S 1 and part of S 2 use has been freely made of W. R. - Smith's article "Levites" in the 9th edition of the _Ency. Brit._ (see - the revision by A. Bertholet, _Ency. Bib._ col. 2770 sqq.). For the - history of the Levites in the post-exilic and later ages, see the - commentaries on Numbers (by G. B. Gray) and Chronicles (E. L. Curtis), - and especially H. Vogelstein, _Der Kampf zwischen Priestern u. Leviten - seit den Tagen Ezechiels_, with Kuenen's review in his _Gesammelte - Abhandlungen_ (ed. K. Budde, 1894). See further PRIEST. (S. A. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] For the derivation of "Levi" see below S 4 end. - - [2] The words "beside that which cometh of the sale of his patrimony" - (lit. "his sellings according to the fathers") are obscure; they seem - to imply some additional source of income which the Levite enjoys at - the central sanctuary. - - [3] For the _nethinim_ ("given") and "children of the slaves of - Solomon" (whose hereditary service would give them a pre-eminence - over the temple slaves), see art. NETHINIM, and Benzinger, _Ency. - Bib._ cols. 3397 sqq. - - [4] In defence of the traditional view, see S. I. Curtiss, _The - Levitical Priests_ (1877), with which his later attitude should be - contrasted (see _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, pp. 14, 50, 133 - seq., 171, 238 sqq., 241 sqq.); W. L. Baxter, _Sanctuary and - Sacrifice_ (1895); A. van Hoonacker, _Le Sacerdoce levitique_ (1899); - and J. Orr, _Problem of the O.T._ (1905). These and other apologetic - writings have so far failed to produce any adequate alternative - hypothesis, and while they argue for the traditional theory, later - revision not being excluded, the modern critical view accepts late - dates for the literary sources in their present form, and explicitly - recognizes the presence of much that is ancient. Note the curious old - tradition that Ezra wrote out the law which had been burnt (2 Esdr. - xiv. 21 sqq.). - - [5] For example, in 1 Kings viii. 4, there are many indications that - the context has undergone considerable editing at a fairly late date. - The Septuagint translators did not read the clause which speaks of - "priests and Levites," and 2 Chron. v. 5 reads "the Levite priests," - the phrase characteristic of the Deuteronomic identification of - priestly and Levitical ministry. 1 Sam. vi. 15, too, brings in the - Levites, but the verse breaks the connexion between 14 and 16. For - the present disorder in the text of 2 Sam. xv. 24, see the - commentaries. - - [6] See Father H. Vincent, O.P., _Canaan d'apres l'exploration - recente_ (1907), pp. 151, 200 sqq., 463 sq. - - [7] So Gen. xxxiv. 7, Hamor has wrought folly "in Israel" (cf. Judges - xx. 6 and often), and in v. 30 "Jacob" is not a personal but a - collective idea, for he says, "I am a few men," and the capture and - destruction of a considerable city is in the nature of things the - work of more than two individuals. In the allusion to Levi and Simeon - in Gen. xlix. the two are spoken of as "brothers" with a communal - assembly. See, for other examples of personification, GENEALOGY: - _Biblical_. - - [8] See E. Meyer, _Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstamme_, pp. 299 sqq. - (passim); S. A. Cook, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1665 seq.; _Crit. Notes on - O.T. History_, pp. 84 sqq., 122-125. - - [9] The second element of the name Abiathar is connected with Jether - or Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, and even Ichabod (1 Sam. iv. - 21) seems to be an intentional reshaping of Jochebed, which is - elsewhere the name of the mother of Moses. Phinehas, Eli's son, - becomes in later writings the name of a prominent Aaronite priest in - the days of the exodus from Egypt. - - [10] With this development in Israelite religion, observe that - Judaean cult included the worship of a brazen serpent, the - institution of which was ascribed to Moses, and that, according to - the compiler of Kings, Hezekiah was the first to destroy it when he - suppressed idolatrous worship in Judah (2 Kings xviii. 4). It may be - added that the faithful Kenites (found in N. Palestine, Judges iv. - 11) appear in another light when threatened with captivity by Asshur - (Num. xxiv. 22; cf. fall of Dan and Shiloh), and if their eponym is - Cain (q.v.), the story of Cain and Abel serves, amid a variety of - purposes, to condemn the murder of the settled agriculturist by the - nomad, but curiously allows that any retaliation upon Cain shall be - avenged (see below, note 5). - - [11] The name Korah itself is elsewhere Edomite (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, - 18) and Calebite (1 Chron. ii. 43). See _Ency. Bib._, s.v. - - [12]: The musical service of the temple has no place in the - Pentateuch, but was considerably developed under the second temple - and attracted the special attention of Greek observers (Theophrastus, - _apud_ Porphyry, _de Abstin._ ii. 26); see on this subject, R. - Kittel's _Handkommentar_ on Chronicles, pp. 90 sqq. - - [13] Even the tithes enjoyed by the Levites (Num. xviii. 21 seq.) - were finally transferred to the priests (so in the Talmud: see - _Yebamoth_, fol. 86a, Carpzov, _App. ad Godw._ p. 624; Hottinger, _De - Dec._ vi. 8, ix. 17). - - [14] For some suggestive remarks on the relation between nomadism and - the Levites, and their influence upon Israelite religion and literary - tradition, see E. Meyer, _Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstamme_ - (1906), pp. 82-89, 138; on the problems of early Israelite history, - see SIMEON (end), JEWS, SS 5, 8, and PALESTINE, _History_. - - - - -LEVITICUS, in the Bible, the third book of the Pentateuch. The name is -derived from that of the Septuagint version ([Greek: to]) [Greek: -leu[e]itikon] (sc. [Greek: biblion]), though the English form is due to -the Latin rendering, _Leviticus_ (sc. _liber_). By the Jews the book is -called _Wayyikra_ ([Hebrew: Wayykra]) from the first word of the Hebrew -text, but it is also referred to (in the Talmud and Massorah) as _Torath -kohanim_ ([Hebrew: Totath kohanim], law of the priests), _Sepher -kohanim_ ([Hebrew: Sepher k"], book of the priests), and _Sepher -korbanim_ ([Hebrew: Sepher korbanim], book of offerings). As a -descriptive title _Leviticus_, "the Levitical book," is not -inappropriate to the contents of the book, which exhibits an elaborate -system of sacrificial worship. In this connexion, however, the term -"Levitical" is used in a perfectly general sense, since there is no -reference in the book itself to the Levites themselves. - -The book of Leviticus presents a marked contrast to the two preceding -books of the Hexateuch in that it is derived from one document only, -viz. the Priestly Code (P), and contains no trace of the other documents -from which the Hexateuch has been compiled. Hence the dominant interest -is a priestly one, while the contents are almost entirely legislative as -opposed to historical. But though the book as a whole is assigned to a -single document, its contents are by no means homogeneous: in fact the -critical problem presented by the legislative portions of Leviticus, -though more limited in scope, is very similar to that of the other books -of the Hexateuch. Here, too, the occurrence of repetitions and -divergencies, the variations of standpoint and practice, and, at times, -the linguistic peculiarities point no less clearly to diversity of -origin. - -The historical narrative with which P connects his account of the sacred -institutions of Israel is reduced in Leviticus to a minimum, and -presents no special features. The consecration of Aaron and his sons -(viii. ix.) resumes the narrative of Exod. xl., and this is followed by -a brief notice of the death of Nadab and Abihu (x. 1-5), and later by an -account of the death of the blasphemer (xxiv. 10 f.). Apart from these -incidents, which, in accordance with the practice of P, are utilized for -the purpose of introducing fresh legislation, the book consists of three -main groups or collections of ritual laws: (1) chaps, i.-vii., laws of -sacrifice; (2) chaps, xi.-xv., laws of purification, with an appendix -(xvi.) on the Day of Atonement; (3) chaps, xvii.-xxvi., the Law of -Holiness, with an appendix (xxvii.) on vows and tithes. In part these -laws appear to be older than P, but when examined in detail the various -collections show unmistakably that they have undergone more than one -process of redaction before they assumed the form in which they are now -presented. The scope of the present article does not permit of an -elaborate analysis of the different sections, but the evidence adduced -will, it is hoped, afford sufficient proof of the truth of this -statement. - -I. _The Laws of Sacrifice._--Chaps. i.-vii. This group of laws clearly -formed no part of the original narrative of P since it interrupts the -connexion of chap. viii. with Exod. xl. For chap. viii. describes how -Moses carried out the command of Exod. xl. 12-15 in accordance with the -instructions given in Exod. xxix. 1-35, and bears the same relation to -the latter passage that Exod. xxxv. ff. bears to Exod. xxv. ff. Hence we -can only conclude that Lev. i.-vii. were added by a later editor. This -conclusion does not necessarily involve a late date for the laws -themselves, many of which have the appearance of great antiquity, -though their original form has been considerably modified. But though -these chapters form an independent collection of laws, and were -incorporated as such in P, a critical analysis of their contents shows -that they were not all derived from the same source. - - The collection falls into two divisions, (a) i.-vi. 7 (Heb. v. 26), - and (b) vi. 8 (Heb. vi. 1)-vii., the former being addressed to the - people and the latter to the priests. The laws contained in (a) refer - to (1) burnt-offerings, i.; (2) meal-offerings, ii.; (3) - peace-offerings, iii.; (4) sin-offerings, iv. (on v. 1-13 see below); - (5) trespass-offerings, v. 14-vi. 7 (Heb. v. 14-26). The laws in (b) - cover practically the same ground--(1) burnt-offerings, vi. 8-13 (Heb. - vv. 1-6); (2) meal-offerings, vi. 14-18 (Heb. vv. 7-11); (3) the - meal-offering of the priest, vi. 19-23 (Heb. vv. 12-16); (4) - sin-offerings, vi. 24-30 (Heb. vv. 17-23); (5) trespass-offerings, - vii. 1-7, together with certain regulations for the priest's share of - the burnt- and meal-offerings (vv. 8-10); (6) peace-offerings, vii. - 11-21. Then follow the prohibition of eating the fat or blood (vv. - 22-28), the priest's share of the peace-offerings (vv. 29-34), the - priest's anointing-portion (vv. 35, 36), and the subscription (vv. 37, - 38). The second group of laws is thus to a certain extent - supplementary to the first, and was, doubtless, intended as such by - the editor of chaps. i.-vii. Originally it can hardly have formed part - of the same collection; for (a) the order is different, that of the - second group being supported by its subscription, and (b) the laws in - vi. 8-vii. are regularly introduced by the formula "This is the law - (_torah_) of...." Most probably the second group was excerpted by the - editor of chaps. i.-vii. from another collection for the purpose of - supplementing the laws of i.-v., more especially on points connected - with the functions and dues of the officiating priests. - - Closer investigation, however, shows that both groups of laws contain - heterogeneous elements and that their present form is the result of a - long process of development. Thus i. and iii. seem to contain - genuinely old enactments, though i. 14-17 is probably a later - addition, since there is no reference to birds in the general heading - v. 2. Chap. ii. 1-3, on the other hand, though it corresponds in form - to i. and iii., interrupts the close connexion between those chapters, - and should in any case stand after iii.: the use of the second for the - third person in the remaining verses points to a different source. As - might be expected from the nature of the sacrifice with which it - deals, iv. (sin-offerings) seems to belong to a relatively later - period of the sacrificial system. Several features confirm this view: - (1) the blood of the sin-offering of the "anointed priest" and of the - whole congregation is brought within the veil and sprinkled on the - altar of incense, (2) the sin-offering of the congregation is a - bullock, and not, as elsewhere, a goat (ix. 15; Num. xv. 24), (3) the - altar of incense is distinguished from the altar of burnt-offering (as - opposed to Exod. xxix.; Lev. viii. ix.). Chap. v. 1-13 have usually - been regarded as an appendix to iv., setting forth (a) a number of - typical cases for which a sin-offering is required (vv. 1-6), and (b) - certain concessions for those who could not afford the ordinary - sin-offering (vv. 7-13). But vv. 1-6, which are not homogeneous (vv. 2 - and 3 treating of another question and interrupting vv. 1, 4, 5 f.), - cannot be ascribed to the same author as iv.: for (1) it presents a - different theory of the sin-offering (contrast v. 1 f. with iv. 2), - (2) it ignores the fourfold division of offerings corresponding to the - rank of the offender, (3) it fails to observe the distinction between - sin- and trespass-offering (in vv. 6, 7, "his guilt-offering" - ([Hebrew: ashamo]) appears to have the sense of a "penalty" or - "forfeit," unless with Baentsch we read [Hebrew: korbano] "his - oblation" in each case; cf. v. 11, iv. 23 ff. Verses 7-13, on the - other hand, form a suitable continuation of iv., though probably they - are secondary in character. Chap. v. 14 (Heb. v. 26)-vi. 7 contain - regulations for the trespass-offering, in which the distinctive - character of that offering is clearly brought out. The cases cited in - vi. 1-7 (Heb. v. 20-26) are clearly analogous to those in v. 14-16, - from which they are at present separated by vv. 17-19. These latter - prescribe a trespass-offering for the same case for which in iv. 22 f. - a sin-offering is required: it is noticeable also that no restitution, - the characteristic feature of the _asham_, is prescribed. It is hardly - doubtful that the verses are derived from a different source to that - of their immediate context, possibly the same as v. 1-6. - - The subscription (vii. 37, 38) is our chief guide to determining the - original extent of the second group of laws (vi. 8 [Heb. vi. 1]-vii. - 36). From it we infer that originally the collection only dealt with - the five chief sacrifices (vi. 8-13; 14-18; 24, 25, 27-30; vii. 1-6; - 11-21) already discussed in i.-v., since only these are referred to in - the colophon where they are given in the same order (the - consecration-offering [v. 37] is probably due to the same redactor who - introduced the gloss "in the day when he is anointed" in vi. 20). Of - the remaining sections vi. 19-23 (Heb. 12-16), the daily meal-offering - of the (high-) priest, betrays its secondary origin by its absence - from the subscription, cf. also the different introduction. Chaps. vi. - 26 (Heb. 19) and vii. 7 assign the offering to the officiating priest - in contrast to vi. 18 (Heb. 11), 29 (Heb. 22), vii. 6 ("every male - among the priests"), and possibly belong, together with vii. 8-10, to - a separate collection which dealt especially with priestly dues. Chap. - vii. 22-27, which prohibit the eating of fat and blood, are addressed - to the community at large, and were, doubtless, inserted here in - connexion with the sacrificial meal which formed the usual - accompaniment of the peace-offering. Chap. vii. 28-34 are also - addressed to the people, and cannot therefore have formed part of the - original priestly manual; v. 33 betrays the same hand as vi. 26 (Heb. - 19) and vii. 7, and with 35a may be assigned to the same collection as - those verses; to the redactor must be assigned vv. 32 (a doublet of v. - 33), 34, 35b and 36. - - Chaps. viii.-x. As stated, these chapters form the original sequel to - Exod. xl. They describe (a) the consecration of Aaron and his sons, a - ceremony which lasted seven days (viii.), and (b) the public worship - on the eighth day, at which Aaron and his sons officiated for the - first time as priests (ix.); then follow (c) an account of the death - of Nadab and Abihu for offering strange fire (x. 1-5); (d) various - regulations affecting the priests (vv. 12-15), and (e) an explanation, - in narrative form, of the departure in ix. 15 from the rules for the - sin-offering given in vi. 30 (vv. 16-20). - - According to Exod. xl. 1-15 Moses was commanded to set up the - Tabernacle and to consecrate the priests, and the succeeding verses - (16-38) describe how the former command was carried out. The execution - of the second command, however, is first described in Lev. viii., and - since the intervening chapters exhibit obvious traces of belonging to - another source, we may conclude with some certainty that Lev. viii. - formed the immediate continuation of Exod. xl. in the original - narrative of P. But it has already been pointed out (see Exodus) that - Exod. xxxv.-xl. belong to a later stratum of P than Exod. xxv.-xxix, - hence it is by no means improbable that Exod. xxxv-xl. have superseded - an earlier and shorter account of the fulfilment of the commands in - Exod. xxv.-xxix. If this be the case, we should naturally expect to - find that Lev. viii., which bears the same relation to Exod. xxix. - 1-35 as Exod. xxxv. ff. to Exod. xxv. ff. also belonged to a later - stratum. But Lev. viii., unlike Exod xxxv. ff., only mentions one - altar, and though in its present form the chapter exhibits marks of - later authorship, these marks form no part of the original account, - but are clearly the work of a later editor. These additions, the - secondary character of which is obvious both from the way in which - they interrupt the context and also from their contents, are (1), v. - 10, the anointing of the Tabernacle in accordance with Exod. xxx. 26 - ff.: it is not enjoined in Exod. xxix.; (2) v. 11, the anointing of - the altar and the laver (cf. Exod. xxx. 17 ff.) as in Exod. xxix. 36b, - xxx. 26 ff.; (3) v. 30, the sprinkling of blood and oil on Aaron and - his sons. Apart from these secondary elements, which readily admit of - excision, the chapter is in complete accord with P as regards point of - view and language, and is therefore to be assigned to that source. - - The consecration of Aaron and his sons was, according to P, a - necessary preliminary to the offering of sacrifice, and chap. ix. - accordingly describes the first solemn act of worship. The ceremony - consists of (a) the offerings for Aaron, and (b) those for the - congregation; then follows the priestly blessing (v. 22), after which - Moses and Aaron enter the sanctuary, and on reappearing once more - bless the people. The ceremony terminates with the appearance of the - glory of Yahweh, accompanied by a fire which consumes the sacrifices - on the altar. Apart from a few redactional glosses the chapter as a - whole belongs to P. The punishment of Nadab and Abihu by death for - offering "strange fire" (x. 1-5) forms a natural sequel to chap. ix. - To this incident a number of disconnected regulations affecting the - priests have been attached, of which the first, viz. the prohibition - of mourning to Aaron and his sons (vv. 6, 7), alone has any connexion - with the immediate context; as it stands, the passage is late in form - (cf. xxi. 10 ff.). The second passage, vv. 8, 9, which prohibits the - use of wine and strong drink to the priest when on duty, is clearly a - later addition. The connexion between these verses and the following - is extremely harsh, and since vv. 10, 11 relate to an entirely - different subject (cf. xi. 47), the latter verses must be regarded as - a misplaced fragment. Verses 12-15 relate to the portions of the meal- - and peace-offerings which fell to the lot of the priests, and connect, - therefore, with chap. ix.; possibly they have been wrongly transferred - from that chapter. In the remaining paragraph, x. 16-20, we have an - interesting example of the latest type of additions to the Hexateuch. - According to ix. 15 (cf. v. 11) the priests had burnt the flesh of the - sin-offering which had been offered on behalf of the congregation, - although its blood had not been taken into the inner sanctuary (cf. - iv. 1-21, vi. 26). Such treatment, though perfectly legitimate - according to the older legislation (Exod. xxix. 14; cf. Lev. viii. - 17), was in direct contradiction to the ritual of vi. 24 ff., which - prescribed that the flesh of ordinary sin-offerings should be eaten by - the priests. Such a breach of ritual on the part of Aaron and his sons - seemed to a later redactor to demand an explanation, and this is - furnished in the present section. - -II. _The Laws of Purification._--Chaps. xi.-xv. This collection of laws -comprises four main sections relating to (1) clean and unclean beasts -(xi.), (2) childbirth (xii.), (3) leprosy (xiii. xiv.), and (4) certain -natural secretions (xv.). These laws, or _toroth_, are so closely allied -to each other by the nature of their contents and their literary form -(cf. especially the recurring formula "This is the law of ..." xi. 46, -xii. 7, xiii. 59, xiv. 32, 54, 57, xv. 32) that they must originally -have formed a single collection. The collection, however, has clearly -undergone more than one redaction before reaching its final form. This -is made evident not only by the present position of chap. xii. which in -v. 2 presupposes chap. xv. (cf. xv. 19), and must originally have -followed after that chapter, but also by the contents of the different -sections, which exhibit clear traces of repeated revision. At the same -time it seems, like chaps. i.-vii., xvii.-xxvi., to have been formed -independently of P and to have been added to that document by a later -editor; for in its present position it interrupts the main thread of P's -narrative, chap. xvi. forming the natural continuation of chap. x.; and, -further, the inclusion of Aaron as well as Moses in the formula of -address (xi. 1, xiii. 1, xiv. 33, xv. 1) is contrary to the usage of P. - - 1. Chap. xi. consists of two main sections, of which the first (vv. - 1-23, 41-47) contains directions as to the clean and unclean animals - which may or may not be used for food, while the second (vv: 24-40) - treats of the defilement caused by contact with the carcases of - unclean animals (in v. 39 f. contact with clean animals after death is - also forbidden), and prescribes certain rites of purification. The - main interest of the chapter, from the point of view of literary - criticism, centres in the relation of the first section to the Law of - Holiness (xvii.-xxvi.) and to the similar laws in Deut. xiv. 3-20. - From xx. 25 it has been inferred with considerable probability that H, - or the Law of Holiness, originally contained legislation of a similar - character with reference to clean and unclean animals; and many - scholars have held that the first section (vv. 1 [or 2]-23 and 41-47) - really belongs to that code. But while vv. 43-45 may unhesitatingly be - assigned to H, the remaining verses fail to exhibit any of the - characteristic features of that code. We must assign them, therefore, - to another source, though, in view of xx. 25 and xi. 43-45, it is - highly probable that they have superseded similar legislation - belonging to H. - - The relation of Lev. xi. 2-23 to Deut. xiv. 4-20 is less easy to - determine, since the phenomena presented by the two texts are somewhat - inconsistent. The two passages are to a large extent verbally - identical, but while Deut. xiv. 4b, 5 both defines and exemplifies the - clean animals (as opposed to Lev. xi. 3; which only defines them), the - rest of the Deuteronomic version is much shorter than that of - Leviticus. Thus, except for vv. 4b, 5, the Deuteronomic version, which - in its general style, and to a certain extent in its phraseology (cf. - [Hebrew: min] _kind_, vv. 13, 15, 18, and [Hebrew: sheretz] _swarm_, - v. 19), shows traces of a priestly origin, might be regarded as an - abridgment of Lev. xi. But the Deuteronomic version uses [Hebrew: - tame] _unclean_ throughout (vv. 7, 10. 19), while Lev xi. from v. 11 - onwards employs the technical term [Hebrew: sheketz] _detestable - thing_, and it is at least equally possible to treat the longer - version of Leviticus as an expansion of Deut. xiv. 4-20. The fact that - Deut. xiv. 21 permits the stranger ([Hebrew: gher]) to eat the flesh - of any animal that dies a natural death, while Lev. xvii. 25 places - him on an equal footing with the Israelite, cannot be cited in favour - of the priority of Deuteronomy since v. 21 is clearly supplementary; - cf. also Lev. xi. 39. On the whole it seems best to accept the view - that both passages are derived separately from an earlier source. - - 2. Chap. xii. prescribes regulations for the purification of a woman - after the birth of (a) a male and (b) a female child. It has been - already pointed out that this chapter would follow more suitably after - chap. xv., with which it is closely allied in regard to - subject-matter. The closing formula (v. 7) shows clearly that, as in - the case of v. 7-13 (cf. i. 14-17), the concessions in favour of the - poorer worshipper are a later addition. - - 3. Chaps. xiii., xiv. The regulations concerning leprosy fall readily - into four main divisions: (a) xiii. 1-46a, an elaborate description of - the symptoms common to the earlier stages of leprosy and other skin - diseases to guide the priest in deciding as to the cleanness or - uncleanness of the patient; (b) xiii. 47-59, a further description of - different kinds of mould or fungus growth affecting stuffs and - leather; (c) xiv. 1-32, the rites of purification to be employed after - the healing of leprosy; and (d) xiv. 33-53, regulations dealing with - the appearance of patches of mould or mildew on the walls of a house. - Like other collections the group of laws on leprosy easily betrays its - composite character and exhibits unmistakable evidence of its gradual - growth. There is, however, no reason to doubt that a large portion of - the laws is genuinely old since the subject is one that would - naturally call for early legislation; moreover, Deut. xxiv. 8 - presupposes the existence of regulations concerning leprosy, - presumably oral, which were in the possession of the priests. The - earliest sections are admittedly xiii. 1-46a and xiv. 2-8a, the ritual - of the latter being obviously of a very archaic type. The secondary - character of xiii. 47-59 is evident: it interrupts the close connexion - between xiii. 1-46a and xiv. 2-8a, and further it is provided with its - own colophon in v. 59. A similar character must be assigned to the - remaining verses of chap. xiv., with the exception of the colophon in - v. 57b; the latter has been successively expanded in vv. 54-57a so as - to include the later additions. Thus xiv. 9-20 prescribes a second and - more elaborate ritual of purification after the healing of leprosy, - though the leper, according to v. 8a, is already clean; its secondary - character is further shown by the heightening of the ceremonial which - seems to be modelled on that of the consecration of the priest (viii. - 23 ff.), the multiplication of sacrifices and the minute regulations - with regard to the blood and oil. The succeeding section (vv. 21-32) - enjoins special modifications for those who cannot afford the more - costly offerings of vv. 9-20, and like v. 7-13, xii. 8 is clearly a - later addition; cf. the separate colophon, v. 32. The closing section - xiv. 33-53 is closely allied to xiii. 47-59, though probably later in - date: probably the concluding verses (48-53), in which the same rites - are prescribed for the purification of a house as are ordained for a - person in vv. 3-8a, were added at a still later period. - - 4. Chap. xv. deals with the rites of purification rendered necessary - by various natural secretions, and is therefore closely related to - chap. xii. On the analogy of the other laws it is probable that the - old _torah_, which forms the basis of the chapter, has been - subsequently expanded, but except in the colophon (vv. 32-34), which - displays marks of later redaction, there is nothing to guide us in - separating the additional matter. - - Chap. xvi. It may be regarded as certain that this chapter consists of - three main elements, only one of which was originally connected with - the ceremonial of the Day of Atonement, and that it has passed through - more than one stage of revision. Since the appearance of Benzinger's - analysis _ZATW_ (1889), critics in the main have accepted the division - of the chapter into three independent sections: (1) vv. 1-4, 6, 12, - 13, 34b (probably vv. 23, 24 also form part of this section), - regulations to be observed by Aaron whenever he might enter "the holy - place within the veil." These regulations are the natural outcome of - the death of Nadab and Abihu (x. 1-5), and their object is to guard - Aaron from a similar fate; the section thus forms the direct - continuation of chap. x.; (2) vv. 29-34a, rules for the observance of - a yearly fast day, having for their object the purification of the - sanctuary and of the people; (3) vv. 5, 7-10, 14-22, 26-28, a later - expansion of the blood-ritual to be performed by the high-priest when - he enters the Holy of Holies, with which is combined the strange - ceremony of the goat which is sent away into the wilderness to Azazel. - The matter common to the first two sections, viz. the entrance of the - high priest into the Holy of Holies, was doubtless the cause of their - subsequent fusion; beyond this, however, the sections have no - connexion with one another, and must originally have been quite - independent. Doubtless, as Benzinger suggests, the rites to be - performed by the officiating high priest on the annual Day of - Atonement, which are not prescribed in vv. 29-34a, were identical with - those laid down in chap. ix. That the third section belongs to a later - stage of development and was added at a later date is shown by (a) the - incongruity of vv. 14 ff. with v. 6--according to the latter the - purification of Aaron is a preliminary condition of his entrance - within the veil--and (b) the elaborate ceremonial in connexion with - the sprinkling of the blood. The first section, doubtless, belongs to - the main narrative of P; it connects directly with chap. x. and - presupposes only one altar (cf. v. 12, Exod. xxviii. 35). The second - and third sections, however, must be assigned to a later stratum of P, - if only because they appear to have been unknown to Ezra (Neh. ix. 1); - the fact that Ezra's fast day took place on the twenty-fourth day of - the seventh month (as opposed to Lev. xvi. 29, xxiii. 26 f.) acquires - an additional importance in view of the agreement between Neh. viii. - 23 f. and Lev. xxiii. 33 f. as to the date of the Feast of - Tabernacles. No mention is made of the Day of Atonement in the - pre-exilic period, and it is a plausible conjecture that the present - law arose from the desire to turn the spontaneous fasting of Neh. ix. - 1 into an annual ceremony; in any case directions as to the annual - performance of the rite must originally have preceded vv. 29 ff. - Possibly the omission of this introduction is due to the redactor who - combined (1) and (2) by transferring the regulations of (1) to the - ritual of the annual Day of Atonement. At a later period the ritual - was further developed by the inclusion of the additional ceremonial - contained in (3). - -III. _The Law of Holiness._--Chaps. xvii.-xxvi. The group of laws -contained in these chapters has long been recognized as standing apart -from the rest of the legislation set forth in Leviticus. For, though -they display undeniable affinity with P, they also exhibit certain -features which closely distinguish them from that document. The most -noticeable of these is the prominence assigned to certain leading ideas -and motives, especially to that of _holiness_. The idea of holiness, -indeed, is so characteristic of the entire group that the title "Law of -Holiness," first given to it by Klostermann (1877), has been generally -adopted. The term "holiness" in this connexion consists positively in -the fulfilment of ceremonial obligations and negatively in abstaining -from the defilement caused by heathen customs and superstitions, but it -also includes obedience to the moral requirements of the religion of -Yahweh. - - On the literary side also the chapters are distinguished by the - paraenetic setting in which the laws are embedded and by the use of a - special terminology, many of the words and phrases occurring rarely, - if ever, in P (for a list of characteristic phrases cf. Driver, - _L.O.T._^6, p. 49). Further, the structure of these chapters, which - closely resembles that of the other two Hexateuchal codes (Exod. xx. - 22-xxiii. and Deut. xii.-xxviii.), may reasonably be adduced in - support of their independent origin. All three codes contain a - somewhat miscellaneous collection of laws; all alike commence with - regulations as to the place of sacrifice and close with an - exhortation. Lastly, some of the laws treat of subjects which have - been already dealt with in P (cf. xvii. 10-14 and vii. 26 f., xix. 6-8 - and vii. 15-18). It is hardly doubtful also that the group of laws, - which form the basis of chaps. xvii.-xxvi., besides being independent - of P, represent an older stage of legislation than that code. For the - sacrificial system of H (= Law of Holiness) is less developed than - that of P, and in particular shows no knowledge of the sin- and - trespass-offerings; the high priest is only _primus inter pares_ among - his brethren, xxi. 10 (cf. Lev. x. 6, 7, where the same prohibition is - extended to all the priests); the distinction between "holy" and "most - holy" things (Num. xviii. 8) is unknown to Lev. xxii. (Lev. xxi. 22 is - a later addition). It cannot be denied, however, that chaps. - xvii.-xxvi. present many points of resemblance with P, both in - language and subject-matter, but on closer examination these points of - contact are seen to be easily separable from the main body of the - legislation. It is highly probable, therefore, that these marks of P - are to be assigned to the compiler who combined H with P. But though - it may be regarded as certain that H existed as an independent code, - it cannot be maintained that the laws which it contains are all of the - same origin or belong to the same age. The evidence rather shows that - they were first collected by an editor before they were incorporated - in P. Thus there is a marked difference in style between the laws - themselves and the paraenetic setting in which they are embedded; and - it is not unnatural to conjecture that this setting is the work of the - first editor. - - Two other points in connexion with H are of considerable importance: - (a) the possibility of other remains of H, and (b) its relation to - Deuteronomy and Ezekiel. - - (a) It is generally recognized that H, in its present form, is - incomplete. The original code must, it is felt, have included many - other subjects now passed over in silence. These, possibly, were - omitted by the compiler of P, because they had already been dealt with - elsewhere, or they may have been transferred to other connexions. This - latter possibility is one that has appealed to many scholars, who have - accordingly claimed many other passages of P as parts of H. We have - already accepted xi. 43 ff. as an undoubted excerpt from H, but, with - the exception of Num. xv. 37-41 (on fringes), the other passages of - the Hexateuch which have been attributed to H do not furnish - sufficient evidence to justify us in assigning them to that - collection. Moore (_Ency. Bibl._ col. 2787) rightly points out that - "resemblance in the subject or formulation of laws to _toroth_ - incorporated in H may point to a relation to the _sources_ of H, but - is not evidence that these laws were ever included in that - collection." - - (b) The exact relation of H to Deuteronomy and Ezekiel is hard to - determine. That chaps. xvii.-xxvi. display a marked affinity to - Deuteronomy cannot be denied. Like D, they lay great stress on the - duties of humanity and charity both to the Israelite and to the - stranger (Deut. xxiv.; Lev. xix.; compare also laws affecting the poor - in Deut. xv.; Lev. xxv.), but in some respects the legislation of H - appears to reflect a more advanced stage than that of D, e.g. the - rules for the priesthood (chap. xxi.), the feasts (xxiii. 9-20, - 39-43), the Sabbatical year (xxv. 1-7, 18-22), weights and measures - (xix. 35 f.). It must be remembered, however, that these laws have - passed through more than one stage of revision and that the original - regulations have been much obscured by later glosses and additions; it - is therefore somewhat hazardous to base any argument on their present - form. "The mutual independence of the two (codes) is rather to be - argued from the absence of laws identically formulated, the lack of - agreement in order either in the whole or in smaller portions, and the - fact that of the peculiar motives and phrases of R_{D} there is no - trace in H (Lev. xxiii. 40 is almost solitary). It is an unwarranted - assumption that all the fragments of Israelite legislation which have - been preserved lie in one serial development" (Moore, _Ency. Bibl._ - col. 2790). - - The relation of H to Ezekiel is remarkably close, the resemblances - between the two being so striking that many writers have regarded - Ezekiel as the author of H. Such a theory, however, is excluded by the - existence of even greater differences of style and matter, so that the - main problem to be decided is whether Ezekiel is prior to H or vice - versa. The main arguments brought forward by those who maintain the - priority of Ezekiel are (1) the fact that H makes mention of a high - priest, whereas Ezekiel betrays no knowledge of such an official, and - (2) that the author of Lev. xxvi. presupposes a condition of exile and - looks forward to a restoration from it. Too much weight, however, must - not be attached to these points; for (1) the phrase used in Lev. xxi. - 10 (_literally_, "he who is greater than his brethren") cannot be - regarded as the equivalent of the definitive "chief priest" of P, and - is rather comparable with the usage of 2 Kings xxii. 4 ff., xxv. 18 - ("the chief priest"), cf. "the priest" in xi. 9 ff., xvi. 10 ff.; and - (2) the passages in Lev. xxvi. (vv. 34 f., 39-45), which are - especially cited in support of the exilic standpoint of the writer, - are just those which, on other grounds, show signs of later - interpolation. The following considerations undoubtedly suggest the - priority of H: (1) there is no trace in H of the distinction between - priests and Levites first introduced by Ezekiel; (2) Ezekiel xviii., - xx., xxii., xxiii. appear to presuppose the laws of Lev. xviii.-xx.; - (3) the calendar of Lev. xxiii. represents an earlier stage of - development than the fixed days and months of Ezek. xlv.; (4) the sin- - and trespass-offerings are not mentioned in H (cf. Ezek. xl. 39, xlii. - 13, xliv. 29, xlvi. 20); (5) the parallels to H, which are found - especially in Ezek. xviii., xx., xxii. f., include both the paraenetic - setting and the laws; and lastly, (6) a comparison of Lev. xxvi. with - Ezekiel points to the greater originality of the former. Baentsch, - however, who is followed by Bertholet, adopts the view that Lev. xxvi. - is rather an independent hortatory discourse modelled on Ezekiel. The - same writer further maintains that H consists of three separate - elements, viz. chaps. xvii.; xviii.-xx., with various ordinances in - chaps. xxiii.-xxv.; and xxii., xxiii., of which the last is certainly - later than Ezekiel, while the second is in the main prior to that - author. But the arguments which he adduces in favour of the threefold - origin of H are not sufficient to outweigh the general impression of - unity which the code presents. - - Chap. xvii. comprises four main sections which are clearly marked off - by similar introductory and closing formulae: (1) vv. 3-7, prohibition - of the slaughter of domestic animals, unless they are presented to - Yahweh; (2) vv. 8, 9, sacrifices to be offered to Yahweh alone; (3) - vv. 10-12, prohibition of the eating of blood; (4) vv. 13, 14, the - blood of animals not used in sacrifice to be poured on the ground. The - chapter as a whole is to be assigned to H. At the same time it - exhibits many marks of affinity with P, a phenomenon most easily - explained by the supposition that older laws of H have been expanded - and modified by later hands in the spirit of P. Clear instances of - such revision may be seen in the references to "the door of the tent - of meeting" (vv. 4, 5, 6, 9) and "the camp" (v. 3), as well as in vv. - 6, 11, 12-14; vv. 15, 16 (prohibiting the eating of animals that die a - natural death or are torn by beasts) differ formally from the - preceding paragraphs, and are to be assigned to P. What remains after - the excision of later additions, however, is not entirely uniform, and - points to earlier editorial work on the part of the compiler of H. - Thus vv. 3-7 reflect two points of view, vv. 3, 4 drawing a contrast - between profane slaughter and sacrifice, while vv. 5-7 distinguish - between sacrifices offered to Yahweh and those offered to demons. - - Chap. xviii. contains laws on prohibited marriages (vv. 6-18) and - various acts of unchastity (vv. 19-23) embedded in a paraenetic - setting (vv. 1-5 and 24-30), the laws being given in the 2nd pers. - sing., while the framework employs the 2nd pers. plural. With the - exception of v. 21 (on Molech worship), which is here out of place, - and has possibly been introduced from xx. 2-5, the chapter displays - all the characteristics of H. - - Chap. xix. is a collection of miscellaneous laws, partly moral, partly - religious, of which the fundamental principle is stated in v. 2 ("Ye - shall be holy"). The various laws are clearly defined by the formula - "I am Yahweh," or "I am Yahweh your God," phrases which are especially - characteristic of chaps. xviii.-xx. The first group of laws (vv. 3 f.) - corresponds to the first table of the decalogue, while vv. 11-18 are - analogous to the second table; vv. 5-8 (on peace-offerings) are - obviously out of place here, and are possibly to be restored to the - cognate passage xxii. 29 f., while the humanitarian provisions of vv. - 9 and 10 (cf. xxiii. 22) have no connexion with the immediate context; - similarly v. 20 (to which a later redactor has added vv. 21, 22, in - accordance with vi. 6 f.) appears to be a fragment from a penal code; - the passage resembles Exod. xxi. 7 ff., and the offence is clearly one - against property, the omission of the punishment being possibly due to - the redactor who added vv. 21, 22. - - Chap. xx. Prohibitions against Molech worship, vv. 2-5, witchcraft, - vv. 6 and 27, unlawful marriages and acts of unchastity, vv. 10-21. - Like chap. xviii., the main body of laws is provided with a paraenetic - setting, vv. 7, 8 and 22-24; it differs from that chapter, however, in - prescribing the death penalty in each case for disobedience. Owing to - the close resemblance between the two chapters, many critics have - assumed that they are derived from the same source and that the latter - chapter was added for the purpose of supplying the penalties. This - view, however, is not borne out by a comparison of the two chapters, - for four of the cases mentioned in chap. xviii. (vv. 7, 10, 17b, 18) - are ignored in chap. xx., while the order and in part the terminology - are also different; further, it is difficult on this view to explain - why the two chapters are separated by chap. xix. A more probable - explanation is that the compiler of H has drawn from two parallel, but - independent, sources. Signs of revision are not lacking, especially in - vv. 2-5, where vv. 4 f. are a later addition intended to reconcile the - inconsistency of v. 2 with v. 3 (R_{H}); v. 6, which is closely - connected with xix. 31, appears to be less original than v. 27, and - may be ascribed to the same hand as v. 3; v. 9 can hardly be in its - original context--it would be more suitable after xxiv. 15. The - paraenetic setting (vv. 7, 8 and 22-24) is to be assigned to the - compiler of H, who doubtless prefaced the parallel version with the - additional laws of vv. 2-6. Verses 25, 26 apparently formed the - conclusion of a law on clean and unclean animals similar to that of - chap. xi., and very probably mark the place where H's regulations on - that subject originally stood. - - Chaps. xxi., xxii. A series of laws affecting the priests and - offerings, viz. (1) regulations ensuring the holiness of (a) ordinary - priests, xxi. 1-9, and (b) the chief priest, vv. 10-15; (2) a list of - physical defects which exclude a priest from exercising his office, - vv. 16-24; (3) the enjoyment of sacred offerings limited to (a) - priests, if they are ceremonially clean, xxi. 1-9, and (b) members of - a priestly family, vv. 10-16; (4) animals offered in sacrifice must be - without blemish, vv. 17-25; (5) further regulations with regard to - sacrifices, vv. 26-30, with a paraenetic conclusion, vv. 31-33. - - These chapters present considerable difficulty to the literary critic; - for while they clearly illustrate the application of the principle of - "holiness," and in the main exhibit the characteristic phraseology of - H, they also display many striking points of contact with P and the - later strata of P, which have been closely interwoven into the - original laws. These phenomena can be best explained by the - supposition that we have here a body of old laws which have been - subjected to more than one revision. The nature of the subjects with - which they deal is one that naturally appealed to the priestly - schools, and owing to this fact the laws were especially liable to - modification and expansion at the hands of later legislators who - wished to bring them into conformity with later usage. Signs of such - revision may be traced back to the compiler of H, but the evidence - shows that the process must have been continued down to the latest - period of editorial activity in connexion with P. To redactors of the - school of P belong such phrases as "the sons of Aaron" (xxi. 1, 24, - xxii. 2, 18), "the seed of Aaron" (xxi. 21, xxii. 4 and "thy seed," v. - 17; cf. xxii. 3), "the offerings of the Lord made by fire" (xxi. 6, - 21, xxii. 22, 27), "the most holy things" (xxi. 22; cf. xxii. 3 ff. - "holy things" only), "throughout their (or your) generations" (xxi. 7, - xxii. 3), the references to the anointing of Aaron (xxi. 10, 12) and - the Veil (xxi. 23), the introductory formulae (xxi. 1, 16 f., xxii. 1 - f., 17 f., 26) and the subscription (xxi. 24). Apart from these - redactional additions, chap. xxi. is to be ascribed to H, vv. 6 and 8 - being possibly the work of R_{H}. Most critics detect a stronger - influence of P in chap. xxii., more especially in vv. 3-7 and 17-25, - 29, 30; most probably these verses have been largely recast and - expanded by later editors, but it is noticeable that they contain no - mention of either sin- or trespass-offerings. - - Chap. xxiii. A calendar of sacred seasons. The chapter consists of two - main elements which can easily be distinguished from one another, the - one being derived from P and the other from H. To the former belongs - the fuller and more elaborate description of vv. 4-8, 21, 23-38; to - the latter, vv. 9-20, 22, 39-44. Characteristic of the priestly - calendar are (1) the enumeration of "holy convocations," (2) the - prohibition of all work, (3) the careful determination of the date by - the day and month, (4) the mention of "the offerings made by fire to - Yahweh," and (5) the stereotyped form of the regulations. The older - calendar, on the other hand, knows nothing of "holy convocations," nor - of abstinence from work; the time of the feasts, which are clearly - connected with agriculture, is only roughly defined with reference to - the harvest (cf. Exod. xxiii. 14 ff., xxxiv. 22; Deut. xvi. 9 ff.). - - The calendar of P comprises (a) the Feast of Passover and the - Unleavened Cakes, vv. 4-8; (b) a fragment of Pentecost, v. 21; (c) the - Feast of Trumpets, vv. 23-25; (d) the Day of Atonement, vv. 26-32; and - (e) the Feast of Tabernacles, vv. 33-36, with a subscription in vv. - 37, 38. With these have been incorporated the older regulations of H - on the Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost, vv. 9-20, which have been - retained in place of P's account (cf. v. 21), and on the Feast of - Tabernacles, vv. 39-44, the latter being clearly intended to - supplement vv. 33-36. The hand of the redactor who combined the two - elements may be seen partly in additions designed to accommodate the - regulations of H to P (e.g. v. 39a, "on the fifteenth day of the - seventh month," and 39b, "and on the eighth day shall be a solemn - rest"), partly in the later expansions corresponding to later usage, - vv. 12 f., 18, 19a, 21b, 41. Further, vv. 26-32 (on the Day of - Atonement, cf. xvi.) are a later addition to the P sections. - - Chap. xxiv. affords an interesting illustration of the manner in which - the redactor of P has added later elements to the original code of H. - For the first part of the chapter, with its regulations as to (a) the - lamps in the Tabernacle, vv. 1-4, and (b) the Shewbread, vv. 5-9, is - admittedly derived from P, vv. 1-4, forming a supplement to Exod. xxv. - 31-40 (cf. xxvii. 20 f.) and Num. viii. 1-4, and vv. 5-9 to Exod. xxv. - 30. The rest of the chapter contains old laws (vv. 15b-22) derived - from H on blasphemy, manslaughter and injuries to the person, to which - the redactor has added an historical setting (vv. 10-14, 23) as well - as a few glosses. - - Chap. xxv. lays down regulations for the observance of (a) the - Sabbatical year, vv. 1-7, 19-22, and (b) the year of Jubilees, vv. - 8-18, 23, and then applies the principle of redemption to (1) land and - house property, vv. 24-34, and (2) persons, vv. 35-55. The rules for - the Sabbatical year (vv. 1-7) are admittedly derived from H, and vv. - 19-22 are also from the same source. Their present position after vv. - 8-18 is due to the redactor who wished to apply the same rules to the - year of Jubilee. But though the former of the two sections on the year - of Jubilee (vv. 8-18, 23) exhibits undoubted signs of P, the traces of - H are also sufficiently marked to warrant the conclusion that the - latter code included laws relating to the year of Jubilee, and that - these have been modified by R_{P} and then connected with the - regulations for the Sabbatical year. Signs of the redactor's handiwork - may be seen in vv. 9, 11-13 (the year of Jubilee treated as a fallow - year) and 15, 16 (cf. the repetition of "ye shall not wrong one - another," vv. 14 and 17). Both on historical and on critical grounds, - however, it is improbable that the principle of restitution underlying - the regulations for the year of Jubilee was originally extended to - _persons_ in the earlier code. For it is difficult to harmonize the - laws as to the release of Hebrew slaves with the other legislation on - the same subject (Exod. xxi. 2-6; Deut. xv.), while both the secondary - position which they occupy in this chapter and their more elaborate - and formal character point to a later origin for vv. 35-55. Hence - these verses in the main must be assigned to R_{P}. In this connexion - it is noticeable that vv. 35-38, 39-40a, 43, 47, 53, 55, which show - the characteristic marks of H, bear no special relation to the year of - Jubilee, but merely inculcate a more humane treatment of those - Israelites who are compelled by circumstances to sell themselves - either to their brethren or to strangers. It is probable, therefore, - that they form no part of the original legislation of the year of - Jubilee, but were incorporated at a later period. The present form of - vv. 24-34 is largely due to R_{P}, who has certainly added vv. 32-34 - (cities of the Levites) and probably vv. 29-31. - - Chap. xxvi. The concluding exhortation. After reiterating commands to - abstain from idolatry and to observe the Sabbath, vv. 1, 2, the - chapter sets forth (a) the rewards of obedience, vv. 3-13, and (b) the - penalties incurred by disobedience to the preceding laws, vv. 14-46. - The discourse, which is spoken throughout in the name of Yahweh, is - similar in character to Exod. xxiii. 20-33 and Deut. xxviii., more - especially to the latter. That it forms an integral part of H is shown - both by the recurrence of the same distinctive phraseology and by the - emphasis laid on the same motives. At the same time it is hardly - doubtful that the original discourse has been modified and expanded by - later hands, especially in the concluding paragraphs. Thus vv. 34, 35, - which refer back to xxv. 2 ff., interrupt the connexion and must be - assigned to the priestly redactor, while vv. 40-45 display obvious - signs of interpolation. With regard to the literary relation of this - chapter with Ezekiel, it must be admitted that Ezekiel presents many - striking parallels, and in particular makes use, in common with chap. - xxvi., of several expressions which do not occur elsewhere in the Old - Testament. But there are also points of difference both as regards - phraseology and subject-matter, and in view of these latter it is - impossible to hold that Ezekiel was either the author or compiler of - this chapter. - - Chap. xxvii. On the commutation of vows and tithes. The chapter as a - whole must be assigned to a later stratum of P, for while vv. 2-25 (on - vows) presuppose the year of Jubilee, the section on tithes, vv. - 30-33, marks a later stage of development than Num. xviii. 21 ff. (P); - vv. 26-29 (on firstlings and devoted things) are supplementary - restrictions to vv. 2-25. - - LITERATURE.--_Commentaries_: Dillmann-Ryssel, _Die Bucher Exodus und - Leviticus_ (1897); Driver and White, _SBOT. Leviticus_ (English, - 1898); B. Baentsch, _Exod. Lev. u. Num._ (HK, 1900); Bertholet, - _Leviticus_ (KHC, 1901). _Criticism_: The Introductions to the Old - Testament by Kuenen, Holzinger, Driver, Cornill, Konig and the - archaeological works of Benzinger and Nowack. Wellhausen, _Die - Composition des Hexateuchs_, &c. (1899); Kayser, _Das vorexilische - Buch der Urgeschichte Isr._ (1874); Klostermann, _Zeitschrift fur - Luth. Theologie_ (1877); Horst, _Lev. xvii.-xxvi. and Hezekiel_ - (1881); Wurster, _ZATW_ (1884); Baentsch, _Das Heiligkeitsgesetz_ - (1893); L. P. Paton, "The Relation of Lev. 20 to Lev. 17-19," - _Hebraica_ (1894); "The Original Form of Leviticus," _JBL_ (1897, - 1898); "The Holiness Code and Ezekiel," _Pres. and Ref. Review_ - (1896); Carpenter, _Composition of the Hexateuch_ (1902). Articles on - Leviticus by G. F. Moore, Hastings's _Diet. Bib._, and G. Harford - Battersby, _Ency. Bib._ (J. F. St.) - - - - -LEVY, AMY (1861-1889), English poetess and novelist, second daughter of -Lewis Levy, was born at Clapham on the 10th of November 1861, and was -educated at Newnham College, Cambridge. She showed a precocious aptitude -for writing verse of exceptional merit, and in 1884 she published a -volume of poems, _A Minor Poet and Other Verse_, some of the pieces in -which had already been printed at Cambridge with the title _Xantippe and -Other Poems_. The high level of this first publication was maintained in -_A London Plane Tree and Other Poems_, a collection of lyrics published -in 1889, in which the prevailing pessimism of the writer's temperament -was conspicuous. She had already in 1888 tried her hand at prose fiction -in _The Romance of a Shop_, which was followed by _Reuben Sachs_, a -powerful novel. She committed suicide on the 10th of September 1889. - - - - -LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844- ), French geologist, was born in Paris on -the 7th of August 1844. He became inspector-general of mines, and -director of the Geological Survey of France. He was distinguished for -his researches on eruptive rocks, their microscopic structure and -origin; and he early employed the polarizing microscope for the -determination of minerals. In his many contributions to scientific -journals he described the granulite group, and dealt with pegmatites, -variolites, eurites, the ophites of the Pyrenees, the extinct volcanoes -of Central France, gneisses, and the origin of crystalline schists. He -wrote _Structures et classification des roches eruptives_ (1889), but -his more elaborate studies were carried on with F. Fouque. Together they -wrote on the artificial production of felspar, nepheline and other -minerals, and also of meteorites, and produced _Mineralogie -micrographique_ (1879) and _Synthese des mineraux et des roches_ (1882). -Levy also collaborated with A. Lacroix in _Les Mineraux des roches_ -(1888) and _Tableau des mineraux des roches_ (1889). - - - - -LEVY (Fr. _levee_, from _lever_, Lat. _levare_, to lift, raise), the -raising of money by the collection of an assessment, &c., a tax or -compulsory contribution; also the collection of a body of men for -military or other purposes. When all the able-bodied men of a nation are -enrolled for service, the French term _levee en masse_, levy in mass, is -frequently used. - - - - -LEWALD, FANNY (1811-1889), German author, was born at Konigsberg in East -Prussia on the 24th of March 1811, of Jewish parentage. When seventeen -years of age she embraced Christianity, and after travelling in Germany, -France and Italy, settled in 1845 at Berlin. Here, in 1854, she married -the author, Adolf Wilhelm Theodor Stahr (1805-1876), and removed after -his death in 1876 to Dresden, where she resided, engaged in literary -work, until her death on the 5th of August 1889. Fanny Lewald is less -remarkable for her writings, which are mostly sober, matter-of-fact -works, though displaying considerable talent and culture, than for her -championship of "women's rights," a question which she was practically -the first German woman to take up, and for her scathing satire on the -sentimentalism of the Grafin Hahn Hahn. This authoress she ruthlessly -attacked in the exquisite parody (_Diogena, Roman von Iduna Grafin H.... -H...._ (2nd ed., 1847). Among the best known of her novels are -_Klementine_ (1842); _Prinz Louis Ferdinand_ (1849; 2nd ed., 1859); _Das -Madchen von Hela_ (1860); _Von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht_ (8 vols., -1863-1865); _Benvenuto_ (1875), and _Stella_ (1883; English by B. -Marshall, 1884). Of her writings in defence of the emancipation of women -_Osterbriefe fur die Frauen_ (1863) and _Fur und wider die Frauen_ -(1870) are conspicuous. Her autobiography, _Meine Lebensgeschichte_ (6 -vols., 1861-1862), is brightly written and affords interesting glimpses -of the literary life of her time. - - A selection of her works was published under the title _Gesammelte - Schriften_ in 12 vols. (1870-1874). Cf. K. Frenzel, _Erinnerungen und - Stromungen_ (1890). - - - - -LEWANIKA (c. 1860- ), paramount chief of the Barotse and subject tribes -occupying the greater part of the upper Zambezi basin, was the -twenty-second of a long line of rulers, whose founder invaded the -Barotse valley about the beginning of the 17th century, and according to -tradition was the son of a woman named Buya Mamboa by a god. The graves -of successive ruling chiefs are to this day respected and objects of -pilgrimage for purposes of ancestor worship. Lewanika was born on the -upper Kabompo in troublous times, where his father--Letia, a son of a -former ruler--lived in exile during the interregnum of a foreign dynasty -(Makololo), which remained in possession from about 1830 to 1865, when -the Makololo were practically exterminated in a night by a -well-organized revolt. Once more masters of their own country, the -Barotse invited Sepopa, an uncle of Lewanika, to rule over them. Eleven -years of brutality and licence resulted in the tyrant's expulsion and -subsequent assassination, his place being taken by Ngwana-Wina, a -nephew. Within a year abuse of power brought about this chief's downfall -(1877), and he was succeeded by Lobosi, who assumed the name of Lewanika -in 1885. The early years of his reign were also stained by many acts of -blood, until in 1884 the torture and murder of his own brother led to -open rebellion, and it was only through extreme presence of mind that -the chief escaped with his life into exile. His cousin, Akufuna or -Tatela, was then proclaimed chief. It was during his brief reign that -Francois Coillard, the eminent missionary, arrived at Lialui, the -capital. The following year Lewanika, having collected his partisans, -deposed the usurper and re-established his power. Ruthless revenge not -unmixed with treachery characterized his return to power, but gradually -the strong personality of the high-minded Francois Coillard so far -influenced him for good that from about 1887 onward he ruled tolerantly -and showed a consistent desire to better the condition of his people. In -1890 Lewanika, who two years previously had proposed to place himself -under the protection of Great Britain, concluded a treaty with the -British South Africa Company, acknowledging its supremacy and conceding -to it certain mineral rights. In 1897 Mr R. T. Coryndon took up his -position at Lialui as British agent, and the country to the east of 25 -deg. E. was thrown open to settlers, that to the west being reserved to -the Barotse chief. In 1905 the king of Italy's award in the Barotse -boundary dispute with Portugal deprived Lewanika of half of his -dominions, much of which had been ruled by his ancestors for many -generations. In 1902 Lewanika attended the coronation of Edward VII. as -a guest of the nation. His recognized heir was his eldest son Letia. - - See BAROTSE, and the works there cited, especially _On the Threshold - of Central Africa_ (London, 1897), by Francois Coillard. - (A. St. H. G.) - - - - -LEWES, CHARLES LEE (1740-1803), English actor, was the son of a hosier -in London. After attending a school at Ambleside he returned to London, -where he found employment as a postman; but about 1760 he went on the -stage in the provinces, and some three years later began to appear in -minor parts at Covent Garden Theatre. His first role of importance was -that of "Young Marlow" in _She Stoops to Conquer_, at its production of -that comedy in 1773, when he delivered an epilogue specially written for -him by Goldsmith. He remained a member of the Covent Garden company till -1783, appearing in many parts, among which were "Fag" in _The Rivals_, -which he "created," and "Sir Anthony Absolute" in the same comedy. In -1783 he removed to Drury Lane, where he assumed the Shakespearian roles -of "Touchstone," "Lucio" and "Falstaff." In 1787 he left London for -Edinburgh, where he gave recitations, including Cowper's "John Gilpin." -For a short time in 1792 Lewes assisted Stephen Kemble in the management -of the Dundee Theatre; in the following year he went to Dublin, but he -was financially unsuccessful and suffered imprisonment for debt. He -employed his time in compiling his _Memoirs_, a worthless production -published after his death by his son. He was also the author of some -poor dramatic sketches. Lewes died on the 23rd of July 1803. He was -three times married; the philosopher, George Henry Lewes, was his -grandson. - - See John Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage_ (Bath, 1832). - - - - -LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (1817-1878), British philosopher and literary -critic, was born in London in 1817. He was a grandson of Charles Lee -Lewes, the actor. He was educated in London, Jersey, Brittany, and -finally at Dr Burney's school in Greenwich. Having abandoned -successively a commercial and a medical career, he seriously thought of -becoming an actor, and between 1841 and 1850 appeared several times on -the stage. Finally he devoted himself to literature, science and -philosophy. As early as 1836 he belonged to a club formed for the study -of philosophy, and had sketched out a physiological treatment of the -philosophy of the Scottish school. Two years later he went to Germany, -probably with the intention of studying philosophy. In 1840 he married a -daughter of Swynfen Stevens Jervis (1798-1867), and during the next ten -years supported himself by contributing to the quarterly and other -reviews. These articles discuss a wide variety of subject, and, though -often characterized by hasty impulse and imperfect study, betray a -singularly acute critical judgment, enlightened by philosophic study. -The most valuable are those on the drama, afterwards republished under -the title _Actors and Acting_ (1875). With this may be taken the volume -on _The Spanish Drama_ (1846). The combination of wide scholarship, -philosophic culture and practical acquaintance with the theatre gives -these essays a high place among the best efforts in English dramatic -criticism. In 1845-1846 he published _The Biographical History of -Philosophy_, an attempt to depict the life of philosophers as an -ever-renewed fruitless labour to attain the unattainable. In 1847-1848 -he made two attempts in the field of fiction--_Ranthrope_, and _Rose, -Blanche and Violet_--which, though displaying considerable skill both -in plot, construction and in characterization, have taken no permanent -place in literature. The same is to be said of an ingenious attempt to -rehabilitate Robespierre (1849). In 1850 he collaborated with Thornton -Leigh Hunt in the foundation of the _Leader_, of which he was the -literary editor. In 1853 he republished under the title of _Comte's -Philosophy of the Sciences_ a series of papers which had appeared in -that journal. In 1851 he became acquainted with Miss Evans (George -Eliot) and in 1854 left his wife. Subsequently he lived with Miss Evans -as her husband (see ELIOT, GEORGE). - -The culmination of Lewes's work in prose literature is the _Life of -Goethe_ (1855), probably the best known of his writings. Lewes's -many-sidedness of mind, and his combination of scientific with literary -tastes, eminently fitted him to appreciate the large nature and the -wide-ranging activity of the German poet. The high position this work -has taken in Germany itself, notwithstanding the boldness of its -criticism and the unpopularity of some of its views (e.g. on the -relation of the second to the first part of _Faust_), is a sufficient -testimony to its general excellence. From about 1853 Lewes's writings -show that he was occupying himself with scientific and more particularly -biological work. He may be said to have always manifested a distinctly -scientific bent in his writings, and his closer devotion to science was -but the following out of early impulses. Considering that he had not had -the usual course of technical training, these studies are a remarkable -testimony to the penetration of his intellect. The most important of -these essays are collected in the volumes _Seaside Studies_ (1858), -_Physiology of Common Life_ (1859), _Studies in Animal Life_ (1862), and -_Aristotle, a Chapter from the History of Science_ (1864). They are much -more than popular expositions of accepted scientific truths. They -contain able criticisms of authorized ideas, and embody the results of -individual research and individual reflection. He made a number of -impressive suggestions, some of which have since been accepted by -physiologists. Of these the most valuable is that now known as the -doctrine of the functional indifference of the nerves--that what are -known as the specific energies of the optic, auditory and other nerves -are simply differences in their mode of action due to the differences of -the peripheral structures or sense-organs with which they are connected. -This idea was subsequently arrived at independently by Wundt -(_Physiologische Psychologie_, 2nd ed., p. 321). In 1865, on the -starting of the _Fortnightly Review_, Lewes became its editor, but he -retained the post for less than two years, when he was succeeded by John -Morley. This date marks the transition from more strictly scientific to -philosophic work. He had from early youth cherished a strong liking for -philosophic studies; one of his earliest essays was an appreciative -account of Hegel's _Aesthetics_. Coming under the influence of -positivism as unfolded both in Comte's own works and in J. S. Mill's -_System of Logic_, he abandoned all faith in the possibility of -metaphysic, and recorded this abandonment in the above-mentioned -_History of Philosophy_. Yet he did not at any time give an unqualified -adhesion to Comte's teachings, and with wider reading and reflection his -mind moved away further from the positivist standpoint. In the preface -to the third edition of his _History of Philosophy_ he avowed a change -in this direction, and this movement is still more plainly discernible -in subsequent editions of the work. The final outcome of this -intellectual progress is given to us in _The Problems of Life and Mind_, -which may be regarded as the crowning work of his life. His sudden death -on the 28th of November 1878 cut short the work, yet it is complete -enough to allow us to judge of the author's matured conceptions on -biological, psychological and metaphysical problems. Of his three sons -only one, Charles (1843-1891), survived him; in the first London County -Council Election (1888) he was elected for St Pancras; he was also much -interested in the Hampstead Heath extension. - - _Philosophy._--The first two volumes on _The Foundations of a Creed_ - lay down what Lewes regarded as the true principles of philosophizing. - He here seeks to effect a _rapprochement_ between metaphysic and - science. He is still so far a positivist as to pronounce all inquiry - into the ultimate nature of things fruitless. What matter, form, - spirit are in themselves is a futile question that belongs to the - sterile region of "metempirics." But philosophical questions may be so - stated as to be susceptible of a precise solution by scientific - method. Thus, since the relation of subject to object falls within our - experience, it is a proper matter for philosophic investigation. It - may be questioned whether Lewes is right in thus identifying the - methods of science and philosophy. Philosophy is not a mere extension - of scientific knowledge; it is an investigation of the nature and - validity of the knowing process itself. In any case Lewes cannot be - said to have done much to aid in the settlement of properly - philosophical questions. His whole treatment of the question of the - relation of subject to object is vitiated by a confusion between the - scientific truth that mind and body coexist in the living organism and - the philosophic truth that all knowledge of objects implies a knowing - subject. In other words, to use Shadworth Hodgson's phrase, he mixes - up the question of the _genesis_ of mental forms with the question of - their _nature_ (see _Philosophy of Reflexion_, ii. 40-58). Thus he - reaches the "monistic" doctrine that mind and matter are two aspects - of the same existence by attending simply to the parallelism between - psychical and physical processes given as a fact (or a probable fact) - of our experience, and by leaving out of account their relation as - subject and object in the cognitive act. His identification of the two - as phases of one existence is open to criticism, not only from the - point of view of philosophy, but from that of science. In his - treatment of such ideas as "sensibility," "sentience" and the like, he - does not always show whether he is speaking of physical or of - psychical phenomena. Among the other properly philosophic questions - discussed in these two volumes the nature of the casual relation is - perhaps the one which is handled with most freshness and - suggestiveness. The third volume, _The Physical Basis of Mind_, - further develops the writer's views on organic activities as a whole. - He insists strongly on the radical distinction between organic and - inorganic processes, and on the impossibility of ever explaining the - former by purely mechanical principles. With respect to the nervous - system, he holds that all its parts have one and the same elementary - property, namely, sensibility. Thus sensibility belongs as much to the - lower centres of the spinal cord as to the brain, contributing in this - more elementary form elements to the "subconscious" region of mental - life. The higher functions of the nervous system, which make up our - conscious mental life, are merely more complex modifications of this - fundamental property of nerve substance. Closely related to this - doctrine is the view that the nervous organism acts as a whole, that - particular mental operations cannot be referred to definitely - circumscribed regions of the brain, and that the hypothesis of nervous - activity passing in the centre by an isolated pathway from one - nerve-cell to another is altogether illusory. By insisting on the - complete coincidence between the regions of nerve-action and - sentience, and by holding that these are but different aspects of one - thing, he is able to attack the doctrine of animal and human - automatism, which affirms that feeling or consciousness is merely an - incidental concomitant of nerve-action and in no way essential to the - chain of physical events. Lewes's views in psychology, partly opened - up in the earlier volumes of the _Problems_, are more fully worked out - in the last two volumes (3rd series). He discusses the method of - psychology with much insight. He claims against Comte and his - followers a place for introspection in psychological research. In - addition to this subjective method there must be an objective, which - consists partly in a reference to nervous conditions and partly in the - employment of sociological and historical data. Biological knowledge, - or a consideration of the organic conditions, would only help us to - explain mental _functions_, as feeling and thinking; it would not - assist us to understand differences of mental _faculty_ as manifested - in different races and stages of human development. The organic - conditions of these differences will probably for ever escape - detection. Hence they can be explained only as the products of the - social environment. This idea of dealing with mental phenomena in - their relation to social and historical conditions is probably Lewes's - most important contribution to psychology. Among other points which he - emphasizes is the complexity of mental phenomena. Every mental state - is regarded as compounded of three factors in different - proportions--namely, a process of sensible affection, of logical - grouping and of motor impulse. But Lewes's work in psychology consists - less in any definite discoveries than in the inculcation of a sound - and just method. His biological training prepared him to view mind as - a complex unity, in which the various functions interact one on the - other, and of which the highest processes are identical with and - evolved out of the lower. Thus the operations of thought, "or the - logic of signs," are merely a more complicated form of the elementary - operations of sensation and instinct or "the logic of feeling." The - whole of the last volume of the _Problems_ may be said to be an - illustration of this position. It is a valuable repository of - psychological facts, many of them drawn from the more obscure regions - of mental life and from abnormal experience, and is throughout - suggestive and stimulating. To suggest and to stimulate the mind, - rather than to supply it with any complete system of knowledge, may be - said to be Lewes's service in philosophy. The exceptional rapidity and - versatility of his intelligence seems to account at once for the - freshness in his way of envisaging the subject-matter of philosophy - and psychology, and for the want of satisfactory elaboration and of - systematic co-ordination. (J. S.; X.) - - - - -LEWES, a market-town and municipal borough and the county town of -Sussex, England, in the Lewes parliamentary division, 50 m. S. from -London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) -11,249. It is picturesquely situated on the slope of a chalk down -falling to the river Ouse. Ruins of the old castle, supposed to have -been founded by King Alfred and rebuilt by William de Warenne shortly -after the Conquest, rise from the height. There are two mounds which -bore keeps, an uncommon feature. The castle guarded the pass through the -downs formed by the valley of the Ouse. In one of the towers is the -collection of the Sussex Archaeological Society. St Michael's church is -without architectural merit, but contains old brasses and monuments; St -Anne's church is a transitional Norman structure; St Thomas-at-Cliffe is -Perpendicular; St John's, Southover, of mixed architecture, preserves -some early Norman portions, and has some relics of the Warenne family. -In the grounds of the Cluniac priory of St Pancras, founded in 1078, the -leaden coffins of William de Warenne and Gundrada his wife were dug up -during an excavation for the railway in 1845. There is a free grammar -school dating from 1512, and among the other public buildings are the -town hall and corn exchange, county hall, prison, and the Fitzroy -memorial library. The industries include the manufacture of agricultural -implements, brewing, tanning, and iron and brass founding. The municipal -borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1042 -acres. - -The many neolithic and bronze implements that have been discovered, and -the numerous tumuli and earthworks which surround Lewes, indicate its -remote origin. The town Lewes (Loewas, Loewen, Leswa, Laquis, -Latisaquensis) was in the royal demesne of the Saxon kings, from whom it -received the privilege of a market. Aethelstan established two royal -mints there, and by the reign of Edward the Confessor, and probably -before, Lewes was certainly a borough. William I. granted the whole -barony of Lewes, including the revenue arising from the town, to William -de Warenne, who converted an already existing fortification into a place -of residence. His descendants continued to hold the barony until the -beginning of the 14th century. In default of male issue, it then passed -to the earl of Arundel, with whose descendants it remained until 1439, -when it was divided between the Norfolks, Dorsets and Abergavennys. By -1086 the borough had increased 30% in value since the beginning of the -reign, and its importance as a port and market-town is evident from -Domesday. A gild merchant seems to have existed at an early date. The -first mention of it is in a charter of Reginald de Warenne, about 1148, -by which he restored to the burgesses the privileges they had enjoyed in -the time of his grandfather and father, but of which they had been -deprived. In 1595 a "Fellowship" took the place of the old gild and in -conjunction with two constables governed the town until the beginning of -the 18th century. The borough seal probably dates from the 14th century. -Lewes was incorporated by royal charter in 1881. The town returned two -representatives to parliament from 1295 until deprived of one member in -1867. It was disfranchised in 1885. Earl Warenne and his descendants -held the fairs and markets from 1066. In 1792 the fair-days were the 6th -of May, Whit-Tuesday, the 26th of July (for wool), and the 2nd of -October. The market-day was Saturday. Fairs are now held on the 6th of -May for horses and cattle, the 20th of July for wool, and the 21st and -28th of September for Southdown sheep. A corn-market is held every -Tuesday, and a stock-market every alternate Monday. The trade in wool -has been important since the 14th century. - -Lewes was the scene of the battle fought on the 14th of May 1264 between -Henry III. and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. Led by the king and -by his son, the future king Edward I., the royalists left Oxford, took -Northampton and drove Montfort from Rochester into London. Then, -harassed on the route by their foes, they marched through Kent into -Sussex and took up their quarters at Lewes, a stronghold of the royalist -Earl Warenne. Meanwhile, reinforced by a number of Londoners, Earl Simon -left London and reached Fletching, about 9 m. north of Lewes, on the -13th of May. Efforts at reconciliation having failed he led his army -against the town, which he hoped to surprise, early on the following -day. His plan was to direct his main attack against the priory of St -Pancras, which sheltered the king and his brother Richard, earl of -Cornwall, king of the Romans, while causing the enemy to believe that -his principal objective was the castle, where Prince Edward was. But the -surprise was not complete and the royalists rushed from the town to meet -the enemy in the open field. Edward led his followers against the -Londoners, who were gathered around the standard of Montfort, put them -to flight, pursued them for several miles, and killed a great number of -them. Montfort's ruse, however, had been successful. He was not with his -standard as his foes thought, but with the pick of his men he attacked -Henry's followers and took prisoner both the king and his brother. -Before Edward returned from his chase the earl was in possession of the -town. In its streets the prince strove to retrieve his fortunes, but in -vain. Many of his men perished in the river, but others escaped, one -band, consisting of Earl Warenne and others, taking refuge in Pevensey -Castle. Edward himself took sanctuary and on the following day peace was -made between the king and the earl. - - - - -LEWES, a town in Sussex county, Delaware, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of -the state, on Delaware Bay. Pop. (1910), 2158. Lewes is served by the -Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington (Pennsylvania System), and the -Maryland, Delaware & Virginia railways. Its harbour is formed by the -Delaware Breakwater, built by the national government and completed in -1869, and 2(1/4) m. above it another breakwater was completed in December -1901 by the government. The cove between them forms a harbour of refuge -of about 550 acres. At the mouth of Delaware Bay, about 2 m. below -Lewes, is the Henlopen Light, one of the oldest lighthouses in America. -The Delaware Bay pilots make their headquarters at Lewes. Lewes has a -large trade with northern cities in fruits and vegetables, and is a -subport of entry of the Wilmington Customs District. The first -settlement on Delaware soil by Europeans was made near here in 1631 by -Dutch colonists, sent by a company organized in Holland in the previous -year by Samuel Blommaert, Killian van Rensselaer, David Pieterszen de -Vries and others. The settlers called the place Zwaanendael, valley of -swans. The settlement was soon entirely destroyed by the Indians, and a -second body of settlers whom de Vries, who had been made director of the -colony, brought in 1632 remained for only two years. The fact of the -settlement is important; because of it the English did not unite the -Delaware country with Maryland, for the Maryland Charter of 1632 -restricted colonization to land within the prescribed boundaries, -uncultivated and either uninhabited or inhabited only by Indians. In -1658 the Dutch established an Indian trading post, and in 1659 erected a -fort at Zwaanendael. After the annexation of the Delaware counties to -Pennsylvania in 1682, its name was changed to Lewes, after the town of -that name in Sussex, England. It was pillaged by French pirates in 1698. -One of the last naval battles of the War of Independence was fought in -the bay near Lewes on the 8th of April 1782, when the American privateer -"Hyder Ally" (16), commanded by Captain Joshua Barnes (1759-1818), -defeated and captured the British sloop "General Monk" (20), which had -been an American privateer, the "General Washington," had been captured -by Admiral Arbuthnot's squadron in 1780, and was now purchased by the -United States government and, as the "General Washington," was commanded -by Captain Barnes in 1782-1784. In March 1813 the town was bombarded by -a British frigate. - - See the "History of Lewes" in the _Papers_ of the Historical Society - of Delaware, No. xxxviii. (Wilmington, 1903); and J. T. Scharf, - _History of Delaware_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1888). - - - - -LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL, BART. (1806-1863), English statesman and -man of letters, was born in London on the 21st of April 1806. His -father, Thomas F. Lewis, of Harpton Court, Radnorshire, after holding -subordinate office in various administrations, became a poor-law -commissioner, and was made a baronet in 1846. Young Lewis was educated -at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where in 1828 he took a -first-class in classics and a second-class in mathematics. He then -entered the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1831. In 1833 he -undertook his first public work as one of the commissioners to inquire -into the condition of the poor Irish residents in the United Kingdom.[1] -In 1834 Lord Althorp included him in the commission to inquire into the -state of church property and church affairs generally in Ireland. To -this fact we owe his work on _Local Disturbances in Ireland, and the -Irish Church Question_ (London, 1836), in which he condemned the -existing connexion between church and state, proposed a state provision -for the Catholic clergy, and maintained the necessity of an efficient -workhouse organization. During this period Lewis's mind was much -occupied with the study of language. Before leaving college he had -published some observations on Whately's doctrine of the predicables, -and soon afterwards he assisted Thirlwall and Hare in starting the -_Philological Museum_. Its successor, the _Classical Museum_, he also -supported by occasional contributions. In 1835 he published an _Essay on -the Origin and Formation of the Romance Languages_ (re-edited in 1862), -the first effective criticism in England of Raynouard's theory of a -uniform romance tongue, represented by the poetry of the troubadours. He -also compiled a glossary of provincial words used in Herefordshire and -the adjoining counties. But the most important work of this earlier -period was one to which his logical and philological tastes contributed. -_The Remarks on the Use and Abuse of some Political Terms_ (London, -1832) may have been suggested by Bentham's _Book of Parliamentary -Fallacies_, but it shows all that power of clear sober original thinking -which marks his larger and later political works. Moreover, he -translated Boeckh's _Public Economy of Athens_ and Muller's _History of -Greek Literature_, and he assisted Tufnell in the translation of -Muller's _Dorians_. Some time afterwards he edited a text of the -_Fables_ of Babrius. While his friend Hayward conducted the _Law -Magazine_, he wrote in it frequently on such subjects as secondary -punishments and the penitentiary system. In 1836, at the request of Lord -Glenelg, he accompanied John Austin to Malta, where they spent nearly -two years reporting on the condition of the island and framing a new -code of laws. One leading object of both commissioners was to associate -the Maltese in the responsible government of the island. On his return -to England Lewis succeeded his father as one of the principal poor-law -commissioners. In 1841 appeared the _Essay on the Government of -Dependencies_, a systematic statement and discussion of the various -relations in which colonies may stand towards the mother country. In -1844 Lewis married Lady Maria Theresa Lister, sister of Lord Clarendon, -and a lady of literary tastes. Much of their married life was spent in -Kent House, Knightsbridge. They had no children. In 1847 Lewis resigned -his office. He was then returned for the county of Hereford, and Lord -John Russell appointed him secretary to the Board of Control, but a few -months afterwards he became under-secretary to the Home Office. In this -capacity he introduced two important bills, one for the abolition of -turnpike trusts and the management of highways by a mixed county board, -the other for the purpose of defining and regulating the law of -parochial assessment. In 1850 he succeeded Hayter as financial secretary -to the treasury. About this time, also, appeared his _Essay on the -Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion_. On the dissolution of -parliament which followed the resignation of Lord John Russell's -ministry in 1852, Lewis was defeated for Herefordshire and then for -Peterborough. Excluded from parliament he accepted the editorship of the -_Edinburgh Review_, and remained editor until 1855. During this period -he served on the Oxford commission, and on the commission to inquire -into the government of London. But its chief fruits were the _Treatise -on the Methods of Observation and Reasoning in Politics_, and the -_Enquiry into the Credibility of the Early Roman History_,[2] in which -he vigorously attacked the theory of epic lays and other theories on -which Niebuhr's reconstruction of that history had proceeded. In 1855 -Lewis succeeded his father in the baronetcy. He was at once elected -member for the Radnor boroughs, and Lord Palmerston made him chancellor -of the exchequer. He had a war loan to contract and heavy additional -taxation to impose, but his industry, method and clear vision carried -him safely through. After the change of ministry in 1859 Sir George -became home secretary under Lord Palmerston, and in 1861, much against -his wish, he succeeded Sidney Herbert (Lord Herbert of Lea) at the War -Office. The closing years of his life were marked by increasing -intellectual vigour. In 1859 he published an able _Essay on Foreign -Jurisdiction and the Extradition of Criminals_, a subject to which the -attempt on Napoleon's life, the discussions on the Conspiracy Bill, and -the trial of Bernard, had drawn general attention. He advocated the -extension of extradition treaties, and condemned the principal idea of -_Weltrechtsordnung_ which Mohl of Heidelberg had proposed. His two -latest works were the _Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients_, in -which, without professing any knowledge of Oriental languages, he -applied a sceptical analysis to the ambitious Egyptology of Bunsen; and -the _Dialogue on the Best Form of Government_, in which, under the name -of Crito, the author points out to the supporters of the various systems -that there is no one abstract government which is the best possible for -all times and places. An essay on the _Characteristics of Federal, -National, Provincial and Municipal Government_ does not seem to have -been published. Sir George died in April 1863. A marble bust by Weekes -stands in Westminster Abbey. - -Lewis was a man of mild and affectionate disposition, much beloved by a -large circle of friends, among whom were Sir E. Head, the Grotes, the -Austins, Lord Stanhope, J. S. Mill, Dean Milman, the Duff Gordons. In -public life he was distinguished, as Lord Aberdeen said, "for candour, -moderation, love of truth." He had a passion for the systematic -acquirement of knowledge, and a keen and sound critical faculty. His -name has gone down to history as that of a many-sided man, sound in -judgment, unselfish in political life, and abounding in practical good -sense. - - A reprint from the _Edinburgh Review_ of his long series of papers on - the _Administration of Great Britain_ appeared in 1864, and his - _Letters to various Friends_ (1870) were edited by his brother - Gilbert, who succeeded him in the baronetcy. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See the _Abstract of Final Report of Commissioners of Irish Poor - Enquiry_, &c., by G. C. Lewis and N. Senior (1837). - - [2] Translated into German by Liebrecht (Hanover, 1858). - - - - -LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL (1853-1888), American geologist, was born in -Philadelphia on the 16th of November 1853. Educated in the university of -Pennsylvania he took the degree of M.A. in 1876. He became attached to -the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania in 1879, serving for three years -as a volunteer member, and during this term he became greatly interested -in the study of glacial phenomena. In 1880 he was chosen professor of -mineralogy in the Philadelphia academy of natural sciences, and in 1883 -he was appointed to the chair of geology in Haverford College, -Pennsylvania. During the winters of 1885 to 1887 he studied petrology -under H. F. Rosenbusch at Heidelberg, and during the summers he -investigated the glacial geology of northern Europe and the British -Islands. His observations in North America, where he had studied under -Professor G. F. Wright, Professor T. C. Chamberlin and Warren Upham, had -demonstrated the former extension of land-ice, and the existence of -great terminal moraines. In 1884 his _Report on the Terminal Moraine in -Pennsylvania and New York_ was published: a work containing much -information on the limits of the North American ice-sheet. In Britain he -sought to trace in like manner the southern extent of the terminal -moraines formed by British ice-sheets, but before his conclusions were -matured he died at Manchester on the 21st of July 1888. The results of -his observations were published in 1894 entitled _Papers and Notes on -the Glacial Geology of Great Britain and Ireland_, edited by Dr H. W. -Crosskey. - - See "Prof. Henry Carvill Lewis and his Work in Glacial Geology," by - Warren Upham, _Amer. Geol._ vol. ii. (Dec. 1888) p. 371, with - portrait. - - - - -LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK (1805-1876), British painter, son of F. C. Lewis, -engraver, was born in London. He was elected in 1827 associate of the -Society of Painters in Water Colours, of which he became full member in -1829 and president in 1855; he resigned in 1858, and was made associate -of the Royal Academy in 1859 and academician in 1865. Much of his -earlier life was spent in Spain, Italy and the East, but he returned to -England in 1851 and for the remainder of his career devoted himself -almost exclusively to Eastern subjects, which he treated with -extraordinary care and minuteness of finish, and with much beauty of -technical method. He is represented by a picture, "Edfou: Upper Egypt," -in the National Gallery of British Art. He achieved equal eminence in -both oil and water-colour painting. - - - - -LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818), English romance-writer and -dramatist, often referred to as "Monk" Lewis, was born in London on the -9th of July 1775. He was educated for a diplomatic career at Westminster -school and at Christ Church, Oxford, spending most of his vacations -abroad in the study of modern languages; and in 1794 he proceeded to the -Hague as attache to the British embassy. His stay there lasted only a -few months, but was marked by the composition, in ten weeks, of his -romance _Ambrosio, or the Monk_, which was published in the summer of -the following year. It immediately achieved celebrity; but some passages -it contained were of such a nature that about a year after its -appearance an injunction to restrain its sale was moved for and a rule -_nisi_ obtained. Lewis published a second edition from which he had -expunged, as he thought, all the objectionable passages, but the work -still remains of such a character as almost to justify the severe -language in which Byron in _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_ -addresses-- - - "Wonder-working Lewis, Monk or Bard, - Who fain would'st make Parnassus a churchyard; - Even Satan's self with thee might dread to dwell, - And in thy skull discern a deeper hell." - -Whatever its demerits, ethical or aesthetic, may have been, _The Monk_ -did not interfere with the reception of Lewis into the best English -society; he was favourably noticed at court, and almost as soon as he -came of age he obtained a seat in the House of Commons as member for -Hindon, Wilts. After some years, however, during which he never -addressed the House, he finally withdrew from a parliamentary career. -His tastes lay wholly in the direction of literature, and _The Castle -Spectre_ (1796, a musical drama of no great literary merit, but which -enjoyed a long popularity on the stage), _The Minister_ (a translation -from Schiller's _Kabale u. Liebe_), _Rolla_ (1797, a translation from -Kotzebue), with numerous other operatic and tragic pieces, appeared in -rapid succession. _The Bravo of Venice_, a romance translated from the -German, was published in 1804; next to _The Monk_ it is the best known -work of Lewis. By the death of his father he succeeded to a large -fortune, and in 1815 embarked for the West Indies to visit his estates; -in the course of this tour, which lasted four months, the _Journal of a -West Indian Proprietor_, published posthumously in 1833, was written. A -second visit to Jamaica was undertaken in 1817, in order that he might -become further acquainted with, and able to ameliorate, the condition of -the slave population; the fatigues to which he exposed himself in the -tropical climate brought on a fever which terminated fatally on the -homeward voyage on the 14th of May 1818. - - _The Life and Correspondence of M. G. Lewis_, in two volumes, was - published in 1839. - - - - -LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774-1809), American explorer, was born near -Charlottesville, Virginia, on the 18th of August 1774. In 1794 he -volunteered with the Virginia troops called out to suppress the "Whisky -Insurrection," was commissioned as ensign in the regular United States -army in 1795, served with distinction under General Anthony Wayne in the -campaigns against the Indians, and attained the rank of captain in 1797. -From 1801 to 1803 he was the private secretary of President Jefferson. -On the 18th of January 1803 Jefferson sent a confidential message to -Congress urging the development of trade with the Indians of the -Missouri Valley and recommending that an exploring party be sent into -this region, notwithstanding the fact that it was then held by Spain -and owned by France. Congress appropriated funds for the expedition, and -the president instructed Lewis to proceed to the head-waters of the -Missouri river and thence across the mountains to the Pacific Ocean. -With Jefferson's consent Lewis chose as a companion Lieut. William -Clark, an old friend and army comrade. The preparations were made under -the orders of the War Department, and, until the news arrived that -France had sold Louisiana to the United States, they were conducted in -secrecy. Lewis spent some time in Philadelphia, gaining additional -knowledge of the natural sciences and learning the use of instruments -for determining positions; and late in 1803 he and Clark, with -twenty-nine men from the army, went into winter quarters near St Louis, -where the men were subjected to rigid training. On the 14th of May 1804 -the party, with sixteen additional members, who, however, were to go -only a part of the way, started up the Missouri river in three boats, -and by the 2nd of November had made the difficult ascent of the stream -as far as 47 deg. 21' N. lat., near the site of the present Bismarck, -North Dakota, where, among the Mandan Indians, they passed the second -winter. Early in April 1805 the ascent of the Missouri was continued as -far as the three forks of the river, which were named the Jefferson, the -Gallatin and the Madison. The Jefferson was then followed to its source -in the south-western part of what is now the state of Montana. Procuring -a guide and horses from the Shoshone Indians, the party pushed westward -through the Rocky Mountains in September, and on the 7th of October -embarked in canoes on a tributary of the Columbia river, the mouth of -which they reached on the 15th of November. They had travelled upwards -of 4000 m. from their starting-point, had encountered various Indian -tribes never before seen by whites, had made valuable scientific -collections and observations, and were the first explorers to reach the -Pacific by crossing the continent north of Mexico. After spending the -winter on the Pacific coast they started on the 23rd of March 1806 on -their return journey, and, after crossing the divide, Lewis with one -party explored Maria's river, and Clark with another the Yellowstone. On -the 12th of August the two explorers reunited near the junction of the -Yellowstone and the Missouri, and on the 23rd of September reached St -Louis. In spite of exposure, hardship and peril only one member of the -party died, and only one deserted. No later feat of exploration, -perhaps, in any quarter of the globe has exceeded this in romantic -interest. The expedition was commemorated by the Lewis and Clark -Centennial Exposition at Portland, Oregon, in 1905. The leaders and men -of the exploring party were rewarded with liberal grants of land from -the public domain, Lewis receiving 1500 acres; and in March 1807 Lewis -was made governor of the northern part of the territory obtained from -France in 1803, which had been organized as the Louisiana Territory. He -performed the duties of this office with great efficiency, but it is -said that in the unwonted quiet of his new duties, his mind, always -subject to melancholy, became unbalanced, and that while on his way to -Washington he committed suicide about 60 m. south-west of Nashville, -Tennessee, on the 11th of October 1809. It is not definitely known, -however, whether he actually committed suicide or was murdered. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Jefferson's _Message from the President of the United - States_, _Communicating Discoveries made in Exploring the Missouri, - Red River and Washita by Captains Lewis and Clark, Dr Sibley and Mr - Dunbar_ (Washington, 1806, and subsequent editions) is the earliest - account, containing the reports sent back by the explorers in the - winter of 1804-1805. Patrick Gass's _Journal of the Voyages and - Travels of a Corps of Discovery under the Command of Capt. Lewis and - Capt. Clark_ (Pittsburg, 1807) is the account of a sergeant in the - party. Biddle and Allen's _History of the Expedition under the Command - of Captains Lewis and Clark_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1814) is a - condensation of the original journals. There are numerous reprints of - this work, the best being that of Elliott Coues (4 vols., New York, - 1893), which contains additions from the original manuscripts and a - new chapter, in the style of Biddle, inserted as though a part of the - original text. As a final authority consult R. G. Thwaites (ed.), _The - Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition_ (8 vols., New - York, 1904-1905), containing all the known literary records of the - expedition. For popular accounts see W. R. Lighton, _Lewis and Clark_ - (Boston, 1901); O. D. Wheeler, _The Trail of Lewis and Clark_ (2 - vols., New York, 1904); and Noah Brooks (ed.), _First across the - Continent: Expedition of Lewis and Clark_ (New York, 1901). - - - - -LEWISBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Union county, Pennsylvania, -U.S.A., on the W. bank of West Branch of the Susquehanna river, about 50 -m. N. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 3457 (60 foreign-born); (1910) 3081. It -is served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. -It is the seat of Bucknell University (coeducational), opened in 1846 as -the university of Lewisburg and renamed in 1886 in honour of William -Bucknell (1809-1890), a liberal benefactor. The university comprises a -College of Liberal Arts, an Academy for Young Men, an Institute for -Young Women, and a School of Music, and in 1908-1909 had 50 instructors -and 775 students, of whom 547 were in the College of Liberal Arts. The -city is situated in a farming region, and has various manufactures, -including flour, lumber, furniture, woollens, nails, foundry products -and carriages. Lewisburg (until about 1805 called Derrstown) was founded -and laid out in 1785 by Ludwig Derr, a German, and was chartered as a -borough in 1812. - - - - -LEWISHAM, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, -bounded N.W. by Deptford, N.E. by Greenwich, E. by Woolwich, and W. by -Camberwell, and extending S. to the boundary of the county of London. -Pop. (1901) 127,495. Its area is for the most part occupied by villas. -It includes the districts of Blackheath and Lee in the north, Hither -Green, Catford and Brockley in the central parts, and Forest Hill and -part of Sydenham in the south-west. In the districts last named -well-wooded hills rise above 300 ft., and this is an especially favoured -residential quarter, its popularity being formerly increased by the -presence of medicinal springs, discovered in 1640, on Sydenham Common. -Towards the south, in spite of the constant extension of building, there -are considerable tracts of ground uncovered, apart from public grounds. -In the north the borough includes the greater part of Blackheath (q.v.), -an open common of considerable historical interest. The other principal -pleasure grounds are Hilly Fields (46 acres) and Ladywell Recreation -Grounds (46 acres) in the north-west part of the borough; and at -Sydenham (but outside the boundary of the county of London) is the -Crystal Palace. Among institutions are the Horniman Museum, Forest Hill -(1901); Morden's College, on the south of Blackheath, founded at the -close of the 17th century by Sir John Morden for Turkey merchants who -were received as pensioners, and subsequently extended in scope; -numerous schools in the same locality; and the Park Fever Hospital, -Hither Green. The parliamentary borough of Lewisham returns one member. -The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 42 councillors. -Area, 7014.4 acres. - - - - -LEWISTON, a city of Androscoggin county, Maine, U.S.A., on the -Androscoggin river, opposite Auburn, with which it is connected by four -steel bridges, and about 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1900) 23,761, of -whom 9316 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 26,247. It is served by the -Maine Central, the Grand Trunk, the Portland & Rumford Falls and the -Lewiston, Augusta & Waterville (electric) railways. The surrounding -country is hilly and the river is picturesque; in the vicinity there are -many lakes and ponds abounding in salmon and trout. The Maine fish -hatchery is on Lake Auburn, 3 m. above the city. Lewiston is the seat of -Bates College, a non-sectarian institution, which grew out of the Maine -State Seminary (chartered in 1855), and was chartered in 1864 under its -present name, adopted in honour of Benjamin E. Bates (d. 1877), a -liberal benefactor. In 1908-1909 the college had 25 instructors and 440 -students, and its library contained 34,000 volumes. The campus of the -college is about 1 m. from the business portion of Lewiston and covers -50 acres; among the college buildings are an auditorium (1909) given by -W. Scott Libbey of Lewiston, and the Libbey Forum for the use of the -three literary societies and the two Christian associations of the -college. The literary societies give excellent training in forensics. -The matriculation pledge requires from male students total abstinence -from intoxicants as a condition of membership. There are no secret -fraternities. From the beginning women have been admitted on the same -terms as men. The Cobb Divinity School (Free Baptist), which was founded -at Parsonfield, Maine, in 1840 as a department of Parsonfield Seminary, -and was situated in 1842-1844 at Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1844-1854 at -Whitestown, New York, and in 1854-1870 at New Hampton, New Hampshire, -was removed to Lewiston in 1870 and became a department (known as Bates -Theological Seminary until 1888) of Bates College, with which it was -merged in 1908. Lewiston has a fine city hall, a Carnegie library and a -public park of 10(1/2) acres, with a bronze soldiers' monument by Franklin -Simmons, who was born in 1839 at Webster near Lewiston, and is known for -his statues of Roger Williams, William King, Francis H. Pierpont and U. -S. Grant in the national Capitol, and for "Grief" and "History" on the -Peace Monument at Washington. In Lewiston are the Central Maine General -Hospital (1888), the Sisters' Hospital (1888), under the charge of the -French Catholic Sisters of Charity, a home for aged women, a young -women's home and the Hesley Asylum for boys. The Shrine Building (Kora -Temple), dedicated in 1909, is the headquarters of the Shriners of the -state. The river at Lewiston breaks over a ledge of mica-schist and -gneiss, the natural fall of 40 ft. having been increased to more than 50 -ft. by a strong granite dam; and 3 m. above the city at Deer Rips a -cement dam furnishes 10,000 horse-power. The water-power thus obtained -is distributed by canals from the nearer dam and transmitted by wire -from the upper dam. The manufacture of cotton goods is the principal -industry, and in 1905 the product of the city's cotton mills was valued -at about one-third of that of the mills of the whole state. Among other -industries are the manufacture of woollen goods, shirts, dry-plates, -carriages, spools and bobbins, and boots and shoes, and the dyeing and -finishing of textiles. The total factory product in 1905 was valued at -$8,527,649. The municipality owns its water works and electric lighting -plant. Lewiston was settled in 1770, incorporated as a township in 1795 -and chartered as a city in 1861. It was the home of Nelson Dingley -(1832-1899), who from 1856 until his death controlled the Lewiston -_Journal_. He was governor of the state in 1874-1876, Republican -representative in Congress in 1881-1899, and the drafter of the Dingley -Tariff Bill (1897). - - - - -LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS, the most northerly island of the Outer Hebrides, -Scotland. It is sometimes called the Long Island and is 24 m. from the -nearest point of the mainland, from which it is separated by the strait -called The Minch. It is 60 m. long and has an extreme breadth of 30 m., -its average breadth being 15 m. It is divided into two portions by a -line roughly drawn between Loch Resort on the west and Loch Seaforth on -the east, of which the larger or more northerly portion, known as Lewis -(pron. _Lews_), belongs to the county of Ross and Cromarty and the -lesser, known as Harris, to Inverness-shire. The area of the whole -island is 492,800 acres, or 770 sq. m., of which 368,000 acres belong to -Lewis. In 1891 the population of Lewis was 27,045, of Harris 3681; in -1901 the population of Lewis was 28,357, of Harris 3803, or 32,160 for -the island, of whom 17,175 were females, 11,209 spoke Gaelic only, and -17,685 both Gaelic and English. There is communication with certain -ports of the Western Highlands by steamer via Stornoway every -week--oftener during the tourist and special seasons--the steamers -frequently calling at Loch Erisort, Loch Sealg, Ardvourlie, Tarbert, -Ardvey, Rodel and The Obe. The coast is indented to a remarkable degree, -the principal sea-lochs in Harris being East and West Loch Tarbert; and -in Lewis, Loch Seaforth, Loch Erisort and Broad Bay (or Loch a Tuath) on -the east coast and Loch Roag and Loch Resort on the west. The mainland -is dotted with innumerable fresh-water lakes. The island is composed of -gneiss rocks, excepting a patch of granite near Carloway, small bands of -intrusive basalt at Gress and in Eye Peninsula and some Torridonian -sandstone at Stornoway, Tong, Vatskir and Carloway. Most of Harris is -mountainous, there being more than thirty peaks above 1000 ft. high. -Lewis is comparatively flat, save in the south-east, where Ben More -reaches 1874 ft., and in the south-west, where Mealasbhal (1885) is the -highest point; but in this division there are only eleven peaks -exceeding 1000 ft. in height. The rivers are small and unimportant. The -principal capes are the Butt of Lewis, in the extreme north, where the -cliffs are nearly 150 ft. high and crowned with a lighthouse, the light -of which is visible for 19 m.; Tolsta Head, Tiumpan Head and Cabag Head, -on the east; Renish Point, in the extreme south; and, on the west, Toe -Head and Gallon Head. The following inhabited islands in the -Inverness-shire division belong to the parish of Harris: off the S.W. -coast, Bernera (pop. 524), Ensay, Killigray and Pabbay; off the W. -coast, Scarp (160), Soay and Tarrensay (72); off the E. coast, Scalpa -(587) and Scotasay. Belonging to the county of Ross and Cromarty are -Great Bernera (580) to the W. of Lewis, in the parish of Uig, and the -Shiant Isles, about 21 m. S. of Stornoway, in the parish of Lochs, so -named from the number of its sea lochs and fresh-water lakes. The -south-eastern base of Broad Bay is furnished by the peninsula of Eye, -attached to the main mass by so slender a neck as seemingly to be on the -point of becoming itself an island. Much of the surface of both Lewis -and Harris is composed of peat and swamp; there are scanty fragments of -an ancient forest. The rainfall for the year averages 41.7 in., autumn -and winter being very wet. Owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, -however, the temperature is fairly high, averaging for the year 46.6 -deg. F., for January 39.5 deg. F. and for August 56.5 deg. F. - -The economic conditions of the island correspond with its physical -conditions. The amount of cultivable land is small and poor. Sir James -Matheson (1796-1878), who purchased the island in 1844, is said to have -spent nearly L350,000 in reclamation and improvements. Barley and -potatoes are the chief crops. A large number of black cattle are reared -and some sheep-farming is carried on in Harris. Kelp-making, once -important, has been extinct for many years. Harris has obtained great -reputation for tweeds. The cloth has an aroma of heather and peat, and -is made in the dwellings of the cotters, who use dyes of -long-established excellence. The fisheries are the principal mainstay of -the people. In spite of the very considerable reductions in rent -effected by the Crofters' Commission (appointed in 1886) and the sums -expended by government, most of the crofters still live in poor huts -amid dismal surroundings. The island affords good sporting facilities. -Many of the streams abound with salmon and trout; otters and seals are -plentiful, and deer and hares common; while bird life includes grouse, -ptarmigan, woodcock, snipe, heron, widgeon, teal, eider duck, swan and -varieties of geese and gulls. There are many antiquarian remains, -including duns, megaliths, ruined towers and chapels and the like. At -RODEL, in the extreme south of Harris, is a church, all that is left of -an Augustinian monastery. The foundation is Norman and the -superstructure Early English. On the towers are curious carved figures -and in the interior several tombs of the Macleods, the most remarkable -being that of Alastair (Alexander), son of William Macleod of Dunvegan, -dated 1528. The monument, a full-length recumbent effigy of a knight in -armour, lies at the base of a tablet in the shape of an arch divided -into compartments, in which are carved in bas-relief, besides the -armorial bearings of the deceased and a rendering of Dunvegan castle, -several symbolical scenes, one of which exhibits Satan weighing in the -balance the good and evil deeds of Alastair Macleod, the good obviously -preponderating. Stornoway, the chief town (pop. 3852) is treated under a -separate heading. At CALLERNISH, 13 m. due W. of Stornoway, are several -stone circles, one of which is probably the most perfect example of -so-called "Druidical" structures in the British Isles. In this specimen -the stones are huge, moss-covered, undressed blocks of gneiss. Twelve of -such monoliths constitute the circle, in the centre of which stands a -pillar 17 ft. high. From the circle there runs northwards an avenue of -stones, comprising on the right-hand side nine blocks and on the -left-hand ten. There also branch off from the circle, on the east and -west, a single line of four stones and, on the south, a single line of -five stones. From the extreme point of the south file to the farther -end of the avenue on the north is a distance of 127 yds. and the width -from tip to tip of the east and west arms is 41 yds. Viewed from the -north end of the avenue, the design is that of a cross. The most -important fishery centre on the west coast is Carloway, where there is -the best example of a broch, or fort, in the Hebrides. Rory, the blind -harper who translated the Psalms into Gaelic, was born in the village. -Tarbert, at the head of East Loch Tarbert, is a neat, clean village, in -communication by mail-car with Stornoway. At Coll, a few miles N. by E. -of Stornoway, is a mussel cave; and at Gress, 2 m. or so beyond in the -same direction, there is a famous seals' cave, adorned with fine -stalactites. Port of Ness, where there is a harbour, is the headquarters -of the ling fishery. Loch Seaforth gave the title of earl to a branch of -the Mackenzies, but in 1716 the 5th earl was attainted for Jacobitism -and the title forfeited. In 1797 Francis Humberston Mackenzie -(1754-1815), chief of the Clan Mackenzie, was created Lord Seaforth and -Baron Mackenzie of Kintail, and made colonel of the 2nd battalion of the -North British Militia, afterwards the 3rd battalion of the Seaforth -Highlanders. The 2nd battalion of the Seaforth Highlanders was formerly -the Ross-shire Buffs, which was raised in 1771. - - - - -LEXICON, a dictionary (q.v.). The word is the Latinized form of Gr. -[Greek: lexikon], sc. [Greek: biblion], a word-book ([Greek: lexis], -word, [Greek: legein], to speak). Lexicon, rather than dictionary, is -used of word-books of the Greek language, and sometimes of Arabic and -Hebrew. - - - - -LEXINGTON, BARON, a title borne in the English family of Sutton from -1645 to 1723. Robert Sutton (1594-1668), son of Sir William Sutton of -Averham, Nottinghamshire, was a member of parliament for his native -county in 1625 and again in 1640. He served Charles I. during the Civil -War, making great monetary sacrifices for the royal cause, and in 1645 -the king created him Baron Lexington, this being a variant of the name -of the Nottinghamshire village of Laxton. His estate suffered during the -time of the Commonwealth, but some money was returned to him by Charles -II. He died on the 13th of October 1668. His only son, Robert, the 2nd -baron (1661-1723), supported in the House of Lords the elevation of -William of Orange to the throne, and was employed by that king at court -and on diplomatic business. He also served as a soldier, but he is -chiefly known as the British envoy at Vienna during the conclusion of -the treaty of Ryswick, and at Madrid during the negotiations which led -to the treaty of Utrecht. He died on the 19th of September 1723. His -letters from Vienna, selected and edited by the Hon. H. M. Sutton, were -published as the _Lexington Papers_ (1851). Lexington's barony became -extinct on his death, but his estates descended to the younger sons of -his daughter Bridget (d. 1734), the wife of John Manners, 3rd duke of -Rutland. Lord George Manners, who inherited these estates in 1762, is -the ancestor of the family of Manners-Sutton. An earlier member of this -family is Oliver Sutton, bishop of Lincoln from 1280 to 1299. - - - - -LEXINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Fayette county, Kentucky, -U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 26,369, of whom 10,130 -were negroes and 924 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 35,099. It is -served by the Louisville & Nashville, the Southern, the Chesapeake & -Ohio, the Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific, the Lexington & -Eastern, and electric railways. The city, which lies at an altitude of -about 950 ft., is situated near the centre of the celebrated "blue -grass" region, into which extend a number of turnpike roads. Its public -buildings include the court house and the Federal building, both built -of Bowling Green oolitic limestone. Among the public institutions are -two general hospitals--St Joseph's (Roman Catholic) and Good Samaritan -(controlled by the Protestant churches of the city)--the Eastern Lunatic -Asylum (1815, a state institution since 1824), with 250 acres of -grounds; a state House of Reform for Girls and a state House of Reform -for Boys (both at Greendale, a suburb); an orphan industrial school (for -negroes); and two Widows' and Orphans' Homes, one established by the Odd -Fellows of Kentucky and the other by the Knights of Pythias of the -state. Lexington is the seat of Transylvania University (non-sectarian; -coeducational), formerly Kentucky University (Disciples of Christ), -which grew out of Bacon College (opened at Georgetown, Ky., in 1836), -was chartered in 1858 as Kentucky University, and was opened at -Harrodsburg, Ky., in 1859, whence after a fire in 1864 it removed to -Lexington in 1865. At Lexington it was consolidated with the old -Transylvania University, a well-known institution which had been -chartered as Transylvania Seminary in 1783, was opened near Danville, -Ky., in 1785, was removed to Lexington in 1789, was re-chartered as -Transylvania University in 1798, and virtually ceased to exist in -1859.[1] In 1908 Kentucky University resumed the old name, Transylvania -University. It has a college of Liberal Arts, a College of Law, a -Preparatory School, a Junior College for Women, and Hamilton College for -women (founded in 1869 as Hocker Female College), over which the -university assumed control in 1903, and a College of the Bible, -organized in 1865 as one of the colleges of the university, but now -under independent control. In 1907-1908 Transylvania University, -including the College of the Bible, had 1129 students. At Lexington are -the State University, two colleges for girls--the Campbell-Hagerman -College and Sayre College--and St Catherine's Academy (Roman Catholic). -The city is the meeting-place of a Chatauqua Assembly, and has a public -library. The State University was founded (under the Federal Land Grant -Act of 1862) in 1865 as the State Agricultural and Mechanical College, -was opened in 1866, and was a college of Kentucky University until 1878. -In 1890 the college received a second Federal appropriation, and it -received various grants from the state legislature, which in 1880 -imposed a state tax of one-half of 1% for its support. In connexion with -it an Agricultural Experiment Station was established in 1885. In 1908 -its title became, by act of Legislature, the State University. The -university has a College of Agriculture, a College of Arts and Science, -a College of Law, a School of Civil Engineering, a School of Mechanical -and Electrical Engineering, and a School of mining Engineering. The -university campus is the former City Park, in the southern part of the -city. In 1907-1908 the university had 1064 students. The city is the see -of a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. - -Lexington was the home of Henry Clay from 1797 until his death in 1852, -and in his memory a monument has been erected, consisting of a -magnesian-limestone column (about 120 ft.) in the Corinthian style and -surmounted by a statue of Clay, the head of which was torn off in 1902 -by a thunderbolt. Clay's estate, "Ashland," is now one of the best known -of the stock-farms in the vicinity; the present house is a replica of -Clay's home. The finest and most extensive of these stock-farms, and -probably the finest in the world, is "Elmendorf," 6 m. from the city. On -these farms many famous trotting and running horses have been raised. -There are two race-tracks in Lexington, and annual running and trotting -race meetings attract large crowds. The city's industries consist -chiefly in a large trade in tobacco, hemp, grain and live stock--there -are large semi-annual horse sales--and in the manufacture of "Bourbon" -whisky, tobacco, flour, dressed flax and hemp, carriages, harness and -saddles. The total value of the city's factory products in 1905 was -$2,774,329 (46.9% more than in 1900). - -Lexington was named from Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1775 by a party of -hunters who were encamped here when they received the news of the battle -of Lexington; the permanent settlement dates from 1779. It was laid out -in 1781, incorporated as a town in 1782, and chartered as a city in -1832. The first newspaper published west of the Alleghany Mountains, the -_Kentucky Gazette_, was established here in 1787, to promote the -separation of Kentucky from Virginia. The first state legislature met -here in 1792, but later in the same year Frankfort became the state -capital. Until 1907, when the city was enlarged by annexation, its -limits remained as they were first laid out, a circle with a radius of 1 -m., the court house being its centre. - - See G. W. Ranck, _History of Lexington, Kentucky_ (Cincinnati, 1872). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See Robert Peter, _Transylvania University: Its Origin, Rise, - Decline and Fall_ (Louisville, 1896), and his _History of the Medical - Department of Transylvania University_ (Louisville, 1905). - - - - -LEXINGTON, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about -11 m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 3831, (1910 U.S. census) 4918. It is -traversed by the Boston & Maine railroad and by the Lowell & Boston -electric railway. Its area is about 17 sq. m., and it contains three -villages--Lexington, East Lexington and North Lexington. Agriculture is -virtually the only industry. Owing to its historic interest the village -of Lexington is visited by thousands of persons annually, for it was on -the green or common of this village that the first armed conflict of the -American War of Independence occurred. On the green stand a monument -erected by the state in 1799 to the memory of the minute-men who fell in -that engagement, a drinking fountain surmounted by a bronze statue -(1900, by Henry Hudson Kitson) of Captain John Parker, who was in -command of the minute-men, and a large boulder, which marks the position -of the minute-men when they were fired upon by the British. Near the -green, in the old burying-ground, are the graves of Captain Parker and -other American patriots--the oldest gravestone is dated 1690. The -Hancock-Clarke House (built in part in 1698) is now owned by the -Lexington Historical Society and contains a museum of revolutionary and -other relics, which were formerly exhibited in the Town Hall. The -Buckman Tavern (built about 1690), the rendezvous of the minute-men, and -the Munroe Tavern (1695), the headquarters of the British, are still -standing, and two other houses, on the common, antedate the War of -Independence. The Cary Library in this village, with 23,000 volumes -(1908), was founded in 1868, and was housed in the Town Hall from 1871 -until 1906, when it was removed to the Cary Memorial Library building. -In the library are portraits of Paul Revere, William Dawes and Lord -Percy. The Town Hall (1871) contains statues of John Hancock (by Thomas -R. Gould) and Samuel Adams (by Martin Millmore), of the "Minute-Man of -1775" and the "Soldier of 1861," and a painting by Henry Sandham, "The -Battle of Lexington." - -Lexington was settled as a part of Cambridge as early as 1642. It was -organized as a parish in 1691 and was made a township (probably named in -honour of Lord Lexington) in 1713. In the evening of the 18th of April -1775 a British force of about 800 men under Lieut.-Colonel Francis Smith -and Major John Pitcairn was sent by General Thomas Gage from Boston to -destroy military stores collected by the colonists at Concord, and to -seize John Hancock and Samuel Adams, then at Parson Clarke's house (now -known as the Hancock-Clarke House) in Lexington. Although the British -had tried to keep this movement a secret, Dr Joseph Warren discovered -their plans and sent out Paul Revere and William Dawes to give warning -of their approach. The expedition had not proceeded far when Smith, -discovering that the country was aroused, despatched an express to -Boston for reinforcements and ordered Pitcairn to hasten forward with a -detachment of light infantry. Early in the morning of the 19th Pitcairn -arrived at the green in the village of Lexington, and there found -between sixty and seventy minute-men under Captain John Parker drawn up -in line of battle. Pitcairn ordered them to disperse, and on their -refusal to do so his men fired a volley. Whether a stray shot preceded -the first volley, and from which side it came, are questions which have -never been determined. After a second volley from the British, Parker -ordered his men to withdraw. The engagement lasted only a few minutes, -but eight Americans were killed and nine were wounded; not more than two -or three of the British were wounded. Hancock and Adams had escaped -before the British troops reached Lexington. The British proceeded from -Lexington to Concord (q.v.). On their return they were continually fired -upon by Americans from behind trees, rocks, buildings and other -defences, and were threatened with complete destruction until they were -rescued at Lexington by a force of 1000 men under Lord Hugh Percy -(later, 1786, duke of Northumberland). Percy received the fugitives -within a hollow square, checked the onslaught for a time with two -field-pieces, used the Munroe Tavern for a hospital, and later in the -day carried his command with little further injury back to Boston. The -British losses for the entire day were 73 killed, 174 wounded and 26 -missing; the American losses were 49 killed, 39 wounded and 5 missing. - -In 1839 a state normal school for women (the first in Massachusetts and -the first public training school for teachers in the United States) was -opened at Lexington; it was transferred to West Newton in 1844 and to -Framingham in 1853. - - See Charles Hudson, _History of the Town of Lexington_ (Boston, 1868), - and the publications of the Lexington Historical Society, (1890 seq.). - - - - -LEXINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Lafayette county, Missouri, -U.S.A., situated on the S. bank of the Missouri river, about 40 m. E. of -Kansas City. Pop. (1900) 4190, including 1170 negroes and 283 -foreign-born; (1910) 5242. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa -Fe, the Wabash (at Lexington Junction, 4 m. N.W.), and the Missouri -Pacific railway systems. The city lies for the most part on high broken -ground at the summit of the river bluffs, but in part upon their face. -Lexington is the seat of the Lexington College for Young Women (Baptist, -established 1855), the Central College for Women (Methodist Episcopal, -South; opened 1869), and the Wentworth Military Academy (1880). There -are steam flour mills, furniture factories and various other small -manufactories; but the main economic interest of the city is in -brickyards and coal-mines in its immediate vicinity. It is one of the -principal coal centres of the state, Higginsville (pop. in 1910, 2628), -about 12 m. S.E., in the same county, also being important. Lexington -was founded in 1819, was laid out in 1832, and, with various additions, -was chartered as a city in 1845. A new charter was received in 1870. -Lexington succeeded Sibley as the eastern terminus of the Santa Fe -trade, and was in turn displaced by Independence; it long owed its -prosperity to the freighting trade up the Missouri, and at the opening -of the Civil War it was the most important river town between St Louis -and St Joseph and commanded the approach by water to Fort Leavenworth. - -After the Confederate success at Wilson's Creek (Aug. 10, 1861), General -Sterling Price advanced northward, and with about 15,000 men arrived in -the vicinity of Lexington on the 12th of September. Here he found a -Federal force of about 2800 men under Colonel James A. Mulligan -(1830-1864) throwing up intrenchments on Masonic College Hill, an -eminence adjoining Lexington on the N.E. An attack was made on the same -day and the Federals were driven within their defences, but at night -General Price withdrew to the Fair-grounds not far away and remained -there five days waiting for his wagon train and for reinforcements. On -the 18th the assault was renewed, and on the 20th the Confederates, -advancing behind movable breastworks of water-soaked bales of hemp, -forced the besieged, now long without water, to surrender. The losses -were: Confederate, 25 killed and 75 wounded; Federal, 39 killed and 120 -wounded. At the end of September General Price withdrew, leaving a guard -of only a few hundred in the town, and on the 16th of the next month a -party of 220 Federal scouts under Major Frank J. White (1842-1875) -surprised this guard, released about 15 prisoners, and captured 60 or -more Confederates. Another Federal raid on the town was made in December -of the same year by General John Pope's cavalry. Again, during General -Price's Missouri expedition in 1864, a Federal force entered Lexington -on the 16th of October, and three days later there was some fighting -about 4 m. S. of the town. - - - - -LEXINGTON, a town and the county-seat of Rockbridge county, Virginia, -U.S.A., on the North river (a branch of the James), about 30 m. N.N.W. -of Lynchburg. Pop. (1900) 3203 (1252 negroes); (1910) 2931. It is served -by the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Baltimore & Ohio railways. The famous -Natural Bridge is about 16 m. S.W., and there are mineral springs in the -vicinity--at Rockbridge Baths, 10 m. N., at Wilson's Springs, 12 m. N., -and at Rockbridge Alum Springs, 17 m. N.W. Lexington is best known as -the seat of Washington and Lee University, and of the Virginia Military -Institute. The former grew out of Augusta Academy, which was established -in 1749 in Augusta county, about 15 m. S.W. of what is now the city of -Staunton, was renamed Liberty Hall and was established near Lexington -in 1780, and was chartered as Liberty Hall Academy in 1782. In 1798 its -name was changed to Washington Academy, in recognition of a gift from -George Washington of some shares of canal stock, which he refused to -receive from the Virginia legislature. In 1802 the Virginia branch of -the Society of the Cincinnati disbanded and turned over to the academy -its funds, about $25,000; in 1813 the academy took the name Washington -College; and in 1871 its corporate name was changed to Washington and -Lee University, the addition to the name being made in honour of General -Robert E. Lee, who was the president of the college from August 1865 -until his death in 1870. He was succeeded by his son, General George -Washington Custis Lee (b. 1832), president from 1871 to 1897, and Dr -William Lyne Wilson (1843-1900), the eminent political leader and -educator, was president from 1897 to 1900. In 1908-1909 the university -comprised a college, a school of commerce, a school of engineering and a -school of law, and had a library of 47,000 volumes, 23 instructors and -565 students. In the Lee Memorial chapel, on the campus, General Robert -E. Lee is buried, and over his grave is a notable recumbent statue of -him by Edward Virginius Valentine (b. 1838). The Virginia Military -Institute was established in March 1839, when its cadet corps supplanted -the company of soldiers maintained by the state to garrison the Western -Arsenal at Lexington. The first superintendent (1839-1890) was General -Francis Henney Smith (1812-1890), a graduate (1833) of the United States -Military Academy; and from 1851 until the outbreak of the Civil War -"Stonewall" Jackson was a professor in the Institute--he is buried in -the Lexington cemetery and his grave is marked by a monument. On the -campus of the institute is a fine statue, "Virginia Mourning Her Dead," -by Moses Ezekiel (b. 1844), which commemorates the gallantry of a -battalion of 250 cadets from the institute, more than 50 of whom were -killed or wounded during the engagement at New Market on the 15th of May -1864. In 1908-1909 the institute had 21 instructors and 330 cadets. -Flour is manufactured in Lexington and lime in the vicinity. The town -owns and operates its water-works. The first settlers of Rockbridge -county established themselves in 1737 near the North river, a short -distance below Lexington. The first permanent settlement on the present -site was made about 1778. On the 11th of June 1864, during the -occupation of the town by Federal troops under General David Hunter, -most of the buildings in the town and those of the university were -damaged and all those of the institute, except the superintendent's -headquarters, were burned. - - - - -LEYDEN, JOHN (1775-1811), British orientalist and man of letters, was -born on the 8th of September 1775 at Denholm on the Teviot, not far from -Hawick. Leyden's father was a shepherd, but contrived to send his son to -Edinburgh University to study for the ministry. Leyden was a diligent -but somewhat miscellaneous student, reading everything apparently, -except theology, for which he seems to have had no taste. Though he -completed his divinity course, and in 1798 received licence to preach -from the presbytery of St Andrews, it soon became clear that the pulpit -was not his vocation. In 1794 Leyden had formed the acquaintance of Dr -Robert Anderson, editor of _The British Poets_, and of _The Literary -Magazine_. It was Anderson who introduced him to Dr Alexander Murray, -and Murray, probably, who led him to the study of Eastern languages. -They became warm friends and generous rivals, though Leyden excelled, -perhaps, in the rapid acquisition of new tongues and acquaintance with -their literature, while Murray was the more scientific philologist. -Through Anderson also he came to know Richard Heber, by whom he was -brought under the notice of Sir Walter Scott, who was then collecting -materials for his _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_. Leyden was -admirably fitted for helping in this kind of work, for he was a borderer -himself, and an enthusiastic lover of old ballads and folk-lore. Scott -tells how, on one occasion, Leyden walked 40 m. to get the last two -verses of a ballad, and returned at midnight, singing it all the way -with his loud, harsh voice, to the wonder and consternation of the poet -and his household. - -Leyden meanwhile compiled a work on the _Discoveries and Settlements of -Europeans in Northern and Western Africa_, suggested by Mungo Park's -travels, edited _The Complaint of Scotland_, printed a volume of -Scottish descriptive poems, and nearly finished his _Scenes of Infancy_, -a diffuse poem based on border scenes and traditions. He also made some -translations from Eastern poetry, Persian and Arabic. At last his -friends got him an appointment in India on the medical staff, for which -he qualified by a year's hard work. In 1803 he sailed for Madras, and -took his place in the general hospital there. He was promoted to be -naturalist to the commissioners going to survey Mysore, and in 1807 his -knowledge of the languages of India procured him an appointment as -professor of Hindustani at Calcutta; this he soon after resigned for a -judgeship, and that again to be a commissioner in the court of requests -in 1809, a post which required a familiarity with several Eastern -tongues. In 1811 he joined Lord Minto in the expedition to Java. Having -entered a library which was said to contain many Eastern MSS., without -having the place aired, he was seized with Batavian fever, and died, -after three days' illness, on the 28th of August 1811. - - - - -LEYDEN JAR, or CONDENSER, an electrical appliance consisting in one form -of a thin glass jar partly coated inside and outside with tin foil, or -in another of a number of glass plates similarly coated. When the two -metal surfaces are connected for a short time with the terminals of some -source of electromotive force, such as an electric machine, an induction -coil or a voltaic battery, electric energy is stored up in the condenser -in the form of electric strain in the glass, and can be recovered again -in the form of an electric discharge. - - - Early history. - -The earliest form of Leyden jar consisted of a glass vial or thin -Florence flask, partly full of water, having a metallic nail inserted -through the cork which touched the water. The bottle was held in the -hand, and the nail presented to the prime conductor of an electrical -machine. If the person holding the bottle subsequently touched the nail, -he experienced an electric shock. This experiment was first made by E. -G. von Kleist of Kammin in Pomerania in 1745,[1] and it was repeated in -another form in 1746 by Cunaeus and P. van Musschenbroek, of the -university of Leyden (Leiden), whence the term Leyden jar.[2] J. H. -Winkler discovered that an iron chain wound round the bottle could be -substituted for the hand, and Sir William Watson in England shortly -afterward showed that iron filings or mercury could replace the water -within the jar. Dr John Bevis of London suggested, in 1746, the use of -sheet lead coatings within and without the jar, and subsequently the use -of tin foil or silver leaf made closely adherent to the glass. Benjamin -Franklin and Bevis devised independently the form of condenser known as -a Franklin or Leyden pane, which consists of a sheet of glass, partly -coated on both sides with tin foil or silver leaf, a margin of glass all -round being left to insulate the two tin foils from each other. Franklin -in 1747 and 1748 made numerous investigations on the Leyden jar, and -devised a method of charging jars in series as well as in parallel. In -the former method, now commonly known as charging in _cascade_, the jars -are insulated and the outside coating of one jar is connected to the -inside coating of the next and so on for a whole series, the inside -coating of the first jar and the outside coating of the last jar being -the terminals of the condenser. For charging in parallel a number of -jars are collected in a box, and all the outside coatings are connected -together metallically and all the inside coatings brought to one common -terminal. This arrangement is commonly called a battery of Leyden jars. -To Franklin also we owe the important knowledge that the electric charge -resides really in the glass and not in the metal coatings, and that when -a condenser has been charged the metallic coatings can be exchanged for -fresh ones and yet the electric charge of the condenser remains. - - - Modern construction. - -In its modern form the Leyden jar consists of a wide-mouthed bottle of -thin English flint glass of uniform thickness, free from flaws. About -half the outside and half the inside surface is coated smoothly with tin -foil, and the remainder of the glazed surface is painted with shellac -varnish. A wooden stopper closes the mouth of the jar, and through it a -brass rod passes which terminates in a chain, or better still, three -elastic brass springs, which make good contact with the inner coating. -The rod terminates externally in a knob or screw terminal. The jar has a -certain capacity C which is best expressed in microfarads or -electrostatic units (see ELECTROSTATICS), and is determined by the -surface of the tin foil and thickness and quality of the glass. The jar -can be charged so that a certain potential difference V, reckoned in -volts, exists between the two coatings. If a certain critical potential -is exceeded, the glass gives way under the electric strain and is -pierced. The safe voltage for most glass jars is about 20,000 volts for -glass {1/10}th in. in thickness; this corresponds with an electric spark -of about 7 millimetres in length. When the jar is charged, it is usually -discharged through a metallic arc called the discharging tongs, and this -discharge is in the form of an oscillatory current (see -ELECTROKINETICS). The energy stored up in the jar in joules is expressed -by the value of 1/2 CV^2, where C is the capacity measured in farads and -V the potential difference of the coatings in volts. If the capacity C -is reckoned in microfarads then the energy storage is equal to CV^2/2 X -10^6 joules or 0.737 CV^2/2 X 10^6 foot-pounds. The size of jar commonly -known as a quart size may have a capacity from {1/400}th to {1/800}th of -a microfarad, and if charged to 20,000 volts stores up energy from a -quarter to half a joule or from {3/16}ths to {3/8}ths of a foot-pound. - - - High tension condensers. - -Leyden jars are now much employed for the production of the high -frequency electric currents used in wireless telegraphy (see TELEGRAPHY, -WIRELESS). For this purpose they are made by Moscicki in the form of -glass tubes partly coated by silver chemically deposited on the glass on -the inner and outer surfaces. The tubes have walls thicker at the ends -than in the middle, as the tendency to puncture the glass is greatest at -the edges of the coatings. In other cases, Leyden jars or condensers -take the form of sheets of mica or micanite or ebonite partly coated -with tin foil or silver leaf on both sides; or a pile of sheets of -alternate tin foil and mica may be built up, the tin foil sheets having -lugs projecting out first on one side and then on the other. All the -lugs on one side are connected together, and so also are all the lugs on -the other side, and the two sets of tin foils separated by sheets of -mica constitute the two metallic surfaces of the Leyden jar condenser. -For the purposes of wireless telegraphy, when large condensers are -required, the ordinary Leyden jar occupies too much space in comparison -with its electrical capacity, and hence the best form of condenser -consists of a number of sheets of crown glass, each partly coated on -both sides with tin foil. The tin foil sheets have lugs attached which -project beyond the glass. The plates are placed in a vessel full of -insulating oil which prevents the glow or brush discharge taking place -over their edges. All the tin foils on one side of the glass plates are -connected together and all the tin foils on the opposite sides, so as to -construct a condenser of any required capacity. The box should be of -glass or stoneware or other non-conducting material. When glass tubes -are used it is better to employ tubes thicker at the ends than in the -middle, as it has been found that when the safe voltage is exceeded and -the glass gives way under electric strain, the piercing of the glass -nearly always takes place at the edges of the tin foil. - - - Compressed air condensers. - -Glass is still commonly used as a dielectric because of its cheapness, -high dielectric strength or resistance to electric puncture, and its -high dielectric constant (see ELECTROSTATICS). It has been found, -however, that very efficient condensers can be made with compressed air -as dielectric. If a number of metal plates separated by small distance -pieces are enclosed in an iron box which is pumped full of air to a -pressure, say, of 100 lb. to 1 sq. in., the dielectric strength of the -air is greatly increased, and the plates may therefore be brought very -near to one another without causing a spark to pass under such voltage -as would cause discharge in air at normal pressure. Condensers of this -kind have been employed by R. A. Fessenden in wireless telegraphy, and -they form a very excellent arrangement for standard condensers with -which to compare the capacity of other Leyden jars. Owing to the -variation in the value of the dielectric constant of glass with the -temperature and with the frequency of the applied electromotive force, -and also owing to electric glow discharge from the edges of the tin foil -coatings, the capacity of an ordinary Leyden jar is not an absolutely -fixed quantity, but its numerical value varies somewhat with the method -by which it is measured, and with the other circumstances above -mentioned. For the purpose of a standard condenser a number of -concentric metal tubes may be arranged on an insulating stand, alternate -tubes being connected together. One coating of the condenser is formed -by one set of tubes and the other by the other set, the air between -being the dielectric. Paraffin oil or any liquid dielectric of constant -inductivity may replace the air. - - See J. A. Fleming, _Electric Wave Telegraphy_ (London, 1906); R. A. - Fessenden, "Compressed Air for Condensers," _Electrician_, 1905, 55, - p. 795; Moscicki, "Construction of High Tension Condensers," - _L'Eclairage electrique_, 1904, 41, p. 14, or _Engineering_, 1904, p. - 865. (J. A. F.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Park Benjamin, _The Intellectual Rise in Electricity_, p. 512. - - [2] Ibid. p. 519. - - - - -LEYS, HENDRIK, BARON (1815-1869), Belgian painter, was born at Antwerp -on the 18th of February 1815. He studied under Wappers at the Antwerp -Academy. In 1833 he painted "Combat d'un grenadier et d'un cosaque," and -in the following year "Combat de Bourguignons et Flamands." In 1835 he -went to Paris where he was influenced by the Romantic movement. Examples -of this period of his painting are "Massacre des echevins de Louvain," -"Mariage flamand," "Le Roi des arbaletriers" and other works. Leys was -an imitative painter in whose works may rapidly be detected the schools -which he had been studying before he painted them. Thus after his visit -to Holland in 1839 he reproduced many of the characteristics of the -Dutch genre painters in such works as "Franz Floris se rendant a une -fete" (1845) and "Service divin en Hollande" (1850). So too the methods -of Quentin Matsys impressed themselves upon him after he had travelled -in Germany in 1852. In 1862 Leys was created a baron. At the time of his -death, which occurred in August 1869, he was engaged in decorating with -fresco the large hall of the Antwerp Hotel de Ville. - - - - -LEYTON, an urban district forming one of the north-eastern suburbs of -London, England, in the Walthamstow (S.W.) parliamentary division of -Essex. Pop. (1891) 63,106; (1901) 98,912. It lies on the east (left) -bank of the Lea, along the flat open valley of which runs the boundary -between Essex and the county of London. The church of St Mary, mainly a -brick reconstruction, contains several interesting memorials; including -one to William Bowyer the printer (d. 1737), erected by his son and -namesake, more famous in the same trade. Here is also buried John Strype -the historian and biographer (d. 1737), who held the position of curate -and lecturer at this church. Leyton is in the main a residential as -distinct from a manufacturing locality. Its name is properly Low Leyton, -and the parish includes the district of Leytonstone to the east. Roman -remains have been discovered here, but no identification with a Roman -station by name has been made with certainty. The ground of the Essex -County Cricket Club is at Leyton. - - - - -LHASA (LHASSA, LASSA, "God's ground"), the capital of Tibet. It lies in -29 deg. 39' N., 91 deg. 5' E., 11,830 ft. above sea-level. Owing to the -inaccessibility of Tibet and the political and religious exclusiveness -of the lamas, Lhasa was long closed to European travellers, all of whom -during the latter half of the 19th century were stopped in their -attempts to reach it. It was popularly known as the "Forbidden City." -But its chief features were known by the accounts of the earlier Romish -missionaries who visited it and by the investigations, in modern times, -of native Indian secret explorers, and others, and the British armed -mission of 1904 (see TIBET). - -_Site and General Aspect._--The city stands in a tolerably level plain, -which is surrounded on all sides by hills. Along its southern side, -about 1/2 m. south of Lhasa, runs a considerable river called the Kyichu -(Ki-chu) or Kyi, flowing here from E.N.E., and joining the great Tsangpo -(or upper course of the Brahmaputra) some 38 m. to the south-west. The -hills round the city are barren. The plain, however, is fertile, though -in parts marshy. There are gardens scattered over it round the city, and -these are planted with fine trees. The city is screened from view from -the west by a rocky ridge, lofty and narrow, with summits at the north -and south, the one flanked and crowned by the majestic buildings of -Potala, the chief residence of the Dalai lama, the other by the temple -of medicine. Groves, gardens and open ground intervene between this -ridge and the city itself for a distance of about 1 m. A gate through -the centre of the ridge gives access from the west; the road thence to -the north part of the city throws off a branch to the Yutok sampa or -turquoise-tiled covered bridge, one of the noted features of Lhasa, -which crosses a former channel of the Kyi, and carries the road to the -centre of the town. - -The city is nearly circular in form, and less than 1 m. in diameter. It -was walled in the latter part of the 17th century, but the walls were -destroyed during the Chinese occupation in 1722. The chief streets are -fairly straight, but generally of no great width. There is no paving or -metal, nor any drainage system, so that the streets are dirty and in -parts often flooded. The inferior quarters are unspeakably filthy, and -are rife with evil smells and large mangy dogs and pigs. Many of the -houses are of clay and sun-dried brick, but those of the richer people -are of stone and brick. All are frequently white-washed, the doors and -windows being framed in bands of red and yellow. In the suburbs there -are houses entirely built of the horns of sheep and oxen set in clay -mortar. This construction is in some cases very roughly carried out, but -in others it is solid and highly picturesque. Some of the inferior huts -of this type are inhabited by the Ragyaba or scavengers, whose chief -occupation is that of disposing of corpses according to the practice of -cutting and exposing them to the dogs and birds of prey. The houses -generally are of two or three storeys. Externally the lower part -generally presents dead walls (the ground floor being occupied by -stables and similar apartments); above these rise tiers of large windows -with or without projecting balconies, and over all flat broad-eaved -roofs at varying levels. In the better houses there are often spacious -and well-finished apartments, and the principal halls, the verandahs and -terraces are often highly ornamented in brilliant colours. In every -house there is a kind of chapel or shrine, carved and gilt, on which are -set images and sacred books. - - - The Jokhang. - - _Temples and Monasteries._--In the centre of the city is an open - square which forms the chief market-place. Here is the great temple of - the "Jo" or Lord Buddha, called the Jokhang,[1] regarded as the centre - of all Tibet, from which all the main roads are considered to radiate. - This is the great metropolitan sanctuary and church-centre of Tibet, - the St Peter's or Lateran of Lamaism. It is believed to have been - founded by the Tibetan Constantine, Srong-tsan-gampo, in 652, as the - shrine of one of those two very sacred Buddhist images which were - associated with his conversion and with the foundation of the - civilized monarchy in Tibet. The exterior of the building is not - impressive; it rises little above the level of other buildings which - closely surround it, and the effect of its characteristic gilt roof, - though conspicuous and striking from afar, is lost close at hand. - - The main building of the Jokhang is three storeys high. The entrance - consists of a portico supported on timber columns, carved and gilt, - while the walls are engraved with Chinese, Mongolian and Tibetan - characters, and a great prayer-wheel stands on one side. Massive - folding doors, ornamented with scrollwork in iron, lead to an - antehall, and from this a second gate opens into a courtyard - surrounded by a verandah with many pillars and chapels, and frescoes - on its walls. On the left is the throne of the grand lama, laid with - cushions, together with the seats of other ecclesiastical dignitaries, - variously elevated according to the rank of their occupants. An inner - door with enclosed vestibule gives access to the quadrangular choir or - chancel, as it may be called, though its centre is open to the sky. On - either side of it are three chapels, and at the extremity is the - rectangular "holy of holies," flanked by two gilded images of the - coming Buddha, and screened by lattice-work. In it is the shrine on - which sits the great image of Sakya, set about with small figures, - lamps and a variety of offerings, and richly jewelled, though the - workmanship of the whole is crude. In the second and third storeys of - the temple are shrines and representations of a number of gods and - goddesses. The temple contains a vast accumulation of images, gold and - silver vessels, lamps, reliquaries and precious bric-a-brac of every - kind. The daily offices are attended by crowds of worshippers, and a - sacred way which leads round the main building is constantly traversed - by devotees who perform the circuit as a work of merit, always in a - particular direction. The temple was found by the members of the - British mission who visited it to be exceedingly dirty, and the - atmosphere was foul with the fumes of butter-lamps. - - Besides the convent-cells, halls of study and magazines of precious - lumber, buildings grouped about the Jokhang are occupied by the civil - administration, e.g. as treasuries, customs office, courts of justice, - &c., and there are also private apartments for the grand lama and - other high functionaries. No woman is permitted to pass the night - within the precinct. - - In front of the main entrance to the Jokhang, in the shadow of a - sacred willow tree, stands a famous monument, the Doring monolith, - which bears the inscribed record of a treaty of peace concluded in 822 - (or, according to another view, in 783) between the king of Tibet and - the emperor of China. Before this monument the apostate from Lamaism, - Langdharma, brother and successor of the last-named king, is said to - have been standing when a fanatic recluse, who had been stirred by a - vision to avenge his persecuted faith, assassinated him. - - - Potala. - - The famous Potala hill, covered by the palace of the Dalai lama, forms - a majestic mountain of building; with its vast inward-sloping walls - broken only in the upper parts by straight rows of many windows, and - its flat roofs at various levels, it is not unlike a fortress in - appearance. At the south base of the rock is a large space enclosed by - walls and gates, with great porticoes on the inner side. This swarms - with lamas and with beggars. A series of tolerably easy staircases, - broken by intervals of gentle ascent, leads to the summit of the rock. - The whole width of this is occupied by the palace. The central part of - this group of buildings (for the component parts of Potala are of - different dates) rises in a vast quadrangular mass above its - satellites to a great height, terminating in gilt canopies similar to - those on the Jokhang. Here on the lofty terrace is the grand lama's - promenade, and from this great height he looks down upon the crowds of - his votaries far below. This central member of Potala is called the - red palace from its crimson colour, which distinguishes it from the - rest. It contains the principal halls and chapels and shrines of past - Dalai lamas. There is in these much rich decorative painting, with - jewelled work, carving and other ornament, but the interior of Potala - as a whole cannot compare in magnificence with the exterior. Among the - numerous other buildings of note on or near Potala hill, one is - distinguished by the Chinese as one of the principal beauties of - Lhasa. This is a temple not far from the base of the hill, in the - middle of a lake which is surrounded by trees and shrubberies. This - temple, called Lu-kang, is circular in form, with a _loggia_ or - portico running all round and adorned with paintings. Its name, "the - serpent house," comes from the tradition of a serpent or dragon, which - dwelt here and must be propitiated lest it should cause the waters to - rise and flood Lhasa. - - Another great and famous temple is Ramo-che, at the north side of the - city. This is also regarded as a foundation of Srong-tsan-gampo, and - is said to contain the body of his Chinese wife and the second of the - primeval palladia, the image that she brought with her to the - Snow-land; whence it is known as the "small Jokhang." This temple is - noted for the practice of magical arts. Its buildings are in a - neglected condition. - - Another monastery within the city is that of Moru, also on the north - side, remarkable for its external order and cleanliness. Though famous - as a school of orthodox magic, it is noted also for the printing-house - in the convent garden. This convent was the temporary residence of the - regent during the visit of the British mission in 1904. Other - monasteries in or near the city are the Tsamo Ling or Chomoling at the - north-west corner; the Tangya Ling or Tengyeling at the west of the - city; the Kunda Ling or Kundeling about 1 m. west of the city, at the - foot of a low isolated hill called Chapochi. Three miles south, beyond - the river, is the Tsemchog Ling or Tsecholing. These four convents are - known as "The Four Ling." From their inmates the Dalai lama's regent, - during his minority, was formerly chosen. The temple of medicine, as - already stated, crowns the summit (Chagpa) at the end of the ridge - west of the city, opposite to that on which stands the Potala. It is - natural that in a country possessing a religious system like that of - Tibet the medical profession should form a branch of the priesthood. - "The treatment of disease, though based in some measure upon a - judicious use of the commoner simple drugs of the country, is, as was - inevitable amongst so superstitious a people, saturated with - absurdity" (Waddell, _Lhasa and its Mysteries_). - - The three great monasteries in the vicinity of Lhasa, all claiming to - be foundations of Tsongkhapa (1356-1418), the medieval reformer and - organizer of the modern orthodox Lama Church, "the yellow caps," are - the following:-- - - 1. _Debung_ (written '_Bras spungs_) is 6 m. west of Lhasa at the foot - of the hills which flank the plain on the north. It is one of the - largest monasteries in the world, having some 8000 monks. In the - middle of the convent buildings rises a kind of pavilion, brilliant - with colour and gilding, which is occupied by the Dalai Lama when he - visits Debung once a year and expounds to the inmates. The place is - frequented by the Mongol students who come to Lhasa to graduate, and - is known in the country as the Mongol convent; it has also been - notorious as a centre of political intrigue. Near it is the seat of - the chief magician of Tibet, the Nachung Chos-kyong, a building - picturesque in itself and in situation. - - 2. _Sera_ is 3 m. north of the city on the acclivity of the hills and - close to the road by which pilgrims enter from Mongolia. From a - distance the crowd of buildings and temples, rising in amphitheatre - against a background of rocky mountains, forms a pleasing picture. In - the recesses of the hill, high above the convent, are scattered cells - of lamas adopting the solitary life. The chief temple of Sera, a - highly ornate building, has a special reputation as the resting-place - of a famous _Dorje_, i.e. the _Vajra_ or Thunderbolt of Jupiter, the - symbol of the strong and indestructible, which the priest grasps and - manipulates in various ways during prayer. The emblem is a bronze - instrument, shaped much like a dumbbell with pointed ends, and it is - carried solemnly in procession to the Jokhang during the New Year's - festival. - - The hill adjoining Sera is believed to be rich in silver ore, but it - is not allowed to be worked. On the summit is a spring and a holy - place of the Lhasa Mahommedans, who resort thither. Near the monastery - there is said to be gold, which is worked by the monks. "Should they - ... discover a nugget of large size, it is immediately replaced in the - earth, under the impression that the large nuggets ... germinate in - time, producing the small lumps which they are privileged to search - for" (Nain Singh). - - 3. _Galdan._--This great convent is some 25 m. east of Lhasa, on the - other side of the Kyichu. It is the oldest monastery of the "Yellow" - sect, having been founded by Tsongkhapa and having had him for its - first superior. Here his body is said to be preserved with miraculous - circumstances; here is his tomb, of marble and malachite, with a great - shrine said to be of gold, and here are other relics of him, such as - the impression of his hands and feet. - - _Samye_ is another famous convent intimately connected with Lhasa, - being said to be used as a treasury by the government, but it lies - some 36 m. south-east on the left bank of the great Tsangpo. It was - founded in 770, and is the oldest extant monastery in Tibet. It is - surrounded by a very high circular stone wall, 1(1/2) m. in - circumference, with gates facing the four points of the compass. On - this wall Nain Singh, who was here on his journey in 1874, counted - 1030 votive piles of brick. One very large temple occupies the centre, - and round it are four smaller but still large temples. Many of the - idols are said to be of pure gold, and the wealth is very great. The - interiors of the temples are covered with beautiful writing in - enormous characters, which the vulgar believe to be the writing of - Sakya himself. - -_Population and Trade._--The total population of Lhasa, including the -lamas in the city and vicinity, is probably about 30,000; a census in -1854 made the figure 42,000, but it is known to have greatly decreased -since. There are only some 1500 resident Tibetan laymen and about 5500 -Tibetan women. The permanent population embraces, besides Tibetans, -settled families of Chinese (about 2000 persons), as well as people from -Nepal, from Ladak, and a few from Bhotan and Mongolia. The Ladakis and -some of the other foreigners are Mahommedans, and much of the trade is -in their hands. Desideri (1716) speaks also of Armenians and even -"Muscovites." The Chinese have a crowded burial-ground at Lhasa, tended -carefully after their manner. The Nepalese (about 800) supply the -mechanics and metal-workers. There are among them excellent gold- and -silversmiths; and they make the elaborate gilded canopies crowning the -temples. The chief industries are the weaving of a great variety of -stuffs from the fine Tibetan wool; the making of earthenware and of the -wooden porringers (varying immensely in elaboration and price) of which -every Tibetan carries one about with him; also the making of certain -fragrant sticks of incense much valued in China and elsewhere. - -As Lhasa is not only the nucleus of a cluster of vast monastic -establishments, which attract students and aspirants to the religious -life from all parts of Tibet and Mongolia, but is also a great place of -pilgrimage, the streets and public places swarm with visitors from every -part of the Himalayan plateau,[2] and from all the steppes of Asia -between Manchuria and the Balkhash Lake. Naturally a great traffic -arises quite apart from the pilgrimage. The city thus swarms with -crowds attracted by devotion and the love of gain, and presents a great -diversity of language, costume and physiognomy; though, in regard to the -last point, varieties of the broad face and narrow eye greatly -predominate. Much of the retail trade of the place is in the hands of -the women. The curious practice of the women in plastering their faces -with a dark-coloured pigment is less common in Lhasa than in the -provinces. - -During December especially traders arrive from western China by way of -Tachienlu bringing every variety of silk-stuffs, carpets, china-ware and -tea; from Siningfu come silk, gold lace, Russian goods, carpets of a -superior kind, semi-precious stones, horse furniture, horses and a very -large breed of fat-tailed sheep; from eastern Tibet, musk in large -quantities, which eventually finds its way to Europe through Nepal; from -Bhotan and Sikkim, rice; from Sikkim also tobacco; besides a variety of -Indian and European goods from Nepal and Darjeeling, and _charas_ -(resinous exudation of hemp) and saffron from Ladakh and Kashmir. The -merchants leave Lhasa in March, before the setting in of the rains -renders the rivers impassable. - -The tea importation from China is considerable, for tea is an absolute -necessary to the Tibetan. The tea is of various qualities, from the -coarsest, used only for "buttered" tea (a sort of broth), to the fine -quality drunk by the wealthy. This is pressed into bricks or cakes -weighing about 5(1/2) lb., and often passes as currency. The quantity -that pays duty at Tachienlu is about 10,000,000 lb., besides some amount -smuggled. No doubt a large part of this comes to Lhasa. - - _Lhasa Festivities._--The greatest of these is at the new year. This - lasts fifteen days, and is a kind of lamaic carnival, in which masks - and mummings, wherein the Tibetans take especial delight, play a great - part. The celebration commences at midnight, with shouts and clangour - of bells, gongs, chank-shells, drums and all the noisy repertory of - Tibetan music; whilst friends exchange early visits and administer - coarse sweetmeats and buttered tea. On the second day the Dalai Lama - gives a grand banquet, at which the Chinese and native authorities are - present, whilst in the public spaces and in front of the great - convents all sorts of shows and jugglers' performances go on. Next day - a regular Tibetan exhibition takes place. A long cable, twisted of - leather thongs, is stretched from a high point in the battlements of - Potala slanting down to the plain, where it is strongly moored. Two - men slide from top to bottom of this huge hypothenuse, sometimes lying - on the chest (which is protected by a breast-plate of strong leather), - spreading their arms as if to swim, and descending with the rapidity - of an arrow-flight. Occasionally fatal accidents occur in this - performance, which is called "the dance of the gods"; but the - survivors are rewarded by the court, and the Grand Lama himself is - always a witness of it. This practice occurs more or less over the - Himalayan plateau, and is known in the neighbourhood of the Ganges as - _Barat_. It is employed as a kind of expiatory rite in cases of - pestilence and the like. Exactly the same performance is described as - having been exhibited in St Paul's Churchyard before King Edward VI., - and again before Philip of Spain, as well as, about 1750, at Hertford - and other places in England (see Strutt's _Sports_, &c., 2nd ed., p. - 198). - - The most remarkable celebration of the new year's festivities is the - great jubilee of the _Monlam_ (_s Mon-lam_, "prayer"), instituted by - Tsongkhapa himself in 1408. Lamas from all parts of Tibet, but chiefly - from the great convents in the neighbourhood, flock to Lhasa, and - every road leading thither is thronged with troops of monks on foot or - horseback, on yaks or donkeys, carrying with them their breviaries and - their cooking-pots. Those who cannot find lodging bivouac in the - streets and squares, or pitch their little black tents in the plain. - The festival lasts six days, during which there reigns a kind of - saturnalia. Unspeakable confusion and disorder reign, while gangs of - lamas parade the streets, shouting, singing and coming to blows. The - object of this gathering is, however, supposed to be devotional. Vast - processions take place, with mystic offerings and lama-music, to the - Jokhang and Moru convents; the Grand Lama himself assists at the - festival, and from an elevated throne beside the Jokhang receives the - offerings of the multitude and bestows his benediction. - - On the 15th of the first month multitudes of torches are kept ablaze, - which lighten up the city to a great distance, whilst the interior of - the Jokhang is illuminated throughout the night by innumerable - lanterns shedding light on coloured figures in bas-relief, framed in - arabesques of animals, birds and flowers, and representing the history - of Buddha and other subjects, all modelled in butter. The figures are - executed on a large scale, and, as described by Huc, who witnessed the - festival at Kunbum on the frontier of China, with extraordinary truth - and skill. These singular works of art occupy some months in - preparation, and on the morrow are thrown away. On other days - horse-races take place from Sera to Potala, and foot-races from Potala - to the city. On the 27th of the month the holy _Dorje_ is carried in - solemn procession from Sera to the Jokhang, and to the presence of the - lama at Potala. - - Of other great annual feasts, one, in the fourth month, is assigned to - the conception of Sakya, but appears to connect itself with the old - nature-feast of the entering of spring, and to be more or less - identical with the _Huli_ of India. A second, the consecration of the - waters, in September-October, appears, on the confines of India, to be - associated with the Dasehra. - - On the 30th day of the second month there takes place a strange - ceremony, akin to that of the scapegoat (which is not unknown in - India). It is called the driving out of the demon. A man is hired to - perform the part of demon (or victim rather), a part which sometimes - ends fatally. He is fantastically dressed, his face mottled with white - and black, and is then brought forth from the Jokhang to engage in - quasi-theological controversy with one who represents the Grand Lama. - This ends in their throwing dice against each other (as it were for - the weal or woe of Lhasa). If the demon were to win the omen would be - appalling; so this is effectually barred by false dice. The victim is - then marched outside the city, followed by the troops and by the whole - populace, hooting, shouting and firing volleys after him. Once he is - driven off, the people return, and he is carried off to the Samye - convent. Should he die shortly after, this is auspicious; if not, he - is kept in ward at Samye for a twelvemonth. - - Nain Singh, whose habitual accuracy is attested by many facts, - mentions a strange practice of comparatively recent origin, according - to which the civil power in the city is put up to auction for the - first twenty-three days of the new year. The purchaser, who must be a - member of the Debung monastery, and is termed the _Jalno_, is a kind - of lord of misrule, who exercises arbitrary authority during that time - for his own benefit, levying taxes and capricious fines upon the - citizens. - -_History._--The seat of the princes whose family raised Tibet to a -position among the powers of Asia was originally on the Yarlung river, -in the extreme east of the region now occupied by Tibetan tribes. It was -transplanted to Lhasa in the 7th century by the king Srong-tsan-gampo, -conqueror, civilizer and proselytizer, the founder of Buddhism in Tibet, -the introducer of the Indian alphabet. On the three-peaked crag now -occupied by the palace-monastery of the Grand Lama this king is said to -have established his fortress, while he founded in the plain below -temples to receive the sacred images, brought respectively from Nepal -and from China by the brides to whom his own conversion is attributed. - -Tibet endured as a conquering power some two centuries, and the more -famous among the descendants of the founder added to the city. -This-rong-de-tsan (who reigned 740-786) is said to have erected a great -temple-palace of which the basement followed the Tibetan style, the -middle storey the Chinese, and the upper storey the Indian--a -combination which would aptly symbolize the elements that have moulded -the culture of Lhasa. His son, the last of the great orthodox kings, in -the next century, is said to have summoned artists from Nepal and India, -and among many splendid foundations to have erected a sanctuary (at -Samye) of vast height, which had nine storeys, the three lower of stone, -the three middle of brick, the three uppermost of timber. With this king -the glory of Tibet and of ancient Lhasa reached its zenith, and in 822, -a monument recording his treaty on equal terms with the Great T'ang -emperor of China was erected in the city. There followed dark days for -Lhasa and the Buddhist church in the accession of this king's brother -Langdharma, who has been called the Julian of the lamas. This king -rejected the doctrine, persecuted and scattered its ministers, and threw -down its temples, convents and images. It was more than a century before -Buddhism recovered its hold and its convents were rehabilitated over -Tibet. The country was then split into an infinity of petty states, many -of them ruled from the convents by warlike ecclesiastics; but, though -the old monarchy never recovered, Lhasa seems to have maintained some -supremacy, and probably never lost its claim to be the chief city of -that congeries of principalities, with a common faith and a common -language, which was called Tibet. - -The Arab geographers of the 10th century speak of Tibet, but without -real knowledge, and none speaks of any city that we can identify with -Lhasa. The first passage in any Western author in which such -identification can be probably traced occurs in the narrative of Friar -Odoric of Pordenone (c. 1330). This remarkable traveller's route from -Europe to India, and thence by sea to China, can be traced -satisfactorily, but of his journey homeward through Asia the indications -are very fragmentary. He speaks, however, on this return journey of the -realm of Tibet, which lay on the confines of India proper: "The folk of -that country dwell in tents made of black felt. But the chief and royal -city is all built with walls of black and white, and all its streets are -very well paved. In this city no one shall dare to shed the blood of -any, whether man or beast, for the reverence they bear a certain idol -that is there worshipped. In that city dwelleth the _Abassi_, i.e. in -their tongue the pope, who is the head of all the idolaters, and has the -disposal of all their benefices such as they are after their manner." - -We know that Kublai Khan had constituted a young prince of the Lama -Church, Mati Dhwaja, as head of that body, and tributary ruler of Tibet, -but besides this all is obscure for a century. This passage of Odoric -shows that such authority continued under Kublai's descendants, and that -some foreshadow of the position since occupied by the Dalai Lama already -existed. But it was not till a century after Odoric that the strange -heredity of the dynasty of the Dalai Lamas of Lhasa actually began. In -the first two centuries of its existence the residence of these pontiffs -was rather at Debung or Sera than at Lhasa itself, though the latter was -the centre of devout resort. A great event for Lhasa was the conversion, -or reconversion, of the Mongols to Lamaism (c. 1577), which made the -city the focus of sanctity and pilgrimage to so vast a tract of Asia. It -was in the middle of the 17th century that Lhasa became the residence of -the Dalai Lama. A native prince, known as the Tsangpo, with his seat at -Shigatse, had made himself master of southern Tibet, and threatened to -absorb the whole. The fifth Dalai Lama, Nagwang Lobzang, called in the -aid of a Kalmuck prince, Gushi Khan, from the neighbourhood of the -Koko-nor, who defeated and slew the Tsangpo and made over full dominion -in Tibet to the lama (1641). The latter now first established his court -and built his palace on the rock-site of the fortress of the ancient -monarchy, which apparently had fallen into ruin, and to this he gave the -name of Potala. - -The founder of Potala died in 1681. He had appointed as "regent" or -civil administrator (_Deisri_, or _Deba_) one supposed to be his own -natural son. This remarkable personage, Sangye Gyamtso, of great -ambition and accomplishment, still renowned in Tibet as the author of -some of the most valued works of the native literature, concealed the -death of his master, asserting that the latter had retired, in mystic -meditation or trance, to the upper chambers of the palace. The -government continued to be carried on in the lama's name by the regent, -who leagued with Galdan Khan of Dzungaria against the Chinese (Manchu) -power. It was not till the great emperor Kang-hi was marching on Tibet -that the death of the lama, sixteen years before, was admitted. A solemn -funeral was then performed, at which 108,000 lamas assisted, and a new -incarnation was set up in the person of a youth of fifteen, Tsangs-yang -Gyamtso. This young man was the scandal of the Lamaist Church in every -kind of evil living and debauchery, so that he was deposed and -assassinated in 1701. But it was under him and the regent Sangye Gyamtso -that the Potala palace attained its present scale of grandeur, and that -most of the other great buildings of Lhasa were extended and -embellished. - - For further history and bibliography, see TIBET. Consult also LAMAISM. - (H. Y.; L. A. W.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The name given by Koppen (_Die lamaische Kirche_, Berlin, 1859, - p. 74) is "La Brang," by which it is sometimes known. - - [2] Among articles sold in the Lhasa bazaars are fossil bones, called - by the people "lightning bones," and believed to have healing - virtues. - - - - -L'HOPITAL (or L'HOSPITAL), MICHEL DE (c. 1505-1573), French statesman, -was born near Aigueperse in Auvergne (now Puy-de-Dome). His father, who -was physician to the constable Charles of Bourbon, sent him to study at -Toulouse, whence at the age of eighteen he was driven, a consequence of -the evil fortunes of the family patron, to Padua, where he studied law -and letters for about six years. On the completion of his studies he -joined his father at Bologna, and afterwards, the constable having died, -went to Rome in the suite of Charles V. For some time he held a position -in the papal court at Rome, but about 1534 he returned to France, and -becoming an advocate, his marriage, in 1537, procured for him the post -of counsellor to the parlement of Paris. This office he held until 1547, -when he was sent by Henry II. on a mission to Bologna, where the council -of Trent was at that time sitting; after sixteen months of wearisome -inactivity there, he was by his own desire recalled at the close of -1548. L'Hopital now for some time held the position of chancellor to the -king's sister, Margaret, duchess of Berry. In 1553, on the -recommendation of the Cardinal of Lorraine, he was named master of the -requests, and afterwards president of the chambre des comptes. In 1559 -he accompanied the princess Margaret, now duchess of Savoy, to Nice, -where, in the following year, tidings reached him that he had been -chosen to succeed Francois Olivier (1487-1560) in the chancellorship of -France. - -One of his first acts after entering on the duties of his office was to -cause the parlement of Paris to register the edict of Romorantin, of -which he is sometimes, but erroneously, said to have been the author. -Designed to protect heretics from the secret and summary methods of the -Inquisition, it certainly had his sympathy and approval. In accordance -with the consistent policy of inclusion and toleration by which the -whole of his official life was characterized, he induced the council to -call the assembly of notables, which met at Fontainebleau in August 1560 -and agreed that the States General should be summoned, all proceedings -against heretics being meanwhile suppressed, pending the reformation of -the church by a general or national council. The States General met in -December; the edict of Orleans (January 1561) followed, and finally, -after the colloquy of Poissy, the edict of January 1562, the most -liberal, except that of Nantes, ever obtained by the Protestants of -France. Its terms, however, were not carried out, and during the war -which was the inevitable result of the massacre of Vassy in March, -L'Hopital, whose dismissal had been for some time urged by the papal -legate Hippolytus of Este, found it necessary to retire to his estate at -Vignay, near Etampes, whence he did not return until after the -pacification of Amboise (March 19, 1563). It was by his advice that -Charles IX. was declared of age at Rouen in August 1563, a measure which -really increased the power Of Catherine de' Medici; and it was under his -influence also that the royal council in 1564 refused to authorize the -publication of the acts of the council of Trent, on account of their -inconsistency with the Gallican liberties. In 1564-1566 he accompanied -the young king on an extended tour through France; and in 1566 he was -instrumental in the promulgation of an important edict for the reform of -abuses in the administration of justice. The renewal of the religious -war in September 1567, however, was at once a symptom and a cause of -diminished influence to L'Hopital, and in February 1568 he obtained his -letters of discharge, which were registered by the parlement on the 11th -of May, his titles, honours and emoluments being reserved to him during -the remainder of his life. Henceforward he lived a life of unbroken -seclusion at Vignay, his only subsequent public appearance being by -means of a _memoire_ which he addressed to the king in 1570 under the -title _Le But de la guerre et de la paix, ou discours du chancelier -l'Hospital pour exhorter Charles IX. a donner la paix a ses sujets_. -Though not exempt from considerable danger, he passed in safety through -the troubles of St Bartholomew's eve. His death took place either at -Vignay or at Bellebat on the 13th of March 1573. - - After his death Pibrac, assisted by De Thou and Scevole de - Sainte-Marthe, collected a volume of the _Poemata_ of L'Hopital, and - in 1585 his grandson published _Epistolarum seu Sermonum libri sex_. - The complete _Oeuvres de l'Hopital_ were published for the first time - by P. J. S. Dufey (5 vols., Paris, 1824-1825). They include his - "Harangues" and "Remonstrances," the _Epistles_, the _Memoire_ to - Charles IX., a _Traite de la reformation de la justice_, and his will. - See also A. F. Villemain, _Vie du Chancelier de l'Hopital_ (Paris, - 1874); R. G. E. T; St-Rene Taillandier, _Le Chancelier de l'Hospital_ - (Paris, 1861); Dupre-Lasalle, _Michel de l'Hospital avant son - elevation au poste de chancelier de France_ (Paris, 1875-1899); - Amphoux, _Michel de l'Hospital et la liberte de conscience au XVI^e - siecle_ (Paris, 1900); C. T. Atkinson, _Michel de l'Hospital_ (London, - 1900), containing an appendix on bibliography and sources; A. E. Shaw, - _Michel de l'Hospital and his Policy_ (London, 1905); and Eugene and - Emile Haag, _La France protestante_ (2nd ed., 1877 seq.). - - - - - -LIAO-YANG, a city of China, formerly the chief town of the province of -Liao-tung or Sheng-king (southern Manchuria), 35 m. S of Mukden. It is -situated in a rich cotton district in the fertile valley of the Liao, on -the road between Niuchwang and Mukden, and carries on a considerable -trade. The walls include an area about 2(1/2) m. long by 2 m. broad, and -there are fairly extensive suburbs; but a good deal even of the enclosed -area is under cultivation. The population is estimated at 100,000. -Liao-yang was one of the first objectives of the Japanese during the -Russo-Japanese War, and its capture by them resulted in some of the -fiercest fighting during the campaign, from the 24th of August to the -4th of September 1904. - - - - -LIAS, in geology, the lowermost group of Jurassic strata. Originally the -name seems to have been written "Lyas"; it is most probably a provincial -form of "layers," strata, employed by quarrymen in the west of England; -it has been suggested, however, that the Fr. _liais_, Breton _leach_ = a -stone, Gaelic _leac_ = flat stone, may have given rise to the English -"Lias." Liassic strata occupy an important position in England, where -they crop out at Lyme Regis on the Dorsetshire coast and extend thence -by Bath, along the western flank of the Cotswold Hills, forming Edge -Hill and appearing at Banbury, Rugby, Melton, Grantham, Lincoln, to -Redcar on the coast of Yorkshire. They occur also in Glamorganshire, -Shropshire, near Carlisle, in Skye, Raasay (Pabba, Scalpa and Broadfoot -beds), and elsewhere in the north of Scotland, and in the north-east of -Ireland. East of the belt of outcrop indicated, the Lias is known to -occur beneath the younger rocks for some distance farther east, but it -is absent from beneath London, Reading, Ware, Harwich, Dover, and in the -southern portion of the area in which these towns lie; the Liassic rocks -are probably thinned out against a concealed ridge of more ancient -rocks. The table on following page will serve to illustrate the general -characters of the English Lias and the subdivisions adopted by the -Geological Survey. By the side are shown the principal zonal ammonites, -and, for comparison, the subdivisions preferred by Messrs Tate and Blake -and by A. de Lapparent. - -The important fact is clearly demonstrated in the table, that where the -Lias is seen in contact with the Trias below or the Inferior Oolite -above, there is, as a rule, a gradual passage from the Liassic -formation, both downwards and upwards; hence Professor de Lapparent -includes in his _Liassique System_ the zone of _Ammonites opalinus_ at -the top, and the Rhaetic beds at the bottom (see OOLITE; RHAETIC). Owing -to the transgression of the Liassic sea the strata rest in places upon -older Palaeozoic rocks. The thickness of the Lias varies considerably; -in Dorsetshire it is 900 ft., near Bath it has thinned to 280 ft., and -beneath Oxford it is further reduced. In north Gloucestershire it is -1360 ft., Northampton 760 ft., Rutland 800 ft., Lincolnshire 950 ft., -and in Yorkshire about 500 ft. - -The Lias of England was laid down in conditions very similar to those -which obtained at the same time in north France and north Germany, that is -to say, on the floor of a shallow sea; but in the Alpine region limestones -are developed upon a much greater scale. Many of the limestones are red -and crystalline marbles such as the "ammonitico-rosso-inferiore" of the -Apennines; a grey, laminated limestone is known as the "Fleckenmergel." -The whitish "Hierlatzkalke," the Adnet beds and the "Grestener beds" in -the eastern Alps and Balkan Mountains are important phases of Alpine Lias. -The Grestener beds contain a considerable amount of coal. The Lias of -Spain and the Pyrenees contains much dolomitic limestone. This formation -is widely spread in western Europe; besides the localities already cited -it occurs in Swabia, the Rhenish provinces, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg, -Ardennes, Normandy, Austria-Hungary, the Balkan States, Greece and Scania. -It has not been found north of Kharkov in Russia, but it is present in the -south and in the Caucasus, in Anatolia, Persia and the Himalayas. It -appears on the eastern side of Japan, in Borneo, Timor, New Caledonia and -New Zealand (Bastion beds); in Algeria, Tunisia and elsewhere in North -Africa, and on the west coast of Madagascar. In South America it is found -in the Bolivian Andes, in Chile and Argentina; it appears also on the -Pacific coast of North America. - - +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+ - | | S. W. England and Midlands. | Yorkshire. | Ammonite Zones.* | Divisions according to | - | | | | | A. de Lapparent.** | - +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+ - | U L | Midford Sands (passage beds) | Alum shale |_Am. jurensis_ \ | (Including the _opalinus_ zone| - | p i | | | | | of the Inferior Oolite.) | - | p a | Clays with Cement-stones | Jet Rock | " _communis_ > U. | Toarcien. | - | e s | Limestones and Clays | Grey Shale | " _serpentinus_ / | | - | r . | | | " _annulatus_ \ | | - +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+------------------- | ---+-------------------------------+ - | M | | | | | | - | i L | Marlstone and Sands | Ironstone Series |_Am. spinatus_ | | | - | d i | (Rock Bed and Ironstones) | | | | | - | d a | Micaceous Clays and Sands | Sandy Series | " _margaritatus_ | | | - | l s | | | | | | - | e . | | | > M. | | - +-----+------------------------------+------------------ +------------------- | | Charmouthien. | and - | | Clays with occasional bands | Upper Series with |_Am. capricornus_ | | | - | | of Limestone | Ironstone nodules| " _Jamesoni_ | | | - | L L | | | and | | | - | o i | | | " _armatus_ / | | - | w a | | | +-------------------------------+ - | e s | Limestones and Clays | Lower Series with | " _oxynotus_ \ | | - | r . | | Sandy and Marly | " _Bucklandi_ > L. | Sinemourien. | - | | | Beds | " _angulatus_ | | Hettangien including "White | - | | | | " _planorbis_ / | Lias." | - +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+ - | | | | | Rhetien. | - +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+ - * The brackets indicate the divisions made by R. Tate and J. F. Blake. - ** _Traite de geologie_ (5th ed., Paris, 1906). - - The economic products of the Lias are of considerable importance. In - the Lower Lias of Lincolnshire and the Middle Lias of Oxfordshire, - Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Yorkshire the beds - of ironstone are of great value. Most of these ores are limestones - that have been converted into iron carbonate with some admixture of - silicates; they weather near the surface into hydrated peroxide. At - Frodingham in Lincolnshire the oolitic iron ore reaches 30 ft. in - thickness, of which 12 ft. are workable. In Gloucestershire the top - beds of the Lower Lias and lower beds of the Middle division are the - most ferruginous; the best ores near Woodstock and Banbury and between - Market Harborough and Leicester are at the summit of the Middle Lias - in the Marlstone or Rock bed. The ironstone of Fawler is sometimes - known as Blenheim ore. The ores of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire - have a great reputation; the main seam is 11 ft. thick at Eston, where - it rests directly upon the Pecten Seam, the two together aggregating - 15 ft. 6 in. Similar iron ores of this age are worked at - Meurthe-et-Moselle, Villerupt, Marbache, Longuy, Champagneulles, &c. - Some of the Liassic limestones are used as building stones, the more - important ones being the Lower Lias Sutton stone of Glamorganshire and - Middle Lias Hornton stone, the best of the Lias building stones, from - Edge Hill. The limestones are often used for paving. The limestones of - the Lower Lias are much used for the production of hydraulic cement - and "Blue Lias" lime at Rugby, Barrow-on-Soar, Barnstone, Lyme Regis, - Abertham and many other places. Roman cement has been made from the - nodules in the Upper Lias of Yorkshire; alum is obtained from the same - horizon. A considerable trade was formerly done in jet, the best - quality being obtained from the "Serpentinus" beds, but "bastard" or - soft jet is found in many of the other strata in the Yorkshire Lias. - Both Lower and Upper Lias clays have been used in making bricks and - tiles. - - Fossils are abundant in the Lias; Lyme Regis, Shepton Mallet, Rugby, - Robin Hood's Bay, Ilminster, Whitby and Golden Cap near Charmouth are - well-known localities. The saurian reptiles, _Ichthyosaurus_ and - _Plesiosaurus_, are found in excellent preservation along with the - Pterodactyl. Among the fishes are _Hybodus_, _Dapedius_, - _Pholidophorus_, _Acrodus_. The crinoids, _Pentacrinus_ and - _Extracrinus_ are locally abundant. Insect remains are very abundant - in certain beds. Many ammonites occur in this formation in addition to - the forms used as zonal indexes mentioned in the table. _Lima - gigantea_, _Posidonomya Bronni_, _Inoceramus dubius_, _Gryphaea - cymbium_ and _G. arcuata_ are common pelecypods. _Amberleya - capitanea_, _Pleurotomaria anglica_ are Lias gasteropods. _Leptaena_, - _Spiriferina_, _Terebratella_ and _Rhynchonella tetrahedra_ and _R. - variabilis_ are among the brachiopods. - - Certain dark limestones with regular bedding which occur in the - Carboniferous System are sometimes called "Black Lias" by quarrymen. - - See "The Lias of England and Wales" (Yorkshire excepted), by H. B. - Woodward, _Geol. Survey Memoir_ (London, 1893); and, for Yorkshire, - "The Jurassic Rocks of Britain," vol. i., "Yorkshire," by C. - Fox-Strangways, _Geol. Survey Memoir_. See also JURASSIC. - (J. A. H.) - - - - -LIBANIUS (A.D. 314-393), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born at -Antioch, the capital of Syria. He studied at Athens, and spent most of -his earlier manhood in Constantinople and Nicomedia. His private classes -at Constantinople were much more popular than those of the public -professors, who had him expelled in 346 (or earlier) on the charge of -studying magic. He removed his school to Nicomedia, where he remained -five years. After another attempt to settle in Constantinople, he -finally retired to Antioch (354). Though a pagan, he enjoyed the favour -of the Christian emperors. When Julian, his special patron, restored -paganism as the state religion, Libanius showed no intolerance. Among -his pupils he numbered John Chrysostom, Basil (bishop of Caesarea) and -Ammianus Marcellinus. His works, consisting chiefly of orations -(including his autobiography), declamations on set topics, letters, life -of Demosthenes, and arguments to all his orations are voluminous. He -devoted much time to the classical Greek writers, and had a thorough -contempt for Rome and all things Roman. His speeches and letters throw -considerable light on the political and literary history of the age. The -letters number 1607 in the Greek original; with these were formerly -included some 400 in Latin, purporting to be a translation, but now -proved to be a forgery by the Italian humanist F. Zambeccari (15th -century). - - Editions: Orations and declamations, J. J. Reiske (1791-1797); - letters, J. C. Wolf (1738); two additional declamations, R. Forster - (_Hermes_, ix. 22, xii. 217), who in 1903 began the publication of a - complete edition; _Apologia Socratis_, Y. H. Rogge (1891). See also E. - Monnier, _Histoire de Libanius_ (1866); L. Petit, _Essai sur la vie et - la correspondance du sophiste Libanius_ (1866); G. R. Sievers, _Das - Leben des Libanius_ (1868); R. Forster, _F. Zambeccari und die Briefe - des Libanius_ (1878). Some letters from the emperor Julian to Libanius - will be found in R. Hercher, _Epistolographi Graeci_ (1873). Sixteen - letters to Julian have been translated by J. Duncombe (_The Works of - the Emperor Julian_, i. 303-332, 3rd ed., London, 1798). The oration - on the emperor Julian is translated by C. W. King (in Bohn's - "Classical Library," London, 1888), and that in Defence of the Temples - of the Heathen by Dr Lardner (in a volume of translations by Thomas - Taylor, from Celsus and others, 1830). See further J. E. Sandys, - _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, i. (1906), and A. Harrent, _Les - Ecoles d'Antioche_ (1898). - - - - -LIBATION (Lat. _libatio_, from _libare_, to take a portion of something, -to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity, &c.; cf. Gr. -[Greek: leibein]), a drink offering, the pouring out of a small quantity -of wine, milk or other liquid as a ceremonial act. Such an act was -performed in honour of the dead (Gr. [Greek: choai], Lat. -_profusiones_), in making of treaties (Gr. [Greek: sponde, spendein] = -_libare_, whence [Greek: spondai], treaty), and particularly in honour -of the gods (Gr. [Greek: loibe], Lat. _libatio_, _libamentum_, -_libamen_). Such libations to the gods were made as part of the daily -ritual of domestic worship, or at banquets or feasts to the Lares, or to -special deities, as by the Greeks to Hermes, the god of sleep, when -going to rest. - - - - -LIBAU (Lettish, _Leepaya_), a seaport of Russia, in the government of -Courland, 145 m. by rail S.W. of Riga, at the northern extremity of a -narrow sandy peninsula which separates Lake Libau (12 m. long and 2 m. -wide) from the Baltic Sea. Its population has more than doubled since -1881 (30,000), being 64,505 in 1897. The town is well built of stone, -with good gardens, and has a naval cathedral (1903). The harbour was 2 -m. S. of the town until a canal was dug through the peninsula in 1697; -it is now deepened to 23 ft., and is mostly free from ice throughout the -year. Since being brought, in 1872, into railway connexion with Moscow, -Orel and Kharkov, Libau has become an important port. New Libau -possesses large factories for colours, explosives, machinery belts, -sails and ropes, tobacco, furniture, matches, as well as iron works, -agricultural machinery works, tin-plate works, soap works, saw-mills, -breweries, oil-mills, cork and linoleum factories and flour-mills. The -exports reach the annual value of L3,250,000 to L5,500,000, oats being -the chief export, with flour, wheat, rye, butter, eggs, spirits, flax, -linseed, oilcake, pork, timber, horses and petroleum. The imports -average L1,500,000 to L2,000,000 annually. Shipbuilding, including -steamers for open-sea navigation, is on the increase. North of the -commercial harbour and enclosing it the Russian government made -(1893-1906) a very extensive fortified naval port, protected by moles -and breakwaters. Libau is visited for sea-bathing in summer. - -The port of Libau, _Lyra portus_, is mentioned as early as 1263; it then -belonged to the Livonian Order or Brothers of the Sword. In 1418 it was -burnt by the Lithuanians, and in 1560 it was mortgaged by the -grandmaster of the Teutonic Order, to which it had passed, to the -Prussian duke Albert. In 1701 it was captured by Charles XII. of Sweden, -and was annexed to Russia in 1795. - - See Wegner, _Geschichte der Stadt Libau_ (Libau, 1898). - - - - -LIBEL and SLANDER, the terms employed in English law to denote injurious -attacks upon a man's reputation or character by words written or spoken, -or by equivalent signs. In most early systems of law verbal injuries are -treated as a criminal or quasi-criminal offence, the essence of the -injury lying not in pecuniary loss, which may be compensated by damages, -but in the personal insult which must be atoned for--a vindictive -penalty coming in the place of personal revenge. By the law of the XII. -Tables, the composition of scurrilous songs and gross noisy public -affronts were punished by death. Minor offences of the same class seem -to have found their place under the general conception of _injuria_, -which included ultimately every form of direct personal aggression which -involved contumely or insult. In the later Roman jurisprudence, which -has, on this point, exercised considerable influence over modern systems -of law, verbal injuries are dealt with in the edict under two heads. The -first comprehended defamatory and injurious statements made in a public -manner (_convicium contra bonos mores_). In this case the essence of the -offence lay in the unwarrantable public proclamation. In such a case the -truth of the statements was no justification for the unnecessarily -public and insulting manner in which they had been made. The second head -included defamatory statements made in private, and in this case the -offence lay in the imputation itself, not in the manner of its -publication. The truth was therefore a sufficient defence, for no man -had a right to demand legal protection for a false reputation. Even -belief in the truth was enough, because it took away the intention which -was essential to the notion of _injuria_. The law thus aimed at giving -sufficient scope for the discussion of a man's character, while it -protected him from needless insult and pain. The remedy for verbal -injuries was long confined to a civil action for a money penalty, which -was estimated according to the gravity of the case, and which, although -vindictive in its character, doubtless included practically the element -of compensation. But a new remedy was introduced with the extension of -the criminal law, under which many kinds of defamation were punished -with great severity. At the same time increased importance attached to -the publication of defamatory books and writings, the _libri_ or -_libelli famosi_, from which we derive our modern use of the word libel; -and under the later emperors the latter term came to be specially -applied to anonymous accusations or pasquils, the dissemination of which -was regarded as peculiarly dangerous, and visited with very severe -punishment, whether the matter contained in them were true or false. - -The earlier history of the English law of defamation is somewhat -obscure. Civil actions for damages seem to have been tolerably frequent -so far back as the reign of Edward I. There was no distinction drawn -between words written and spoken. When no pecuniary penalty was involved -such cases fell within the old jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical -courts, which was only finally abolished in the 19th century. It seems, -to say the least, uncertain whether any generally applicable criminal -process was in use. The crime of _scandalum magnatum_, spreading false -reports about the magnates of the realm, was established by statutes, -but the first fully reported case in which libel is affirmed generally -to be punishable at common law is one tried in the star chamber in the -reign of James I. In that case no English authorities are cited except a -previous case of the same nature before the same tribunal; the law and -terminology appear to be taken directly from Roman sources, with the -insertion that libels tended to a breach of the peace; and it seems -probable that that not very scrupulous tribunal had simply found it -convenient to adopt the very stringent Roman provisions regarding the -_libelli famosi_ without paying any regard to the Roman limitations. -From that time we find both the criminal and civil remedies in full -operation, and the law with regard to each at the present time may now -be considered. - -_Civil Law._--The first important distinction encountered is that -between slander and libel, between the oral and written promulgation of -defamatory statements. In the former case the remedy is limited. The law -will not take notice of every kind of abusive or defamatory language. It -must be shown either that the plaintiff has suffered actual damage as a -direct consequence of the slander, or that the imputation is of such a -nature that we are entitled to infer damage as a necessary consequence. -The special damage on which an action is founded for slanderous words -must be of the nature of pecuniary loss. Loss of reputation or of -position in society, or even illness, however clearly it may be traced -to the slander, is insufficient. When we cannot prove special damage, -the action for slander is only allowed upon certain strictly defined -grounds. These are the imputation of a crime or misdemeanour which is -punishable corporeally, e.g. by imprisonment; the imputation of a -contagious or infectious disease; statements which tend to the -disherison of an apparent heir (other cases of slander of title when the -party is in possession requiring the allegation of special damage); the -accusing a woman of unchastity (Slander of Women Act 1891); and, lastly, -slanders directed against a man's professional or business character, -which tend directly to prejudice him in his trade, profession, or means -of livelihood. In the latter case the words must either be directly -aimed at a man in his business or official character, or they must be -such as necessarily to imply unfitness for his particular office or -occupation. Thus words which merely reflect generally upon the moral -character of a tradesman or professional man are not actionable, but -they are actionable if directed against his dealings in the course of -his trade or profession. But, in the case of a merchant or trader, an -allegation which affects his credit generally is enough, and it has been -held that statements are actionable which affect the ability or moral -characters of persons who hold offices, or exercise occupation which -require a high degree of ability, or infer peculiar confidence. In every -case the plaintiff must have been at the time of the slander in the -actual exercise of the occupation or enjoyment of the office with -reference to which the slander is supposed to have affected him. - -The action for libel is not restricted in the same way as that for -slander. Originally there appears to have been no essential distinction -between them, but the establishment of libel as a criminal offence had -probably considerable influence, and it soon became settled that written -defamatory statements, or pictures and other signs which bore a -defamatory meaning, implied greater malice and deliberation, and were -generally fraught with greater injury than those made by word of mouth. -The result has been that the action for libel is not limited to special -grounds, or by the necessity of proving special damage. It may be -founded on any statement which disparages a man's private or -professional character, or which tends to hold him up to hatred, -contempt or ridicule. In one of the leading cases, for example, the -plaintiff obtained damages because it was said of him that he was a -hypocrite, and had used the cloak of religion for unworthy purposes. In -another case a charge of ingratitude was held sufficient. In civil cases -the libel must be published by being brought by the defendant under the -notice of a third party; it has been held that it is sufficient if this -has been done by gross carelessness, without deliberate intention to -publish. Every person is liable to an action who is concerned in the -publication of a libel, whether he be the author, printer or publisher; -and the extent and manner of the publication, although not affecting the -ground of the action, is a material element in estimating the damages. - -It is not necessary that the defamatory character of the words or -writing complained of should be apparent on their face. They may be -couched in the form of an insinuation, or may derive their sting from a -reference to circumstances understood by the persons to whom they are -addressed. In such a case the plaintiff must make the injurious sense -clear by an averment called an innuendo, and it is for the jury to say -whether the words bore the meaning thus ascribed to them. - -In all civil actions for slander and libel the falsity of the injurious -statements is an essential element, so that the defendant is always -entitled to justify his statements by their truth; but when the -statements are in themselves defamatory, their falsity is presumed, and -the burden of proving their truth is laid upon the defendant. There are -however a large class of false defamatory statements, commonly called -privileged, which are not actionable on account of the particular -circumstances in which they are made. The general theory of law with -regard to these cases is this. It is assumed that in every case of -defamation intention is a necessary element; but in the ordinary case, -when a statement is false and defamatory, the law presumes that it has -been made or published with an evil intent, and will not allow this -presumption to be rebutted by evidence or submitted as matter of fact to -a jury. But there are certain circumstances in which the natural -presumption is quite the other way. There are certain natural and proper -occasions on which statements may be made which are in themselves -defamatory, and which may be false, but which naturally suggest that the -statements may have been made from a perfectly proper motive and with -entire belief in their truth. In the cases of this kind which are -recognized by law, the presumption is reversed. It lies with the -plaintiff to show that the defendant was actuated by what is called -_express malice_, by an intention to do harm, and in this case the -question is not one of legal inference for the court, but a matter of -fact to be decided by the jury. Although, however, the theory of the law -seems to rest entirely upon natural presumption of intention, it is -pretty clear that in determining the limits of privilege the courts have -been almost wholly guided by considerations of public or general -expediency. - -In some cases the privilege is absolute, so that we cannot have an -action for defamation even although we prove express malice. Thus no -action of this kind can be maintained for statements made in judicial -proceedings if they are in any sense relevant to the matter in hand. In -the same way no statements or publications are actionable which are made -in the ordinary course of parliamentary proceedings. Papers published -under the authority of parliament are protected by a special act, 3 & 4 -Vict. c. 9, 1840, which was passed after a decree of the law courts -adverse to the privilege claimed. The reports of judicial and -parliamentary proceedings stand in a somewhat different position, which -has only been attained after a long and interesting conflict. The -general rule now is that all reports of parliamentary or judicial -proceedings are privileged in so far as they are honest and impartial. -Even _ex parte_ proceedings, in so far as they take place in public, now -fall within the same rule. But if the report is garbled, or if part of -it only is published, the party who is injured in consequence is -entitled to maintain an action, and to have the question of malice -submitted to a jury. - -Both absolute and qualified privilege are given to newspaper reports -under certain conditions by the Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888. The -reports must, however, be published in a newspaper as defined in the -Newspaper Libel and Registration Act 1881. Under this act a newspaper -must be published "at intervals not exceeding twenty-six days." - - By s. 3 of the act of 1888 fair and accurate reports of judicial - proceedings are absolutely privileged provided that the report is - published contemporaneously with the proceedings and no blasphemous or - indecent matter is contained therein. By s. 4 a limited privilege is - given to fair and accurate reports (1) of the proceedings of a _bona - fide_ public meeting lawfully held for a lawful purpose and for the - furtherance and discussion of any matter of public concern, even when - the admission thereto is restricted; (2) of any meeting, open either - to the public or to a reporter, of a vestry, town council, school - board, board of guardians, board of local authority, formed or - constituted under the provisions of any act of parliament, or of any - committee appointed by any of these bodies; or of any meeting of any - commissioners authorized to act by letters patent, act of parliament, - warrant under royal sign manual, or other lawful warrant or authority, - select committees of either House of parliament, justices of the peace - in quarter sessions assembled for administrative or deliberative - purposes; (3) of the publication of any notice or report issued for - the information of the public by any government office or department, - officer of state, commissioner of police or chief constable, and - published at their request. But the privilege given in s. 4 does not - authorize the publication of any blasphemous or indecent matter; nor - is the protection available as a defence if it be proved that the - reports or notices were published maliciously, in the legal sense of - the word, or the defendant has been requested to insert in the - newspaper in which the report was issued a reasonable letter or - statement by way of contradiction or explanation, and has refused or - neglected to do so. Moreover, nothing in s. 4 is to interfere with any - privilege then existing, or to protect the publication of any matter - not of public concern, or in cases where publication is not for the - public benefit. Consequently no criminal prosecution should be - commenced where the interests of the public are not affected. By the - Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888, s. 8, no criminal prosecution for - libel is to be commenced against any newspaper proprietor, publisher - or editor unless the order of a judge at chambers has been first - obtained. This protection does not cover the actual writer of the - alleged libel. - -In private life a large number of statements are privileged so long as -they remain matters of strictly private communication. It is difficult -to define the limits of private privilege without extensive reference to -concrete cases; but generally it may be said that it includes all -communications made in performance of a duty not merely legal but moral -or social, answers to _bona fide_ inquiries, communications made by -persons in confidential relations regarding matters in which one or both -are interested, and even statements made within proper limits by persons -in the _bona fide_ prosecution of their own interest. Common examples of -this kind of privilege are to be found in answer to inquiries as to the -character of servants or the solvency of a trader, warnings to a friend, -communications between persons who are jointly interested in some -matters of business. But in every case care must be taken not to exceed -the limits of publication required by the occasion, or otherwise the -privilege is lost. Thus defamatory statements may be privileged when -made to a meeting of shareholders, but not when published to others who -have no immediate concern in the business. - -In a few instances in which an action cannot be maintained even by the -averment of malice, the plaintiff may maintain an action by averring not -only malice but also want of reasonable and probable cause. The most -common instances of this kind are malicious charges made in the ordinary -course of justice and malicious prosecutions. In such cases it would be -contrary to public policy to punish or prevent every charge which was -made from a purely malicious motive, but there is no reason for -protecting accusations which are not only malicious, but destitute of -all reasonable probability. - -_Criminal Law._--Publications which are blasphemous, immoral or -seditious are frequently termed libels, and are punishable both at -common law and by various statutes. The matter, however, which -constitutes the offence in these publications lies beyond our present -scope. Libels upon individuals may be prosecuted by criminal information -or indictment, but there can be no criminal prosecution for slander. So -far as concerns the definition of libel, and its limitation by the -necessity of proving in certain cases express malice, there is no -substantial difference between the rules which apply to criminal -prosecutions and to civil actions, with the one important exception -(now considerably modified) that the falsity of a libel is not in -criminal law an essential element of the offence. If the matter alleged -were in itself defamatory, the court would not permit inquiry into its -truth. The sweeping application of this rule seems chiefly due to the -indiscriminate use, in earlier cases, of a rule in Roman law which was -only applicable to certain modes of publication, but has been supported -by various reasons of general policy, and especially by the view that -one main reason for punishing a libel was its tendency to provoke a -breach of the peace. - -An important dispute about the powers of the jury in cases of libel -arose during the 19th century in connexion with some well-known trials -for seditious libels. The point is familiar to readers of Macaulay in -connexion with the trial of the seven bishops, but the cases in which it -was brought most prominently forward, and which led to its final -settlement, were those against Woodfall (the printer of _Junius_), -Wilkes and others, and especially the case against Shipley, the dean of -St Asaph (21 St. Tr. 925), in which the question was fought by Lord -Erskine with extraordinary energy and ability. The controversy turned -upon the question whether the jury were to be strictly confined to -matters of fact which required to be proved by evidence, or whether in -every case they were entitled to form their own opinion upon the -libellous character of the publication and the intention of the author. -The jury, if they pleased, had it in their power to return a general -verdict of guilty or not guilty, but both in theory and practice they -were subject in law to the directions of the court, and had to be -informed by it as to what they were to take into consideration in -determining upon their verdict. There is no difficulty about the general -application of this principle in criminal trials. If the crime is one -which is inferred by law from certain facts, the jury are only concerned -with these facts, and must accept the construction put upon them by law. -Applying these principles to the case of libel, juries were directed -that it was for the court to determine whether the publication fell -within the definition of libel, and whether the case was one in which -malice was to be inferred by construction of law. If the case were one -in which malice was inferred by law, the only facts left to the jury -were the fact of publication and the meaning averred by innuendoes; they -could not go into the question of intention, unless the case were one of -privilege, in which express malice had to be proved. In general -principle, therefore, the decisions of the court were in accordance with -the ordinary principles of criminal law. But there were undoubtedly some -peculiarities in the case of libel. The sense of words, the inferences -to be drawn from them, and the effect which they produce are not so -easily defined as gross matters of fact. They seem to belong to those -cases in which the impression made upon a jury is more to be trusted -than the decision of a judge. Further, owing to the mode of procedure, -the defendant was often punished before the question of law was -determined. But, nevertheless, the question would scarcely have been -raised had the libels related merely to private matters. The real ground -of dispute was the liberty to be accorded to political discussion. Had -the judges taken as wide a view of privilege in discussing matters of -public interest as they do now, the question could scarcely have arisen; -for Erskine's whole contention really amounted to this, that the jury -were entitled to take into consideration the good or bad intent of the -authors, which is precisely the question which would now be put before -them in any matter which concerned the public. But at that time the -notion of a special privilege attaching to political discussion had -scarcely arisen, or was confined within very narrow limits, and the -cause of free political discussion seemed to be more safely entrusted to -juries than to courts. The question was finally settled by the Libel Act -1792, by which the jury were entitled to give a general verdict on the -whole matter put in issue. - - _Scots Law._--In Scots law there were originally three remedies for - defamation. It might be prosecuted by or with the concurrence of the - lord advocate before the court of justiciary; or, secondly, a criminal - remedy might be obtained in the commissary (ecclesiastical) courts, - which originally dealt with the defender by public retractation or - penance, but subsequently made use of fines payable to their own - procurator or to the party injured, these latter being regarded as - solatium to his feelings; or, lastly, an action of damages was - competent before the court of session, which was strictly civil in its - character and aimed at the reparation of patrimonial loss. The first - remedy has fallen into disuse; the second and third (the commissary - courts being now abolished) are represented by the present action for - damages or solatium. Originally the action before the court of session - was strictly for damages--founded, not upon the _animus injuriandi_, - but upon culpa, and could be defended by proving the truth of the - statements. But in time the court of session began to assume the - original jurisdiction of the commissary courts, and entertained - actions for solatium in which the _animus injuriandi_ was a necessary - element, and to which, as in Roman law, the truth was not necessarily - a defence. Ultimately the two actions got very much confused. We find - continual disputes as to the necessity for the _animus injuriandi_ and - the applicability of the plea of _veritas convicii_, which arose from - the fact that the courts were not always conscious that they were - dealing with two actions, to one of which these notions were - applicable, and to the other not. On the introduction of the jury - court, presided over by an English lawyer, it was quite natural that - he, finding no very clear distinction maintained between damage and - solatium, applied the English plea of truth as a justification to - every case, and retained the _animus injuriandi_ both in ordinary - cases and cases of privilege in the same shape as the English - conception of malice. The leading and almost only differences between - the English and Scots law now are that the latter makes no essential - distinction between oral and written defamation, that it practically - gives an action for every case of defamation, oral or written, upon - which in England a civil action might be maintained for libel, and - that it possesses no criminal remedy. In consequence of the latter - defect and the indiscriminate application of the plea of veritas to - every case both of damages and solatium, there appears to be no remedy - in Scotland even for the widest and most needless publication of - offensive statements if only they are true. - - _American Law._--American law scarcely if at all differs from that of - England. In so far indeed as the common law is concerned, they may be - said to be substantially identical. The principal statutes which have - altered the English criminal law are represented by equivalent - legislation in most American states. - - See generally W. B. Odgers, _Libel and Slander_; Fraser, _Law of Libel - and Slander_. - - - - -LIBELLATICI, the name given to a class of persons who, during the -persecution of Decius, A.D. 250, evaded the consequences of their -Christian belief by procuring documents (_libelli_) which certified that -they had satisfied the authorities of their submission to the edict -requiring them to offer incense or sacrifice to the imperial gods. As -thirty-eight years had elapsed since the last period of persecution, the -churches had become in many ways lax, and the number of those who failed -to hold out under the persecution was very great. The procedure of the -courts which had cognizance of the matter was, however, by no means -strict, and the judges and subordinate officials were often not -ill-disposed towards Christians, so that evasion was fairly easy. Many -of those who could not hold out were able to secure certificates which -gave them immunity from punishment without actually renouncing the -faith, just as "parliamentary certificates" of conformity used to be -given in England without any pretext of fact. It is to the persons who -received such certificates that the name _libellatici_ belonged (those -who actually fulfilled the edict being called _thurificati_ or -_sacrificati_). To calculate their number would be impossible, but we -know from the writings of Cyprian, Dionysius of Alexandria and other -contemporaries, that they were a numerous class, and that they were to -be found in Italy, in Egypt and in Africa, and among both clergy and -laity. Archbishop Benson is probably right in thinking that "there was -no systematic and regular procedure in the matter," and that the -_libelli_ may have been of very different kinds. They must, however, as -a general rule, have consisted of a certificate _from the authorities_ -to the effect that the accused person had satisfied them. [The name -_libellus_ has also been applied to another kind of document--to the -letters given by confessors, or by those who were about to suffer -martyrdom, to persons who had fallen, to be used to secure forgiveness -for them from the authorities of the Church. With such _libelli_ we are -not here concerned.] The subject has acquired a fresh interest from the -fact that two of these actual _libelli_ have been recovered, in 1893 and -1894 respectively, both from Egypt; one is now in the Brugsch Pasha -collection in the Berlin Museum; the other is in the collection of -papyri belonging to the Archduke Rainer. The former is on a papyrus leaf -about 8 by 3 in., the latter on mere fragments of papyrus which have -been pieced together. The former was first deciphered and described by -Dr Fritz Krebs, the latter by Dr K. Wessely: both are given and -commented upon by Dr Benson. There is a remarkable similarity between -them: in each the form is that N. "was ever constant in sacrificing to -the gods"; and that he now, in the presence of the commissioners of the -sacrifices ([Greek: hoi heremenoi ton thyson]), has both sacrificed and -drunk [_or_ has poured libations], and has tasted of the victims, in -witness whereof he begs them to sign this certificate. Then follows the -signature, with attestations. The former of the two is dated, and the -date must fall in the year 250. It is impossible to prove that either of -the documents actually refers to Christians: they may have been given to -pagans who had been accused and had cleared themselves, or to former -Christians who had apostatized. But no doubt _libelli_ in this same form -were delivered, in Egypt at least, to Christians who secured immunity -without actual apostasy; and the form in Italy and Africa probably did -not differ widely from this. The practice gave rise to complicated -problems of ecclesiastical discipline, which are reflected in the -correspondence of Cyprian and especially in the Novatian controversy. - - See E. W. Benson, _Cyprian_ (London, 1897); _Theol. Literaturzeitung_, - 20th of January and 17th of March 1894. (W. E. Co.) - - - - -LIBER and LIBERA, in Roman mythology, deities, male and female, -identified with the Greek Dionysus and Persephone. In honour of Liber -(also called Liber Pater and Bacchus) two festivals were celebrated. In -the country feast of the vintage, held at the time of the gathering of -the grapes, and the city festival of March 17th called _Liberalia_ -(Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 711) we find purely Italian ceremonial unaffected -by Greek religion. The country festival was a great merry-making, where -the first-fruits of the new must were offered to the gods. It was -characterized by the grossest symbolism, in honour of the fertility of -nature. In the city festival, growing civilization had impressed a new -character on the primitive religion, and connected it with the framework -of society. At this time the youths laid aside the boy's _toga -praetexta_ and assumed the man's _toga libera_ or _virilis_ (_Fasti_, -iii. 771). Cakes of meal, honey and oil were offered to the two deities -at this festival. Liber was originally an old Italian god of the -productivity of nature, especially of the vine. His name indicated the -free, unrestrained character of his worship. When, at an early period, -the Hellenic religion of Demeter spread to Rome, Liber and Libera were -identified with Dionysus and Persephone, and associated with another -Italian goddess Ceres, who was identified with Demeter. By order of the -Sibylline books, a temple was built to these three deities near the -Circus Flaminius; the whole cultus was borrowed from the Greeks, down -even to the terminology, and priestesses were brought from the Greek -cities. - - - - -LIBERAL PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to and accepted by the -successors of the old Whig party (see WHIG AND TORY), representing the -political party opposed to Toryism or Conservatism, and claiming to be the -originators and champions of political reform and progressive legislation. -The term came into general use definitely as the name of one of the two -great parties in the state when Mr Gladstone became its leader, but before -this it had already become current coin, as a political appellation, -through a natural association with the use of such phrases as "liberal -ideas," in the sense of "favourable to change," or "in support of -political freedom and democracy." In this respect it was the outcome of -the French Revolution, and in the early years of the 19th century the term -was used in a French form; thus Southey in 1816 wrote about the "British -_Liberales_." But the Reform Act and the work of Bentham and Mill resulted -in the crystallization of the term. In Leigh Hunt's autobiography (1850) -we read of "newer and more thorough-going Whigs ... known by the name of -Radicals ... since called Liberals"; and J. S. Mill in 1865 wrote (from -his own Liberal point of view), "A Liberal is he who looks forward for his -principles of government; a Tory looks backward." The gradual adoption of -the term for one of the great parties, superseding "Whig," was helped by -the transition period of "Liberal Conservatism," describing the position -of the later Peelites; and Mr Gladstone's own career is the best instance -of its changing signification; moreover the adjective "liberal" came -meanwhile into common use in other spheres than that of parliamentary -politics, e.g. in religion, as meaning "intellectually advanced" and free -from the trammels of tradition. Broadly speaking, the Liberal party stands -for progressive legislation in accordance with freedom of social -development and advanced ethical ideas. It claims to represent government -by the people, by means of trust in the people, in a sense which denies -genuine popular sympathy to its opponents. Being largely composed of -dissenters, it has identified itself with opposition to the vested -interests of the Church of England; and, being apt to be thwarted by the -House of Lords, with attempts to override the veto of that house. Its old -watchword, "Peace, retrenchment and reform," indicated its tendency to -avoidance of a "spirited" foreign policy, and to parsimony in expenditure. -But throughout its career the Liberal party has always been pushed forward -by its extreme Radical wing, and economy in the spending of public money -is no longer cherished by those who chiefly represent the non-taxpaying -classes. The party organization lends itself to the influence of new -forces. In 1861 a central organization was started in the "Liberal -Registration Association," composed "of gentlemen of known Liberal -opinions"; and a number of "Liberal Associations" soon rose throughout the -country. Of these, that at Birmingham became, under Mr J. Chamberlain and -his active supporter Mr Schnadhorst, particularly active in the -'seventies; and it was due to Mr Schnadhorst that in 1877 a conference was -held at Birmingham which resulted in the formation of the "National -Federation of Liberal Associations," or "National Liberal Federation," -representing a system of organization which was dubbed by Lord -Beaconsfield "the Caucus." The Birmingham Caucus and the Central Liberal -Association thus coexisted, the first as an independent democratic -institution, the second as the official body representing the whips of the -party, the first more advanced and "Radical," the second inclined to -Whiggishness. Friction naturally resulted, but the 1880 elections -confirmed the success of the Caucus and consolidated its power. And in -spite of the Home Rule crisis in 1886, resulting in the splitting off of -the Liberal Unionists--"dissentient Liberals," as Mr Gladstone called -them--from the Liberal party, the organization of the National Liberal -Federation remained, in the dark days of the party, its main support. Its -headquarters were, however, removed to London, and under Mr Schnadhorst it -was practically amalgamated with the old Central Association. - -It is impossible here to write in detail the later history of the -Liberal party, but the salient facts will be found in such articles as -those on Mr Gladstone, Mr J. Chamberlain, Lord Rosebery, Sir Henry -Campbell-Bannerman, Mr H. H. Asquith and Mr David Lloyd George. - - See, apart from general histories of the period, M. Ostrogorski's - _Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties_ (Eng. trans. - 1902). - - - - -LIBER DIURNUS ROMANORUM PONTIFICUM, or "Journal of the Roman Pontiffs," -the name given to a collection of formulae used in the papal chancellery -in preparing official documents, such as the installation of a pope, the -bestowal of the pallium and the grant of papal privileges. It was -compiled between 685 and 751, and was constantly employed until the 11th -century, when, owing to the changed circumstances of the Church, it fell -into disuse, and was soon forgotten and lost. During the 17th century a -manuscript of the _Liber_ was discovered in Rome by the humanist, Lucas -Holstenius, who prepared an edition for publication; for politic -reasons, however, the papal authorities would not allow this to appear, -as the book asserted the superiority of a general council over the pope. -It was, however, published in France by the Jesuit, Jean Garnier, in -1680, and other editions quickly followed. - - The best modern editions are one by Eugene de Roziere (Paris, 1869) - and another by T. E. von Sichel (Vienna, 1889), both of which contain - critical introductions. The two existing manuscripts of the _Liber_ - are in the Vatican library, Rome, and in the library of St Ambrose at - Milan. - - - - -LIBERIA, a negro republic in West Africa, extending along the coast of -northern Guinea about 300 m., between the British colony of Sierra Leone -on the N.W. and the French colony of the Ivory Coast on the S.E. The -westernmost point of Liberia (at the mouth of the river Mano) lies in -about 6 deg. 55' N. and 11 deg. 32' W. The southernmost point of -Liberia, and at the same time almost its most eastern extension, is at -the mouth of the Cavalla, beyond Cape Palmas, only 4 deg. 22' N. of the -equator, and in about 7 deg. 33' W. The width of Liberia inland varies -very considerably; it is greatest, about 200 m., from N.E. to S.W. The -Liberia-Sierra Leone boundary was determined by a frontier commission in -1903. Commencing at the mouth of the river Mano, it follows the Mano up -stream till that river cuts 10 deg. 40' W. It then followed this line of -longitude to its intersection with N. latitude 9 deg. 6', but by the -Franco-Liberian understanding of 1907 the frontier on this side was -withdrawn to 8 deg. 25' N., where the river Makona crosses 10 deg. 40' -W. The Liberian frontier with the adjacent French possessions was -defined by the Franco-Liberian treaty of 1892, but as the definition -therein given was found to be very difficult of reconciliation with -geographical features (for in 1892 the whole of the Liberian interior -was unmapped) further negotiations were set on foot. In 1905 Liberia -proposed to France that the boundary line should follow the river Moa -from the British frontier of Sierra Leone up stream to near the source -of the Moa (or Makona), and that from this point the boundary should run -eastwards along the line of water-parting between the system of the -Niger on the north and that of the coast rivers (Moa, Lofa, St Paul's) -on the south, until the 8th degree of N. latitude was reached, thence -following this 8th degree eastwards to where it cuts the head stream of -the Cavalla river. From this point the boundary between France and -Liberia would be the course of the Cavalla river from near its source to -the sea. Within the limits above described Liberia would possess a total -area of about 43,000 to 45,000 sq. m. But after deliberation and as the -result of certain "frontier incidents" France modified her -counter-proposals in 1907, and the actual definition of the northern and -eastern frontiers of Liberia is as follows:-- - - Starting from the point on the frontier of the British colony of - Sierra Leone where the river Moa or Makona crosses that frontier, the - Franco-Liberian frontier shall follow the left bank of the river - Makona up stream to a point 5 kilometres to the south of the town of - Bofosso. From this point the frontier shall leave the line of the - Makona and be carried in a south-easterly direction to the source of - the most north-westerly affluent of the Nuon river or Western Cavalla. - This line shall be so drawn as to leave on the French side of the - boundary the following towns: Kutumai, Kisi Kurumai, Sundibu, Zuapa, - Nzibila, Koiama, Bangwedu and Lola. From the north-westernmost source - of the Nuon the boundary shall follow the right bank of the said Nuon - river down stream to its presumed confluence with the Cavalla, and - thenceforward the right bank of the river Cavalla down to the sea. If - the ultimate destination of the Nuon is not the Cavalla river, then - the boundary shall follow the right bank of the Nuon down stream as - far as the town of Tuleplan. A line shall then be drawn from the - southern outskirts of the town of Tuleplan due E. to the Cavalla - river, and thence shall follow the right bank of the Cavalla river to - the sea. - - (The delimitation commission proved that the Nuon does not flow into - the Cavalla, but about 6 deg. 30' N. it flows very near the - north-westernmost bend of that river. Tuleplan is in about lat. 6 deg. - 50' N. The river Makona takes a much more northerly course than had - been estimated. The river Nuon also is situated 20 or 30 m. farther to - the east than had been supposed. Consequently the territory of Liberia - as thus demarcated is rather larger than it would appear on the - uncorrected English maps of 1907--about 41,000 sq. m.) - -It is at the southern extremity of Liberia, Cape Palmas, that the West -African coast from Morocco to the southernmost extremity of Guinea turns -somewhat abruptly eastwards and northwards and faces the Gulf of Guinea. -As the whole coastline of Liberia thus fronts the sea route from Europe -to South Africa it is always likely to possess a certain degree of -strategical importance. The coast, however, is unprovided with a single -good harbour. The anchorage at Monrovia is safe, and with some -expenditure of money a smooth harbour could be made in front of Grand -Basa. - - _Coast Features._--The coast is a good deal indented, almost all the - headlands projecting from north-east to south-west. A good deal of - the seaboard is dangerous by reason of the sharp rocks which lie near - the surface. As most of the rivers have rapids or falls actually at - the sea coast or close to it, they are, with the exception of the - Cavalla, useless for penetrating far inland, and the whole of this - part of Africa from Cape Palmas north-west to the Senegal suggests a - sunken land. In all probability the western projection of Africa was - connected by a land bridge with the opposite land of Brazil as late as - the Eocene period of the Tertiary epoch. The Liberian coast has few - lagoons compared with the adjoining littoral of Sierra Leone or that - of the Ivory Coast. The coast, in fact, rises in some places rather - abruptly from the sea. Cape Mount (on the northern side of which is a - large lagoon--Fisherman Lake) at its highest point is 1050 ft. above - sea level. Cape Mesurado is about 350 ft., Cape Palmas about 200 ft. - above the sea. There is a salt lake or lagoon between the Cape Palmas - river and the vicinity of the Cavalla. Although very little of the - coast belt is actually swampy, a kind of natural canalization connects - many of the rivers at their mouths with each other, though some of - these connecting creeks are as yet unmarked on maps. - - _Mountains._--Although there are patches of marsh--generally the - swampy bottoms of valleys--the whole surface of Liberia inclines to be - hilly or even mountainous at a short distance inland from the coast. - In the north-east, French explorers have computed the altitudes of - some mountains at figures which would make them the highest land - surfaces of the western projection of Africa--from 6000 to 9000 ft. - But these altitudes are largely matters of conjecture. The same - mountains have been sighted by English explorers coming up from the - south and are pronounced to be "very high." It is possible that they - may reach to 6000 ft. in some places. Between the western bend of the - Cavalla river and the coast there is a somewhat broken mountain range - with altitudes of from 2000 to 5000 ft. (approximate). The Po range to - the west of the St Paul's river may reach in places to 3000 ft. - - _Rivers._--The work of the Franco-Liberian delimitation commission in - 1908-1909 cleared up many points connected with the hydrography of the - country. Notably it traced the upper Cavalla, proving that that river - was not connected either with the Nuon on the west or the Ko or Zo on - the east. The upper river and the left bank of the lower river of the - Cavalla are in French territory. It rises in about 7 deg. 50' N., 8 - deg. 30' W. in the Nimba mountains, where also rise the Nuon, St - John's and Dukwia rivers. After flowing S.E. the Cavalla, between 7 - deg. and 6 deg. N., under the name of Dugu, makes a very considerable - elbow to the west, thereafter resuming its south-easterly course. It - is navigable from the sea for some 80 m. from its mouth and after a - long series of rapids is again navigable. Unfortunately the Cavalla - does not afford a means of easy penetration into the rich hinterland - of Liberia on account of the bad bar at its mouth. The Nuon (or - Nipwe), which up to 1908 was described sometimes as the western - Cavalla and sometimes as the upper course of the St John's river, has - been shown to be the upper course of the Cestos. About 6 deg. 30' N. - it approaches within 16 m. of the Cavalla. It rises in the Nimba - mountains some 10 m. S. of the source of the Cavalla, and like all the - Liberian rivers (except the Cavalla) it has a general S.W. flow. The - St Paul, though inferior to the Cavalla in length, is a large river - with a considerable volume of water. The main branch rises in the - Beila country nearly as far north as 9 deg. N. under the name of - Diani. Between 8 deg. and 7 deg. N. it is joined by the We from the - west and the Wale from the east. The important river Lofa flows nearly - parallel with the St Paul's river and enters the sea about 40 m. to - the west, under the name of Little Cape Mount river. The Mano or Bewa - river rises in the dense Gora forest, but is of no great importance - until it becomes the frontier between Liberia and Sierra Leone. The - Dukwia and Farmington are tortuous rivers entering the sea under the - name of the river Junk (Portuguese, _Junco_). The Farmington is a - short stream, but the Dukwia is believed to be the lower course of the - Mani, which rises as the Tigney (Tige), north of the source of the - Cavalla, just south of 8 deg. N. The St John's river of the Basa - country appears to be of considerable importance and volume. The Sino - river rises in the Niete mountains and brings down a great volume of - water to the sea, though it is not a river of considerable length. The - Duobe rises at the back of the Satro Mountains and flows nearly - parallel with the Cavalla, which it joins. The Moa or Makona river is - a fine stream of considerable volume, but its course is perpetually - interrupted by rocks and rapids. Its lower course is through the - territory of Sierra Leone, and it enters the sea as the Sulima. - - _Climate and Rainfall._--Liberia is almost everywhere well watered. - The climate and rainfall over the whole of the coast region for about - 120 m. inland are equatorial, the rainfall in the western half of the - country being about 150 in. per annum and in the eastern half about - 100 in. North of a distance of about 120 m. inland the climate is not - quite so rainy, and the weather is much cooler during the dry season. - This region beyond the hundred-miles coast belt is far more agreeable - and healthy to Europeans. - - _Forests._--Outside a coast belt of about 20 m. and south of 8 deg. N. - the country is one vast forest, except where the natives have cleared - the land for cultivation. In many districts the land has been cleared - and cultivated and then abandoned, and has relapsed into scrub and - jungle which is gradually returning to the condition of forest. The - densest forest of all would seem to be that known as Gora, which is - almost entirely uninhabited and occupies an area of about 6000 sq. m. - between the Po hills and the British frontier. There is another very - dense forest stretching with little interruption from the eastern side - of the St Paul's river nearly to the Cavalla. The Nidi forest is - noteworthy for its magnificent growth of _Funtumia_ rubber trees. It - extends between the Duobe and the Cavalla rivers. The extreme north of - Liberia is still for the most part a very well-watered country, - covered with a rich vegetation, but there are said to be a few breaks - that are rather stony and that have a very well-marked dry season in - which the vegetation is a good deal burnt up. In the main Liberia is - the forest country par excellence of West Africa, and although this - region of dense forests overlaps the political frontiers of both - Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast, it is a feature of physical - geography so nearly coincident with the actual frontiers of Liberia as - to give this country special characteristics clearly marked in its - existing fauna. - - _Fauna._--The fauna of Liberia is sufficiently peculiar, at any rate - as regards vertebrates, to make it very nearly identical with a - "district" or sub-province of the West African province, though in - this case the Liberian "district" would not include the northern-most - portions of the country and would overlap on the east and west into - Sierra Leone and the French Ivory Coast. It is probable that the - Liberian chimpanzee may offer one or more distinct varieties; there is - an interesting local development of the Diana monkey, sometimes called - the bay-thighed monkey (_Cercopithecus diana ignita_) on account of - its brilliant orange-red thighs. One or more species of bats are - peculiar to the country--_Vespertilio stampflii_, and perhaps - _Roussettus buttikoferi_; two species of shrew (_Crocidura_), one - dormouse (_Graphiurus nagtglasii_); the pygmy hippopotamus (_H. - liberiensis_)--differing from the common hippopotamus by its much - smaller size and by the reduction of the incisor teeth to a single - pair in either jaw, or occasionally to the odd number of three; and - two remarkable _Cephalophus_ antelopes peculiar to this region so far - as is known--these are the white-shouldered duiker, _Cephalophus - jentinki_, and the zebra antelope, _C. doriae_, a creature the size of - a small goat, of a bright bay brown, with broad black zebra-like - stripes. Amongst other interesting mammals are four species of the - long-haired _Colobus_ monkeys (black, black and white, greenish-grey - and reddish-brown); the Potto lemur, fruit bats of large size with - monstrous heads (_Hypsignathus monstrosus_); the brush-tailed African - porcupine; several very brightly coloured squirrels; the scaly-tailed - flying _Anomalurus_; the common porcupine; the leopard, serval, golden - cat (_Felis celidogaster_) in two varieties, the copper-coloured and - the grey, possibly the same animal at different ages; the striped and - spotted hyenas (beyond the forest region); two large otters; the tree - hyrax, elephant and manati; the red bush pig (_Potamochoerus porcus_); - the West African chevrotain (_Dorcatherium_); the Senegalese buffalo; - Bongo antelope (_Boocercus_); large yellow-backed duiker (_Cephalophus - sylvicultrix_), black duiker, West African hartebeest (beyond the - forest), pygmy antelope (_Neotragus_); and three species of _Manis_ or - pangolin (_M. gigantea_, _M. longicaudata_ and _M. tricuspis_). - - The birds of Liberia are not quite so peculiar as the mammals. There - is the interesting white-necked guineafowl, _Agelastes_ (which is - found on the Gold Coast and elsewhere west of the lower Niger); there - is one peculiar species of eagle owl (_Bubo lettii_) and a very - handsome sparrow-hawk (_Accipiter buttikoferi_); a few sun-birds, - warblers and shrikes are peculiar to the region. The other birds are - mainly those of Senegambia and of the West African forest region - generally. A common and handsome bird is the blue plantain-eater - (_Corythaeola_). The fishing vulture (_Gypohierax_) is found in all - the coast districts, but true vultures are almost entirely absent - except from the north, where the small brown _Percnopterus_ makes its - appearance. A flamingo (_Phoeniconaias_) visits Fisherman Lake, and - there are a good many species of herons. Cuckoos are abundant, some of - them of lovely plumage, also rollers, kingfishers and horn-bills. The - last family is well represented, especially by the three forest - forms--the elate hornbill and black hornbill (_Ceratogymna_), and the - long-tailed, white-crested hornbill (_Ortholophus leucolophus_). There - is one trogon--green and crimson, a brightly coloured ground thrush - (_Pitta_), numerous woodpeckers and barbets; glossy starlings, the - black and white African crow and a great variety of brilliantly - coloured weaver birds, waxbills, shrikes and sun-birds. - - As regards reptiles, there are at least seven poisonous snakes--two - cobras, two puff-adders and three vipers. The brilliantly coloured red - and blue lizard (_Agama colonorum_) is found in the coast region of - eastern Liberia. There are three species of crocodile, at least two - chameleons (probably more when the forest is further explored), the - large West African python (_P. sebae_) and a rare Boine snake - (Calabaria). On the sea coast there is the leathery turtle - (_Dermochelis_) and also the green turtle (_Chelone_). In the rivers - and swamps there are soft-shelled turtle (_Trionyx_ and - _Sternothaerus_). The land tortoises chiefly belong to the genus - _Cynyxis_. The fresh-water fish seem in their affinities to be nearly - allied to those of the Niger and the Nile. There is a species of - _Polypterus_, and it is probable that the _Protopterus_ or lung fish - is also found there, though its existence has not as yet been - established by a specimen. As regards invertebrates, very few species - or genera are peculiar to Liberia so far as is yet known, though there - are probably one or two butterflies of local range. The gigantic - scorpions (_Pandinus imperator_)--more than 6 in. long--are a common - feature in the forest. One noteworthy feature in Liberia, however, is - the relative absence of mosquitoes, and the white ants and some other - insect pests are not so troublesome here as in other parts of West - Africa. The absence or extreme paucity of mosquitoes no doubt accounts - for the infrequency of malarial fever in the interior. - - _Flora._--Nowhere, perhaps, does the flora of West Africa attain a - more wonderful development than in the republic of Liberia and in the - adjoining regions of Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast. This is partly - due to the equatorial position and the heavy rainfall. The region of - dense forest, however, does not cover the whole of Liberia; the Makona - river and the northern tributaries of the Lofa and St Paul's flow - through a mountainous country covered with grass and thinly scattered - trees, while the ravines and watercourses are still richly forested. A - good deal of this absence of forest is directly due to the action of - man. Year by year the influence of the Mahommedan tribes on the north - leads to the cutting down of the forest, the extension of both - planting and pasture and the introduction of cattle and even horses. - In the regions bordering the coast also a good deal of the forest has - disappeared, its place being taken (where the land is not actually - cultivated) by very dense scrub. The most striking trees in the forest - region are, in the basin of the Cavalla, the giant _Funtumia - elastica_, which grows to an altitude of 200 ft.; various kinds of - _Parinarium_, _Oldfieldia_ and _Khaya_; the bombax or cotton tree, - giant dracaenas, many kinds of fig; _Borassus_ palms, oil palms, the - climbing _Calamus_ palms, and on the coast the coconut. The most - important palm of the country perhaps is the _Raphia vinifera_, which - produces the piassava fibre of commerce. There are about twenty-two - different trees, shrubs and vines producing rubber of more or less - good quality. These belong chiefly to the Apocynaceous order. In this - order is the genus _Strophanthus_, which is represented in Liberia by - several species, amongst others _S. gratus_. This _Strophanthus_ is - not remarkable for its rubber--which is mere bird lime--but for the - powerful poison of its seeds, often used for poisoning arrows, but of - late much in use as a drug for treating diseases of the heart. Coffee - of several species is indigenous and grows wild. The best known is the - celebrated _Coffea liberica_. The kola tree is also indigenous. Large - edible nuts are derived from _Coula edulis_ of the order Olacineae. - The country is exceedingly rich in Aroids, many of which are - epiphytic, festooning the trunks of tall trees with a magnificent - drapery of abundant foliage. A genus much represented is _Culcasia_, - and swampy localities are thickly set with the giant _Cyrtosperma_ - arum, with flower spathes that are blotched with deep purple. Ground - orchids and tree orchids are well represented; _Polystachya liberica_, - an epiphytic orchid with sprays of exquisite small flowers of purple - and gold, might well be introduced into horticulture for its beauty. - The same might be said of the magnificent _Lissochilus roseus_, a - terrestrial orchid, growing to 7 ft. in height, with rose-coloured - flowers nearly 1 in. long; there are other orchids of fantastic design - in their green and white flowers, some of which have spurs (nectaries) - nearly 7 in. long. - - Many trees offer magnificent displays of flowers at certain seasons of - the year; perhaps the loveliest effect is derived from the bushes and - trailing creepers of the _Combretum_ genus, which, during the "winter" - months from December to March, cover the scrub and the forest with - mantles of rose colour. _Smaethmannia_ trees are thickly set at this - season with large blossoms of waxen white. Very beautiful also are the - red velvet or white velvet sepals of the _Mussaenda_ genus. Bamboos of - the genus _Oxytenanthera_ are indigenous. Tree ferns are found on the - mountains above 4000 ft. The bracken grows in low sandy tracts near - the coast. The country in general is a fern paradise, and the - iridescent creeping _Selaginella_ (akin to _Lycopodium_) festoons the - undergrowth by the wayside. The cultivated trees and plants of - importance are, besides rubber, the manioc or cassada, the orange - tree, lime, cacao, coffee, pineapple (which now runs wild over the - whole of Liberia), sour sop, ginger, papaw, alligator apple, avocado - pear, okro, cotton (_Gossypium peruvianum_--the kidney cotton), - indigo, sweet potato, capsicum (chillie), bread-fruit, arrowroot - (_Maranta_), banana, yam, "coco"-yam (_Colocasia antiquorum_, var. - _esculenta_), maize, sorghum, sugar cane, rice and eleusine - (_Eleusine_), besides gourds, pumpkins, cabbages and onions. - - _Minerals._--The hinterland of Liberia has been but slightly explored - for mineral wealth. In a general way it is supposed that the lands - lying between the lower St Paul's river and the Sierra Leone frontier - are not much mineralized, except that in the vicinity of river mouths - there are indications of bitumen. The sand of nearly all the rivers - contains a varying proportion of gold. Garnets and mica are everywhere - found. There have been repeated stories of diamonds obtained from the - Finley Mountains (which are volcanic) in the central province, but all - specimens sent home, except one, have hitherto proved to be quartz - crystals. There are indications of sapphires and other forms of - corundum. Corundum indeed is abundantly met with in the eastern half - of Liberia. The sand of the rivers contains monazite. Graphite has - been discovered in the Po Hills. Lead has been reported from the Nidi - or Niete Mountains. Gold is present in some abundance in the river - sand of central Liberia, and native reports speak of the far interior - as being rich in gold. Iron--haematite--is present almost everywhere. - There are other indications of bitumen, besides those mentioned, in - the coast region of eastern Liberia. - -_History and Population._--Tradition asserts that the Liberian coast was -first visited by Europeans when it was reached by the Dieppois -merchant-adventurers in the 14th century. The French in the 17th century -claimed that but for the loss of the archives of Dieppe they would be -able to prove that vessels from this Norman port had established -settlements at Grand Basa, Cape Mount, and other points on the coast of -Liberia. No proof has yet been forthcoming, however, that the Portuguese -were not the first white men to reach this coast. The first Portuguese -pioneer was Pedro de Sintra, who discovered and noted in 1461 the -remarkable promontory of Cape Mount, Cape Mesurado (where the capital, -Monrovia, is now situated) and the mouth of the Junk river. In 1462 de -Sintra returned with another Portuguese captain, Sueiro da Costa, and -penetrated as far as Cape Palmas and the Cavalla river. Subsequently the -Portuguese mapped the whole coast of Liberia, and nearly all the -prominent features--capes, rivers, islets--off that coast still bear -Portuguese names. From the 16th century onwards, English, Dutch, German, -French and other European traders contested the commerce of this coast -with the Portuguese, and finally drove them away. In the 18th century -France once or twice thought of establishing colonies here. At the end -of the 18th century, when the tide was rising in favour of the abolition -of slavery and the repatriation of slaves, the Grain Coast [so called -from the old trade in the "Grains of Paradise" or _Amomum_ pepper] was -suggested once or twice as a suitable home for repatriated negroes. -Sierra Leone, however, was chosen first on account of its possessing an -admirable harbour. But in 1821 Cape Mesurado was selected by the -American Colonization Society as an appropriate site for the first -detachment of American freed negroes, whom difficulties in regard to -extending the suffrage in the United States were driving away from a -still slave-holding America. From that date, 1821, onwards to the -present day, negroes and mulattos--freed slaves or the descendants of -such--have been crossing the Atlantic in small numbers to settle on the -Liberian coast. The great migrations took place during the first half of -the 19th century. Only two or three thousand American emigrants--at -most--have come to Liberia since 1860. - -The colony was really founded by Jehudi Ashmun, a white American, -between 1822 and 1828. The name "Liberia" was invented by the Rev. R. R. -Gurley in 1824. In 1847 the American colonists declared their country to -be an independent republic, and its status in this capacity was -recognized in 1848-1849 by most of the great powers with the exception -of the United States. Until 1857 Liberia consisted of two -republics--Liberia and Maryland. These American settlements were dotted -at intervals along the coast from the mouth of the Sewa river on the -west to the San Pedro river on the east (some 60 m. beyond Cape Palmas). -Some tracts of territory, such as the greater part of the Kru coast, -still, however, remain without foreign--American--settlers, and in a -state of quasi-independence. The uncertainty of Liberian occupation led -to frontier troubles with Great Britain and disputes with France. -Finally, by the English and French treaties of 1885 and 1892 Liberian -territory on the coast was made continuous, but was limited to the strip -of about 300 m. between the Mano river on the west and the Cavalla river -on the east. The Sierra Leone-Liberia frontier was demarcated in 1903; -then followed the negotiations with France for the exact delimitation of -the Ivory Coast-Liberia frontier, with the result that Liberia lost part -of the hinterland she had claimed. Reports of territorial encroachments -aroused much sympathy with Liberia in America and led in February 1909 -to the appointment by President Roosevelt of a commission which visited -Liberia in the summer of that year to investigate the condition of the -country. As a result of the commissioners' report negotiations were set -on foot for the adjustment of the Liberian debt and the placing of -United States officials in charge of the Liberian customs. In July 1910 -it was announced that the American government, acting in general -agreement with Great Britain, France and Germany, would take charge of -the finances, military organization, agriculture and boundary questions -of the republic. A loan for L400,000 was also arranged. Meantime the -attempts of the Liberian government to control the Kru coast led to -various troubles, such as the fining or firing upon foreign steamships -for alleged contraventions of regulations. During 1910 the natives in -the Cape Palmas district were at open warfare with the Liberian -authorities. - -One of the most notable of the Liberian presidents was J. J. Roberts, -who was nearly white, with only a small proportion of negro blood in his -veins. But perhaps the ablest statesman that this American-Negro -republic has as yet produced is a pure-blooded negro--President Arthur -Barclay, a native of Barbados in the West Indies, who came to Liberia -with his parents in the middle of the 19th century, and received all his -education there. President Barclay was of unmixed negro descent, but -came of a Dahomey stock of superior type.[1] Until the accession to -power of President Barclay in 1904 (he was re-elected in 1907), the -Americo-Liberian government on the coast had very uncertain relations -with the indigenous population, which is well armed and tenacious of -local independence. But of late Liberian influence has been extending, -more especially in the counties of Maryland and Montserrado. - -The president is now elected for a term of four years. There is a -legislature of eight senators and thirteen representatives. The type of -the constitution is very like that of the United States. Increasing -attention is being given to education, to deal with which there are -several colleges and a number of schools. The judicial functions are -discharged by four grades of officials--the local magistrates, the -courts of common pleas, the quarterly courts (five in number) and the -supreme court. - -The customs service includes British customs officers lent to the -Liberian service. A gunboat for preventive service purchased from the -British government and commanded by an Englishman, with native petty -officers and crew, is employed by the Liberian government. The language -of government and trade is English, which is understood far and wide -throughout Liberia. As the origin of the Sierra Leonis and the -Americo-Liberian settlers was very much the same, an increasing intimacy -is growing up between the English-speaking populations of these -adjoining countries. Order is maintained in Liberia to some extent by a -militia. - -The population of Americo-Liberian origin in the coast regions is -estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000. To these must be added about 40,000 -civilized and Christianized negroes who make common cause with the -Liberians in most matters, and have gradually been filling the position -of Liberian citizens. - -For administrative purposes the country is divided into four counties, -Montserrado, Basa, Sino and Maryland, but Cape Mount in the far west and -the district round it has almost the status of a fifth county. The -approximate revenue for 1906 was L65,000, and the expenditure about -L60,000, but some of the revenue was still collected in paper of -uncertain value. There are three custom-houses, or ports of entry on the -Sierra Leone land frontier between the Moa river on the north and the -Mano on the south, and nine ports of entry along the coast. At all of -these Europeans are allowed to settle and trade, and with very slight -restrictions they may now trade almost anywhere in Liberia. The rubber -trade is controlled by the Liberian Rubber Corporation, which holds a -special concession from the Liberian government for a number of years, -and is charged with the preservation of the forests. Another English -company has constructed motor roads in the Liberian hinterland to -connect centres of trade with the St Paul's river. The trade is done -almost entirely with Great Britain, Germany and Holland, but friendly -relations are maintained with Spain, as the Spanish plantations in -Fernando Po are to a great extent worked by Liberian labour. - -The indigenous population must be considered one of the assets of -Liberia. The native population--apart from the American element--is -estimated at as much as 2,000,000; for although large areas appear to -be uninhabited forest, other parts are most densely populated, owing to -the wonderful fertility of the soil. The native tribes belong more or -less to the following divisions, commencing on the west, and proceeding -eastwards: (1) Vai, Gbandi, Kpwesi, Mende, Buzi and Mandingo (the Vai, -Mende and Mandingo are Mahommedans); all these tribes speak languages -derived from a common stock. (2) In the densest forest region between -the Mano and the St Paul's river is the powerful Gora tribe of unknown -linguistic affinities. (3) In the coast region between the St Paul's -river and the Cavalla (and beyond) are the different tribes of Kru stock -and language family--De, Basa, Gibi, Kru, Grebo, Putu, Sikon, &c. &c. -The actual Kru tribe inhabits the coast between the river Cestos on the -west and Grand Sesters on the east. It is known all over the Atlantic -coasts of Africa, as it furnishes such a large proportion of the seamen -employed on men-of-war and merchant ships in these tropical waters. Many -of the indigenous races of Liberia in the forest belt beyond 40 m. from -the coast still practise cannibalism. In some of these forest tribes the -women still go quite naked, but clothes of a Mahommedan type are fast -spreading over the whole country. Some of the indigenous races are of -very fine physique. In the Nidi country the women are generally taller -than the men. No traces of a Pygmy race have as yet been discovered, nor -any negroes of low physiognomy. Some of the Krumen are coarse and ugly, -and this is the case with the Mende people; but as a rule the indigenes -of Liberia are handsome, well-proportioned negroes, and some of the -Mandingos have an almost European cast of feature. - - AUTHORITIES.--Col. Wauwerman, _Liberia; Histoire de la fondation d'un - etat negre_ (Brussels, 1885); J. Buttikofer, _Reisebilder aus Liberia_ - (Leiden, 1890); Sir Harry Johnston, _Liberia_ (2 vols., London, 1906), - with full bibliography; Maurice Delafosse, _Vocabulaires comparatifs - de plus de 60 langues et dialectes parles a la Cote d'Ivoire et dans - la region limitrophe_ (1904), a work which, though it professes to - deal mainly with philology, throws a wonderful light on the - relationships and history of the native tribes of Liberia. - (H. H. J.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Amongst other remarkable negroes that Liberian education produced - was Dr E. W. Blyden (b. 1832), the author of many works dealing with - negro questions. - - - - -LIBERIUS, pope from 352 to 366, the successor of Julius I., was -consecrated according to the _Catalogus Liberianus_ on the 22nd of May. -His first recorded act was, after a synod had been held at Rome, to -write to Constantius, then in quarters at Arles (353-354), asking that a -council might be called at Aquileia with reference to the affairs of -Athanasius; but his messenger Vincentius of Capua was compelled by the -emperor at a conciliabulum held in Arles to subscribe against his will a -condemnation of the orthodox patriarch of Alexandria. In 355 Liberius -was one of the few who, along with Eusebius of Vercelli, Dionysius of -Milan and Lucifer of Cagliari, refused to sign the condemnation of -Athanasius, which had anew been imposed at Milan by imperial command -upon all the Western bishops; the consequence was his relegation to -Beroea in Thrace, Felix II. (antipope) being consecrated his successor -by three "catascopi haud episcopi," as Athanasius called them. At the -end of an exile of more than two years he yielded so far as to subscribe -a formula giving up the "homoousios," to abandon Athanasius, and to -accept the communion of his adversaries--a serious mistake, with which -he has justly been reproached. This submission led the emperor to recall -him from exile; but, as the Roman see was officially occupied by Felix, -a year passed before Liberius was sent to Rome. It was the emperor's -intention that Liberius should govern the Church jointly with Felix, but -on the arrival of Liberius, Felix was expelled by the Roman people. -Neither Liberius nor Felix took part in the council of Rimini (359). -After the death of the emperor Constantius in 361, Liberius annulled the -decrees of that assembly, but, with the concurrence of SS. Athanasius -and Hilarius, retained the bishops who had signed and then withdrawn -their adherence. In 366 Liberius gave a favourable reception to a -deputation of the Eastern episcopate, and admitted into his communion -the more moderate of the old Arian party. He died on the 24th of -September 366. - - His biographers used to be perplexed by a letter purporting to be from - Liberius, in the works of Hilary, in which he seems to write, in 352, - that he had excommunicated Athanasius at the instance of the Oriental - bishops; but the document is now held to be spurious. See Hefele, - _Conciliengesch_. i. 648 seq. Three other letters, though contested by - Hefele, seem to have been written by Liberius at the time of his - submission to the emperor. (L. D.*) - - - - -LIBER PONTIFICALIS, or GESTA PONTIFICUM ROMANORUM (i.e. book of the -popes), consists of the lives of the bishops of Rome from the time of St -Peter to the death of Nicholas I. in 867. A supplement continues the -series of lives almost to the close of the 9th century, and several -other continuations were written later. During the 16th century there -was some discussion about the authorship of the _Liber_, and for some -time it was thought to be the work of an Italian monk, Anastasius -Bibliothecarius (d. 886). It is now, however, practically certain that -it was of composite authorship and that the earlier part of it was -compiled about 530, three centuries before the time of Anastasius. This -is the view taken by Louis Duchesne and substantially by G. Waitz and T. -Mommsen, although these scholars think that it was written about a -century later. The _Liber_ contains much information about papal affairs -in general, and about endowments, martyrdoms and the like, but a -considerable part of it is obviously legendary. It assumes that the -bishops of Rome exercised authority over the Christian Church from its -earliest days. - - _The Liber_, which was used by Bede for his _Historia Ecclesiastica_, - was first printed at Mainz in 1602. Among other editions is the one - edited by T. Mommsen for the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Gesta - Romanorum pontificum_, Band i., but the best is the one by L. - Duchesne, _Le Liber pontificalis: texte, introduction, commentaire_ - (Paris, 1884-1892). See also the same writer's _Etude sur le Liber - pontificalis_ (Paris, 1877); and the article by A. Brackmann in - Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, Band xi. (Leipzig, 1902). - - - - -LIBERTAD, or LA LIBERTAD, a coast department of Peru, bounded N. by -Lambayeque and Cajamarca, E. by San Martin, S. by Ancachs, S.W. and W. -by the Pacific. Pop. (1906 estimate) 188,200; area 10,209 sq. m. -Libertad formerly included the present department of Lambayeque. The -Western Cordillera divides it into two nearly equal parts; the western -consisting of a narrow, arid, sandy coast zone and the western slopes of -the Cordillera broken into valleys by short mountain spurs, and the -eastern a high inter-Andine valley lying between the Western and Central -Cordilleras and traversed by the upper Maranon or Amazon, which at one -point is less than 90 m. in a straight line from the Pacific coast. The -coast region is traversed by several short streams, which are fed by the -melting snows of the Cordillera and are extensively used for irrigation. -These are (the names also applying to their valleys) the Jequetepeque or -Pacasmayo, in whose valley rice is an important product, the Chicama, in -whose valley the sugar plantations are among the largest and best in -Peru, the Moche, Viru, Chao and Santa; the last, with its northern -tributary, the Tablachaca, forming the southern boundary line of the -department. The Santa Valley is also noted for its sugar plantations. -Cotton is produced in several of these valleys, coffee in the Pacasmayo -district, and coca on the mountain slopes about Huamachuco and Otuzco, -at elevations of 3000 to 6000 ft. above sea-level. The upland regions, -which have a moderate rainfall and a cool, healthy climate, are partly -devoted to agriculture on a small scale (producing wheat, Indian corn, -barley, potatoes, quinua, alfalfa, fruit and vegetables), partly to -grazing and partly to mining. Cattle and sheep have been raised on the -upland pastures of Libertad and Ancachs since early colonial times, and -the llama and alpaca were reared throughout this "sierra" country long -before the Spanish conquest. Gold and silver mines are worked in the -districts of Huamachuco, Otuzco and Pataz, and coal has been found in -the first two. The department had 169 m. of railway in 1906, viz.: from -Pacasmayo to Yonan (in Cajamarca) with a branch to Guadalupe, 60 m.; -from Salaverry to Trujillo with its extension to Ascope, 47 m.; from -Trujillo to Laredo, Galindo and Menocucho, 18(1/2) m.; from Huanchaco to -Roma, 25 m.; and from Chicama to Pampas, 18(1/2) m. The principal ports -are Pacasmayo and Salaverry, which have long iron piers built by the -national government; Malabrigo, Huanchuco, Guanape and Chao are open -roadsteads. The capital of the department is Trujillo. The other -principal towns are San Pedro, Otuzco, Huamachuco, Santiago de Chuco -and Tuyabamba--all provincial capitals and important only through their -mining interests, except San Pedro, which stands in the fertile district -of the Jequetepeque. The population of Otuzco (35 m. N.E. of Trujillo) -was estimated to be about 4000 in 1896, that of Huamachuco (65 m. N.E. -of Trujillo) being perhaps slightly less. - - - - -LIBERTARIANISM (from Lat. _libertas_, freedom), in ethics, the doctrine -which maintains the freedom of the will, as opposed to necessitarianism -or determinism. It has been held in various forms. In its extreme form -it maintains that the individual is absolutely free to chose this or -that action indifferently (the _liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_), but -most libertarians admit that acquired tendencies, environment and the -like, exercise control in a greater or less degree. - - - - -LIBERTINES, the nickname, rather than the name, given to various -political and social parties. It is futile to deduce the name from the -Libertines of Acts vi. 9; these were "sons of freedmen," for it is vain -to make them citizens of an imaginary Libertum, or to substitute (with -Beza) Libustines, in the sense of inhabitants of Libya. In a sense akin -to the modern use of the term "libertine," i.e. a person who sets the -rules of morality, &c., at defiance, the word seems first to have been -applied, as a stigma, to Anabaptists in the Low Countries (Mark -Pattison, _Essays_, ii. 38). It has become especially attached to the -liberal party in Geneva, opposed to Calvin and carrying on the tradition -of the Liberators in that city; but the term was never applied to them -till after Calvin's death (F. W. Kampschulte, _Johann Calvin_). Calvin, -who wrote against the "Libertins qui se nomment Spirituelz" (1545), -never confused them with his political antagonists in Geneva, called -Perrinistes from their leader Amadeo Perrin. The objects of Calvin's -polemic were the Anabaptists above mentioned, whose first obscure leader -was Coppin of Lisle, followed by Quintin of Hennegau, by whom and his -disciples, Bertram des Moulins and Claude Perseval, the principles of -the sect were disseminated in France. Quintin was put to death as a -heretic at Tournai in 1546. His most notable follower was Antoine -Pocquet, a native of Enghien, Belgium, priest and almoner (1540-1549), -afterwards pensioner of the queen of Navarre, who was a guest of Bucer -at Strassburg (1543-1544) and died some time after 1560. Calvin (who had -met Quintin in Paris) describes the doctrines he impugns as pantheistic -and antinomian. - - See Choisy in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1902). (A. Go.*) - - - - -LIBERTINES, SYNAGOGUE OF THE, a section of the Hellenistic Jews who -attacked Stephen (Acts vi. 9). The passage reads, [Greek: tines ton ek -tes sunagoges tes legomenes Libertinon, kai Kurenaion kai Alexandreon, -kai ton apo Kilikias kai Asias], and opinion is divided as to the number -of synagogues here named. The probability is that there are three, -corresponding to the geographical regions involved, (1) Rome and Italy, -(2) N.E. Africa, (3) Asia Minor. In this case "the Synagogue of the -Libertines" is the assembly of "the Freedmen" from Rome, descendants of -the Jews enslaved by Pompey after his conquest of Judaea 63 B.C. If, -however, we take [Greek: Libertinon kai Kurenaion kai Alexandreon] -closely together, the first name must denote the people of some city or -district. The obscure town Libertum (inferred from the title Episcopus -Libertinensis in connexion with the synod of Carthage, A.D. 411) is less -likely than the reading ([Greek: Libuon] or) [Greek: Libustinon] -underlying certain Armenian versions and Syriac commentaries. The Greek -towns lying west from Cyrene would naturally be called Libyan. In any -case the interesting point is that these returned Jews, instead of being -liberalized by their residence abroad, were more tenacious of Judaism -and more bitter against Stephen than those who had never left Judaea. - - - - -LIBERTY (Lat. _libertas_, from _liber_, free), generally the state of -freedom, especially opposed to subjection, imprisonment or slavery, or -with such restricted or figurative meaning as the circumstances imply. -The history of political liberty is in modern days identified -practically with the progress of civilization. In a more particular -sense, "a liberty" is the term for a franchise, a privilege or branch of -the crown's prerogative granted to a subject, as, for example, that of -executing legal process; hence the district over which the privilege -extends. Such liberties are exempt from the jurisdiction of the sheriff -and have separate commissions of the peace, but for purposes of local -government form part of the county in which they are situated. The -exemption from the jurisdiction of the sheriff was recognized in England -by the Sheriffs Act 1887, which provides that the sheriff of a county -shall appoint a deputy at the expense of the lord of the liberty, such -deputy to reside in or near the liberty. The deputy receives and opens -in the sheriff's name all writs, the return or execution of which -belongs to the bailiff of the liberty, and issues to the bailiff the -warrant required for the due execution of such writs. The bailiff then -becomes liable for non-execution, mis-execution or insufficient return -of any writs, and in the case of non-return of any writ, if the sheriff -returns that he has delivered the writ to a bailiff of a liberty, the -sheriff will be ordered to execute the writ notwithstanding the liberty, -and must cause the bailiff to attend before the high court of justice -and answer why he did not execute the writ. - -In nautical phraseology various usages of the term are derived from its -association with a sailor's leave on shore, e.g. liberty-man, -liberty-day, liberty-ticket. - - _A History of Modern Liberty_, in eight volumes, of which the third - appeared in 1906, has been written by James Mackinnon; see also Lord - Acton's lectures, and such works as J. S. Mill's _On Liberty_ and Sir - John Seeley's _Introduction to Political Science_. - - - - -LIBERTY PARTY, the first political party organized in the United States -to oppose the spread and restrict the political power of slavery, and -the lineal precursor of the Free Soil and Republican parties. It -originated in the Old North-west. Its organization was preceded there by -a long anti-slavery religious movement. James G. Birney (q.v.), to whom -more than to any other man belongs the honour of founding and leading -the party, began to define the political duties of so-called -"abolitionists" about 1836; but for several years thereafter he, in -common with other leaders, continued to disclaim all idea of forming a -political party. In state and local campaigns, however, non-partisan -political action was attempted through the questioning of Whig and -Democratic candidates. The utter futility of seeking to obtain in this -way any satisfactory concessions to anti-slavery sentiment was speedily -and abundantly proved. There arose, consequently, a division in the -American Anti-slavery Society between those who were led by W. L. -Garrison (q.v.), and advocated political non-resistance--and, besides, -had loaded down their anti-slavery views with a variety of religious and -social vagaries, unpalatable to all but a small number--and those who -were led by Birney, and advocated independent political action. The -sentiment of the great majority of "abolitionists" was, by 1838, -strongly for such action; and it was clearly sanctioned and implied in -the constitution and declared principles of the Anti-slavery Society; -but the capture of that organization by the Garrisonians, in a "packed" -convention in 1830, made it unavailable as a party nucleus--even if it -had not been already outgrown--and hastened a separate party -organization. A convention of abolitionists at Warsaw, New York, in -November 1839 had resolved that abolitionists were bound by every -consideration of duty and expediency to organize an independent -political party. Accordingly, the political abolitionists, in another -convention at Albany, in April 1840, containing delegates from six -states but not one from the North-west, launched the "Liberty Party," -and nominated Birney for the presidency. In the November election he -received 7069 votes.[1] - -The political "abolitionists" were abolitionists only as they were -restrictionists: they wished to use the federal government to exclude -(or abolish) slavery from the federal Territories and the District of -Columbia, but they saw no opportunity to attack slavery in the -states--i.e. to attack the institution _per se_; also they declared -there should be "absolute and unqualified division of the General -Government from slavery"--which implied an amendment of the -constitution. They proposed to use ordinary moral and political means to -attain their ends--not, like the Garrisonians, to abstain from voting, -or favour the dissolution of the Union. - -After 1840 the attempt began in earnest to organize the Liberty Party -thoroughly, and unite all anti-slavery men. The North-west, where "there -was, after 1840, very little known of Garrison and his methods" (T. C. -Smith), was the most promising field, but though the contest of state -and local campaigns gave morale to the party, it made scant political -gains (in 1843 it cast hardly 10% of the total vote); it could not -convince the people that slavery should be made the paramount question -in politics. In 1844, however, the Texas question gave slavery precisely -this pre-eminence in the presidential campaign. Until then, neither -Whigs nor Democrats had regarded the Liberty Party seriously; now, -however, each party charged that the Liberty movement was corruptly -auxiliary to the other. As the campaign progressed, the Whigs -alternately abused the Liberty men and made frantic appeals for their -support. But the Liberty men were strongly opposed to Clay personally; -and even if his equivocal campaign letters (see CLAY, HENRY) had not -left exceedingly small ground for belief that he would resist the -annexation of Texas, still the Liberty men were not such as to admit -that an end justifies the means; therefore they again nominated Birney. -He received 62,263 votes[2]--many more than enough in New York to have -carried that state and the presidency for Clay, had they been thrown to -his support. The Whigs, therefore, blamed the Liberty Party for -Democratic success and the annexation of Texas; but--quite apart from -the issue of political ethics--it is almost certain that though Clay's -chances were injured by the Liberty ticket, they were injured much more -outside the Liberty ranks, by his own quibbles.[3] After 1844 the -Liberty Party made little progress. Its leaders were never very strong -as politicians, and its ablest organizer, Birney, was about this time -compelled by an accident to abandon public life. Moreover, the election -of 1844 was in a way fatal to the party; for it seemed to prove that -though "abolition" was not the party programme, still its antecedents -and personnel were too radical to unite the North; and above all it -could not, after 1844, draw the disaffected Whigs, for though their -party was steadily moving toward anti-slavery their dislike of the -Liberty Party effectually prevented union. Indeed, no party of one idea -could hope to satisfy men who had been Whigs or Democrats. At the same -time, anti-slavery Whigs and Democrats were segregating in state -politics, and the issue of excluding slavery from the new territory -acquired from Mexico afforded a golden opportunity to unite all -anti-slavery men on the principle of the Wilmot Proviso (1846). The -Liberty Party reached its greatest strength (casting 74,017 votes) in -the state elections of 1846. Thereafter, though growing somewhat in New -England, it rapidly became ineffective in the rest of the North. Many, -including Birney, thought it should cease to be an isolated party of one -idea--striving for mere balance of power between Whigs and Democrats, -welcoming small concessions from them, almost dependent upon them. Some -wished to revivify it by making it a party of general reform. One result -was the secession and formation of the Liberty League, which in 1847 -nominated Gerrit Smith for the presidency. No adequate effort was made -to take advantage of the disintegration of other parties. In October -1847, at Buffalo, was held the third and last national convention. John -P. Hale--whose election to the United States Senate had justified the -first successful union of Liberty men with other anti-slavery men in -state politics--was nominated for the presidency. But the nomination by -the Democrats of Lewis Cass shattered the Democratic organization in New -York and the North-west; and when the Whigs nominated General Taylor, -adopted a non-committal platform, and showed hostility to the Wilmot -Proviso, the way was cleared for a union of all anti-slavery men. The -Liberty Party, abandoning therefore its independent nominations, joined -in the first convention and nominations of the Free Soil Party (q.v.), -thereby practically losing its identity, although it continued until -after the organization of the Republican Party to maintain something of -a semi-independent organization. The Liberty Party has the unique honour -among third-parties in the United States of seeing its principles -rapidly adopted and realized. - - See T. C. Smith, _History of the Liberty and Free Soil Parties in the - Northwest_ (Harvard University Historical Studies, New York, 1897), - and lives and writings of all the public men mentioned above; also of - G. W. Julian, J. R. Giddings and S. P. Chase. - - - - -LIBITINA, an old Roman goddess of funerals. She had a sanctuary in a -sacred grove (perhaps on the Esquiline), where, by an ordinance of -Servius Tullius, a piece of money (_lucar Libitinae_) was deposited -whenever a death took place. Here the undertakers (_libitinarii_), who -carried out all funeral arrangements by contract, had their offices, and -everything necessary was kept for sale or hire; here all deaths were -registered for statistical purposes. The word _Libitina_ then came to be -used for the business of an undertaker, funeral requisites, and (in the -poets) for death itself. By later antiquarians Libitina was sometimes -identified with Persephone, but more commonly (partly or completely) -with Venus Lubentia or Lubentina, an Italian goddess of gardens. The -similarity of name and the fact that Venus Lubentia had a sanctuary in -the grove of Libitina favoured this idea. Further, Plutarch (_Quaest. -Rom._ 23) mentions a small statue at Delphi of Aphrodite Epitymbia (A. -of tombs = Venus Libitina), to which the spirits of the dead were -summoned. The inconsistency of selling funeral requisites in the temple -of Libitina, seeing that she is identified with Venus, is explained by -him as indicating that one and the same goddess presides over birth and -death; or the association of such things with the goddess of love and -pleasure is intended to show that death is not a calamity, but rather a -consummation to be desired. Libitina may, however, have been originally -an earth goddess, connected with luxuriant nature and the enjoyments of -life (cf. _lub-et_, _lib-ido_); then, all such deities being connected -with the underworld, she also became the goddess of death, and that side -of her character predominated in the later conceptions. - - See Plutarch, _Numa_, 12; Dion. Halic. iv. 15; Festus xvi., s.v. - "Rustica Vinalia"; Juvenal xii. 121, with Mayor's note; G. Wissowa in - Roscher's _Lexicon der Mythologie_, s.v. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Mr T. C. Smith estimates that probably not one in ten of even - professed abolitionists supported Birney; only in Massachusetts did - he receive as much as 1% of the total vote cast. - - [2] Birney's vote was reduced by a disgraceful election trick by the - Whigs (the circulation of a forged letter on the eve of the - election); a trick to which he had exposed himself by an ingenuously - honest reception of Democratic advances in a matter of local - good-government in Michigan. - - [3] E.g. Horace Greeley made the Whig charge; but in later life he - repeatedly attributed Clay's defeat simply to Clay's own letters; and - for Millard Fillmore's important opinion see footnote to KNOW NOTHING - PARTY. - - - - -LIBMANAN, a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, Philippine -Islands, on the Libmanan river, 11 m. N.W. of Nueva Caceres, the -capital. Pop. (1903) 17,416. It is about 4(1/2) m. N.E. of the Bay of -San Miguel. Rice, coco-nuts, hemp, Indian corn, sugarcane, bejuco, arica -nuts and camotes, are grown in the vicinity, and the manufactures -include hemp goods, alcohol (from coco-nut-palm sap), copra, and -baskets, chairs, hammocks and hats of bejuco and bamboo. The Libmanan -river, a tributary of the Bicol, into which it empties 2 m. below the -town, is famous for its clear cold water and for its sulphur springs. -The language is Bicol. - - - - -LIBO, in ancient Rome, the name of a family belonging to the Scribonian -gens. It is chiefly interesting for its connexion with the Puteal -Scribonianum or Puteal Libonis in the forum at Rome,[1] dedicated or -restored by one of its members, perhaps the praetor of 204 B.C., or the -tribune of the people in 149. In its vicinity the praetor's tribunal, -removed from the comitium in the 2nd century B.C., held its sittings, -which led to the place becoming the haunt of litigants, money-lenders -and business people. According to ancient authorities, the Puteal -Libonis was between the temples of Castor and Vesta, near the Porticus -Julia and the Arcus Fabiorum, but no remains have been discovered. The -idea that an irregular circle of travertine blocks, found near the -temple of Castor, formed part of the puteal is now abandoned. - - See Horace, _Sat._ ii. 6. 35, _Epp._ i. 19. 8; Cicero, _Pro Sestio_, - 8; for the well-known coin of L. Scribonius Libo, representing the - puteal of Libo, which rather resembles a _cippus_ (sepulchral - monument) or an altar, with laurel wreaths, two lyres and a pair of - pincers or tongs below the wreaths (perhaps symbolical of Vulcanus as - forger of lightning), see C. Hulsen, _The Roman Forum_ (Eng. trans. by - J. B. Carter, 1906), p. 150, where a marble imitation found at Veii is - also given. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Puteal_ was the name given to an erection (or enclosure) on a - spot which had been struck by lightning; it was so called from its - resemblance to the stone kerb or low enclosure round a well - (_puteus_). - - - - -LIBON, a Greek architect, born at Elis, who was employed to build the -great temple of Zeus at Olympia (q.v.) about 460 B.C. (Pausanias v. 10. -3). - - - - -LIBOURNE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement -of the department of Gironde, situated at the confluence of the Isle -with the Dordogne, 22 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux on the railway to Angouleme. -Pop. (1906) town, 15,280; commune, 19,323. The sea is 56 m. distant, but -the tide affects the river so as to admit of vessels drawing 14 ft. -reaching the town at the highest tides. The Dordogne is here crossed by -a stone bridge 492 ft. long, and a suspension bridge across the Isle -connects Libourne with Fronsac, built on a hill on which in feudal times -stood a powerful fortress. Libourne is regularly built. The Gothic -church, restored in the 19th century, has a stone spire 232 ft. high. On -the quay there is a machicolated clock-tower which is a survival of the -ramparts of the 14th century; and the town-house, containing a small -museum and a library, is a quaint relic of the 16th century. There is a -statue of the Duc Decazes, who was born in the neighbourhood. The -sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and a -communal college are among the public institutions. The principal -articles of commerce are the wines and brandies of the district. -Printing and cooperage are among the industries. - -Like other sites at the confluence of important rivers, that of Libourne -was appropriated at an early period. Under the Romans _Condate_ stood -rather more than a mile to the south of the present Libourne; it was -destroyed during the troubles of the 5th century. Resuscitated by -Charlemagne, it was rebuilt in 1269, under its present name and on the -site and plan it still retains, by Roger de Leybourne (of Leybourne in -Kent), seneschal of Guienne, acting under the authority of King Edward -I. of England. It suffered considerably in the struggles of the French -and English for the possession of Guienne in the 14th century. - - See R. Guinodie, _Hist. de Libourne_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Libourne, - 1876-1877). - - - - -LIBRA ("THE BALANCE"), in astronomy, the 7th sign of the zodiac (q.v.), -denoted by the symbol [symbol], resembling a pair of scales, probably in -allusion to the fact that when the sun enters this part of the ecliptic, -at the autumnal equinox, the days and nights are equal. It is also a -constellation, not mentioned by Eudoxus or Aratus, but by Manetho (3rd -century B.C.) and Geminus (1st century B.C.), and included by Ptolemy in -his 48 asterisms; Ptolemy catalogued 17 stars, Tycho Brahe 10, and -Hevelius 20. [delta] _Librae_ is an Algol (q.v.) variable, the range of -magnitude being 5.0 to 6.2, and the period 2 days 7 hrs. 51 min.; and -the cluster _M. 5 Librae_ is a faint globular cluster of which only -about one star in eleven is variable. - - - - -LIBRARIES. A library (from Lat. _liber_, book), in the modern sense, is -a collection of printed or written literature. As such, it implies an -advanced and elaborate civilization. If the term be extended to any -considerable collection of written documents, it must be nearly as old -as civilization itself. The earliest use to which the invention of -inscribed or written signs was put was probably to record important -religious and political transactions. These records would naturally be -preserved in sacred places, and accordingly the earliest libraries of -the world were probably temples, and the earliest librarians priests. -And indeed before the extension of the arts of writing and reading the -priests were the only persons who could perform such work as, e.g. the -compilation of the _Annales Maximi_, which was the duty of the -pontifices in ancient Rome. The beginnings of literature proper in the -shape of ballads and songs may have continued to be conveyed orally only -from one generation to another, long after the record of important -religious or civil events was regularly committed to writing. The -earliest collections of which we know anything, therefore, were -collections of archives. Of this character appear to have been such -famous collections as that of the Medians at Ecbatana, the Persians at -Susa or the hieroglyphic archives of Knossos discovered by A. J. Evans -(_Scripta Minoa_, 1909) of a date synchronizing with the XIIth Egyptian -dynasty. It is not until the development of arts and sciences, and the -growth of a considerable written literature, and even of a distinct -literary class, that we find collections of books which can be called -libraries in our modern sense. It is of libraries in the modern sense, -and not, except incidentally, of archives that we are to speak. - - -ANCIENT LIBRARIES - - Assyria. - -The researches which have followed the discoveries of P. E. Botta and -Sir H. Layard have thrown unexpected light not only upon the history but -upon the arts, the sciences and the literatures of the ancient -civilizations of Babylonia and Assyria. In all these wondrous -revelations no facts are more interesting than those which show the -existence of extensive libraries so many ages ago, and none are more -eloquent of the elaborateness of these forgotten civilizations. In the -course of his excavations at Nineveh in 1850, Layard came upon some -chambers in the south-west palace, the floor of which, as well as the -adjoining rooms, was covered to the depth of a foot with tablets of -clay, covered with cuneiform characters, in many cases so small as to -require a magnifying glass. These varied in size from 1 to 12 in. -square. A great number of them were broken, as Layard supposed by the -falling in of the roof, but as George Smith thought by having fallen -from the upper storey, upon which he believed the collection to have -been placed. These tablets formed the library of the great monarch -Assur-bani-pal--the Sardanapalus of the Greeks--the greatest patron of -literature amongst the Assyrians. It is estimated that this library -consisted of some ten thousand distinct works and documents, some of the -works extending over several tablets. The tablets appear to have been -methodically arranged and catalogued, and the library seems to have been -thrown open for the general use of the king's subjects.[1] A great -portion of this library has already been brought to England and -deposited in the British museum, but it is calculated that there still -remain some 20,000 fragments to be gathered up. For further details as -to Assyrian libraries, and the still earlier Babylonian libraries at -Tello, the ancient Lagash, and at Niffer, the ancient Nippur, from which -the Assyrians drew their science and literature, see BABYLONIA and -NIPPUR. - - - Ancient Egyptian Libraries. - -Of the libraries of ancient Egypt our knowledge is scattered and -imperfect, but at a time extending to more than 6000 years ago we find -numerous scribes of many classes who recorded official events in the -life of their royal masters or details of their domestic affairs and -business transactions. Besides this official literature we possess -examples of many commentaries on the sacerdotal books, as well as -historical treatises, works on moral philosophy and proverbial wisdom, -science, collections of medical receipts as well as a great variety of -popular novels and humoristic pieces. At an early date Heliopolis was a -literary centre of great importance with culture akin to the Babylonian. -Attached to every temple were professional scribes whose function was -partly religious and partly scientific. The sacred books of Thoth -constituted as it were a complete encyclopaedia of religion and science, -and on these books was gradually accumulated an immense mass of -exposition and commentary. We possess a record relating to "the land of -the collected works [library] of Khufu," a monarch of the IVth dynasty, -and a similar inscription relating to the library of Khafra, the builder -of the second pyramid. At Edfu the library was a small chamber in the -temple, on the wall of which is a list of books, among them a manual of -Egyptian geography (Brugsch, _History of Egypt_, 1881, i. 240). The -exact position of Akhenaten's library (or archives) of clay tablets is -known and the name of the room has been read on the books of which it -has been built. A library of charred books has been found at Mendes -(Egypt Expl. Fund, _Two Hieroglyphic Papyri_), and we have references to -temple libraries in the Silsileh "Nile" stelae and perhaps in the great -Harris papyri. The most famous of the Egyptian libraries is that of King -Osymandyas, described by Diodorus Siculus, who relates that it bore an -inscription which he renders by the Greek words [Greek: PSUCHES -IATREION] "the Dispensary of the Soul." Osymandyas has been identified -with the great king Rameses II. (1300-1236 B.C.) and the seat of the -library is supposed to have been the Ramessaeum at Western Thebes. -Amen-em-hant was the name of one of the directors of the Theban -libraries. Papyri from the palace, of a later date, have been discovered -by Professor W. F. Flinders Petrie. At Thebes the scribes of the -"Foreign Office" are depicted at work in a room which was perhaps rather -an office than a library. The famous Tel-el-Amarna tablets (1383-1365 -B.C.) were stored in "the place of the records of the King." There were -record offices attached to the granary and treasury departments and we -know of a school or college for the reproduction of books, which were -kept in boxes and in jars. According to Eustathius there was a great -collection at Memphis. A heavy blow was dealt to the old Egyptian -literature by the Persian invasion, and many books were carried away by -the conquerors. The Egyptians were only delivered from the yoke of -Persia to succumb to that of Greece and Rome and henceforward their -civilization was dominated by foreign influences. Of the Greek libraries -under the Ptolemies we shall speak a little further on. - - - Greece. - - Alexandria. - -Of the libraries of ancient Greece we have very little knowledge, and -such knowledge as we possess comes to us for the most part from late -compilers. Amongst those who are known to have collected books are -Pisistratus, Polycrates of Samos, Euclid the Athenian, Nicocrates of -Cyprus, Euripides and Aristotle (Athenaeus i. 4). At Cnidus there is -said to have been a special collection of works upon medicine. -Pisistratus is reported to have been the first of the Greeks who -collected books on a large scale. Aulus Gellius, indeed, tells us, in -language perhaps "not well suited to the 6th century B.C.,"[2] that he -was the first to establish a public library. The authority of Aulus -Gellius is hardly sufficient to secure credit for the story that this -library was carried away into Persia by Xerxes and subsequently restored -to the Athenians by Seleucus Nicator. Plato is known to have been a -collector; and Xenophon tells us of the library of Euthydemus. The -library of Aristotle was bequeathed by him to his disciple Theophrastus, -and by Theophrastus to Neleus, who carried it to Scepsis, where it is -said to have been concealed underground to avoid the literary cupidity -of the kings of Pergamum. Its subsequent fate has given rise to much -controversy, but, according to Strabo (xiii. pp. 608, 609), it was sold -to Apellicon of Teos, who carried it to Athens, where after Apellicon's -death it fell a prey to the conqueror Sulla, and was transported by him -to Rome. The story told by Athenaeus (i. 4) is that the library of -Neleus was purchased by Ptolemy Philadelphus. The names of a few other -libraries in Greece are barely known to us from inscriptions; of their -character and contents we know nothing. If, indeed, we are to trust -Strabo entirely, we must believe that Aristotle was the first person who -collected a library, and that he communicated the taste for collecting -to the sovereigns of Egypt. It is at all events certain that the -libraries of Alexandria were the most important as they were the most -celebrated of the ancient world. Under the enlightened rule of the -Ptolemies a society of scholars and men of science was attracted to -their capital. It seems pretty certain that Ptolemy Soter had already -begun to collect books, but it was in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus -that the libraries were properly organized and established in separate -buildings. Ptolemy Philadelphus sent into every part of Greece and Asia -to secure the most valuable works, and no exertions or expense were -spared in enriching the collections. Ptolemy Euergetes, his successor, -is said to have caused all books brought into Egypt by foreigners to be -seized for the benefit of the library, while the owners had to be -content with receiving copies of them in exchange. Nor did the -Alexandrian scholars exhibit the usual Hellenic exclusiveness, and many -of the treasures of Egyptian and even of Hebrew literature were by their -means translated into Greek. There were two libraries at Alexandria; the -larger, in the Brucheum quarter, was in connexion with the Museum, a -sort of academy, while the smaller was placed in the Serapeum. The -number of volumes in these libraries was very large, although it is -difficult to attain any certainty as to the real numbers amongst the -widely varying accounts. According to a scholium of Tzetzes, who appears -to draw his information from the authority of Callimachus and -Eratosthenes, who had been librarians at Alexandria, there were 42,800 -vols. or rolls in the Serapeum and 490,000 in the Brucheum.[3] This -enumeration seems to refer to the librarianship of Callimachus himself -under Ptolemy Euergetes. In any case the figures agree tolerably well -with those given by Aulus Gellius[4] (700,000) and Seneca[5] (400,000). -It should be observed that, as the ancient roll or volume usually -contained a much smaller quantity of matter than a modern book--so that, -e.g. the history of Herodotus might form nine "books" or volumes, and -the _Iliad_ of Homer twenty-four--these numbers must be discounted for -the purposes of comparison with modern collections. The series of the -first five librarians at Alexandria appears to be pretty well -established as follows: Zenodotus, Callimachus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius -and Aristophanes; and their activity covers a period of about a century. -The first experiments in bibliography appear to have been made in -producing catalogues of the Alexandrian libraries. Amongst other lists, -two catalogues were prepared by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, one of -the tragedies, the other of the comedies contained in the collections. -The [Greek: Pinakes] of Callimachus formed a catalogue of all the -principal books arranged in 120 classes. When Caesar set fire to the -fleet in the harbour of Alexandria, the flames accidentally extended to -the larger library of the Brucheum, and it was destroyed.[6] Antony -endeavoured to repair the loss by presenting to Cleopatra the library -from Pergamum. This was very probably placed in the Brucheum, as this -continued to be the literary quarter of Alexandria until the time of -Aurelian. Thenceforward the Serapeum became the principal library. The -usual statement that from the date of the restoration of the Brucheum -under Cleopatra the libraries continued in a flourishing condition until -they were destroyed after the conquest of Alexandria by the Saracens in -A.D. 640 can hardly be supported. It is very possible that one of the -libraries perished when the Brucheum quarter was destroyed by Aurelian, -A.D. 273. In 389 or 391 an edict of Theodosius ordered the destruction -of the Serapeum, and its books were pillaged by the Christians. When we -take into account the disordered condition of the times, and the neglect -into which literature and science had fallen, there can be little -difficulty in believing that there were but few books left to be -destroyed by the soldiers of Amru. The familiar anecdote of the caliph's -message to his general rests mainly upon the evidence of Abulfaraj, so -that we may be tempted to agree with Gibbon that the report of a -stranger who wrote at the end of six hundred years is overbalanced by -the silence of earlier and native annalists. It is, however, so far from -easy to settle the question that a cloud of names could easily be cited -upon either side, while some of the most careful inquirers confess the -difficulty of a decision[7] (see ALEXANDRIA, III.). - - - Pergamum. - -The magnificence and renown of the libraries of the Ptolemies excited -the rivalry of the kings of Pergamum, who vied with the Egyptian rulers -in their encouragement of literature. The German researches in the -acropolis of Pergamum between 1878 and 1886 revealed four rooms which -had originally been appropriated to the library (Alex. Conze, _Die -pergamen. Bibliothek_, 1884). Despite the obstacles presented by the -embargo placed by the Ptolemies upon the export of papyrus, the library -of the Attali attained considerable importance, and, as we have seen, -when it was transported to Egypt numbered 200,000 vols. We learn from a -notice in Suidas that in 221 B.C. Antiochus the Great summoned the poet -and grammarian Euphorion of Chalcis to be his librarian. - - - Rome. - -The early Romans were far too warlike and practical a people to devote -much attention to literature, and it is not until the last century of -the republic that we hear of libraries in Rome. The collections of -Carthage, which fell into their hands when Scipio sacked that city (146 -B.C.), had no attractions for them; and with the exception of the -writings of Mago upon agriculture, which the senate reserved for -translation into Latin, they bestowed all the books upon the kinglets of -Africa (Pliny, _H.N._ xviii. 5). It is in accordance with the military -character of the Romans that the first considerable collections of which -we hear in Rome were brought there as the spoils of war. The first of -these was that brought by Aemilius Paulus from Macedonia after the -conquest of Perseus (167 B.C.). The library of the conquered monarch was -all that he reserved from the prizes of victory for himself and his -sons, who were fond of letters. Next came the library of Apellicon the -Teian, brought from Athens by Sulla (86 B.C.). This passed at his death -into the hands of his son, but of its later history nothing is known. -The rich stores of literature brought home by Lucullus from his eastern -conquests (about 67 B.C.) were freely thrown open to his friends and to -men of letters. Accordingly his library and the neighbouring walks were -much resorted to, especially by Greeks. It was now becoming fashionable -for rich men to furnish their libraries well, and the fashion prevailed -until it became the subject of Seneca's scorn and Lucian's wit. The zeal -of Cicero and Atticus in adding to their collections is well known to -every reader of the classics. Tyrannion is said to have had 30,000 vols. -of his own; and that M. Terentius Varro had large collections we may -infer from Cicero's writing to him: "Si hortum in bibliotheca habes, -nihil deerit." Not to prolong the list of private collectors, Serenus -Sammonicus is said to have left to his pupil the young Gordian no less -than 62,000 vols. Amongst the numerous projects entertained by Caesar -was that of presenting Rome with public libraries, though it is doubtful -whether any steps were actually taken towards its execution. The task of -collecting and arranging the books was entrusted to Varro. This -commission, as well as his own fondness for books, may have led Varro to -write the book upon libraries of which a few words only have come down -to us, preserved by a grammarian. The honour of being the first actually -to dedicate a library to the public is said by Pliny and Ovid to have -fallen to G. Asinius Pollio, who erected a library in the Atrium -Libertatis on Mount Aventine, defraying the cost from the spoils of his -Illyrian campaign. The library of Pollio was followed by the public -libraries established by Augustus. That emperor, who did so much for the -embellishment of the city, erected two libraries, the Octavian and the -Palatine. The former was founded (33 B.C.) in honour of his sister, and -was placed in the Porticus Octaviae, a magnificent structure, the lower -part of which served as a promenade, while the upper part contained the -library. The charge of the books was committed to C. Melissus. The other -library formed by Augustus was attached to the temple of Apollo on the -Palatine hill, and appears from inscriptions to have consisted of two -departments, a Greek and a Latin one, which seem to have been separately -administered. The charge of the Palatine collections was given to -Pompeius Macer, who was succeeded by Julius Hyginus, the grammarian and -friend of Ovid. The Octavian library perished in the fire which raged at -Rome for three days in the reign of Titus. The Palatine was, at all -events in great part, destroyed by fire in the reign of Commodus. The -story that its collections were destroyed by order of Pope Gregory the -Great in the 6th century is now generally rejected. The successors of -Augustus, though they did not equal him in their patronage of learning, -maintained the tradition of forming libraries. Tiberius, his immediate -successor, established one in his splendid house on the Palatine, to -which Gellius refers as the "Tiberian library," and Suetonius relates -that he caused the writings and images of his favourite Greek poets to -be placed in the public libraries. Vespasian established a library in -the Temple of Peace erected after the burning of the city under Nero. -Domitian restored the libraries which had been destroyed in the same -conflagration, procuring books from every quarter, and even sending to -Alexandria to have copies made. He is also said to have founded the -Capitoline library, though others give the credit to Hadrian. The most -famous and important of the imperial libraries, however, was that -created by Ulpius Trajanus, known as the Ulpian library, which was first -established in the Forum of Trajan, but was afterwards removed to the -baths of Diocletian. In this library were deposited by Trajan the "libri -lintei" and "libri elephantini," upon which the senatus consulta and -other transactions relating to the emperors were written. The library of -Domitian, which had been destroyed by fire in the reign of Commodus, was -restored by Gordian, who added to it the books bequeathed to him by -Serenus Sammonicus. Altogether in the 4th century there are said to have -been twenty-eight public libraries in Rome. - - - Roman provincial libraries. - -Nor were public libraries confined to Rome. We possess records of at -least 24 places in Italy, the Grecian provinces, Asia Minor, Cyprus and -Africa in which libraries had been established, most of them attached to -temples, usually through the liberality of generous individuals. The -library which the younger Pliny dedicated to his townsmen at Comum cost -a million sesterces and he contributed a large sum to the support of a -library at Milan. Hadrian established one at Athens, described by -Pausanias, and recently identified with a building called the Stoa of -Hadrian, which shows a striking similarity with the precinct of Athena -at Pergamum. Strabo mentions a library at Smyrna; Aulus Gellius one at -Patrae and another at Tibur from which books could be borrowed. Recent -discoveries at Ephesus in Asia Minor and Timegad in Algeria have -furnished precise information as to the structural plan of these -buildings. The library at Ephesus was founded by T. Julius Aquila -Polemaeanus in memory of his father, pro-consul of Asia in the time of -Trajan, about A.D. 106-107. The library at Timegad was established at a -cost of 400,000 sesterces by M. Julius Quintianus Flavius Rogatianus, -who probably lived in the 3rd century (R. Cagnat, "Les Bibliotheques -municipales dans l'Empire Romain," 1906, _Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc._, -tom. xxxviii. pt. 1). At Ephesus the light came through a circular -opening in the roof; the library at Timegad greatly resembles that -discovered at Pompeii and possesses a system of book stores. All these -buildings followed the same general plan, consisting of a reading-room -and more or less ample book stores; the former was either rectangular or -semi-circular in shape and was approached under a stately portico and -colonnade. In a niche facing the entrance a statue was always erected; -that formerly at Pergamum--a figure of Minerva--is now preserved at -Berlin. From a well-known line of Juvenal (_Sat._ iii. 219) we may -assume that a statue of the goddess was usually placed in libraries. The -reading-room was also ornamented with busts or life-sized images of -celebrated writers. The portraits or authors were also painted on -medallions on the presses (_armaria_) in which the books or rolls were -preserved as in the library of Isidore of Seville; sometimes these -medallions decorated the walls, as in a private library discovered by -Lanciani in 1883 at Rome (_Ancient Rome_, 1888, p. 193). Movable seats, -known to us by pictorial representations, were in use. The books were -classified, and the presses (framed of precious woods and highly -ornamented) were numbered to facilitate reference from the catalogues. A -private library discovered at Herculaneum contained 1756 MSS. placed on -shelves round the room to a height of about 6 ft. with a central press. -In the public rooms some of the books were arranged in the reading-room -and some in the adjacent book stores. The Christian libraries of later -foundation closely followed the classical prototypes not only in their -structure but also in smaller details. The general appearance of a Roman -library is preserved in the library of the Vatican fitted up by Sextus -V. in 1587 with painted presses, busts and antique vases. - -As the number of libraries in Rome increased, the librarian, who was -generally a slave or freedman, became a recognized public functionary. -The names of several librarians are preserved to us in inscriptions, -including that of C. Hymenaeus, who appears to have fulfilled the double -function of physician and librarian to Augustus. The general -superintendence of the public libraries was committed to a special -official. Thus from Nero to Trajan, Dionysius, an Alexandrian -rhetorician, discharged this function. Under Hadrian it was entrusted to -his former tutor C. Julius Vestinus, who afterwards became administrator -of the Museum at Alexandria. - - - Constantinople. - -When the seat of empire was removed by Constantine to his new capital -upon the Bosporus, the emperor established a collection there, in which -Christian literature was probably admitted for the first time into an -imperial library. Diligent search was made after the Christian books -which had been doomed to destruction by Diocletian. Even at the death of -Constantine, however, the number of books which had been brought -together amounted only to 6900. The smallness of the number, it has been -suggested, seems to show that Constantine's library was mainly intended -as a repository of Christian literature. However this may be, the -collection was greatly enlarged by some of Constantine's successors, -especially by Julian and Theodosius, at whose death it is said to have -increased to 100,000 vols. Julian, himself a close student and -voluminous writer, though he did his best to discourage learning among -the Christians, and to destroy their libraries, not only augmented the -library at Constantinople, but founded others, including one at Nisibis, -which was soon afterwards destroyed by fire. From the Theodosian code we -learn that in the time of that emperor a staff of seven copyists was -attached to the library at Constantinople under the direction of the -librarian. The library was burnt under the emperor Zeno in 477, but was -again restored. - -Meanwhile, as Christianity made its way and a distinctively Christian -literature grew up, the institution of libraries became part of the -ecclesiastical organization. Bishop Alexander (d. A.D. 250) established -a church library at Jerusalem, and it became the rule to attach to every -church a collection necessary for the inculcation of Christian doctrine. -There were libraries at Cirta, at Constantinople and at Rome. The -basilica of St Lawrence at Rome contained a library or _archivum_ -founded by Pope Damasus at the end of the 4th century. Most of these -collections were housed in the sacred edifices and consisted largely of -copies of the Holy Scriptures, liturgical volumes and works of devotion. -They also included the _Gesta Martyrum_ and _Matriculae Pauperum_ and -official correspondence. Many of the basilicas had the apse subdivided -into three smaller hemicycles, one of which contained the library -(Lanciani, op. cit. p. 187). The largest of these libraries, that -founded by Pamphilus (d. A.D. 309) at Caesarea, and said to have been -increased by Eusebius, the historian of the church, to 30,000 vols., is -frequently mentioned by St Jerome. St Augustine bequeathed his -collection to the library of the church at Hippo, which was fortunate -enough to escape destruction at the hands of the Vandals. The hermit -communities of the Egyptian deserts formed organizations which developed -into the later monastic orders of Western Europe and the accumulation of -books for the brethren was one of their cares. - -The removal of the capital to Byzantium was in its result a serious blow -to literature. Henceforward the science and learning of the East and -West were divorced. The libraries of Rome ceased to collect the writings -of the Greeks, while the Greek libraries had never cared much to collect -Latin literature. The influence of the church became increasingly -hostile to the study of pagan letters. The repeated irruptions of the -barbarians soon swept the old learning and libraries alike from the -soil of Italy. With the close of the Western empire in 476 the ancient -history of libraries may be said to cease. - - -MEDIEVAL PERIOD - - Gaul. - -During the first few centuries after the fall of the Western empire, -literary activity at Constantinople had fallen to its lowest ebb. In the -West, amidst the general neglect of learning and literature, the -collecting of books, though not wholly forgotten, was cared for by few. -Sidonius Apollinaris tells us of the libraries of several private -collectors in Gaul. Publius Consentius possessed a library at his villa -near Narbonne which was due to the labour of three generations. The most -notable of these appears to have been the prefect Tonantius Ferreolus, -who had formed in his villa of Prusiana, near Nimes, a collection which -his friend playfully compares to that of Alexandria. The Goths, who had -been introduced to the Scriptures in their own language by Ulfilas in -the 4th century, began to pay some attention to Latin literature. -Cassiodorus, the favourite minister of Theodoric, was a collector as -well as an author, and on giving up the cares of government retired to a -monastery which he founded in Calabria, where he employed his monks in -the transcription of books. - -Henceforward the charge of books as well as of education fell more and -more exclusively into the hands of the church. While the old schools of -the rhetoricians died out new monasteries arose everywhere. Knowledge -was no longer pursued for its own sake, but became subsidiary to -religious and theological teaching. The proscription of the old -classical literature, which is symbolized in the fable of the -destruction of the Palatine library by Gregory the Great, was only too -effectual. The Gregorian tradition of opposition to pagan learning long -continued to dominate the literary pursuits of the monastic orders and -the labours of the scriptorium. - - - Alcuin. - - Charlemagne. - -During the 6th and 7th centuries the learning which had been driven from -the Continent took refuge in the British Islands, where it was removed -from the political disturbances of the mainland. In the Irish -monasteries during this period there appear to have been many books, and -the Venerable Bede was superior to any scholar of his age. Theodore of -Tarsus brought a considerable number of books to Canterbury from Rome in -the 7th century, including several Greek authors. The library of York, -which was founded by Archbishop Egbert, was almost more famous than that -of Canterbury. The verses are well known in which Alcuin describes the -extensive library under his charge, and the long list of authors whom he -enumerates is superior to that of any other library possessed by either -England or France in the 12th century, when it was unhappily burnt. The -inroads of the Northmen in the 9th and 10th centuries had been fatal to -the monastic libraries on both sides of the channel. It was from York -that Alcuin came to Charlemagne to superintend the school attached to -his palace; and it was doubtless inspired by Alcuin that Charles issued -the memorable document which enjoined that in the bishoprics and -monasteries within his realm care should be taken that there shall be -not only a regular manner of life, but also the study of letters. When -Alcuin finally retired from the court to the abbacy of Tours, there to -carry out his own theory of monastic discipline and instruction, he -wrote to Charles for leave to send to York for copies of the books of -which they had so much need at Tours. While Alcuin thus increased the -library at Tours, Charlemagne enlarged that at Fulda, which had been -founded in 774, and which all through the middle ages stood in great -respect. Lupus Servatus, a pupil of Hrabanus Maurus at Fulda, and -afterwards abbot of Ferrieres, was a devoted student of the classics and -a great collector of books. His correspondence illustrates the -difficulties which then attended the study of literature through the -paucity and dearness of books, the declining care for learning, and the -increasing troubles of the time. Nor were private collections of books -altogether wanting during the period in which Charlemagne and his -successors laboured to restore the lost traditions of liberal education -and literature. Pepin le Bref had indeed met with scanty response to the -request for books which he addressed to the pontiff Paul I. Charlemagne, -however, collected a considerable number of choice books for his private -use in two places. Although these collections were dispersed at his -death, his son Louis formed a library which continued to exist under -Charles the Bald. About the same time Everard, count of Friuli, formed a -considerable collection which he bequeathed to a monastery. But the -greatest private collector of the middle ages was doubtless Gerbert, -Pope Sylvester II., who showed the utmost zeal and spent large sums in -collecting books, not only in Rome and Italy, but from Germany, Belgium -and even from Spain. - - - St. Benedict. - -The hopes of a revival of secular literature fell with the decline of -the schools established by Charles and his successors. The knowledge of -letters remained the prerogative of the church, and for the next four or -five centuries the collecting and multiplication of books were almost -entirely confined to the monasteries. Several of the greater orders made -these an express duty; this was especially the case with the -Benedictines. It was the first care of St Benedict, we are told, that in -each newly founded monastery there should be a library, "et velut curia -quaedam illustrium auctorum." Monte Cassino became the starting-point of -a long line of institutions which were destined to be the centres of -religion and of literature. It must indeed be remembered that literature -in the sense of St Benedict meant Biblical and theological works, the -lives of the saints and martyrs, and the lives and writings of the -fathers. Of the reformed Benedictine orders the Carthusians and the -Cistercians were those most devoted to literary pursuits. The abbeys of -Fleury, of Melk and of St Gall were remarkable for the splendour of -their libraries. In a later age the labours of the congregation of St -Maur form one of the most striking chapters in the history of learning. -The Augustinians and the Dominicans rank next to the Benedictines in -their care for literature. The libraries of St Genevieve and St Victor, -belonging to the former, were amongst the largest of the monastic -collections. Although their poverty might seem to put them at a -disadvantage as collectors, the mendicant orders cultivated literature -with much assiduity, and were closely connected with the intellectual -movement to which the universities owed their rise. In England Richard -of Bury praises them for their extraordinary diligence in collecting -books. Sir Richard Whittington built a large library for the Grey Friars -in London, and they possessed considerable libraries at Oxford. - -It would be impossible to attempt here an account of all the libraries -established by the monastic orders. We must be content to enumerate a -few of the most eminent. - - - Monastic libraries. - -In Italy Monte Cassino is a striking example of the dangers and -vicissitudes to which monastic collections were exposed. Ruined by the -Lombards in the 6th century, the monastery was rebuilt and a library -established, to fall a prey to Saracens and to fire in the 9th. The -collection then reformed survived many other chances and changes, and -still exists. Boccaccio gives a melancholy description of its condition -in his day. It affords a conspicuous example of monastic industry in the -transcription not only of theological but also of classical works. The -library of Bobbio, which owed its existence to Irish monks, was famous -for its palimpsests. The collection, of which a catalogue of the 10th -century is given by Muratori (_Antiq. Ital. Med. Aev._ iii. 817-824), -was mainly transferred to the Ambrosian library at Milan. Of the library -of Pomposia, near Ravenna, Montfaucon has printed a catalogue dating -from the 11th century (_Diarium Italicum_, chap. xxii.). - -Of the monastic libraries of France the principal were those of Fleury, -of Cluny, of St Riquier and of Corbie. At Fleury Abbot Macharius in 1146 -imposed a contribution for library purposes upon the officers of the -community and its dependencies, an example which was followed elsewhere. -After many vicissitudes, its MSS., numbering 238, were deposited in 1793 -in the town library of Orleans. The library of St Riquier in the time -of Louis the Pious contained 256 MSS., with over 500 works. Of the -collection at Corbie in Picardy we have also catalogues dating from the -12th and from the 17th centuries. Corbie was famous for the industry of -its transcribers, and appears to have stood in active literary -intercourse with other monasteries. In 1638, 400 of its choicest -manuscripts were removed to St Germain-des-Pres. The remainder were -removed after 1794, partly to the national library at Paris, partly to -the town library of Amiens. - -The chief monastic libraries of Germany were at Fulda, Corvey, Reichenau -and Sponheim. The library at Fulda owed much to Charlemagne and to its -abbot Hrabanus Maurus. Under Abbot Sturmius four hundred monks were -hired as copyists. In 1561 the collection numbered 774 volumes. The -library of Corvey on the Weser, after being despoiled of some of its -treasures in the Reformation age, was presented to the university of -Marburg in 1811. It then contained 109 vols., with 400 or 500 titles. -The library of Reichenau, of which several catalogues are extant, fell a -prey to fire and neglect, and its ruin was consummated by the Thirty -Years' War. The library of Sponheim owes its great renown to John -Tritheim, who was abbot at the close of the 15th century. He found it -reduced to 10 vols., and left it with upwards of 2000 at his retirement. -The library at St Gall, formed as early as 816 by Gozbert, its second -abbot, still exists. - - - England. - -In England the principal collections were those of Canterbury, York, -Wearmouth, Jarrow, Whitby, Glastonbury, Croyland, Peterborough and -Durham. Of the library of the monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, -originally founded by Augustine and Theodore, and restored by Lanfranc -and Anselm, a catalogue has been preserved dating from the 13th or 14th -century, and containing 698 volumes, with about 3000 works. Bennet -Biscop, the first abbot of Wearmouth, made five journeys to Rome, and on -each occasion returned with a store of books for the library. It was -destroyed by the Danes about 867. Of the library at Whitby there is a -catalogue dating from the 12th century. The catalogue of Glastonbury has -been printed by Hearne in his edition of John of Glastonbury. When the -library of Croyland perished by fire in 1091 it contained about 700 -vols. The library at Peterborough was also rich; from a catalogue of -about the end of the 14th century it had 344 vols., with nearly 1700 -titles. The catalogues of the library at the monastery of Durham have -been printed by the Surtees Society, and form an interesting series. -These catalogues with many others[8] afford abundant evidence of the -limited character of the monkish collections, whether we look at the -number of their volumes or at the nature of their contents. The -scriptoria were manufactories of books and not centres of learning. That -in spite of the labours of so many transcribers the costliness and -scarcity of books remained so great may have been partly, but cannot -have been wholly, due to the scarcity of writing materials. It may be -suspected that indolence and carelessness were the rule in most -monasteries, and that but few of the monks keenly realized the whole -force of the sentiment expressed by one of their number in the 12th -century--"Claustrum sine armario quasi castrum sine armamentario." -Nevertheless it must be admitted that to the labours of the monastic -transcribers we are indebted for the preservation of Latin literature. - - - The development of library arrangements. - -The subject of the evolution of the arrangement of library rooms and -fittings as gradually developed throughout medieval Europe should not be -passed over.[9] The real origin of library organization in the Christian -world, one may almost say the origin of modern library methods, began -with the rule of St Benedict early in the 6th century. In the 48th -chapter the monks were ordered to borrow a book apiece and to read it -straight through. There was no special apartment for the books in the -primitive Benedictine house. After the books became too numerous to be -kept in the church they were preserved in _armaria_, or chests, in the -cloister; hence the word _armarius_, the Benedictine librarian, who at -first joined with it the office of precentor. The Benedictine -regulations were developed in the stricter observances of the Cluniacs, -which provided for a kind of annual report and stocktaking. The -Carthusians were perhaps the first to lend books away from the convent; -and the Cistercians to possess a separate library official as well as a -room specially devoted to books. The observances of the Augustinians -contained rules for the binding, repairing, cataloguing and arranging -the books by the librarian, as well as a prescription of the exact kind -of chest to be used. Among the Premonstratensians or Reformed -Augustinians, it was one of the duties of the librarian to provide for -the borrowing of books elsewhere for the use of the monks. The Mendicant -Friars found books so necessary that at last Richard de Bury tells us -with some exaggeration that their libraries exceeded all others. Many -volumes still exist which belonged to the library at Assisi, the parent -house of the Franciscans, of which a catalogue was drawn up in 1381. No -authentic monastic bookcase can now be found; the doubtful example shown -at Bayeux probably contained ecclesiastical utensils. At the Augustinian -priory at Barnwell the presses were lined with wood to keep out the damp -and were partitioned off both vertically and horizontally. Sometimes -there were recesses in the walls of the cloisters fitted with shelves -and closed with a door. These recesses developed into a small windowless -room in the Cistercian houses. At Clairvaux, Kirkstall, Fountains, -Tintern, Netley and elsewhere this small chamber was placed between the -chapter-house and the transept of the church. At Meaux in Holderness the -books were lodged on shelves against the walls and even over the door of -such a chamber. In many houses the treasury or spendiment contained two -classes of books--one for the monks generally, others more closely -guarded. A press near the infirmary contained books used by the reader -in the refectory. By the end of the 15th century the larger monasteries -became possessed of many volumes and found themselves obliged to store -the books, hitherto placed in various parts of the building, in a -separate apartment. We now find libraries being specially built at -Canterbury, Durham, Citeaux, Clairvaux and elsewhere, and with this -specialization there grew up increased liberality in the use of books -and learned strangers were admitted. Even at an early date students were -permitted to borrow from the Benedictines at St Germain-des-Pres at -Paris, of which a later foundation owned in 1513 a noble library erected -over the south wall of the cloister, and enlarged and made very -accessible to the outer world in the 17th and 18th centuries. The -methods and fittings of college libraries of early foundation closely -resembled those of the monastic libraries. There was in both the annual -giving out and inspection of what we would now call the lending -department for students; while the books, fastened by chains--a kind of -reference department kept in the library chamber for the common use of -the fellows--followed a similar system in monastic institutions. By the -15th century collegiate and monastic libraries were on the same plan, -with the separate room containing books placed on their sides on desks -or lecterns, to which they were attached by chains to a horizontal bar. -As the books increased the accommodation was augmented by one or two -shelves erected above the desks. The library at Cesena in North Italy -may still be seen in its original condition. The Laurentian library at -Florence was designed by Michelangelo on the monastic model. Another -good example of the old form may be seen, in the library of Merton -College at Oxford, a long narrow room with bookcases standing between -the windows at right angles to the walls. In the chaining system one end -was attached to the wooden cover of the book while the other ran freely -on a bar fixed by a method of double locks to the front of the shelf or -desk on which the book rested. The fore edges of the volumes faced the -reader. The seat and shelf were sometimes combined. Low cases were -subsequently introduced between the higher cases, and the seat replaced -by a step. Shelf lists were placed at the end of each case. There were -no chains in the library of the Escorial, erected in 1584, which showed -for the first time bookcases placed against the walls. Although chains -were no longer part of the appliances in the newly erected libraries -they continued to be used and were ordered in bequests in England down -to the early part of the 18th century. Triple desks and revolving -lecterns, raised by a wooden screw, formed part of the library -furniture. The English cathedral libraries were fashioned after the same -principle. The old methods were fully reproduced in the fittings at -Westminster, erected at a late date. Here we may see books on shelves -against the walls as well as in cases at right angles to the walls; the -desk-like shelves for the chained volumes (no longer in existence) have -a slot in which the chains could be suspended, and are hinged to allow -access to shelves below. An ornamental wooden tablet at the end of each -case is a survival of the old shelf list. By the end of the 17th century -the type of the public library developed from collegiate and monastic -prototypes, became fixed as it were throughout Europe (H. R. Tedder, -"Evolution of the Public Library," in _Trans. of 2nd Int. Library -Conference_, 1897, 1898). - - - Arabians. - -The first conquests of the Arabians, as we have already seen, threatened -hostility to literature. But, as soon as their conquests were secured, -the caliphs became the patrons of learning and science. Greek -manuscripts were eagerly sought for and translated into Arabic, and -colleges and libraries everywhere arose. Baghdad in the east and Cordova -in the west became the seats of a rich development of letters and -science during the age when the civilization of Europe was most -obscured. Cairo and Tripoli were also distinguished for their libraries. -The royal library of the Fatimites in Africa is said to have numbered -100,000 manuscripts, while that collected by the Omayyads of Spain is -reported to have contained six times as many. It is said that there were -no less than seventy libraries opened in the cities of Andalusia. -Whether these figures be exaggerated or not--and they are much below -those given by some Arabian writers, which are undoubtedly so--it is -certain that the libraries of the Arabians and the Moors of Spain offer -a very remarkable contrast to those of the Christian nations during the -same period.[10] - - - Renaissance. - -The literary and scientific activity of the Arabians appears to have -been the cause of a revival of letters amongst the Greeks of the -Byzantine empire in the 9th century. Under Leo the Philosopher and -Constantine Porphyrogenitus the libraries of Constantinople awoke into -renewed life. The compilations of such writers as Stobaeus, Photius and -Suidas, as well as the labours of innumerable critics and commentators, -bear witness to the activity, if not to the lofty character of the -pursuits, of the Byzantine scholars. The labours of transcription were -industriously pursued in the libraries and in the monasteries of Mount -Athos and the Aegean, and it was from these quarters that the restorers -of learning brought into Italy so many Greek manuscripts. In this way -many of the treasures of ancient literature had been already conveyed -to the West before the fate which overtook the libraries of -Constantinople on the fall of the city in 1453. - -Meanwhile in the West, with the reviving interest in literature which -already marks the 14th century, we find arising outside the monasteries -a taste for collecting books. St Louis of France and his successors had -formed small collections, none of which survived its possessor. It was -reserved for Charles V. to form a considerable library which he intended -to be permanent. In 1373 he had amassed 910 volumes, and had a catalogue -of them prepared, from which we see that it included a good deal of the -new sort of literature. In England Guy, earl of Warwick, formed a -curious collection of French romances, which he bequeathed to Bordesley -Abbey on his death in 1315. Richard d'Aungervyle of Bury, the author of -the _Philobiblon_, amassed a noble collection of books, and had special -opportunities of doing so as Edward III.'s chancellor and ambassador. He -founded Durham College at Oxford, and equipped it with a library a -hundred years before Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, made his benefaction -of books to the university. The taste for secular literature, and the -enthusiasm for the ancient classics, gave a fresh direction to the -researches of collectors. A disposition to encourage literature began to -show itself amongst the great. This was most notable amongst the Italian -princes. Cosimo de' Medici formed a library at Venice while living there -in exile in 1433, and on his return to Florence laid the foundation of -the great Medicean library. The honour of establishing the first modern -public library in Italy had been already secured by Niccolo Niccoli, who -left his library of over 800 volumes for the use of the public on his -death in 1436. Frederick, duke of Urbino, collected all the writings in -Greek and Latin which he could procure, and we have an interesting -account of his collection written by his first librarian, Vespasiano. -The ardour for classical studies led to those active researches for the -Latin writers who were buried in the monastic libraries which are -especially identified with the name of Poggio. For some time before the -fall of Constantinople, the perilous state of the Eastern empire had -driven many Greek scholars from that capital into western Europe, where -they had directed the studies and formed the taste of the zealous -students of the Greek language and literature. The enthusiasm of the -Italian princes extended itself beyond the Alps. Matthias Corvinus, king -of Hungary, amassed a collection of splendidly executed and -magnificently bound manuscripts, which at his death are said to have -reached the almost incredible number of 50,000 vols. The library was not -destined long to survive its founder. There is reason to believe that it -had been very seriously despoiled even before it perished at the hands -of the Turks on the fall of Buda in 1527. A few of its treasures are -still preserved in some of the libraries of Europe. While these -munificent patrons of learning were thus taking pains to recover and -multiply the treasures of ancient literature by the patient labour of -transcribers and calligraphers, an art was being elaborated which was -destined to revolutionize the whole condition of literature and -libraries. With the invention of printing, so happily coinciding with -the revival of true learning and sound science, the modern history of -libraries may be said to begin. - - -MODERN LIBRARIES - -In most of the European countries and in the United States libraries of -all kinds have during the last twenty years been undergoing a process of -development and improvement which has greatly altered their policy and -methods. At one time libraries were regarded almost entirely as -repositories for the storage of books to be used by the learned alone, -but now they are coming to be regarded more and more as workshops or as -places for intellectual recreation adapted for every department of life. -This is particularly to be found as the ideal in the public libraries of -the Anglo-Saxon races throughout the world. - -The following details comprise the chief points in the history, -equipment and methods of the various libraries and systems noticed. - - -_The United Kingdom._ - - British Museum. - -_State Libraries._--The British Museum ranks in importance before all -the great libraries of the world, and excels in the arrangement and -accessibility of its contents. The library consists of over 2,000,000 -printed volumes and 56,000 manuscripts, but this large total does not -include pamphlets and other small publications which are usually counted -in other libraries. Adding these together it is probable that over -5,000,000 items are comprised in the collections. This extraordinary -opulence is principally due to the enlightened energy of Sir Anthony -Panizzi (q.v.). The number of volumes in the printed book department, -when he took the keepership in 1837, was only 240,000; and during the -nineteen years he held that office about 400,000 were added, mostly by -purchase, under his advice and direction. It was Panizzi likewise who -first seriously set to work to see that the national library reaped all -the benefits bestowed upon it by the Copyright Act. - -The foundation of the British Museum dates from 1753, when effect was -given to the bequest (in exchange for L20,000 to be paid to his -executors) by Sir Hans Sloane, of his books, manuscripts, curiosities, -&c., to be held by trustees for the use of the nation. A bill was passed -through parliament for the purchase of the Sloane collections and of the -Harleian MSS., costing L10,000. To these, with the Cottonian MSS., -acquired by the country in 1700, was added by George II., in 1757, the -royal library of the former kings of England, coupled with the -privilege, which that library had for many years enjoyed, of obtaining a -copy of every publication entered at Stationers' Hall. This addition was -of the highest importance, as it enriched the museum with the old -collections of Archbishop Cranmer, Henry prince of Wales, and other -patrons of literature, while the transfer of the privilege with regard -to the acquisition of new books, a right which has been maintained by -successive Copyright Acts, secured a large and continuous augmentation. -A lottery having been authorized to defray the expenses of purchases, as -well as for providing suitable accommodation, the museum and library -were established in Montague House, and opened to the public 15th -January 1759. In 1763 George III. presented the well-known Thomason -collection (in 2220 volumes) of books and pamphlets issued in England -between 1640 and 1662, embracing all the controversial literature which -appeared during that period. The Rev. C. M. Cracherode, one of the -trustees, bequeathed his collection of choice books in 1799; and in 1820 -Sir Joseph Banks left to the nation his important library of 16,000 -vols. Many other libraries have since then been incorporated in the -museum, the most valuable being George III.'s royal collection (15,000 -vols. of tracts, and 65,259 vols. of printed books, including many of -the utmost rarity, which had cost the king about L130,000), which was -presented (for a pecuniary consideration, it has been said) by George -IV. in 1823, and that of the Right Honourable Thomas Grenville (20,240 -vols. of rare books, all in fine condition and binding), which was -acquired under bequest in 1846. The Cracherode, Banksian, King's and -Grenville libraries are still preserved as separate collections. Other -libraries of minor note have also been absorbed in a similar way, while, -at least since the time of Panizzi, no opportunity has been neglected of -making useful purchases at all the British and Continental book -auctions. - -The collection of English books is far from approaching completeness, -but, apart from the enormous number of volumes, the library contains an -extraordinary quantity of rarities. Few libraries in the United States -equal either in number or value the American books in the museum. The -collection of Slavonic literature, due to the initiative of Thomas -Watts, is also a remarkable feature. Indeed, in cosmopolitan interest -the museum is without a rival in the world, possessing as it does the -best library in any European language out of the territory in which the -language is vernacular. The Hebrew, the Chinese, and printed books in -other Oriental languages are important and represented in large numbers. -Periodical literature has not been forgotten, and the series of -newspapers is of great extent and interest. Great pains are taken by the -authorities to obtain the copies of the newspapers published in the -United Kingdom to which they are entitled by the provisions of the -Copyright Act, and upwards of 3400 are annually collected, filed and -bound. - -The department of MSS. is almost equal In importance to that of the -printed books. The collection of MSS. in European languages ranges from -the 3rd century before Christ down to our own times, and includes the -_Codex Alexandrinus_ of the Bible. The old historical chronicles of -England, the charters of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the celebrated -series of Arthurian romances are well represented; and care has been -taken to acquire on every available opportunity the imprinted works of -English writers. The famous collections of MSS. made by Sir Robert -Cotton and Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, have already been mentioned, -and from these and other sources the museum has become rich in early -Anglo-Saxon and Latin codices, some of them being marvels of skill in -calligraphy and ornamentation, such as the charters of King Edgar and -Henry I. to Hyde Abbey, which are written in gold letters; or the -Lindisfarne gospels (A.D. 700) containing the earliest extant -Anglo-Saxon version of the Latin gospels. The Burney collection of -classical MSS. furnished important additions, so that from this source -and from the collection of Arundel MSS. (transferred from the Royal -Society in 1831), the museum can boast of an early copy of the _Iliad_, -and one of the earliest known codices of the _Odyssey_. Among the -unrivalled collection of Greek papyri are the unique MSS. of several -works of ancient literature. Irish, French and Italian MSS. are well -represented. Special reference may be made to the celebrated Bedford -Hours, illuminated for the duke of Bedford, regent of France, to the -Sforza Book of Hours and to Queen Mary's Psalter. The Oriental -collection is also extremely valuable, including the library formed by -Mr Rich (consul at Baghdad in the early part of the 19th century), and a -vast quantity of Arabic, Persian and Turkish MSS.; the Chambers -collection of Sanskrit MSS.; several other collections of Indian MSS.; -and a copious library of Hebrew MSS. (including that of the great -scholar Michaelis, and codices of great age, recently brought from -Yemen). The collection of Syriac MSS., embracing the relics of the -famous library of the convent of St Mary Deipara in the Nitrian desert, -formed by the abbot Moses of Nisibis, in the 10th century, is the most -important in existence; of the large store of Abyssinian volumes many -were amassed after the campaign against King Theodore. The number of -genealogical rolls and documents relating to the local and family -history of Great Britain is very large. Altogether there are now more -than 56,000 MSS. (of which over 9000 are Oriental), besides more than -75,000 charters and rolls. There is a very large and valuable collection -of printed and manuscript music of all kinds, and it is probable that of -separate pieces there are nearly 200,000. The catalogue of music is -partly in manuscript and partly printed, and a separate printed -catalogue of the MS. music has been published. The number of maps is -also very large, and a printed catalogue has been issued. - - The general catalogue of the printed books was at one time kept in MS. - in large volumes, but since 1880 the entries have gradually been - superseded by the printed titles forming part of the large - alphabetical catalogue which was completed in 1900. This important - work is arranged in the order of authors' names, with occasional - special entries at words like Bible, periodicals and biographical - names. It is being constantly supplemented and forms an invaluable - bibliographical work of reference. - - The other printed catalogues of books commence with one published in 2 - vols. folio (1787), followed by that of 1813-1819 in 7 vols. 8vo; the - next is that of the library of George III. (1820-1829, 5 vols. folio, - with 2 vols. 8vo, 1834), describing the geographical and topographical - collections; and then the _Bibliotheca Grenvilliana_ (1842-1872, 4 - vols. 8vo). The first vol. (letter A) of a general catalogue appeared - in 1841 in a folio volume which has never been added to. The octavo - catalogue of the Hebrew books came out in 1867; that of the Sanskrit - and Pali literature is in 4to (1876); and the Chinese catalogue is - also in 4to (1877). There is a printed list of the books of reference - (1910) in the reading-room. - - The printed catalogues of the MSS. are--that of the old Royal Library - (1734, 4to), which in 1910 was shortly to be superseded by a new one; - the Sloane and others hitherto undescribed (1782, 2 vols. 4to); the - Cottonian (1802, folio); the Harleian (1808, 4 vols. folio); the - Hargrave (1818, 4to); the Lansdowne (1819, folio); the Arundel (1840, - folio); the Burney (1840, folio); the Stowe (1895-1896, 4to); the - Additional, in periodical volumes since 1836; the Greek Papyri - (1893-1910); the Oriental (Arabic and Ethiopic), 5 pts., folio - (1838-1871); the Syriac (1870-1873, 3 pts., 4to); the Ethiopic (1877, - 4to); the Persian (1879-1896, 4 vols. 4to); and the Spanish - (1875-1893, 4 vols. 8vo); Turkish (1888); Hebrew and Samaritan - (1900-1909, 3 vols.); Sanskrit (1903); Hindi, &c. (1899); Sinhalese - (1900). There are also catalogues of the Greek and Egyptian papyri - (1839-1846, 5 pts., folio). Many other special catalogues have been - issued, including one of the Thomason Collection of Civil War - pamphlets, Incunabula (vol. i.), Romances (MSS.), Music, Seals and - Arabic, Hebrew and other Oriental books, maps, prints and drawings. - Perhaps the most useful catalogue of all is the _Subject-index to - Modern Works_ issued in 1881-1905 (4 vols.) and compiled by Mr G. K. - Fortescue. - - The _Rules for compiling catalogues in the department of printed - books_ were revised and published in 1906. - -The building in which the library is housed forms part of the fine group -situated in Great Russell Street in central London, and is distinguished -by a stately circular reading-room designed by Sydney Smirke from -suggestions and sketches supplied by Sir A. Panizzi. This was begun in -1855 and opened in 1857. The room is surrounded by book stores placed in -galleries with iron floors, in which, owing to congestion of stock, -various devices have been introduced, particularly a hanging and rolling -form of auxiliary bookcase. The presses inside the reading-room, -arranged in three tiers, contain upwards of 60,000 vols., those on the -ground floor (20,000) being books of reference to which readers have -unlimited access. The accommodation for readers is comfortable and -roomy, each person having a portion of table fitted with various -conveniences. Perhaps not the least convenient arrangement here is the -presence of the staff in the centre of the room, at the service of -readers who require aid. - - In order to enjoy the privilege of reading at the British Museum, the - applicant (who must be over twenty-one years of age) must obtain a - renewable ticket of admission through a recommendation from a - householder addressed to the principal librarian. - - The pressure upon the space at the command of the library has been so - great that additional land at the rear and sides of the existing - buildings was purchased by the government for the further extension of - the Museum. One very important wing facing Torrington Square was - nearly completed in 1910. The Natural History Museum, South - Kensington, a department of the British Museum under separate - management, has a library of books on the natural sciences numbering - nearly 100,000 vols. - - - Patent Office. - -Next in importance to the British Museum, and superior to it in -accessibility, is the Library of the Patent Office in Southampton -Buildings, London. This is a department of the Board of Trade, and -though primarily intended for office use and patentees, it is really a -public library freely open to anyone. The only formality required from -readers is a signature in a book kept in the entrance hall. After this -readers have complete access to the shelves. The library contains -considerably over 110,000 vols., and possesses complete sets of the -patents specifications of all countries, and a remarkable collection of -the technical and scientific periodicals of all countries. The library -was first opened in 1855, in somewhat unsuitable premises, and in 1897 -it was transferred to a handsome new building. - - The reading-room is provided with two galleries and the majority of - the books are open to public inspection without the need for - application forms. A printed catalogue in author-alphabetical form has - been published with supplement, and in addition, separate subject - catalogues are issued. This is one of the most complete libraries of - technology in existence, and its collection of scientific transactions - and periodicals is celebrated. - - - Other state libraries. - -Another excellent special library is the National Art Library, founded -in 1841 and transferred to South Kensington in 1856. It contains about -half a million books, prints, drawings and photographs, and is used -mostly by the students attending the art schools, though the general -public can obtain admission on payment of sixpence per week. - -A somewhat similar library on the science side is the Science Library -of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, which was founded -in 1857. It is a general science collection and incorporates most of the -books which at one time were in the Museum of Practical Geology. - -The only other state library which is open to the public is that of the -Board of Education in Whitehall, which was opened in a new building in -1908. It contains a large collection of works on educational subjects -for which a special classification has been devised and printed. - - The other state libraries in London may be briefly noted as follows: - Admiralty (1700), 40,000 vols.; College of Arms, or Heralds College, - 15,000 vols.; Colonial Office, c. 15,000 vols.; Foreign Office, c. - 80,000 vols.; Home Office (1800) c. 10,000 vols.; House of Commons - (1818), c. 50,000 vols.; House of Lords (1834), 50,000 vols.; India - Office (1800), c. 86,000 vols.; Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens (1853), - 22,000 vols.; and Royal Observatory (Greenwich), c. 20,000 vols. - - Outside London the most important state library is the National - Library of Ireland, Dublin, founded in 1877 and incorporating the - library of the Royal Dublin Society. It is housed in a handsome - building (1890) and contains about 200,000 vols., classified on the - Decimal system, and catalogued in various forms. The library of the - Museum of Science and Art at Edinburgh, containing over 20,000 vols., - was opened to the public in 1890. Practically every department of the - state has a reference library of some kind for the use of the staff, - and provision is also made for lending libraries and reading-rooms in - connexion with garrisons, naval depots and other services of the army - and navy. - -No professional qualifications are required for positions in British -state libraries, most of the assistants being merely second-division -clerks who have passed the Civil Service examinations. It would be an -advantage from an administrative point of view if the professional -certificates of the Library Association were adopted by the Civil -Service Commissioners as compulsory requirements in addition to their -own examination. The official recognition of a grade of properly trained -librarians would tend to improve the methods and efficiency of the state -libraries, which are generally behind the municipal libraries in -organization and administration. - - - Oxford. - -_University and Collegiate Libraries._--The Bodleian Library, Oxford, -though it had been preceded by various efforts towards a university -library, owed its origin to Sir Thomas Bodley (q.v.). Contributing -largely himself, and procuring contributions from others, he opened the -library with upwards of 2000 vols. in 1602. In 1610 he obtained a grant -from the Stationers' Company of a copy of every work printed in the -country, a privilege still enjoyed under the provisions of the various -copyright acts. The additions made to the library soon surpassed the -capacity of the room, and the founder proceeded to enlarge it. By his -will he left considerable property to the university for the maintenance -and increase of the library. The example set by Bodley found many noble -imitators. Amongst the chief benefactors have been Archbishop Laud, the -executors of Sir Kenelm Digby, John Selden, Sir Thomas (Lord) Fairfax, -Richard Gough, Francis Douce, Richard Rawlinson, and the Rev. Robert -Mason. The library now contains almost 800,000 printed vols., and about -41,000 manuscripts. But the number of volumes, as bound up, conveys a -very inadequate idea of the size or value of the collection. In the -department of Oriental manuscripts it is perhaps superior to any other -European library; and it is exceedingly rich in other manuscript -treasures. It possesses a splendid series of Greek and Latin _editiones -principes_ and of the earliest productions of English presses. Its -historical manuscripts contain most valuable materials for the general -and literary history of the country. - - The last general catalogue of the printed books was printed in 4 vols. - folio (1843-1851). In 1859 it was decided to prepare a new manuscript - catalogue on the plan of that then in use at the British Museum, and - this has been completed in duplicate. In 1910 it was being amended - with a view to printing. It is an alphabetical author-catalogue; and - the Bodleian, like the British Museum, has no complete subject-index. - A slip-catalogue on subjects was, however, in course of preparation in - 1910, and there are classified hand-lists of accessions since 1883. - There are also printed catalogues of the books belonging to several of - the separate collections. The MSS. are in general catalogued according - to the collections to which they belong, and they are all indexed. A - number of the catalogues of manuscripts have been printed. - - -In 1860 the beautiful Oxford building known as the "Radcliffe Library," -now called the "Radcliffe Camera," was offered to the curators of the -Bodleian by the Radcliffe trustees. The Radcliffe Library was founded by -the famous physician Dr John Radcliffe, who died in 1714, and -bequeathed, besides a permanent endowment of L350 a year, the sum of -L40,000 for a building. The library was opened in 1749. Many years ago -the trustees resolved to confine their purchases of books to works on -medicine and natural science. When the university museum and -laboratories were built in 1860, the trustees allowed the books to be -transferred to the museum. It is used as a storehouse for the more -modern books, and it also serves as a reading-room. It is the only room -open after the hour when the older building is closed owing to the rule -as to the exclusion of artificial light. In 1889 the gallery of the -Radcliffe Camera was opened as an addition to the reading-room. - - A _Staff Kalendar_ has been issued since 1902, which with a - _Supplement_ contains a complete list of cataloguing rules, routine - work of the libraries and staff, and useful information of many kinds - concerning the library methods. - -The Bodleian Library is open by right to all graduate members of the -university, and to others upon producing a satisfactory recommendation. -No books are allowed to be sent out of the library except by special -leave of the curators and convocation of the university. The -administration and control of the library are committed to a librarian -and board of thirteen curators. The permanent endowment is comparatively -small; the ordinary expenditure, chiefly defrayed from the university -chest, is about L10,000. Within recent years the use of wheeling metal -bookcases has been greatly extended, and a large repository has been -arranged for economical book storage underground. - - The Taylor Institution is due to the benefaction of Sir Robert Taylor, - an architect, who died in 1788, leaving his property to found an - establishment for the teaching of modern languages. The library was - established in 1848, and is devoted to the literature of the modern - European languages. It contains a fair collection of works on European - philology, with a special Dante collection, about 1000 Mazarinades and - 400 Luther pamphlets. The Finch collection, left to the university in - 1830, is also kept with the Taylor Library. Books are lent out to - members of the university and to others on a proper introduction. The - endowment affords an income of L800 to L1000 for library purposes. - - The libraries of the several colleges vary considerably in extent and - character, although, owing chiefly to limited funds, the changes and - growth of all are insignificant. That of All Souls was established in - 1443 by Archbishop Chichele, and enlarged in 1710 by the munificent - bequest of Christopher Codrington. It devotes special attention to - jurisprudence, of which it has a large collection. It possesses 40,000 - printed volumes and 300 MSS., and fills a splendid hall 200 ft. long. - The library of Brasenose College has a special endowment fund, so that - it has, for a college library, the unusually large income of L200. The - library of Christ Church is rich in divinity and topography. It - embraces the valuable library bequeathed by Charles Boyle, 4th earl of - Orrery, amounting to 10,000 volumes, the books and MSS. of Archbishop - Wake, and the Morris collection of Oriental books. The building was - finished in 1761, and closely resembles the basilica of Antoninus at - Rome, now the Dogana. Corpus possesses a fine collection of Aldines, - many of them presented by its founder, Bishop Fox, and a collection of - 17th-century tracts catalogued by Mr Edwards, with about 400 MSS. - Exeter College Library has 25,000 volumes, with special collections of - classical dissertations and English theological and political tracts. - The library of Jesus College has few books of later date than the - early part of the last century. Many of them are from the bequest of - Sir Leoline Jenkins, who built the existing library. There are also - some valuable Welsh MSS. The library of Keble College consists largely - of theology, including the MSS. of many of Keble's works. The library - of Magdalen College has about 22,500 volumes (including many volumes - of pamphlets) and 250 MSS. It has scientific and topographical - collections. The library of Merton College has of late devoted itself - to foreign modern history. New College Library has about 17,000 - printed volumes and about 350 MSS., several of which were presented by - its founder, William of Wykeham. Oriel College Library, besides its - other possessions, has a special collection of books on comparative - philology and mythology, with a printed catalogue. The fine library of - Queen's College is strong in theology, in English and modern European - history, and in English county histories. St John's College Library is - largely composed of the literature of theology and jurisprudence - before 1750, and possesses a collection of medical books of the 16th - and 17th centuries. The newer half of the library building was - erected by Inigo Jones at the expense of Laud, who also gave many - printed and manuscript books. The room used as a library at Trinity - College formed part of Durham College, the library of which was - established by Richard of Bury. Wadham College Library includes a - collection of botanical books bequeathed by Richard Warner in 1775 and - a collection of books, relating chiefly to the Spanish Reformers, - presented by the executors of Benjamin Wiffen. Worcester College - Library has of late specially devoted itself to classical archaeology. - It is also rich in old plays. - - The college libraries as a rule have not been used to the extent they - deserve, and a good deal must be done before they can be said to be as - useful and efficient as they might be. - - - Cambridge. - -The history of the University Library at Cambridge dates from the -earlier part of the 15th century. Two early lists of its contents are -preserved, the first embracing 52 vols. dating from about 1425, the -second a shelf-list, apparently of 330 vols., drawn up by the outgoing -proctors in 1473. Its first great benefactor was Thomas Scott of -Rotherham, archbishop of York, who erected in 1475 the building in which -the library continued until 1755. He also gave more than 200 books and -manuscripts to the library, some of which still remain. The library -received other benefactions, but nevertheless appeared "but mean" to -John Evelyn when he visited Cambridge in 1654. In 1666 Tobias Rustat -presented a sum of money to be invested to buy the choicest and most -useful books. In 1715 George I. presented the library of Bishop Moore, -which was very rich in early English printed books, forming over 30,000 -vols. of printed books and manuscripts. The funds bequeathed by William -Worts and John Manistre, together with that of Rustat, produce at -present about L1500 a year. The share of university dues appropriated to -library purposes amounts to L3000 a year. In addition the library is -entitled to new books under the Copyright Acts. The number of printed -volumes in the library cannot be exactly stated, as no recent -calculation on the subject exists. It has been estimated at half a -million. It includes a fine series of _editiones principes_ of the -classics and of the early productions of the English press. The MSS. -number over 6000, in which are included a considerable number of -adversaria or printed books with MS. notes, which form a leading feature -in the collection. The most famous of the MSS. is the celebrated copy of -the four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, which is known as _Codex -Bezae_, and which was presented to the university by that Reformer. - - A catalogue of the MSS. has been published in 4 vols. (1856-1861), and - this has been followed up by the publication of a number of separate - catalogues of Persian, Syriac, Hebrew, Chinese, &c., MSS. There is no - published catalogue of the books, although the catalogue is in print, - the accessions being printed and cut up and arranged in volumes. A - catalogue of English books before 1640 is in course of publication. - The regulations of the library with regard to the lending of books are - very liberal, as many as ten volumes being allowed out to one borrower - at the same time. The annual income is about L7000. - -There is a library attached to the Fitzwilliam Museum, bequeathed to the -university in 1816. It consists of the entire library of Lord -Fitzwilliam, with the addition of an archaeological library bought from -the executors of Colonel Leake, and a small number of works, chiefly on -the history of art, since added by purchase or bequest. It contains a -collection of engravings of old masters, a collection of music, printed -and MS., and a collection of illuminated MSS., chiefly French and -Flemish, of the 14th to 16th centuries. The books are not allowed to be -taken out. Catalogues and reprints of some of the music and other -collections have been published. - - The library of Trinity College, which is contained in a magnificent - hall built by Sir Christopher Wren, has about 90,000 printed and 1918 - MS. vols., and is especially strong in theology, classics and - bibliography. It owes to numerous gifts and bequests the possession of - a great number of rare books and manuscripts. Amongst these special - collections are the Capell collection of early dramatic and especially - Shakespearian literature, the collection of German theology and - philosophy bequeathed by Archdeacon Hare, and the Grylls bequest in - 1863 of 9600 vols., including many early printed books. There are - printed catalogues of the Sanskrit and other Oriental MSS. by Dr - Aufrecht and Professor Palmer, and of the incunabula by the late - librarian, Mr Sinker. The library is open to all members of the - college, and the privilege of using it is liberally extended to - properly accredited students. One of the most interesting libraries - is that of Trinity Hall, in which the original bookcases and benches - are preserved, and many books are seen chained to the cases, as used - formerly to be the practice. - - None of the other college libraries rivals Trinity in the number of - books. The library of Christ's College received its first books from - the foundress. Clare College Library includes a number of Italian and - Spanish plays of the end of the 16th century left by George Ruggle. - The library of Corpus Christi College first became notable through the - bequest of books and MSS. made by Archbishop Parker in 1575. The - printed books are less than 5000 in number, and the additions now made - are chiefly in such branches as throw light on the extremely valuable - collection of ancient MSS., which attracts scholars from all parts of - Europe. There is a printed catalogue of these MSS. Gonville and Caius - College Library is of early foundation. A catalogue of the MSS. was - printed in 1849, with pictorial illustrations, and a list of the - incunabula in 1850. The printed books of King's College includes the - fine collection bequeathed by Jacob Bryant in 1804. The MSS. are - almost wholly Oriental, chiefly Persian and Arabic, and a catalogue of - them has been printed. Magdalene College possesses the curious library - formed by Pepys and bequeathed by him to the college, together with - his collections of prints and drawings and of rare British portraits. - It is remarkable for its treasures of popular literature and English - ballads, as well as for the Scottish manuscript poetry collected by - Sir Richard Maitland. The books are kept in Pepys's own cases, and - remain just as he arranged them himself. The library Of Peterhouse is - the oldest library in Cambridge, and possesses a catalogue of some 600 - or 700 books dating from 1418, in which year it was completed. It is - chiefly theological, though it possesses a valuable collection of - modern works on geology and natural science, and a unique collection - of MS. music. Queen's College Library contains about 30,000 vols. - mainly in theology, classics and Semitic literature, and has a printed - class-catalogue. The library of St John's College is rich in early - printed books, and possesses a large collection of English historical - tracts. Of the MSS. and rare books there is a printed catalogue. - - - London. - -The library of the university of London, founded in 1837, has over -60,000 vols, and includes the Goldsmith Library of economic literature, -numbering 30,000 vols. Other collections are De Morgan's collection of -mathematical books, Grote's classical library, &c. There is a printed -catalogue of 1897, with supplements. Since its removal to South -Kensington, this library has been greatly improved and extended. -University College Library, Gower Street, established in 1829, has close -upon 120,000 vols. made up chiefly of separate collections which have -been acquired from time to time. Many of these collections overlap, and -much duplicating results, leading to congestion. These collections -include Jeremy Bentham's library, Morrison's Chinese library, Barlow's -Dante library, collections of law, mathematical, Icelandic, theological, -art, oriental and other books, some of them of great value. - -King's College Library, founded in 1828, has over 30,000 vols. chiefly -of a scientific character. In close association with the university of -London is the London School of Economics and Political Science in Clare -Market, in which is housed the British Library of Political Science with -50,000 vols. and a large number of official reports and pamphlets. - -The collegiate library at Dulwich dates from 1619, and a list of its -earliest accessions, in the handwriting of the founder, may still be -seen. There are now about 17,000 vols. of miscellaneous works of the -17th and 18th centuries, with a few rare books. A catalogue of them was -printed in 1880; and one describing the MSS. (567) and the muniments -(606) was issued during the succeeding year. The last two classes are -very important, and include the well-known "Alleyn Papers" and the -theatrical diary of Philip Henslow. Sion College is a gild of the -parochial clergy of the city and suburbs of London, and the library was -founded in 1629 for their use; laymen may also read (but not borrow) the -books when recommended by some beneficed metropolitan clergyman. The -library is especially rich in liturgies, Port-Royal authors, pamphlets, -&c., and contains about 100,000 vols. classified on a modification of -the Decimal system. The copyright privilege was commuted in 1835 for an -annual sum of L363, 15s. 2d. The present building was opened in 1886 and -is one of the striking buildings of the Victoria Embankment. - - Most of the London collegiate or teaching institutions have libraries - attached to them, and it will only be necessary to mention a few of - the more important to get an idea of their variety: Baptist College - (1810), 13,000 vols.; Bedford College (for women), 17,000 vols.; - Birkbeck College (1823), 12,000 vols.; Congregational Library - (1832-1893), 14,000 vols.; the Royal College of Music, containing the - library of the defunct Sacred Harmonic Society; Royal Naval College - (Greenwich, 1873), 7000 vols.; St Bartholomew's Hospital (1422), - 15,000 vols.; St Paul's School (1509), 10,000 vols.; the Working Men's - College (1854), 5000 vols.; and all the Polytechnic schools in the - Metropolitan area. - - - English provinces. - -The university library of Durham (1832) contains about 35,000 vols., and -all the modern English universities--Birmingham, Mason University -College (1880), 27,000 vols.; Leeds, Liverpool (1882), 56,000 vols.; -Manchester, Victoria University, which absorbed Owens College (1851), -115,000 vols.; Newcastle-upon-Tyne; Sheffield (1907), &c.--have -collections of books. The libraries in connexion with theological -colleges and public schools throughout England are often quite -extensive, and reference may be made to Eton College (1441), 25,000 -vols.; Haileybury (1862), 12,000 vols.; Harrow (Vaughan Library), 12,000 -vols.; Mill Hill; Oscott College, Erdington (1838), 36,000 vols.; Rugby -(1878), 8000 vols.; Stonyhurst College (1794), c. 40,000 vols., &c. The -new building for the university of Wales at Bangor has ample -accommodation for an adequate library, and the University College at -Aberystwith is also equipped with a library. - - - Scotland. - -The origin of the University Library of Edinburgh is to be found in a -bequest of his books of theology and law made to the town in 1580 by -Clement Little, advocate. This was two years before the foundation of -the university, and in 1584 the town council caused the collection to be -removed to the college, of which they were the patrons. As it was the -only library in the town, it continued to grow and received many -benefactions, so that in 1615 it became necessary to erect a library -building. Stimulated perhaps by the example of Bodley at Oxford, -Drummond of Hawthornden made a large donation of books, of which he -printed a catalogue in 1627, and circulated an appeal for assistance -from others. In 1678 the library received a bequest of 2000 vols. from -the Rev. James Nairne. In 1709 the library became entitled to the copy -privilege, which has since been commuted for a payment of L575 per -annum. In 1831 the books were removed to the present library buildings, -for which a parliamentary grant had been obtained. The main library hall -(190 ft. in length) is one of the most splendid apartments in Scotland. -One of the rooms is set apart as a memorial to General Reid, by whose -benefaction the library has greatly benefited. Amongst the more recent -accessions have been the Halliwell-Phillips Shakespeare collection, the -Laing collection of Scottish MSS., the Baillie collection of Oriental -MSS. (some of which are of great value), and the Hodgson collection of -works on political economy. The library now consists of about 210,000 -vols. of printed books with over 2000 MSS. Recently it has been found -necessary to make considerable additions to the shelving. The library of -the university of Glasgow dates from the 15th century, and numbers -George Buchanan and many other distinguished men amongst its early -benefactors. A classified subject-catalogue has been printed, and there -is also a printed dictionary catalogue. The annual accessions are about -1500, and the commutation-grant L707. Connected with the university, -which is trustee for the public, is the library of the Hunterian Museum, -formed by the eminent anatomist Dr William Hunter. It is a collection of -great bibliographical interest, as it is rich in MSS. and in fine -specimens of early printing, especially in Greek and Latin classics. -There are about 200,000 vols. in the library. - - The first mention of a library at St Andrews is as early as 1456. The - three colleges were provided with libraries of their own about the - time of their foundation--St Salvator's 1455, St Leonard's 1512, St - Mary's 1537. The University Library was established about 1610 by King - James VI., and in the course of the 18th century the college libraries - were merged in it. The copyright privilege was commuted in 1837. The - collection numbers 120,000 vols. exclusive of pamphlets, with about - 200 MSS., chiefly of local interest. A library is supposed to have - existed at Aberdeen since the foundation of King's College by Bishop - Elphinstone in 1494. The present collection combines the libraries of - King's College and Marischal College, now incorporated in the - university. The latter had its origin in a collection of books formed - by the town authorities at the time of the Reformation, and for some - time kept in one of the churches. The library has benefited by the - Melvin bequest, chiefly of classical books, and those of Henderson and - Wilson, and contains some very valuable books. The general library is - located in Old Aberdeen in a room of imposing design, while the - medical and law books are in the New Town in Marischal College. The - library has a grant, in lieu of the copyright privilege, of L320. The - annual income of the library is L2500, and it contains over 180,000 - vols. The books are classified on a modification of the decimal - system, and there are printed author and MS. subject-catalogues. By - arrangement with the municipal library authority, books are lent to - non-students. All the technical schools, public schools, and - theological and other colleges in Scotland are well equipped with - libraries as the following list will show:--Aberdeen: Free Church - College, 17,000 vols. Edinburgh: Fettes College, c. 5000 vols.; - Heriot's Hospital (1762), c. 5000 vols.; New College (1843), 50,000 - vols. Glasgow: Anderson's College (containing the valuable Euing music - library), 16,000 vols.; United Free Church Theological College, 33,000 - vols. Trinity College, Glenalmond, 5000 vols. - - - Ireland. - -The establishment of the library of Trinity College, Dublin, is -contemporaneous with that of the Bodleian at Oxford, and it is an -interesting circumstance that, when Challoner and Ussher (afterwards the -archbishop) were in London purchasing books to form the library, they -met Bodley there, and entered into friendly intercourse and co-operation -with him to procure the choicest and best books. The commission was -given to Ussher and Challoner as trustees of the singular donation which -laid the foundation of the library. In the year 1601 the English army -determined to commemorate their victory over the Spanish troops at -Kinsale by some permanent monument. Accordingly they subscribed the sum -of L1800 to establish a library in the university of Dublin. For -Ussher's own collection, consisting of 10,000 vols. and many valuable -MSS., the college was also indebted to military generosity. On his death -in 1655 the officers and soldiers of the English army then in Ireland -purchased the whole collection for L22,000 with the design of presenting -it to the college. Cromwell, however, interfered, alleging that he -proposed to found a new college, where the books might more conveniently -be preserved. They were deposited therefore in Dublin Castle, and the -college only obtained them after the Restoration. In 1674 Sir Jerome -Alexander left his law books with some valuable MSS. to the college. In -1726 Dr Palliser, archbishop of Cashel, bequeathed over 4000 vols. to -the library; and ten years later Dr Gilbert gave the library nearly -13,000 vols. which he had himself collected and arranged. In 1745 the -library received a valuable collection of MSS. as a bequest from Dr -Stearne. In 1802 the collection formed by the pensionary Fagel, which -had been removed to England on the French invasion of Holland, was -acquired for L10,000. It consisted of over 20,000 vols. In 1805 Mr Quin -bequeathed a choice collection of classical and Italian books. There -have been many other smaller donations, in addition to which the library -is continually increased by the books received under the Copyright Act. -The library now contains 300,000 vols. and over 2000 MSS. There is no -permanent endowment, and purchases are made by grants from the board. -The whole collections are contained in one building, erected in 1732, -consisting of eight rooms. The great library hall is a magnificent -apartment over 200 ft. long. A new reading-room was opened in 1848. A -catalogue of the books acquired before 1872 has been printed (1887). -There is a printed catalogue of the MSS. and Incunabula (1890). -Graduates of Dublin, Oxford, and Cambridge are admitted to read -permanently, and temporary admission is granted by the board to any fit -person who makes application. - - The library of Queen's College, Belfast (1849), contains about 60,000 - vols., while Queen's College, Cork (1849), has over 32,000 vols. St - Patrick's College, Maynooth (1795), has about 60,000, and other - collegiate libraries are well supplied with books. - - - Cathedral and church libraries. - -With one or two exceptions, libraries are attached to the cathedrals of -England and Wales. Though they are of course intended for the use of the -cathedral or diocesan clergy, they are in most cases open to any -respectable person who may be properly introduced. They seldom contain -very much modern literature, chiefly consisting of older theology, with -more or less addition of classical and historical literature. They vary -in extent from a few volumes, as at Llandaff or St David's, to 20,000 -vols., as at Durham. Together they possess nearly 150,000 printed and -manuscript vols. As a rule, very little is spent upon them, and they are -very little used. The chamber in the old cloisters, in which the library -of the dean and chapter of Westminster is preserved, is well known from -the charming description by Washington Irving in his _Sketch Book_. -There are about 14,000 vols., mostly of old theology and history, -including many rare Bibles and other valuable books. The library of the -dean and chapter of St Paul's Cathedral was founded in very early times, -and now numbers some 22,000 vols. and pamphlets, mainly theological, -with a good collection of early Bibles and Testaments, Paul's Cross -Sermons, and works connected with the cathedral. - -Perhaps the best library of Catholic theology in London is that of the -Oratory at South Kensington, established in 1849, and now containing -nearly 35,000 vols. The Catholic Cathedral of Westminster, of recent -foundation, contains about 22,000 vols. The archiepiscopal library at -Lambeth was founded in 1610 by Archbishop Bancroft, and has been -enriched by the gifts of Laud, Tenison, Manners Sutton, and others of -his successors; it is now lodged in the noble hall built by Juxon. The -treasures consist of the illuminated MSS., and a rich store of early -printed books; of the latter two catalogues have been issued by Samuel -Roffey Maitland (1792-1866). The MSS. are described in H. J. Todd's -catalogue, 1812. The total number of printed books and manuscripts is -nearly 45,000. - - The library of Christ Church, Oxford, belongs alike to the college and - the cathedral, but will be more properly described as a college - library. The cathedral library of Durham dates from monastic times, - and possesses many of the books which belonged to the monastery. These - were added to by Dean Sudbury, the second founder of the library, and - Bishop Cosin. The collection has been considerably increased in more - modern times, and now contains 15,000 vols. It is especially rich in - MSS., some of which are of great beauty and value; a catalogue of them - was printed in 1825. The library has good topographical and - entomological collections. The chapter spend L370 per annum in - salaries and in books. The library at York numbers about 11,000 vols., - and has been very liberally thrown open to the public. It is kept in - the former chapel of the archbishop's palace, and has many valuable - MSS. and early printed books. The foundation of the library at - Canterbury dates probably from the Roman mission to England, A.D. 596, - although the library does not retain any of the books then brought - over, or even of the books said to have been sent by Pope Gregory to - the first archbishop in 601. It is recorded that among Lanfranc's - buildings was a new library, and Becket is said to have collected - books abroad to present to the library. The collection now numbers - about 9900 printed books, with about 110 MS. vols., and between 6000 - and 7000 documents. A catalogue was printed in 1802. The present - building was erected in 1867 on part of the site of the monastic - dormitory. The library at Lincoln contains 7400 vols., of which a - catalogue was printed in 1859. It possesses a fine collection of - political tracts of the age of Elizabeth, James and Charles I. The - present collection at Chichester dates from the Restoration only; that - at Ely is rich in books and tracts relating to the non-jurors. The - library at Exeter possesses many Saxon MSS. of extreme interest, one - of them being the gift of Leofric, the first bishop. The treasures of - Lichfield were destroyed by the Puritans during the civil war, and the - existing library is of later formation. Frances, duchess of Somerset, - bequeathed to it nearly 1000 vols., including the famous Evangeliary - of St Chad. The collection at Norwich is chiefly modern, and was - presented by Dr Sayers. The earlier library at Peterborough having - almost wholly perished in the civil war, Bishop White Kennett became - the virtual founder of the present collection. Salisbury is rich in - incunabula, and a catalogue has recently been printed. Winchester - Cathedral Library is mainly the bequest of Bishop Morley in the 17th - century. The library at Bristol, then numbering 6000 or 7000 vols., - was burnt and pillaged by the mob in the riots of 1831. Only about - 1000 vols. were saved, many of which were recovered, but few additions - have been made to them. At Chester in 1691 Dean Arderne bequeathed his - books and part of his estate "as the beginning of a public library for - the clergy and city." The library of Hereford is a good specimen of an - old monastic library; the books are placed in the Lady Chapel, and - about 230 choice MSS. are chained to oaken desks. The books are ranged - with the edges outwards upon open shelves, to which they are attached - by chains and bars. Another most interesting "chained" library is that - at Wimborne Minster, Dorset, which contains about 280 books in their - original condition. The four Welsh cathedrals were supplied with - libraries by a deed of settlement in 1709. The largest of them, that - of St Asaph, has about 1750 vols. The Bibliotheca Leightoniana, or - Leightonian Library, founded by Archbishop Leighton in 1684 in - Dunblane Cathedral, Scotland, contains about 2000 vols., and is the - only cathedral library in Scotland of any historic interest. The - library of St Benedict's Abbey, Fort Augustus (1878) with 20,000 vols. - is an example of a recent foundation. The public library in St - Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, sometimes called Marsh's Library after - its founder, was established about 1694 by Archbishop Marsh, was - incorporated by act of parliament in 1707, and endowed by its founder - at his death in 1713. The building was erected by the founder, and the - original oak fittings still remain. There is no room for additions, - and a large collection of modern books was refused a few years ago on - that account. The endowment is too small to allow of purchases from - the funds of the library, so that it still retains the character of a - 17th-century library. The books are chiefly theological, and in the - learned languages; they include the libraries of Bishop Stillingfleet - and of Elias Bouhereau, a French refugee, who was the first librarian. - - - Endowed libraries. - -Endowed libraries may be defined as those which have been directly -established by the bequests of individuals or corporate bodies, -excluding those which have been assisted by donors or are merely named -after them. As compared with the United States, the endowed libraries of -Britain are few in number, although several are of great importance. -London possesses very few libraries which have been endowed by -individual donors. The principal are the Bishopsgate Institute (1891), -which was founded out of sundry City of London charities, and now -contains about 44,000 vols., and is celebrated for a fine collection of -local prints, drawings and maps. It is open free to persons in the east -part of the City. The Cripplegate Institute (1896) in Golden Lane, also -founded out of charity moneys, has three branches--St Bride's Foundation -Institute (18,000 vols.), jointly; Queen Street, Cheapside, Branch (8000 -vols.); and St Luke's Institute (5000 vols.)--and contains 28,000 vols. -Lectures and other entertainments are features of both these libraries. -Dr Williams' library was founded by the will of an eminent Presbyterian -divine of that name; it was opened in 1729. The books (50,000) are -housed in a new building in Gordon Square, completed in 1873. Theology -of all schools of opinion is represented, and there are special -collections of theosophical books and MSS., the works of Boehme, Law, -and other mystical writers. The MSS. include the original minutes of the -Westminster Assembly, letters and treatises of Richard Baxter, &c. The -St Bride Foundation Technical Reference Library (1895) is a very -complete collection of books and specimens of printing and the allied -arts, including the libraries of William Blades and Talbot Baines Reed, -and a number of more modern books presented by Mr Passmore Edwards. It -contains about 18,000 vols., and is open to all persons interested in -printing, lithography, &c., and also to the general public. - - The most notable of the English provincial endowed libraries are those - established in Manchester. The fine old library established by - Humphrey Chetham in 1653 is still housed in the old collegiate - buildings where Sir Walter Raleigh was once entertained by Dr Dee. The - collection consists largely of older literature, and numbers about - 60,000 volumes and MSS. It is freely open to the public, and may be - said to have been the first free library in England. Catalogues in - broad classified form were issued in 1791-1863, and there have been - supplements since. A remarkable instance of a great library - established by private munificence is that of the John Rylands Library - at Manchester, which was founded, erected and endowed by Mrs E. A. - Rylands in memory of her husband, and is contained in a magnificent - building designed by Basil Champneys and opened in 1899. The - collection was formed largely on the famous Althorp Library, made by - Earl Spencer (40,000 vols.), one of the most remarkable collections of - early printed books and rare Bibles ever brought together. The present - number of volumes is about 115,000, of which over 2500 are incunabula. - A short-title catalogue, 3 vols. 4to., and one of English books, have - been published, and a manuscript dictionary catalogue has been - provided. Several valuable special catalogues and descriptive lists - have been issued, one of the latest being a special catalogue of the - architectural works contained in all the Manchester libraries. - - The William Salt Library, a special Staffordshire library with - numerous MSS. and other collections, formed to bring together - materials for a history of Staffordshire, was opened to the public in - 1874 in the town of Stafford. It contains nearly 20,000 books, prints - and other items. - - Other endowed libraries in the English provinces which deserve mention - are the Bingham Public Library (1905) at Cirencester; the Guille-Alles - Library (1856), Guernsey; St Deiniol's Library (1894), Hawarden, - founded by William Ewart Gladstone, the great statesman; and the - Shakespeare Memorial Library and theatre (1879) at - Stratford-upon-Avon. - - The most important endowed library in Scotland is the Mitchell Library - in Glasgow, founded by Stephen Mitchell, tobacco-manufacturer (1874), - who left L70,000 for the purpose. It was opened in 1877 in temporary - premises, and after various changes will soon be transferred to a very - fine new building specially erected. It contains some very valuable - special collections, among which may be mentioned Scottish poetry, - Burns' works, Glasgow books and printing, and a choice collection of - fine books on art and other subjects given by Robert Jeffrey. It - contains nearly 200,000 vols. and is the reference library for the - Glasgow public library system. Another older Glasgow public library, - also founded by a tobacco merchant, is Stirling's and Glasgow Public - Library (1791), which was endowed by Walter Stirling, and amalgamated - with an existing subscription library. It contains 60,000 vols. and is - free to reference readers, but a subscription is charged for borrowing - privileges. Still another Glasgow institution is Baillie's Institution - Free Reference Library, established under the bequest of George - Baillie (1863), but not opened till 1887. It contains over 24,000 - vols. Other Scottish endowed libraries are the Anderson Library, - Woodside, Aberdeen (1883); the Taylor Free Library, Crieff (1890); the - Elder Free Library, Govan (1900); and the Chambers Institution, - Peebles (1859), founded by William Chambers, the well-known publisher. - The public library of Armagh, Ireland, was founded by Lord Primate - Robinson in 1770, who gave a considerable number of books and an - endowment. The books are freely available, either on the spot, or by - loan on deposit of double the value of the work applied for. - - - Libraries of societies and learned bodies. - -There are many libraries belonging to societies devoted to the study of -every kind of subject, and it is only necessary to mention a few of the -principal. Full particulars of most of them will be found in Reginald A. -Rye's _Libraries of London: a Guide for Students_ (1910), a work of -accuracy and value. - - Of the law libraries, that at Lincoln's Inn, London, is the oldest and - the largest. It dates from 1497, when John Nethersale, a member of the - society, made a bequest of forty marks, part of which was to be - devoted to the building of a library for the benefit of the students - of the laws of England. A catalogue of the printed books was published - in 1859 and since supplemented, and the MSS. were catalogued by the - Rev. Joseph Hunter in 1837. There are about 72,000 vols. The library - of the Inner Temple is known to have existed in 1540. In the middle of - the 17th century it received a considerable benefaction from William - Petyt, the well-known keeper of the Tower records. There are now about - 60,000 vols., including the pamphlets collected by John Adolphus for - his _History of England_, books on crime and prisons brought together - by Mr Crawford, and a selection of works on jurisprudence made by John - Austin. A library in connexion with the Middle Temple was in existence - during the reign of Henry VIII., but the date usually assigned to its - foundation is 1641, when Robert Ashley left his books to the inn of - which he had been a member. There are now about 50,000 vols. Gray's - Inn Library (21,000 vols.) was perhaps established before 1555. In - 1669 was made the first catalogue of the books, and the next, still - extant, in 1689. The Law Society (1828) has a good law and general - library (50,000 vols.), including the best collection of private acts - of parliament in England. The library of the Royal Society (1667), now - housed in Burlington House, contains over 80,000 vols., of which many - are the transactions and other publications of scientific bodies. The - Royal Institution of Great Britain (1803) possesses a reference - library of 60,000 vols. Some of its early catalogues were in - classified form. The London Institution (1805), in the City, is a - general library of reference and lending books open to members only. - There are about 150,000 vols., and lectures are given in connexion - with the institution. The Royal Society of Arts has a library - numbering about 11,000 vols., chiefly the publications of other - learned bodies. - - The best library of archaeology and kindred subjects is that of the - Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House, consisting of nearly 40,000 - printed vols. and many MSS. It is rich in early printed books, - topography, heraldry and numismatics, and includes a curious - collection of books on pageants presented by Mr Fairholt, and the - remarkable assemblage of lexicographical works formerly belonging to - Albert Way. - - Of libraries devoted to the natural sciences may be mentioned those of - the Geological Society of London (1807), with over 30,000 vols. and - maps; the Linnean Society (1788), 35,000 vols.; the Zoological Society - (1829), about 31,000 vols. Of libraries associated with medicine there - are those of the Royal Society of Medicine (1907), incorporating a - number of medical societies, over 95,000 vols., about to be housed in - a new building; the Royal College of Physicians (1525), 26,000 vols.; - the British Medical Association, 20,000 vols.; the Royal College of - Surgeons of England (1800), 60,000 vols., with a MS. catalogue on - cards; the Chemical Society (1841), over 25,000 vols.; and the - Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (1841), about 15,000 vols. - Other important London society libraries are--the Royal Geographical - Society (1830), 50,000 vols., and numerous maps in a special room, - open to the public for reference; the Royal Colonial Institute (1868), - 70,000 vols. of British colonial literature; the Royal United Service - Institution, Whitehall (1831), has 32,000 works on military and naval - subjects and a museum. Large and interesting collections of books are - owned by the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Institution of - Civil Engineers, the Institution of Electrical Engineers (containing - the Ronalds Library), the Royal Academy, the Royal Institute of - British Architects, and practically every other working society in - London. - - The English provincial libraries connected with societies or learned - bodies are mostly attached to those concerned with law, medicine, and - various antiquarian, literary and scientific subjects. The - headquarters of most national societies being in London to some extent - accounts for the comparatively small number of these special libraries - in the provinces. - - The most important libraries of this description outside London are - situated in Scotland and Ireland, and one at least is practically a - national collection. - - The principal library in Scotland is that of the Faculty of Advocates - at Edinburgh, who in 1680 appointed a committee of their number, which - reported that "it was fitt that, seeing if the recusants could be made - pay their entire money, there wold be betwixt three thousand and four - thousand pounds in cash; that the same be imployed on the best and - fynest lawers and other law bookes, conforme to a catalogue to be - condescended upon by the Facultie, that the samen may be a fonde for - ane Bibliothecque whereto many lawers and others may leave their - books." In 1682 the active carrying out of the scheme was committed to - the Dean of Faculty, Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, who may be - regarded as the founder of the library. In 1684 the first librarian - was appointed, and the library appears to have made rapid progress, - since it appears from the treasurer's accounts that in 1686 the books - and furniture were valued at upwards of L11,000 Scots, exclusive of - donations. In the year 1700, the rooms in the Exchange Stairs, - Parliament Close, in which the library was kept, being nearly - destroyed by fire the collection was removed to the ground floor of - the Parliament House, where it has ever since remained. The library - retains the copyright privilege conferred upon it in 1709. Of the - special collections the most important are the Astorga collection of - old Spanish books, purchased by the faculty in 1824 for L4000; the - Thorkelin collection, consisting of about 1200 vols., relating chiefly - to the history and antiquities of the northern nations, and including - some rare books on old Scottish poetry; the Dietrich collection of - over 100,000 German pamphlets and dissertations, including many of the - writings of Luther and Melanchthon, purchased for the small sum of - L80; and the Combe collection. - - The faculty appear early to have turned their attention to the - collection of MSS., and this department of the library now numbers - about 3000 vols. Many of them are of great interest and value, - especially for the civil and ecclesiastical history of Scotland before - and after the Reformation. There are thirteen monastic chartularies - which escaped the destruction of the religious houses to which they - belonged. The MSS. relating to Scottish church history include the - collections of Spottiswoode, Wodrow and Calderwood. The Wodrow - collection consists of 154 vols., and includes his correspondence, - extending from 1694 to 1726. Sir James Balfour's collection and the - Balcarres papers consist largely of original state papers, and include - many interesting royal letters of the times of James V., Queen Mary - and James VI. The Sibbald papers, numbering over 30 vols., are largely - topographical. The Riddel notebooks, numbering 156 vols., contain - collections to illustrate the genealogy of Scottish families. There - are about one hundred volumes of Icelandic MSS., purchased in 1825 - from Professor Finn Magnusson, and some Persian and Sanskrit, with a - few classical, manuscripts. The department has some interesting - treasures of old poetry, extending to 73 vols. The most important are - the Bannatyne MS., in 2 vols. folio, written by George Bannatyne in - 1568, and the Auchinleck MS., a collection of ancient English poetry, - named after Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck, who presented it in 1774. - - The first catalogue of the printed books was compiled in 1692, and - contains a preface by Sir George Mackenzie. Another was prepared under - the care of Ruddiman in 1742. In 1853 the late Mr Halkett commenced a - catalogue, which has been printed in 6 vols. 4to, with a supplement, - and includes all the printed books in the library at the end of 1871, - containing about 260,000 entries. The library, managed by a keeper and - staff, under a board of six curators, is easily accessible to all - persons engaged in literary work, and now contains about 500,000 vols. - - The library of the Writers to the Signet was established by the - Society at Edinburgh in 1755. At first it consisted of law books - exclusively, but in 1788 they began to collect the best editions of - works in other departments of literature. During the librarianship of - Macvey Napier (1805-1837) the number of volumes was more than - sextupled, and in 1812 the library was removed to the new hall - adjoining the Parliament House. In 1834 the upper hall was devoted to - the collection. This is a magnificent apartment 142 ft. long, with a - beautiful cupola painted by Stothard. The library now contains over - 110,000 vols. and includes some fine specimens of early printing, as - well as many other rare and costly works. It is especially rich in - county histories and British topography and antiquities. A catalogue - of the law books was printed in 1856. The late David Laing, who became - librarian in 1837, published the first volume of a new catalogue in - 1871, and in 1891 this was completed with a subject index. The books - are lent out to the writers and even to strangers recommended by them. - - The library of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin was established on - the formation of the Academy in 1785 for the purpose of promoting the - study of science, literature and antiquities in Ireland. The library - possesses about 80,000 printed vols. and MSS. There is a large - collection of MSS. and books relating to the history, ancient - language, and antiquities of Ireland. They include the Betham - collection, acquired partly by public subscription in 1851. The - library is partly supported by a government grant and is freely open - on a proper introduction. The publication of Irish MSS. in the library - was begun in 1870, and has since continued; the general catalogue is - in manuscript form. - - The library of King's Inns was founded, pursuant to a bequest of books - and legal MSS. under the will of Mr Justice Robinson in 1787, to form - the nucleus of a library for law students. It is partly supported from - the funds of the benchers, but partly also by a treasury grant in lieu - of the copyright privilege. - - It is needless to describe the other society libraries, as most of - them are described in annuals like the _Literary Year-book_ and - similar publications, with statistics of stock, issues, &c., brought - up to date. - - - Proprietary and subscription libraries. - -Proprietary and subscription libraries were at one time more common than -now, as, owing to the steady advance of the municipal library, the minor -subscription libraries have been gradually extinguished. A striking -example of this is furnished by the mechanics' institutes which used to -flourish all over the country. In most cases these have been handed over -to the local authorities by the owners to form the nucleus of the public -rate-supported library, and in this way the older libraries have been -preserved and valuable aid has been given to the popular library -movement. Somewhat akin to the mechanics' institutes are the libraries -established in connexion with various co-operative societies in the -north of England. Together with working men's club libraries, there must -be nearly 100 libraries of the class just mentioned, ranging in size -from a few hundred vols. to 30,000 or 40,000 vols. The affiliated clubs -of the Working Men's Club and Institute Union possess among them over -100,000 vols. - -Among subscription libraries, the London Library stands first in order -of importance. It was founded in 1841 as a lending library for the use -of scholars, and Dean Milman, Sir G. C. Lewis, W. E. Gladstone, Thomas -Carlyle, Henry Hallam and other eminent men took part in its formation. -By means of a moderate subscription, funds were raised for the purchase -of books on general subjects, which now amount to about 250,000 vols. Of -these elaborate and excellent author and subject catalogues have been -printed. The last is valuable as a classified guide to the contents of -the library. - - Some mention should be made also of the more important subscription or - proprietary libraries, which were formed for the most part in the - latter half of the 18th century. The earliest circulating library in - the metropolis was established about the middle of the 18th century. - The first in Birmingham was opened by Hutton in 1757. The idea of a - proprietary library appears to have been first carried out at - Liverpool in 1758. The library then formed still flourishes at the - Lyceum, and possesses a collection of 55,000 vols. and an income of - L1000 a year. In 1760 a library was formed at Warrington which has - been merged in the Warrington Museum. The Leeds library was - established in 1768, and now has 64,000 vols. In 1772 the Bristol - museum and library was formed, and numbered Coleridge, Southey and - Landor among its earlier members. It has now been merged in the - reference collection of the Bristol public libraries. The Birmingham - (old) library was formed in 1779, and its rules were drawn up by Dr - Priestley. The library has now about 80,000 vols. - - Other English proprietary libraries have been established at - Leicester, Liverpool (Athenaeum, 1798), Manchester, Nottingham and - elsewhere. In Scotland the first subscription library was started by - Allan Ramsay, the poet, at Edinburgh in 1725, and since that time - commercial subscription libraries have increased greatly in number and - size, Mudie's and _The Times_ Book Club being typical modern examples. - - - Club libraries. - -Many of the principal clubs possess libraries; that of the Athenaeum -(London) is by far the most important. It now numbers about 75,000 vols. -of books in all departments of literature, and is especially rich in -well-bound and fine copies of works on the fine arts, archaeology, -topography and history. The pamphlets, of which there is a complete -printed catalogue, as well as of the books, form a remarkable series, -including those collected by Gibbon and Mackintosh. Next comes the -Reform Club, with about 60,000 vols., chiefly in belles-lettres, with a -fair proportion of parliamentary and historical works. The National -Liberal Club, containing the Gladstone Library, has about 45,000 vols., -and may be used occasionally by non-members. The Oxford and Cambridge -Club has 30,000 vols. in general and classical literature. At the -Garrick there is a small dramatic collection; and the (Senior) United -Service Club, besides a number of books on professional subjects, -possesses the fine library which formerly belonged to Dugald Stewart. - - Other London clubs which possess libraries are the Carlton with 25,000 - vols.; the Constitutional with 12,000 vols.; Grand Lodge of - Freemasons, 10,000 vols.; Alpine, 5000 vols.; Travellers, 8000 vols.; - and Junior Carlton, 6000 vols. In the provinces and in Scotland and - Ireland every club of a social character has a reading-room, and in - most cases a library is attached. - - - Municipal libraries. - -The first act of parliament authorizing the establishment of public -libraries in England was obtained by William Ewart, M.P. for the -Dumfries Burghs, in 1850. This arose out of the report of a special -parliamentary committee appointed to enquire into the management of the -British Museum in 1835, and a more general report on libraries in 1849, -at which much evidence was submitted to prove the necessity for -providing public libraries. Ewart obtained both committees and also, in -1845, procured an act for "encouraging the establishment of museums in -large towns." Neither the 1845 nor 1850 acts proved effective, owing -chiefly to the limitation of the library rate to (1/2)d. in the L of -rental, which produced in most cases an insufficient revenue. In 1853 -the Library Act of 1850 was extended to Ireland and Scotland, and in -1854 Scotland obtained an act increasing the rate limit from (1/2)d. to -1d. in the L. In 1855 Ireland also obtained a penny rate, and later in -the same year England obtained the same power by an act which remained -the principal library act, with some intermediate amendments, till 1892, -when a Public Library Consolidation Act was passed. In the following -year, 1893, the power of adopting the acts, or putting them in -operation, was transferred from the ratepayers to the local authority, -save in the case of rural parishes and the metropolitan vestries. By the -London Government Act of 1899, however, the metropolitan boroughs were -given the power of adopting the acts of 1892-1893 without consulting the -ratepayers, so that as the law at present stands, any urban district can -put the public libraries acts in force without reference to the voters. -Rural parishes are still required by the provisions of the Local -Government Act 1894 to adopt the 1892 Libraries Act by means of a parish -meeting, or if a poll is demanded, by means of a poll of the voters. - - The main points in British library legislation are as follows:-- - - (a) The acts are permissive in character and not compulsory, and can - only be put in force by a vote of a majority of members in an urban - district or city, or of a majority of voters in rural districts. - - (b) The amount of rate which can be collected is limited to one penny - in the pound of the rateable value of the district, though in some - towns power has been obtained by special legislation for local - purposes to increase the amount to 2d. In a few cases, as at - Birmingham, no limit is fixed. The incomes produced by the penny in - the pound range from less than L10 in a rural district to over L25,000 - in a large city. - - (c) Municipal libraries are managed by committees appointed by the - local authorities, who may, if so disposed, delegate to them all their - powers and duties under section 15 of the act of 1892. The local - authorities in England have also power to appoint persons on such - committees who are not members of the council. By the Scottish - principal act of 1887 committees are to consist of one-half - councillors and one-half non-councillors, not to exceed a total of 20, - and these committees become independent bodies not subject to the - councils. Glasgow has contracted out of this arrangement by means of a - special act. In Ireland, committees are appointed much on the same - system as in England. - - (d) Power is given to provide libraries, museums, schools for science, - art galleries, and schools for art. Needless to say it is impossible - to carry on so many departments with the strictly limited means - provided by the acts, although some towns have attempted to do so. The - Museums and Gymnasiums Act of 1891 enables an additional rate of - (1/2)d. to be raised for either purpose, and many places which have - established museums or art galleries under the provisions of the - Libraries Acts have also adopted the Museums Act in order to increase - their revenues. - - (e) The regulation and management of public libraries are entrusted to - the library authority, which may either be the local authority, or a - committee with a full or partial delegation of powers. The library - authority can buy books, periodicals, specimens of art and science, - and make all necessary rules for the proper working of the libraries. - A staff can be appointed, and arrangements may be made with adjoining - local authorities for the joint use of one or more libraries. - Buildings may also be erected, and money borrowed for the purpose on - the security of the local rates. These are the main provisions of the - library legislation of the United Kingdom as at present existing. - Revision and amendment are wanted as regards the abolition or raising - of the rate limitation, and some clearer definitions as to powers - which can be exercised, as, for example, the right to spend money on - lectures. The rate limitation is the most serious obstacle to - progress, and it affects the smaller towns to a much greater degree - than large cities or areas. - -Between 1850 and 1910 about 630 local government areas of all kinds -adopted the Public Libraries Acts. Of these a considerable number had in -1910 not yet put the acts in operation, whilst the London Government Act -1899, by joining various previously independent vestries or boards, -extinguished about 23 library areas. The Metropolitan County of London -in 1910 comprised 25 library areas, or counting also the City, 26, and -only Marylebone, Bethnal Green and parts of Finsbury and Paddington -remained unprovided. Practically every large city or district council -has adopted the Public Libraries Acts or obtained special legislation, -and the only important places, in addition to Marylebone and Bethnal -Green, unprovided in 1910 were Bacup, Crewe, Dover, Jarrow, Scarborough, -Swindon, Weymouth, Llandudno, Govan, Leith, Pollokshaws and Wishaw. In -all, 556 places had library systems in operation, and among them they -possessed about 925 buildings. - - The progress of the public library movement was very slow up to 1887, - the year of Queen Victoria's jubilee. From 1887, however, when many - districts established libraries as memorials to Queen Victoria, the - progress has been much more rapid. An immense stimulus to the movement - was given from about 1900, when Mr Andrew Carnegie (q.v.) began to - present library buildings to towns in England as well as to Scotland - and the United States. The result of this action was to increase the - number of municipal libraries from 146 in 1886 to 556 in 1910; and in - the 10 years up to 1910 during which Mr Carnegie's gifts had been - offered, no fewer than 163 places had put the acts in operation, a - yearly average of over 16 adoptions. - -There is one municipal library whose importance demands special mention, -although it is not rate-supported under the provisions of the Public -Libraries Acts. This is the Guildhall library of the Corporation of the -City of London, which is a free public reference library with a -periodicals reading-room, and a lending department for officials and -members of the corporation. A library was established for London by Sir -Richard Whittington between 1421-1426, and several notices in the civic -records show how well in those times the citizens cared for their books. -But it did not remain without accident; in 1522 the Lord Protector -Somerset carried off three cart-loads of books, and during the great -fire of 1666 the remainder was destroyed together with the library -buildings. Nothing was done to repair the loss until 1824, when a -committee was appointed, and rooms set apart for library purposes. In -1840 a catalogue of 10,000 vols. was printed, and in 1859 a second was -prepared of 40,000 vols. In consequence of the large and increasing -number of the readers, the present fine building was commenced about ten -years later, and, after having cost L90,000, was opened in 1873 as a -free public library. - - There are now upwards of 136,000 printed vols. and 5900 MSS. in the - Guildhall library. The contents are of a general character, and - include a special collection of books about London, the Solomons - Hebrew and rabbinical library, and the libraries of the Clockmakers - Company and the old Dutch church in Austin Friars. Recently the fine - collection of books by and about Charles Dickens, called the National - Dickens Library, was added, and other special libraries of a valuable - nature, as well as an extensive and well-cared-for collection of - London prints, and drawings. - - - British library administration. - -There is such a variety of library buildings in the United Kingdom that -it is not possible to single out examples for special description, but a -brief statement of their work and methods will help to give some idea of -the extent of their activities. - -The total number of borrowers enrolled in 1910 was[11] about 2,200,000, -59% males and 41% females, 48% under 20 years of age and 52% over 20. -Industrial and commercial occupations were followed by 49% of the -borrowers, the balance of 51% being domestic, professional, unstated, -and including 20% of students and scholars. To these borrowers -60,000,000 vols. are circulated every year for home-reading, and of this -large number 54% represented fiction, including juvenile literature. The -Reference libraries issued over 11,000,000 vols., exclusive of books -consulted at open shelves, and to the Reading-rooms, Magazines, -Newspapers, Directories, Time-tables, &c., allowing only one -consultation for each visit, 85,000,000 visits are made per annum. -Allowing 5% for the reading of fiction in current magazines, it appears -that the percentage of fiction read in British municipal libraries, -taking into account the work of every issuing or consulting department, -is only about 24%. This fact should be carefully recorded, as in the -past municipal libraries have suffered in the esteem of all sections of -the public, by being erroneously described as mere centres for the -distribution of common novels. The quality of the fiction selected is -the best obtainable, and, as shown above, it is not read to an -unreasonable or unnecessary extent. - -The changes in character, policy and methods which have marked library -administration in the United Kingdom, have affected libraries of all -kinds, but on the whole the municipal libraries have been most active in -the promotion of improvements. It is evident, moreover, even to the most -casual observer, that a complete revolution in library practice has been -effected since 1882, not only in the details of administration, but in -the initiation of ideas and experiments. One of the most notable changes -has been the gradual disappearance of the unclassified library. Previous -to 1882 very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific -classification schemes equipped with suitable notations, although the -Decimal method of Mr Melvil Dewey had been applied in the United States. -After that date this system began to be adopted for reference -departments in British municipal libraries, till in 1910 at least 120 -places had been classified by means of the scheme. An English scheme, -called the "Adjustable," with a notation, but not fully expanded, has -been adopted in 53 places, and a very complete and minute scheme called -the "Subject," also English, has been used in nearly 40 libraries, -although it only dates from 1906. That much remains to be accomplished -in this direction is indicated by the fact that over 340 municipal -libraries were in 1910 not closely classified, but only arranged in -broad numerical or alphabetical divisions. The adoption of exact schemes -of classification for books in libraries may be said to double their -utility almost mechanically, and in course of time an unclassified -municipal library will be unknown. The other kinds of library--state, -subscription, university, &c.--are very often not classified, but some -use the Decimal system, while others, like the Patent Office, have -systems peculiar to themselves. - -The catalogue, as a means of making known the contents of books, has -also undergone a succession of changes, both in policy and mechanical -construction. At one period, before access to the shelves and other -methods of making known the contents of libraries had become general, -the printed catalogue was relied upon as practically the sole guide to -the books. Many excellent examples of such catalogues exist, in author, -subject and classified form, and some of them are admirable -contributions to bibliography. Within recent years, however, doubts have -arisen in many quarters, both in Europe and America, as to the wisdom of -printing the catalogues of general popular libraries which possess -comparatively few rare or extraordinary books. A complete catalogue of -such a library is out of date the moment it is printed, and in many -cases the cost is very great, while only a small number is sold. For -these and other reasons, modern libraries have begun to compile complete -catalogues only in MS. form, and to issue comparatively cheap -class-lists at intervals, supplemented by monthly or quarterly bulletins -or lists of recent accessions, which in combination will answer most of -the questions likely to be put to a catalogue. Various improvements in -the mechanical construction of manuscript catalogues have contributed to -popularize them, and many libraries use the card, sheaf and other -systems which allow constant and infinite intercalation coupled with -economy and ease in making additions. - -The idea of using separate slips or cards for cataloguing books, in -order to obtain complete powers of arrangement and revision is not new, -having been applied during the French revolutionary period to the -cataloguing of libraries. More recently the system has been applied to -various commercial purposes, such as book-keeping by what is known as -the "loose-leaf ledger," and in this way greater public attention has -been directed to the possibilities of adjustable methods both in -libraries and for business. The card system is perhaps the most -generally used at present, but many improvements in the adjustable -binders, called by librarians the "sheaf system," will probably result -in this latter form becoming a serious rival. The card method consists -of a series of cards in alphabetical or other order kept on edge in -trays or drawers, to which projecting guides are added in order to -facilitate reference. Entries are usually made on one side of the card, -and one card serves for a single entry. The sheaf method provides for -slips of an uniform size being kept in book form in volumes capable of -being opened by means of a screw or other fastening, for the purpose of -adding or withdrawing slips. In addition to the advantage of being in -book-form the sheaf system allows both sides of a slip to be used, while -in many cases from two to twelve entries may be made on one slip. This -is a great economy and leads to considerable saving of space. A great -advantage resulting from the use of an adjustable manuscript catalogue, -in whatever form adopted, is the simplicity with which it can be kept -up-to-date. This is an advantage which in the view of many librarians -outweighs the undoubted valuable qualities of comparative safety and -multiplication of copies possessed by the printed form. There are many -different forms of both card and sheaf systems, and practically every -library now uses one or other of them for cataloguing or indexing -purposes. - -One other modification in connexion with the complete printed catalogue -has been tried with success, and seems worthy of brief mention. After a -complete manuscript catalogue has been provided in sheaf form, a select -or eclectic catalogue is printed, comprising all the most important -books in the library and those that represent special subjects. This, -when supplemented by a printed list or bulletin of additions, seems to -supply every need. - -The most striking tendency of the modern library movement is the great -increase in the freedom allowed to readers both in reference and lending -departments. Although access to the shelves was quite a common feature -in the older subscription libraries, and in state libraries like the -British Museum and Patent Office, it is only within comparatively recent -years that lending library borrowers were granted a similar privilege. -Most municipal reference libraries grant access to a large or small -collection of books, and at Cambridge, Birmingham and elsewhere in the -United Kingdom, the practice is of long standing. So also in the United -States, practically every library has its open shelf collection. On the -continent of Europe, however, this method is not at all general, and -books are guarded with a jealousy which in many cases must militate -against their utility. The first "safe-guarded" open access municipal -lending library was opened at Clerkenwell (now Finsbury), London, in -1893, and since then over one hundred cities and districts of all sizes -in Britain have adopted the system. The British municipal libraries -differ considerably from those of the United States in the safeguards -against abuse which are employed, and the result is that their losses -are insignificant, whilst in America they are sometimes enormous. -Pawtucket and Cleveland in America were pioneers to some extent of the -open shelf system for lending libraries, but the methods employed had -little resemblance to the safe-guarded system of British libraries. The -main features of the British plan are: exact classification; class, -shelf and book guiding; the provision of automatic locking wickets to -regulate the entrance and exit of borrowers, and the rule that borrowers -must be registered before they can obtain admission. This last rule is -not always current in America, and in consequence abuses are liable to -take place. The great majority of British and American libraries, -whether allowing open access or not, use cards for charging or -registering books loaned to borrowers. In the United Kingdom a -considerable number of places still use indicators for this purpose, -although this mechanical method is gradually being restricted to -fiction, save in very small places. - - Other activities of modern libraries which are common to both Britain - and America are courses of lectures, book exhibitions, work with - children, provision of books for the blind and for foreign residents, - travelling libraries and the education of library assistants. In many - of the recent buildings, especially in those erected from the gifts of - Mr Andrew Carnegie, special rooms for lectures and exhibitions and - children are provided. Courses of lectures in connexion with the - Liverpool and Manchester public libraries date from 1860, but during - the years 1900-1910 there was a very great extension of this work. As - a rule these courses are intended to direct attention to the - literature of the subjects treated, as represented in the libraries, - and in this way a certain amount of mutual advantage is secured. In - some districts the libraries work in association with the education - authorities, and thus it is rendered possible to keep schools supplied - with books, over which the teachers are able to exercise supervision. - This connexion between libraries and schools is much less common in - the United Kingdom than in the British colonies and the United States, - where the libraries are regarded as part of the national system of - education. Excellent work has been accomplished within recent years by - the Library Association in the training of librarians, and it is usual - for about 300 candidates to come forward annually for examination in - literary history, bibliography, classification, cataloguing, library - history and library routine for which subjects certificates and - diplomas are awarded. The profession of municipal librarian is not by - any means remunerative as compared with employment in teaching or in - the Civil Service, and until the library rate is increased there is - little hope of improvement. - - The usefulness of public libraries has been greatly increased by the - work of the Library Association, founded in 1877, during the first - International Library Conference held in London in October 1877. A - charter of incorporation was granted to the association in 1898. It - holds monthly and annual meetings, publishes a journal, conducts - examinations, issues certificates, holds classes for instruction, and - has greatly helped to improve the public library law. The Library - Assistants Association (1895) publishes a journal. A second - International Library Conference was held at London in 1897, and a - third at Brussels in 1910. Library associations have been started in - most of the countries of Europe, and the American Library Association, - the largest and most important in existence, was established in 1876. - These associations are giving substantial aid in the development and - improvement of library methods and the status of librarians, and it is - certain that their influence will in time produce a more scientific - and valuable type of library than at present generally exists. - - -_British Colonies and India._ - -The majority of the British Colonies and Dependencies have permissive -library laws on lines very similar to those in force in the mother -country. There are, however, several points of difference which are -worth mention. The rate limit is not so strict in every case, and an -effort is made to bring the libraries into closer relations with the -educational machinery of each colony. There is, for example, no rate -limit in Tasmania; and South Australia may raise a library rate -equivalent to 3d. in the L, although, in both cases, owing to the -absence of large towns, the legislation existing has not been adopted. -In Africa, Australia and Canada the governments make grants to public -libraries up to a certain amount, on condition that the reading-rooms -are open to the public, and some of the legislatures are even in closer -touch with the libraries. The Canadian and Australian libraries are -administered more or less on American lines, whilst those of South -Africa, India, &c., are managed on the plan followed in England. - - -_Africa._ - -There are several important libraries in South Africa, and many small -town libraries which used to receive a government grant equal to the -subscriptions of the members, but in no case did such grants exceed L150 -for any one library in one year. These grants fluctuate considerably -owing to the changes and temper of successive governments, and since the -last war they have been considerably reduced everywhere. One of the -oldest libraries is the South African Public Library at Cape Town -established in 1818, which enjoys the copyright-privilege of receiving -a free copy of every publication issued in Cape Colony. This library -contains the great collection of colonial books bequeathed by Sir George -Grey. The libraries of the various legislatures are perhaps the best -supported and most important, but mention should be made of the public -libraries of Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony, which published an excellent -catalogue, and the public libraries at Kimberley; Durban, Natal; -Bloemfontein, Orange River Colony; Bulawayo, Rhodesia; Johannesburg, -Transvaal; and the public and university libraries at Pretoria. None of -the libraries of North Africa are specially notable, although there are -considerable collections at Cairo and Algiers. - - -_Australasia._ - -All the public libraries, mechanics' institutes, schools of arts and -similar institutes receive aid from the government, either in the form -of grants of money or boxes of books sent from some centre. The public -library of New South Wales, Sydney (1869), which includes the Mitchell -Library of over 50,000 vols., now possesses a total of nearly 250,000 -vols., and circulates books to country libraries, lighthouses and -teachers' associations to the number of about 20,000 vols. per annum. -The public library of Victoria, Melbourne (1853), with about 220,000 -vols., also sends books to 443 country libraries of various kinds, which -among them possess 750,000 vols., and circulate annually considerably -over 2(1/2) million vols. The university library at Melbourne (1855) has -over 20,000 vols., and the libraries connected with the parliament and -various learned societies are important. The public library of South -Australia, Adelaide, has about 75,000 vols., and is the centre for the -distribution of books to the institutes throughout the colony. These -institutes possess over 325,000 vols. There is a good public library at -Brisbane, Queensland, and there are a number of state-aided schools of -arts with libraries attached. The Library of Parliament in Brisbane -possesses over 40,000, and the Rockhampton School of Arts has 10,000 -vols. Western Australia has a public library at Perth, which was -established in 1887, and the small town institutes are assisted as in -the other colonies. - -Tasmania has several good libraries in the larger towns, but none of -them had in 1910 taken advantage of the act passed in 1867 which gives -municipalities practically unlimited powers and means as far as the -establishment and maintenance of public libraries are concerned. At -Hobart the Tasmanian Public Library (1849) is one of the most important, -with 25,000 vols. - -New Zealand is well equipped with public libraries established under -acts dating from 1869 to 1877, as well as subscription, college and -government libraries. At Auckland the Free Public Library (1880) has -50,000 vols., including Sir George Grey's Australasian collection; the -Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch (1874), has 40,000 vols.; the -University of Otago Library, Dunedin (1872), 10,000 vols.; and the -public library at Wellington (1893) contains 20,000 vols. - - -_India and the East._ - -Apart from government and royal libraries, there are many college, -society, subscription and others, both English and oriental. It is -impossible to do more than name a few of the most notable. Lists of many -of the libraries in private hands including descriptions of their MS. -contents have been issued by the Indian government. At Calcutta the -Sanskrit college has 1652 printed Sanskrit volumes and 2769 Sanskrit -MSS., some as old as the 14th century; there is also a large collection -of Jain MSS. The Arabic library attached to the Arabic department of the -Madrasa was founded about 1781, and now includes 731 printed volumes, -143 original MSS. and 151 copies; the English library of the -Anglo-Persian department dates from 1854, and extends to 3254 vols. The -library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded in 1784, and now -contains 15,000 printed vols., chiefly on eastern and philological -subjects, with a valuable collection of 9500 Arabic and Persian MSS. - -At Bombay the library of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, -established in 1804 as the Literary Society of Bengal, is now an -excellent general and oriental collection of 75,000 printed vols. and -MSS., described in printed catalogues. The Moolla Feroze Library was -bequeathed for public use by Moolla Feroze, head priest of the Parsis of -the Kudmi sect in 1831, and consisted chiefly of MSS., in Arabic and -Persian on history, philosophy and astronomy; some additions of English -and Gujarati works have been made, as well as of European books on -Zoroastrianism. The Native General Library (1845) has 11,000 vols., and -there are libraries attached to Elphinstone College and the university -of Bombay. - -The library of Tippoo Sahib, consisting of 2000 MSS., fell into the -hands of the British, and a descriptive catalogue of them by Charles -Stewart was published at Cambridge in 1809, 4to. A few were presented to -public libraries in England, but the majority were placed in the college -of Fort William, then recently established. The first volume, containing -Persian and Hindustani poetry, of the _Catalogue of the Libraries of the -King of Oudh_, by A. Sprenger, was published at Calcutta in 1854. The -compiler shortly afterwards left the Indian service, and no measures -were taken to complete the work. On the annexation of the kingdom in -1856 the ex-king is believed to have taken some of the most valuable -MSS. to Calcutta, but the largest portion was left behind at Lucknow. -During the siege the books were used to block up windows, &c., and those -which were not destroyed were abandoned and plundered by the soldiers. -Many were burnt for fuel; a few, however, were rescued and sold by -auction, and of these some were purchased for the Asiatic Society of -Bengal. - -Perhaps the most remarkable library in India is that of the raja of -Tanjore, which dates from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th -century, when Tanjore was under the rule of the Telugu Naiks, who -collected Sanskrit MSS. written in the Telugu character. In the 18th -century the Mahrattas conquered the country, and since that date the -library increased but slowly. By far the greater portion of the store -was acquired by Sharabhoji Raja during a visit to Benares in 1820-1830; -his successor Sivaji added a few, but of inferior value. There are now -about 18,000 MSS. written in Devanagari, Nandinagari, Telugu, Kannada, -Granthi, Malayalam, Bengali, Panjabi or Kashmiri, and Uriya; 8000 are on -palm leaves. Dr Burnell's printed catalogue describes 12,375 articles. - -The Royal Asiatic Society has branches with libraries attached in many -of the large cities of India, the Straits Settlements, Ceylon, China, -Japan, &c. At Rangoon in Burma there are several good libraries. The -Raffles Library at Singapore was established as a proprietary -institution in 1844, taken over by the government in 1874, and given -legal status by an ordinance passed in 1878. It now contains about -35,000 vols. in general literature, but books relating to the Malayan -peninsula and archipelago have been made a special feature, and since -the acquisition of the collection of J. R. Logan in 1879 the library has -become remarkably rich in this department. In Ceylon there is the Museum -Library at Colombo (1877), which is maintained by the government, and -there are many subscription and a few oriental libraries. - - -_Canada._ - -The public libraries of the various provinces of Canada have grown -rapidly in importance and activity, and, assisted as they are by -government and municipal grants, they promise to rival those of the -United States in generous equipment. Most of the library work in Canada -is on the same lines as that of the United States, and there are no -special points of difference worth mention. The library laws of the -Dominion are embodied in a series of acts dating from 1854, by which -much the same powers are conferred on local authorities as by the -legislation of Britain and the United States. An important feature of -the Canadian library law is the close association maintained between -schools and libraries, and in some provinces the school libraries are -established by the school and not the library laws. There is also an -important extension of libraries to the rural districts, so that in -every direction full provision is being made for the after-school -education and recreation of the people. - - The province of Ontario has a very large and widespread library system - of which full particulars are given in the annual reports of the - minister of education. The library portion has been printed - separately, and with its illustrations and special articles forms - quite a handbook of Canadian library practice. There are now 413 - public libraries described as free and not free, and of these 131 free - and 234 not free reported in 1909. The free libraries possessed - 775,976 vols. and issued 2,421,049 vols. The not free libraries, most - of which receive legislative or municipal grants, possessed 502,879 - vols. and issued 650,826 vols. This makes a grand total of 1,278,855 - vols. in municipal and assisted subscription libraries without - counting the university and other libraries in the province. The most - important other libraries in Ontario are--Queen's University, Kingston - (1841), 40,000 vols.; Library of Parliament, Ottawa, about 250,000 - vols.; university of Ottawa, 35,000 vols.; Legislative Library of - Ontario, Toronto, about 100,000 vols.; university of Toronto (1856), - 50,000 vols. The Public (municipal) Library of Toronto has now over - 152,000 vols. - - In the province of Quebec, in addition to the state-aided libraries - there are several large and important libraries, among which may be - mentioned the Fraser Institute, Montreal, 40,000 vols.; McGill - University, Montreal (1855), 125,000 vols., comprising many important - collections; the Seminary of St Sulpice, Montreal, about 80,000 vols.; - Laval University, Quebec, 125,000 vols.; and the library of the - Legislature (1792), about 100,000 vols. In the western provinces - several large public, government and college libraries have been - formed, but none of them are as old and important as those in the - eastern provinces. - - In Nova Scotia there are now 279 cases of books circulating among the - school libraries, containing about 40,000 vols., and in addition 2800 - vols. were stocked for the use of rural school libraries. The rural - school libraries of Nova Scotia are regulated by a special law, and a - little handbook has been printed, somewhat similar to that published - by the French educational authorities for the communale libraries. The - Legislative Library at Halifax contains nearly 35,000 vols., and the - Dalhousie University (1868), in the same town, contains about 20,000 - vols. The Legislative Library of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, - containing the Dodd Library, issues books for home use. The school law - of New Brunswick provides for grants being made in aid of school - libraries by the Board of Education equal to one half the amount - raised by a district, and a series of rules has been published. The - only other British libraries in America of much consequence are those - in the West Indian Islands. The Institute of Jamaica, Kingston (1879) - has about 15,000 vols.; the Trinidad Public Library (1841), recently - revised and catalogued, 23,000 vols.; and there are a few small - legislative and college libraries in addition. - - AUTHORITIES.--For the history of British libraries see H. B. Adams, - _Public Libraries and Popular Education_ (Albany, N.Y., 1900); J. D. - Brown, _Guide to Librarianship_ (1909); G. F. Chambers and H. W. - Fovargue, _The Law relating to Public Libraries_ (4th ed., 1899); J. - W. Clark, _The Care of Books_ (1909); E. Edwards, _Memoirs of - Libraries_ (1859); T. Greenwood, _Edward Edwards_ (1901) and _Public - Libraries_ (4th ed., revised, 1891); J. J. Ogle, _The Free Library_ - (1897); Maurice Pellisson, _Les Bibliotheques populaires a l'etranger - et en France_ (Paris, 1906); R. A. Rye, _The Libraries of London_ - (1910); E. A. Savage, _The Story of Libraries and Book-Collectors_ - (1909). - - For library economy consult J. D. Brown, _Manual of Library Economy_ - (1907); F. J. Burgoyne, _Library Construction, &c._ (1897); A. L. - Champneys, _Public Libraries: a Treatise on their Design_ (1907); J. - C. Dana, _A Library Primer_ (Chicago, 1910); Arnim Graesel, _Handbuch - der Bibliothekslehre_ (Leipzig, 1902); Albert Maire, _Manuel pratique - du bibliothecaire_ (Paris, 1896). On the subject of classification - consult J. D. Brown, _Manual of Library Classification_ (1898) and - _Subject Classification_ (1906); C. A. Cutter, _Expansive - Classification_ (1891-1893) (not yet completed); M. Dewey, _Decimal - Classification_ (6th ed., 1899), and _Institut International de - Bibliographie: Classification bibliographique decimale_ (Brussels, - 1905); E. C. Richardson, _Classification: Theoretical and Practical_ - (1901). - - Various methods of cataloguing books are treated in _Cataloguing - Rules, author and title entries, compiled by the Committees of the - American Library Association and the Library Association_ (1908); C. - A. Cutter, _Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalogue_ (Washington, - 1904); M. Dewey, _Rules for Author and Classed Catalogues_ (1892); T. - Hitchler, _Cataloguing for Small Libraries_ (Boston, 1905); K. A. - Linderfelt, _Eclectic Card Catalog Rules_ (Boston, 1890); J. H. Quinn, - _Manual of Library Cataloguing_ (1899); E. A. Savage, _Manual of - Descriptive Annotation_ (1906); J. D. Stewart, _The Sheaf Catalogue_ - (1909); H. B. Wheatley, _How to Catalogue a Library_ (1889). - - -_United States of America._ - -The libraries of the United States are remarkable for their number, -size, variety, liberal endowment and good administration. The total -number of libraries with over 1000 vols. was 5383 in 1900, including -those attached to schools and institutions, and in 1910 there were -probably at least 10,000 libraries having 1000 vols. and over. It is -impossible to do more than glance at the principal libraries and -activities, where the field is so immense, and a brief sketch of some -of the chief federal, state, university, endowed and municipal libraries -will therefore be presented. - - - Federal libraries. - -The Library of Congress was first established in 1800 at Washington, and -was burned together with the Capitol by the British army in 1814. -President Jefferson's books were purchased to form the foundation of a -new library, which continued to increase slowly until 1851, when all but -20,000 vols. were destroyed by fire. From this time the collection has -grown rapidly, and now consists of about 1,800,000 vols. In 1866 the -library of the Smithsonian Institution, consisting of 40,000 vols., -chiefly in natural science, was transferred to the Library of Congress. -The library is specially well provided in history, jurisprudence, the -political sciences and Americana. Since 1832 the law collections have -been constituted into a special department. This is the national -library. In 1870 the registry of copyrights was transferred to it under -the charge of the librarian of Congress, and two copies of every -publication which claims copyright are required to be deposited. Cards -for these are now printed and copies are sold to other libraries for an -annual subscription fixed according to the number taken. The building in -which the library is now housed was opened in 1897. It covers 3(1/2) -acres of ground, contains 10,000,000 cub. ft. of space, and has possible -accommodation for over 4 million vols. Its cost was $6,500,000, or -including the land, $7,000,000. It is the largest, most ornate and most -costly building in the world yet erected for library purposes. Within -recent years the appropriation has been largely increased, and the -bibliographical department has been able to publish many valuable books -on special subjects. The _A.L.A. Catalog_ (1904) and _A.L.A. Portrait -Index_ (1906), may be mentioned as of especial value. The classification -of the library is being gradually completed, and in every respect this -is the most active government library in existence. - -Other important federal libraries are those attached to the following -departments at Washington: Bureau of Education (1868); Geological Survey -(1882); House of Representatives; Patent Office (1836); Senate (1868); -Surgeon General's Office (1870), with an elaborate analytical printed -catalogue of world-wide fame. - - - State libraries. - -Although the state libraries of Pennsylvania and New Hampshire are known -to have been established as early as 1777, it was not until some time -after the revolution that any general tendency was shown to form -official libraries in connexion with the state system. It is especially -within the last thirty years that the number of these libraries has so -increased that now every state and territory possesses a collection of -books and documents for official and public purposes. These collections -depend for their increase upon annual appropriations by the several -states, and upon a systematic exchange of the official publications of -the general government and of the several states and territories. The -largest is that of the state of New York at Albany, which contains -nearly 500,000 vols., and is composed of a general and a law library. -Printed and MS. card catalogues have been issued. The state libraries -are libraries of reference, and only members of the official classes are -allowed to borrow books, although any well-behaved person is admitted to -read in the libraries. - - - University libraries. - -The earliest libraries formed were in connexion with educational -institutions, and the oldest is that of Harvard (1638). It was destroyed -by fire in 1764, but active steps were at once taken for its -restoration. From that time to the present, private donations have been -the great resource of the library. In 1840 the collection was removed to -Gore Hall, erected for the purpose with a noble bequest from Christopher -Gore (1758-1829), formerly governor of Massachusetts. There are also ten -special libraries connected with the different departments of the -university. The total numbers of vols. in all these collections is over -800,000. There is a MS. card-catalogue in two parts, by authors and -subjects, which is accessible to the readers. The only condition of -admission to use the books in Gore Hall is respectability; but only -members of the university and privileged persons may borrow books. The -library of Yale College, New Haven, was founded in 1701, but grew so -slowly that, even with the 1000 vols. received from Bishop Berkeley in -1733, it had only increased to 4000 vols. in 1766, and some of these -were lost in the revolutionary war. During the 19th century the -collection grew more speedily, and now the library numbers over 550,000 -vols. - - Other important university and college libraries are Amherst College, - Mass. (1821), 93,000 vols.; Brown University, R.I. (1767), 156,000 - vols.; Columbia University, N.Y. (1763), 430,000 vols.; Cornell - University, N.Y. (1868), 355,000 vols.; Dartmouth College, N.H. - (1769), 106,000 vols.; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (1876), - 220,000 vols.; Lehigh University, Pa. (1877), 150,000 vols.; Leland - Stanford University, Cal. (1891), 113,000 vols.; Princeton University, - N.J. (1746), 260,000 vols.; University of California (1868), 240,000 - vols.; University of Chicago, Ill. (1892), 480,000 vols.; University - of Michigan (1837), 252,000 vols.; University of Pennsylvania (1749), - 285,000 vols. There are numerous other college libraries, several of - them even larger than some of those named above. - - - Subscription and Endowed Libraries. - -The establishment of proprietary or subscription libraries runs back -into the first half of the 18th century, and is connected with the name -of Benjamin Franklin. It was at Philadelphia, in the year 1731, that he -set on foot what he called "his first project of a public nature, that -for a subscription library.... The institution soon manifested its -ability, was imitated by other towns and in other provinces." The -Library Company of Philadelphia was soon regularly incorporated, and -gradually drew to itself other collections of books, including the -Loganian Library, which was vested in the company by the state -legislature in 1792 in trust for public use. Hence the collection -combines the character of a public and of a proprietary library, being -freely open for reference purposes, while the books circulate only among -the subscribing members. It numbers at present 226,000 vols., of which -11,000 belong to the Loganian Library, and may be freely lent. In 1869 -Dr James Rush left a bequest of over one million dollars for the purpose -of erecting a building to be called the Ridgeway branch of the library. -The building is very handsome, and has been very highly spoken of as a -library structure. Philadelphia has another large proprietary -library--that of the Mercantile Library Company, which was established -in 1821. It possesses 200,000 vols., and its members have always enjoyed -direct access to the shelves. The library of the Boston Athenaeum was -established in 1807, and numbers 235,000 vols. It has published an -admirable dictionary-catalogue. The collection is especially rich in art -and in history, and possesses a part of the library of George -Washington. The Mercantile Library Association of New York, which was -founded in 1820, has over 240,000 vols. New York possesses two other -large proprietary libraries, one of which claims to have been formed as -early as 1700 as the "public" library of New York. It was organized as -the New York Society Library in 1754, and has been especially the -library of the old Knickerbocker families and their descendants, its -contents bearing witness to its history. It contains about 100,000 vols. -The Apprentices' Library (1820) has about 100,000 vols., and makes a -special feature of works on trades and useful arts. - -The Astor Library in New York was founded by a bequest of John Jacob -Astor, whose example was followed successively by his son and grandson. -The library was opened to the public in 1854, and consists of a careful -selection of the most valuable books upon all subjects. It is a library -of reference, for which purpose it is freely open, and books are not -lent out. It is "a working library for studious persons." The Lenox -Library was established by James Lenox in 1870, when a body of trustees -was incorporated by an act of the legislature. In addition to the funds -intended for the library building and endowment, amounting to -$1,247,000, the private collection of books which Mr Lenox had long been -accumulating is extremely valuable. Though it does not rank high in -point of mere numbers, it is exceedingly rich in early books on America, -in Bibles, in Shakesperiana and in Elizabethan poetry. Both those -libraries are now merged in the New York Public Library. The Peabody -Institute at Baltimore was established by George Peabody in 1857, and -contains a reference library open to all comers. The institute has an -endowment of $1,000,000, which, however, has to support, besides the -library, a conservatoire of music, an art gallery, and courses of -popular lectures. It has a very fine printed dictionary catalogue and -now contains nearly 200,000 vols. In the same city is the Enoch Pratt -Free Library (1882) with 257,000 vols. In the city of Chicago are two -very important endowed libraries, the Newberry Library (1887) with over -200,000 vols., and the John Crerar Library (1894), with 235,000 vols. -Both of these are reference libraries of great value, and the John -Crerar Library specializes in science, for which purpose its founder -left $3,000,000. - - It will be sufficient to name a few of the other endowed libraries to - give an idea of the large number of donors who have given money to - libraries. Silas Bronson (Waterbury), Annie T. Howard (New Orleans), - Joshua Bates (Boston), Charles E. Forbes (Northampton, Mass.), - Mortimer F. Reynolds (Rochester, N.Y.), Leonard Case (Cleveland), I. - Osterhout (Wilkes-Barre, Pa.), and above all Andrew Carnegie, whose - library benefactions exceed $53,000,000. - - It remains to mention another group of proprietary and society - libraries. - - Since the organization of the government in 1789, no less than one - hundred and sixty historical societies have been formed in the United - States, most of which still continue to exist. Many of them have - formed considerable libraries, and possess extensive and valuable - manuscript collections. The oldest of them is the Massachusetts - Historical Society, which dates from 1791. - - The earliest of the scientific societies, the American Philosophical - Society (1743), has 73,000 vols. The most extensive collection is that - of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, which consists of - 80,000 vols. and pamphlets. For information as to the numerous - professional libraries of the United States--theological, legal and - medical--the reader may be referred to the authorities quoted below. - - - Municipal Libraries. - -In no country has the movement for the development of municipal -libraries made such progress as in the United States; these institutions -called free or public as the case may be are distinguished for their -work, enterprise and the liberality with which they are supported. They -are established under laws passed by the different states, the first to -pass such an enactment being Massachusetts, which in 1848 empowered the -city of Boston to establish a free public library. This was subsequently -extended to the whole state in 1851. Other states followed, all with -more or less variation in the provisions, till practically every state -in the Union now has a body of library laws. In general the American -library law is much on the same lines as the English. In most states the -acts are permissive. In New Hampshire aid is granted by the state to any -library for which a township contracts to make a definite annual -appropriation. A limit is imposed in most states on the library tax -which may be levied, although there are some, like Massachusetts and New -Hampshire, which fix no limit. In every American town the amount derived -from the library tax usually exceeds by double or more the same rate -raised in Britain in towns of similar size. For example, East Orange, -N.J., with a population of 35,000, expends L2400, while Dumfries in -Scotland, with 23,000 pop. expends L500. Cincinnati, 345,000 pop., -expenditure L26,000; Islington (London), 350,000 pop., expenditure -L8200, is another example. In the smaller towns the difference is not so -marked, but generally the average American municipal library income is -considerably in excess of the British one. Many American municipal -libraries have also endowments which add to their incomes. - - - American Library Administration. - -In one respect the American libraries differ from those of the United -Kingdom. They are usually managed by a small committee or body of -trustees, about five or more in number, who administer the library -independent of the city council. This is akin to the practice in -Scotland, although there, the committees are larger. In addition to the -legislation authorizing town libraries to be established, thirty-two -states have formed state library commissions. These are small bodies of -three or five trained persons appointed by the different states which, -acting on behalf of the state, encourage the formation of local -libraries, particularly in towns and villages, and in many cases have -authority to aid their establishment by the grant out of the state -funds of a certain sum (usually $100) towards the purchase of books, -upon the appropriation of a similar sum by the local authorities. These -commissions are prepared to aid further with select lists of desirable -books, and with suggestions or advice in the problems of construction -and maintenance. Such commissions are in existence in Alabama, -California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, -Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, -Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, -North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, -Texas, Utah, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin. - -The reports and other documents issued by some of these commissioners -are very interesting and valuable, especially as regards the light they -throw on the working of the travelling libraries in country districts. -These to some extent are a revival of the "itinerating" library idea of -Samuel Brown of Haddington in Scotland, who from 1817 to 1836 carried on -a system of travelling subscription libraries in that country. At the -time of his death there were 3850 vols. in 47 libraries. The American -travelling libraries, often under state supervision, are well organized -and numerous, and the books are circulated free. New York was the -pioneer in this movement which now extends to most of the states which -have established library commissions. There are also town travelling -libraries and deposit stations in addition to branches, so that every -effort is made to bring people in outlying districts into touch with -books. - -The municipal libraries of the United States work in conjunction with -the schools, and it is generally considered that they are part of the -educational machinery of the country. In the case of New York the state -libraries have been put under the control of the university of the state -of New York, which also inaugurated the travelling libraries. Work with -the schools and children generally is more cultivated in the libraries -of the United States than elsewhere. In some cases the libraries send -collections of books to the schools; in others provision is made for -children's reading-rooms and lending departments at the library -buildings. At Cleveland (Ohio), Pittsburg (Pa.), New York and many other -places, elaborate arrangements are in force for the convenience and -amusement of children. There is a special school, the Carnegie Library -training school for children's librarians, at Pittsburg, and within -recent years the instruction has included the art of telling stories to -children at the libraries. This "story-hour" idea has been the cause of -considerable discussion in the United States, librarians and teachers -being divided in opinion as to the value of the service. The chief -factors in children's work in American libraries, often overlooked by -critics, are the number of non-English reading adults and the large -number of children of foreign origin. The adults do not use the -libraries to any large extent, but the children, who learn English at -the schools, are brought into close touch with the juvenile departments -of the libraries. In this way many libraries are obliged to undertake -special work for children, and as a rule it is performed in a sane, -practical and economical manner. The preponderance of women librarians -and their natural sentimental regard for children has tended to make -this work loom rather largely in some quarters, but with these -exceptions the activity on behalf of children is justified on many -grounds. But above all, it is manifest that a rapidly growing nation, -finding homes for thousands of foreigners and their children annually, -must use every means of rapidly educating their new citizens, and the -public library is one of the most efficient and ready ways of -accomplishing this great national object. - -With regard to methods, the American libraries are working on much the -same plan as those of the United Kingdom. They allow access to the -shelves more universally, and there is much more standardization in -classification and other internal matters. The provision of books is -more profuse, although there is, on the whole, more reading done in the -United Kingdom. The largest municipal library system in America, and -also in the world, is that of New York City, which, after struggling -with a series of Free Circulating Libraries, blossomed out in 1895 into -the series of combinations which resulted in the present great -establishment. In that year, the Astor and Lenox libraries (see above) -were taken over by the city, and in addition, $2,000,000 was given by -one of the heirs of Mr S. J. Tilden, who had bequeathed about $4,000,000 -for library purposes in New York but whose will had been upset in the -law courts. In 1901 Mr Andrew Carnegie gave about L1,500,000 for the -purpose of providing 65 branches, and these are now nearly all erected. -A very fine central library building has been erected, and when the -organization is completed there will be no system of municipal libraries -to equal that of New York. It possesses about 1,400,000 vols. in the -consolidated libraries. Brooklyn, although forming part of Greater New -York, has an independent library system, and possesses about 560,000, -vols. distributed among 26 branches and including the old Brooklyn -Library which has been absorbed in the municipal library system. At -Boston (Mass.) is one of the most renowned public libraries in the -United States, and also the oldest established by act of legislature. It -was first opened to the public in 1854, and is now housed in a very -magnificently decorated building which was completed in 1895. The -central library contains many fine special collections, and there are 28 -branch and numerous school libraries in connexion. It possesses about -1,000,000 vols. altogether, its annual circulation is about 1,500,000 -vols., and its annual expenditure is nearly L70,000. - - Other notable municipal libraries are those of Philadelphia (1891), - Chicago (1872), Los Angeles (Cal.), 1872, Indianapolis (1868), Detroit - (1865), Minneapolis (1885), St Louis (1865), Newark, N.J. (1889), - Cincinnati (1856), Cleveland (1869), Allegheny (1890), Pittsburg - (1895), Providence, R.I. (1878), Milwaukee (1875), Washington, D.C. - (1898), Worcester, Mass. (1859), Buffalo (1837). - - AUTHORITIES.--_The Annual Library Index_ (New York, 1908)--contains a - select list of libraries in the United States; Arthur E. Bostwick, - _The American Public Library_, illust. (New York, 1910)--the most - comprehensive general book; Bureau of Education, _Statistics of Public - Libraries in the United States and Canada_ (1893)--this has been - succeeded by a list of "Public, Society and School Libraries," - reprinted at irregular intervals from the Report of the Commissioner - of Education and giving a list of libraries containing over 5000 vols. - with various other particulars; Clegg, _International Directory of - Booksellers_ (1910) and earlier issues--contains a list of American - libraries with brief particulars; John C. Dana, _A Library Primer_ - (Chicago, 1910)--the standard manual of American library practice; - _Directory of Libraries in the United States and Canada_ (6th ed.; - Minneapolis, 1908)--a brief list of 4500 libraries, with indication of - the annual income of each; Wm. I. Fletcher, _Public Libraries in - America_ (2nd ed., Boston, 1899), illust.; T. W. Koch, _Portfolio of - Carnegie Libraries_ (1908); Cornelia Marvin, _Small Library Buildings_ - (Boston, 1908); A. R. Spofford, _A Book for all Readers ... the - Formation of Public and Private Libraries_ (1905). - - -_France._ - -French libraries (other than those in private hands) belong either to -the state, to the departments, to the communes, or to learned societies, -educational establishments and other public institutions; the libraries -of judicial or administrative bodies are not considered to be owned by -them, but to be state property. Besides the unrivalled library -accommodation of the capital, France possesses a remarkable assemblage -of provincial libraries. The communal and school libraries also form -striking features of the French free library system. Taking as a basis -for comparison the _Tableau statistique des bibliotheques publiques_ -(1857), there were at that date 340 departmental libraries with a total -of 3,734,260 vols., and 44,436 MSS. In 1908 the number of volumes in all -the public libraries; communal, university, learned societies, -educational and departmental, was more than 20,060,148 vols., 93,986 -MSS. and 15,530 incunabula. Paris alone now possesses over 10,570,000 -printed vols., 147,543 MSS., 5000 incunabula, 609,439 maps and plans, -2,000,000 prints (designs and reproductions). - - - Paris. - -The Bibliotheque Nationale (one of the most extensive libraries in the -world) has had an advantage over others in the length of time during -which its contents have been accumulating, and in the great zeal shown -for it by several kings and other eminent men. Enthusiastic writers find -the original of this library in the MS. collections of Charlemagne and -Charles the Bald, but these were dispersed in course of time, and the -few precious relics of them which the national library now possesses -have been acquired at a much later date. Of the library which St Louis -formed in the 13th century (in imitation of what he had seen in the -East) nothing has fallen into the possession of the Bibliotheque -Nationale, but much has remained of the royal collections made by kings -of the later dynasties. The real foundation of the institution (formerly -known as the Bibliotheque du Roi) may be said to date from the reign of -King John, the Black Prince's captive, who had a considerable taste for -books, and bequeathed his "royal library" of MSS. to his successor -Charles V. Charles V. organized his library in a very effective manner, -removing it from the Palais de la Cite to the Louvre, where it was -arranged on desks in a large hall of three storeys, and placed under the -management of the first librarian and cataloguer, Claude Mallet, the -king's valet-de-chambre. His catalogue was a mere shelf-list, entitled -_Inventaire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au chastel du -Louvre_; it is still extant, as well as the further inventories made by -Jean Blanchet in 1380, and by Jean le Begue in 1411 and 1424. Charles V. -was very liberal in his patronage of literature, and many of the early -monuments of the French language are due to his having employed Nicholas -Oresme, Raoul de Presle and other scholars to make translations from -ancient texts. Charles VI. added some hundreds of MSS. to the royal -library, which, however, was sold to the regent, duke of Bedford, after -a valuation had been established by the inventory of 1424. The regent -transferred it to England, and it was finally dispersed at his death in -1435. Charles VII. and Louis XI. did little to repair the loss of the -precious Louvre library, but the news of the invention of printing -served as a stimulus to the creation of another one, of which the first -librarian was Laurent Paulmier. The famous miniaturist, Jean Foucquet of -Tours, was named the king's _enlumineur_, and although Louis XI. -neglected to avail himself of many precious opportunities that occurred -in his reign, still the new library developed gradually with the help of -confiscation. Charles VIII. enriched it with many fine MSS. executed by -his order, and also with most of the books that had formed the library -of the kings of Aragon, seized by him at Naples. Louis XII., on coming -to the throne, incorporated the Bibliotheque du Roi with the fine -Orleans library at Blois, which he had inherited. The Blois library, -thus augmented, and further enriched by plunder from the palaces of -Pavia, and by the purchase of the famous Gruthuyse collection, was -described at the time as one of the four marvels of France. Francis I. -removed it to Fontainebleau in 1534, enlarged by the addition of his -private library. He was the first to set the fashion of fine artistic -bindings, which was still more cultivated by Henry II., and which has -never died out in France. During the librarianship of Amyot (the -translator of Plutarch) the library was transferred from Fontainebleau -to Paris, not without the loss of several books coveted by powerful -thieves. Henry IV. removed it to the College de Clermont, but in 1604 -another change was made, and in 1622 it was installed in the Rue de la -Harpe. Under the librarianship of J. A. de Thou it acquired the library -of Catherine de' Medici, and the glorious Bible of Charles the Bald. In -1617 a decree was passed that two copies of every new publication should -be deposited in the library, but this was not rigidly enforced till -Louis XIV.'s time. The first catalogue worthy of the name was finished -in 1622, and contains a description of some 6000 vols., chiefly MSS. -Many additions were made during Louis XIII.'s reign, notably that of the -Dupuy collection, but a new era dawned for the Bibliotheque du Roi under -the patronage of Louis XIV. The enlightened activity of Colbert, one of -the greatest of collectors, so enriched the library that it became -necessary for want of space to make another removal. It was therefore in -1666 installed in the Rue Vivien (now Vivienne) not far from its present -habitat. The departments of engravings and medals were now created, and -before long rose to nearly equal importance with that of books. -Marolles's prints, Foucquet's books, and many from the Mazarin library -were added to the collection, and, in short, the Bibliotheque du Roi -had its future pre-eminence undoubtedly secured. Nic. Clement made a -catalogue in 1684 according to an arrangement which has been followed -ever since (that is, in twenty-three classes, each one designated by a -letter of the alphabet), with an alphabetical index to it. After -Colbert's death Louvois emulated his predecessor's labours, and employed -Mabillon, Thevenot and others to procure fresh accessions from all parts -of the world. A new catalogue was compiled in 1688 in 8 vols, by several -distinguished scholars. The Abbe Louvois, the minister's son, became -head of the library in 1691, and opened it to all students--a privilege -which although soon withdrawn was afterwards restored. Towards the end -of Louis XIV.'s reign it contained over 70,000 vols. Under the -management of the Abbe Bignon numerous additions were made in all -departments, and the library was removed to its present home in the Rue -Richelieu. Among the more important acquisitions were 6000 MSS. from the -private library of the Colbert family, Bishop Huet's forfeited -collection, and a large number of Oriental books imported by -missionaries from the farther East, and by special agents from the -Levant. Between 1739 and 1753 a catalogue in 11 vols, was printed, which -enabled the administration to discover and to sell its duplicates. In -Louis XVI.'s reign the sale of the La Valliere library furnished a -valuable increase both in MSS. and printed books. A few years before the -Revolution broke out the latter department contained over 300,000 vols, -and opuscules. The Revolution was serviceable to the library, now called -the Bibliotheque Nationale, by increasing it with the forfeited -collections of the _emigres_, as well as of the suppressed religious -communities. In the midst of the difficulties of placing and cataloguing -these numerous acquisitions, the name of Van Praet appears as an -administrator of the first order. Napoleon increased the amount of the -government grant; and by the strict enforcement of the law concerning -new publications, as well as by the acquisition of several special -collections, the Bibliotheque made considerable progress during his -reign towards realizing his idea that it should be universal in -character. At the beginning of last century the recorded numbers were -250,000 printed vols., 83,000 MSS., and 1,500,000 engravings. After -Napoleon's downfall the MSS. which he had transferred from Berlin, -Hanover, Florence, Venice, Rome, the Hague and other places had to be -returned to their proper owners. The MacCarthy sale in 1817 brought a -rich store of MSS. and incunabula. From that time onwards to the -present, under the enlightened administration of MM. Taschereau and -Delisle and Marcel, the accessions have been very extensive. - - According to the statistics for 1908 the riches of the Bibliotheque - Nationale may be enumerated as follows: (1) Departement des Imprimes: - more than 3,000,000 vols.; Maps and plans, 500,000 in 28,000 vols. (2) - Departement des Manuscrits: 110,000 MSS. thus divided: Greek 4960, - Latin 21,544, French 44,913, Oriental and miscellaneous 38,583. (3) - Departement des Estampes: 1,000,000 pieces. (4) Departement des - Medailles: 207,096 pieces. - - Admittance to the "salle de travail" is obtained through a card - procured from the secretarial office; the "salle publique" contains - 344 places for readers, who are able to consult more than 50,000 vols. - of books of reference. Great improvements have lately been introduced - into the service. A "salle de lecture publique" is free to all readers - and is much used. New buildings are in process of construction. The - slip catalogue bound in volumes dates from 1882 and gives a list of - all accessions since that date; it is divided into two parts, one for - the names of authors and the other for subjects. There is not yet, as - at the British Museum, an alphabetical catalogue of all the printed - works and kept up by periodical supplements, but since 1897 a - _Catalogue general des livres imprimes_ has been begun. In 1909 the - 38th vol. containing letters A to Delp had appeared. Some volumes are - published each year, but the earlier volumes only contain a selection - of the books; this inconvenience has now been remedied. Among the - other catalogues published by the Printed Book Department, the - following may be mentioned: _Repertoire alphabetique des livres mis a - la disposition des lecteurs dans la salle de travail_ (1896, 8vo), - _Liste des periodiques francais et etrangers mis a la disposition des - lecteurs_ (1907, 4to, autogr.), _Liste des periodiques etrangers_ (new - ed., 1896, 8vo) and _Supplement_ (1902, 8vo), _Bulletin des recentes - publications francaises_ (from 1882, 8vo), _Catalogue des - dissertations et ecrits academiques provenant des echanges avec les - universites etrangeres_ (from 1882, 8vo). The other extensive - catalogues apart from those of the 18th century are: _Catalogue de - l'histoire de France_ (1885-1889, 4to, 11 vols.); _Table des auteurs,_ - par P. Marchal (1895, 4to), with the following autographed - supplements: _Histoire locale_ (1880); _Histoire genealogique et - biographies_ (1884); _Moeurs et coutumes, archeologie_ (1885); - _Histoire maritime et militaire_ (1894); _Histoire constitutionnelle_ - (1895); _Sciences medicales_ (1857-1889, 3 vols., 4to); _Histoire de - la Grande-Bretagne_ (1875-1878, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Espagne et du - Portugal_ (1883, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Asie_ (1894); _Histoire de - l'Afrique_ (1895, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Amerique_, par G. Barringer - (1903-1908, autogr.); _Factums et autres documents judiciaires - anterieurs a 1790_, par Corda et A. Trudon des Ormes (1890-1907, 8 - vols., 8vo); _Catalogue general des incunables des bibliotheques - publiques de France_, par M. Pellechet et L. Polain, t. i.-iii. - (1897-1909, 8vo); _Livres d'heures imprimes au XV^e siecle conserves - dans les bibliotheques publiques de Paris_, par P. Lacombe (1907, - 8vo), &c. In the Geographical section there is L. Vallee's _Catalogue - des cartes et plans relatifs a Paris et aux environs de Paris_ (1908, - 8vo). The following should be mentioned: _Bibliographie generale des - travaux historiques et archeologiques publies par les societes - savantes de la France_, par R. de Lasteyrie avec la collaboration d'E. - Lefevre-Pontalis, S. Bougenot, A. Vidier, t. i.-vi. (1885-1908, 4to). - The scientific division of this work (in two parts) is by Deniker. The - printed catalogues and the autographed and manuscript lists of the - Departement des Manuscrits are very numerous and greatly facilitate - research. For the French there are: H. Omont, _Catalogue general des - manuscrits francais_ (1895-1897, 9 vols. 8vo); H. Omont, _Nouvelles - acquisitions_ (continuation of the same catalogue, 1899-1900, 3 vols. - 8vo); H. Omont, _Anciens Inventaires de la Bibliotheque Nationale_ - (1908-1909, 2 vols. 8vo); E. Coyecque, _Inventaire de la Collection - Anisson sur l'histoire de l'imprimerie et de la librairie_ (1900, 2 - vols. 8vo). Without repeating the catalogues mentioned in the tenth - edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, it is yet necessary to - mention the following: _Catalogue de la collection Baluze_; - _Inventaire des sceaux de la collection Clairambault_; _Catalogue de - la collection des cinq-cents et des melanges Colbert_; _Catalogue des - collections Duchesne et de Brequigny_; those of the Dupuy, Joly de - Fleury, and Moreau collections, and that of provincial history, &c. - For the Greek collection the most important catalogues have been made - by H. Omont, the present Keeper of the Manuscripts, and these are: - _Inventaire sommaire des MSS. grecs_ (1886-1898, 4 vols. 8vo); - _Catalogus codicum hagiographicorum graecorum_ (1896, 8vo); - _Facsimiles des plus anciens MSS. grecs en onciale et en minuscule du - IX^e au XIV^e siecle_ (1891, fol.); as well as _Description des - peintures et autres ornements contenus dans les MSS. latins_, par H. - Bordier (1883, 4to). The lists of the Latin MSS. are: _Inventaire des - manuscrits latins et nouvelles acquisitions jusqu'en 1874_ (1863-1874, - 7 pts. 8vo) and _Manuscrits latins et francais ajoutes aux fonds des - nouvelles acquisitions 1875-1881_ (1891, 2 vols. 8vo), by M. Delisle; - M. Omont published _Nouvelles Acquisitions du departement des - manuscrits_ (1892-1907, 8 pts. 8vo), and B. Haureau, _Notices et - extraits de quelques manuscrits latins_ (1890-1893, 6 vols. 8vo). The - principal modern catalogues of the oriental collection are: B. de - Slane, _Catalogue des MSS. arabes, avec supplement_ (1883-1895, 4to); - E. Blochet, _Catalogue des MSS. arabes, persans, et turcs de la - collection Schefer_ (1900); E. Blochet, _Inventaire des MSS. arabes de - la collection Decourtemanche_ (1906); F. Macler, _Catalogue des MSS. - armeniens et georgiens_ (1908). For other oriental languages the - following catalogues have been compiled: _MSS. birmans et cambodgiens_ - (1879); _MSS. chinois, coreens et japonais_ (1900-1907); _MSS. coptes_ - (1906); _MSS. ethiopiens_ (1859-1877); _MSS. hebreux et samaritains_ - (1867-1903); MSS. _indo-chinois_ (in the press); _MSS. - malayo-polynesiens_ (in the press); _MSS. mazdeens_ (1900); _MSS. - mexicains_ (1899); _MSS. persans_, t. i. (1905); _MSS. sanscrits et - palis_ (1899, 1907-1908); _MSS. siamois_ (1887); _MSS. syriaques et - sabeens_ (1874-1896); _MSS. thibetains_ (in the press), &c. The - catalogues of manuscripts in modern languages are nearly all - completed. The Departements des Medailles et des Estampes possess - excellent catalogues, and the following should be mentioned: E. - Babelon, _Catalogue des monnaies grecques_ (1890-1893); E. Babelon, - _Inventaire sommaire de la collection Waddington_ (1898); _Medailles - fausses recueillies_, par Hoffmann (1902); Muret et Chabouillet, - _Catalogue des monnaies gauloises_ (1889-1892); Prou, _Catalogue des - monnaies francaises_ (1892-1896); H. de la Tour, _Catalogue de la - collection Rouyer, 1^(re) partie_ (1899); _Catalogues des monnaies et - medailles d'Alsace_ (1902); _Cat. des monnaies de l'Amerique du Nord_ - (1861); _Cat. des monnaies musulmanes_ (1887-1891); _Cat. des plombs_ - (1900); _Cat. des bronzes antiques_ (1889); _Cat. des camees antiques - et modernes_ (1897-1899); _Cat. des vases peints_ (1902-1904, 2 - vols.). In the Departement des Estampes the following should be - mentioned: F. Courboin, _Catalogue sommaire des gravures et - lithographies de la Reserve_ (1900-1901); Duplessis, _Cat. des - portraits francais et etrangers_ (1896-1907, 6 vols.); H. Bouchot, - _Les Portraits au crayon des XVI^e et XVII^e siecles_ (1884); _Cat. - des dessins relatifs a l'histoire du theatre_ (1896); F. Courboin, - _Inventaire des dessins, photographies et gravures relatives a - l'histoire generale de l'art_ (1895, 2 vols.), &c. - -The Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal was founded by the marquis de Paulmy -(Antoine-Rene d'Argenson) in the 18th century; it received in 1786 -80,000 vols. from the duc de La Valliere. Before its confiscation as -national property it had belonged to the comte d'Artois, who had bought -it from the marquis de Paulmy in his lifetime. It contains at the -present time about 600,000 vols., 10,000 manuscripts, 120,000 prints and -the Bastille collection (2500 portfolios) of which the inventory is -complete; it is the richest library for the literary history of France -and has more than 30,000 theatrical pieces. - - _L'Inventaire des manuscrits_ was made by H. Martin (1885-1899, t. - i.-viii.); the other catalogues and lists are: _Extrait du catalogue - des journaux conserves a la Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal_ ("Bulletin des - biblioth. et des archives" t. i.); _Archives de la Bastille_, par F. - Funck-Brentano (1892-1894, 3 vols. 8vo); _Notice sur les depots - litteraires_ par J. B. Labiche (1880, 8vo); _Catalogue des estampes, - dessins et cartes composant le cabinet des estampes de la bibliotheque - de l'Arsenal_, par G. Schefer (1894-1905, 8 pts. 8vo). - -The Bibliotheque Mazarine owes its origin to the great cardinal, who -confided the direction to Gabriel Naude; it was open to the public in -1642, and was transferred to Rue de Richelieu in 1648. Dispersed during -the Fronde in the lifetime of Mazarin, it was reconstituted after the -death of the cardinal in 1661, when it contained 40,000 vols. which were -left to the College des Quatre-Nations, which in 1691 made it again -public. It now has 250,000 vols.; with excellent manuscript catalogues. - - The catalogues of incunabula and manuscripts are printed: P. Marais et - A. Dufresne de Saint-Leon, _Catalogue des incunables de la - bibliotheque Mazarine_ (1893, 8vo); _Supplement, additions et - corrections_ (1898, 4 vols. 8vo); _Catalogue des MSS._, par A. - Molinier (1885-1892, 4 vols. 8vo); _Inventaire sommaire des MSS. - grecs_, par H. Omont. - -The first library of the Genovefains had nearly disappeared owing to bad -administration when Cardinal Francois de la Rochefoucauld, who had -charge of the reformation of that religious order, constituted in 1642 a -new library with his own books. The Bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve in 1716 -possessed 45,000 vols.; important gifts were made by Letellier in 1791, -and the duc d'Orleans increased it still more. It became national -property in 1791, and was called the Bibliotheque du Pantheon and added -to the Lycee Henri IV. under the empire. In 1908 the library contained -350,000 printed vols., 1225 incunabula, 3510 manuscripts, 10,000 prints -(including 7357 portraits and 3000 maps and plans). - - The printed catalogues at present comprise: Poiree et Lamoureux, - _Catalogue abrege de la bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve_ (1891, 8vo); 3 - supplements (1890-1896, 1897-1899, 1900-1902); _Catalogue des - incunables de la bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve, redige par Daunou_, - publie par M. Pellechet (1892, 8vo); _Catalogue general des MSS._, par - Ch. Kohler (1894-1896, 2 vols. 8vo); _Inventaire sommaire des MSS. - grecs_, par H. Omont; _Notices sur quelques MSS. normands_, par E. - Deville (1904-1906, 10 pts. 8vo), &c. - -The Bibliotheque des Archives nationales, founded in 1808 by Daunou, -contains 30,000 vols. on sciences auxiliary to history. It is only -accessible to the officials. - - It would be impossible to describe all the official, municipal and - academic libraries of Paris more or less open to the public, which are - about 200 in number, and in the following survey we deal only with - those having 10,000 vols. and over. - - The Bibliotheque du Ministere des affaires etrangeres was founded by - the marquis de Torcy, minister for foreign affairs under Louis XIV.; - it contains 80,000 vols. and is for official use only. The - Bibliotheque du Ministere de l'Agriculture dates from 1882 and has - only 4000 vols. At the Ministry for the Colonies the library (of - 10,000 vols.) dates from 1897; the catalogue was published in 1905; - the library of the Colonial office is attached to this ministry; - suppressed in 1896, it was re-established in 1899, and now contains - 6000 vols., 7400 periodicals and 5000 photographs; it is open to the - public. There are 30,000 vols. in the Bibliotheque du Ministere du - commerce et de l'industrie; the Bibliotheque du Ministere des finances - was burnt at the Commune, but has been reconstituted and now contains - 35,000 vols.; connected with it are the libraries of the following - offices: Contributions directes, Contributions indirectes, - Enregistrement et inspection des finances; the contents of these four - libraries make a total of 13,500 vols. The Bibliotheque du Ministere - de la Guerre was formed by Louvois and possesses 130,000 vols. and 800 - MSS. and an income of 20,000 francs; the catalogues are _Bibliotheque - du depot de la guerre: Catalogue_ (1883-1890); _Supplements_ - (1893-1896); _Catalogue des MSS._, par J. Lemoine (1910). The - following libraries are connected with this department: Comite de - sante (10,000 vols.), Ecole superieure de guerre (70,000 vols.), - Comite technique de l'artillerie (24,000 vols.). The Bibliotheque du - Ministere de l'Interieur was founded in 1793 and has 80,000 vols. The - Bibliotheque du Ministere de la Justice possesses 10,000 vols., and - L'Imprimerie Nationale which is connected with it has a further 19,000 - vols. There are also the following law libraries: Cour d'appel - (12,000 vols.); Ordre des avocats, dating from 1871 (56,000 vols., - with a catalogue printed in 1880-1882); the Bibliotheque des avocats - de la cour de Cassation (20,000 vols.); that of the Cour de Cassation - (40,000 vols.). The Bibliotheque du Ministere de la Marine is of old - formation (catalogue 1838-1843); it contains 100,000 vols, and 356 - MSS.; the catalogue of manuscripts was compiled in 1907. The - Bibliotheque du service hydrographique de la Marine has 65,000 vols, - and 250 MSS. The Ministere des Travaux publics possesses 12,000 vols., - and the Sous-Secretariat des postes et telegraphes a further 30,000 - vols. The Bibliotheque de la Chambre des deputes (1796) possesses - 250,000 printed books and 1546 MSS. (_Catalogue des manuscrits_, by E. - Coyecque et H. Debray, 1907; _Catalogue des livres de jurisprudence, - d'economie politique, de finances, et d'administration_, 1883). The - Bibliotheque du Senat (1818) contains 150,000 vols, and 1343 MSS. The - Bibliotheque du Conseil d'Etat has 30,000 vols. All these libraries - are only accessible to officials except by special permission. - - The Bibliotheque Historique de la ville de Paris was destroyed in - 1871, but Jules Cousin reconstituted it in 1872; it possesses 400,000 - vols., 3500 MSS. and 14,000 prints; the principal printed catalogues - are _Catalogue des imprimes de la Reserve_ by M. Poete (1910), - _Catalogue des manuscrits_, by F. Bournon (1893); a _Bulletin_ has - been issued periodically since 1906. The Bibliotheque administrative - de la prefecture de la Seine is divided into two sections: French - (40,000 vols.) and foreign (22,000 vols.); it is only accessible to - officials and to persons having a card of introduction; the catalogues - are printed. - - The other libraries connected with the city of Paris are that of the - Conseil municipal (20,000 vols.), the Bibliotheques Municipales - Populaires, 82 in number with a total of 590,000 books; those of the - 22 Hospitals (92,887 vols.), the Prefecture de police (10,000 vols.), - the Bibliotheque Forney (10,000 vols. and 80,000 prints), the five - Ecoles municipales superieures (19,700 vols.), the six professional - schools (14,200 vols.). - - The libraries of the university and the institutions dealing with - higher education in Paris are well organized and their catalogues - generally printed. - - The Bibliotheque de l'Universite, although at present grouped as a - system in four sections in different places, historically considered - is the library of the Sorbonne. This was founded in 1762 by Montempuis - and only included the faculties of Arts and Theology. It changed its - name several times; in 1800 it was the Bibliotheque du Prytanee, in - 1808 Bibliotheque des Quatre Lycees and in 1812 Bibliotheque de - l'Universite de France. The sections into which the Bibliotheque de - l'Universite is now divided are: (1) Facultes de Sciences et des - Lettres a la Sorbonne, (2) Faculte de Medecine, (3) Faculte de droit, - (4) Ecole superieure de pharmacie. Before the separation of Church and - State there was a fifth section, that of Protestant theology. After - the Bibliotheque nationale it is the richest in special collections, - and above all as regards classical philology, archaeology, French and - foreign literature and literary criticism, just as the library of the - Faculte des Sciences et des Lettres is notable for philosophy, - mathematics and chemico-physical sciences. The great development which - has taken place during the last thirty years, especially under the - administration of M. J. de Chantepie du Dezert, its installation since - 1897 in the buildings of the New Sorbonne, have made it a library of - the very first rank. The reading-room only seats about 300 persons. - The average attendance per day is 1200, the number of books consulted - varies from 1500 to 3000 vols. a day, and the loans amount to 14,000 - vols. per year. The store-rooms, although they contain more than 1200 - metres of shelves and comprise two buildings of five storeys each, are - insufficient for the annual accessions, which reach nearly 10,000 - vols. by purchase and presentation. Amongst the latter the most - important are the bequests of Leclerc, Peccot, Lavisse, Derenbourg and - Beljame; the last-named bequeathed more than 3000 vols., including an - important Shakespearean library. The first section contains more than - 550,000 vols., 2800 periodicals which include over 70,000 vols., 320 - incunabula, 2106 MSS., more than 2000 maps and plans and some prints. - The alphabetical catalogues are kept up day by day on slips. The - classified catalogues were in 1910 almost ready for printing, and some - had already been published: Periodiques (1905); Cartulaires (1907); - _Melanges jubilaires et publications commemoratives_ (1908); - _Inventaires des MSS._, by E. Chatelain (1892); _Incunables_, by E. - Chatelain (1902); and _Supplement, Reserve de la bibliotheque_ - 1401-1540, by Ch. Beaulieux (1909); _Nouvelles acquisitions_ - (1905-1908); _Catalogue des livres de G. Duplessis donnes a - l'Universite de Paris_ (1907), _Catalogue collectif des bibliotheques - universitaires_ by Fecamp (1898-1901). For French theses, of which the - library possesses a rich collection, the catalogues are as follows: - Mourier et Deltour, _Catalogue des theses de lettres_ (1809, &c.); A. - Maire, _Repertoire des theses de lettres_ (1809-1900); A. Maire, - _Catalogue des theses de sciences_ (1809-1890) with _Supplement_ to - 1900 by Estanave; _Catalogue des theses publie par le Ministere de - l'Instruction publique_ (1882, &c.). - - At the Sorbonne are also to be found the libraries of A. Dumont and V. - Cousin (15,000 vols.), and those of the laboratories, of which the - richest is the geological (30,000 specimens and books). The section - relating to medicine, housed since 1891 in the new buildings of the - Faculte de Medecine, includes 180,000 vols, and 88 MSS. (catalogue - 1910). The Bibliotheque de la faculte de droit dates from 1772 and - contains 80,000 vols., 239 MSS. The fourth section, l'Ecole superieure - de pharmacie, greatly developed since 1882, now contains 50,000 vols. - - The other libraries connected with higher education include that of - the Ecole des Beaux-Arts (40,000 vols., 100,000 reproductions, 14,000 - drawings). The library of the Ecole normale superieure (1794), - established in the Rue d'Ulm in 1846, has received legacies from - Verdet (1867), Caboche (1887), Lerambert-Whitcomb (1890), and a - portion of Cuvier's library; the system of classification in use is - practically the same as that of the Sorbonne, being devised by - Philippe Lebas (librarian of the Sorbonne) about 1845; there are - 200,000 vols. The library of the Museum d'histoire naturelle dates - from the 18th century, and contains 220,000 vols., 2000 MSS., 8000 - original drawings on vellum beginning in 1631. The Bibliotheque de - l'Office et Musee de l'Instruction publique (formerly Musee - pedagogique), founded only in 1880, has 75,000 vols. In 1760 was - founded the Bibliotheque de l'Institut de France, which is very rich; - its acquisitions come particularly from gifts and exchanges (400,000 - vols., numerous and scarce; valuable MSS., especially modern ones). - - The following may be briefly mentioned: Conservatoire national de - musique (1775), which receives everything published in France relating - to music (200,000 vols.); the Bibliotheque du theatre de l'Opera - (25,000 vols., 5000 songs, 20,000 romances, and a dramatic library of - 12,000 vols. and 20,000 prints); the Theatre francais (40,000 vols.); - the Academie de medecine (15,000 vols., 10,000 vols. of periodicals, - 5000 portraits), l'Observatoire (18,400 vols.); the Bureau des - Longitudes (15,000 vols. and 850 MSS.). The scholastic libraries are: - L'Ecole centrale des arts et manufactures (16,000 vols.); l'Ecole - coloniale (11,000 vols.); 1,'Ecole d'application du service de sante - militaire (23,000 vols.); l'Ecole d'application du genie maritime - (14,000 vols.); l'Ecole libre des sciences politiques (25,000 vols., - 250 periodicals); l'Ecole normale d'instituteurs de la Seine (10,000 - vols.); l'Ecole normale israelite (30,000 vols., 250 MSS.); l'Ecole - nationale des ponts-et-chausees (9000 vols., 5000 MSS., 5000 - photographs); Bibliotheque de l'Institut catholique (160,000 vols.); - l'Institut national agronomique (25,000 vols.); Faculte libre de - theologie protestante (36,000 vols.); Conservatoire des arts et - metiers (46,000 vols., 2500 maps and plans); Bibliotheque polonaise, - administered by the Academie des Sciences de Cracovie (80,000 vols., - 30,000 prints); Seminaire des Missions etrangeres (25,000 vols.); - l'Association Valentin Hauy, established 1885 (2000 vols. printed in - relief) which lends out 40,000 books per annum; l'Association generale - des Etudiants (22,000 vols.), which lends and allows reference on the - premises to books by students; Bibliotheque de la Chambre de Commerce - (40,000 vols.), the catalogues of which were printed in 1879, 1889 and - 1902; the Societe nationale d'agriculture (20,000 vols.); the Societe - d'anthropologie (23,000 vols.); the Societe asiatique (12,000 vols., - 200 MSS.); the Societe chimique de France (10,000 vols.), the - catalogue of which was published in 1907; the Societe de chirurgie, - dating from 1843 (20,000 vols.); the Societe entomologique (30,000 - vols.); the Societe de geographie founded 1821 (60,000 vols., 6000 - maps, 22,000 photographs, 2200 portraits, 80 MSS. of which the - catalogue was printed in 1901); the Societe geologique de France - (15,000 vols., 30,000 specimens, 800 periodicals); the Societe de - l'histoire du protestantisme francais, founded in 1852 (50,000 vols., - 1000 MSS.; income 25,000 frs.); the Societe d'encouragement pour - l'industrie nationale (50,000 vols., income 8000 frs.); the Societe - des Ingenieurs civils (47,000 vols.; catalogue made in 1894); the - Societe de legislation comparee (15,000 vols., 4500 pamphlets); and - lastly the Bibliotheque de la Societe de Statistique de Paris, founded - in 1860 (60,000 vols., with a printed catalogue). - -Before the Revolution there were in Paris alone 1100 libraries -containing altogether 2,000,000 vols. After the suppression of the -religious orders the libraries were confiscated, and in 1791 more than -800,000 vols, were seized in 162 religious houses and transferred to -eight literary foundations in accordance with a decree of November 14, -1789. In the provinces 6,000,000 vols. were seized and transferred to -local depositories. The organization of the central libraries under the -decree of 3 Brumaire An IV. (October 25, 1795) came to nothing, but the -consular edict of January 28, 1803 gave definitive organization to the -books in the local depositories. From that time the library system was -reconstituted, alike in Paris and the provinces. Unfortunately many -precious books and MSS. were burnt, since by the decree of 4 Brumaire An -II. (October 25, 1793) the Committee of Instruction ordered, on the -proposition of its president the deputy Romme, the destruction or -modification of books and objects of art, under the pretext that they -recalled the outward signs of feudalism. - - - Libraries of the Departments. - -The books in the provincial libraries, not including those in private -hands or belonging to societies, number over 9,200,000 vols., 15,540 -incunabula and 93,986 MSS. The number in the colonies and protected -states outside France is uncertain, but it extends to more than 200,000 -vols.; to this number must be added the 2,428,954 vols. contained in -the university libraries. There are over 300 departmental libraries, and -as many belong to learned societies. The increase in the provincial -libraries is slower than that of the Parisian collections. With the -exception of 26 libraries connected specially with the state, the others -are municipal and are administered under state control by municipal -librarians. The original foundation of most of the libraries dates but a -short time before the Revolution, but there are a few exceptions. Thus -the Bibliotheque d'Angers owes its first collection to Alain de la Rue -about 1376; it now contains 72,485 vols., 134 incunabula and 2039 MSS. -That of Bourges dates from 1466 (36,856 vols., 325 incunabula, 741 -MSS.). The library of Carpentras was established by Michel Anglici -between 1452 and 1474 (50,000 vols., 2154 MSS.). Mathieu de la Porte is -said to be the founder of the library at Clermont-Ferrand at the end of -the 15th century; it contained rather more than 49,000 vols. at the time -of its union with the Bibliotheque Universitaire. - - Amongst the libraries which date from the 16th century must be - mentioned that at Lyons founded by Francois I. in 1527; it possesses - 113,168 vols., 870 incunabula and 5243 MSS. That of the Palais des - Arts has 82,079 vols., 64 incunabula and 311 MSS. - - In the 17th century were established the following libraries: - Abbeville, by Charles Sanson in 1685 (46,929 vols., 42 incunabula, 342 - MSS.); Besancon by Abbe Boisot in 1696 (93,580 vols., 1000 incunabula, - 2247 MSS.). In 1604 the Consistoire reforme de la Rochelle established - a library which possesses to-day 58,900 vols., 14 incunabula, 1715 - MSS. St Etienne, founded by Cardinal de Villeroi, has 50,000 vols., 8 - incunabula, 343 MSS. - - The principal libraries founded during the 18th century are the - following: Aix-en-Provence, established by Tournon and Mejane in 1705 - (160,000 vols., 300 incunabula, 1351 MSS.); Bordeaux, 1738 (200,000 - vols., 3491 MSS.); Chambery, 1736 (64,200 vols., 47 incunabula, 155 - MSS.); Dijon, 1701, founded by P. Fevret (125,000 vols., 211 - incunabula, 1669 MSS.); Grenoble, 1772 (260,772 vols., 635 incunabula, - 2485 MSS.); Marseilles, 1799 (111,672 vols., 143 incunabula, 1691 - MSS.); Nancy, founded in 1750 by Stanislas (126,149 vols., 205 - incunabula, 1695 MSS.); Nantes, 1753 (103,328 vols., 140 incunabula, - 2750 MSS.); Nice, founded in 1786 by Abbe Massa (55,000 vols., 300 - incunabula, 150 MSS.); Nimes, founded by J. T. de Seguier in 1778 - (80,000 vols., 61 incunabula, 675 MSS.); Niort, by Jean de Dieu and R. - Bion in 1771 (49,413 vols., 67 incunabula, 189 MSS.); Perpignan, by - Marechal de Mailly in 1759 (27,200 vols., 80 incunabula, 127 MSS.); - Rennes, 1733 (110,000 vols., 116 incunabula, 602 MSS., income 8950 - frs.); Toulouse, by archbishop of Brienne in 1782 (213,000 vols., 859 - incunabula, 1020 MSS.). - - Nearly all the other municipal libraries date from the Revolution, or - rather from the period of the redistribution of the books in 1803. The - following municipal libraries possess more than 100,000 vols.: Avignon - (135,000 vols., 698 incunabula, 4152 MSS.), of which the first - collection was the legacy of Calvet in 1810; Caen (122,000 vols., 109 - incunabula, 665 MSS.); Montpellier (130,300 vols., 40 incunabula, 251 - MSS.); Rouen (140,000 vols., 400 incunabula, 4000 MSS.); Tours - (123,000 vols., 451 incunabula, 1999 MSS.); Versailles (161,000 vols., - 436 incunabula, 1213 MSS.). - - The following towns have libraries with more than 50,000 volumes: - Amiens, Auxerre, Beaune, Brest, Douai, le Havre, Lille, le Mans, - Orleans, Pau, Poitiers, Toulon and Verdun. - - The catalogues of the greater part of the municipal libraries are - printed. Especially valuable is the _Catalogues des MSS. des - bibliotheques de Paris et des Departements_, which began to appear in - 1885; the MSS. of Paris fill 18 octavo volumes, and those of the - provinces 50. - - The libraries of the provincial universities, thanks to their - reorganization in 1882 and to the care exhibited by the general - inspectors, are greatly augmented. Aix has 74,658 vols.; Alger - 160,489; Besancon 24,275; Bordeaux 216,278; Caen 127,542; Clermont - 173,000; Dijon 117,524; Grenoble 127,400; Lille 215,427; Lyons - 425,624; Marseilles 53,763; Montpellier 210,938; Nancy 139,036; - Poitiers 180,000; Rennes 166,427; Toulouse 232,000. - - Since 1882 the educational libraries have largely developed; in 1877 - they were 17,764 in number; in 1907 they were 44,021, containing - 7,757,917 vols. The purely scholastic libraries have decreased; in - 1902 there were 2674 libraries with 1,034,132 vols., whilst after the - reorganization (Circulaire of March 14, 1904) there were only 1131 - with 573,279 vols. The Societe Franklin pour la propagation des - bibliotheques populaires et militaires distributed among the libraries - which it controls 55,185 vols., between the years 1900 and 1909. - - AUTHORITIES.--Information has been given for this account by M. Albert - Maire, librarian at the Sorbonne. See also the following - works:--_Bibliotheque Nationale:_ I. _Batiments, collections, - organisation, departement des estampes, departement des medailles et - antiques_, par Henri Marcel, Henri Bouchot et Ernest Babelon. II. _Le - Departement des imprimes et la section de geographie. Le Departement - des manuscrits_, par Paul Marchal et Camille Couderc (Paris, 1907, 2 - vols); Felix Chambon, _Notes sur la bibliotheque de l'Universite de - Paris de 1763 a 1905_ (Ganat, 1905); Fosseyeux, _La Bibliotheque des - hopitaux de Paris_ (Revue des bibliotheques, t. 18, 1908); Alfred - Franklin, _Guide des savants, des litterateurs et des artistes dans - les bibliotheques de Paris_ (Paris, 1908); _Instruction du 7 Mars 1899 - sur l'organisation des bibliotheques militaires_ (Paris, 1899); Henri - Jadart, _Les Anciennes bibliotheques de Reims, leur sort en 1790-1791 - et la formation de la bibliotheque publique_ (Reims, 1891); Henry - Marcel, _Rapport adresse au Ministre de l'Instruction Publique, sur - l'ensemble des services de la bibliotheque nationale en 1905_ (Journal - Officiel, 1906); Henry Martin, _Histoire de la bibliotheque de - l'Arsenal_ (Paris, 1899); E. Morel, _Le Developpement des - bibliotheques publiques_ (Paris, 1909); Theod. Mortreuil, _La - Bibliotheque nationale, son origine et ses accroissements; notice - historique_ (Paris, 1878); Abbe L. V. Pecheur, _Histoire des - bibliotheques publiques du departement de l'Aisne existant a Soissons, - Laon et Saint-Quentin_ (Soissons, 1884); M. Poete, E. Beaurepaire and - E. Clouzot, _Une visite a la bibliotheque de la ville de Paris_ - (Paris, 1907); E. de Saint-Albin, _Les Bibliotheques municipales de la - ville de Paris_ (Paris, 1896); B. Subercaze, _Les Bibliotheques - populaires, scolaires et pedagogiques_ (Paris, 1892). - - -_Germany_ (_with Austria-Hungary and Switzerland_). - - Germany. - -Germany is emphatically the home of large libraries; her former want of -political unity and consequent multiplicity of capitals have had the -effect of giving her many large state libraries, and the number of her -universities has tended to multiply considerable collections; 1617 -libraries were registered by P. Schwenke in 1891. As to the conditions, -hours of opening, &c., of 200 of the most important of them, there is a -yearly statement in the _Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_, published -by the Verein deutscher Bibliothekare. - -The public libraries of the German empire are of four distinct types: -state libraries, university libraries, town libraries and popular -libraries. The administration and financial affairs of the state and -university libraries are under state control. The earlier distinction -between these two classes has become less and less marked. Thus the -university libraries are no longer restricted to professors and -students, but they are widely used by scientific workers, and books are -borrowed extensively, especially in Prussia. In Prussia, as a link -between the state and the libraries, there has been since 1907 a special -office which deals with library matters at the Ministry of Public -Instruction. Generally the state does not concern itself with the town -libraries and the popular libraries, but there is much in common between -these two classes. Sometimes popular libraries are under the supervision -of a scientifically administered town library as in Berlin, Dantzig, -&c.; elsewhere, as at Magdeburg, we see an ancient foundation take up -the obligations of a public library. Only in Prussia and Bavaria are -regulations in force as to the professional education of librarians. -Since 1904 the librarians of the Prussian state libraries have been -obliged to complete their university courses and take up their -doctorate, after which they have to work two years in a library as -volunteers and then undergo a technical examination. The secretarial -officials since 1909 have to reach a certain educational standard and -must pass an examination. This regulation has been in force as regards -librarians in Bavaria from 1905. - - - Berlin. - - Berlin is well supplied with libraries, 268 being registered by P. - Schwenke and A. Hortzschansky in 1906, with about 5,000,000 printed - vols. The largest of them is the Royal Library, which was founded by - the "Great Elector" Frederick William, and opened as a public library - in a wing of the electoral palace in 1661. From 1699 the library - became entitled to a copy of every book published within the royal - territories, and it has received many valuable accessions by purchase - and otherwise. It now includes 1,230,000 printed vols. and over 30,000 - MSS. The amount yearly expended upon binding and the acquisition of - books, &c., is L11,326. The catalogues are in manuscript, and include - two general alphabetical catalogues, the one in volumes, the other on - slips, as well as a systematic catalogue in volumes. The following - annual printed catalogues are issued: _Verzeichnis der aus der neu - erschienenen Literatur von der K. Bibliothek und den Preussischen - Universitats-Bibliotheken erworbenen Druckschriften_ (since 1892); - _Jahresverzeichnis der an den Deutschen Universitaten erschienenen - Schriften_ (since 1887); _Jahresverzeichnis der an den Deutschen - Schulanstalten erschienenen Abhandlungen_ (since 1889). There is - besides a printed _Verzeichnis der im grossen Lesesaal aufgestellten - Handbibliothek_ (4th ed. 1909), the alphabetical _Verzeichnis der - laufenden Zeitschriften_ (last ed., 1908), and the classified - _Verzeichnis der laufenden Zeitschriften_ (1908). The catalogue of - MSS. are mostly in print, vols. 1-13, 16-23 (1853-1905). The library - is specially rich in oriental MSS., chiefly due to purchases of - private collections. The musical MSS. are very remarkable and form the - richest collection in the world as regards autographs. The building, - erected about 1780 by Frederick the Great, has long been too small, - and a new one was completed in 1909. The building occupies the whole - space between the four streets: Unter den Linden, Dorotheenstrasse, - Universitatsstrasse and Charlottenstrasse, and besides the Royal - Library, houses the University Library and the Academy of Sciences. - The conditions as to the use of the collections are, as in most German - libraries, very liberal. Any adult person is allowed to have books in - the reading-room. Books are lent out to all higher officials, - including those holding educational offices in the university, &c., - and by guarantee to almost any one recommended by persons of standing; - borrowing under pecuniary security is also permitted. By special leave - of the librarian, books and MSS. may be sent to a scholar at a - distance, or, if especially valuable, may be deposited in some public - library where he can conveniently use them. In 1908-1909 264,000 vols. - were used in the reading-rooms, 312,000 were lent inside Berlin, and - 32,000 outside. There is a regular system of exchange between the - Royal Library and a great number of Prussian libraries. It is the same - in Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Baden; the oldest system is that between - Darmstadt and Giessen (dating from 1837). There is either no charge - for carriage to the borrower or the cost is very small. The - reading-room and magazine hall are, with the exception of Sundays and - holidays, open daily from 9 to 9, the borrowing counter from 9 to 6. - - Associated with the Royal Library are the following undertakings: the - _Gesamtkatalog der Preussischen wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken_ - (describing the printed books in the Royal Library and the Prussian - University Libraries in one general catalogue upon slips), the - Auskunftsbureau der Deutschen Bibliotheken (bureau to give information - where any particular book may be consulted), and the Kommission fur - den Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (to draw up a complete catalogue of - books printed before 1500). - - The University Library (1831) numbers 220,000 vols. together with - 250,000 academical and school dissertations. The number of volumes - lent out in 1908-1909 was 104,000. The library possesses the right to - receive a copy of every work published in the province of Brandenburg. - - Some of the governmental libraries are important, especially those of - the Statistisches Landesamt (184,000 vols.); Reichstag (181,000 - vols.); Patent-Amt (118,000 vols.); Haus der Abgeordneten (100,000 - vols.); Auswartiges-Amt (118,000 vols.). - - The public library of Berlin contains 102,000 vols.; connected - therewith 28 municipal Volksbibliotheken and 14 municipal - reading-rooms. The 28 Volksbibliotheken contain (1908) 194,000 vols. - - The Prussian university libraries outside Berlin include Bonn (332,000 - printed vols., 1500 MSS.); Breslau (330,000 printed vols., 3700 MSS.); - Gottingen, from its foundation in 1736/7 the best administered library - of the 18th century (552,000 printed vols., 6800 MSS.); Greifswald - (200,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.); Halle (261,000 printed vols., 2000 - MSS.); Kiel (278,000 printed vols., 2400 MSS.); Konigsberg (287,000 - printed vols., 1500 MSS.); Marburg (231,000 printed vols, and about - 800 MSS.); Munster (191,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.). Under provincial - administration are the Konigliche and Provinzialbibliothek at Hanover - (203,000 printed vols., 4000 MSS.); the Landesbibliothek at Cassel - (230,000 printed vols., 4400 MSS.); and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Bibliothek - at Posen (163,000 printed vols.). A number of the larger towns possess - excellent municipal libraries; Aix-la-Chapelle (112,000 vols.); - Breslau (164,000 vols., 4000 MSS.); Dantzig (145,600 vols., 2900 - MSS.); Frankfort a/M (342,000 vols, besides MSS.); Cassel Murhardsche - Bibliothek (141,000 vols., 6300 MSS.); Cologne (235,000 vols.); Treves - (100,000 vols., 2260 MSS.); Wiesbaden (158,000 vols.). - - - Munich. - - The libraries of Munich, though not so numerous as those of Berlin, - include two of great importance. The Royal Library, for a long time - the largest collection of books in Germany, was founded by Duke - Albrecht V. of Bavaria (1550-1579), who made numerous purchases from - Italy, and incorporated the libraries of the Nuremberg physician and - historian Schedel, of Widmannstadt, and of J. J. Fugger. The number of - printed vols, is estimated at about 1,100,000 and about 50,000 MSS. - The library is especially rich in incunabula, many of them being - derived from the libraries of over 150 monasteries closed in 1803. The - oriental MSS. are numerous and valuable, and include the library of - Martin Haug. The amount annually spent upon books and binding is - L5000. The catalogues of the printed books are in manuscript, and - include (1) a general alphabetical catalogue, (2) an alphabetical - repertorium of each of the 195 subdivisions of the library, (3) - biographical and other subject catalogues. A printed catalogue of MSS. - in 8 vols, was in 1910 nearly complete; the first was published in - 1858. The library is open on weekdays from 8 to 1 (November to March - 8.30 to 1), and on Monday to Friday (except from August 1 to September - 15) also from 3 to 8. The regulations for the use of the library are - very similar to those of the Royal Library at Berlin. The building was - erected for this collection under King Louis I. in 1832-1843. The - archives are bestowed on the ground floor, and the two upper floors - are devoted to the library, which occupies seventy-seven apartments. - The University Library was originally founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, - and removed with the university to Munich in 1826. At present the - number of vols. amounts to 550,000; the MSS. number 2000. Forty-six - Munich libraries are described in Schwenke's _Adressbuch_, 15 of which - possessed in 1909 about 2,000,000 printed vols. and about 60,000 MSS. - After the two mentioned above the most noteworthy is the Koniglich - Bayrische Armee-Bibliothek (100,000 printed vols., 1000 MSS.). - - The chief Bavarian libraries outside Munich are the Royal Library at - Bamberg (350,000 vols., 4300 MSS.) and the University Library at - Wurzburg (390,000 vols., 1500 MSS.); both include rich monastic - libraries. The University Library at Erlangen has 237,000 vols. The - Staats-Kreis and Stadtbibliothek at Augsburg owns 200,000 vols., and - 2000 MSS.; Nuremberg has two great collections, the Bibliothek des - Germanischen National-museums (250,000 vols., 3550 MSS.) and the - Stadtbibliothek (104,000 vols., 2500 MSS.). - - - Dresden. - - In 1906 there were in Dresden 78 public libraries with about 1,495,000 - vols. The Royal Public Library in the Japanese Palace was founded in - the 16th century. Among its numerous acquisitions have been the - library of Count Bunau in 1764, and the MSS. of Ebert. Special - attention is devoted to history and literature. The library possesses - more than 520,000 vols. (1909); the MSS. number 6000. Admission to the - reading-room is granted to any respectable adult on giving his name, - and books are lent out to persons qualified by their position or by a - suitable guarantee. Here, as at other large libraries in Germany, - works of belles-lettres are only supplied for a literary purpose. The - number of persons using the reading-room in a year is about 14,000, - and about 23,000 vols. are lent. The second largest library in - Dresden, the Bibliothek des Statistischen Landes-Amtes, has 120,000 - vols. - - Leipzig is well equipped with libraries; that of the University has - 550,000 vols. and 6500 MSS. The Bibliothek des Reichsgerichts has - 151,000 vols., the Padagogische Central-Bibliothek der - Comenius-Stiftung 150,000 vols., and the Stadtbibliothek 125,000 - vols., with 1500 MSS. - - - Stuttgart. - - The Royal Public Library of Stuttgart, although only established in - 1765, has grown so rapidly that it now possesses about 374,000 vols. - of printed works and 5300 MSS. There is a famous collection of Bibles, - containing over 7200 vols. The annual expenditure devoted to books and - binding is L2475. The library also enjoys the copy-privilege in - Wurttemberg. The annual number of borrowers is over 2600, who use - nearly 29,000 vols. The number issued in the reading-room is 41,000. - The number of parcels despatched from Stuttgart is nearly 23,000. - Admission is also gladly granted to the Royal Private Library, founded - in 1810, which contains about 137,000 vols. - - Of the other libraries of Wurttemberg the University Library of - Tubingen (500,000 vols. and 4100 MSS.) need only be noted. - - - Darmstadt. - - The Grand-ducal Library of Darmstadt was established by the grand-duke - Louis I. in 1819, on the basis of the still older library formed in - the 17th century, and includes 510,000 vols. and about 3600 MSS. - (1909). The number of vols. used in the course of the year is about - 90,000, of which 14,000 are lent out. - - Among the other libraries of the Grand Duchy of Hesse the most - remarkable are the University Library at Giessen (230,000 vols., 1500 - MSS.), and the Stadtbibliothek at Mainz (220,000 vols., 1200 MSS.) to - which is attached the Gutenberg Museum. - - In the Grand Duchy of Baden are the Hof- und Landesbibliothek at - Carlsruhe (202,000 vols., 3800 MSS.), the University Library at - Freiburg i/B (300,000 vols., 700 MSS.), and the University Library at - Heidelberg. This, the oldest of the German University libraries, was - founded in 1386. In 1623 the whole collection, described by Joseph - Scaliger in 1608 as "locupletior et meliorum librorum quam Vaticana," - was carried as a gift to the pope and only the German MSS. were - afterwards returned. The library was re-established in 1703, and after - 1800 enriched with monastic spoils; it now contains about 400,000 - vols. and 3500 MSS. for the most part of great value. - - Among the State or University libraries of other German states should - be mentioned Detmold (110,000 vols.); Jena (264,000 vols.); - Neustrelitz (130,000 vols.); Oldenburg (126,000 vols.); Rostock - (275,000 vols.); Schwerin (225,000 vols.); and Weimar (270,000), all - possessing rich collections of MSS. - - - Gotha. - - The Ducal Library of Gotha was established by Duke Ernest the Pious in - the 17th century, and contains many valuable books and MSS. from - monastic collections. It numbers about 192,000 vols., with 7400 MSS. - The catalogue of the oriental MSS., chiefly collected by Seetzen, and - forming one-half of the collection, is one of the best in existence. - - The Ducal Library at Wolfenbuttel, founded in the second half of the - 16th century by Duke Julius, was made over to the university of - Helmstedt in 1614, whence the most important treasures were returned - to Wolfenbuttel in the 19th century; it now numbers 300,000 vols., - 7400 MSS. - - The chief libraries of the Hanse towns are: Bremen (Stadtbibliothek, - 141,000 vols.), and Lubeck (Stadtbibliothek, 121,000 vols.); the most - important being the Stadtbibliothek at Hamburg, made public since 1648 - (383,000 vols., 7300 MSS., among them many Mexican). Hamburg has also - in the Kommerzbibliothek (120,000 vols.) a valuable trade collection, - and the largest Volksbibliothek (about 100,000 vols.) after that at - Berlin. Alsace-Lorraine has the most recently formed of the great - German collections--the Universitats- und Landesbibliothek at - Strassburg, which, though founded only in 1871 to replace that which - had been destroyed in the siege, already ranks amongst the largest - libraries of the empire. Its books amount to 922,000 vols., the number - of MSS. is 5900. - - - Austria. - -The _Adressbuch der Bibliotheken der Oesterreich-ungarischen Monarchie_ -by Bohatta and Holzmann (1900) describes 1014 libraries in Austria, 656 -in Hungary, and 23 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Included in this list, -however, are private lending libraries. - -The largest library in Austria, and one of the most important -collections in Europe, is the Imperial Public Library at Vienna, -apparently founded by the emperor Frederick III. in 1440, although its -illustrious librarian Lambecius, in the well-known inscription over the -entrance to the library which summarizes its history attributes this -honour to Frederick's son Maximilian. However this may be, the -munificence of succeeding emperors greatly added to the wealth of the -collection, including a not inconsiderable portion of the dispersed -library of Corvinus. Since 1808 the library has also been entitled to -the copy-privilege in respect of all books published in the empire. The -sum devoted to the purchase and binding of books is L6068 annually. The -number of printed vols. is 1,000,000; 8000 incunabula. The MSS. amount -to 27,000, with 100,000 papyri of the collection of Archduke Rainer. The -main library apartment is one of the most splendid halls in Europe. -Admission to the reading-room is free to everybody, and books are also -lent out under stricter limitations. The University Library of Vienna -was established by Maria Theresa. The reading-room is open to all -comers, and the library is open from 1st Oct. to 30th June from 9 a.m. -to 8 p.m.; in the other months for shorter hours. In 1909 447,391 vols. -were used in the library, 45,000 vols. lent out in Vienna, and 6519 -vols. sent carriage free to borrowers outside Vienna. The number of -printed vols. is 757,000. For the purchase of books and binding the -Vienna University Library has annually 60,000 crowns from the state as -well as 44,000 crowns from matriculation fees and contributions from the -students. - - The total number of libraries in Vienna enumerated by Bohatta and - Holzmann is 165, and many of them are of considerable extent. One of - the oldest and most important libraries of the monarchy is the - University Library at Cracow, with 380,000 vols. and 8169 MSS. - - The number of monastic libraries in Austria is very considerable. They - possess altogether more than 2,500,000 printed vols., 25,000 - incunabula and 25,000 MSS. The oldest of them, and the oldest in - Austria, is that of the monastery of St Peter at Salzburg, which was - established by Archbishop Arno (785-821). It includes 70,000 vols., - nearly 1500 incunabula. The three next in point of antiquity are - Kremsmunster (100,000), Admont (86,000) and Melk (70,000), all of them - dating from the 11th century. Many of the librarians of these monastic - libraries are trained in the great Vienna libraries. There is no - official training as in Prussia and Bavaria. - - - Hungary. - -Information about income, administration, accessions, &c., of the chief -libraries in the Hungarian kingdom, are given in the Hungarian -_Statistical Year Book_ annually. The largest library in Hungary is the -Szechenyi-Nationalbibliothek at Budapest, founded in 1802 by the gift of -the library of Count Franz Szechenyi. It contains 400,000 printed vols., -16,000 MSS., and has a remarkable collection of Hungarica. The -University Library of Budapest includes 273,000 printed books and more -than 2000 MSS. Since 1897 there has been in Hungary a Chief Inspector of -Museums and Libraries whose duty is to watch all public museums and -libraries which are administered by committees, municipalities, -religious bodies and societies. He also has undertaken the task of -organizing a general catalogue of all the MSS. and early printed books -in Hungary. - - The libraries of the monasteries and other institutions of the - Catholic Church are many in number but not so numerous as in Austria. - The chief among them, the library of the Benedictines at St - Martinsberg, is the central library of the order in Hungary and - contains nearly 170,000 vols. It was reconstituted in 1802 after the - re-establishment of the order. The principal treasures of this abbey - (11th century) were, on the secularization of the monasteries under - Joseph II., distributed among the state libraries in Budapest. - - - Switzerland. - -Among the Swiss libraries, which numbered 2096 in 1868, there is none of -the first rank. Only three possess over 200,000 vols.--the University -Library at Basle founded in 1460, the Cantonal Library at Lausanne, and -the Stadtbibliothek at Berne, which since 1905 is united to the -University Library of that city. One great advantage of the Swiss -libraries is that they nearly all possess printed catalogues, which -greatly further the plan of compiling a great general catalogue of all -the libraries of the republic. A valuable co-operative work is their -treatment of Helvetiana. All the literature since 1848 is collected by -the Landes-Bibliothek at Berne, established in 1895 for this special -object. The older literature is brought together in the Burgerbibliothek -at Lucerne, for which it has a government grant. The monastic libraries -of St Gall and Einsiedeln date respectively from the years 830 and 946, -and are of great historical and literary interest. - - AUTHORITIES.--Information has been supplied for this account by - Professor Dr A. Hortzschansky, librarian of the Royal Library, Berlin. - See also _Adressbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_ by Paul Schwenke - (Leipzig, 1893); _Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_ (Leipzig, - 1902-1910); _Berliner Bibliothekenfuhrer_, by P. Schwenke and A. - Hortzschansky (Berlin, 1906); A. Hortzschansky, _Die K. Bibliothek zu - Berlin_ (Berlin, 1908); Ed. Zarncke, _Leipziger Bibliothekenfuhrer_ - (Leipzig, 1909); J. Bohatta and M. Holzmann, _Adressbuch der - Bibliotheken der osterreich-ungarischen Monarchie_ (Vienna, 1900); Ri. - Kukula, _Die osterreichischen Studienbibliotheken_ (1905); A. Hubl, - _Die osterreichischen Klosterbibliotheken in den Jahren 1848-1908_ - (1908); P. Gulyas, _Das ungarische Oberinspektorat der Museen und - Bibliotheken_ (1909); _Die uber 10,000 Bande zahlenden - offentlichen-Bibliotheken Ungarns, im Jahre 1908_ (Budapest, 1910); H. - Escher, "Bibliothekswesen" in _Handbuch der Schweizer - Volkswirtschaft_, vol. i. (1903). - - -_Italy._ - -As the former centre of civilization, Italy is, of course, the country -in which the oldest existing libraries must be looked for, and in which -the rarest and most valuable MSS. are preserved. The Vatican at Rome and -the Laurentian Library at Florence are sufficient in themselves to -entitle Italy to rank before most other states in that respect, and the -venerable relics at Vercelli, Monte Cassino and La Cava bear witness to -the enlightenment of the peninsula while other nations were slowly -taking their places in the circle of Christian polity. The local rights -and interests which so long helped to impede the unification of Italy -were useful in creating and preserving at numerous minor centres many -libraries which otherwise would probably have been lost during the -progress of absorption that results from such centralization as exists -in England. In spite of long centuries of suffering and of the -aggression of foreign swords and foreign gold, Italy is still rich in -books and MSS. The latest official statistics (1896) give particulars of -1831 libraries, of which 419 are provincial and communal. In 1893 there -were 542 libraries of a popular character and including circulating -libraries. - - - Governmental libraries. - -The governmental libraries (_biblioteche governative_) number 36 and are -under the authority of the minister of public instruction. The -_Regolamento_ controlling them was issued in the _Bolletino Ufficiale_, -5 Dec. 1907. They consist of the national central libraries of Rome -(Vittorio Emanuele) and Florence, of the national libraries of Milan -(Braidense), Naples, Palermo, Turin and Venice (Marciana); the -Biblioteca governativa at Cremona; the Marucelliana, the -Mediceo-Laurenziana and the Riccardiana at Florence; the governativa at -Lucca; the Estense at Modena; the Brancacciana and that of San Giacomo -at Naples; the Palatina at Parma; the Angelica, the Casanatense, and the -Lancisiana at Rome; the university libraries of Bologna, Cagliari, -Catania, Genoa, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Pavia, Pisa, Rome and -Sassari; the Ventimiliana at Catania (joined to the university library -for administrative purposes); the Vallicelliana and the musical library -of the R. Accad. of St Cecilia at Rome; the musical section of the -Palatine at Parma; and the Lucchesi-Palli (added to the national library -at Naples). There are provisions whereby small collections can be united -to larger libraries in the same place and where there are several -government libraries in one city a kind of corporate administration can -be arranged. The libraries belonging to bodies concerned with higher -education, to the royal scientific and literary academies, fine art -galleries, museums and scholastic institutions are ruled by special -regulations. The minister of public instruction is assisted by a -technical board. - -The librarians and subordinates are divided into (1) librarians, or -keepers of MSS.; (2) sub-librarians, or sub-keepers of MSS.; (3) -attendants, or book distributors; (4) ushers, &c. Those of class 1 -constitute the "board of direction," which is presided over by the -librarian, and meets from time to time to consider important measures -connected with the administration of the library. Each library is to -possess, alike for books and MSS., a general inventory, an accessions -register, an alphabetical author-catalogue and a subject-catalogue. When -they are ready, catalogues of the special collections are to be -compiled, and these the government intends to print. A general catalogue -of the MSS. was in 1910 being issued together with catalogues of -oriental codices and incunabula. Various other small registers are -provided for. The sums granted by the state for library purposes must be -applied to (1) salaries and the catalogues of the MSS.; (2) maintenance -and other expenses; (3) purchase of books, binding and repairs, &c. -Books are chosen by the librarians. In the university libraries part of -the expenditure is decided by the librarians, and part by a council -formed by the professors of the different faculties. The rules (_Boll. -Ufficiale_, Sept. 17, 1908) for lending books and MSS. allow them to be -sent to other countries under special circumstances. - -The 36 _biblioteche governative_ annually spend about 300,000 lire in -books. From the three sources of gifts, copyright and purchases, their -accessions in 1908 were 142,930, being 21,122 more than the previous -year. The number of readers is increasing. In 1908 there were 1,176,934, -who made use of 1,650,542 vols., showing an increase of 30,456 readers -and 67,579 books as contrasted with the statistics of the previous year. -Two monthly publications catalogue the accessions of these libraries, -one dealing with copyright additions of Italian literature, the other -with all foreign books. - -The minister of public instruction has kept a watchful eye upon the -literary treasures of the suppressed monastic bodies. In 1875 there were -1700 of these confiscated libraries, containing two millions and a half -of volumes. About 650 of the collections were added to the contents of -the public libraries already in existence; the remaining 1050 were -handed over to the different local authorities, and served to form 371 -new communal libraries, and in 1876 the number of new libraries so -composed was 415. - - - Vatican. - -The Biblioteca Vaticana stands in the very first rank among European -libraries as regards antiquity and wealth of MSS. We can trace back the -history of the Biblioteca Vaticana to the earliest records of the -_Scrinium Sedis Apostolicae_, which was enshrined in safe custody at the -Lateran, and later on partly in the Turris Chartularia; but of all the -things that used to be stored there, the only survival, and that is a -dubious example, is the celebrated Codex Amiatinus now in the Laurentian -Library at Florence. Of the new period inaugurated by Innocent III. -there but remains to us the inventory made under Boniface VIII. The -library shared in the removal of the Papal court to Avignon, where the -collection was renewed and increased, but the Pontifical Library at -Avignon has only in part, and in later times, been taken into the -Library of the Vatican. This latter is a new creation of the great -humanist popes of the 15th century. Eugenius IV. planted the first seed, -but Nicholas V. must be looked upon as the real founder of the library, -to which Sixtus IV. consecrated a definite abode, ornate and splendid, -in the Court of the Pappagallo. Sixtus V. erected the present -magnificent building in 1588, and greatly augmented the collection. The -library increased under various popes and librarians, among the most -noteworthy of whom were Marcello Cervini, the first _Cardinale -Bibliotecario_, later Pone Marcel II., Sirleto and A. Carafa. In 1600 it -was further enriched by the acquisition of the valuable library of -Fulvio Orsini, which contained the pick of the most precious libraries. -Pope Paul V. (1605-1621) separated the library from the archives, fixed -the progressive numeration of the Greek and Latin MSS., and added two -great halls, called the Pauline, for the new codices. Under him and -under Urban VIII. a number of MSS. were purchased from the Convento of -Assisi, of the Minerva at Rome, of the Capranica College, &c. Especially -noteworthy are the ancient and beautiful MSS. of the monastery of -Bobbio, and those which were acquired in various ways from the monastery -of Rossano. Gregory XV. (1622) received from Maximilian I., duke of -Bavaria, by way of compensation for the money supplied by him for the -war, the valuable library of the Elector Palatine, which was seized by -Count Tilly at the capture of Heidelberg. Alexander VII. (1658), having -purchased the large and beautiful collection formerly belonging to the -dukes of Urbino, added the MSS. of it to the Vatican library. The -_Libreria della Regina_, i.e. of Christina, queen of Sweden, composed of -very precious manuscripts from ancient French monasteries, from St Gall -in Switzerland, and others--also of the MSS. of Alexandre Petau, of -great importance for their history and French literature, was purchased -and in great part presented to the Vatican library by Pope Alexander -VIII. (Ottoboni) in 1689, while other MSS. came in later with the -Ottoboni library. Under Clement XI. there was the noteworthy purchase of -the 54 Greek MSS. which had belonged to Pius II., and also the increase -of the collection of Oriental MSS. Under Benedict XIV. there came into -the Vatican library, as a legacy, the library of the Marchese Capponi, -very rich in rare and valuable Italian editions, besides 285 MSS.; and -by a purchase, the Biblioteca Ottoboniana, which, from its wealth in -Greek, Latin, and even Hebrew MSS., was, after that of the Vatican, the -richest in all Rome. Clement XIII. in 1758, Clement XIV. in 1769, and -Pius VI. in 1775 were also benefactors. During three centuries the vast -and monumental library grew with uninterrupted prosperity, but it was to -undergo a severe blow at the end of the 18th century. In 1798, as a -sequel to the Treaty of Tolentino, 500 MSS. picked from the most -valuable of the different collections were sent to Paris by the -victorious French to enrich the Bibliotheque Nationale and other -libraries. These, however, were chiefly restored in 1815. Most of the -Palatine MSS., which formed part of the plunder, found their way back to -the university of Heidelberg. Pius VII. acquired for the Vatican the -library of Cardinal Zelada in 1800, and among other purchases of the -19th century must be especially noted the splendid Cicognara collection -of archaeology and art (1823); as well as the library in 40,000 vols. of -Cardinal Angelo Mai (1856). Recent more important purchases, during the -Pontificate of Leo XIII., have been the Borghese MSS., about 300 in -number, representing part of the ancient library of the popes at -Avignon; the entire precious library of the Barberini; the Borgia -collection _De Propaganda Fide_, containing Latin and Oriental MSS., and -500 incunabula. - -Few libraries are so magnificently housed as the Biblioteca Vaticana. -The famous _Codici Vaticani_ are placed in the _salone_ or great double -hall, which is decorated with frescoes depicting ancient libraries and -councils of the church. At the end of the great hall an immense gallery, -also richly decorated, and extending to 1200 ft., opens out from right -to left. Here are preserved in different rooms the codici Palatini, -Regin., Ottoboniani, Capponiani, &c. The printed books only are on open -shelves, the MSS. being preserved in closed cases. The printed books -that were at first stored in the Borgia Apartment, now with the library -of Cardinal Mai, constitute in great part the _Nuova Sala di -Consultazione_, which was opened to students under the Pontificate of -Leo XIII. Other books, on the other hand, are still divided into 1^a and -2^(da) raccolta, according to the ancient denomination, and are stored -in adjacent halls. - -Well-reasoned calculations place the total number of printed books at -400,000 vols.; of incunabula about 4000, with many vellum copies; 500 -Aldines and a great number of bibliographical rarities. The Latin -manuscripts number 31,373; the Greek amount to 4148; the Oriental MSS., -of which the computation is not complete, amount to about 4000. Among -the Greek and Latin MSS. are some of the most valuable in the world, -alike for antiquity and intrinsic importance. It is sufficient to -mention the famous biblical _Codex Vaticanus_ of the 4th century, the -two Virgils of the 4th and 5th centuries, the Bembo Terence, the -palimpsest _De Republica_ of Cicero, conjectured to be of the 4th -century, discovered by Cardinal Mai, and an extraordinary number of -richly ornamented codices of great beauty and costliness. The archives -are apart from the library, and are accessible in part to the public -under conditions. Leo XIII. appointed a committee to consider what -documents of general interest might expediently be published. - -The Biblioteca Vaticana is now open from October 1st to Easter every -morning between 9 and 1 o'clock, and from Easter to June 29 from 8 -o'clock to 12, with the exception of Sundays, Thursdays and the -principal feast days. - -Catalogues of special classes of MSS. have been published. The Oriental -MSS. have been described by J. S. Assemani, _Bibliotheca orientalis -Clementino-Vaticana_ (Rome, 1719-1728, 4 vols. folio), and _Bibl. Vat. -codd. MSS. catalogus ab S. E. et J. S. Assentano redactus_ (ib., -1756-1759, 3 vols. folio), and by Cardinal Mai in _Script. Vet. nova -collectio_. The Coptic MSS. have been specially treated by G. Zoega -(Rome, 1810, folio) and by F. G. Bonjour (Rome, 1699, 4to). There are -printed catalogues of the Capponi (1747) and the Cicognara (1820) -libraries. The following catalogues have lately been printed: E. -Stevenson, _Codd. Palatini Graeci_ (1885), _Codd. Gr. Reg. Sueciae et -Pii II._ (1888); Feron-Battaglini, _Codd. Ottobon. Graeci_ (1893); C. -Stornaiolo, _Codd. Urbinates Gr._ (1895); E. Stevenson, _Codd. Palatini -Lat._ tom. 1 (1886); G. Salvo-Cozzo, _Codici Capponiani_ (1897); M. -Vattasso and P. Franchi de' Cavalieri, _Codd. Lat. Vaticani_, tom. 1 -(1902); C. Stornaiolo, _Codices Urbinates Latini_, tom. 1 (1902); E. -Stevenson, _Inventario dei libri stampali Palatino-Vaticani_ -(1886-1891); and several volumes relating to Egyptian papyri by O. -Marucchi. Some of the greatest treasures have been reproduced in -facsimile. - - - Other Roman libraries. - - The most important library in Italy for modern requirements is the - Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele. From its foundation in 1875, - incorporating the _biblioteca maior o secreta_ of the Jesuits in the - Collegio Romano, and all the cloister libraries of the Provincia - Romana which had devolved to the state through the suppression of the - Religious Orders, it has now, by purchases, by donations, through the - operation of the law of the press increased to about 850,000 printed - vols., and is continually being ameliorated. It possesses about 1600 - incunabula and 6200 MSS. Noteworthy among these are the Farfensi and - the Sessoriani MSS. of Santa Croce in Jerusalem, and some of these - last of the 6th to the 8th centuries are real treasures. The library - has been recently reorganized. It is rich in the history of the - renaissance, Italian and foreign reviews, and Roman topography. A - monthly _Bollettino_ is issued of modern foreign literature received - by the libraries of Italy. - - The Biblioteca Casanatense, founded by Cardinal Casanate in 1698, - contains about 200,000 printed vols., over 2000 incunabula, with many - Roman and Venetian editions, and more than 5000 MSS., among which are - examples of the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries. They are arranged in - eleven large rooms, the large central hall being one of the finest in - Rome. It is rich in theology, the history of the middle ages, - jurisprudence and the economic, social and political sciences. An - incomplete catalogue of the printed books by A. Audiffredi still - remains a model of its kind (Roma, 1761-1788, 4 vols. folio, and part - of vol. v.). - - The Biblioteca Angelica was founded in 1605 by Monsignor Angelo Rocca, - an Augustinian, and was the first library in Rome to throw open its - doors to the public. It contains about 90,000 vols., of which about - 1000 are incunabula; 2570 MSS., of which 120 are Greek, and 91 - Oriental. It includes all the authentic acts of the Congregatio de - Auxiliis and the collections of Cardinal Passionei and Lucas - Holstenius. - - The Biblioteca Universitaria Alessandrina was founded by Pope - Alexander VII., with the greater part of the printed books belonging - to the dukes of Urbino, and was opened in 1676. In 1815 Pius VII. - granted to it the right to receive a copy of every printed book in the - States of the Church, which grant at the present time, by virtue of - the laws of Italy, is continued, but limited to the province of Rome. - The library possesses 130,000 printed books, 600 incunabula, 376 MSS. - - The library of the Senate was established at Turin in 1848. It - contains nearly 87,000 vols. and is rich in municipal history and the - statutes of Italian cities, the last collection extending to 2639 - statutes or vols. for 679 municipalities. The library of the Chamber - of Deputies contains 120,000 vols. and pamphlets. It is rich in modern - works, and especially in jurisprudence, native and foreign history, - economics and administration. - - The Biblioteca Vallicelliana was founded by Achille Stazio (1581), and - contains some valuable manuscripts, including a Latin Bible of the 8th - century attributed to Alcuin, and some inedited writings of Baronius. - It now contains 28,000 vols. and 2315 MSS. Since 1884 it has been in - the custody of the R. Societa Romana di Storia Patria. The Biblioteca - Lancisiana, founded in 1711 by G. M. Lancisi, is valuable for its - medical collections. - - In 1877 Professor A. Sarti presented to the city of Rome his - collection of fine-art books, 10,000 vols., which was placed in charge - of the Accademia di San Luca, which already possessed a good artistic - library. The Biblioteca Centrale Militare (1893) includes 66,000 - printed vols. and 72,000 maps and plans relating to military affairs; - and the Biblioteca della R. Accad. di S. Cecilia (1875), a valuable - musical collection of 40,000 volumes and 2300 MSS. - - - Subiaco. - - Among the private libraries accessible by permission, the Chigiana - (1660) contains 25,000 vols. and 2877 MSS. The Corsiniana, founded by - Clement XII. (Lorenzo Corsini) is rich in incunabula, and includes one - of the most remarkable collections of prints, the series of - Marc-Antonios being especially complete. It was added to the Accademia - dei Lincei in 1884 and now extends to 43,000 vols. The library of the - Collegium de Propaganda Fide was established by Urban VIII. in 1626. - It owes its present richness almost entirely to testamentary gifts, - among which may be mentioned those of Cardinals Borgia, Caleppi and Di - Pietro. It is a private collection for the use of the congregation and - of those who belong to it, but permission may be obtained from the - superiors. There are at least thirty libraries in Rome which are more - or less accessible to the public. At Subiaco, about 40 m. from Rome, - the library of the Benedictine monastery of Santa Scolastica is not a - very large one, comprising only 6000 printed vols. and 400 MSS., but - the place is remarkable as having been the first seat of typography in - Italy. It was in this celebrated Protocoenobium that Schweynheim and - Pannartz, fresh from the dispersion of Fust and Schoeffer's workmen in - 1462, established their press and produced a series of very rare and - important works which are highly prized throughout Europe. The Subiaco - library, although open daily to readers, is only visited by students - who are curious to behold the cradle of the press in Italy, and to - inspect the series of original editions preserved in their first home. - - - Florence. - - The Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale of Florence, formed from the union - of Magliabechi's library with the Palatina, is the largest after the - Vittorio Emanuele at Rome. The Magliabechi collection became public - property in 1714, and with accessions from time to time, held an - independent place until 1862, when the Palatina (formed by Ferdinand - III., Grand Duke of Tuscany), was incorporated with it. An old statute - by which a copy of every work printed in Tuscany was to be presented - to the Magliabechi library was formerly much neglected, but has been - maintained more rigorously in force since 1860. Since 1870 it receives - by law a copy of every book published in the kingdom. A _Bollettino_ - is issued describing these accessions. There are many valuable - autograph originals of famous works in this library, and the MSS. - include the most important extant _codici_ of Dante and later poets, - as well as of the historians from Villani to Machiavelli and - Guicciardini. Amongst the printed books is a very large assemblage of - rare early impressions, a great number of the _Rappresentazioni_ of - the 16th century, at least 200 books printed on vellum, and a copious - collection of municipal histories and statutes, of _testi di lingua_ - and of maps. The Galileo collection numbers 308 MSS. The MS. - portolani, 25 in number, are for the most part of great importance; - the oldest is dated 1417, and several seem to be the original charts - executed for Sir Robert Dudley (duke of Northumberland) in the - preparation of his _Arcano del Mare_. The library contains (1909) - 571,698 printed vols., 20,222 MSS., 9037 engravings, 21,000 portraits, - 3847 maps, and 3575 incunabula. In 1902 the Italian parliament voted - the funds for a new building which is being erected on the Corso dei - Tintori close to the Santa Croce Church. - - - Milan. - - The Biblioteca Nazionale of Milan, better known as the Braidense, - founded in 1770 by Maria Theresa, consists of 243,000 printed vols. - 1787 MSS. and over 3000 autographs. It comprises nearly 2300 books - printed in the 15th century (including the rare _Monte Santo di Dio_ - of Bettini, 1477), 913 Aldine impressions, and a xylographic _Biblia - Pauperum_. Amongst the MSS. are an early Dante and autograph letters - of Galileo, some poems in Tasso's autograph, and a fine series of - illustrated service-books, with miniatures representing the advance of - Italian art from the 12th to the 16th century. One room is devoted to - the works of Manzoni. - - - Naples. - - The Biblioteca Nazionale at Naples, though only opened to the public - in 1804, is the largest library of that city. The nucleus from which - it developed was the collection of Cardinal Seripando, which comprised - many MSS. and printed books of great value. Acquisitions came in from - other sources, especially when in the year 1848 many private and - conventual libraries were thrown on the Neapolitan market, and still - more so in 1860. The Biblical section is rich in rarities, commencing - with the Mainz Bible of 1462, printed on vellum. Other special - features are the collection of _testi di lingua_, that of books on - volcanoes, the best collection in existence of the publications of - Italian literary and scientific societies and a nearly complete set of - the works issued by the Bodoni press. The MSS. include a palimpsest - containing writings of the 3rd, 5th and 6th centuries under a - grammatical treatise of the 8th, 2 Latin papyri of the 6th century, - over 50 Latin Bibles, many illuminated books with miniatures, and the - autographs of G. Leopardi. There are more than 40 books printed on - vellum in the 15th and 16th centuries, including a fine first Homer; - and several MS. maps and portolani, one dating from the end of the - 14th century. The library contains about 389,100 printed vols., 7990 - MSS. and 4217 incunabula. - - - Palermo. - - The Biblioteca Nazionale of Palermo, founded from the Collegio Massimo - of the Jesuits, with additions from other libraries of that suppressed - order, is rich in 15th-century books, which have been elaborately - described in a catalogue printed in 1875, and in Aldines and - bibliographical curiosities of the 16th and following centuries, and a - very complete series of the Sicilian publications of the 16th century, - many being unique. The library contains 167,898 printed vols., 2550 - incunabula, 1537 MSS. - - - Turin. - - Venice. - - The Biblioteca Nazionale Universitatia of Turin took its origin in the - donation of the private library of the House of Savoy, which in 1720 - was made to the University by Vittorio Amedeo II. The disastrous fire - of January 1904 destroyed about 24,000 out of the 300,000 vols. which - the library possessed, and of the MSS., the number of which was 4138, - there survive now but 1500 in a more or less deteriorated condition. - Among those that perished were the palimpsests of Cicero, Cassidorus, - the Codex Theodosianus and the famous _Livre d'Heures_. What escaped - the fire entirely was the valuable collection of 1095 incunabula, the - most ancient of which is the _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ of 1459. - Since the fire the library has been enriched by new gifts, the most - conspicuous of which is the collection of 30,000 vols. presented by - Baron Alberto Lumbroso, principally relating to the French Revolution - and empire. The library was in 1910 about to be transferred to the - premises of the Palazzo of the Debito Publico. The Biblioteca - Marciana, or library of St Mark at Venice, was traditionally founded - in 1362 by a donation of MSS. from the famous Petrarch (all of them - now lost) and instituted as a library by Cardinal Bessarione in 1468. - The printed vols. number 417,314. The precious contents include 12,106 - MSS. of great value, of which more than 1000 Greek codices were given - by Cardinal Bessarione, important MS. collections of works on Venetian - history, music and theatre, rare incunabula, and a great number of - volumes, unique or exceedingly rare, on the subject of early - geographical research. Amongst the MSS. is a Latin Homer, an - invaluable codex of the laws of the Lombards, and the autograph MS. of - Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_. Since the fall of the - republic and the suppression of the monasteries a great many private - and conventual libraries have been incorporated with the Marciana, - which had its first abode in the Libreria del Sansovino, from which in - turn it was transferred in 1812 to the Palazzo Ducale, and from this - again in 1904 to the Palazzo della Zecca (The Mint). - - - University libraries. - - Among the university libraries under government control some deserve - special notice. First in historical importance comes the Biblioteca - della Universita at Bologna, founded by the naturalist U. Aldrovandi, - who bequeathed by his will in 1605 to the senate of Bologna his - collection of 3800 printed books and 360 MSS. Count Luigi F. Marsili - increased the library by a splendid gift in 1712 and established an - Istituto delle Scienze, reconstituted as a public library by Benedict - XIV. in 1756. The printed books number 255,000 vols., and the MSS. - 5000. The last comprise a rich Oriental collection of 547 MSS. in - Arabic, 173 in Turkish, and several in Persian, Armenian and Hebrew. - Amongst the Latin codices is a Lactantius of the 6th or 7th century. - The other noteworthy articles include a copy of the Armenian gospels - (12th century), the Avicenna, with miniatures dated 1194, described in - Montfaucon's _Diarium Italicum_, and some unpublished Greek texts. - Amongst the Italian MSS. is a rich assemblage of municipal histories. - Mezzofanti was for a long time the custodian here, and his own - collection of books has been incorporated in the library, which is - remarkable likewise for the number of early editions and Aldines which - it contains. A collection of drawings by Agostino Caracci is another - special feature of worth. The grand hall with its fine furniture in - walnut wood merits particular attention. The Biblioteca della - Universita at Naples was established by Joachim Murat in 1812 in the - buildings of Monte Oliveto, and has thence been sometimes called the - "Biblioteca Gioacchino." Later it was transferred to the Royal - University of studies, and was opened to the public in 1827. It was - increased by the libraries of several monastic bodies. The most - copious collections relate to the study of medicine and natural - science. It possesses about 300,000 printed books, 404 incunabula, 203 - Aldines, and 196 Bodoni editions, but the more important incunabula - and MSS. about the middle of the 19th century went to enrich the - Biblioteca Nazionale. Other important university libraries are those - of Catania (1755), 130,000 vols.; Genoa (1773), 132,000 vols., 1588 - MSS.; Pavia (1763), 250,000 vols., 1100 MSS.; Padua (200,000 vols., - 2356 MSS.), which in 1910 was housed in a new building; Cagliari - (90,000 vols.); Sassari (74,000 vols.). Messina, destroyed in the - earthquake of 1908, preserved, however, beneath its ruins the more - important part of its furniture and fittings, and in 1910 was already - restored to active work, as regards the portion serving for the - reawakened Faculty of Law in the University. - - - Mediceo-Laurenziana. - - Modena. - - Chief among the remaining government libraries comes the world-famed - Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana at Florence, formed from the - collections of Cosimo the Elder, Pietro de' Medici, and Lorenzo the - Magnificent (which, however, passed away from the family after the - expulsion of the Medici from Florence, and were repurchased in 1508 by - Cardinal Giovanni, afterwards Leo X.). It was first constituted as a - public library in Florence by Clement VII., who charged Michelangelo - to construct a suitable edifice for its reception. It was opened to - the public by Cosimo I. in 1571, and has ever since gone on increasing - in value, the accessions in the 18th century alone being enough to - double its former importance. The printed books it contains are - probably no more than 11,000 in number, but are almost all of the - highest rarity and interest, including 242 incunabula of which 151 - _editiones principes_. It is, however, the precious collection of - MSS., amounting to 9693 articles, which gives its chief importance to - this library. They comprise more than 700 of dates earlier than the - 11th century. Some of them are the most valuable codices in the - world--the famous Virgil of the 4th or 5th century, Justinian's - _Pandects_ of the 6th, a Homer of the 10th, and several other very - early Greek and Latin classical and Biblical texts, as well as copies - in the handwriting of Petrarch, about 100 codices of Dante, a - _Decameron_ copied by a contemporary from Boccaccio's own MS., and - Cellini's MS. of his autobiography. Bandini's catalogue of the MSS. - occupies 13 vols. folio, printed in 1764-1778. Administratively united - to the Laurentian is the Riccardiana rich in MSS. of Italian - literature, especially the Florentine (33,000 vols., 3905 MSS.). At - Florence the Biblioteca Marucelliana, founded in 1703, remarkable for - its artistic wealth of early woodcuts and metal engravings, was opened - to the public in 1753. The number of these and of original drawings by - the old masters amounts to 80,000 pieces; the printed volumes number - 200,000, the incunabula 620, and the MSS. 1500. At Modena is the - famous Biblioteca Estense, so called from having been founded by the - Este family at Ferrara in 1393; it was transferred to Modena by Cesare - D'Este in 1598. Muratori, Zaccaria and Tiraboschi were librarians - here, and made good use of the treasures of the library. It is - particularly rich in early printed literature and valuable codices. - Between 1859 and 1867 it was known as the Biblioteca Palatina. The - printed vols. number 150,570, the incunabula 1600, the MSS. 3336, - besides the 4958 MSS. and the 100,000 autographs of the Campori - collection. - - - Parma. - - The oldest library at Naples is the Biblioteca Brancacciana, with many - valuable MSS. relating to the history of Naples. Two planispheres by - Coronelli are preserved here. It was founded in 1673 by Cardinal F. M. - Brancaccio, and opened by his heirs in 1675; 150,000 vols. and 3000 - MSS. The Regia Biblioteca di Parma, founded definitively in 1779, owes - its origin to the grand-duke Philip, who employed the famous scholar - Paciaudi to organize it. It is now a public library containing 308,770 - vols. and 4890 MSS. Amongst its treasures is De Rossi's magnificent - collection of Biblical and rabbinical MSS. Also worthy of note are the - Bibl. Pubblica or governation of Lucca (1600) with 214,000 vols., 725 - incunabula and 3091 MSS. and that of Cremona (1774), united to that of - the Museo Civico. - - - Ambrosiana. - - Among the great libraries not under government control, the most - important is the famous Biblioteca Ambrosiana at Milan, founded in - 1609 by Cardinal Fed. Borromeo. It contains 230,000 printed vols. and - 8400 MSS. Amongst the MSS. are a Greek Pentateuch of the 5th century, - the famous Peshito and Syro-Hexaplar from the Nitrian convent of St - Maria Deipara, a Josephus written on papyrus, supposed to be of the - 5th century, several palimpsest texts, including an early Plautus, and - St Jerome's commentary on the Psalms in a volume of 7th-century - execution, full of contemporary glosses in Irish, Gothic fragments of - Ulfilas, and a Virgil with notes in Petrarch's handwriting. Cardinal - Mai Was formerly custodian here. In 1879 Professor C. Mensinger - presented his "Biblioteca Europea," consisting of 2500 vols., 300 maps - and 5000 pieces, all relating to the literature and linguistics of - European countries. The Melzi and Trivulzio libraries should not pass - without mention here, although they are private and inaccessible - without special permission. The former is remarkable for its - collection of early editions with engravings, including the Dante of - 1481, with twenty designs by Baccio Bandinelli. The latter is rich in - MSS. with miniatures of the finest and rarest kind, and in printed - books of which many are unique or nearly so. It consists of 70,000 - printed vols. At Genoa the Biblioteca Franzoniana, founded about 1770 - for the instruction of the poorer classes, is noteworthy as being the - first European library lighted up at night for the use of readers. - - - Monte Cassino. - - Vercelli. - - The foundation of the monastery of Monte Cassino is due to St - Benedict, who arrived there in the year 529, and established the - prototype of all similar institutions in western Europe. The library - of printed books now extends to about 20,000 vols., chiefly relating - to the theological sciences, but including some rare editions. A - collection of the books belonging to the monks contains about the same - number of volumes. But the chief glory of Monte Cassino consists of - the _archivio_, which is quite apart; and this includes more than - 30,000 bulls, diplomas, charters and other documents, besides 1000 - MSS. dating from the 6th century downwards. The latter comprehend some - very early Bibles and important codices of patristic and other - medieval writings. There are good written catalogues, and descriptions - with extracts are published in the _Bibliotheca Casinensis_. The - monastery was declared a national monument in 1866. At Ravenna the - Biblioteca Classense has a 10th-century codex of Aristophanes and two - 14th-century codices of Dante. At Vercelli the Biblioteca dell' - Archivio Capitolare, the foundation of which can be assigned to no - certain date, but must be referred to the early days when the - barbarous conquerors of Italy had become christianized, comprises - nothing but MSS., all of great antiquity and value. Amongst them is an - Evangeliarium S. Eusebii in Latin, supposed to be of the 4th century; - also the famous codex containing the Anglo-Saxon homilies which have - been published by the Aelfric Society. - - - La Cava. - - The Biblioteca del Monastero della S. Trinita, at La Cava dei Tirreni - in the province of Salerno, is said to date from the foundation of the - abbey itself (beginning of the 11th century). It contains only some - 10,000 vols., but these include a number of MSS. of very great rarity - and value, ranging from the 8th to the 14th century. Amongst these is - the celebrated Codex Legum Longobardorum, dated 1004, besides a - well-known geographical chart of the 12th century, over 100 Greek - MSS., and about 1000 charters beginning with the year 840, more than - 200 of which belong to the Lombard and Norman periods. The library is - now national property, the abbot holding the office of Keeper of the - Archives. - - Not a few of the communal and municipal libraries are of great extent - and interest: Bologna (1801), 191,000 vols., 5060 MSS.; Brescia, - Civica Quiriniana, 125,000 vols., 1500 MSS.; Ferrara (1753), 91,000 - vols., 1698 MSS., many Ferrarese rarities; Macerata, the - Mozzi-Borgetti (1783-1835, united 1855), 50,000 vols.; Mantua, 70,000 - vols., 1300 MSS.; Novara, Negroni e Civica (1847 and 1890), 75,000 - vols.; Padua, 90,000 vols., 1600 MSS.; Palermo (1760), 216,000 vols., - 3263 MSS., coins and Sicilian collection; Perugia (1852), founded by - P. Podiani, 70,000 vols., 915 MSS.; Siena (1758), founded by S. - Bandini, fine art collection, 83,250 vols., 5070 MSS.; Venice, Museo - Civico Correr, 50,000 vols., 11,000 MSS.; Verona (1792, public since - 1802), 180,000 vols., 2650 MSS.; Vicenza, Bertoliana (1708), local - literature, archives of religious corporations, 175,000 vols., 6000 - MSS. - - Popular libraries have now been largely developed in Italy, chiefly - through private or municipal enterprise; they enjoy a small state - subvention of L1000. The government report for 1908 stated that 319 - communes possessed _biblioteche popolari_ numbering altogether 415. Of - these, 313 were established by municipalities, 113 by individuals, 8 - by business houses, 80 by working men's societies and 15 by ministers - of religion; 225 are open to the public, 358 lend books, 221 - gratuitously, and 127 on payment of a small fee. In order to establish - these institutions throughout the kingdom, a _Bollettino_ has been - published at Milan since 1907, and a National Congress was held at - Rome in December 1908. - - Information has been given for this account by Dr G. Staderini of the - Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome. See also F. Bluhme, _Iter Italicum_ - (Berlin, 1824-1836); _Notizie sulle biblioteche governative del regno - d' Italia_ (Roma, 1893); _Le biblioteche governative Italiane nel - 1898_ (Roma, 1900); _Statistica delle biblioteche_ (Roma, 1893-1896, 2 - pts.); _Le biblioteche popolari in Italia, relazione al Ministro della - Pubb. Istruzione_ (Roma, 1898); _Bollettino delle biblioteche - popolari_ (Milano, 1907, in progress); E. Fabietti, _Manuale per le - biblioteche popolari_ (2^(da) ediz., Milano); _Le biblioteche pop. al - 1^o Congresso Naz. 1908_ (Milano, 1910). - - -_Latin America._ - -Much interest in libraries has not been shown in south, central and -other parts of Latin America. Most of the libraries which exist are -national or legislative libraries. - - - Cuba. - - As the libraries of the republic of Cuba are more Spanish than - American in character, it will be convenient to consider them here. - The chief libraries are in Havana, and the best are the Biblioteca - Publica and the University Library. The Biblioteca Publica has within - recent years been completely overhauled, and is now one of the most - actively-managed libraries in Latin America. - - - Mexico. - - Out of the twenty-nine states and territories of the Mexican republic - about half have public libraries, and only a small proportion of the - contents consists of modern literature. Many possess rare and valuable - books, of interest to the bibliographer and historian, which have come - from the libraries of the suppressed religious bodies. There is a - large number of scientific and literary associations in the republic, - each possessing books. The Society of Geography and Statistics, - founded in 1851 in Mexico City, is the most important of them, and - owns a fine museum and excellent library. After the triumph of the - Liberal party the cathedral, university and conventual libraries of - the city of Mexico came into the possession of the government, and - steps were taken to form them into one national collection. No - definite system was organized, however, until 1867, when the church of - San Augustin was taken and fitted up for the purpose. In 1884 it was - opened as the Biblioteca Nacional, and now possesses over 200,000 - vols. Two copies of every book printed in Mexico must be presented to - this library. Most of the libraries of Mexico, city or provincial, are - subscription, and belong to societies and schools of various kinds. - - - Argentina. - - The importance of public libraries has been fully recognized in - Argentina, and more than two hundred of them are in the country. They - are due to benefactions, but the government in every case adds an - equal sum to any endowment. A central commission exists for the - purpose of facilitating the acquisition of books and to promote a - uniform excellence of administration. The most considerable is the - Biblioteca Nacional at Buenos Aires, which is passably rich in MSS., - some of great interest, concerning the early history of the Spanish - colonies. There is also the Biblioteca Municipal with about 25,000 - vols. There are libraries attached to colleges, churches and clubs, - and most of the larger towns possess public libraries. - - - Brazil. - - The chief library in Brazil is the Bibliotheca Publica Nacional at Rio - de Janeiro (1807) now comprising over 250,000 printed vols. with many - MSS. National literature and works connected with South America are - special features of this collection. A handsome new building has been - erected which has been fitted up in the most modern manner. Among - other libraries of the capital may be mentioned those of the Faculty - of Medicine, Marine Library, National Museum, Portuguese Literary - Club, Bibliotheca Fluminense, Benedictine Monastery, and the - Bibliotheca Municipal. There are various provincial and public - libraries throughout Brazil, doing good work, and a typical example is - the public library of Maranhao. - - - Chile. - - The Biblioteca Nacional at Santiago is the chief library in Chile. The - catalogue is printed, and is kept up by annual supplements. It - possesses about 100,000 vols. There is also a University Library at - Santiago, and a fairly good Biblioteca Publica at Valparaiso. - - - Peru. - - The Biblioteca Nacional at Lima was founded by a decree of the - liberator San Martin on the 28th of August 1821, and placed in the - house of the old convent of San Pedro. The nucleus of the library - consisted of those of the university of San Marcos and of several - monasteries, and a large present of books was also made by San Martin. - The library is chiefly interesting from containing so many MSS. and - rare books relating to the history of Peru in viceregal times. - - -_Spain and Portugal._ - -Most of the royal, state and university libraries of Spain and Portugal -have government control and support. In Portugal the work of the -universities is to a certain extent connected up, and an official -bulletin is published in which the laws and accessions of the libraries -are contained. - - The chief library in Spain is the Biblioteca Nacional (formerly the - Biblioteca Real) at Madrid. The printed volumes number 600,000 with - 200,000 pamphlets. Spanish literature is of course well represented, - and, in consequence of the numerous accessions from the libraries of - the suppressed convents, the classes of theology, canon law, history, - &c., are particularly complete. There are 30,000 MSS., including some - finely illuminated codices, historical documents, and many valuable - autographs. The collection of prints extends to 120,000 pieces, and - was principally formed from the important series bought from Don - Valentin Carderera in 1865. The printed books have one catalogue - arranged under authors' names, and one under titles; the departments - of music, maps and charts, and prints have subject-catalogues as well. - There is a general index of the MSS., with special catalogues of the - Greek and Latin codices and genealogical documents. The cabinet of - medals is most valuable and well arranged. Of the other Madrid - libraries it is enough to mention the Biblioteca de la Real Academia - de la Historia, 1758 (20,000 vols. and 1500 MSS.), which contains some - printed and MS. Spanish books of great value, including the well-known - Salazar collection. The history of the library of the Escorial (q.v.) - has been given elsewhere. In 1808, before the invasion, the Escorial - is estimated to have contained 30,000 printed vols. and 3400 MSS.; - Joseph removed the collection to Madrid, but when it was returned by - Ferdinand 10,000 vols. were missing. There are now about 40,000 - printed vols. The Arabic MSS. have been described by M. Casiri, - 1760-1770; and a catalogue of the Greek codices by Muller was issued - at the expense of the French government in 1848. There is a MS. - catalogue of the printed books. Permission to study at the Escorial, - which is one of the royal private libraries, must be obtained by - special application. The Biblioteca Provincial y Universitaria of - Barcelona (1841) contains about 155,000 vols., and that of Seville - (1767) has 82,000 vols. Other cities in Spain possess provincial or - university libraries open to students under various restrictions, - among them may be mentioned the Biblioteca Universitaria of Salamanca - (1254) with over 80,000 vols. - - - Portugal. - - Among the libraries of Portugal the Bibliotheca Nacional at Lisbon - (1796) naturally takes the first place. In 1841 it was largely - increased from the monastic collections, which, however, seem to have - been little cared for according to a report prepared by the principal - librarian three years later. There are now said to be 400,000 vols. of - printed books, among which theology, canon law, history and Portuguese - and Spanish literature largely predominate. The MSS. number 16,000 - including many of great value. There is also a cabinet of 40,000 coins - and medals. The Bibliotheca da Academia, founded in 1780, is preserved - in the suppressed convent of the Ordem Terceira da Penitencia. In - 1836 the Academy acquired the library of that convent, numbering - 30,000 vols., which have since been kept apart. The Archivo Nacional, - in the same building, contains the archives of the kingdom, brought - here after the destruction of the Torre do Castello during the great - earthquake. - - The Biblioteca Publica Municipal at Oporto is the second largest in - Portugal, although only dating from the 9th of July 1833, the - anniversary of the debarcation of D. Pedro, and when the memorable - siege was still in progress; from that date to 1874 it was styled the - Real Biblioteca do Porto. The regent (ex-emperor of Brazil) gave to - the town the libraries of the suppressed convents in the northern - provinces, the municipality undertaking to defray the expense of - keeping up the collection. Recent accessions consist mainly of - Portuguese and French books. The important Camoens collection is - described in a printed catalogue (Oporto, 1880). A notice of the MSS. - may be found in _Catalogo dos MSS. da B. Publica Eborense_, by H. da - Cunha Rivara (Lisbon, 1850-1870), 3 vols. folio, and the first part of - an _Indice preparatorio do Catalogo dos Manuscriptos_ was produced in - 1880. The University Library of Coimbra (1591) contains about 100,000 - vols., and other colleges possess libraries. - - -_Netherlands._ - -Since 1900 there has been considerable progress made in both Belgium and -Holland in the development of public libraries, and several towns in the -latter country have established popular libraries after the fashion of -the municipal libraries of the United Kingdom and America. - - - Belgium. - - The national library of Belgium is the Bibliotheque Royale at - Brussels, of which the basis may be said to consist of the famous - Bibliotheque des ducs de Bourgogne, the library of the Austrian - sovereigns of the Low Countries, which had gradually accumulated - during three centuries. After suffering many losses from thieves and - fire, in 1772 the Bibliotheque de Bourgogne received considerable - augmentations from the libraries of the suppressed order of Jesuits, - and was thrown open to the public. On the occupation of Brussels by - the French in 1794 a number of books and MSS. were confiscated and - transferred to Paris (whence the majority were returned in 1815); in - 1795 the remainder were formed into a public library under the care of - La Serna Santander, who was also town librarian, and who was followed - by van Hulthem. At the end of the administration of van Hulthem a - large part of the precious collections of the Bollandists was - acquired. In 1830 the Bibliotheque de Bourgogne was added to the state - archives, and the whole made available for students. Van Hulthem died - in 1832, leaving one of the most important private libraries in - Europe, described by Voisin in _Bibliotheca Hulthemiana_ (Brussels, - 1836), 5 vols., and extending to 60,000 printed vols, and 1016 MSS., - mostly relating to Belgian history. The collection was purchased by - the government in 1837, and, having been added to the Bibliotheque de - Bourgogne (open since 1772) and the Bibliotheque de la Ville (open - since 1794), formed what has since been known as the Bibliotheque - Royale de Belgique. The printed volumes now number over 600,000 with - 30,000 MSS., 105,000 prints and 80,000 coins and medals. The special - collections, each with a printed catalogue, consist of the Fonds van - Hulthem, for national history; the Fonds Fetis, for music; the Fonds - Goethals, for genealogy; and the Fonds Muller, for physiology. The - catalogue of the MSS. has been partly printed, and catalogues of - accessions and other departments are also in course of publication. - There are libraries attached to most of the departments of the - government, the ministry of war having 120,000 vols. and the ministry - of the interior, 15,000 vols. An interesting library is the - Bibliotheque Collective des Societes Savantes founded in 1906 to - assemble in one place the libraries of all the learned societies of - Brussels. It contains about 40,000 vols. which have been catalogued on - cards. The Bibliotheque du Conservatoire royal de Musique (1832) - contains 12,000 vols, and 6000 dramatic works. The popular or communal - libraries of Brussels contain about 30,000 vols. and those of the - adjoining suburbs about 50,000 vols., most of which are distributed - through the primary and secondary schools. At Antwerp the Stadt - Bibliothek (1805) has now 70,000 vols., and is partly supported by - subscriptions and endowments. The valuable collection of books in the - Musee Plantin-Moretus (1640) should also be mentioned. It contains - 11,000 MSS. and 15,000 printed books, comprising the works issued by - the Plantin family and many 15th-century books. - - The University Library of Ghent, known successively as the - Bibliotheque de l'Ecole Centrale and Bibliotheque Publique de la - Ville, was founded upon the old libraries of the Conseil de Flandres, - of the College des Echevins, and of many suppressed religious - communities. It was declared public in 1797, and formally opened in - 1798. On the foundation of the university in 1817 the town placed the - collection at its disposal, and the library has since remained under - state control. The printed volumes now amount to 353,000. There are - important special collections on archaeology, Netherlands literature, - national history, books printed in Flanders, and 23,000 historical - pamphlets of the 16th and 17th centuries. The main catalogue is in MS. - on cards. There are printed catalogues of the works on jurisprudence - (1839), and of the MSS. (1852). The Bibliotheque de l'Universite - Catholique of Louvain is based upon the collection of Beyerlinck, who - bequeathed it to his alma mater in 1627; this example was followed by - Jacques Romain, professor of medicine, but the proper organization of - the library began in 1636. There are now said to be 211,000 vols. The - Bibliotheque de l'Universite of Liege dates from 1817, when on the - foundation of the university the old Bibliotheque de la Ville was - added to it. There are now 350,000 printed vols., pamphlets, MSS., &c. - The Liege collection (of which a printed catalogue appeared in 3 vols. - 8vo., 1872), bequeathed by M. Ulysse Capitaine, extends to 12,061 - vols. and pamphlets. There are various printed catalogues. The - Bibliotheques Populaires of Liege established in 1862, now number - five, and contain among them 50,000 vols. which are circulated to the - extent of 130,000 per annum among the school children. The - Bibliotheque publique of Bruges (1798) contains 145,600 printed books - and MSS., housed in a very artistic building, once the Tonlieu or - douane, 1477. There are communal libraries at Alost, Arlon (1842), Ath - (1842), Courtrai, Malines (1864), Mons (1797), Namur (1800), Ostend - (1861), Tournai (1794, housed in the Hotel des Anciens Pretres, 1755), - Ypres (1839) and elsewhere, all conducted on the same system as the - French communal libraries. Most of them range in size from 5000 to - 40,000 vols, and they are open as a rule only part of the day. Every - small town has a similar library, and a complete list of them, - together with much other information, will be found in the _Annuaire - de la Belgique, scientifique, artistique et litteraire_ (Brussels 1908 - and later issues). - - - Holland. - - The national library of Holland is the Koninklijke Bibliotheek at - Hague, which was established in 1798, when it was decided to join the - library of the princes of Orange with those of the defunct government - bodies in order to form a library for the States-General, to be called - the Nationale Bibliotheek. In 1805 the present name was adopted; and - since 1815 it has become the national library. In 1848 the Baron W. Y. - H. van Westreenen van Tiellandt bequeathed his valuable books, MSS., - coins and antiquities to the country, and directed that they should be - preserved in his former residence as a branch of the royal library. - There are now upwards of 500,000 vols. of printed books, and the MSS. - number 6000, chiefly historical, but including many fine books of - hours with miniatures. Books are lent all over the country. The - library boasts of the richest collection in the world of books on - chess, Dutch incunabula, Elzevirs and Spinozana. There is one general - written catalogue arranged in classes, with alphabetical indexes. In - 1800 a printed catalogue was issued, with four supplements down to - 1811; and since 1866 a yearly list of additions has been published. - Special mention should be made of the excellent catalogue of the - incunabula published in 1856. - - The next library in numerical importance is the famous Bibliotheca - Academiae Lugduno-Batavae, which dates from the foundation of the - university of Leiden by William I., prince of Orange, on the 8th of - February 1575. It has acquired many valuable additions from the books - and MSS. of the distinguished scholars, Golius, Joseph Scaliger, Isaac - Voss, Ruhnken and Hemsterhuis. The MSS. comprehend many of great - intrinsic importance. The library of the Society of Netherland - Literature has been placed here since 1877; this is rich in the - national history and literature. The Arabic and Oriental MSS. known as - the Legatum Warnerianum are of great value and interest; and the - collection of maps bequeathed in 1870 by J. J. Bodel Nyenhuis is also - noteworthy. The library is contained in a building which was formerly - a church of the Beguines, adapted in 1860 somewhat after the style of - the British Museum. The catalogues (one alphabetical and one - classified) are on slips, the titles being printed. A catalogue of - books and MSS. was printed in 1716, one of books added between 1814 - and 1847 and a supplementary part of MSS. only in 1850. A catalogue of - the Oriental MSS. was published in 6 vols. (1851-1877). The - Bibliotheek der Rijks Universiteit (1575) at Leiden contains over - 190,000 vols. - - The University Library at Utrecht dates from 1582, when certain - conventual collections were brought together in order to form a public - library, which was shortly afterwards enriched by the books bequeathed - by Hub. Buchelius and Ev. Pollio. Upon the foundation of the - university in 1636, the town library passed into its charge. Among the - MSS. are some interesting cloister MSS. and the famous "Utrecht - Psalter," which contains the oldest text of the Athanasian creed. The - last edition of the catalogue was in 2 vols. folio, 1834, with - supplement in 1845, index from 1845-1855 in 8vo., and additions - 1856-1870, 2 vols. 8vo. A catalogue of the MSS. was issued in 1887. - The titles of accessions are now printed in sheets and pasted down for - insertion. There are now about 250,000 vols. in the library. - - The basis of the University Library at Amsterdam consists of a - collection of books brought together in the 15th century and preserved - in the Nieuwe Kerk. At the time of the Reformation in 1578 they became - the property of the city, but remained in the Nieuwe Kerk for the use - of the public till 1632, when they were transferred to the Athenaeum. - Since 1877 the collection has been known as the University Library, - and in 1881 it was removed to a building designed upon the plan of the - new library and reading-room of the British Museum. The library - includes the best collection of medical works in Holland, and the - Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana of Hebrew and Talmudic literature is of - great fame and value; a catalogue of the last was printed in 1875. The - libraries of the Dutch Geographical and other societies are preserved - here. A general printed catalogue was issued in 6 vols. 8vo., - Amsterdam (1856-1877); one describing the bequests of J. de Bosch - Kemper, E. J. Potgieter and F. W. Rive, in 3 vols., 8vo. (1878-1879); - a catalogue of the MSS. of Professor Moll was published in 1880, and - one of those of P. Camper in 1881. Other catalogues have been - published up to 1902, including one of the MSS. The library contains - about half a million volumes. There are popular subscription libraries - with reading-rooms in all parts of Holland, and in Rotterdam there is - a society for the encouragement of social culture which has a large - library as part of its equipment. At Hague, Leiden, Haarlem, Dordrecht - and other towns popular libraries have been established, and there is - a movement of recent growth, in favour of training librarians on - advanced English lines. - - The library of the Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen at Batavia - contains books printed in Netherlandish India, works relating to the - Indian Archipelago and adjacent countries, and the history of the - Dutch in the East. There are 20,000 printed vols. and 1630 MSS., of - which 243 are Arabic, 445 Malay, 303 Javanese, 60 Batak and 517 on - lontar leaves, in the ancient Kawi, Javanese and Bali languages, &c. - Printed catalogues of the Arabic, Malay, Javanese and Kawi MSS. have - been issued. - - -_Scandinavia._ - -Owing largely to so many Scandinavian librarians having been trained and -employed in American libraries, a greater approach has been made to -Anglo-American library ideals in Norway, Sweden and Denmark than -anywhere else on the continent of Europe. - - - Denmark. - - The beginning of the admirably managed national library of Denmark, - the great Royal Library at Copenhagen (Det Store Kongelige Bibliothek) - may be said to have taken place during the reign of Christian III. - (1533-1559), who took pride in importing foreign books and choice - MSS.; but the true founder was Frederick III. (1648-1670); to him is - mainly due the famous collection of Icelandic literature and the - acquisition of Tycho Brahe's MSS. The present building (in the - Christiansborg castle) was begun in 1667. Among notable accessions may - be mentioned the collections of C. Reitzer, the count of Danneskjold - (8000 vols. and 500 MSS.) and Count de Thott; the last bequeathed 6039 - vols. printed before 1531, and the remainder of his books, over - 100,000 vols., was eventually purchased. In 1793 the library was - opened to the public, and it has since remained under state control. - Two copies of every book published within the kingdom must be - deposited here. The incunabula and block books form an important - series. There is a general classified catalogue in writing for the use - of readers; and an alphabetical one on slips arranged in boxes for the - officials. A good catalogue of the de Thott collection was printed in - 12 vols. 8vo. (1789-1795); a catalogue of the French MSS. appeared in - 1844; of Oriental MSS., 1846; of the Danish collection, 1875, 8vo. - Annual reports and accounts of notable MSS. have been published since - 1864. The library now contains over 750,000 vols. - - The University Library, founded in 1482, was destroyed by fire in - 1728, and re-established shortly afterwards. A copy of every Danish - publication must be deposited here. The MSS. include the famous - Arne-Magnean collection. There are now about 400,000 vols. in this - library. The Statsbiblioteket of Aarhus (1902) possesses about 200,000 - vols. and the Landsbokasafn Islands (National Library) of Reykjavik, - Iceland, has about 50,000 printed books and 5500 MSS. In Copenhagen - there are 11 popular libraries supported in part by the city, and - there are at least 50 towns in the provinces with public libraries and - in some cases reading-rooms. An association for promoting public - libraries was formed in 1905, and in 1909 the minister of public - instruction appointed a special adviser in library matters. About 800 - towns and villages are aided by the above named association, the state - and local authorities, and it is estimated that they possess among - them 500,000 vols., and circulate over 1,000,000 vols. annually. - - - Norway. - - The chief library in Norway is the University Library at Christiania, - established at the same time as the university, September 2nd, 1811, - by Frederick II., with a donation from the king of many thousands of - duplicates from the Royal Library at Copenhagen, and since augmented - by important bequests. Annual catalogues are issued and there are now - over 420,000 vols. in the collection. The Deichmanske Bibliothek in - Christiania was founded by Carl Deichmann in 1780 as a free library. - In 1898 it was reorganized, and in 1903 the open shelf method was - installed by Haakon Nyhuus, the librarian, who had been trained in the - United States. The library is partly supported by endowment, partly by - grants from the municipality. It now contains about 85,000 vols., and - is a typical example of a progressive library. The Free Library at - Bergen (1872) has about 90,000 vols. and has recently been re-housed - in a new building. A free library, with open shelves, has also been - opened at Trondhjem. The library connected with the Kongellige - Videnskabers Selskab at Trondhjem now contains about 120,000 vols. - Owing to the absence of small towns and villages in Norway, most of - the library work is concentrated in the coast towns. - - - Sweden. - - The Royal Library at Stockholm was first established in 1585. The - original collection was given to the university of Upsala by Gustavus - II., that formed by Christina is at the Vatican, and the library - brought together by Charles X. was destroyed by fire in 1697. The - present library was organized shortly afterwards. The - Benzelstjerna-Engestrom Library (14,500 printed vols. and 1200 MSS.) - rich in materials for Swedish history, is now annexed to it. Natural - history, medicine and mathematics are left to other libraries. Among - the MSS. the _Codex Aureus_ of the 6th or 7th century, with its - interesting Anglo-Saxon inscription, is particularly noteworthy. The - catalogues are in writing, and are both alphabetical and classified; - printed catalogues have been issued of portions of the MSS. The - present building was opened in 1882. The library now contains about - 320,000 printed books and over 11,000 MSS. The Karolinska Institutet - in Stockholm, contains a library of medical books numbering over - 40,000. - - The University Library at Upsala was founded by Gustavus Adolphus in - 1620, from the remains of several convent libraries; he also provided - an endowment. The MSS. chiefly relate to the history of the country, - but include the _Codex Argenteus_, containing the Gothic gospels of - Ulfilas. The general catalogue is in writing. A catalogue was printed - in 1814; special lists of the foreign accessions have been published - each year from 1850; the Arabic, Persian and Turkish MSS. are - described by C. J. Tornberg, 1846. It now contains about 340,000 - printed books and MSS. The library at Lund dates from the foundation - of the university in 1668, and was based upon the old cathedral - library. The MSS. include the de la Gardie archives, acquired in 1848. - There are about 200,000 vols. in the library. The Stadsbibliotek of - Gothenburg contains about 100,000 vols., and has a printed catalogue. - - -_Russia._ - -The imperial Public Library at St Petersburg is one of the largest -libraries in the world, and now possesses about 1,800,000 printed vols. -and 34,000 MSS., as well as large collections of maps, autographs, -photographs, &c. The beginning of this magnificent collection may be -said to have been the books seized by the Czar Peter during his invasion -of Courland in 1714; the library did not receive any notable -augmentation, however, till the year 1795, when, by the acquisition of -the famous Zaluski collection, the Imperial Library suddenly attained a -place in the first rank among great European libraries. The Zaluski -Library was formed by the Polish count Joseph Zaluski, who collected at -his own expense during forty-three years no less than 200,000 vols., -which were added to by his brother Andrew, bishop of Cracow, by whom in -1747 the library was thrown open to the public. At his death it was left -under the control of the Jesuit College at Warsaw; on the suppression of -the order it was taken care of by the Commission of Education; and -finally in 1795 it was transferred by Suwaroff to St Petersburg as a -trophy of war. It then extended to 260,000 printed vols. and 10,000 -MSS., but in consequence of the withdrawal of many medical and -illustrated works to enrich other institutions, hardly 238,000 vols. -remained in 1810. Literature, history and theology formed the main -features of the Zaluski Library; the last class alone amounted to -one-fourth of the whole number. Since the beginning of the 19th century, -through the liberality of the sovereigns, the gifts of individuals, -careful purchases, and the application of the law of 1810, whereby two -copies of every Russian publication must be deposited here, the Imperial -Library has attained its present extensive dimensions. Nearly one -hundred different collections, some of them very valuable and extensive, -have been added from time to time. They include, for example, the -Tolstoi Sclavonic collection (1830), Tischendorf's MSS. (1858), the -Dolgorousky Oriental MSS. (1859), and the Firkowitsch Hebrew (Karaite) -collection (1862-1863), the libraries of Adelung (1858) and Tobler -(1877), that of the Slavonic scholar Jungmann (1856), and the national -MSS. of Karamzin (1867). This system of acquiring books, while it has -made some departments exceedingly rich, has left others comparatively -meagre. The library was not regularly opened to the public until 1814; -it is under the control of the minister of public instruction. There are -fine collections of Aldines and Elzevirs, and the numerous incunabula -are instructively arranged. - -The manuscripts include 26,000 codices, 41,340 autographs, 4689 charters -and 576 maps. The glory of this department is the celebrated _Codex -Sinaiticus_ of the Greek Bible, brought from the convent of St Catherine -on Mount Sinai by Tischendorf in 1859. Other important Biblical and -patristic codices are to be found among the Greek, and Latin MSS.; the -Hebrew MSS. include some of the most ancient that exist, and the -Samaritan collection is one of the largest in Europe; the Oriental MSS. -comprehend many valuable texts, and among the French are some of great -historical value. The general catalogues are in writing, but many -special catalogues of the MSS. and printed books have been published. - - The nucleus of the library at the Hermitage Palace was formed by the - empress Catherine II., who purchased the books and MSS. of Voltaire - and Diderot. In the year 1861 the collection amounted to 150,000 - vols., of which nearly all not relating to the history of art were - then transferred to the Imperial Library. There are many large and - valuable libraries attached to the government departments in St - Petersburg, and most of the academies and colleges and learned - societies are provided with libraries. - - The second largest library in Russia is contained in the Public Museum - at Moscow. The class of history is particularly rich, and Russian - early printed books are well represented. The MSS. number 5000, - including many ancient Sclavonic codices and historical documents of - value. One room is devoted to a collection of Masonic MSS., which - comprehend the archives of the lodges in Russia between 1816 and 1821. - There is a general alphabetical catalogue in writing; the catalogue of - the MSS. has been printed, as well as those of some of the special - collections. This large and valuable library now contains close upon - 1,000,000 printed books and MSS. The Imperial University at Moscow - (1755) has a library of over 310,000 vols., and the Duchovnaja Academy - has 120,000 vols. The Imperial Russian Historical Museum (1875-1883) - in Moscow contains nearly 200,000 vols. and most of the state - institutions and schools are supplied with libraries. All the Russian - universities have libraries, some of them being both large and - valuable--Dorpat (1802) 400,000 vols.; Charkov (1804) 180,000 vols.; - Helsingfors (1640-1827) 193,000 vols.; Kasan (1804) 242,000 vols.; - Kiev (1832) 125,000 vols.; Odessa (1865) 250,000 vols.; and Warsaw - (1817) 550,000 vols. There are also communal or public libraries at - Charkov (1886) 110,000 vols.; Odessa (1830) 130,000 vols.; Reval - (1825) 40,000 vols.; Riga, 90,000 vols.; Vilna (1856) 210,000 vols. - and many other towns. A text-book on library economy, based on Graesel - and Brown, was issued at St Petersburg in 1904. - - -_Eastern Europe._ - -At Athens the National Library (1842) possesses about 260,000 vols., and -there is also a considerable library at the university. The Public -Library at Corfu has about 40,000 vols. Belgrade University Library has -60,000 vols. and the University Library of Sofia has 30,000 vols. -Constantinople University in 1910 had a library in process of formation, -and there are libraries at the Greek Literary Society (20,000 vols.) and -Theological School (11,000 vols.). - - -_China._ - -Chinese books were first written on thin slips of bamboo, which were -replaced by silk or cloth scrolls in the 3rd century B.C., paper coming -into use in the beginning of the 2nd century. These methods were -customary down to the 10th or 11th century. There were no public -libraries in the western sense. - - The practice of forming national collections of the native literature - originated in the attempts to recover the works destroyed in the - "burning of the books" by the "First Emperor" (220 B.C.). In 190 B.C. - the law for the suppression of literary works was repealed, but - towards the close of the 1st century B.C. many works were still - missing. Hsiao Wu (139-86 B.C.) formed the plan of Repositories, in - which books might be stored, with officers to transcribe them. Liu - Hsiang (80-9 B.C.) was specially appointed to classify the literature - and form a library. His task was completed by his son, and the - _resume_ of their labours is a detailed catalogue with valuable notes - describing 11,332 "sections" (volumes) by 625 authors. Similar - national collections were formed by nearly every succeeding dynasty. - The high estimation in which literature has always been held has led - to the formation of very large imperial, official and private - collections of books. Large numbers of works, chiefly relating to - Buddhism and Taoism, are also stored in many of the temples. Chinese - books are usually in several, and frequently in many volumes. The - histories and encyclopaedias are mostly of vast dimensions. - Collections of books are kept in wooden cupboards or on open shelves, - placed on their sides, each set (_t'ao_) of volumes (_pen_) being - protected and held together by two thin wooden or card boards, one - forming the front cover (in a European book) and the other the back - cover, joined by two cords or tapes running round the whole. By - untying and tying these tapes the _t'ao_ is opened and closed. The - titles of the whole work and of each section are written on the edge - (either the top or bottom in a European book) and so face outwards as - it lies on the shelf. Catalogues are simple lists with comments on the - books, not the systematic and scientific productions used in Western - countries. There are circulating libraries in large numbers in Peking, - Canton and other cities. - - See E. T. C. Werner, "Chinese Civilisation" (in H. Spencer's - _Descriptive Sociology_, pt. ix.). - - -_Japan._ - -The ancient history of libraries in Japan is analogous to that of China, -with whose civilization and literature it had close relations. Since -about 1870, however, the great cities and institutions have established -libraries on the European model. - - Perhaps the most extensive library of the empire is that of the - Imperial Cabinet (1885) at Tokio with over 500,000 vols., consisting - of the collections of the various government departments, and is for - official use alone. The University Library (1872) is the largest open - to students and the public; it contains over 400,000 vols. of which - 230,000 are Chinese and Japanese. The Public Library and reading-room - (Tosho-Kwan) at Ueno Park (1872) was formed in 1872 and contains over - 250,000 vols., of which about one-fifth are European books. At Tokio - are also to be found the Ohashi Library (1902) with 60,000 vols. and - the Hibaya Library (1908) with 130,000 vols. and the Nanki Library - (1899) with 86,000 vols. The library of the Imperial University of - Kyoto contains nearly 200,000 vols., of which over 90,000 are in - European languages. To this is attached the library of the Fukuoka - Medical College with 113,000 vols. The Municipal Library of Kyoto - (1898) contains 46,000 vols. Other important municipal libraries in - Japan are those at Akita in the province Of Ugo (1899), 47,000 vols., - at Mito, province of Hitachi (1908), 25,000 vols., Narita, province of - Shimosa (1901), 36,000 vols., chiefly Buddhistic, Yamaguchi, province - of Suo (1907), 23,000 vols. The libraries of the large temples often - contain books of value to the philologist. Lending libraries of native - and Chinese literature have existed in Japan from very early times. - - -LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND TRAINING - -The first and largest association established for the study of -librarianship was the American Library Association (1876). The Library -Association of the United Kingdom was formed in 1877 as an outcome of -the first International Library Conference, held at London, and in 1898 -it received a royal charter. It publishes a _Year Book_, the monthly -_Library Association Record_, and a number of professional handbooks. It -also holds examinations in Literary History, Bibliography and Library -Economy, and issues certificates and diplomas. There are also English -and Scottish district library associations. The Library Assistants -Association was formed in 1895 and has branches in different parts of -England, Wales and Ireland. It issues a monthly magazine entitled _The -Library Assistant_. There is an important Library Association in Germany -which issues a year-book giving information concerning the libraries of -the country, and a similar organization in Austria-Hungary which issues -a magazine at irregular intervals. An Association of Archivists and -Librarians was formed at Brussels in 1907, and there are similar -societies in France, Italy, Holland and elsewhere. In every country -there is now some kind of association for the study of librarianship, -archives or bibliography. International conferences have been held at -London, 1877; London, 1897; Paris (at Exhibition), 1903; St Louis, 1904; -Brussels (preliminary), 1908; and Brussels, 1910. - - LIBRARY PERIODICALS.--The following is a list of the current - periodicals which deal with library matters, with the dates of their - establishment and place of publication: _The Library Journal_ (New - York, 1876); _The Library_ (London, 1889); _Public Libraries_ - (Chicago, 1896); _The Library World_ (London, 1898); _The Library - Assistant_ (1898); _The Library Association Record_ (1899); _Library - Work_ (Minneapolis, U.S., 1906); _Bulletin of the American Library - Association_ (Boston, 1907); _Revue des bibliotheques_ (Paris, 1891); - _Bulletin des bibliotheques populaires_ (Paris, 1906); _Courrier des - Bibliotheques_ (Paris); _Bulletin de l'institut international de - bibliographie_ (Brussels, 1895); _Revue des bibliotheques et archives - de Belgique_ (Brussels, 1903); _Tijdschrift voor boek- en - bibliotheekwezen_ (Hague, 1903); _De Boekzaal_ (Hague, 1907); - _Bogsamlingsbladet_ (Copenhagen, 1906); _For Folke-og - Barnboksamlinger_ (Christiania, 1906); _Folkebibliotheksbladet_ - (Stockholm, 1903); _Zentralblatt fur Bibliothekswesen_ (Leipzig, - 1884); _Blatter fur Volksbibliotheken und Lesehallen_ (1899; - occasional supplement to the above); _Bibliographie des Bibliotheks- - und Buchwesens_ (ed. by Adalbert Hortzschansky, 1904; issued in the - _Zentralblatt_); _Jahrbuch der Deutschen Bibliotheken_ (Leipzig, - 1902); _Minerva. Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt_ (Strassburg, 1890); - _Mitteilungen des osterreichischen Vereins fur Bibliothekswesen_ - (Vienna, 1896); _Ceska Osveta_ (Novy Bydzov, Bohemia, 1905); _Revista - delle biblioteche e degli archivi_ (Florence, 1890); _Bollettino delle - biblioteche popolari_ (Milan, 1907); _Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas - y Museos Madrid_ (1907); _The Gakuto_ (Tokio, Japan, 1897). - (H. R. T.; J. D. Br.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See Menant, _Bibliotheque du palais de Ninive_ (Paris, 1880). - - [2] Grote, _History of Greece_, iv. 37, following Becker. - - [3] Ritschl, _Die alexandrinischen Bibliotheken_, p. 22; _Opusc. - phil._ i. S 123. - - [4] _N.A._ vi. 17. - - [5] _De tranq. an._ 9. - - [6] Parthey (_Alexandrinisches Museum_) assigns topographical reasons - for doubting this story. - - [7] Some of the authorities have been collected by Parthey, _op. - cit._ - - [8] The oldest catalogue of a western library is that of the - monastery of Fontanelle in Normandy compiled in the 8th century. Many - catalogues may be found in the collections of D'Achery, Martene and - Durand, and Pez, in the bibliographical periodicals of Naumann and - Petzholdt and the _Centralblatt f. Bibliothekswissenschaft_. The Rev. - Joseph Hunter has collected some particulars as to the contents of - the English monastic libraries, and Ed. Edwards has printed a list of - the catalogues (_Libraries and Founders of Libraries_, 1865, pp. - 448-454). See also G. Becker, _Catalogi Bibliothecarum Antiqui_ - (1885). There are said to be over six hundred such catalogues in the - Royal Library at Munich. In the 14th century the Franciscans compiled - a general catalogue of the MSS. in 160 English libraries and about - the year 1400 John Boston, a Benedictine monk of Bury, travelled over - England and a part of Scotland and examined the libraries of 195 - religious houses (Tanner, _Bibliotheca Brit. Hibern._ 1748). Leland's - list of the books he found during his visitation of the houses in - 1539-1545 is printed in his _Collectanea_ (ed. Hearne, 1715, 6 - vols.). T. W. Williams has treated Gloucestershire and Bristol - medieval libraries and their catalogues in a paper in the Bristol and - Gloucestershire _Arch. Soc._ vol. xxxi. - - [9] This subject has been specially treated by J. Willis Clark in - several works, of which the chief is a masterly volume, _The Care of - Books_ (1901). See also Dom Gasquet, "On Medieval Monastic - Libraries," in his _Old English Bible_ (1897). - - [10] Among the Arabs, however, as among the Christians, theological - bigotry did not always approve of non-theological literature, and the - great library of Cordova was sacrificed by Almanzor to his reputation - for orthodoxy, 978 A.D. - - [11] _Guide to Librarianship_ by J. D. Brown (1909). - - - - -LIBRATION (Lat. _libra_, a balance), a slow oscillation, as of a -balance; in astronomy especially the seeming oscillation of the moon -around her axis, by which portions of her surface near the edge of the -disk are alternately brought into sight and swung out of sight. - - - - -LIBYA, the Greek name for the northern part of Africa, with which alone -Greek and Roman history are concerned. It is mentioned as a land of -great fertility in Homer (_Odyssey_, iv. 85), but no indication of its -extent is given. It did not originally include Egypt, which was -considered part of Asia, and first assigned to Africa by Ptolemy, who -made the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between the two -continents. The name Africa came into general use through the Romans. In -the early empire, North Africa (excluding Egypt) was divided into -Mauretania, Numidia, Africa Propria and Cyrenaica. The old name was -reintroduced by Diocletian, by whom Cyrenaica (detached from Crete) was -divided into Marmarica (Libya inferior) in the east, and Cyrenaica -(Libya superior) in the west. A further distinction into Libya interior -and exterior is also known. The former ([Greek: he entos]) included the -interior (known and unknown) of the continent, as contrasted with the N. -and N.E. portion; the latter ([Greek: he exo], called also simply Libya, -or _Libyae nomos_), between Egypt and Marmarica, was so called as having -once formed an Egyptian "nome." See AFRICA, ROMAN. - - - - -LICATA, a seaport of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 24 m. S.E. of -Girgenti direct and 54 m. by rail. Pop. (1901) 22,931. It occupies the -site of the town which Phintias of Acragas (Agrigentum) erected after -the destruction of Gela, about 281 B.C., by the Mamertines, and named -after himself. The river Salso, which flows into the sea on the east of -the town, is the ancient _Himera Meridionalis_. The promontory at the -foot of which the town is situated, the _Poggio di Sant' Angelo_, is the -Ecnomus (_Eknomon_) of the Greeks, and upon its slopes are scanty traces -of ancient structures and rock tombs. It was off this promontory that -the Romans gained the famous naval victory over the Carthaginians in the -spring of 256 B.C., while the plain to the north was the scene of the -defeat of Agathocles by Hamilcar in 310 B.C. The modern town is mainly -important as a shipping port for sulphur. - - - - -LICENCE (through the French from Lat. _licentia_, _licere_, to be -lawful), permission, leave, liberty, hence an abuse of liberty, -licentiousness; in particular, a formal authority to do some lawful act. -Such authority may be either verbal or written; when written, the -document containing the authority is called a "licence." Many acts, -lawful in themselves, are regulated by statutory authority, and licences -must be obtained. For the sale of alcoholic liquor see LIQUOR LAWS. - - - - -LICHEN (_lichen ruber_), in medical terminology, a papular disease of -the skin, consisting of an eruption in small thickly set, slightly -elevated red points, more or less widely distributed over the body, and -accompanied by slight febrile symptoms. - - - - -LICHENS, in botany, compound or dual organisms each consisting of an -association of a higher fungus, with a usually unicellular, sometimes -filamentous, alga. The fungal part of the organism nearly always -consists of a number of the _Discomycetes_ or _Pyrenomycetes_, while the -algal portion is a member of the Schizophyceae (Cyanophyceae or -Blue-green Algae) or of the Green Algae; only in a very few cases is the -fungus a member of the Basidiomycetes. The special fungi which take part -in the association are, with rare exceptions, not found growing -separately, while the algal forms are constantly found free. The -reproductive organs of the lichen are of a typically fungal character, -i.e. are apothecia or perithecia (see FUNGI) and spermogonia. The algal -cells are never known to form spores while part of the lichen-thallus, -but they may do so when separated from it and growing free. The fungus -thus clearly takes the upper hand in the association. - -Owing to their peculiar dual nature, lichens are able to live in -situations where neither the alga nor fungus could exist alone. The -enclosed alga is protected by the threads (hyphae) of the fungus, and -supplied with water and salts and, possibly, organic nitrogenous -substances; in its turn the alga by means of its green or blue-green -colouring matter and the sun's energy manufactures carbohydrates which -are used in part by the fungus. An association of two organisms to their -mutual advantage is known as _symbiosis_, and the lichen in botanical -language is described as a symbiotic union of an alga and a fungus. This -form of relationship is now known in other groups of plants (see -BACTERIOLOGY and FUNGI), but it was first discovered in the lichens. The -lichens are characterized by their excessively slow growth and their -great length of life. - -Until comparatively recent times the lichens were considered as a group -of simple organisms on a level with algae and fungi. The green (or -blue-green) cells were termed gonidia by Wallroth, who looked upon them -as asexual reproductive cells, but when it was later realized that they -were not reproductive elements they were considered as mere outgrowths -of the hyphae of the thallus which had developed chlorophyll. In 1865 De -Bary suggested the possibility that such lichens as _Collema_, _Ephebe_, -&c., arose as a result of the attack of parasitic Ascomycetes upon the -algae, Nostoc, Chroococcus, &c. In 1867 the observations of Famintzin -and Baranetzky showed that the gonidia, in certain cases, were able to -live outside the lichen-thallus, and in the case of Physcia, Evernia and -Cladonia were able to form zoospores. Baranetzky therefore concluded -that a certain number, if not all of the so-called algae were nothing -more than free living lichen-gonidia. In 1869 Schwendener put forward -the really illuminating view--exactly opposite to that of -Baranetzky--that the gonidia in all cases were algae which had been -attacked by parasitic fungi. Although Schwendener supported this view of -the "dual" nature of lichens by very strong evidence and identified the -more common lichen-gonidia with known free-living algae, yet the theory -was received with a storm of opposition by nearly all lichenologists. -These workers were unable to consider with equanimity the loss of the -autonomy of their group and its reduction to the level of a special -division of the fungi. The observations of Schwendener, however, -received ample support from Bornet's (1873) examination of 60 genera. He -investigated the exact relation of fungus and alga and showed that the -same alga is able to combine with a number of different fungi to form -lichens; thus _Chroolepus umbrinus_ is found as the gonidia of 13 -different lichen genera. - -The view of the dual nature of lichens had hitherto been based on -analysis; the final proof of this view was now supplied by the actual -_synthesis_ of a lichen from fungal and algal constituents. Rees in 1871 -produced the sterile thallus of a _Collema_ from its constituents; later -Stahl did the same for three species. Later Bonnier (1886) succeeded in -producing fertile thalli by sowing lichen spores and the appropriate -algae upon sterile glass plates or portions of bark, and growing them in -sterilized air (fig. 1). Moller also in 1887 succeeded in growing small -lichen-thalli without their algal constituent (gonidia) on nutritive -solutions; in the case of _Calicium_ pycnidia were actually produced -under these conditions. - -The thallus or body of the lichen is of very different form in different -genera. In the simplest filamentous lichens (e.g. _Ephebe pubescens_) -the form of thallus is the form of the filamentous alga which is merely -surrounded by the fungal hyphae (fig. 2). The next simplest forms are -gelatinous lichens (e.g. _Collemaceae_); in these the algae are -Chroococcaceae and Nostocaceae, and the fungus makes its way into the -gelatinous membranes of the algal cells and ramifies there (fig. 3). We -can distinguish this class of forms as lichens with a _homoiomerous_ -thallus, i.e. one in which the alga and fungus are equally distributed. -The majority of the lichens, however, possess a stratified thallus in -which the gonidia are found as a definite layer or layers embedded in a -pseudo-parenchymatous mass of fungal hyphae, i.e. they are -_heteromerous_ (figs. 8 and 9). Obviously these two conditions may merge -into one another, and the distinction is not of classificatory value. - -[Illustration: After Bonnier, from v. Tavel. - - From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav - Fischer. - - FIG. 1.--_Xanthoria parietina._ By the fusion of the hyphae in the - middle of the mycelium a pseudo-parenchymatous cortical layer has - begun to form. - - 1, Germinating ascospore (sp) with branching germ-tube applied to the - _Cystococcus_ cells (a). - 2, Thallus in process of formation. - sp, Two ascospores. - p, _Cystococcus_ cells.] - - In external form the heteromerous thallus presents the following - modifications. (a) The _foliaceous_ (leaf-like) thallus, which may be - either peltate, i.e. rounded and entire, as in _Umbilicaria_, &c., or - variously lobed and laciniated, as in _Sticta_, _Parmelia_, _Cetraria_ - (fig. 4), &c. This is the highest type of its development, and is - sometimes very considerably expanded. (b) The _fruticose_ thallus may - be either erect, becoming pendulous, as in _Usnea_ (fig. 5), - _Ramalina_, &c., or prostrate, as in _Alectoria jubata_, var. - _chalybeiformis_. It is usually divided into branches and branchlets, - bearing some resemblance to a miniature shrub. An erect cylindrical - thallus terminated by the fruit is termed a _podetium_, as in - _Cladonia_ (fig. 7). (c) The _crustaceous_ thallus, which is the most - common of all, forms a mere crust on the substratum, varying in - thickness, and may be squamose (in _Squamaria_), radiate (in - _Placodium_), areolate, granulose or pulverulent (in various - _Lecanorae_ and _Lecideae_). (d) The _hypophloeodal_ thallus is often - concealed beneath the bark of trees (as in some _Verrucariae_ and - _Arthoniae_), or enters into the fibres of wood (as in _Xylographa_ - and _Agyrium_), being indicated externally only by a very thin film - (figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). In colour also the thallus externally is - very variable. In the dry and more typical state it is most frequently - white or whitish, and almost as often greyish or greyish glaucous. - Less commonly it is of different shades of brown, red, yellow and - black. In the moist state of the thallus these colours are much less - apparent, as the textures then become more or less translucent, and - the thallus usually prevents the greenish colour of the gonidia (e.g. - _Parmelia Borreri_, _Peltidea aphthosa_, _Umbilicaria pustulata_ and - pulverulent _Lecideae_). - - The thallus may be free upon the surface of the substratum (e.g. - _Collema_) or may be fixed more or less closely to it by special - hyphae or rhizoids. These may penetrate but slightly into the - substratum, but the connexion established may be so close that it is - impossible to remove the thallus from the substratum without injury - (e.g. _Physcia_, _Placodium_). In some cases the rhizoids are united - together into larger strands, the _rhizines_. - - The typical heteromerous thallus shows on section a peripheral, thin - and therefore transparent, layer, the _cortical layer_, and centrally - a mass of denser tissue the so-called _medullary layer_, between these - two layers is the algal zone or gonidial layer (figs. 8 and 9). - - The term _epithallus_ is sometimes applied to the superficial dense - portion of the cortical layer and the term _hypothallus_ to the layer, - when specially modified, in immediate contact with the substratum; the - hypothallus is usually dark or blackish. The cylindrical branches of - the fruticose forms are usually radially symmetrical, but the - flattened branches of these forms and also the thalli of the - foliaceous form show a difference in the cortex of the upper and lower - side. The cortical layer is usually more developed on the side towards - the light, while in many lichens this is the only side provided with a - cortical layer. The podetia of some species of Cladonia possess no - cortical layer at all. The surface of the thallus often exhibits - outgrowths in the form of warts, hairs, &c. The medullary layer, which - usually forms the main part of the thallus, is distinguished from the - cortical layer by its looser consistence and the presence in it of - numerous, large, air-containing spaces. - - -[Illustration: After Sachs, from De Bary's _Vergleichende Morphologie -und Biologie der Pilze, Mycetozoen und Bacterien_, by permission of -Wilhelm Engelmann. - - FIG. 2.--_Ephebe pubescens_, Fr. A branched filiform thallus of - _Stigonema_ with the hyphae of the fungus growing through its - gelatinous membranes. Extremity of a branch of the thallus with a - young lateral branch a; h, hyphae; g, cells of the alga; gs, the apex - of the thallus.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Homoiomerous Thallus of _Collema -conglomeratum_, with _Nostoc_ threads scattered among the hyphae.] - -[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission -of Gustav Fischer. - - FIG. 4.--_Cetraria islandica._ (Nat. size.) ap, Apothecium.] - -_Gonidia._--It has been made clear above that the gonidia are nothing -more than algal cells, which have been ensnared by fungal hyphae and -made to develop in captivity (fig. 1). Funfstuck gives ten free living -algae which have been identified as the gonidia of lichens. -_Pleurococcus_ (_Cystococcus_) _humicola_ in the majority of lichens, -e.g. _Usnea_, _Cladonia_, _Physcia_, _Parmelia_, _Calicium_, many -species of _Lecidea_, &c., _Trentepohlia_ (_Chroolepus_) _umbrina_ in -many species of _Verrucaria_, _Graphidieae_ and _Lecidea_; _Palmella -botryoides_ in _Epigloea_; _Pleurococcus vulgaris_ in Acarospora, -Dermatocarpon, Catillaria; _Dactylococcus infusionum_ in _Solorina_, -_Nephromia_; _Nostoc lichenoides_ in most of the Collemaceae; _Rivularia -rutida_ in _Omphalaria_; _Lichina_, &c., _Polycoccus punctiformis_ in -_Peltigera_, _Pannaria_ and _Stictina_; _Gloeocapsa polydermatica_ in -_Baeomyces_ and _Omphalaria_; _Sirosiphon pulvinatus_ in _Ephebe -pubescens_. The majority of lichens are confined to one particular kind -of gonidium (i.e. species of alga) but a few forms are known (_Lecanora -granatina_, _Solorina crocea_) which make use of more than one kind in -their development. In the case of _Solorina_, for example, the principal -alga is a green alga, one of the Palmellaceae, but _Nostoc_ (a -blue-green alga) is also found playing a subsidiary part as gonidia. In -L. _granatina_ the primary alga is _Pleurococcus_, the secondary, -_Gleococapsa_. - -[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission -of Gustav Fischer. - - FIG. 5.--_Usnea barbata_. (Nat. size.) _ap_, Apothecium.] - - _Cephalodia._--In about 100 species of lichens peculiar growths are - developed in the interior of the thallus which cause a slight - projection of the upper or lower surface. These structures are known - as _cephalodia_ and they usually occupy a definite position in the - thallus. They are distinguished by possessing as gonidia algae foreign - to the ordinary part of the thallus. The foreign algae are always - members of the Cyanophyceae and on the same individual and even in the - same cephalodium more than one type of gonidium may be found. The - function of these peculiar structures is unknown. Zukal has suggested - that they may play the part of water-absorbing organs. - -The exact relation of gonidia and hyphae has been investigated -especially by Bornet and also by Hedlund, and very considerable -differences have been shown to exist in different genera. In _Physma_, -_Arnoldia_, _Phylliscum_ and other genera the gonidia are killed sooner -or later by special hyphal branches, _haustoria_, which pierce the -membrane of the algal cell, penetrate the protoplasm and absorb the -contents (fig. 11, C). In other cases, e.g. _Synalissa_, _Micarea_, the -haustoria pierce the membrane, but do not penetrate the protoplasm (fig. -11, D). In many other cases, especially those algae possessing -_Pleurococcus_ as their gonidia, there are no penetrating hyphae, but -merely special short hyphal branches which are in close contact with the -membrane of the algal cell (fig. 3). - -[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission -of Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 6.--_Cladonia rangiferina_. (Nat. size.) - - A, Sterile. - B, With ascus-fruit at the ends of the branches.] - -[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission -of Gustav Fischer. - - FIG. 7.--_Cladonia coccifera_. Podetia bearing apothecia. (Nat. size.) - - _t_, Scales of primary thallus.] - - -_Reproduction_. - -There are three methods of reproduction of the lichen: by fragmentation, -by soredia, by the formation of fungal spores. In the first process, -portions of thallus containing gonidia may be accidentally separated and -so may start new plants. The second method is only a special process of -fragmentation. The soredia are found in a large number of lichens, and -consist of a single gonidium or groups of gonidia, surrounded by a -sheath and hyphae. They arise usually in the gonidial layer of the -thallus by division of the gonidia and the development around them of -the hyphal investment; their increase in number leads to the rupture of -the enclosing cortical layer and the soredia escape from the thallus as -a powdery mass (fig. 12). Since they are provided with both fungal and -algal elements, they are able to develop directly, under suitable -conditions, into a new thallus. The soredia are the most successful -method of reproduction in lichens, for not only are some forms nearly -always without spore-formation and in others the spores largely -abortive, but in all cases the spore represents only the fungal -component of the thallus, and its success in the development of a new -lichen-thallus depends on the chance meeting, at the time of -germination, with the appropriate algal component. - - _Conidia._--Contrary to the behaviour of the non-lichen forming - Ascomycetes the lichen-fungi show very few cases of ordinary conidial - formation. Bornet describes free conidia in _Arnoldia minitula_, and - _Placodium decipiens_ and _Conidia_-formation has been described by - Neubner in the Caliciae. - - [Illustration: After Sachs, from De Bary's _Vergleichende Morphologie - und Biologie der Pilze_, _Mycetozoen und Bacterien_, by permission of - Wilhelm Engelmann. - - FIG. 8.--Usnea barbata. (Mag. nearly 100 times.) - - A, Optical longitudinal section of the extremity of a thin branch of - the thallus which has become transparent in solution of potash. - B, Transverse section through a stronger branch with the point of - origin of an adventitious branch (sa). - r, Cortical layer. - m, Medullary layer. - x, Stout axile strand. - g, The algal zone (_Cystococcus_). - s, Apex of the branch.] - - _Spermatia._--In the majority of genera of lichens small flask-shaped - structures are found embedded in the thallus (fig. 13). These were - investigated by Tulasne in 1853, who gave them the name _spermogonia_ - The lower, ventral portion of the spermogonium is lined by delicate - hyphae, the _sterigmata_, which give origin to minute colourless - cells, the _spermatia_. The sterigmata are either simple (fig. 13, C) - or septate--the so-called arthrosterigmata (fig. 13, B). The - spermogonia open by a small pore at the apex, towards which the - sterigmata converge and through which the spermatia escape (fig. 13). - There are two views as to the nature of the spermatia. In one view - they are mere asexual conidia, and the term _pycnoconidia_ is - accordingly applied since they are borne in structures like the - non-sexual _pycnidia_ of other fungi. In the other view the spermatia - are the male sexual cells and thus are rightly named; it should, - however, be pointed out that this was not the view of Tulasne, though - we owe to him the designation which carries with it the sexual - significance. The question is one very difficult to settle owing to - the fact that the majority of spermatia appear to be functionless. In - favour of the conidial view is the fact that in the case of _Collema_ - and a few other forms the spermatia have been made to germinate in - artificial cultures, and in the case of _Calicium parietinum_ Mofler - succeeded in producing a spermogonia bearing thallus from a - spermatium. For the germination of the spermatia in nature there is - only the observation of Hedlund, that in _Catillaria denigrata_ and - _C. prasena_ a thallus may be derived from the spermatia under natural - conditions. In relation to the view that the spermatia are sexual - cells, or at least were primitively so, it must be pointed out that - although the actual fusion of the spermatial nucleus with a female - nucleus has not been observed, yet in a few cases the spermatia have - been seen to fuse with a projecting portion (trichogyne) of the - ascogonium, as in _Collema_ and _Physcia_, and there is very strong - circumstantial evidence that fertilization takes place (see later in - section on development of ascocarp). The resemblance of the spermatia - and spermogonia to those of Uredineae should be pointed out, where - also there is considerable evidence for their original sexual nature, - though they appear in that group to be functionless in all cases. The - observations of Moller, &c., on the germination cannot be assumed to - negative the sexual hypothesis for the sexual cells of _Ulothrix_ and - _Ectocarpus_, for example are able to develop with or without fusion. - The most satisfactory view in the present state of our knowledge seems - to be that the spermatia are male cells which, while retaining their - fertilizing action in a few cases are now mainly functionless. The - female sexual organs, the ascogonia, would thus in the majority of - cases develop by the aid of some reduced sexual process or the - ascocarps be developed without relation to sexual organs. A further - argument in support of this view is that it is in complete agreement - with what we know of the sexuality of the ordinary, free-living - ascomycetes, where we find both normal and reduced forms (see FUNGI). - -[Illustration: From _Beitrage zur Wissenschaftlichen Botanik_. - - FIG. 9.--Section of Heteromerous Lichen Thallus. - - a, Upper cortical layer. - d, Lower cortical layer. - c, Medullary layer. - b, Gonidial layer.] - -[Illustration: After Bornet, from De Bary's _Vergleichende Morphologie -und Biologie der Pilze, Myceiozoen und Bacterien_, by permission of -Wilhelm Engelmann. - - FIG. 11.--Lichen-forming Algae. (A, C, D, E mag. 950, B 650 times.) - The alga is in all cases indicated by the letter _g_, the assailing - hyphae by _h_. - - A, _Pleurococcus_, Ag. (_Cystococcus_, Nag.) attacked by the germ-tube - from a spore of _Physica parietina_. - B, _Scytonema_ from the thallus of _Stereocaulon famulosum_. - C, _Nostoc_ from the thallus of _Physma chalazanum_. - D, _Gloeocapsa_ from the thallus of _Synalissa Symphorea_. - E, _Pleurococcus_ Sp. (_Cystococcus_) from the thallus of _Cladonia - furcata_.] - -_Fruit Bodies._--We find two chief types of fruit bodies in the lichens, -the _perithecium_ and _apothecium_; the first when the fungal element is -a member of the Pyrenomycetes division of the Ascomycetes, the second -when the fungus belongs to the Discomycetes division. In the two genera -of lichens--the _Basidiolichens_--in which the fungus is a member of the -Basidiomycetes, we have the fructification characteristic of that class -of fungi: these are dealt with separately. The perithecium is very -constant in form and since the gonidia take no part in the formation of -this organ or that of the apothecium it has the general structure -characteristic of that division of fungi. The apothecia, though of the -normal fungal type and usually disk-shaped, are somewhat more variable, -and since the variations are of value in classification some more -details may be added. - -[Illustration: After Schwendener, from De Bary's _Vergleichende -Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze Mycetozoen und Bacterien,_ by -permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. - -FIG. 12.--_Usnea barbata._ (Mag. more than 500 times.) - - c, An isolated mature soredium, with an algal cell (_Pleurococcus_) in - the envelope or hyphae. - d, Another with several algal cells in optical longitudinal section. - e, f, Two soredia in the act of germinating; the hyphal envelope has - grown out below into rhizoid branches, and above shows already the - structure of the apex of the thallus (see fig 9).] - - They present various shapes, of which the following are the principal: - (a) _peltate_, which are large, rounded, without any distinct thalline - margin[1] (e.g. _Usnea_, _Peltigera_); (b) _lecanorine_, or - scutelliform, which are orbicular and surrounded by a distinct, more - or less prominent thalline margin (e.g. _Parmelia_, _Lecanora_), - having sometimes also in addition a proper one^1 (e.g. _Thelotrema_, - _Urceolaria_); (c) _lecideine_, or patelliform, which are typically - orbicular, with only a proper margin (e.g. _Lecidea_), sometimes - obsolete, and which are occasionally irregular in shape, angular or - flexuose (e.g. _Lecidea jurana_, _L. myrmecina_), or complicated and - gyrose (e.g. _Gyrophora_), and even stipitate (e.g. _Baeomyces_); (d) - _lirelliform_, which are of very irregular figure, elongated, branched - or flexuose, with only a proper margin (e.g. _Xylographa_, _Graphis_, - &c.) or none (e.g. some _Arthoniae_), and often very variable even in - the same species. In colour the apothecia are extremely variable, and - it is but rarely that they are the same colour as the thallus (e.g. - _Usnea_, _Ramalina_). Usually they are of a different colour, and may - be black, brown, yellowish, or also less frequently rose-coloured, - rusty-red, orange-reddish, saffron, or of various intermediate shades. - Occasionally in the same species their colour is very variable (e.g. - _Lecanora metaboloides_, _Lecidea decolorans_), while sometimes they - are white or glaucous, rarely greenish, pruinose. Lecideine apothecia, - which are not black, but otherwise variously coloured, are termed - _biatorine_. - - [Illustration: After Tulasne, from De Bary's _Vergleichende - Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze, Mycetozoen und Bacterien_, by - permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. - - FIG. 13.--A, B, _Gyrophora cylindrica._ (A mag. 90, B 390 times, C - highly magnified.) - - A, A vertical median section through a spermogonium imbedded in the - thallus. - o, Upper rind. - u, Under rind. - m, Medullary layer of the thallus. - B, Portion of a very thin section from the base of the spermogonium. - w, Its wall from which proceed sterigmata with rod-like spermatia - (s). - m, Medullary hyphae of the thallus. - C, _Cladonia novae Angliae_, Delise; sterigmata with spermatia from - the spermogonium.] - - The two principal parts of which an apothecium consists are the - _hypothecium_ and the hymenium, or thecium. The _hypothecium_ is the - basal part of the apothecium on which the _hymenium_ is borne; the - latter consists of asci (thecae) with ascospores, and paraphyses. The - paraphyses (which may be absent entirely in the Pyrenolichens) are - erect, colourless filaments which are usually dilated and coloured at - the apex; the apices are usually cemented together into a definite - layer, the _epithecium_ (fig. 14). The spores themselves may be - unicellular without a septum or multicellular with one or more septa. - Sometimes the two cavities are restricted to the two ends of the - spore, the _polari-bilocular_ type and the two loculi may be united - by a narrow channel (fig. 15). At other times the spores are divided - by both transverse and longitudinal septa producing the muriform - (murali-divided) spore so called from the resemblance of the - individual chambers to the stones in a wall. The very large single - spores of _Pertusaria_ have been shown to contain numerous nuclei and - when they germinate develop a large number of germ tubes. - - [Illustration: After Darbishire, from _Berichte der deutschen - botanischen Gesellschaft_, by permission of Borntraeger & Co. - - FIG. 14.--Diagram showing Apothecium in Section and surrounding - Portion of Thallus, and special terms used to designate these - parts.] - - _Development of the Ascocarps._--As the remarks on the nature of the - spermatia show, the question of the sexuality of the lichens has been - hotly disputed in common with that of the rest of the Ascomycetes. As - indicated above, the weight of evidence seems to favour what has been - put forward in the case of the non-lichen-forming fungi (see FUNGI), - that in some cases the ascogonia develop as a result of a previous - fertilization by spermatia, in other cases the ascogonia develop - without such a union, while in still other cases the reduction goes - still farther and the ascogenous hyphae instead of developing from the - ascogonia are derived directly from the vegetative hyphae. - - [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Vertical Section of Apothecium of _Xanthoria - parietina_. - - a, Paraphyses. - b, Asci (thecae) with bilocular spores. - c, Hypothecium.] - - The first exact knowledge as to the origin of the ascocarp was the - work of Stahl on _Collema_ in 1877. He showed that the archicarp - consisted of two parts, a lower coiled portion, the ascogonium, and an - upper portion, the trichogyne, which projected from the thallus. Only - when a spermatium was found attached to the trichogyne did the further - development of the ascogonium take place. From these observations he - drew the natural conclusion that the spermatium was a male, sexual - cell. This view was hotly contested by many workers and it was sought - to explain the trichogyne--without much success--as a respiratory - organ, or as a boring organ which made a way for the developing - apothecium. It was not till 1898, however, that Stahl's work received - confirmation and addition at the hands of Baur (fig. 16). The latter - showed that in _Collema crispum_ there are two kinds of thalli, one - with numerous apothecia, the other quite sterile or bearing only a - few. The sterile thalli possessed no spermogonia, but were found to - show sometimes as many as 1000 archicarps with trichogynes; yet none - or very few came to maturity. The fertile thalli were shown to bear - either spermogonia or to be in immediate connexion with - spermogonia-bearing thalli. Furthermore Baur showed that after the - fusion of the spermatium with the trichogyne the transverse walls of - that organ became perforated. There was thus very strong - circumstantial evidence in favour of fertilization, although the male - nucleus was not traced. The further work of Baur, and that of - Darbishire, Funfstuck and Lindau, have shown that in a number of other - cases trichogynes are present. Thus ascogonia with trichogynes have - been observed in _Endocarpon_, _Collema_, _Pertusaria_, _Lecanora_, - _Gyrophora_, _Parmelia_, _Ramalina_, _Physcia_, _Anaptychia_ and - _Cladonia_. In _Nephroma_, _Peltigera_, _Peltidea_ and _Solorina_ a - cogonia without trichogynes have been observed. In _Collema_ and a - form like _Xanthoria parietina_ it is probable that actual - fertilization takes place, and possibly also in some of the other - forms. It is probable, however, that in the majority of cases the - ascogonia develop without normal fertilization, as is necessarily the - case where the ascogonia have no trichogynes or the spermatia are - absent. In these cases we should expect to find some reduced process - of fertilization similar to that of _Humaria granulata_ among the - ordinary Ascomycetes, where in the absence of the antheridia the - female nuclei fuse in pairs. In other lichens we should expect to find - the ascogenous hyphae arising directly from the vegetative hyphae as - in _Humaria rutilans_ among the ordinary fungi, where the process is - associated with the fusion of vegetative nuclei. It is possible that - _Solorina saccata_ belongs to this class. Cytological details of - nuclear behaviour among the lichens are, however, difficult to obtain - owing to the slow growth of these forms and the often refractory - nature of the material in the matter of preparation for microscopical - examination. - - [Illustration: After E. Baur, from Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der - Botanik_, by permission of Gustav Fischer. - - FIG. 16.--_Collema crispum._ - - A, Carpogonium, c, with its trichogyne t. - B, Apex of the trichogyne with the spermatium, s, attached.] - - _Ejection of Spores._--The spores are ejected from the apothecia and - perithecia as in the fungi by forcible ejaculation from the asci. In - the majority of forms it is clear that the soredia rather than the - ascospore must play the more important part in lichen distribution as - the development of the ordinary spores is dependent on their finding - the proper alga on the substratum on which they happen to fall. In a - number of forms (_Endocarpon pusillum_, _Stigmaatonima cataleptum_, - various species of _Staurothele_), however, there is a special - arrangement by which the spores are, on ejection, associated with - gonidia. In these forms gonidia are found in connexion with the young - fruit; such algal cells undergo numerous divisions becoming very small - in size and penetrating into the hymenium among the asci and - paraphyses. When the spores are thrown out some of these hymenial - gonidia, as they are called, are carried with them. When the spores - germinate the germ-tubes surround the algal cells, which now increase - in size and become the normal gonidia of the thallus. - - -_Basidiolichens._ - -[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission -of Gustav Fischer. - - FIG. 17.--_Cora pavonia._ A, Viewed from above; B, From below; _hym_, - hymenium. (Nat. size.)] - -As is clear from the above, nearly all the lichens are produced by the -association of an ascomycetous fungus with algae. For some obscure -reason the Basidiomycetes do not readily form lichens, so that only a -few forms are known in which the fungal element is a member of this -family. The two best-known genera are _Cora_ and _Dictyonema_; -_Corella_, whose hymenium is unknown, is also placed here by Wainio. The -so-called Gasterolichens, _Trichocoma_ and _Emericella_, have been shown -to be merely ascomycetous fungi. _Clavaria mucida_, however, has -apparently some claims to be considered as a Basidiolichen, since the -base of the fruit body and the thallus from which it arises, according -to Coker, always shows a mixture of hyphae and algae. - -The best-known species is _Cora pavonia_, which is found in tropical -regions growing on the bare earth and on trees; the gonidia belong to -the genus _Chroococcus_ while the fungus belongs, apparently, to the -Thelephoreae (see FUNGI). This lichen seems unique in the fact that the -fungal element is also found growing and fruiting entirely devoid of -algae, while in the ascolichens the fungus portion seems to have become -so specialized to its symbiotic mode of life that it is never found -growing independently. - -The genus _Dictyonema_ has gonidia belonging to the blue-green alga, -_Scytonema_. When the fungus predominates in the thallus it has a -bracket-like mode of growth and is found projecting from the branches of -trees with the hymenium on the under side. When the alga is predominant -it forms felted patches on the bark of trees, the _Laudatea_ form. It is -said that the fungus of _Cora pavonia_ and of _Dictyonema_ is identical, -the difference being in the nature of the alga. - - -_Mode of Life._ - -Lichens are found growing in various situations such as bare earth, the -bark of trees, dead wood, the surface of stones and rocks, where they -have little competition to fear from ordinary plants. As is well known, -the lichens are often found in the most exposed and arid situations; in -the extreme polar regions these plants are practically the only -vegetable forms of life. They owe their capacity to live under the most -inhospitable conditions to the dual nature of the organism, and to their -capacity to withstand extremes of heat, cold and drought without -destruction. On a bare rocky surface a fungus would die from want of -organic substance and an alga from drought and want of mineral -substances. The lichen, however, is able to grow as the alga supplies -organic food material and the fungus has developed a battery of acids -(see below) which enable it actually to dissolve the most resistant -rocks. It is owing to the power of disintegrating by both mechanical and -chemical means the rocks on which they are growing that lichens play -such an important part in soil-production. The resistance of lichens is -extraordinary; they may be cooled to very low temperatures and heated to -high temperatures without being killed. They may be dried so thoroughly -that they can easily be reduced to powder yet their vitality is not -destroyed but only suspended; on being supplied with water they absorb -it rapidly by their general surface and renew their activity. The life -of many lichens thus consists of alternating periods of activity when -moisture is plentiful, and completely suspended animation under -conditions of dryness. Though so little sensitive to drought and -extremes of temperature lichens appear to be very easily affected by the -presence in the air of noxious substances such as are found in large -cities or manufacturing towns. In such districts lichen vegetation is -entirely or almost entirely absent. The growth of lichens is extremely -slow and many of them take years before they arrive at a spore-bearing -stage. _Xanthoria parietina_ has been known to grow for forty-five years -before bearing apothecia. This slowness of growth is associated with -great length of life and it is probable that individuals found growing -on hard mountain rocks or on the trunks of aged trees are many hundreds -of years old. It is possible that specimens of such long-lived species -as _Lecidea geographica_ actually outrival in longevity the oldest -trees. - - -_Relation of Fungus and Alga._ - -The relation of the two constituents of the lichen have been briefly -stated in the beginning of this article. The relation of the fungus to -the alga, though it may be described in general terms as one of -symbiosis, partakes also somewhat of the nature of parasitism. The algal -cells are usually controlled in their growth by the hyphae and are -prevented from forming zoospores, and in some cases, as already -described, the algal cells are killed sooner or later by the fungus. The -fungus seems, on the other hand, to stimulate the algal cells to special -development, for those in the lichen are larger than those in the free -state, but this is not necessarily adverse to the idea of parasitism, -for it is well known that an increase in the size of the cells of the -host is often the result of the attacks of parasitic fungi. It must be -borne in mind that the exact nutritive relations of the two constituents -of the lichen have not been completely elucidated, and that it is very -difficult to draw the line between symbiosis and parasitism. The lichen -algae are not alone in their specialization to the symbiotic (or -parasitic) mode of life, for, as stated earlier, the fungus appear in -the majority of cases to have completely lost the power of independent -development since with very rare exceptions they are not found alone. -They also differ very markedly from free living fungi in their chemical -reactions. - - -_Chemistry of Lichens._ - - The chemistry of lichens is very complex, not yet fully investigated - and can only be very briefly dealt with here. The wall of the hyphae - of the fungus give in the young state the ordinary reactions of - cellulose but older material shows somewhat different reactions, - similar to those of the so-called fungus-cellulose. In many - lichen-fungi the wall shows various chemical modifications. In - numerous lichens, e.g. _Cetraria islandica_, the wall contains - Lichenin (C6H10O5), a gummy substance which swells in cold water and - dissolves in hot. Besides this substance, a very similar one, - Isolichenin, is also found which is distinguished from lichenin by the - fact that it dissolves in cold water and turns blue under the reaction - of Iodine. Calcium oxalate is a very common substance, especially in - crustaceous lichens; fatty oil in the form of drops or as an - infiltration in the membrane is also common; it sometimes occurs in - special cells and in extreme cases may represent 90% of the dry - substance as in _Verrucaria calciseda_, _Biatora immersa_. - - _Colouring Matters._--Many lichens, as is well known, exhibit a vivid - colouring which is usually due to the incrustation of the hyphae with - crystalline excretory products. These excretory products have usually - an acid nature and hence are generally known as lichen-acids. A large - number of these acids, which are mostly benzene derivatives, have been - isolated and more or less closely investigated. They are characterized - by their insolubility or very slight solubility in water; as examples - may be mentioned erythrinic acid in _Roccella_ and _Lecanora_; evernic - acid in species of _Evernia_, _Ramalina_ and _Cladonia_; lecanoric - acid in _Lecanora_, _Gyrophora_. The so-called chrysophanic acid found - in _Xanthoria_ (Physcia) _parietina_ is not an acid but a quinone and - is better termed physcion. - - _Colour Reactions of Lichens._--The classification of lichens is - unique in the fact that chemical colour reactions are used by many - lichenologists in the discrimination of species, and these reactions - are included in the specific diagnoses. The substances used as tests - in these reactions are caustic potash and calcium hypochlorite; the - former being the substance dissolved in an equal weight of water and - the latter a saturated extract of bleaching powder in water. These - substances are represented by lichenologists by the signs K and CaCl - respectively, and the presence or absence of the colour reactions are - represented thus, K+, CaCl+, or K-, CaCl-. If the cortical layer - should exhibit positive reaction and the medulla of the same species a - negative reaction with both reagents, the result is represented thus, - K[+-]CaCl[+-]. If a reaction is only produced after the consecutive addition - of the two reagents, this is symbolized by K(CaCl)+. A solution of - iodine is also used as a test owing to the blue or wine-red colour - which the thallus, hymenium or spores may give with this reagent. The - objection to the case of these colour reactions is due to the - indefinite nature of the reaction and the doubt as to the constant - presence of a definite chemical compound in a given species. A yellow - colour with caustic potash solution is produced not only by atranoric - acid but also by evernic acid, thamnolic acid, &c. Again in the case - of _Xanthoria parietina_ vulpinic acid is only to be found in young - thalli growing on sandstone; in older forms or in those growing on - another substratum it is not to be detected. A similar relation - between oil formation and the nature of the substratum has been - observed in many lichens. Considerations such as these should make one - very wary in placing reliance on these colour reactions for the - purposes of classification. - - -_Economic Uses of Lichens._ - -In the arts, as food and as medicine, many lichens have been highly -esteemed, though others are not now employed for the same purposes as -formerly. - -1. _Lichens Used in the Arts._--Of these the most important are such as -yield, by maceration in ammonia, the dyes known in commerce as archil, -cudbear and litmus. These, however, may with propriety be regarded as -but different names for the same pigmentary substance, the variations in -the character of which are attributable to the different modes in which -the pigments are manufactured. Archil proper is derived from several -species of _Roccella_ (e.g. _R. Montaguei_, _R. tinctoria_), which yield -a rich purple dye; it once fetched a high price in the market. Of -considerable value is the "perelle" prepared from _Lecanora parella_, -and used in the preparation of a red or crimson dye. Inferior to this is -"cudbear," derived from _Lecanora tartarea_, which was formerly very -extensively employed by the peasantry of north Europe for giving a -scarlet or purple colour to woollen cloths. By adding certain alkalies -to the other ingredients used in the preparation of these pigments, the -colour becomes indigo-blue, in which case it is the litmus of the Dutch -manufacturers. Amongst other lichens affording red, purple or brown dyes -may be mentioned _Ramalina scopulorum_, _Parmelia_, _saxatilis_ and _P. -amphalodes_, _Umbilicaria pustulata_ and several species of _Gyrophora_, -_Urceolaria scruposa_, all of which are more or less employed as -domestic dyes. Yellow dyes, again, are derived from _Chlorea vulpina_, -_Platysma juniperinum_, _Parmelia caperata_ and _P. conspersa_, _Physcia -flavicans_, _Ph. parietina_ and _Ph. lychnea_, though like the preceding -they do not form articles of commerce, being merely used locally by the -natives of the regions in which they occur most plentifully. In addition -to these, many exotic lichens, belonging especially to _Parmelia_ and -_Sticta_ (e.g. _Parmelia tinctorum_, _Sticta argyracea_), are rich in -colouring matter, and, if obtained in sufficient quantity, would yield a -dye in every way equal to archil. These pigments primarily depend upon -special acids contained in the thalli of lichens, and their presence may -readily be detected by means of the reagents already noticed. In the -process of manufacture, however, they undergo various changes, of which -the chemistry is still but little understood. At one time also some -species were used in the arts for supplying a gum as a substitute for -gum-arabic. These were chiefly _Ramalina fraxinea_, _Evernia prunastri_ -and _Parmelia physodes_, all of which contain a considerable proportion -of gummy matter (of a much inferior quality, however, to gum-arabic), -and were employed in the process of calico-printing and in the making of -parchment and cardboard. In the 17th century some filamentose and -fruticulose lichens, viz. species of _Usnea_ and _Ramalina_, also -_Evernia furfuracea_ and _Cladonia rangiferina_, were used in the art of -perfumery. From their supposed aptitude to imbibe and retain odours, -their powder was the basis of various perfumes, such as the celebrated -"Poudre de Cypre" of the hairdressers, but their employment in this -respect has long since been abandoned. - -2. _Nutritive Lichens._--Of still greater importance is the capacity of -many species for supplying food for man and beast. This results from -their containing starchy substances, and in some cases a small quantity -of saccharine matter of the nature of mannite. One of the most useful -nutritious species is _Cetraria islandica_, "Iceland moss," which, after -being deprived of its bitterness by boiling in water, is reduced to a -powder and made into cakes, or is boiled and eaten with milk by the poor -Icelander, whose sole food it often constitutes. Similarly _Cladonia -rangiferina_ and _Cl. sylvatica_, the familiar "reindeer moss," are -frequently eaten by man in times of scarcity, after being powdered and -mixed with flour. Their chief importance, however, is that in Lapland -and other northern countries they supply the winter food of the reindeer -and other animals, who scrape away the snow and eagerly feed upon them. -Another nutritious lichen is the "Tripe de Roche" of the arctic regions, -consisting of several species of the _Gyrophorei_, which when boiled is -often eaten by the Canadian hunters and Red Indians when pressed by -hunger. But the most singular esculent lichen of all is the "manna -lichen," which in times of drought and famine has served as food for -large numbers of men and cattle in the arid steppes of various countries -stretching from Algiers to Tartary. This is derived chiefly from -_Lecanora esculenta_, which grows unattached on the ground in layers -from 3 to 6 in. thick over large tracts of country in the form of small -irregular lumps of a greyish or white colour. In connexion with their -use as food we may observe that of recent years in Scandinavia and -Russia an alcoholic spirit has been distilled from _Cladonia -rangiferina_ and extensively consumed, especially in seasons when -potatoes were scarce and dear. Formerly also _Sticta pulmonaria_ was -much employed in brewing instead of hops, and it is said that a Siberian -monastery was much celebrated for its beer which was flavoured with the -bitter principle of this species. - -3. _Medicinal Lichens._--During the middle ages, and even in some -quarters to a much later period, lichens were extensively used in -medicine in various European countries. Many species had a great repute -as demulcents, febrifuges, astringents, tonics, purgatives and -anthelmintics. The chief of those employed for one or other, and in -some cases for several, of these purposes were _Cladonia pyxidata_, -_Usnea barbata_, _Ramalina farinacea_, _Evernia prunastri_, _Cetraria -islandica_, _Sticla pulmonaria_, _Parmelia saxatilis_, _Xanthoria -parietina_ and _Pertusaria amara_. Others again were believed to be -endowed with specific virtues, e.g. _Peltigera canina_, which formed the -basis of the celebrated "pulvis antilyssus" of Dr Mead, long regarded as -a sovereign cure for hydrophobia; _Platysma juniperinum_, lauded as a -specific in jaundice, no doubt on the _similia similibus_ principle from -a resemblance between its yellow colour and that of the jaundiced skin; -_Peltidea aphthosa_, which on the same principle was regarded by the -Swedes, when boiled in milk, as an effectual remedy for the _aphthae_ or -rash on their children. Almost all of these virtues, general or -specific, were imaginary; and at the present day, except perhaps in some -remoter districts of northern Europe, only one of them is employed as a -remedial agent. This is the "Iceland moss" of the druggists' shops, -which is undoubtedly an excellent demulcent in various dyspeptic and -chest complaints. No lichen is known to be possessed of any poisonous -properties to man, although _Chlorea vulpina_ is believed by the Swedes -to be so. Zukal has considered that the lichen acids protect the lichen -from the attacks of animals; the experiments of Zopf, however, have cast -doubt on this; certainly lichens containing very bitter acids are eaten -by mites though some of the acids appear to be poisonous to frogs. - - -_Classification._ - -The dual nature of the lichen thallus introduces at the outset a -classificatory difficulty. Theoretically the lichens may be classified -on the basis of their algal constituent, on the basis of their fungal -constituent, or they may be classified as if they were homogeneous -organisms. The first of these systems is impracticable owing to the -absence of algal reproductive organs and the similarity of the algal -cells (gonidia) in a large number of different forms. The second system -is the most obvious one, since the fungus is the dominant partner and -produces reproductive organs. The third system was that of Nylander and -his followers, who did not accept the Schwenderian doctrine of duality. -In actual practice the difference between the second and third methods -is not very great since the fungus is the producer of the reproductive -organs and generally the main constituent. Most systems agree in -deriving the major divisions from the characters of the reproductive -organs (perithecia, apothecia, or basidiospore bearing fructification), -while the characters of the algal cells and those of the thallus -generally are used for the minor divisions. The difference between the -various systems lies in the relative importance given to the -reproductive characters on the one hand and the vegetative characters on -the other. In the system (1854-1855) of Nylander the greater weight is -given to the latter, while in more modern systems the former characters -receive the more attention. - -A brief outline of a system of classification, mainly that of -Zahlbruckner as given in Engler and Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_, is -outlined below. - -There are two main divisions of lichens, _Ascolichenes_ and -_Basidiolichenes_, according to the nature of the fungal element, -whether an ascomycete or basidiomycete. The Ascolichenes are again -divided into _Pyrenocarpeae_ or _Pyrenolichenes_ and _Gymnocarpeae_ or -_Discolichenes_; the first having an ascocarp of the nature of a -perithecium, the second bearing their ascospores in an open apothecium. - - -PYRENOLICHENES - -Series I. Perithecium simple not divided. - - a. With _Pleurococcus_ or _Palmella_ gonidia. Moriolaceae, - Verrucariaceae, Pyrenothamnaceae. - - b. With _Chroolepus_ gonidia. Pyrenulaceae, Paratheliaceae. - - c. With _Phyllactidium_ or _Cephaleurus_ gonidia. Strigulaceae. - - d. With _Nostoc_ or _Scytonema_ gonidia. Pyrenidiaceae. - -Series II. Perithecia divided or imperfectly divided by cross-walls. -Mycoporaceae with _Palmella_ or _Chroolepus_ gonidia. - - - DISCOLICHENES - -Series I. Coniocarpineae. The paraphyses branch and form a network -(capillitium) over the asci, the capillitium and ejected spores forming -a long persistent powdery mass (mazaedium). - -Caliciaceae, Cypheliaceae, Sphaerophoraceae. - -Series II. Graphidineae. Apothecia seldom round, usually -elongated-ellipsoidal, no capillitium. Arthoniaceae, Graphidiaceae, -Roccellaceae. - -Series III. Cyclocarpineae, Apothecium usually circular, no capillitium. - - A. Spores usually two-celled, either with a strongly thickened - cross-wall often perforated by a narrow canal or with cross-wall only - slightly thickened. In the first case the spores are usually - colourless, the second case always brown. Buelliaceae, Physciaceae. - - B. Spores unicellular, parallel-multicellular or muriform, usually - colourless, cross-walls usually thin. - - [alpha] Thallus in moist state more or less gelatinous. Gonidia - always belonging to the Cyanophyceae, Lichinaceae, Ephebaceae, - Collemaceae, Pyrenopsidaceae. - - [beta] Thallus not gelatinous. Coenogoniaceae, Lecideaceae, - Cladoniaceae, Lecanoraceae, Pertusariaceae, Peltigeraceae, - Stictaceae, Pannariaceae, Gyrophoraceae, Parmeliaceae, - Cladoniaceae, Usneaceae. - - - BASIDIOLICHENES (Hymenolichenes) - -_Cora_, _Dictyonema_ (incl. Laudatea), _Corella_ (doubtfully placed here -as the hymenium is unknown). - - -_Habitats and Distribution of Lichens._ - -1. _Habitats._--These are extremely varied, and comprise a great number -of very different substrata. Chiefly, however, they are the bark of -trees, rocks, the ground, mosses and, rarely, perennial leaves. (a) With -respect to _corticolous_ lichens, some prefer the rugged bark of old -trees (e.g. _Ramalina_, _Parmelia_, _Stictei_) and others the smooth -bark of young trees and shrubs (e.g. _Graphidei_ and some _Lecideae_). -Many are found principally in large forests (e.g. _Usnea_, _Alectoria -jubata_); while a few occur more especially on trees by roadsides (e.g. -_Physcia parietina_ and _Ph. pulverulenta_). In connexion with -corticolous lichens may be mentioned those _lignicole_ species which -grow on decayed, or decaying wood of trees and on old pales (e.g. -_Caliciei_, various _Lecideae_, _Xylographa_), (b) As to _saxicolous_ -lichens, which occur on rocks and stones, they may be divided into two -sections, viz. _calcicolous_ and _calcifugous_. To the former belong -such as are found on calcareous and cretaceous rocks, and the mortar of -walls (e.g. _Lecanora calcarea_, _Lecidea calcivora_ and several -_Verrucariae_), while all other saxicolous lichens may be regarded as -belonging to the latter, whatever may be the mineralogical character of -the substratum. It is here worthy of notice that the apothecia of -several calcicolous lichens (e.g. _Lecanora Prevostii_, _Lecidea -calcivora_) have the power of forming minute cavities in the rock, in -which they are partially buried. (c) With respect to terrestrial -species, some prefer peaty soil (e.g. _Cladonia_, _Lecidea decolorans_), -others calcareous soil (e.g. _Lecanora crassa_, _Lecidea decipiens_), -others sandy soil or hardened mud (e.g. _Collema limosum_, _Peltidea -venosa_); while many may be found growing on all kinds of soil, from the -sands of the sea-shore to the granitic detritus of lofty mountains, with -the exception of course of cultivated ground, there being no agrarian -lichens. (d) _Muscicolous_ lichens again are such as are most frequently -met with on decayed mosses and _Jungermannia_, whether on the ground, -trees or rocks (e.g. _Leptogium muscicola_, _Gomphillus calicioides_). -(e) The _epiphyllous_ species are very peculiar as occurring upon -perennial leaves of certain trees and shrubs, whose vitality is not at -all affected by their presence as it is by that of fungi. In so far, -however, as is known, they are very limited in number (e.g. _Lecidea_, -_Bouteillei_, _Strigula_). - -Sometimes various lichens occur abnormally in such unexpected habitats -as dried dung of sheep, bleached bones of reindeer and whales, old -leather, iron and glass, in districts where the species are abundant. It -is apparent that in many cases lichens are quite indifferent to the -substrata on which they occur, whence we infer that the preference of -several for certain substrata depends upon the temperature of the -locality or that of the special habitat. Thus in the case of saxicolous -lichens the mineralogical character of the rock has of itself little or -no influence upon lichen growth, which is influenced more especially and -directly by their physical properties, such as their capacity for -retaining heat and moisture. As a rule lichens grow commonly in open -exposed habitats, though some are found only or chiefly in shady -situations; while, as already observed, scarcely any occur where the -atmosphere is impregnated with smoke. Many species also prefer growing -in moist places by streams, lakes and the sea, though very few are -normally and probably none entirely, _aquatic_, being always at certain -seasons exposed for a longer or shorter period to the atmosphere (e.g. -_Lichina_, _Leptogium rivulare_, _Endocarpon fluviatile_, _Verrucaria -maura_). Some species are entirely parasitical on other lichens (e.g. -various _Lecideae_ and _Pyrenocarpei_), and may be peculiar to one (e.g. -_Lecidea vitellinaria_) or common to several species (e.g. _Habrothallus -parmeliarum_). A few, generally known as _erratic_ species, have been -met with growing unattached to any substratum (e.g. _Parmella revoluta_, -var. _concentrica_, _Lecanora esculenta_); but it can hardly be that -these are really free _ab initio_ (_vide_ Crombie in _Journ. Bot._, -1872, p. 306). It is to the different characters of the stations they -occupy with respect to exposure, moisture, &c., that the variability -observed in many types of lichens is to be attributed. - -2. _Distribution._--From what has now been said it will readily be -inferred that the distribution of lichens over the surface of the globe -is regulated, not only by the presence of suitable substrata, but more -especially by climatic conditions. At the same time it may safely be -affirmed that their geographical range is more extended than that of any -other class of plants, occurring as they do in the coldest and warmest -regions--on the dreary shores of arctic and antarctic seas and in the -torrid valleys of tropical climes, as well as on the greatest mountain -elevations yet attained by man, on projecting rocks even far above the -snowline (e.g. _Lecidea geographica_). In arctic regions lichens form by -far the largest portion of the vegetation, occurring everywhere on the -ground and on rocks, and fruiting freely; while terrestrial species of -_Cladonia_ and _Stereocaulon_ are seen in the greatest luxuriance and -abundance spreading over extensive tracts almost to the entire exclusion -of other vegetation. The lichen flora of temperate regions again is -essentially distinguished from the preceding by the frequency of -corticolous species belonging to _Lecanora_, _Lecidea_ and _Graphidei_. -In intertropical regions lichens attain their maximum development (and -beauty) in the foliaceous _Stictei_ and _Parmeliei_, while they are -especially characterized by epiphyllous species, as _Strigula_, and by -many peculiar corticole _Thelotremei_, _Graphidei_ and _Pyrenocarpei_. -Some lichens, especially saxicolous ones, seem to be cosmopolitan (e.g. -_Lecanora subfusca_, _Cladonia pyxidata_); and others, not strictly -cosmopolitan, have been observed in regions widely apart. A considerable -number of species, European and exotic, seem to be _endemic_, but -further research will no doubt show that most of them occur in other -climatic regions similar to those in which they have hitherto alone been -detected. To give any detailed account, however, of the distribution of -the different genera (not to speak of that of individual species) of -lichens would necessarily far exceed available limits. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General: Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen - Pflanzenfamilien_, Teil I, Abt. 1 * where full literature will be - found up to 1898. M. Funfstuck, "Der gegenwartige Stand der - Flechtenkunde," _Refer. Generalvers. d. deut. bot. Ges._ (1902). Dual - Nature: J. Baranetzky, "Beitrage zur Kenntnis des selbststandigen - Lebens der Flechtengonidien," _Prings. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot._ vii. - (1869); E. Bornet, "Recherches sur les gonidies des lichens," _Ann. de - sci. nat. bot._, 5 ser. n. 17 (1873); G. Bonnier, "Recherches sur la - synthese des lichens," _Ann. de sci. nat. bot._, 7 ser. n. 9 (1889); - A. Famintzin and J. Baranetzky, "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der - Gonidien u. Zoosporenbildung der Lichenen," _Bot. Zeit._ (1867, p. - 189, 1868, p. 169); S. Schwendener, _Die Algentypen der - Flechtengonidien_ (Basel, 1869); A. Moller, _Uber die Kultur - flechtenbildender Ascomyceten ohne Algen_. (Munster, 1887). Sexuality: - E. Stahl, _Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Flechten_ - (Leipzig, 1877); G. Lindau, _Uber Anlage und Entwickelung einiger - Flechtenapothecien_ (Flora, 1888); E. Baur, "Zur Frage nach der - Sexualitat der Collemaceae," _Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges._ (1898); "Uber - Anlage und Entwicklung einiger Flechtenapothecien" (_Flora_, Bd. 88, - 1901); "Untersuchungen uber die Entwicklungsgeschichte der - Flechtenapothecien," _Bot. Zeit._ (1904); O. V. Darbishire, "Uber die - Apothecium-entwickelung der Flechte, Physcia pulverulenta," _Nyl. - Prings. Jahrb._ (Bd. 34, 1900). Chemistry.--W. Zopf, "Vergleichende - Produkte," _Beitr. z. bot. Centralbl._ (Bd. 14, 1903); _Die - Flechtenstoffe_ (Jena, 1907). (J. M. C; V. H. B.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The _thalline margin_ (margo thallinus) is the projecting edge of - a special layer of thallus, the amphithecium, round the actual - apothecium; the _proper margin_ (margo proprius) is the projecting - edge of the apothecium itself. - - - - -LICHFIELD, a city, county of a city, and municipal borough in the -Lichfield parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, 118 m. N.W. -from London. Pop. (1901) 7902. The London and North-Western railway has -stations at Trent Valley Junction on the main line, and in the city on a -branch westward. The town lies in a pleasant country, on a small stream -draining eastward to the Trent, with low hills to the E. and S. The -cathedral is small (the full internal length is only 370 ft., and the -breadth of the nave 68 ft.), but beautiful in both situation and style. -It stands near a picturesque sheet of water named Minster Pool. The -present building dates from various periods in the 13th and early 14th -centuries, but the various portions cannot be allocated to fixed years, -as the old archives were destroyed during the Civil Wars of the 17th -century. The earlier records of the church are equally doubtful. A Saxon -church founded by St Chad, who was subsequently enshrined here, occupied -the site from the close of the 7th century; of its Norman successor -portions of the foundations have been excavated, but no record exists -either of its date or of its builders. The fine exterior of the -cathedral exhibits the feature, unique in England, of a lofty central -and two lesser western spires, of which the central, 252 ft. high, is a -restoration attributed to Sir Christopher Wren after its destruction -during the Civil Wars. The west front is composed of three stages of -ornate arcading, with niches containing statues, of which most are -modern. Within, the south transept shows simple Early English work, the -north transept and chapter house more ornate work of a later period in -that style, the nave, with its geometrical ornament, marks the -transition to the Decorated style, while the Lady chapel is a beautiful -specimen of fully developed Decorated work with an apsidal east end. The -west front probably falls in date between the nave and the Lady chapel. -Among numerous monuments are--memorials to Samuel Johnson, a native of -Lichfield, and to David Garrick, who spent his early life and was -educated here; a monument to Major Hodson, who fell in the Indian -mutiny, and whose father was canon of Lichfield; the tomb of Bishop -Hacket, who restored the cathedral after the Civil Wars; and a -remarkable effigy of Perpendicular date displaying Sir John Stanley -stripped to the waist and awaiting chastisement. Here is also the -"Sleeping Children," a masterpiece by Chantrey (1817). - -A picturesque bishop's palace (1687) and a theological college (1857) -are adjacent to the cathedral. The diocese covers the greater part of -Staffordshire and about half the parishes in Shropshire, with small -portions of Cheshire and Derbyshire. The church of St Chad is ancient -though extensively restored; on its site St Chad is said to have -occupied a hermit's cell. The principal schools are those of King Edward -and St Chad. There are many picturesque half-timbered and other old -houses, among which is that in which Johnson was born, which stands in -the market-place, and is the property of the corporation and opened to -the public. There is also in the market place a statue to Johnson. A -fair is held annually on Whit-Monday, accompanied by a pageant of -ancient origin. Brewing is the principal industry, and in the -neighbourhood are large market gardens. The city is governed by a mayor, -6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3475 acres. - -There is a tradition that "Christianfield" near Lichfield was the site -of the martyrdom of a thousand Christians during the persecutions of -Maximian about 286, but there is no evidence in support of the -tradition. At Wall, 3 m. from the present city, there was a -Romano-British village called Letocetum ("grey wood"), from which the -first half of the name Lichfield is derived. The first authentic notice -of Lichfield (_Lyecidfelth_, _Lychfeld_, _Litchfield_) occurs in Bede's -history where it is mentioned as the place where St Chad fixed the -episcopal see of the Mercians. After the foundation of the see by St -Chad in 669, it was raised in 786 by Pope Adrian through the influence -of Offa, King of Mercia, to the dignity of an archbishopric, but in 803 -the primacy was restored to Canterbury. In 1075 the see of Lichfield was -removed to Chester, and thence a few years later to Coventry, but it was -restored in 1148. At the time of the Domesday Survey Lichfield was held -by the bishop of Chester: it is not called a borough, and it was a small -village, whence, on account of its insignificance, the see had been -moved. The lordship and manor of the town were held by the bishop until -the reign of Edward VI., when they were leased to the corporation. There -is evidence that a castle existed here in the time of Bishop Roger -Clinton (_temp._ Henry I.), and a footpath near the grammar-school -retains the name of Castle-ditch. Richard II. gave a charter (1387) for -the foundation of the gild of St Mary and St John the Baptist; this gild -obtained the whole local government, which it exercised until its -dissolution by Edward VI., who incorporated the town (1548), vesting the -government in two bailiffs and twenty-four burgesses; further charters -were given by Mary, James I. and Charles II. (1664), the last, -incorporating it under the title of the "bailiffs and citizens of the -city of Lichfield," was the governing charter until 1835; under this -charter the governing body consisted of two bailiffs and twenty-four -brethren. Lichfield sent two members to the parliament of 1304 and to a -few succeeding parliaments, but the representation did not become -regular until 1552; in 1867 it lost one member, and in 1885 its -representation was merged in that of the county. By the charter of James -I. the market day was changed from Wednesday to Tuesday and Friday; the -Tuesday market disappeared during the 19th century; the only existing -fair is a small pleasure fair of ancient origin held on Ash-Wednesday; -the annual fete on Whit-Monday claims to date from the time of Alfred. -In the Civil Wars Lichfield was divided. The cathedral authorities with -a certain following were for the king, but the townsfolk generally sided -with the parliament, and this led to the fortification of the close in -1643. Lord Brooke, notorious for his hostility to the church, came -against it, but was killed by a deflected bullet on St Chad's day, an -accident welcomed as a miracle by the Royalists. The close yielded and -was retaken by Prince Rupert in this year; but on the breakdown of the -king's cause in 1646 it again surrendered. The cathedral suffered -terrible damage in these years. - - See Rev. T. Harwood, _Hist. and Antiquities of Church and City of - Lichfield_ (1806), _Victoria County History, Stafford_. - - - - -LICH-GATE, or LYCH-GATE (from O. Eng. _lic_ "a body, a corpse"; cf. Ger. -_Leiche_), the roofed-in gateway or porch-entrance to churchyards. -Lich-gates existed in England certainly thirteen centuries ago, but -comparatively few early ones survive, as they were almost always of -wood. One at Bray, Berkshire, is dated 1448. Here the clergy meet the -corpse and some portion of the service is read. The gateway was really -part of the church; it also served to shelter the pall-bearers while the -bier was brought from the church. In some lich-gates there stood large -flat stones called lich-stones upon which the corpse, usually -uncoffined, was laid. The most common form of lich-gate is a simple shed -composed of a roof with two gabled ends, covered with tiles or thatch. -At Berrynarbor, Devon, there is a lich-gate in the form of a cross, -while at Troutbeck, Westmorland, there are three lich-gates to one -churchyard. Some elaborate gates have chambers over them. The word -_lich_ entered into composition constantly in old English, thus, -lich-bell, the hand-bell rung before a corpse; lich-way, the path along -which a corpse was carried to burial (this in some districts was -supposed to establish a right-of-way); lich-owl, the screech-owl, -because its cry was a portent of death; and lyke-wake, a night watch -over a corpse. - - - - -LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH (1742-1799), German physicist and satirical -writer, was born at Oberramstadt, near Darmstadt, on the 1st of July -1742. In 1763 he entered Gottingen university, where in 1769 he became -extraordinary professor of physics, and six years later ordinary -professor. This post he held till his death on the 24th of February -1799. As a physicist he is best known for his investigations in -electricity, more especially as to the so-called Lichtenberg figures, -which are fully described in two memoirs _Super nova methodo motum ac -naturam fluidi electrici investigandi_ (Gottingen, 1777-1778). These -figures, originally studied on account of the light they were supposed -to throw on the nature of the electric fluid or fluids, have reference -to the distribution of electricity over the surface of non-conductors. -They are produced as follows: A sharp-pointed needle is placed -perpendicular to a non-conducting plate, such as of resin, ebonite or -glass, with its point very near to or in contact with the plate, and a -Leyden jar is discharged into the needle. The electrification of the -plate is now tested by sifting over it a mixture of flowers of sulphur -and red lead. The negatively electrified sulphur is seen to attach -itself to the positively electrified parts of the plate, and the -positively electrified red lead to the negatively electrified parts. In -addition to the distribution of colour thereby produced, there is a -marked difference in the _form_ of the figure, according to the nature -of the electricity originally communicated to the plate. If it be -positive, a widely extending patch is seen on the plate, consisting of a -dense nucleus, from which branches radiate in all directions; if -negative the patch is much smaller and has a sharp circular boundary -entirely devoid of branches. If the plate receives a mixed charge, as, -for example, from an induction coil, a "mixed" figure results, -consisting of a large red central nucleus, corresponding to the negative -charge, surrounded by yellow rays, corresponding to the positive charge. -The difference between the positive and negative figures seems to depend -on the presence of the air; for the difference tends to disappear when -the experiment is conducted in vacuo. Riess explains it by the negative -electrification of the plate caused by the friction of the water vapour, -&c., driven along the surface by the explosion which accompanies the -disruptive discharge at the point. This electrification would favour the -spread of a positive, but hinder that of a negative discharge. There is, -in all probability, a connexion between this phenomenon and the -peculiarities of positive and negative brush and other discharge in air. - -As a satirist and humorist Lichtenberg takes high rank among the German -writers of the 18th century. His biting wit involved him in many -controversies with well-known contemporaries, such as Lavater, whose -science of physiognomy he ridiculed, and Voss, whose views on Greek -pronunciation called forth a powerful satire, _Uber die Pronunciation -der Schopse des alten Griechenlandes_ (1782). In 1769 and again in 1774 -he resided for some time in England and his _Briefe aus England_ -(1776-1778), with admirable descriptions of Garrick's acting, are the -most attractive of his writings. He contributed to the _Gottinger -Taschenkalender_ from 1778 onwards, and to the _Gottingisches Magazin -der Literatur und Wissenschaft_, which he edited for three years -(1780-1782) with J. G. A. Forster. He also published in 1794-1799 an -_Ausfuhrliche Erklarung der Hogarthschen Kupferstiche_. - - Lichtenberg's _Vermischte Schriften_ were published by F. Kries in 9 - vols. (1800-1805); new editions in 8 vols. (1844-1846 and 1867). - Selections by E. Grisebach, _Lichtenbergs Gedanken und Maximen_ - (1871); by F. Robertag (in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ - (vol. 141, 1886); and by A. Wilbrandt (1893). Lichtenberg's _Briefe_ - have been published in 3 vols, by C. Schuddekopf and A. Leitzmann - (1900-1902); his _Aphorismen_ by A. Leitzmann (3 vols., 1902-1906). - See also R. M. Meyer, _Swift und Lichtenberg_ (1886); F. Lauchert, - _Lichtenbergs schriftstellerische Tatigkeit_ (1893); and A. Leitzmann, - _Aus Lichtenbergs Nachlass_ (1899). - - - - -LICHTENBERG, formerly a small German principality on the west bank of -the Rhine, enclosed by the Nahe, the Blies and the Glan, now belonging -to the government district of Trier, Prussian Rhine province. The -principality was constructed of parts of the electorate of Trier, of -Nassau-Saarbrucken and other districts, and lay between Rhenish Bavaria -and the old Prussian province of the Rhine. Originally called the -lordship of Baumholder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its -elevation in 1819 to a principality to Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, to -whom it was ceded by Prussia, in 1816, in accordance with terms agreed -upon at the congress of Vienna. The duke, however, restored it to -Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension of L12,000 sterling. -The area is about 210 sq. m. - - - - -LICINIANUS, GRANIUS, Roman annalist, probably lived in the age of the -Antonines (2nd century A.D.). He was the author of a brief epitome of -Roman history based upon Livy, which he utilized as a means of -displaying his antiquarian lore. Accounts of omens, portents, prodigies -and other remarkable things apparently took up a considerable portion of -the work. Some fragments of the books relating to the years 163-178 B.C. -are preserved in a British Museum MS. - - EDITIONS.--C. A. Pertz (1857); seven Bonn students (1858); M. Flemisch - (1904); see also J. N. Madvig, _Kleine philologische Schriften_ - (1875), and the list of articles in periodicals in Flemisch's edition - (p. iv.). - - - - -LICINIUS [FLAVIUS GALERIUS VALERIUS LICINIANUS], Roman emperor, A.D. -307-324, of Illyrian peasant origin, was born probably about 250. After -the death of Flavius Valerius Severus he was elevated to the rank of -Augustus by Galerius, his former friend and companion in arms, on the -11th of November 307, receiving as his immediate command the provinces -of Illyricum. On the death of Galerius, in May 311, he shared the entire -empire with Maximinus, the Hellespont and the Thracian Bosporus being -the dividing line. In March 313 he married Constantia, half-sister of -Constantine, at Mediolanum (Milan), in the following month inflicted a -decisive defeat on Maximinus at Heraclea Pontica, and established -himself master of the East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, was -supreme in the West. In 314 his jealousy led him to encourage a -treasonable enterprise on the part of Bassianus against Constantine. -When his perfidy became known a civil war ensued, in which he was twice -severely defeated--first near Cibalae in Pannonia (October 8th, 314), -and next in the plain of Mardia in Thrace; the outward reconciliation, -which was effected in the following December, left Licinius in -possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, but added numerous -provinces to the Western empire. In 323 Constantine, tempted by the -"advanced age and unpopular vices" of his colleague, again declared war -against him, and, having defeated his army at Adrianople (3rd of July -323), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium. The -defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius by Flavius Julius Crispus, -Constantine's eldest son, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a -last stand was made; the battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18th of -September), finally resulted in his submission. He was interned at -Thessalonica and executed in the following year on a charge of -treasonable correspondence with the barbarians. - - See Zosimus ii. 7-28; Zonaras xiii. 1; Victor, _Caes._ 40, 41; - Eutropius x. 3; Orosius vii. 28. - - - - -LICINIUS CALVUS STOLO, GAIUS, Roman statesman, the chief representative -of the plebeian Licinian gens, was tribune in 377 B.c., consul in 361. -His name is associated with the Licinian or Licinio-Sextian laws -(proposed 377, passed 367), which practically ended the struggle between -patricians and plebeians. He was himself fined for possessing a larger -share of the public land than his own law allowed. - - See ROME: _History_, II. "The Republic." - - - - -LICINIUS MACER CALVUS, GAIUS (82-47 B.C.), Roman poet and orator, was -the son of the annalist Licinius Macer. As a poet he is associated with -his friend Catullus, whom he followed in style and choice of subjects. -As an orator he was the leader of the opponents of the florid Asiatic -school, who took the simplest Attic orators as their model and attacked -even Cicero as wordy and artificial. Calvus held a correspondence on -questions connected with rhetoric, perhaps (if the reading be correct) -the _commentarii_ alluded to by Tacitus (_Dialogus_, 23; compare also -Cicero, _Ad Fam._ xv. 21). Twenty-one speeches by him are mentioned, -amongst which the most famous were those delivered against Publius -Vatinius. Calvus was very short of stature, and is alluded to by -Catullus (Ode 53) as _Salaputium disertum_ (eloquent Lilliputian). - - For Cicero's opinion see _Brutus_, 82; Quintilian x. I. 115; Tacitus, - _Dialogus_, 18. 21; the monograph by F. Plessis (Paris, 1896) contains - a collection of the fragments (verse and prose). - - - - -LICODIA EUBEA, a town of Sicily in the province of Catania, 4 m. W. of -Vizzini, which is 39 m. S.W. of Catania by rail. Pop. (1901) 7033. The -name Eubea was given to the place in 1872 owing to a false -identification with the Greek city of Euboea, a colony of Leontini, -founded probably early in the 6th century B.C. and taken by Gelon. The -town occupies the site of an unknown Sicel city, the cemeteries of which -have been explored. A few vases of the first period were found, but -practically all the tombs explored in 1898 belonged to the fourth period -(700-500 B.C.) and show the gradual process of Hellenization among the -Sicels. - - See _Romische Mitteilungen_, 1898, 305 seq.; _Notizie degli scavi_, - 1902, 219. (T. As.) - - - - -LICTORS (_lictores_), in Roman antiquities, a class of the attendants -(_apparitores_) upon certain Roman and provincial magistrates.[1] As an -institution (supposed by some to have been borrowed from Etruria) they -went back to the regal period and continued to exist till imperial -times. The majority of the city lictors were freedmen; they formed a -corporation divided into decuries, from which the lictors of the -magistrates in office were drawn; provincial officials had the -nomination of their own. In Rome they wore the toga, perhaps girded up; -on a campaign and at the celebration of a triumph, the red military -cloak (_sagulum_); at funerals, black. As representatives of magistrates -who possessed the _imperium_, they carried the fasces and axes in front -of them (see FASCES). They were exempt from military service; received a -fixed salary; theoretically they were nominated for a year, but really -for life. They were the constant attendants, both in and out of the -house, of the magistrate to whom they were attached. They walked before -him in Indian file, cleared a passage for him (_summovere_) through the -crowd, and saw that he was received with the marks of respect due to his -rank. They stood by him when he took his seat on the tribunal; mounted -guard before his house, against the wall of which they stood the fasces; -summoned offenders before him, seized, bound and scourged them, and (in -earlier times) carried out the death sentence. It should be noted that -directly a magistrate entered an allied, independent state, he was -obliged to dispense with his lictors. The king had twelve lictors; each -of the consuls (immediately after their institution) twelve, -subsequently limited to the monthly officiating consul, although Caesar -appears to have restored the original arrangement; the dictator, as -representing both consuls, twenty-four; the emperors twelve, until the -time of Domitian, who had twenty-four. The Flamen Dialis, each of the -Vestals, the _magister-vicorum_ (overseer of the sections into which the -city was divided) were also accompanied by lictors. These lictors were -probably supplied from the _lictores curiatii_, thirty in number, whose -functions were specially religious, one of them being in attendance on -the pontifex maximus. They originally summoned the comitia curiata, and -when its meetings became merely a formality, acted as the -representatives of that assembly. Lictors were also assigned to private -individuals at the celebration of funeral games, and to the aediles at -the games provided by them and the theatrical representations under -their supervision. - - For the fullest account of the lictors, see Mommsen, _Romisches - Staatsrecht_, i. 355, 374 (3rd ed., 1887). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The Greek equivalents of _lictor_ are [Greek: rabdouchos, - rabdophoros, rabdonomos] (rod-bearer); the Latin word is variously - derived from: (a) _ligare_, to bind or arrest a criminal; (b) - _licere_, to summon, as convoking assemblies or haling offenders - before the magistrate; (c) _licium_, the girdle with which (according - to some) their toga was held up; (d) Plutarch (_Quaestiones Romanae_, - 67), assuming an older form [Greek: litor], suggests an - identification with [Greek: leitourgos], one who performs a public - office. - - - - -LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE (1811-1898), English scholar and divine, eldest -son of the Rev. Henry George Liddell, younger brother of the first Baron -Ravensworth, was born at Binchester, near Bishop Auckland, on the 6th of -February 1811. He was educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, -Oxford. Gaining a double first in 1833, Liddell became a college tutor, -and was ordained in 1838. In the same year Dean Gaisford appointed him -Greek reader in Christ Church, and in 1846 he was appointed to the -headmastership of Westminster School. Meanwhile his life work, the great -_Lexicon_ (based on the German work of F. Passow), which he and Robert -Scott began as early as 1834, had made good progress, and the first -edition appeared in 1843. It immediately became the standard -Greek-English dictionary and still maintains this rank, although, -notwithstanding the great additions made of late to our Greek vocabulary -from inscriptions, papyri and other sources, scarcely any enlargement -has been made since about 1880. The 8th edition was published in 1897. -As headmaster of Westminster Liddell enjoyed a period of great success, -followed by trouble due to the outbreak of fever and cholera in the -school. In 1855 he accepted the deanery of Christ Church, then vacant by -the death of Gaisford. In the same year he brought out a _History of -Ancient Rome_ (much used in an abridged form as the _Student's History -of Rome_) and took a very active part in the first Oxford University -Commission. His tall figure, fine presence and aristocratic mien were -for many years associated with all that was characteristic of Oxford -life. Coming just at the transition period when the "old Christ Church," -which Pusey strove so hard to preserve, was inevitably becoming broader -and more liberal, it was chiefly due to Liddell that necessary changes -were effected with the minimum of friction. In 1859 Liddell welcomed the -then prince of Wales when he matriculated at Christ Church, being the -first holder of that title who had matriculated since Henry V. In -conjunction with Sir Henry Acland, Liddell did much to encourage the -study of art at Oxford, and his taste and judgment gained him the -admiration and friendship of Ruskin. In 1891, owing to advancing years, -he resigned the deanery. The last years of his life were spent at Ascot, -where he died on the 18th of January 1898. Dean Liddell married in July -1846 Miss Lorina Reeve (d. 1910), by whom he had a numerous family. - - See memoir by H. L. Thompson, _Henry George Liddell_ (1899). - - - - -LIDDESDALE, the valley of Liddel Water, Roxburghshire, Scotland, -extending in a south-westerly direction from the vicinity of Peel Fell -to the Esk, a distance of 21 m. The Waverley route of the North British -railway runs down the dale, and the Catrail, or Picts' Dyke, crosses its -head. At one period the points of vantage on the river and its affluents -were occupied with freebooters' peel-towers, but many of them have -disappeared and the remainder are in decay. Larriston Tower belonged to -the Elliots, Mangerton to the Armstrongs and Park to "little Jock -Elliot," the outlaw who nearly killed Bothwell in an encounter in 1566. -The chief point of interest in the valley, however, is Hermitage Castle, -a vast, massive H-shaped fortress of enormous strength, one of the -oldest baronial buildings in Scotland. It stands on a hill overlooking -Hermitage Water, a tributary of the Liddel. It was built in 1244 by -Nicholas de Soulis and was captured by the English in David II.'s reign. -It was retaken by Sir William Douglas, who received a grant of it from -the king. In 1492 Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of Angus, exchanged it for -Bothwell Castle on the Clyde with Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell. -It finally passed to the duke of Buccleuch, under whose care further -ruin has been arrested. It was here that Sir Alexander Ramsay of -Dalhousie was starved to death by Sir William Douglas in 1342, and that -James Hepburn, 4th earl of Bothwell, was visited by Mary, queen of -Scots, after the assault referred to. - - To the east of the castle is Ninestane Rig, a hill 943 ft. high, 4 m. - long and 1 m. broad, where it is said that William de Soulis, hated - for oppression and cruelty, was (in 1320) boiled by his own vassals in - a copper cauldron, which was supported on two of the nine stones which - composed the "Druidical" circle that gave the ridge its name. Only - five of the stones remain. James Telfer (1802-1862), the writer of - ballads, who was born in the parish of Southdean (pronounced Soudan), - was for several years schoolmaster of Saughtree, near the head of the - valley. The castle of the lairds of Liddesdale stood near the junction - of Hermitage Water and the Liddel and around it grew up the village of - Castleton. - - - - -LIDDON, HENRY PARRY (1829-1890), English divine, was the son of a naval -captain and was born at North Stoneham, Hampshire, on the 20th of August -1829. He was educated at King's College School, London, and at Christ -Church, Oxford, where he graduated, taking a second class, in 1850. As -vice-principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon (1854-1859) he -wielded considerable influence, and, on returning to Oxford as -vice-principal of St Edmund's Hall, became a growing force among the -undergraduates, exercising his influence in strong opposition to the -liberal reaction against Tractarianism, which had set in after Newman's -secession in 1845. In 1864 the bishop of Salisbury (W. K. Hamilton), -whose examining chaplain he had been, appointed him prebendary of -Salisbury cathedral. In 1866 he delivered his Bampton Lectures on the -doctrine of the divinity of Christ. From that time his fame as a -preacher, which had been steadily growing, may be considered -established. In 1870 he was made canon of St Paul's Cathedral, London. -He had before this published _Some Words for God_, in which, with great -power and eloquence, he combated the scepticism of the day. His -preaching at St Paul's soon attracted vast crowds. The afternoon sermon, -which fell to the lot of the canon in residence, had usually been -delivered in the choir, but soon after Liddon's appointment it became -necessary to preach the sermon under the dome, where from 3000 to 4000 -persons used to gather to hear the preacher. Few orators belonging to -the Church of England have acquired so great a reputation as Liddon. -Others may have surpassed him in originality, learning or reasoning -power, but for grasp of his subject, clearness of language, lucidity of -arrangement, felicity of illustration, vividness of imagination, -elegance of diction, and above all, for sympathy with the intellectual -position of those whom he addressed, he has hardly been rivalled. In the -elaborate arrangement of his matter he is thought to have imitated the -great French preachers of the age of Louis XIV. In 1870 he had also been -made Ireland professor of exegesis at Oxford. The combination of the two -appointments gave him extensive influence over the Church of England. -With Dean Church he may be said to have restored the waning influence of -the Tractarian school, and he succeeded in popularizing the opinions -which, in the hands of Pusey and Keble, had appealed to thinkers and -scholars. His forceful spirit was equally conspicuous in his opposition -to the Church Discipline Act of 1874, and in his denunciation of the -Bulgarian atrocities of 1876. In 1882 he resigned his professorship and -utilized his thus increased leisure by travelling in Palestine and -Egypt, and showed his interest in the Old Catholic movement by visiting -Dollinger at Munich. In 1886 he became chancellor of St Paul's, and it -is said that he declined more than one offer of a bishopric. He died on -the 9th of September 1890, in the full vigour of his intellect and at -the zenith of his reputation. He had undertaken and nearly completed an -elaborate life of Dr Pusey, for whom his admiration was unbounded; and -this work was completed after his death by Messrs Johnston and Wilson. -Liddon's great influence during his life was due to his personal -fascination and the beauty of his pulpit oratory rather than to any high -qualities of intellect. As a theologian his outlook was that of the 16th -rather than the 19th century; and, reading his Bampton Lectures now, it -is difficult to realize how they can ever have been hailed as a great -contribution to Christian apologetics. To the last he maintained the -narrow standpoint of Pusey and Keble, in defiance of all the -developments of modern thought and modern scholarship; and his latter -years were embittered by the consciousness that the younger generation -of the disciples of his school were beginning to make friends of the -Mammon of scientific unrighteousness. The publication in 1889 of _Lux -Mundi_, a series of essays attempting to harmonize Anglican Catholic -doctrine with modern thought, was a severe blow to him, for it showed -that even at the Pusey House, established as the citadel of Puseyism at -Oxford, the principles of Pusey were being departed from. Liddon's -importance is now mainly historical. He was the last of the classical -pulpit orators of the English Church, the last great popular exponent of -the traditional Anglican orthodoxy. Besides the works mentioned, Liddon -published several volumes of _Sermons_, a volume of Lent lectures -entitled _Some Elements of Religion_ (1870), and a collection of _Essays -and Addresses_ on such themes as Buddhism, Dante, &c. - - See _Life and Letters_, by J. O. Johnston (1904); G. W. E. Russell, - _H. P. Liddon_ (1903); A. B. Donaldson, _Five Great Oxford Leaders_ - (1900), from which the life of Liddon was reprinted separately in - 1905. - - - - -LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833-1908), Norwegian novelist, was born on -the 6th of November 1833 close to Hougsund (Eker), near Drammen. In -1838, his father being appointed sheriff of Tromso, the family removed -to that Arctic town. Here the future novelist enjoyed an untrammelled -childhood among the shipping of the little Nordland capital, and gained -acquaintance with the wild seafaring life which he was afterwards to -describe. In 1846 he was sent to the naval school at Frederiksvaern, but -his extreme near-sight unfitted him for the service, and he was -transferred to the Latin school at Bergen. In 1851 he went to the -university of Christiania, where Ibsen and Bjornson were among his -fellow-students. Jonas Lie, however, showed at this time no inclination -to literature. He pursued his studies as a lawyer, took his degrees in -law in 1858, and settled down to practice as a solicitor in the little -town of Kongsvinger. In 1860 he married his cousin, Thomasine Lie, whose -collaboration in his work he acknowledged in 1893 in a graceful article -in the _Samtiden_ entitled "Min hustru." In 1866 he published his first -book, a volume of poems. He made unlucky speculations in wood, and the -consequent financial embarrassment induced him to return to Christiania -to try his luck as a man of letters. As a journalist he had no success, -but in 1870 he published a melancholy little romance, _Den Fremsynte_ -(Eng. trans., _The Visionary_, 1894), which made him famous. Lie -proceeded to Rome, and published Tales in 1871 and _Tremasteren -"Fremtiden"_ (Eng. trans., _The Barque "Future,"_ Chicago, 1879), a -novel, in 1872. His first great book, however, was _Lodsen og hans -Hustru_ (_The Pilot and his Wife_, 1874), which placed him at the head -of Norwegian novelists; it was written in the little town of Rocca di -Papa in the Albano mountains. From that time Lie enjoyed, with Bjornson -and Ibsen, a stipend as poet from the Norwegian government. Lie spent -the next few years partly in Dresden, partly in Stuttgart, with frequent -summer excursions to Berchtesgaden in the Bavarian highlands. During his -exile he produced the drama in verse called _Faustina Strozzi_ (1876). -Returning to Norway, Lie began a series of romances of modern life in -Christiania, of which _Thomas Ross_ (1878) and _Adam Schrader_ (1879) -were the earliest. He returned to Germany, and settled first in Dresden -again, then in Hamburg, until 1882, when he took up his abode in Paris, -where he lived in close retirement in the society of Scandinavian -friends. His summers were spent at Berchtesgaden in Tirol. The novels of -his German period are _Rutland_ (1881) and _Gaa paa_ ("_Go Ahead!_" -1882), tales of life in the Norwegian merchant navy. His subsequent -works, produced with great regularity, enjoyed an immense reputation in -Norway. Among the best of them are: _Livsslaven_ (1883, Eng. trans., -"_One of Life's Slaves_," 1895); _Familjen paa Gilje_ ("_The Family of -Gilje_," 1883); _Malstroem_ (1885), describing the gradual ruin of a -Norwegian family; _Et Samliv_ ("_Life in Common_," 1887), describing a -marriage of convenience. Two of the most successful of his novels were -_The Commodore's Daughters_ (1886) and Niobe (1894), both of which were -presented to English readers in the International library, edited by Mr -Gosse. In 1891-1892 he wrote, under the influence of the new romantic -impulse, twenty-four folk-tales, printed in two volumes entitled -_Trold_. Some of these were translated by R. N. Bain in _Weird Tales_ -(1893), illustrated by L. Housman. Among his later works were the -romance _Naar Sol gaar ned_ ("_When the Sun goes down_," 1895), the -powerful novel of _Dyre Rein_ (1896), the fairy drama of _Lindelin_ -(1897), _Faste Forland_ (1899), a romance which contains much which is -autobiographical, _When the Iron Curtain falls_ (1901), and _The Consul_ -(1904). _His Samlede Vaerker_ were published at Copenhagen in 14 vols. -(1902-1904). Jonas Lie left Paris in 1891, and, after spending a year in -Rome, returned to Norway, establishing himself at Holskogen, near -Christiansand. He died at Christiania on the 5th of July 1908. As a -novelist he stands with those minute and unobtrusive painters of -contemporary manners who defy arrangement in this or that school. He is -with Mrs Gaskell or Ferdinand Fabre; he is not entirely without relation -with that old-fashioned favourite of the public, Fredrika Bremer. - - His son, Erik Lie (b. 1868), published a successful volume of stories, - _Med Blyanten_, in 1890; and is also the author of various works on - literary history. An elder son, Mons Lie (b. 1864), studied the violin - in Paris, but turned to literature in 1894. Among his works are the - plays _Tragedier om Kjaerlighed_ (1897); _Lombardo and Agrippina_ - (1898); _Don Juan_ (1900); and the novels, _Sjofareren_ (1901); _Adam - Ravn_ (1903) and _I. Kvindensnet_ (1904). (E. G.) - - - - -LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842-1899), Norwegian mathematician, was born at -Nordfjordeif, near Bergen, on the 17th of December 1842, and was educated -at the university of Christiania, where he took his doctor's degree in -1868 and became extraordinary professor of mathematics (a chair created -specially for him) four years later. In 1886 he was chosen to succeed -Felix Klein in the chair of geometry at Leipzig, but as his fame grew a -special post was arranged for him in Christiania. But his health was -broken down by too assiduous study, and he died at Christiania on the -18th of February 1899, six months after his return. Lie's work exercised -a great influence on the progress of mathematical science during the -later decades of the 19th century. His primary aim has been declared to -be the advancement and elaboration of the theory of differential -equations, and it was with this end in view that he developed his theory -of transformation groups, set forth in his _Theorie der -Transformationsgruppen_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1893), a work of wide -range and great originality, by which probably his name is best known. A -special application of his theory of continuous groups was to the general -problem of non-Euclidean geometry. The latter part of the book above -mentioned was devoted to a study of the foundations of geometry, -considered from the standpoint of B. Riemann and H. von Helmholtz; and he -intended to publish a systematic exposition of his geometrical -investigations, in conjunction with Dr G. Scheffers, but only one volume -made its appearance (_Geometrie der Beruhrungstransformationen_, Leipzig, -1896). Lie was a foreign member of the Royal Society, as well as an -honorary member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and the London -Mathematical Society, and his geometrical inquiries gained him the -much-coveted honour of the Lobatchewsky prize. - - An analysis of Lie's works is given in the _Bibliotheca Mathematica_ - (Leipzig, 1900). - - - - -LIEBER, FRANCIS (1800-1872), German-American publicist, was born at -Berlin on the 18th of March 1800. He served with his two brothers under -Blucher in the campaign of 1815, fighting at Ligny, Waterloo and Namur, -where he was twice dangerously wounded. Shortly afterwards he was -arrested for his political sentiments, the chief evidence against him -being several songs of liberty which he had written. After several -months he was discharged without a trial, but was forbidden to pursue -his studies at the Prussian universities. He accordingly went to Jena, -where he took his degrees in 1820, continuing his studies at Halle and -Dresden. He subsequently took part in the Greek War of Independence, -publishing his experiences in his _Journal in Greece_ (Leipzig, 1823, -and under the title _The German Anacharsis_, Amsterdam, 1823). For a -year he was in Rome as tutor to the son of the historian Niebuhr, then -Prussian ambassador. Returning to Berlin in 1823, he was imprisoned at -Koepenik, but was released after some months through the influence of -Niebuhr. In 1827 he went to the United States and as soon as possible -was naturalized as a citizen. He settled at Boston, and for five years -edited _The Encyclopaedia Americana_ (13 vols.). From 1835 to 1856 he -was professor of history and political economy in South Carolina College -at Columbia, S.C., and during this period wrote his three chief works, -_Manual of Political Ethics_ (1838), _Legal and Political Hermeneutics_ -(1839), and _Civil Liberty and Self Government_ (1853). In 1856 he -resigned and next year was elected to a similar post in Columbia -College, New York, and in 1865 became professor of constitutional -history and public law in the same institution. During the Civil War -Lieber rendered services of great value to the government. He was one -of the first to point out the madness of secession, and was active in -upholding the Union. He prepared, upon the requisition of the president, -the important _Code of War for the Government of the Armies of the -United States in the Field_, which was promulgated by the Government in -General Orders No. 100 of the war department. This code suggested to -Bluntschli his codification of the law of nations, as may be seen in the -preface to his _Droit International Codifie_. During this period also -Lieber wrote his _Guerilla Parties with Reference to the Laws and Usages -of War_. At the time of his death he was the umpire of the commission -for the adjudication of Mexican claims. He died on the 2nd of October -1872. His books were acquired by the University of California, and his -papers were placed in the Johns Hopkins University. - - His _Miscellaneous Writings_ were published by D. C. Gilman - (Philadelphia, 1881). See T. S. Perry, _Life and Letters_ (1882), and - biography by Harby (1899). - - - - -LIEBERMANN, MAX (1849- ), German painter and etcher, was born in -Berlin. After studying under Steffeck, he entered the school of art at -Weimar in 1869. Though the straightforward simplicity of his first -exhibited picture, "Women plucking Geese," in 1872, presented already a -striking contrast to the conventional art then in vogue, it was heavy -and bituminous in colour, like all the artist's paintings before his -visit to Paris at the end of 1872. A summer spent at Barbizon in 1873, -where he became personally acquainted with Millet and had occasion to -study the works of Corot, Troyon, and Daubigny, resulted in the clearing -and brightening of his palette, and taught him to forget the example of -Munkacsy, under whose influence he had produced his first pictures in -Paris. He subsequently went to Holland, where the example of Israels -confirmed him in the method he had adopted at Barbizon; but on his -return to Munich in 1878 he caused much unfavourable criticism by his -realistic painting of "Christ in the Temple," which was condemned by the -clergy as irreverent and remained his only attempt at a scriptural -subject. Henceforth he devoted himself exclusively to the study of -free-light and to the painting of the life of humble folk. He found his -best subjects in the orphanages and asylums for the old in Amsterdam, -among the peasants in the fields and village streets of Holland, and in -the beer-gardens, factories, and workrooms of his own country. Germany -was reluctant, however, in admitting the merit of an artist whose style -and method were so markedly at variance with the time-honoured academic -tradition. Only when his fame was echoed back from France, Belgium, and -Holland did his compatriots realize the eminent position which is his -due in the history of German art. It is hardly too much to say that -Liebermann has done for his country what Millet did for France. His -pictures hold the fragrance of the soil and the breezes of the heavens. -His people move in their proper atmosphere, and their life is stated in -all its monotonous simplicity, without artificial pathos or melodramatic -exaggeration. His first success was a medal awarded him for "An Asylum -for Old Men" at the 1881 Salon. In 1884 he settled again in Berlin, -where he became professor of the Academy in 1898. He became a member of -the Societe nationale des Beaux Arts, of the Societe royale belge des -Aquarellistes, and of the Cercle des Aquarellistes at the Hague. -Liebermann is represented in most of the German and other continental -galleries. The Berlin National Gallery owns "The Flax-Spinners"; the -Munich Pinakothek, "The Woman with Goats"; the Hamburg Gallery, "The -Net-Menders"; the Hanover Gallery, the "Village Street in Holland." "The -Seamstress" is at the Dresden Gallery; the "Man on the Dunes" at -Leipzig; "Dutch Orphan Girls" at Strassburg; "Beer-cellar at -Brandenburg" at the Luxembourg Museum in Paris, and the "Knopflerinnen" -in Venice. His etchings are to be found in the leading print cabinets of -Europe. - - - - -LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON, BARON (1803-1873), German chemist, was born at -Darmstadt, according to his baptismal certificate, on the 12th of May -1803 (4th of May, according to his mother). His father, a drysalter and -dealer in colours, used sometimes to make experiments in the hope of -finding improved processes for the production of his wares, and thus his -son early acquired familiarity with practical chemistry. For the -theoretical side he read all the text-books which he could find, -somewhat to the detriment of his ordinary school studies. Having -determined to make chemistry his profession, at the age of fifteen he -entered the shop of an apothecary at Appenheim, near Darmstadt; but he -soon found how great is the difference between practical pharmacy and -scientific chemistry, and the explosions and other incidents that -accompanied his private efforts to increase his chemical knowledge -disposed his master to view without regret his departure at the end of -ten months. He next entered the university of Bonn, but migrated to -Erlangen when the professor of chemistry, K. W. G. Kastner (1783-1857), -was appointed in 1821 to the chair of physics and chemistry at the -latter university. He followed this professor to learn how to analyse -certain minerals, but in the end he found that the teacher himself was -ignorant of the process. Indeed, as he himself said afterwards, it was a -wretched time for chemistry in Germany. No laboratories were accessible -to ordinary students, who had to content themselves with what the -universities could give in the lecture-room and the library, and though -both at Bonn and Erlangen Liebig endeavoured to make up for the -deficiencies of the official instruction by founding a students' -physical and chemical society for the discussion of new discoveries and -speculations, he felt that he could never become a chemist in his own -country. Therefore, having graduated as Ph.D. in 1822, he left -Erlangen--where he subsequently complained that the contagion of the -"greatest philosopher and metaphysician of the century" (Schelling), in -a period "rich in words and ideas, but poor in true knowledge and -genuine studies," had cost him two precious years of his life--and by -the liberality of Louis I., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, was enabled -to go to Paris. By the help of L. J. Thenard he gained admission to the -private laboratory of H. F. Gaultier de Claubry (1792-1873), professor -of chemistry at the Ecole de Pharmacie, and soon afterwards, by the -influence of A. von Humboldt, to that of Gay-Lussac, where in 1824 he -concluded his investigations on the composition of the fulminates. It -was on Humboldt's advice that he determined to become a teacher of -chemistry, but difficulties stood in his way. As a native of -Hesse-Darmstadt he ought, according to the academical rules of the time, -to have studied and graduated at the university of Giessen, and it was -only through the influence of Humboldt that the authorities forgave him -for straying to the foreign university of Erlangen. After examination -his Erlangen degree was recognized, and in 1824 he was appointed -extraordinary professor of chemistry at Giessen, becoming ordinary -professor two years later. In this small town his most important work -was accomplished. His first care was to persuade the Darmstadt -government to provide a chemical laboratory in which the students might -obtain a proper practical training. This laboratory, unique of its kind -at the time, in conjunction with Liebig's unrivalled gifts as a teacher, -soon rendered Giessen the most famous chemical school in the world; men -flocked from every country to enjoy its advantages, and many of the most -accomplished chemists of the 19th century had to thank it for their -early training. Further, it gave a great impetus to the progress of -chemical education throughout Germany, for the continued admonitions of -Liebig combined with the influence of his pupils induced many other -universities to build laboratories modelled on the same plan. He -remained at Giessen for twenty-eight years, until in 1852 he accepted -the invitation of the Bavarian government to the ordinary chair of -chemistry at Munich university, and this office he held, although he was -offered the chair at Berlin in 1865, until his death, which occurred at -Munich on the 10th of April 1873. - - Apart from Liebig's labours for the improvement of chemical teaching, - the influence of his experimental researches and of his contributions - to chemical thought was felt in every branch of the science. In regard - to methods and apparatus, mention should be made of his improvements - in the technique of organic analysis, his plan for determining the - natural alkaloids and for ascertaining the molecular weights of - organic bases bv means of their chloroplatinates, his process for - determining the quantity of urea in a solution--the first step - towards the introduction of precise chemical methods into practical - medicine--and his invention of the simple form of condenser known in - every laboratory. His contributions to inorganic chemistry were - numerous, including investigations on the compounds of antimony, - aluminium, silicon, &c., on the separation of nickel and cobalt, and - on the analysis of mineral waters, but they are outweighed in - importance by his work on organic substances. In this domain his first - research was on the fulminates of mercury and silver, and his study of - these bodies led him to the discovery of the isomerism of cyanic and - fulminic acids, for the composition of fulminic acid as found by him - was the same as that of cyanic acid, as found by F. Wohler, and it - became necessary to admit them to be two bodies which differed in - properties, though of the same percentage composition. Further work on - cyanogen and connected substances yielded a great number of - interesting derivatives, and he described an improved method for the - manufacture of potassium cyanide, an agent which has since proved of - enormous value in metallurgy and the arts. In 1832 he published, - jointly with Wohler, one of the most famous papers in the history of - chemistry, that on the oil of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde), wherein - it was shown that the radicle benzoyl might be regarded as forming an - unchanging constituent of a long series of compounds obtained from oil - of bitter almonds, throughout which it behaved like an element. - Berzelius hailed this discovery as marking the dawn of a new era in - organic chemistry, and proposed for benzoyl the names "Proin" or - "Orthrin" (from [Greek: proi] and [Greek: orthrus]). A continuation of - their work on bitter almond oil by Liebig and Wohler, who remained - firm friends for the rest of their lives, resulted in the elucidation - of the mode of formation of that substance and in the discovery of the - ferment emulsin as well as the recognition of the first glucoside, - amygdalin, while another and not less important and far-reaching - inquiry in which they collaborated was that on uric acid, published in - 1837. About 1832 he began his investigations into the constitution of - ether and alcohol and their derivatives. These on the one hand - resulted in the enunciation of his ethyl theory, by the light of which - he looked upon those substances as compounds of the radicle ethyl - (C2H5), in opposition to the view of J. B. A. Dumas, who regarded them - as hydrates of olefiant gas (ethylene); on the other they yielded - chloroform, chloral and aldehyde, as well as other compounds of less - general interest, and also the method of forming mirrors by depositing - silver from a slightly ammoniacal solution by acet aldehyde. In 1837 - with Dumas he published a note on the constitution of organic acids, - and in the following year an elaborate paper on the same subject - appeared under his own name alone; by this work T. Graham's doctrine - of polybasicity was extended to the organic acids. Liebig also did - much to further the hydrogen theory of acids. - - These and other studies in pure chemistry mainly occupied his - attention until about 1838, but the last thirty-five years of his life - were devoted more particularly to the chemistry of the processes of - life, both animal and vegetable. In animal physiology he set himself - to trace out the operation of determinate chemical and physical laws - in the maintenance of life and health. To this end he examined such - immediate vital products as blood, bile and urine; he analysed the - juices of flesh, establishing the composition of creatin and - investigating its decomposition products, creatinin and sarcosin; he - classified the various articles of food in accordance with the special - function performed by each in the animal economy, and expounded the - philosophy of cooking; and in opposition to many of the medical - opinions of his time taught that the heat of the body is the result of - the processes of combustion and oxidation performed within the - organism. A secondary result of this line of study was the preparation - of his food for infants and of his extract of meat. Vegetable - physiology he pursued with special reference to agriculture, which he - held to be the foundation of all trade and industry, but which could - not be rationally practised without the guidance of chemical - principles. His first publication on this subject was _Die Chemie in - ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie_ in 1840, which was at - once translated into English by Lyon Playfair. Rejecting the old - notion that plants derive their nourishment from humus, he taught that - they get carbon and nitrogen from the carbon dioxide and ammonia - present in the atmosphere, these compounds being returned by them to - the atmosphere by the processes of putrefaction and - fermentation--which latter he regarded as essentially chemical in - nature--while their potash, soda, lime, sulphur, phosphorus, &c., come - from the soil. Of the carbon dioxide and ammonia no exhaustion can - take place, but of the mineral constituents the supply is limited - because the soil cannot afford an indefinite amount of them; hence the - chief care of the farmer, and the function of manures, is to restore - to the soil those minerals which each crop is found, by the analysis - of its ashes, to take up in its growth. On this theory he prepared - artificial manures containing the essential mineral substances - together with a small quantity of ammoniacal salts, because he held - that the air does not supply ammonia fast enough in certain cases, and - carried out systematic experiments on ten acres of poor sandy land - which he obtained from the town of Giessen in 1845. But in practice - the results were not wholly satisfactory, and it was a long time - before he recognized one important reason for the failure in the fact - that to prevent the alkalis from being washed away by the rain he had - taken pains to add them in an insoluble form, whereas, as was - ultimately suggested to him by experiments performed by J. T. Way - about 1850, this precaution was not only superfluous but harmful, - because the soil possesses a power of absorbing the soluble saline - matters required by plants and of retaining them, in spite of rain, - for assimilation by the roots. - - Liebig's literary activity was very great. The Royal Society's - _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_ enumerates 318 memoirs under his - name, exclusive of many others published in collaboration with other - investigators. A certain impetuousness of character which disposed him - to rush into controversy whenever doubt was cast upon the views he - supported accounted for a great deal of writing, and he also carried - on an extensive correspondence with Wohler and other scientific men. - In 1832 he founded the _Annalen der Pharmazie_, which became the - _Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie_ in 1840 when Wohler became - joint-editor with himself, and in 1837 with Wohler and Poggendorff he - established the _Handworterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie_. - After the death of Berzelius he continued the _Jahresbericht_ with H. - F. M. Kopp. The following are his most important separate - publications, many of which were translated into English and French - almost as soon as they appeared: _Anleitung zur Analyse der - organischen Korper_ (1837); _Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf - Agrikultur und Physiologie_ (1840); _Die Thier-Chemie oder die - organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie_ - (1842); _Handbuch der organischen Chemie mit Rucksicht auf Pharmazie_ - (1843); _Chemische Briefe_ (1844); _Chemische Untersuchungen uber das - Fleisch und seine Zubereitung zum Nahrungsmittel_ (1847); _Die - Grundsatze der Agrikultur-Chemie_ (1855); _Uber Theorie und Praxis in - der Landwirthschaft_ (1856); _Naturwissenschaftliche Briefe uber die - moderne Landwirtschaft_ (1859). A posthumous collection of his - miscellaneous addresses and publications appeared in 1874 as _Reden - und Abhandlungen_, edited by his son George (b. 1827). His criticism - of Bacon, _Uber Francis von Verulam_, was first published in 1863 in - the _Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung_, where also most of his letters on - chemistry made their first appearance. - - See _The Life Work of Liebig_ (London, 1876), by his pupil A. W. von - Hofmann, which is the Faraday lecture delivered before the London - Chemical Society in March 1875, and is reprinted in Hofmann's _Zur - Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde_; also W. A. Shenstone, _Justus - von Liebig, his Life and Work_ (1895). - - - - -LIEBKNECHT, WILHELM (1826-1900), German socialist, was burn at Giessen -on the 29th of March 1826. Left an orphan at an early age, he was -educated at the gymnasium in his native town, and attended the -universities of Giessen, Bonn and Marburg. Before he left school he had -become affected by the political discontent then general in Germany; he -had already studied the writings of St Simon, from which he gained his -first interest in communism, and had been converted to the extreme -republican theories of which Giessen was a centre. He soon came into -conflict with the authorities, and was expelled from Berlin apparently -in consequence of the strong sympathy he displayed for some Poles, who -were being tried for high treason. He proposed in 1846 to migrate to -America, but went instead to Switzerland, where he earned his living as -a teacher. As soon as the revolution of 1848 broke out he hastened to -Paris, but the attempt to organize a republican corps for the invasion -of Germany was prevented by the government. In September, however, in -concert with Gustav von Struve, he crossed the Rhine from Switzerland at -the head of a band of volunteers, and proclaimed a republic in Baden. -The attempt collapsed; he was captured, and, after suffering eight -months' imprisonment, was brought to trial. Fortunately for him, a new -rising had just broken out; the mob burst into the court, and he was -acquitted. During the short duration of the revolutionary government he -was an active member of the most extreme party, but on the arrival of -the Prussian troops he succeeded in escaping to France. Thence he went -to Geneva, where he came into intercourse with Mazzini; but, unlike most -of the German exiles, he was already an adherent of the socialist creed, -which at that time was more strongly held in France. Expelled from -Switzerland he went to London, where he lived for thirteen years in -close association with Karl Marx. He endured great hardships, but -secured a livelihood by teaching and writing; he was a correspondent of -the _Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung_. The amnesty of 1861 opened for him -the way back to Germany, and in 1862 he accepted the post of editor of -the _Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung_, the founder of which was an old -revolutionist. Only a few months elapsed before the paper, passed under -Bismarck's influence. There is no more curious episode in German -history than the success with which Bismarck acquired the services of -many of the men of 1848, but Liebknecht remained faithful to his -principles and resigned his editorship. He became a member of the -Arbeiterverein, and after the death of Ferdinand Lassalle he was the -chief mouthpiece in Germany of Karl Marx, and was instrumental in -spreading the influence of the newly-founded _International_. Expelled -from Prussia in 1865, he settled at Leipzig, and it is primarily to his -activity in Saxony among the newly-formed unions of workers that the -modern social democrat party owes its origin. Here he conducted the -_Demokratisches Wochenblatt_. In 1867 he was elected a member of the -North German Reichstag, but in opposition to Lassalle's followers he -refused all compromise with the "capitalists," and avowedly used his -position merely for purposes of agitation whilst taking every -opportunity for making the parliament ridiculous. He was strongly -influenced by the "great German" traditions of the democrats of 1848, -and, violently anti-Prussian, he distinguished himself by his attacks on -the policy of 1866 and the "revolution from above," and by his -opposition to every form of militarism. His adherence to the traditions -of 1848 are also seen in his dread of Russia, which he maintained to his -death. His opposition to the war of 1870 exposed him to insults and -violence, and in 1872 he was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a -fortress for treasonable intentions. The Union of the German Socialists -in 1874 at the congress of Gotha was really a triumph of his influence, -and from that time he was regarded as founder and leader of the party. -From 1874 till his death he was a member of the German Reichstag, and -for many years also of the Saxon diet. He was one of the chief spokesmen -of the party, and he took a very important part in directing its policy. -In 1881 he was expelled from Leipzig, but took up his residence in a -neighbouring village. After the lapse of the Socialist law (1890) he -became chief editor of the _Vorwarts_, and settled in Berlin. If he did -not always find it easy in his later years to follow the new -developments, he preserved to his death the idealism of his youth, the -hatred both of Liberalism and of State Socialism; and though he was to -some extent overshadowed by Bebel's greater oratorical power, he was the -chief support of the orthodox Marxian tradition. Liebknecht was the -author of numerous pamphlets and books, of which the most important -were: _Robert Blum und seine Zeit_ (Nuremberg, 1892); _Geschichte der -Franzosischen Revolution_ (Dresden, 1890); _Die Emser Depesche_ -(Nuremberg, 1899) and _Robert Owen_ (Nuremberg, 1892). He died at -Charlottenburg on the 6th of August 1900. - - See Kurt Eisner, _Wilhelm Liebknecht, sein Leben und Wirken_ (Berlin, - 1900). - - - - -LIECHTENSTEIN, the smallest independent state in Europe, save San Marino -and Monaco. It lies some way S. of the Lake of Constance, and extends -along the right bank of the Rhine, opposite Swiss territory, between -Sargans and Sennwald, while on the E. it also comprises the upper -portion of the Samina glen that joins the Ill valley at Frastanz, above -Feldkirch. It is about 12 m. in length, and covers an area of 61.4 or -68.8 sq. m. (according to different estimates). Its loftiest point rises -at the S.E. angle of the state, in the Rhatikon range, and is named to -Naafkopf or the Rothe Wand (8445 ft.); on its summit the Swiss, -Vorarlberg, and Liechtenstein frontiers join. In 1901 the population was -9477 (of whom 4890 were women and 4587 men). The capital is Vaduz (1523 -ft.), with about 1100 inhabitants, and 2 m. S. of the Schaan railway -station, which is 2 m. from Buchs (Switz.). Even in the 17th century the -Romonsch language was not extinguished in the state, and many Romonsch -place-names still linger, e.g. Vaduz, Samina, Gavadura, &c. Now the -population is German-speaking and Romanist. The constitution of 1862 was -amended in 1878, 1895 and 1901. All males of 24 years of age are primary -electors, while the diet consists of 12 members, holding their seats for -4 years and elected indirectly, together with 3 members nominated by the -prince. The prince has a lieutenant resident at Vaduz, whence there is -an appeal to the prince's court at Vienna, with a final appeal (since -1884) to the supreme district court at Innsbruck. Compulsory military -service was abolished in 1868, the army having till then been 91 strong. -The principality forms ecclesiastically part of the diocese of Coire, -while as regards customs duties it is joined with the Vorarlberg, and as -regards postal and coinage arrangements with Austria, which (according -to the agreement of 1852, renewed in 1876, by which the principality -entered the Austrian customs union) must pay it at least 40,000 crowns -annually. In 1904 the revenues of the principality amounted to 888,931 -crowns, and its expenditure to 802,163 crowns. There is no public debt. - -The county of Vaduz and the lordship of Schellenberg passed through many -hands before they were bought in 1613 by the count of Hohenems (to the -N. of Feldkirch). In consequence of financial embarrassments, that -family had to sell both (the lordship in 1699, the county in 1713) to -the Liechtenstein family, which had since the 12th century owned two -castles of that name (both now ruined), one in Styria and the other a -little S.W. of Vienna. In 1719 these new acquisitions were raised by the -emperor into a principality under the name of Liechtenstein, which -formed part successively of the Holy Roman Empire (till 1806) and of the -German Confederation (1815-1866), having been sovereign 1806-1815 as -well as since 1866. - - See J. Falke's _Geschichte d. furstlichen Hauses Liechtenstein_ (3 - vols., Vienna, 1868-1883); J. C. Heer, _Vorarlberg und Liechtenstein_ - (Feldkirch, 1906); P. Kaiser, _Geschichte d. Furstenthums - Liechtenstein_ (Coire, 1847); F. Umlauft, _Das Furstenthum - Liechtenstein_ (Vienna, 1891); E. Walder, _Aus den Bergen_ (Zurich, - 1896); A. Waltenberger, _Algau, Vorarlberg, und Westtirol_ (Rtes. 25 - and 26) (10th ed., Innsbruck, 1906). (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LIEGE, one of the nine provinces of Belgium, touching on the east the -Dutch province of Limburg and the German district of Rhenish Prussia. To -a certain extent it may be assumed to represent the old -prince-bishopric. Besides the city of Liege it contains the towns of -Verviers, Dolhain, Seraing, Huy, &c. The Meuse flows through the centre -of the province, and its valley from Huy down to Herstal is one of the -most productive mineral districts in Belgium. Much has been done of late -years to develop the agricultural resources of the Condroz district -south of the Meuse. The area of the province is 723,470 acres, or 1130 -sq. m. The population in 1904 was 863,254, showing an average of 763 per -sq. m. - - - - -LIEGE (Walloon, _Lige_, Flemish, _Luik_, Ger. _Luttich_), the capital of -the Belgian province that bears its name. It is finely situated on the -Meuse, and was long the seat of a prince-bishopric. It is the centre of -the Walloon country, and Scott commits a curious mistake in _Quentin -Durward_ in making its people talk Flemish. The Liege Walloon is the -nearest existing approach to the old Romance language. The importance of -the city to-day arises from its being the chief manufacturing centre in -Belgium, and owing to its large output of arms it has been called the -Birmingham of the Netherlands. The productive coal-mines of the Meuse -valley, extending from its western suburb of Seraing to its northern -faubourg of Herstal, constitute its chief wealth. At Seraing is -established the famous manufacturing firm of Cockerill, whose offices -are in the old summer palace of the prince-bishops. - -The great cathedral of St Lambert was destroyed and sacked by the French -in 1794, and in 1802 the church of St Paul, dating from the 10th century -but rebuilt in the 13th, was declared the cathedral. The law courts are -installed in the old palace of the prince-bishops, a building which was -constructed by Bishop Everard de la Marck between 1508 and 1540. The new -boulevards are well laid out, especially those flanking the river, and -the views of the city and surrounding country are very fine. The -university, which has separate schools for mines and arts and -manufactures, is one of the largest in the country, and enjoys a high -reputation for teaching in its special line. - -Liege is a fortified position of far greater strength than is generally -appreciated. In the wars of the 18th century Liege played but a small -part. It was then defended only by the citadel and a detached fort on -the right side of the Meuse, but at a short distance from the river, -called the Chartreuse. Marlborough captured these forts in 1703 in -preparation for his advance in the following year into Germany which -resulted in the victory of Blenheim. The citadel and the Chartreuse were -still the only defences of Liege in 1888 when, after long discussions, -the Belgian authorities decided on adequately fortifying the two -important passages of the Meuse at Liege and Namur. A similar plan was -adopted at each place, viz. the construction of a number of detached -forts along a perimeter drawn at a distance varying from 4 to 6 m. of -the town, so as to shelter it so far as possible from bombardment. At -Liege twelve forts were constructed, six on the right bank and six on -the left. Those on the right bank beginning at the north and following -an eastern curve are Barchon, Evegnee, Fleron, Chaudfontaine, Embourg -and Boncelles. The average distance between each fort is 4 m., but -Fleron and Chaudfontaine are separated by little over 1 m. in a direct -line as they defend the main line of railway from Germany. The six forts -on the left bank also commencing at the north, but following a western -curve, are Pontisse, Liers, Lantin, Loncin, Hollogne and Flemalle. These -forts were constructed under the personal direction of General -Brialmont, and are on exactly the same principle as those he designed -for the formidable defences of Bucarest. All the forts are constructed -in concrete with casemates, and the heavy guns are raised and lowered -automatically. Communication is maintained between the different forts -by military roads in all cases, and by steam tramways in some. It is -estimated that 25,000 troops would be required for the defence of the -twelve forts, but the number is inadequate for the defence of so -important and extensive a position. The population of Liege, which in -1875 was only 117,600, had risen by 1900 to 157,760, and in 1905 it was -168,532. - -_History._--Liege first appears in history about the year 558, at which -date St Monulph, bishop of Tongres, built a chapel near the confluence -of the Meuse and the Legia. A century later the town, which had grown up -round this chapel, became the favourite abode of St Lambert, bishop of -Tongres, and here he was assassinated. His successor St Hubert raised a -splendid church over the tomb of the martyred bishop about 720 and made -Liege his residence. It was not, however, until about 930 that the title -bishop of Tongres was abandoned for that of bishop of Liege. The -episcopate of Notger (972-1008) was marked by large territorial -acquisitions, and the see obtained recognition as an independent -principality of the Empire. The popular saying was "Liege owes Notger to -God, and everything else to Notger." By the munificent encouragement of -successive bishops Liege became famous during the 11th century as a -centre of learning, but the history of the town for centuries records -little else than the continuous struggles of the citizens to free -themselves from the exactions of their episcopal sovereigns; the aid of -the emperor and of the dukes of Brabant being frequently called in to -repress the popular risings. In 1316 the citizens compelled Bishop -Adolph de la Marck to sign a charter, which made large concessions to -the popular demands. It was, however, a triumph of short duration, and -the troubles continued, the insurgent subjects now and again obtaining a -fleeting success, only to be crushed by the armies of the powerful -relatives of the bishops, the houses of Brabant or of Burgundy. During -the episcopate of Louis de Bourbon (1456-1484) the Liegeois, having -expelled the bishop, had the temerity to declare war on Philip V., duke -of Burgundy. Philip's son, Charles the Bold, utterly defeated them in -1467, and razed the walls of the town to the ground. In the following -year the citizens again revolted, and Charles being once more successful -delivered up the city to sack and pillage for three days, and deprived -the remnant of the citizens of all their privileges. This incident is -narrated in _Quentin Durward_. The long episcopate of Eberhard de la -Marck (1505-1538) was a time of good administration and of quiet, during -which the town regained something of its former prosperity. The outbreak -of civil war between two factions, named the _Cluroux_ and the -_Grignoux_, marked the opening of the 17th century. Bishop Maximilian -Henry of Bavaria (1650-1688) at last put an end to the internal strife -and imposed a regulation (_reglement_) which abolished all the free -institutions of the citizens and the power of the gilds. Between this -date and the outbreak of the French Revolution the chief efforts of the -prince-bishops were directed to maintaining neutrality in the various -wars, and preserving their territory from being ravaged by invading -armies. They were only in part successful. Liege was taken by -Marlborough in 1702, and the fortress was garrisoned by the Dutch until -1718. The French revolutionary armies overran the principality in 1792, -and from 1794 to the fall of Napoleon it was annexed to France, and was -known as the department of the Ourthe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 -decreed that Liege with the other provinces of the southern Netherlands -should form part of the new kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of -William I., of the house of Orange. The town of Liege took an active -part in the Belgian revolt of 1830, and since that date the ancient -principality has been incorporated in the kingdom of Belgium. - -The see, which at first bore the name of the bishopric of Tongres, was -under the metropolitan jurisdiction of the archbishops of Cologne. The -principality comprised besides the town of Liege and its district, the -counties of Looz and Hoorn, the marquessate of Franchimont, and the -duchy of Bouillon. - - AUTHORITIES.--Theodore Bouille, _Histoire de la ville et du pays de - Liege_ (3 vols., Liege, 1725-1732); A. Borgnet, _Histoire de la - revolution liegeoise_ (2 vols., Liege, 1865); Baron B. C. de Gerlache, - _Histoire de Liege_ (Brussels, 1843); J. Daris, _Histoire du diocese - et de la principaute de Liege_ (10 vols., Liege, 1868-1885); Ferdinand - Henaux, _Histoire du pays de Liege_ (2 vols., Liege, 1857); L. Polain, - _Histoire de l'ancien pays de Liege_ (2 vols., Liege, 1844-1847). For - full bibliography see Ulysse Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources - historiques_. _Topo-bibliographie_, s.v. (Montbeliard, 1900). - - - - -LIEGE, an adjective implying the mutual relationship of a feudal -superior and his vassal; the word is used as a substantive of the feudal -superior, more usually in this sense, however, in the form "liege lord," -and also of the vassals, his "lieges." Hence the word is often used of -the loyal subjects of a sovereign, with no reference to feudal ties. It -appears that _ligeitas_ or _ligentia_, the medieval Latin term for this -relationship, was restricted to a particular form of homage. According -to N. Broussel (_Nouvel examen de l'usage general des fiefs en France_, -1727) the homage of a "liege" was a stronger form of the ordinary -homage, the especial distinction being that while the ordinary vassal -only undertook forty days' military service, the liege promised to serve -as long as the war might last, in which his superior was engaged (cf. -Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "_Ligius_"). - -The etymology of the word has been much discussed. It comes into English -through the O. Fr. _lige_ or _liege_, Med. Lat. _ligius_. This was early -connected with the Lat. _ligatus_, bound, _ligare_, to bind, from the -sense of the obligation of the vassal to his lord, but this has been -generally abandoned. Broussel takes the Med. Lat. _liga_, i.e., -_foedus_, _confederatio_, the English "league," as the origin. Ducange -connects it with the word _lities_, which appears in a gloss of the -Salic law, and is defined as a _scriptitius_, _servus glebae_. The more -usually accepted derivation is now from the Old High Ger. _ledic_, or -_ledig_, meaning "free" (Mod. Ger. _ledig_ means unoccupied, _vacuus_). -This is confirmed by the occurrence in a charter of Otto of Benthem, -1253, of a word "ledigh-man" (quoted in Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v.), -_Proinde affecti sumus ligius homo, quod Teutonice dictur Ledighman_. -Skeat, in explaining the application of "free" to such a relationship as -that subsisting between a feudal superior and his vassal, says "'a -_liege_ lord' seems to have been the lord of a free band; and his -_lieges_, though serving under him, were privileged men, free from all -other obligations; their name being due to their _freedom_, not to their -service" (_Etym. Dict._, ed. 1898). A. Luchaire (_Manuel des -institutions francaises_, 1892, p. 189, n. 1) considers it difficult to -call a man "free" who is under a strict obligation to another; further -that the "liege" was not free from all obligation to a third party, for -the charters prove without doubt that the "liege men" owed duty to more -than one lord. - - - - -LIEGNITZ, a town in Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, -picturesquely situated on the Katzbach, just above its junction with -the Schwarzwasser, and 40 m. W.N.W, of Breslau, on the main line of -railway to Berlin via Sommerfeld. Pop. (1885) 43,347, (1905) 59,710. It -consists of an old town, surrounded by pleasant, shady promenades, and -several well-built suburbs. The most prominent building is the palace, -formerly the residence of the dukes of Liegnitz, rebuilt after a fire in -1835 and now used as the administrative offices of the district. The -Ritter Akademie, founded by the emperor Joseph I. in 1708 for the -education of the young Silesian nobles, was reconstructed as a gymnasium -in 1810. The Roman Catholic church of St John, with two fine towers, -contains the burial vault of the dukes. The principal Lutheran church, -that of SS. Peter and Paul (restored in 1892-1894), dates from the 14th -century. The manufactures are considerable, the chief articles made -being cloth, wool, leather, tobacco, pianos and machinery. Its trade in -grain and its cattle-markets are likewise important. The large market -gardens in the suburbs grow vegetables of considerable annual value. - -Liegnitz is first mentioned in an historical document in the year 1004. -In 1163 it became the seat of the dukes of Liegnitz, who greatly -improved and enlarged it. The dukes were members of the illustrious -Piast family, which gave many kings to Poland. During the Thirty Years' -War Liegnitz was taken by the Swedes, but was soon recaptured by the -Imperialists. The Saxon army also defeated the imperial troops near -Liegnitz in 1634. On the death of the last duke of Liegnitz in 1675, the -duchy came into the possession of the Empire, which retained it until -the Prussian conquest of Silesia in 1742. On the 15th of August 1760 -Frederick the Great gained a decisive victory near Liegnitz over the -Austrians, and in August 1813 Blucher defeated the French in the -neighbourhood at the battle of the Katzbach. During the 19th century -Liegnitz rapidly increased in population and prosperity. In 1906 the -German autumn manoeuvres were held over the terrain formerly the scene -of the great battles already mentioned. - - See Schuchard, _Die Stadt Liegnitz_ (Berlin, 1868); Sammter and - Kraffert, _Chronik von Liegnitz_ (Liegnitz, 1861-1873); Jander, - _Liegnitz in seinem Entwickelungsgange_ (Liegnitz, 1905); and _Fuhrer - fur Liegnitz und seine Umgebung_ (Liegnitz, 1897); and the - _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Liegnitz bis 1455_, edited by Schirrmacher - (Liegnitz, 1866). - - - - -LIEN, in law. The word _lien_ is literally the French for a band, cord -or chain, and keeping in mind that meaning we see in what respect it -differs from a pledge on the one hand and a mortgage on the other. It is -the bond which attaches a creditor's right to a debtor's property, but -which gives no right _ad rem_, i.e. to property in the thing; if the -property is in the possession of the creditor he may retain it, but in -the absence of statute he cannot sell to recover what is due to him -without the ordinary legal process against the debtor; and if it is not -in possession, the law would indeed assist him to seize the property, -and will hold it for him, and enable him to sell it in due course and -pay himself out of the proceeds, but does not give him the property -itself. It is difficult to say at what period the term lien made its -appearance in English law; it probably came from more than one source. -In fact, it was used as a convenient phrase for any right against the -owner of property in regard to the property not specially defined by -other better recognized species of title. - -The possessory lien of a tradesman for work done on the thing, of a -carrier for his hire, and of an innkeeper for his bill, would seem to be -an inherent right which must have been in existence from the dawn, or -before the dawn, of civilization. Probably the man who made or repaired -weapons in the Stone Age was careful not to deliver them until he -received what was stipulated for, but it is also probable that the term -itself resulted from the infusion of the civil law of Rome into the -common law of England which the Norman Conquest brought about, and that -it represents the "tacit pledge" of the civil law. As might be expected, -so far as the possessory lien is concerned the common law and civil law, -and probably the laws of all countries, whether civilized or not, -coincide; but there are many differences with respect to other species -of lien. For instance, by the common law--in this respect a legacy of -the feudal system--a landlord has a lien over his tenant's furniture and -effects for rent due, which can be enforced without the assistance of -the law simply by the landlord taking possession, personally or by his -agent, and selling enough to satisfy his claim; whereas the maritime -lien is more distinctly the product of the civil law, and is only found -and used in admiralty proceedings, the high court of admiralty having -been founded upon the civil law, and still (except so far as restrained -by the common-law courts prior to the amalgamation and co-ordination of -the various courts by the Judicature Acts, and as affected by statute -law) acting upon it. The peculiar effects of this maritime lien are -discussed below. There is also a class of liens, usually called -equitable liens (e.g. that of an unpaid vendor of real property over the -property sold), which are akin to the nature of the civil law rather -than of the common law. The word lien does not frequently occur in -statute law, but it is found in the extension of the common-law -"carriers' or shipowners' lien" in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894; in -the definition, extension and limitation of the vendor's lien; in the -Factors Act 1877, and the Sale of Goods Act 1893; in granting a maritime -lien to a shipmaster for his wages and disbursements, and in regulating -that of the seamen in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894; and in the equity -jurisdiction of the county courts 1888. - -_Common-Law Liens._--These may be either particular, i.e. a right over -one or more specified articles for a particular debt, or general, i.e. -for all debts owing to the creditor by the debtor. - -The requisites for a particular lien are, firstly, that the creditor -should be in possession of the article; secondly, that the debt should -be incurred with reference to the article; and thirdly, that the amount -of the debt should be certain. It may be created by express contract, by -implied contract (such as the usage of a particular trade or business), -or as a consequence of the legal relation existing between the parties. -As an example of the first, a shipowner at common law has a lien on the -cargo for the freight; but though the shipper agrees to pay dead freight -in addition, i.e. to pay freight on any space in the ship which he fails -to occupy with his cargo, the shipowner has no lien on the cargo for -such dead freight except by express agreement. The most usual form of -the second is that which is termed a possessory lien--the right a -ship-repairer has to retain a ship in his yard till he is paid for the -repairs executed upon her,[1] and the right a cobbler has to retain a -pair of shoes till he is paid for the repairs done to them. But this -lien is only in respect of the work done on, and consequent benefit -received by, the subject of the lien. Hence an agistor of cattle has no -lien at common law upon them for the value of the pasturage consumed, -though he may have one by agreement; nor a conveyancer upon deeds which -he has not drawn, but which are in his possession for reference. The -most common example of the third is that of a carrier, who is bound by -law to carry for all persons, and has, therefore, a lien for the price -of the carriage on the goods carried. It has been held that even if the -goods are stolen, and entrusted to the carrier by the thief, the carrier -can hold them for the price of the carriage against the rightful owner. -Of the same nature is the common-law lien of an innkeeper on the baggage -of his customer for the amount of his account, he being under a legal -obligation to entertain travellers generally. Another instance of the -same class is where a person has obtained possession of certain things -over which he claims to hold a lien in the exercise of a legal right. -For example, when a lord of a manor has seized cattle as estrays, he has -a lien upon them for the expense of their keep as against the real -owner; but the holder's claim must be specific, otherwise a general -tender of compensation releases the lien. - -A general lien is a right of a creditor to retain property, not merely -for charges relating to it specifically, but for debts due on a general -account. This not being a common-law right, is viewed by the English -courts with the greatest jealousy, and to be enforced must be strictly -proved. This can be done by proof either of an express or implied -contract or of a general usage of trade. The first of these is -established by the ordinary methods or by previous dealings between the -parties on such terms; the second is recognized in certain businesses; -it would probably be exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to extend -it at the present time to any other trades. When, however, a lien by -general usage has once been judicially established, it becomes part of -the Law Merchant, and the courts are bound to recognize and enforce it. -The best known and most important instance is the right of a solicitor -to retain papers in his hands belonging to his client until his account -is settled. The solicitor's lien, though probably more commonly enforced -than any other, is of no great antiquity in English law, the earliest -reported case of it being in the reign of James II.; but it is now of a -twofold nature. In the first place there is the retaining lien. This is -similar in kind to other possessory liens, but of a general nature -attaching to all papers of the client, and even to his money, up to the -amount of the solicitor's bill, in the hands of the solicitor in the -ordinary course of business. There are certain exceptions which seem to -have crept in for the same reason as the solicitor's lien itself, i.e. -general convenience of litigation; such exceptions are the will of the -client after his decease, and proceedings in bankruptcy. In this latter -case the actual possessory lien is given up, the solicitor's interests -and priorities being protected by the courts, and it may be said that -the giving up the papers is really only a means of enforcing the lien -they give in the bankruptcy proceedings. In the second place there is -what is called a charging lien--more correctly classed under the head of -equitable lien, since it does not require possession, but is a lien the -solicitor holds over property recovered or preserved for his client. He -had the lien on an order by the court upon a fund in court by the common -law, but as to property generally it was only given by 23 & 24 Vict. c. -127, S 28; and it has been held to attach to property recovered in a -probate action (_ex parte Tweed_, C.A. 1899, 2 Q.B. 167). A banker's -lien is the right of a banker to retain securities belonging to his -customer for money due on a general balance. Other general liens, -judicially established, are those of wharfingers, brokers and factors -(which are in their nature akin to those of solicitors and bankers), and -of calico printers, packers of goods, fullers (at all events at Exeter), -dyers and millers; but in all these special trades it is probable that -the true reason is that the account due was for one continuous -transaction. The calico would come to be printed, the goods to be -packed, the cloth to be bleached, the silk to be dyed, and the corn to -be ground, in separate parcels, and at different times, but all as one -undertaking; and they are therefore, though spoken of as instances of -general lien, only adaptations by the courts of the doctrine of -particular lien to special peculiarities of business. In none of these -cases would the lien exist, in the absence of special agreement, for -other matters of account, such as money lent or goods sold. - -_Equitable Liens._--"Where equity has jurisdiction to enforce rights and -obligations growing out of an executory contract," e.g. in a suit for -specific performance, "this equitable theory of remedies cannot be -carried out unless the notion is admitted that the contract creates some -right or interest in or over specific property, which the decree of the -court can lay hold of, and by means of which the equitable relief can be -made efficient. The doctrine of equitable liens supplies this necessary -element; and it was introduced for the sole purpose of furnishing a -ground for these specific remedies which equity confers, operating upon -particular identified property instead of the general pecuniary -recoveries granted by courts of common law. It follows, therefore, that -in a large class of executory contracts express and implied, which the -common law regards as creating no property, right nor interest analogous -to property, but only a mere personal right to obligation, equity -recognizes in addition to the personal obligation a particular right -over the thing with which the contract deals, which it calls a _lien_, -and which though not property is analogous to property, and by means of -which the plaintiff is enabled to follow the identical thing and to -enforce the defendant's obligation by a remedy which operates directly -on the thing. The theory of equitable liens has its ultimate -foundation, therefore, in contracts express or implied which either deal -or in some manner relate to specific property, such as a tract of land, -particular chattels or securities, a certain fund and the like. It is -necessary to divest oneself of the purely legal notion concerning the -effects of such contracts, and to recognize the fact that equity regards -them as creating a charge upon, or hypothecation of, the specific thing, -by means of which the personal obligation arising from the agreement may -be more effectively enforced than by a mere pecuniary recovery at law" -(Pomeroy, 2 Eq. Jur. 232). - -This description from an American text-book seems to give at once the -fullest and most concise definition and description of an equitable -lien. It differs essentially from a common-law lien, inasmuch as in the -latter possession or occupation is as a rule necessary, whereas in the -equitable lien the person claiming the lien is seldom in possession or -occupation of the property, its object being to obtain the possession -wholly or partially. A special instance of such a lien is that claimed -by a publisher over the copyright of a book which he has agreed to -publish on terms which are not complied with--for example, the author -attempting to get the book published elsewhere. It cannot perhaps be -said that this has been absolutely decided to exist, but a strong -opinion of the English court of exchequer towards the close of the 18th -century was expressed in its favour (_Brook_ v. _Wentworth_, 3 -Anstruther 881). Other instances are the charging lien of a solicitor, -and the lien of a person on improvements effected by him on the property -of another who "lies by" and allows the work to be done before claiming -the property. So also of a trustee for expenses lawfully incurred about -the trust property. The power of a limited liability company to create a -lien upon its own shares was in 1901 established (_Allen_ v. _Gold -Reefs, &c._, C.A. 1900, 1 Ch. 656). - -_Maritime Liens._--Maritime lien differs from all the others yet -considered, in its more elastic nature. Where a maritime lien has once -attached to property--and it may and generally does attach without -possession--it will continue to attach, unless lost by laches, so long -as the thing to which it attaches exists, notwithstanding changes in the -possession of and property in the thing, and notwithstanding that the -new possessor or owner may be entirely ignorant of its existence; and -even if enforced it leaves the owner's personal liability for any -balance unrealized intact (the "_Gemma_," 1899, P. 285). So far as -England is concerned, it must be borne in mind that the courts of -admiralty were conducted in accordance with the principles of civil law, -and in that law both the pledge with possession and the hypothecation -without possession were well recognized. The extreme convenience of such -a right as the latter with regard to such essentially movable chattels -as ships is apparent. Strictly speaking, a maritime lien is confined to -cases arising in those matters over which the courts of admiralty had -original jurisdiction, viz. collisions at sea, seamen's wages, salvage -and bottomry, in all of which cases the appropriate remedy is a -proceeding _in rem_ in the admiralty court. In the first of -these--collisions at sea--if there were no maritime lien there would -frequently be no remedy at all. When two ships have collided at sea it -may well be that the innocent ship knows neither the name nor the -nationality of the wrongdoer, and the vessel may escape with slight -damage and not have to make a port of refuge in the neighbourhood. -Months afterwards it is ascertained that she was a foreign ship, and in -the interval she has changed owners. Then, were it not a fact that a -maritime lien invisible to the wrongdoer nevertheless attaches itself to -his ship at the moment of collision, and continues to attach, the -unfortunate owner of the innocent ship would have no remedy, except the -doubtful one of pursuing the former owner of the wrong-doing vessel in -his own country in a personal action where such proceedings are -allowed--which is by no means the case in all foreign countries. The -same reasons apply, though not possibly with quite the same force, to -the other classes of cases mentioned. - -Between 1840 and 1873 the jurisdiction of the admiralty court was -largely extended. At the latter date it was merged in the probate, -divorce and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Since the -merger questions have arisen as to how far the enlargement of -jurisdiction has extended the principle of maritime lien. An interesting -article on this subject by J. Mansfield, barrister-at-law, will be found -in the _Law Quarterly Review_, vol. iv., October 1888. It must be -sufficient to state here that where legislation has extended the already -existing jurisdiction to which a maritime lien pertained, the maritime -lien is extended to the subject matter, but that where a new -jurisdiction is given, or where a jurisdiction formerly existing without -a maritime lien is extended, no maritime lien is given, though even then -the extended jurisdiction can be enforced by proceedings _in rem_. Of -the first class of extended jurisdictions are collisions, salvage and -seamen's wages. Prior to 1840 the court of admiralty only had -jurisdiction over these when occurring or earned on the high seas. The -jurisdiction, and with it the maritime lien, is extended to places -within the body of a county in collision or salvage; and as to seamen's -wages, whereas they were dependent on the earning of freight, they are -now free from any such limitation; and also, whereas the remedy _in rem_ -was limited to seamen's wages not earned under a special contract, it is -now extended to all seamen's wages, and also to a master's wages and -disbursements, and the maritime lien covers all these. The new -jurisdiction given over claims for damage to cargo carried into any port -in England or Wales, and on appeal from the county courts over all -claims for damage to cargo under L300, though it may be prosecuted by -proceedings _in rem_, i.e. by arrest of the ship, yet confers no -maritime lien; and so also in the case of claims by material men -(builders and fitters-out of ships) and for necessaries. Even though in -the latter case the admiralty court had jurisdiction previously to 1840 -where the necessaries were supplied on the high seas, yet as it could -not be shown that such jurisdiction had ever been held to confer a -maritime lien, no such lien is given. Even now there is much doubt as to -whether towage confers a maritime lien or not, the services rendered -being pursuant to contract, and frequently to a contract made verbally -or in writing on the high seas, and being rendered also to a great -extent on the high seas. In these cases and to that extent the high -court of admiralty would have had original jurisdiction. But prior to -1840 towage, as now rendered by steam tugs expressly employed for the -service, was practically unknown, and therefore there was no established -catena of precedent to show the exercise of a maritime lien. It may be -argued on the one hand that towage is only a modified form of salvage, -and therefore entitled to a maritime lien, and on the other that it is -only a form of necessary power supplied like a new sail or mast to a -ship to enable her to complete her voyage expeditiously, and therefore -of the nature of necessaries, and as such not entitled to a maritime -lien. The matter is not of academical interest only, for though in the -case of an inward-bound ship the tug owner can make use of his statutory -right of proceeding _in rem_, and so obtain much of the benefit of a -maritime lien, yet in the case of an outward-bound ship, if she once -gets away without payment, and the agent or other authorized person -refuses or is unable to pay, the tug owner's claim may, on the return of -the ship to a British port, be met by an allegation of a change of -ownership, which defeats his right of proceeding at all if he has no -maritime lien; whereas if he has a maritime lien he can still proceed -against the ship and recover his claim, if he has not been guilty of -laches. - - A convenient division of the special liens other than possessory on - ships may be made by classifying them as maritime, statutory-maritime - or quasi-maritime, and statutory. The first attach only in the case of - damage done by collision between ships on the high seas, salvage on - the high seas, bottomry and seamen's wages so far as freight has been - earned; the second attach in cases of damage by collision within the - body of a county, salvage within the body of a county, life salvage - everywhere, seamen's wages even if no freight has been earned, - master's wages and disbursements. These two classes continue to attach - notwithstanding a change of ownership without notice of the lien, if - there have been no laches in enforcing it (the "_Bold Buccleuch_," - 1852, 7 Moo. P.C. 267; the "_Kong Magnus_," 1891, P. 223). The third - class, which only give a right to proceed _in rem_, i.e. against the - ship itself, attach, so long as there is no _bona fide_ change of - ownership, without citing the owners, in all cases of claims for - damage to ship and of claims for damage to cargo where no owner is - domiciled in England or Wales. Irrespective of this limitation, they - attach in all cases not only of damage to cargo, but also of breaches - of contract to carry where the damage does not exceed L300, when the - suit must be commenced in a county court having admiralty - jurisdiction; and in cases of claims for necessaries supplied - elsewhere than in the ship's home port, for wages earned even under a - special contract by masters and mariners, and of claims for towage. In - all three classes the lien also exists over cargo where the suit from - its nature extends to it, as in salvage and in some cases of bottomry - or respondentia, and in cases where proceedings are taken against - cargo by the shipowner for a breach of contract (cargo _ex_ "_Argos_" - and the "_Hewsons_," 1873, L.R. 5 P.C. 134; the "_Alina_," 1880, 5 Ex. - D. 227). - - Elsewhere than in England, and those countries such as the United - States which have adopted her jurisprudence in maritime matters - generally, the doctrine of maritime lien, or that which is substituted - for it, is very differently treated. Speaking generally, those states - which have adopted the Napoleonic codes or modifications of - them--France, Italy, Spain, Holland, Portugal, Belgium, Greece, - Turkey, and to some extent Russia--have instead of a maritime lien the - civil-law principle of privileged debts. Amongst these in all cases - are found claims for salvage, wages, bottomry under certain - restrictions, and necessaries. Each of these has a privileged claim - against the ship, and in some cases against freight and cargo as well, - but it is a matter of very great importance that, except in Belgium, a - claim for collision damage (which as we have seen confers a maritime - lien, and one of a very high order, in Great Britain) confers no - privilege against the wrong-doing ship, whilst in all these countries - an owner can get rid of his personal liability by abandoning the ship - and freight to his creditor, and so, if the ship is sunk, escape all - liability whilst retaining any insurance there may be. This, indeed, - was at one time the law of Great Britain; the measure of damage was - limited by the value of the _res_; and in the United States at the - present time a shipowner can get rid of his liability for damage by - abandoning the ship and freight. A different rule prevails in Germany - and the Scandinavian states. There claims relating to the ship, unless - the owner has specially rendered himself liable, confer no personal - claim at all against him. The claim is limited _ab initio_ to ship and - freight, except in the case of seamen's wages, which do confer a - personal claim so far as they have been earned on a voyage or passage - completed prior to the loss of the ship. In all maritime states, - however, except Spain, a provisional arrest of the ship is allowed, - and thus between the privilege accorded to the debt and the power to - arrest till bail is given or the ship abandoned to creditors, a - condition of things analogous to the maritime lien is established; - especially as these claims when the proper legal steps have been taken - to render them valid--usually by endorsement on the ship's papers on - board, or by registration at her port of registry--attach to the ship - and follow her into the hands of a purchaser. They are in fact notice - to him of the incumbrance. - -_Duration of Lien._--So long as the party claiming the lien at common -law retains the property, the lien continues, notwithstanding the debt -in respect of which it is claimed becoming barred by the Statute of -Limitations (_Higgins_ v. _Scott_, 1831, 2 B. & Ald. 413). But if he -takes proceedings at law to recover the debt, and on a sale of the goods -to satisfy the judgment purchases them himself, he so alters the nature -of the possession that he loses his lien (_Jacobs_ v. _Latour_, 5 Bing. -130). An equitable lien probably in all cases continues, provided the -purchaser of the subject matter has notice of the lien at the time of -his purchase. A maritime lien is in no respect subject to the Statute of -Limitations, and continues in force notwithstanding a change in the -ownership of the property without notice, and is only terminated when it -has once attached, by laches on the part of the person claiming it (the -"_Kong Magnus_," 1891, P. 223). There is an exception in the case of -seamen's wages, where by 4 Anne c. 16 (_Stat. Rev._ 4 & 5 Anne c. 3) all -suits for seamen's wages in the Admiralty must be brought within six -years. - -_Ranking of Maritime Liens._--There may be several claimants holding -maritime and other liens on the same vessel. For example, a foreign -vessel comes into collision by her own fault and is damaged and her -cargo also; she is assisted into port by salvors and ultimately under a -towage agreement, and put into the hands of a shipwright who does -necessary repairs. The innocent party to the collision has a maritime -lien for his damage, and the seamen for their wages; the cargo owner has -a suit _in rem_ or a statutory lien for damage, and the shipwright a -possessory lien for the value of his repairs, while the tugs certainly -have a right _in rem_ and possibly a maritime lien also in the nature of -salvage. The value of the property may be insufficient to pay all -claims, and it becomes a matter of great consequence to settle whether -any, and if so which, have priority over the others, or whether all rank -alike and have to divide the proceeds of the property _pro rata_ amongst -them. The following general rules apply: liens for benefits conferred -rank against the fund in the inverse, and those for the reparation of -damage sustained in the direct order of their attaching to the _res_; as -between the two classes those last mentioned rank before those first -mentioned of earlier date; as between liens of the same class and the -same date, the first claimant has priority over others who have not -taken action. The courts of admiralty, however, allow equitable -considerations, and enter into the question of marshalling assets. For -example, if one claimant has a lien on two funds, or an effective right -of action in addition to his lien, and another claimant has only a lien -upon one fund, the first claimant will be obliged to exhaust his second -remedy before coming into competition with the second. As regards -possessory liens, the shipwright takes the ship as she stands, i.e. with -her incumbrances, and it appears that the lien for seaman's wages takes -precedence of a solicitor's lien for costs, under a charging order made -in pursuance of the Solicitors Act 1860, S 28. - - Subject to equitable considerations, the true principle appears to be - that services rendered under an actual or implied contract, which - confer a maritime lien, make the holder of the lien in some sort a - proprietor of the vessel, and therefore liable for damage done by - her--hence the priority of the damage lien--but, directly it has - attached, benefits conferred on the property by enabling it to reach - port in safety benefit the holder of the damage lien in common with - all other prior holders of maritime liens. It is less easy to see why - of two damage liens the earlier should take precedence of the later, - except on the principle that the _res_ which came into collision the - second time is depreciated in value by the amount of the existing lien - upon her for the first collision, and where there was more than one - damage lien, and also liens for benefits conferred prior to the first - collision between the two collisions and subsequent to the second, the - court would have to make a special order to meet the peculiar - circumstances. The claim of a mortgagee naturally is deferred to all - maritime liens, whether they are for benefits conferred on the - property in which he is interested or for damage done by it, and also - for the same reason to the possessory lien of the shipwright, but both - the possessory lien of the shipwright and the claim of the mortgagee - take precedence over a claim for necessaries, which only confers a - statutory lien or a right to proceed _in rem_ in certain cases. In - other maritime states possessing codes of commercial law, the - privileged debts are all set out in order of priority in these codes, - though, as has been already pointed out, the lien for damage by - collision--the most important in English law--has no counterpart in - most of the foreign codes. - -_Stoppage in Transitu._--This is a lien held by an unpaid vendor in -certain cases over goods sold after they have passed out of his actual -possession. It has been much discussed whether it is an equitable or -common-law right or lien. The fact appears to be that it has always been -a part of the Law Merchant, which, properly speaking, is itself a part -of the common law of England unless inconsistent with it. This -particular right was, in the first instance, held by a court of equity -to be equitable and not contrary to English law, and by that decision -this particular part of the Law Merchant was approved and became part of -the common law of England (see per Lord Abinger in _Gibson_ v. -_Carruthers_, 8 M. & W., p. 336 et seq.). It may be described as a lien -by the Law Merchant, decided by equity to be part of the common law, but -in its nature partaking rather of the character of an equitable lien -than one at common law. "It is a right which arises solely upon the -insolvency of the buyer, and is based on the plain reason of justice and -equity that one man's goods shall not be applied to the payment of -another man's debts. If, therefore, after the vendor has delivered the -goods out of his own possession and put them in the hands of a carrier -for delivery to the buyer, he discovers that the buyer is insolvent, he -may re-take the goods if he can before they reach the buyer's -possession, and thus avoid having his property applied to paying debts -due by the buyer to other people" (_Benjamin on Sales_, 2nd ed., 289). -This right, though only recognized by English law in 1690, is highly -favoured by the courts on account of its intrinsic justice, and extends -to quasi-vendors, or persons in the same position, such as consignors -who have bought on behalf of a principal and forwarded the goods. It is, -however, defeated by a lawful transfer of the document of title to the -goods by the vendor to a third person, who takes it _bona fide_ and for -valuable consideration (Factors Act 1889; Sale of Goods Act 1893). - -_Assignment or Transfer of Lien._--A lien being a personal right -acquired in respect of personal services, it cannot, as a rule, be -assigned or transferred; but here again there are exceptions. The -personal representative of the holder of a possessory lien on his -decease would probably in all cases be held entitled to it; and it has -been held that the lien over a client's papers remains with the firm of -solicitors notwithstanding changes in the constitution of the firm -(_Gregory_ v. _Cresswell_, 14 L.J. Ch. 300). So also where a solicitor, -having a lien on documents for his costs, assigned the debt to his -bankers with the benefit of the lien, it was held that the bankers might -enforce such lien in equity. But though a tradesman has a lien on the -property of his customer for his charges for work done upon it, where -the property is delivered to him by a servant acting within the scope of -his employment, such lien cannot be transferred to the servant, even if -he has paid the money himself; and the lien does not exist at all if the -servant was acting without authority in delivering the goods, except -where (as in the case of a common carrier) he is bound to receive the -goods, in which case he retains his lien for the carriage against the -rightful owner. Where, however, there is a lien on property of any sort -not in possession, a person acquiring the property with knowledge of the -lien takes it subject to such lien. This applies to equitable liens, and -cannot apply to those common-law liens in which possession is necessary. -It is, however, true that by statute certain common-law liens can be -transferred, e.g. under the Merchant Shipping Act a master of a ship -having a lien upon cargo for his freight can transfer the possession of -the cargo to a wharfinger, and with it the lien (Merchant Shipping Act -1894, S 494). In this case, however, though the matter is simplified by -the statute, if the wharfinger was constituted the agent or servant of -the shipmaster, his possession would be the possession of the -shipmaster, and there would be no real transfer of the lien; therefore -the common-law doctrine is not altered, only greater facilities for the -furtherance of trade are given by the statute, enabling the wharfinger -to act in his own name without reference to his principal, who may be at -the other side of the world. So also a lien may be retained, -notwithstanding that the property passes out of possession, where it has -to be deposited in some special place (such as the Custom-House) to -comply with the law. Seamen cannot sell or assign or in any way part -with their maritime lien for wages (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, S 156), -but, nevertheless, with the sanction of the court, a person who pays -seamen their wages is entitled to stand in their place and exercise -their rights (the _Cornelia Henrietta_, 1866, L.R. 1 Ad. & Ec. 51). - -_Waiver._--Any parting with the possession of goods is in general a -waiver of the lien upon them; for example, when a factor having a lien -on the goods of his principal gives them to a carrier to be carried at -the expense of his principal, even if undisclosed, he waives his lien, -and has no right to stop the goods _in transitu_ to recover it; so also -where a coach-builder who has a lien on a carriage for repairs allows -the owner from time to time to take it out for use without expressly -reserving his lien, he has waived it, nor has he a lien for the standage -of the carriage except by express agreement, as mere standage does not -give a possessory lien. It has even been held that where a portion of -goods sold as a whole for a lump sum has been taken away and paid for -proportionately, the conversion has taken place and the lien for the -residue of the unpaid purchase-money has gone (_Gurr_ v. _Cuthbert_, -1843, 12 L.J. Ex. 309). Again, an acceptance of security for a debt is -inconsistent with the existence of a lien, as it substitutes the credit -of the owner for the material guarantee of the thing itself, and so acts -as a waiver of the lien. For the same reason even an agreement to take -security is a waiver of the lien, though the security is not, in fact, -given (_Alliance Bank_ v. _Broon_, 11 L.T. 332). - -_Sale of Goods under Lien._--At common law the lien only gives a right -to retain the goods, and ultimately to sell by legal process, against -the owner; but in certain cases a right has been given by statute to -sell without the intervention of legal process, such as the right of an -innkeeper to sell the goods of his customer for his unpaid account -(Innkeepers Act 1878, S 1), the right of a wharfinger to sell goods -entrusted to him by a shipowner with a lien upon them for freight, and -also for their own charges (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, SS 497, 498), -and of a railway company to sell goods for their charges (Railway -Clauses Act 1845, S 97). Property affected by an equitable lien or a -maritime lien cannot be sold by the holder of the lien without the -interposition of the court to enforce an order, or judgment of the -court. In Admiralty cases, where a sale is necessary, no bail having -been given and the property being under arrest, the sale is usually made -by the marshal in London, but may be elsewhere on the parties concerned -showing that a better price is likely to be obtained. - -AMERICAN LAW.--In the United States, speaking very generally, the law -relating to liens is that of England, but there are some considerable -differences occasioned by three principal causes. (1) Some of the -Southern States, notably Louisiana, have never adopted the common law of -England. When that state became one of the United States of North -America it had (and still preserves) its own system of law. In this -respect the law is practically identical with the Code Napoleon, which, -again speaking generally, substitutes privileges for liens, i.e. gives -certain claims a prior right to others against particular property. -These privileges being _strictissimae interpretationis_, cannot be -extended by any principle analogous to the English doctrine of equitable -liens. (2) Probably in consequence of the United States and the several -states composing it having had a more democratic government than Great -Britain, in their earlier years at all events, certain liens have been -created by statute in several states in the interest of the working -classes which have no parallel in Great Britain, e.g. in some states -workmen employed in building a house or a ship have a lien upon the -building or structure itself for their unpaid wages. This statutory lien -partakes rather of the nature of an equitable than of a common-law lien, -as the property is not in the possession of the workman, and it may be -doubted whether the right thus conferred is more beneficial to the -workman than the priority his wages have in bankruptcy proceedings in -England. Some of the states have also practically extended the maritime -lien to matters over which it was never contended for in England. (3) By -the constitution of the United States the admiralty and inter-state -jurisdiction is vested in the federal as distinguished from the state -courts, and these federal courts have not been liable to have their -jurisdiction curtailed by prohibition from courts of common law, as the -court of admiralty had in England up to the time of the Judicature Acts; -consequently the maritime lien in the United States extends further than -it does in England, even after recent enlargements; it covers claims for -necessaries and by material men (see _Maritime Lien_), as well as -collision, salvage, wages, bottomry and damage to cargo. - -Difficulties connected with lien occasionally arise in the federal -courts in admiralty cases, from a conflict on the subject between the -municipal law of the state where the court happens to sit and the -admiralty law; but as there is no power to prohibit the federal court, -its view of the admiralty law based on the civil law prevails. More -serious difficulties arise where a federal court has to try inter-state -questions, where the two states have different laws on the subject of -lien; one for example, like Louisiana, following the civil law, and the -other the common law and equitable practice of Great Britain. The -question as to which law is to govern in such a case can hardly be said -to be decided. "The question whether equitable liens can exist to be -enforced in Louisiana by the federal courts, notwithstanding its -restrictive law of privileges, is still an open one" (Derris, -_Contracts of Pledge_, 517; and see _Burdon Sugar Refining Co._ v. -_Payne_, 167 U.S. 127). - -BRITISH COLONIES.--In those colonies which before the Canadian -federation were known as Upper Canada and the Maritime Provinces of -British North America, and in the several Australasian states where the -English common law is enforced except as modified by colonial statute, -the principles of lien, whether by common law or equitable or maritime, -discussed above with reference to England, will prevail; but questions -not dissimilar to those treated of in reference to the United States may -arise where colonies have come to the crown of Great Britain by cession, -and where different systems of municipal law are enforced. For example, -in Lower Canada the law of France prior to the Revolution occupies the -place of the common law in England, but is generally regulated by a code -very similar to the Code Napoleon; in Mauritius and its dependencies the -Code Napoleon itself is in force except so far as modified by subsequent -ordinances. In South Africa, and to some extent in Ceylon and Guiana, -Roman-Dutch law is in force; in the island of Trinidad old Spanish law, -prior to the introduction of the present civil code of Spain, is the -basis of jurisprudence. Each several system of law requires to be -studied on the point; but, speaking generally, apart from the possessory -lien of workmen and the maritime lien of the vice-admiralty courts, it -may be assumed that the rules of the civil law, giving a privilege or -priority in certain specified cases rather than a lien as understood in -English law, prevail in those colonies where the English law is not in -force. (F. W. Ra.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] This right, however, is not absolute, but depends on the custom - of the port (_Raitt_ v. _Mitchell_, 1815, 4 Camp. 146). - - - - -LIERRE (Flemish, _Lier_), a town in the province of Antwerp, Belgium; 9 -m. S.E. of Antwerp. Pop. (1904) 24,229. It carries on a brisk industry -in silk fabrics. Its church of St Gommaire was finished in 1557 and -contains three fine glass windows, the gift of the archduke Maximilian, -to celebrate his wedding with Mary of Burgundy. - - - - -LIESTAL, the capital (since 1833) of the half canton of Basel-Stadt in -Switzerland. It is a well-built but uninteresting industrial town, -situated on the left bank of the Ergolz stream, and is the most populous -town in the entire canton of Basel, after Basel itself. By rail it is -9(1/4) m. S.E. of Basel, and 15(3/4) m. N.W. of Olten. In the -15th-century town hall (_Rathaus_) is preserved the golden drinking cup -of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, which was taken at the battle of -Nancy in 1477. In 1900 the population was 5403, all German-speaking and -mainly Protestants. The town was sold in 1302 by its lord to the bishop -of Basel who, in 1400, sold it to the city of Basel, at whose hands it -suffered much in the Peasants' War of 1653, and so consented gladly to -the separation of 1833. - - - - -LIEUTENANT, one who takes the place, office and duty of and acts on -behalf of a superior or other person. The word in English preserves the -form of the French original (from _lieu_, place, _tenant_, holding), -which is the equivalent of the Lat. _locum tenens_, one holding the -place of another. The usual English pronunciation appears early, the -word being frequently spelled _lieftenant_, _lyeftenant_ or _luftenant_ -in the 14th and 15th centuries. The modern American pronunciation is -_lewtenant_, while the German is represented by the present form of the -word _Leutnant_. In French history, _lieutenant du roi_ (_locum tenens -regis_) was a title borne by the officer sent with military powers to -represent the king in certain provinces. With wider powers and -functions, both civil as well as military, and holding authority -throughout an entire province, such a representative of the king was -called _lieutenant general du roi_. The first appointment of these -officials dates from the reign of Philip IV. the Fair (see CONSTABLE). -In the 16th century the administration of the provinces was in the hands -of _gouverneurs_, to whom the _lieutenants du roi_ became subordinates. -The titles _lieutenant civil_ or _criminel_ and _lieutenant general de -police_ have been borne by certain judicial officers in France (see -CHATELET and BAILIFF: _Bailli_). As the title of the representative of -the sovereign, "lieutenant" in English usage appears in the title of the -lord lieutenant of Ireland, and of the lords lieutenant of the counties -of the United Kingdom (see below). - -The most general use of the word is as the name of a grade of naval and -military officer. It is common in this application to nearly every navy -and army of the present day. In Italy and Spain the first part of the -word is omitted, and an Italian and Spanish officer bearing this rank -are called _tenente_ or _teniente_ respectively. In the British and most -other navies the lieutenants are the commissioned officers next in rank -to commanders, or second class of captains. Originally the lieutenant -was a soldier who aided, and in case of need replaced, the captain, who, -until the latter half of the 17th century, was not necessarily a seaman -in any navy. At first one lieutenant was carried, and only in the -largest ships. The number was gradually increased, and the lieutenants -formed a numerous corps. At the close of the Napoleonic War in 1815 -there were 3211 lieutenants in the British navy. Lieutenants now often -qualify for special duties such as navigation, or gunnery, or the -management of torpedoes. In the British army a lieutenant is a subaltern -officer ranking next below a captain and above a second lieutenant. In -the United States of America subalterns are classified as first -lieutenants and second lieutenants. In France the two grades are -_lieutenant_ and _sous-lieutenant_, while in Germany the _Leutnant_ is -the lower of the two ranks, the higher being _Ober-leutnant_ (formerly -_Premier-leutnant_). A "captain lieutenant" in the British army was -formerly the senior subaltern who virtually commanded the colonel's -company or troop, and ranked as junior captain, or "puny captain," as he -was called by Cromwell's soldiers. - - The lord lieutenant of a county, in England and Wales and in Ireland, - is the principal officer of a county. His creation dates from the - reign of Henry VIII. (or, according to some, Edward VI.), when the - military functions of the sheriff were handed over to him. He was - responsible for the efficiency of the militia of the county, and - afterwards of the yeomanry and volunteers. He was commander of these - forces, whose officers he appointed. By the Regulation of the Forces - Act 1871, the jurisdiction, duties and command exercised by the lord - lieutenant were revested in the crown, but the power of recommending - for first appointments was reserved to the lord lieutenant. By the - Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907, the lord lieutenant of a - county was constituted president of the county association. The office - of lord lieutenant is honorary, and is held during the royal pleasure, - but virtually for life. Appointment to the office is by letters patent - under the great seal. Usually, though not necessarily, the person - appointed lord lieutenant is also appointed custos rotulorum (q.v.). - Appointments to the county bench of magistrates are usually made on - the recommendation of the lord lieutenant (see JUSTICE OF THE PEACE). - - A deputy lieutenant (denoted frequently by the addition of the letters - D.L. after a person's name) is a deputy of a lord lieutenant of a - county. His appointment and qualifications previous to 1908 were - regulated by the Militia Act 1882. By s. 30 of that act the lieutenant - of each county was required from time to time to appoint such properly - qualified persons as he thought fit, living within the county, to be - deputy lieutenants. At least twenty had to be appointed for each - county, if there were so many qualified; if less than that number were - qualified, then all the duly qualified persons in the county were to - be appointed. The appointments were subject to the sovereign's - approval, and a return of all appointments to, and removals from, the - office had to be laid before parliament annually. To qualify for the - appointment of deputy lieutenant a person had to be (a) a peer of the - realm, or the heir-apparent of such a peer, having a place of - residence within the county; or (b) have in possession an estate in - land in the United Kingdom of the yearly value of not less than L200; - or (c) be the heir-apparent of such a person; or (d) have a clear - yearly income from personalty within the United Kingdom of not less - than L200 (s. 33). If the lieutenant were absent from the United - Kingdom, or through illness or other cause were unable to act, the - sovereign might authorize any three deputy lieutenants to act as - lieutenant (s. 31), or might appoint a deputy lieutenant to act as - vice-lieutenant. Otherwise, the duties of the office were practically - nominal, except that a deputy lieutenant might attest militia recruits - and administer the oath of allegiance to them. The reorganization in - 1907 of the forces of the British crown, and the formation of county - associations to administer the territorial army, placed increased - duties on deputy lieutenants, and it was publicly announced that the - king's approval of appointments to that position would only be given - in the case of gentlemen who had served for ten years in some force of - the crown, or had rendered eminent service in connexion with a county - association. - - The lord lieutenant of Ireland is the head of the executive in that - country. He represents his sovereign and maintains the formalities of - government, the business of government being entrusted to the - department of his chief secretary, who represents the Irish - government in the House of Commons, and may have a seat in the - cabinet. The chief secretary occupies an important position, and in - every cabinet either the lord lieutenant or he has a seat. - - Lieutenant-governor is the title of the governor of an Indian - province, in direct subordination to the governor-general in council. - The lieutenant-governor comes midway in dignity between the governors - of Madras and Bombay, who are appointed from England, and the chief - commissioners of smaller provinces. In the Dominion of Canada the - governors of provinces also have the title of lieutenant-governor. The - representatives of the sovereign in the Isle of Man and the Channel - Islands are likewise styled lieutenant-governors. - - - - -LIFE, the popular name for the activity peculiar to protoplasm (q.v.). -This conception has been extended by analogy to phenomena different in -kind, such as the activities of masses of water or of air, or of -machinery, or by another analogy, to the duration of a composite -structure, and by imagination to real or supposed phenomena such as the -manifestations of incorporeal entities. From the point of view of exact -science life is associated with matter, is displayed only by living -bodies, by all living bodies, and is what distinguishes living bodies -from bodies that are not alive. Herbert Spencer's formula that life is -"the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations" -was the result of a profound and subtle analysis, but omits the -fundamental consideration that we know life only as a quality of and in -association with living matter. - -In developing our conception we must discard from consideration the -complexities that arise from the organization of the higher living -bodies, the differences between one living animal and another, or -between plant and animal. Such differentiations and integrations of -living bodies are the subject-matter of discussions on evolution; some -will see in the play of circumambient media, natural or supernatural, on -the simplest forms of living matter, sufficient explanation of the -development of such matter into the highest forms of living organisms; -others will regard the potency of such living matter so to develop as a -mysterious and peculiar quality that must be added to the conception of -life. Choice amongst these alternatives need not complicate -investigation of the nature of life. The explanation that serves for the -evolution of living matter, the vehicle of life, will serve for the -evolution of life. What we have to deal with here is life in its -simplest form. - -The definition of life must really be a description of the essential -characters of life, and we must set out with an investigation of the -characters of living substance with the special object of detecting the -differences between organisms and unorganized matter, and the -differences between dead and living organized matter. - -Living substance (see PROTOPLASM), as it now exists in all animals and -plants, is particulate, consisting of elementary organisms living -independently, or grouped in communities, the communities forming the -bodies of the higher animals and plants. These small particles or larger -communities are subject to accidents, internal or external, which -destroy them, immediately or slowly, and thus life ceases; or they may -wear out, or become clogged by the products of their own activity. There -is no reason to regard the mortality of protoplasm and the consequent -limited duration of life as more than the necessary consequence of -particulate character of living matter (see LONGEVITY). - -Protoplasm, the living material, contains only a few elements, all of -which are extremely common and none of which is peculiar to it. These -elements, however, form compounds characteristic of living substance and -for the most part peculiar to it. Proteid, which consists of carbon, -hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur, is present in all protoplasm, is -the most complex of all organic bodies, and, so far, is known only from -organic bodies. A multitude of minor and simpler organic compounds, of -which carbohydrates and fats are the best known, occur in different -protoplasm in varying forms and proportions, and are much less isolated -from the inorganic world. They may be stages in the elaboration or -disintegration of protoplasm, and although they were at one time -believed to occur only as products of living matter, are gradually -being conquered by the synthetic chemist. Finally, protoplasm contains -various inorganic substances, such as salts and water, the latter giving -it its varying degrees of liquid consistency. - -We attain, therefore, our first generalized description of life as the -property or peculiar quality of a substance composed of none but the -more common elements, but of these elements grouped in various ways to -form compounds ranging from proteid, the most complex of known -substances to the simplest salts. The living substance, moreover, has -its mixture of elaborate and simple compounds associated in a fashion -that is peculiar. The older writers have spoken of protoplasm or the -cell as being in a sense "manufactured articles"; in the more modern -view such a conception is replaced by the statement that protoplasm and -the cell have behind them a long historical architecture. Both ideas, or -both modes of expressing what is fundamentally the same idea, have this -in common, that life is not a sum of the qualities of the chemical -elements contained in protoplasm, but a function first of the peculiar -architecture of the mixture, and then of the high complexity of the -compounds contained in the mixture. The qualities of water are no sum of -the qualities of oxygen and hydrogen, and still less can we expect to -explain the qualities of life without regard to the immense complexity -of the living substance. - -We must now examine in more detail the differences which exist or have -been alleged to exist between living organisms and inorganic bodies. -There is no essential difference in structure. Confusion has arisen in -regard to this point from attempts to compare organized bodies with -crystals, the comparison having been suggested by the view that as -crystals present the highest type of inorganic structure, it was -reasonable to compare them with organic matter. Differences between -crystals and organized bodies have no bearing on the problem of life, -for organic substance must be compared with a liquid rather than with a -crystal, and differs in structure no more from inorganic liquids than -these do amongst themselves, and less than they differ from crystals. -Living matter is a mixture of substances chiefly dissolved in water; the -comparison with the crystals has led to a supposed distinction in the -mode of growth, crystals growing by the superficial apposition of new -particles and living substance by intussusception. But inorganic liquids -also grow in the latter mode, as when a soluble substance is added to -them. - -The phenomena of movement do not supply any absolute distinction. -Although these are the most obvious characters of life, they cannot be -detected in quiescent seeds, which we know to be alive, and they are -displayed in a fashion very like life by inorganic foams brought in -contact with liquids of different composition. Irritability, again, -although a notable quality of living substance, is not peculiar to it, -for many inorganic substances respond to external stimulation by -definite changes. Instability, again, which lies at the root of -Spencer's definition "continuous adjustment of internal relations to -external relations" is displayed by living matter in very varying -degrees from the apparent absolute quiescence of frozen seeds to the -activity of the central nervous system, whilst there is a similar range -amongst inorganic substances. - -The phenomena of reproduction present no fundamental distinction. Most -living bodies, it is true, are capable of reproduction, but there are -many without this capacity, whilst, on the other hand, it would be -difficult to draw an effective distinction between that reproduction of -simple organisms which consists of a sub-division of their substance -with consequent resumption of symmetry by the separate pieces, and the -breaking up of a drop of mercury into a number of droplets. - -Consideration of the mode of origin reveals a more real if not an -absolute distinction. All living substance so far as is known at present -(see BIOGENESIS) arises only from already existing living substance. It -is to be noticed, however, that green plants have the power of building -up living substance from inorganic material, and there is a certain -analogy between the building up of new living material only in -association with pre-existing living material, and the greater readiness -with which certain inorganic reactions take place if there already be -present some trace of the result of the reaction. - -The real distinction between living matter and inorganic matter is -chemical. Living substance always contains proteid, and although we know -that proteid contains only common inorganic elements, we know neither -how these are combined to form proteid, nor any way in which proteid can -be brought into existence except in the presence of previously existing -proteid. The central position of the problem of life lies in the -chemistry of proteid, and until that has been fully explored, we are -unable to say that there is any problem of life behind the problem of -proteid. - -Comparison of living and lifeless organic matter presents the initial -difficulty that we cannot draw an exact line between a living and a dead -organism. The higher "warm-blooded" creatures appear to present the -simplest case and in their life-history there seems to be a point at -which we can say "that which was alive is now dead." We judge from some -major arrest of activity, as when the heart ceases to beat. Long after -this, however, various tissues remain alive and active, and the event to -which we give the name of death is no more than a superficially visible -stage in a series of changes. In less highly integrated organisms, such -as "cold-blooded" vertebrates, the point of death is less conspicuous, -and when we carry our observations further down the scale of animal -life, there ceases to be any salient phase in the slow transition from -life to death. - -The distinction between life and death is made more difficult by a -consideration of cases of so-called "arrested vitality." If credit can -be given to the stories of Indian fakirs, it appears that human beings -can pass voluntarily into a state of suspended animation that may last -for weeks. The state of involuntary trance, sometimes mistaken for -death, is a similar occurrence. A. Leeuwenhoek, in 1719, made the -remarkable discovery, since abundantly confirmed, that many animalculae, -notably tardigrades and rotifers, may be completely desiccated and -remain in that condition for long periods without losing the power of -awaking to active life when moistened with water. W. Preyer has more -recently investigated the matter and has given it the name "anabiosis." -Later observers have found similar occurrences in the cases of small -nematodes, rotifers and bacteria. The capacity of plant seeds to remain -dry and inactive for very long periods is still better known. It has -been supposed that in the case of the plant seeds and still more in that -of the animals, the condition of anabiosis was merely one in which the -metabolism was too faint to be perceptible by ordinary methods of -observation, but the elaborate experiments of W. Kochs would seem to -show that a complete arrest of vital activity is compatible with -viability. The categories, "alive" and "dead," are not sufficiently -distinct for us to add to our conception of life by comparing them. A -living organism usually displays active metabolism of proteid, but the -metabolism may slow down, actually cease and yet reawaken; a dead -organism is one in which the metabolism has ceased and does not -reawaken. - -_Origin of Life._--It is plain that we cannot discuss adequately the -origin of life or the possibility of the artificial construction of -living matter (see ABIOGENESIS and BIOGENESIS) until the chemistry of -protoplasm and specially of proteid is more advanced. The investigations -of O. Butschli have shown how a model of protoplasm can be manufactured. -Very finely triturated soluble particles are rubbed into a smooth paste -with an oil of the requisite consistency. A fragment of such a paste -brought into a liquid in which the solid particles are soluble, slowly -expands into a honeycomb like foam, the walls of the minute vesicles -being films of oil, and the contents being the soluble particles -dissolved in droplets of the circumambient liquid. Such a model, -properly constructed, that is to say, with the vesicles of the foam -microscopic in size, is a marvellous imitation of the appearance of -protoplasm, being distinguishable from it only by a greater symmetry. -The nicely balanced conditions of solution produce a state of unstable -equilibrium, with the result that internal streaming movements and -changes of shape and changes of position in the model simulate closely -the corresponding manifestations in real protoplasm. The model has no -power of recuperation; in a comparatively short time equilibrium is -restored and the resemblance with protoplasm disappears. But it suggests -a method by which, when the chemistry of protoplasm and proteid is -better known, the proper substances which compose protoplasm may be -brought together to form a simple kind of protoplasm. - -It has been suggested from time to time that conditions very unlike -those now existing were necessary for the first appearance of life, and -must be repeated if living matter is to be constructed artificially. No -support for such a view can be derived from observations of the existing -conditions of life. The chemical elements involved are abundant; the -physical conditions of temperature pressure and so forth at which living -matter is most active, and within the limits of which it is confined, -are familiar and almost constant in the world around us. On the other -hand, it may be that the initial conditions for the synthesis of proteid -are different from those under which proteid and living matter display -their activities. E. Pfluger has argued that the analogies between -living proteid and the compounds of cyanogen are so numerous that they -suggest cyanogen as the starting-point of protoplasm. Cyanogen and its -compounds, so far as we know, arise only in a state of incandescent -heat. Pfluger suggests that such compounds arose when the surface of the -earth was incandescent, and that in the long process of cooling, -compounds of cyanogen and hydrocarbons passed into living protoplasm by -such processes of transformation and polymerization as are familiar in -the chemical groups in question, and by the acquisition of water and -oxygen. His theory is in consonance with the interpretation of the -structure of protoplasm as having behind it a long historical -architecture and leads to the obvious conclusion that if protoplasm be -constructed artificially it will be by a series of stages and that the -product will be simpler than any of the existing animals or plants. - -Until greater knowledge of protoplasm and particularly of proteid has -been acquired, there is no scientific room for the suggestion that there -is a mysterious factor differentiating living matter from other matter -and life from other activities. We have to scale the walls, open the -windows, and explore the castle before crying out that it is so -marvellous that it must contain ghosts. - -As may be supposed, theories of the origin of life apart from doctrines -of special creation or of a primitive and slow spontaneous generation -are mere fantastic speculations. The most striking of these suggests an -extra-terrestrial origin. H. E. Richter appears to have been the first -to propound the idea that life came to this planet as cosmic dust or in -meteorites thrown off from stars and planets. Towards the end of the -19th century Lord Kelvin (then Sir W. Thomson) and H. von Helmholtz -independently raised and discussed the possibility of such an origin of -terrestrial life, laying stress on the presence of hydrocarbons in -meteoric stones and on the indications of their presence revealed by the -spectra of the tails of comets. W. Preyer has criticized such views, -grouping them under the phrase "theory of cosmozoa," and has suggested -that living matter preceded inorganic matter. Preyer's view, however, -enlarges the conception of life until it can be applied to the phenomena -of incandescent gases and has no relation to ideas of life derived from -observation of the living matter we know. - - REFERENCES.--O. Butschli, _Investigations on Microscopic Foams and - Protoplasm_ (Eng. trans. by E. A. Minchin, 1894), with a useful list - of references; H. von Helmholtz, _Vortrage und Reden_, ii. (1884); W. - Kochs, _Allgemeine Naturkunde_, x. 673 (1890); A. Leeuwenhoek, - _Epistolae ad Societatem regiam Anglicam_ (1719); E. Pfluger, "Uber - einige Gesetze des Eiweissstoffwechsels," in _Archiv. Ges. Physiol._ - liv. 333 (1893); W. Preyer, _Die Hypothesen uber den Ursprung des - Lebens_ (1880); H. E. Richter, _Zur Darwinischen Lehre_ (1865); - Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Biology_; Max Verworm, _General - Physiology_ (English trans. by F. S. Lee, 1899), with a very full - literature. (P. C. M.) - - - - -LIFE-BOAT, and LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. The article on DROWNING AND -LIFE-SAVING (q.v.) deals generally with the means of saving life at sea, -but under this heading it is convenient to include the appliances -connected specially with the life-boat service. The ordinary open boat -is unsuited for life-saving in a stormy sea, and numerous contrivances, -in regard to which the lead came from England, have been made for -securing the best type of life-boat. - -The first life-boat was conceived and designed by Lionel Lukin, a London -coach-builder, in 1785. Encouraged by the prince of Wales (George IV.), -Lukin fitted up a Norway yawl as a life-boat, took out a patent for it, -and wrote a pamphlet descriptive of his "Insubmergible Boat." Buoyancy -he obtained by means of a projecting gunwale of cork and air-chambers -inside--one of these being at the bow, another at the stern. Stability -he secured by a false iron keel. The self-righting and self-emptying -principles he seems not to have thought of; at all events he did not -compass them. Despite the patronage of the prince, Lukin went to his -grave a neglected and disappointed man. But he was not altogether -unsuccessful, for, at the request of the Rev Dr Shairp, Lukin fitted up -a coble as an "unimmergible" life-boat, which was launched at -Bamborough, saved several lives the first year and afterwards saved many -lives and much property. - -Public apathy in regard to shipwreck was temporally swept away by the -wreck of the "Adventure" of Newcastle in 1789. This vessel was stranded -only 300 yds. from the shore, and her crew dropped, one by one, into the -raging breakers in presence of thousands of spectators, none of whom -dared to put off in an ordinary boat to the rescue. An excited meeting -among the people of South Shields followed; a committee was formed, and -premiums were offered for the best models of a life-boat. This called -forth many plans, of which those of William Wouldhave, a painter, and -Henry Greathead, a boatbuilder, of South Shields, were selected. The -committee awarded the prize to the latter, and, adopting the good points -of both models, gave the order for the construction of their boat to -Greathead. This boat was rendered buoyant by nearly 7 cwts. of cork, and -had very raking stem and stern-posts, with great curvature of keel. It -did good service, and Greathead was well rewarded; nevertheless no other -life-boat was launched till 1798, when the duke of Northumberland -ordered Greathead to build him a life-boat which he endowed. This boat -also did good service, and its owner ordered another in 1800 for Oporto. -In the same year Mr Cathcart Dempster ordered one for St Andrews, where, -two years later, it saved twelve lives. Thus the value of life-boats -began to be recognized, and before the end of 1803 Greathead had built -thirty-one boats--eighteen for England, five for Scotland and eight for -foreign lands. Nevertheless, public interest in life-boats was not -thoroughly aroused till 1823. - -In that year Sir William Hillary, Bart., stood forth to champion the -life-boat cause. Sir William dwelt in the Isle of Man, and had assisted -with his own hand in the saving of three hundred and five lives. In -conjunction with two members of parliament--Mr Thomas Wilson and Mr -George Hibbert--Hillary founded the "Royal National Institution for the -Preservation of Life from Shipwreck." This, perhaps the grandest of -England's charitable societies, and now named the "Royal National -Life-boat Institution," was founded on the 4th of March 1824. The king -patronized it; the archbishop of Canterbury presided at its birth; the -most eloquent men in the land--among them Wilberforce--pleaded the -cause; nevertheless, the institution began its career with a sum of only -L9826. In the first year twelve new life-boats were built and placed at -different stations, besides which thirty-nine life-boats had been -stationed on the British shores by benevolent individuals and by -independent associations over which the institution exercised no control -though it often assisted them. In its early years the institution placed -the mortar apparatus of Captain Manby at many stations, and provided for -the wants of sailors and others saved from shipwreck,--a duty -subsequently discharged by the "Shipwrecked Fishermen and Mariners' -Royal Benevolent Society." At the date of the institution's second -report it had contributed to the saving of three hundred and forty-two -lives, either by its own life-saving apparatus or by other means for -which it had granted rewards. With fluctuating success, both as regards -means and results, the institution continued its good work--saving many -lives, and occasionally losing a few brave men in its tremendous battles -with the sea. Since the adoption of the self-righting boats, loss of -life in the service has been comparatively small and infrequent. - -Towards the middle of the 19th century the life-boat cause appeared to -lose interest with the British public, though the life-saving work was -prosecuted with unremitting zeal, but the increasing loss of life by -shipwreck, and a few unusually severe disasters to life-boats, brought -about the reorganization of the society in 1850. The Prince Consort -became vice-patron of the institution in conjunction with the king of -the Belgians, and Queen Victoria, who had been its patron since her -accession, became an annual contributor to its funds. In 1851 the duke -of Northumberland became president, and from that time forward a tide of -prosperity set in, unprecedented in the history of benevolent -institutions, both in regard to the great work accomplished and the -pecuniary aid received. In 1850 its committee undertook the immediate -superintendence of all the life-boat work on the coasts, with the aid of -local committees. Periodical inspections, quarterly exercise of crews, -fixed rates of payments to coxswains and men, and quarterly reports, -were instituted, at the time when the self-righting self-emptying boat -came into being. This boat was the result of a hundred-guinea prize, -offered by the president, for the best model of a life-boat, with -another hundred to defray the cost of a boat built on the model chosen. -In reply to the offer no fewer than two hundred and eighty models were -sent in, not only from all parts of the United Kingdom, but from France, -Germany, Holland and the United States of America. The prize was gained -by Mr James Beeching of Great Yarmouth, whose model, slightly modified -by Mr James Peake, one of the committee of inspection, was still further -improved as time and experience suggested (see below). - -The necessity of maintaining a thoroughly efficient life-boat service is -now generally recognized by the people not only of Great Britain, but -also of those other countries on the European Continent and America -which have a seaboard, and of the British colonies, and numerous -life-boat services have been founded more or less on the lines of the -Royal National Life-boat Institution. The British Institution was again -reorganized in 1883; it has since greatly developed both in its -life-saving efficiency and financially, and has been spoken of in the -highest terms as regards its management by successive governments--a -Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1897 reporting to the House -that the thanks of the whole community were due to the Institution for -its energy and good management. On the death of Queen Victoria in -January 1901 she was succeeded as patron of the Institution by Edward -VII., who as prince of Wales had been its president for several years. -At the close of 1908 the Institution's fleet consisted of 280 -life-boats, and the total number of lives for the saving of which the -committee of management had granted rewards since the establishment of -the Institution in 1824 was 47,983. At this time there were only -seventeen life-boats on the coast of the United Kingdom which did not -belong to the Institution. In 1882 the total amount of money received by -the Institution from all sources was L57,797, whereas in 1901 the total -amount received had increased to L107,293. In 1908 the receipts were -L115,303, the expenditure L90,335. - - In 1882 the Institution undertook, with the view of diminishing the - loss of life among the coast fishermen, to provide the masters and - owners of fishing-vessels with trustworthy aneroid barometers, at - about a third of the retail price, and in 1883 the privilege was - extended to the masters and owners of coasters under 100 tons burden. - At the end of 1901 as many as 4417 of these valuable instruments had - been supplied. In 1889 the committee of management secured the passing - of the Removal of Wrecks Act 1877 Amendment Act, which provides for - the removal of wrecks in non-navigable waters which might prove - dangerous to life-boat crews and others. Under its provisions - numerous highly dangerous wrecks have been removed. - - In 1893 the chairman of the Institution moved a resolution in the - House of Commons that, in order to decrease the serious loss of life - from shipwreck on the coast, the British Government should provide - either telephonic or telegraphic communication between all the - coast-guard stations and signal stations on the coast of the United - Kingdom; and that where there are no coast-guard stations the post - offices nearest to the life-boat stations should be electrically - connected, the object being to give the earliest possible information - to the life-boat authorities at all times, by day and night, when the - life-boats are required for service; and further, that a Royal - Commission should be appointed to consider the desirability of - electrically connecting the rock lighthouses, light-ships, &c., with - the shore. The resolution was agreed to without a division, and its - intention has been practically carried out, the results obtained - having proved most valuable in the saving of life. - - On the 1st of January 1898 a pension and gratuity scheme was - introduced by the committee of management, under which life-boat - coxswains, bowmen and signalmen of long and meritorious service, - retiring on account of old age, accident, ill-health or abolition of - office, receive special allowances as a reward for their good - services. While these payments act as an incentive to the men to - discharge their duties satisfactorily, they at the same time assist - the committee of management in their effort to obtain the best men for - the work. For many years the Institution has given compensation to any - who may have received injury while employed in the service, besides - granting liberal help to the widows and dependent relatives of any in - the service who lose their own lives when endeavouring to rescue - others. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The 33-ft., Double-banked, Ten-oared, -Self-righting and Self-emptying Life-boat (1881) of the Institution on -its Transporting Carriage, ready for launching.] - -A very marked advance in improvement in design and suitability for -service has been made in the life-boat since the reorganization of the -Institution in 1883, but principally since 1887, when, as the result of -an accident in December 1886 to two self-righting life-boats in -Lancashire, twenty-seven out of twenty-nine of the men who manned them -were drowned. At this time a permanent technical sub-committee was -appointed by the Institution, whose object was, with the assistance of -an eminent consulting naval architect--a new post created--and the -Institution's official experts, to give its careful attention to the -designing of improvements in the life-boat and its equipment, and to the -scientific consideration of any inventions or proposals submitted by the -public, with a view to adopting them if of practical utility. Whereas in -1881 the self-righting life-boat of that time was looked upon as the -Institution's special life-boat, and there were very few life-boats in -the Institution's fleet not of that type, at the close of 1901 the -life-boats of the Institution included 60 non-self-righting boats of -various types, known by the following designations: Steam life-boats 4, -Cromer 3, Lamb and White 1, Liverpool 14, Norfolk and Suffolk 19, -tubular 1, Watson 18. In 1901 a steam-tug was placed at Padstow for use -solely in conjunction with the life-boats on the north coast of -Cornwall. The self-righting life-boat of 1901 was a very different boat -from that of 1881. The Institution's present policy is to allow the men -who man the life-boats, after having seen and tried by deputation the -various types, to select that in which they have the most confidence. - -The present life-boat of the self-righting type (fig. 2) differs -materially from its predecessor, the stability being increased and the -righting power greatly improved. The test of efficiency in this last -quality was formerly considered sufficient if the boat would quickly -right herself in smooth water without her crew and gear, but every -self-righting life-boat now built by the Institution will right with -her full crew and gear on board, with her sails set and the anchor down. -Most of the larger self-righting boats are furnished with -"centre-boards" or "drop-keels" of varying size and weight, which can be -used at pleasure, and materially add to their weather qualities. The -drop-keel was for the first time placed in a life-boat in 1885. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plans, Profile and Section of Modern English -Self-righting Life-boat. - - A, Deck. - B, Relieving valves for automatic discharge of water off deck. - C, Side air-cases above deck. - D, End air compartments, usually called "end-boxes," an important - factor in self-righting. - E, Wale, or fender. - F, Iron keel ballast, important in general stability and - self-righting. - G, Water-ballast tanks. - H, Drop-keel.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plans, Profile and Section of English Steam -Life-boat. - - A, Cockpit. - a, Deck. - b, Propeller hatch. - c, Relief valves. - B, Engine-room. - C, Boiler-room. - D, Water-tight compartments. - E, Coal-bunkers. - F, Capstan. - G, Hatches to engine and boiler rooms. - H, Cable reel. - I, Anchor davit.] - -Steam was first introduced into a life-boat in 1890, when the -Institution, after very full inquiry and consideration, stationed on the -coast a steel life-boat, 50 ft. long and 12 ft. beam, and a depth of 3 -ft. 6 in., propelled by a turbine wheel driven by engines developing 170 -horse-power. It had been previously held by all competent judges that a -mechanically-propelled life-boat, suitable for service in heavy weather, -was a problem surrounded by so many and great difficulties that even the -most sanguine experts dared not hope for an early solution of it. This -type of boat (fig. 3) has proved very useful. It is, however, fully -recognized that boats of this description can necessarily be used at -only a very limited number of stations, and where there is a harbour -which never dries out. The highest speed attained by the first hydraulic -steam life-boat was rather more than 9 knots, and that secured in the -latest 9(1/2) knots. In 1909 the fleet of the Institution included 4 -steam life-boats and 8 motor life-boats. The experiments with motor -life-boats in previous years had proved successful. - -The other types of pulling and sailing life-boats are all -non-self-righting, and are specially suitable for the requirements of -the different parts of the coast on which they are placed. Their various -qualities will be understood by a glance at the illustrations (figs. 4, -5, 6, 7 and 8). - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plans, Profile and Section of Cromer Type of -Life-boat. - - A, Deck. - B, Relieving valves for automatic discharge of water off deck. - C, Side air-cases above deck. - E, Wale, or fender. - G, Water-ballast tanks.] - -The Institution continues to build life-boats of different sizes -according to the requirements of the various points of the coast at -which they are placed, but of late years the tendency has been generally -to increase the dimensions of the boats. This change of policy is mainly -due to the fact that the small coasters and fishing-boats have in great -measure disappeared, their places being taken by steamers and steam -trawlers. The cost of the building and equipping of pulling and sailing -life-boats has materially increased, more especially since 1898, the -increase being mainly due to improvements and the seriously augmented -charges for materials and labour. In 1881 the average cost of a -fully-equipped life-boat and carriage was L650, whereas at the end of -1901 it amounted to L1000, the average annual cost of maintaining a -station having risen to about L125. - -The _transporting-carriage_ continues to be a most important part of the -equipment of life-boats, generally of the self-righting type, and is -indispensable where it is necessary to launch the boats at any point not -in the immediate vicinity of the boat-house. It is not, however, usual -to supply carriages to boats of larger dimensions than 37 ft. in length -by 9 ft. beam, those in excess as regards length and beam being either -launched by means of special slipways or kept afloat. The -transporting-carriage of to-day has been rendered particularly useful at -places where the beach is soft, sandy or shingly, by the introduction in -1888 of Tipping's sand-plates. They are composed of an endless plateway -or jointed wheel tyre fitted to the main wheels of the carriage, thereby -enabling the boat to be transferred with rapidity and with greatly -decreased labour over beach and soft sand. Further efficiency in -launching has also been attained at many stations by the introduction in -1890 of pushing-poles, attached to the transporting-carriages, and of -horse launching-poles, first used in 1892. Fig. 9 gives a view of the -modern transporting-carriage fitted with Tipping's sand- or -wheel-plates. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plans, Profile and Section of Liverpool Type of -Life-boat. A, B, C, E, G, as in fig. 3; D, end air-compartments; F, iron -keel; H, drop-keels.] - -The _life-belt_ has since 1898 been considerably improved, being now -less cumbersome than formerly, and more comfortable. The feature of the -principal improvement is the reduction in length of the corks under the -arms of the wearer and the rounding-off of the upper portions, the -result being that considerably more freedom is provided for the arms. -The maximum extra buoyancy has thereby been reduced from 25 lb. to 22 -lb., which is more than sufficient to support a man heavily clothed with -his head and shoulders above the water, or to enable him to support -another person besides himself. Numerous life-belts of very varied -descriptions, and made of all sorts of materials, have been patented, -but it is generally agreed that for life-boat work the cork life-belt of -the Institution has not yet been equalled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Plans, Profile and Section of Norfolk and -Suffolk Type of Life-boat. A, B, E, F, G, H, as in fig. 4; A, side deck; -I, cable-well.] - -_Life-saving rafts, seats for ships' decks, dresses, buoys, belts, &c.,_ -have been produced in all shapes and sizes, but apparently nothing -indispensable has as yet been brought out. Those interested in -life-saving appliances were hopeful that the Paris Exhibition of 1900 -would have produced some life-saving invention which might prove a -benefit to the civilized world, but so lacking in real merit were the -life-saving exhibits that the jury of experts were unable to award to -any of the 435 competitors the Andrew Pollok prize of L4000 for the best -method or device for saving life from shipwreck. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Plan, Profile and Section of Tubular Type of -Life-boat. A, deck; E, wale, or fender; H, drop-keel.] - -The _rocket apparatus_, which in the United Kingdom is under the -management of the coast-guard, renders excellent service in life-saving. -This, next to the life-boat, is the most important and successful means -by which shipwrecked persons are rescued on the British shores. Many -vessels are cast every year on the rocky parts of the coasts, under -cliffs, where no life-boat could be of service. In such places the -rocket alone is available. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Plans, Profile and Section of Watson Type of -Life-boat. Lettering as in fig. 5, but C, side air-cases above deck and -thwarts.] - - The rocket apparatus consists of five principal parts, viz. the - rocket, the rocket-line, the whip, the hawser and the sling life-buoy. - The mode of working it is as follows. A rocket, having a light line - attached to it, is fired over the wreck. By means of this line the - wrecked crew haul out the whip, which is a double or endless line, - rove through a block with a tail attached to it. The tail-block, - having been detached from the rocket-line, is fastened to a mast, or - other portion of the wreck, high above the water. By means of the whip - the rescuers haul off the hawser, to which is hung the travelling or - sling life-buoy. When one end of the hawser has been made fast to the - mast, about 18 in. _above_ the whip, and its other end to tackle - fixed to an anchor on shore, the life-buoy is run out by the rescuers, - and the shipwrecked persons, getting into it one at a time, are hauled - ashore. Sometimes, in cases of urgency, the life-buoy is worked by - means of the whip alone, without the hawser. Captain G. W. Manby, - F.R.S., in 1807 invented, or at least introduced, the mortar - apparatus, on which the system of the rocket apparatus, which - superseded it in England, is founded. Previously, however, in 1791, - the idea of throwing a rope from a wreck to the shore by means of a - shell from a mortar had occurred to Serjeant Bell of the Royal - Artillery, and about the same time, to a Frenchman named La Fere, both - of whom made successful experiments with their apparatus. In the same - year (1807) a rocket was proposed by Mr Trengrouse of Helston in - Cornwall, also a hand and lead line as means of communicating with - vessels in distress. The _heaving-cane_ was a fruit of the latter - suggestion. In 1814 forty-five mortar stations were established, and - Manby received L2000, in addition to previous grants, in - acknowledgment of the good service rendered by his invention. Mr John - Dennett of Newport, Isle of Wight, introduced the rocket, which was - afterwards extensively used. In 1826 four places in the Isle of Wight - were supplied with Dennett's rockets, but it was not till after - government had taken the apparatus under its own control, in 1855, - that the rocket invented by Colonel Boxer was adopted. Its peculiar - characteristic lies in the combination of two rockets in one case, one - being a continuation of the other, so that, after the first - compartment has carried the machine to its full elevation, the second - gives it an additional impetus whereby a great increase of range is - obtained. (R. M. B.; C. Di.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Life-boat Transporting-Carriage with Tipping's -Wheel-Plates.] - -UNITED STATES.--In the extent of coast line covered, magnitude of -operations and the extraordinary success which has crowned its efforts, -the life-saving service of the United States is not surpassed by any -other institution of its kind in the world. Notwithstanding the exposed -and dangerous nature of the coasts flanking and stretching between the -approaches to the principal seaports, and the immense amount of shipping -concentrating upon them, the loss of life among a total of 121,459 -persons imperilled by marine casualty within the scope of the operations -of the service from its organization in 1871 to the 30th of June 1907, -was less than 1%, and even this small proportion is made up largely of -persons washed overboard immediately upon the striking of vessels and -before any assistance could reach them, or lost in attempts to land in -their own boats, and people thrown into the sea by the capsizing of -small craft. In the scheme of the service, next in importance to the -saving of life is the saving of property from marine disaster, for which -no salvage or reward is allowed. During the period named vessels and -cargoes to the value of nearly two hundred million dollars were saved, -while only about a quarter as much was lost. - -The first government life-saving stations were plain boat-houses erected -on the coast of New Jersey in 1848, each equipped with a fisherman's -surf-boat and a mortar and life-car with accessories. Prior to this -time, as early as 1789, a benevolent organization known as the -Massachusetts Humane Society had erected rude huts along the coast of -that state, followed by a station at Cohasset in 1807 equipped with a -boat for use by volunteer crews. Others were subsequently added. Between -1849 and 1870 this society secured appropriations from Congress -aggregating $40,000. It still maintains sixty-nine stations on the -Massachusetts coast. The government service was extended in 1849 to the -coast of Long Island, and in 1850 one station was placed on the Rhode -Island coast. In 1854 the appointment of keepers for the New Jersey and -Long Island stations, and a superintendent for each of these coasts, was -authorized by law. Volunteer crews were depended upon until 1870, when -Congress authorized crews at each alternate station for the three winter -months. - -The present system was inaugurated in 1871 by Sumner I. Kimball, who in -that year was appointed chief of the Revenue Cutter Service, which had -charge of the few existing stations. He recommended an appropriation of -$200,000 and authority for the employment of crews for all stations for -such periods as were deemed necessary, which were granted. The existing -stations were thoroughly overhauled and put in condition for the housing -of crews; necessary boats and equipment were furnished; incapable -keepers, who had been appointed largely for political reasons, were -supplanted by experienced men; additional stations were established; all -were manned by capable surfmen; the merit system for appointments and -promotions was inaugurated; a beach patrol system was introduced, -together with a system of signals; and regulations for the government of -the service were promulgated. The result of the transformation was -immediate and striking. At the end of the year it was found that not a -life had been lost within the domain of the service; and at the end of -the second year the record was almost identical, but one life having -been lost, although the service had been extended to embrace the -dangerous coast of Cape Cod. Legislation was subsequently secured, -totally eliminating politics in the choice of officers and men, and -making other provisions necessary for the completion of the system. The -service continued to grow in extent and importance until, in 1878, it -was separated from the Revenue Cutter Service and organized into a -separate bureau of the Treasury, its administration being placed in the -hands of a general superintendent appointed by the president and -confirmed by the senate, his term of office being limited only by the -will of the president. Mr Kimball was appointed to the position, which -he still held in 1909. - - The service embraces thirteen districts, with 280 stations located at - selected points upon the sea and lake coasts. Nine districts on the - Atlantic and Gulf coasts contain 201 stations, including nine houses - of refuge on the Florida coast, each in charge of a keeper only, - without crews; three districts on the Great Lakes contain 61 stations, - including one at the falls of the Ohio river, Louisville, Kentucky; - and one district on the Pacific coast contains 18 stations, including - one at Nome, Alaska. - - The general administration of the service is conducted by a general - superintendent; an inspector of life-saving stations and two - superintendents of construction of life-saving stations detailed from - the Revenue Cutter Service; a district superintendent for each - district; and assistant inspectors of stations, also detailed from the - Revenue Cutter Service "to perform such duties in connexion with the - conduct of the service as the general superintendent may require." - There is also an advisory board on life-saving appliances consisting - of experts, to consider devices and inventions submitted by the - general superintendent. - - Station crews are composed of a keeper and from six to eight surfmen, - with an additional man during the winter months at most of the - stations on the Atlantic coast. The surfmen are reenlisted from year - to year during good behaviour, subject to a thorough physical - examination. The keepers are also subject to annual physical - examinations after attaining the age of fifty-five. Stations on the - Atlantic and Gulf coasts are manned from August 1st to May 31st. On - the lakes the active season covers the period of navigation, from - about April 1st to early in December. The falls station at Louisville, - and all stations on the Pacific coast, are in commission continuously. - One station, located in Dorchester Bay, an expanse of water within - Boston harbour, where numerous yachts rendezvous and many accidents - occur, which, with the one at Louisville are, believed to be the only - floating life-saving stations in the world, is manned from May 1st to - November 15th. Its equipment includes a steam tug and two gasoline - launches, the latter being harboured in a slip cut into the after-part - of the station and extending from the stern to nearly amidships. The - Louisville stations guard the falls of the Ohio river, where life is - much endangered from accidents to vessels passing over the falls and - small craft which are liable to be drawn into the chutes while - attempting to cross the river. Its equipment includes two river skiffs - which can be instantly launched directly from the ways at one end of - the station. These skiffs are small boats modelled much like - surf-boats, designed to be rowed by one or two men. Other equipments - are provided for the salvage of property. The stations, located as - near as practicable to a launching place, contain as a rule convenient - quarters for the residence of the keeper and crew and a boat and - apparatus room. In some instances the dwelling- and boat-house are - built separately. Each station has a look-out tower for the day watch. - - The principal apparatus consists of surf- and life-boats, Lyle gun and - breeches-buoy apparatus and life-car. The Hunt gun and Cunningham - line-carrying rocket are available at selected stations on account of - their greater range, but their use is rarely necessary. The crews are - drilled daily in some portion of rescue work, as practice in - manoeuvring, upsetting and righting boats, with the breeches-buoy, in - the resuscitation of the apparently drowned and in signalling. The - district officers upon their quarterly visits examine the crews orally - and by drill, recording the proficiency of each member, including the - keeper, which record accompanies their report to the general - superintendent. For watch and patrol the day of twenty-four hours is - divided into periods of four or five hours each. Day watches are stood - by one man in the look-out tower or at some other point of vantage, - while two men are assigned to each night watch between sunset and - sunrise. One of the men remains on watch at the station, dividing his - time between the beach look-out and visits to the telephone at - specified intervals to receive messages, the service telephone system - being extended from station to station nearly throughout the service, - with watch telephones at half-way points. The other man patrols the - beach to the end of his beat and returns, when he takes the look-out - and his watchmate patrols in the opposite direction. A like patrol and - watch is maintained in thick or stormy weather in the daytime. Between - adjacent stations a record of the patrol is made by the exchange of - brass checks; elsewhere the patrolman carries a watchman's clock, on - the dial of which he records the time of his arrival at the keypost - which marks the end of his beat. On discovering a vessel standing into - danger the patrolman burns a Coston signal, which emits a brilliant - red flare, to warn the vessel of her danger. The number of vessels - thus warned averages about two hundred in each year, whereby great - losses are averted, the extent of which can never be known. When a - stranded vessel is discovered, the patrolman's Coston signal apprises - the crew that they are seen and assistance is at hand. He then - notifies his station, by telephone if possible. When such notice is - received at the station, the keeper determines the means with which to - attempt a rescue, whether by boat or beach-apparatus. If the - beach-apparatus is chosen, the apparatus cart is hauled to a point - directly opposite the wreck by horses, kept at most of the stations - during the inclement months, or by the members of the crew. The gear - is unloaded, and while being set up--the members of the crew - performing their several allotted parts simultaneously--the keeper - fires a line over the wreck with the Lyle gun, a small bronze cannon - weighing, with its 18 lb. elongated iron projectile to which the line - is attached, slightly more than 200 lb., and having an extreme range - of about 700 yds., though seldom available at wrecks for more than 400 - yds. This gun was the invention of Lieutenant (afterwards Colonel) - David A. Lyle, U.S. Army. Shot lines are of three sizes, {4/32}, - {7/32} and {9/32} of an inch diameter, designated respectively Nos. 4, - 7 and 9. The two larger are ordinarily used, the No. 4 for extreme - range. A line having been fired within reach of the persons on the - wreck, an endless rope rove through a tail-block is sent out by it - with instructions, printed in English and French on a tally-board, to - make the tail fast to a mast or other elevated portion of the wreck. - This done, a 3-in. hawser is bent on to the whip and hauled off to the - wreck, to be made fast a little above the tail-block, after which the - shore end is hauled taut over a crotch by means of tackle attached to - a sand anchor. From this hawser the breeches-buoy or life-car is - suspended and drawn between the ship and shore of the endless - whip-line. The life-car can also be drawn like a boat between ship and - shore without the use of a hawser. The breeches-buoy is a cork - life-buoy to which is attached a pair of short canvas breeches, the - whole suspended from a traveller block by suitable lanyards. It - usually carries one person at a time, although two have frequently - been brought ashore together. The life-car, first introduced in 1848, - is a boat of corrugated iron with a convex iron cover, having a hatch - in the top for the admission of passengers, which can be fastened - either from within or without, and a few perforations to admit air, - with raised edges to exclude water. At wreck operations during the - night the shore is illuminated by powerful acetylene (calcium carbide) - lights. If any of the rescued persons are frozen, as often happens, - or are injured or sick, first aid and simple remedies are furnished - them. Dry clothing, supplied by the Women's National Relief - Association, is also furnished to survivors, which the destitute are - allowed to keep. - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--American Power Life-boat.] - - Several types of light open surf-boats are used, adapted to the - special requirements of the different localities and occasions. They - are built of cedar, from 23 to 27 ft. long, and are provided with end - air chambers and longitudinal air cases on each side under the - thwarts. - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Beebe-McLellan Self-bailing Boat.] - - Self-righting and self-bailing life-boats, patterned after those used - in England and other countries, have heretofore been used at most of - the Lake stations and at points on the ocean coast where they can be - readily launched from ways. Most of these boats, however, have now - been transformed into power boats without the sacrifice of any of - their essential qualities. The installation of power is effected by - introducing a 25 H.P. four-cycle gasoline motor, weighing with its - fittings, tanks, &c., about 800 lb. The engine is installed in the - after air chamber, with the starting crank, reversing clutches, &c., - recessed into the bulkhead to protect them from accidents. These boats - attain a speed of from 7 to 9 m. an hour, and have proved extremely - efficient. A new power life-boat (fig. 10) on somewhat improved lines, - 36 ft. in length, and equipped with a 35-40 H.P. gasoline engine, - promises to prove still more efficient. A number of surf-boats have - also been equipped with gasoline engines of from 5 to 7 H.P., for - light and quick work, with very satisfactory results. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Details of boat shown in Fig. 10.] - - A distinctively American life-boat extensively used is the - Beebe-McLellan self-bailing boat (fig. 11), which for all round - life-saving work is held in the highest esteem. It possesses all the - qualities of the self-righting and self-bailing life-boats in use in - all life-saving institutions, except that of self-righting; and the - sacrifice of this quality is largely counteracted by the ease with - which it can be righted by its crew when capsized. For accomplishing - this the crews are thoroughly drilled. In drill a trained crew can - upset and right the boat and resume their places at the oars in twenty - seconds. The boat is built of cedar, weighs about 1200 lb., and can be - used at all stations and launched by the crew directly off the beach - from the boat-wagon especially made for it. The self-bailing quality - is secured by a water-tight deck at a level a little above the load - water line with relieving tubes fitted with valves through which any - water shipped runs back into the sea by gravity. Air cases along the - sides under the thwarts, inclining towards the middle of the boat, - minimize the quantity of water taken in, and the water-ballast tank in - the bottom increases the stability by the weight of the water which - can be admitted by opening the valve. When transported along the land - it is empty. The Beebe-McLellan boat is 25 ft. long, 7 ft. beam, and - will carry 12 to 15 persons in addition to its crew. Some of these - boats, intended for use in localities where the temperature of the - water will not permit of frequent upsetting and righting drills, are - built with end air cases which render them self-righting. - - In addition to the principal appliances described, a number of minor - importance are included in the equipment of every life-saving station, - such as launching carriages for life-boats, roller boat-skids, heaving - sticks and all necessary tools. Members of all life-saving crews are - required on all occasions of boat practice or duty at wrecks to wear - life-belts of the prescribed pattern. (A. T. T.) - -_Life-boat Service in other Countries._--Good work is done by the -life-boat service in other countries, most of these institutions having -been formed on the lines of the Royal National Life-boat Institution of -Great Britain. The services are operating in the following countries:-- - - _Belgium._--Established in 1838. Supported entirely by government. - - _Denmark._--Established in 1848. Government service. - - _Sweden._--Established in 1856. Government service. - - _France._--Established in 1865. Voluntary association, but assisted by - the government. - - _Germany._--Established in 1885. Supported entirely by voluntary - contributions. - - _Turkey_ (Black Sea).--Established in 1868. Supported by dues. - - _Russia._--Established in 1872. Voluntary association, but receiving - an annual grant from the government. - - _Italy._--Established in 1879. Voluntary association. - - _Spain._--Established in 1880. Voluntary association, but receiving - annually a grant of L1440 from government. - - _Canada._--Established in 1880. Government service. - - _Holland._--Established in 1884. Voluntary association, but assisted - by a government subsidy. - - _Norway._--Established in 1891. Voluntary association, but receiving a - small annual grant from government. - - _Portugal._--Established in 1898. Voluntary society. - - _India (East Coast)._--Voluntary association. - - _Australia (South)._--Voluntary association. - - _New Zealand._--Voluntary association. - - _Japan._--The National Life-boat Institution of Japan was founded in - 1889. It is a voluntary society, assisted by government. Its affairs - are managed by a president and a vice-president, supported by a very - influential council. The head office is at Tokyo; there are numerous - branches with local committees. The Imperial government contributes an - annual subsidy of 20,000 _yen_ (L2000). The members of the Institution - consist of three classes--honorary, ordinary and sub-ordinary, the - amount contributed by the member determining the class in which he is - placed. The chairman and council are not, as in Great Britain, - appointed by the subscribers, but by the president, who must always be - a member of the imperial family. The Institution bestows three medals: - (a) the medal of merit, to be awarded to persons rendering - distinguished service to the Institution; (b) the medal of membership, - to be held by honorary and ordinary members or subscribers; and (c) - the medal of praise, which is bestowed on those distinguishing - themselves by special service in the work of rescue. - - - - -LIFFORD, the county town of Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the left bank of -the Foyle. Pop. (1901) 446. The county gaol, court house and infirmary -are here, but the town is practically a suburb of Strabane, across the -river, in Co. Londonderry. Lifford, formerly called Ballyduff, was a -chief stronghold of the O'Donnells of Tyrconnell. It was incorporated as -a borough (under the name of Liffer) in the reign of James I. It -returned two members to the Irish parliament until the union in 1800. - - - - -LIGAMENT (Lat. _ligamentum_, from _ligare_, to bind), anything which -binds or connects two or more parts; in anatomy a piece of tissue -connecting different parts of an organism (see CONNECTIVE TISSUES and -JOINTS). - - - - -LIGAO, a town near the centre of the province of Albay, Luzon, -Philippine Islands, close to the left bank of a tributary of the Bicol -river, and on the main road through the valley. Pop. (1903) 17,687. East -of the town rises Mayon, an active volcano, and the rich volcanic soil -in this region produces hemp, rice and coco-nuts. Agriculture is the -sole occupation of the inhabitants. Their language is Bicol. - - - - -LIGHT. _Introduction._--S 1. "Light" may be defined subjectively as the -sense-impression formed by the eye. This is the most familiar -connotation of the term, and suffices for the discussion of optical -subjects which do not require an objective definition, and, in -particular, for the treatment of physiological optics and vision. The -objective definition, or the "nature of light," is the _ultima Thule_ of -optical research. "Emission theories," based on the supposition that -light was a stream of corpuscles, were at first accepted. These gave -place during the opening decades of the 19th century to the "undulatory -or wave theory," which may be regarded as culminating in the "elastic -solid theory"--so named from the lines along which the mathematical -investigation proceeded--and according to which light is a transverse -vibratory motion propagated longitudinally though the aether. The -mathematical researches of James Clerk Maxwell have led to the rejection -of this theory, and it is now held that light is identical with -electromagnetic disturbances, such as are generated by oscillating -electric currents or moving magnets. Beyond this point we cannot go at -present. To quote Arthur Schuster (_Theory of Optics_, 1904), "So long -as the character of the displacements which constitute the waves remains -undefined we cannot pretend to have established a theory of light." It -will thus be seen that optical and electrical phenomena are co-ordinated -as a phase of the physics of the "aether," and that the investigation of -these sciences culminates in the derivation of the properties of this -conceptual medium, the existence of which was called into being as an -instrument of research.[1] The methods of the elastic-solid theory can -still be used with advantage in treating many optical phenomena, more -especially so long as we remain ignorant of fundamental matters -concerning the origin of electric and magnetic strains and stresses; in -addition, the treatment is more intelligible, the researches on the -electromagnetic theory leading in many cases to the derivation of -differential equations which express quantitative relations between -diverse phenomena, although no precise meaning can be attached to the -symbols employed. The school following Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz -has certainly laid the foundations of a complete theory of light and -electricity, but the methods must be adopted with caution, lest one be -constrained to say with Ludwig Boltzmann as in the introduction to his -_Vorlesungen uber Maxwell's Theorie der Elektricitat und des Lichtes_:-- - - "So soll ich denn mit saurem Schweiss - Euch lehren, was ich selbst nicht weiss." - - GOETHE, _Faust_. - -The essential distinctions between optical and electromagnetic phenomena -may be traced to differences in the lengths of light-waves and of -electromagnetic waves. The aether can probably transmit waves of any -wave-length, the velocity of longitudinal propagation being about 3.10^10 -cms. per second. The shortest waves, discovered by Schumann and -accurately measured by Lyman, have a wave-length of 0.0001 mm.; the -ultra-violet, recognized by their action on the photographic plate or by -their promoting fluorescence, have a wave-length of 0.0002 mm.; the eye -recognizes vibrations of a wave-length ranging from about 0.0004 mm. -(violet) to about 0.0007 (red); the infra-red rays, recognized by their -heating power or by their action on phosphorescent bodies, have a -wave-length of 0.001 mm.; and the longest waves present in the radiations -of a luminous source are the residual rays ("_Rest-strahlen_") obtained -by repeated reflections from quartz (.0085 mm.), from fluorite (0.056 -mm.), and from sylvite (0.06 mm.). The research-field of optics includes -the investigation of the rays which we have just enumerated. A -delimitation may then be made, inasmuch as luminous sources yield no -other radiations, and also since the next series of waves, the -electromagnetic waves, have a minimum wave-length of 6 mm. - -S 2. The commonest subjective phenomena of light are colour and -visibility, i.e. why are some bodies visible and others not, or, in -other words, what is the physical significance of the words -"transparency," "colour" and "visibility." What is ordinarily understood -by a _transparent_ substance is one which transmits all the rays of -white light without appreciable absorption--that some absorption does -occur is perceived when the substance is viewed through a sufficient -thickness. _Colour_ is due to the absorption of certain rays of the -spectrum, the unabsorbed rays being transmitted to the eye, where they -occasion the sensation of colour (see COLOUR; ABSORPTION OF LIGHT). -Transparent bodies are seen partly by reflected and partly by -transmitted light, and opaque bodies by absorption. Refraction also -influences visibility. Objects immersed in a liquid of the same -refractive index and dispersion would be invisible; for example, a glass -rod can hardly be seen when immersed in Canada balsam; other instances -occur in the petrological examination of rock-sections under the -microscope. In a complex rock-section the boldness with which the -constituents stand out are measures of the difference between their -refractive indices and the refractive index of the mounting medium, and -the more nearly the indices coincide the less defined become the -boundaries, while the interior of the mineral may be most advantageously -explored. Lord Rayleigh has shown that transparent objects can only be -seen when non-uniformly illuminated, the differences in the refractive -indices of the substance and the surrounding medium becoming inoperative -when the illumination is uniform on all sides. R. W. Wood has performed -experiments which confirm this view. - -The analysis of white light into the spectrum colours, and the -reformation of the original light by transmitting the spectrum through a -reversed prism, proved, to the satisfaction of Newton and subsequent -physicists until late in the 19th century, that the various coloured -rays were present in white light, and that the action of the prism was -merely to sort out the rays. This view, which suffices for the -explanation of most phenomena, has now been given up, and the modern -view is that the prism or grating really does _manufacture_ the colours, -as was held previously to Newton. It appears that white light is a -sequence of irregular wave trains which are analysed into series of more -regular trains by the prism or grating in a manner comparable with the -analytical resolution presented by Fourier's theorem. The modern view -points to the _mathematical_ existence of waves of all wave-lengths in -white light, the Newtonian view to the _physical_ existence. Strictly, -the term "monochromatic" light is only applicable to light of a single -wave-length (which can have no actual existence), but it is commonly -used to denote light which cannot be analysed by the instruments at our -disposal; for example, with low-power instruments the light emitted by -sodium vapour would be regarded as homogeneous or monochromatic, but -higher power instruments resolve this light into two components of -different wave-lengths, each of which is of a higher degree of -homogeneity, and it is not impossible that these rays may be capable of -further analysis. - -S 3. _Divisions of the Subject._--In the early history of the science of -light or optics a twofold division was adopted: _Catoptrics_ (from Gr. -[Greek: katoptron], a mirror), embracing the phenomena of reflection, -i.e. the formation of images by mirrors; and _Dioptrics_ (Gr. [Greek: -dia], through), embracing the phenomena of refraction, i.e. the bending -of a ray of light when passing obliquely through the surface dividing -two media.[2] A third element, _Chromatics_ (Gr. [Greek: chroma], -colour), was subsequently introduced to include phenomena involving -colour transformations, such as the iridescence of mother-of-pearl, -feathers, soap-bubbles, oil floating on water, &c. This classification -has been discarded (although the terms, particularly "dioptric" and -"chromatic," have survived as adjectives) in favour of a twofold -division: geometrical optics and physical optics. _Geometrical optics_ -is a mathematical development (mainly effected by geometrical methods) -of three laws assumed to be rigorously true: (1) the law of rectilinear -propagation, viz. that light travels in straight lines or _rays_ in any -homogeneous medium; (2) the law of reflection, viz. that the incident -and reflected rays at any point of a surface are equally inclined to, -and coplanar with, the normal to the surface at the point of incidence; -and (3) the law of refraction, viz. that the incident and refracted rays -at a surface dividing two media make angles with the normal to the -surface at the point of incidence whose sines are in a ratio (termed the -"refractive index") which is constant for every particular pair of -media, and that the incident and refracted rays are coplanar with the -normal. _Physical optics_, on the other hand, has for its ultimate -object the elucidation of the question: what is light? It investigates -the nature of the rays themselves, and, in addition to determining the -validity of the axioms of geometrical optics, embraces phenomena for the -explanation of which an expansion of these assumptions is necessary. - -Of the subordinate phases of the science, "physiological optics" is -concerned with the phenomena of vision, with the eye as an optical -instrument, with colour-perception, and with such allied subjects as -the appearance of the eyes of a cat and the luminosity of the glow-worm -and firefly; "meteorological optics" includes phenomena occasioned by -the atmosphere, such as the rainbow, halo, corona, mirage, twinkling of -stars and colour of the sky, and also the effects of atmospheric dust in -promoting such brilliant sunsets as were seen after the eruption of -Krakatoa; "magneto-optics" investigates the effects of electricity and -magnetism on optical properties; "photo-chemistry," with its more -practical development photography, is concerned with the influence of -light in effecting chemical action; and the term "applied optics" may be -used to denote, on the one hand, the experimental investigation of -material for forming optical systems, e.g. the study of glasses with a -view to the formation of a glass of specified optical properties (with -which may be included such matters as the transparency of rock-salt for -the infra-red and of quartz for the ultra-violet rays), and, on the -other hand, the application of geometrical and physical investigations -to the construction of optical instruments. - -S 4. _Arrangement of the Subject._--The following three divisions of -this article deal with: (I.) the history of the science of light; (II.) -the nature of light; (III.) the velocity of light; but a summary (which -does not aim at scientific precision) may here be given to indicate to -the reader the inter-relation of the various optical phenomena, those -phenomena which are treated in separate articles being shown in larger -type. - -The simplest subjective phenomena of light are COLOUR and intensity, the -measurement of the latter being named PHOTOMETRY. When light falls on a -medium, it may be returned by REFLECTION or it may suffer ABSORPTION; or -it may be transmitted and undergo REFRACTION, and, if the light be -composite, DISPERSION; or, as in the case of oil films on water, -brilliant colours are seen, an effect which is due to INTERFERENCE. -Again, if the rays be transmitted in two directions, as with certain -crystals, "double refraction" (see REFRACTION, DOUBLE) takes place, and -the emergent rays have undergone POLARIZATION. A SHADOW is cast by light -falling on an opaque object, the complete theory of which involves the -phenomenon of DIFFRACTION. Some substances have the property of -transforming luminous radiations, presenting the phenomena of -CALORESCENCE, FLUORESCENCE and PHOSPHORESCENCE. An optical system is -composed of any number of MIRRORS or LENSES, or of both. If light -falling on a system be not brought to a focus, i.e. if all the emergent -rays be not concurrent, we are presented with a CAUSTIC and an -ABERRATION. An optical instrument is simply the setting up of an optical -system, the TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, OBJECTIVE, optical LANTERN, CAMERA -LUCIDA, CAMERA OBSCURA and the KALEIDOSCOPE are examples; instruments -serviceable for simultaneous vision with both eyes are termed BINOCULAR -INSTRUMENTS; the STEREOSCOPE may be placed in this category; the optical -action of the Zoetrope, with its modern development the CINEMATOGRAPH, -depends upon the physiological persistence of VISION. Meteorological -optical phenomena comprise the CORONA, HALO, MIRAGE, RAINBOW, colour of -SKY and TWILIGHT, and also astronomical refraction (see REFRACTION, -ASTRONOMICAL); the complete theory of the corona involves DIFFRACTION, -and atmospheric DUST also plays a part in this group of phenomena. - - -I. HISTORY - -S 1. There is reason to believe that the ancients were more familiar -with optics than with any other branch of physics; and this may be due -to the fact that for a knowledge of external things man is indebted to -the sense of vision in a far greater degree than to other senses. That -light travels in straight lines--or, in other words, that an object is -seen in the direction in which it really lies--must have been realized -in very remote times. The antiquity of mirrors points to some -acquaintance with the phenomena of reflection, and Layard's discovery of -a convex lens of rock-crystal among the ruins of the palace of Nimrud -implies a knowledge of the burning and magnifying powers of this -instrument. The Greeks were acquainted with the fundamental law of -reflection, viz. the equality of the angles of incidence and reflection; -and it was Hero of Alexandria who proved that the path of the ray is the -least possible. The lens, as an instrument for magnifying objects or for -concentrating rays to effect combustion, was also known. Aristophanes, -in the _Clouds_ (c. 424 B.C.), mentions the use of the burning-glass to -destroy the writing on a waxed tablet; much later, Pliny describes such -glasses as solid balls of rock-crystal or glass, or hollow glass balls -filled with water, and Seneca mentions their use by engravers. A -treatise on optics ([Greek: Katoptrika]), assigned to Euclid by Proclus -and Marinus, shows that the Greeks were acquainted with the production -of images by plane, cylindrical and concave and convex spherical -mirrors, but it is doubtful whether Euclid was the author, since neither -this work nor the [Greek: Optika], a work treating of vision and also -assigned to him by Proclus and Marinus, is mentioned by Pappus, and more -particularly since the demonstrations do not exhibit the precision of -his other writings. - -Reflection, or catoptrics, was the key-note of their explanations of -optical phenomena; it is to the reflection of solar rays by the air that -Aristotle ascribed twilight, and from his observation of the colours -formed by light falling on spray, he attributes the rainbow to -reflection from drops of rain. Although certain elementary phenomena of -refraction had also been noted--such as the apparent bending of an oar -at the point where it met the water, and the apparent elevation of a -coin in a basin by filling the basin with water--the quantitative law of -refraction was unknown; in fact, it was not formulated until the -beginning of the 17th century. The analysis of white light into the -continuous spectrum of rainbow colours by transmission through a prism -was observed by Seneca, who regarded the colours as fictitious, placing -them in the same category as the iridescent appearance of the feathers -on a pigeon's neck. - -S 2. The aversion of the Greek thinkers to detailed experimental inquiry -stultified the progress of the science; instead of acquiring facts -necessary for formulating scientific laws and correcting hypotheses, the -Greeks devoted their intellectual energies to philosophizing on the -nature of light itself. In their search for a theory the Greeks were -mainly concerned with vision--in other words, they sought to determine -how an object was seen, and to what its colour was due. Emission -theories, involving the conception that light was a stream of concrete -particles, were formulated. The Pythagoreans assumed that vision and -colour were caused by the bombardment of the eye by minute particles -projected from the surface of the object seen. The Platonists -subsequently introduced three elements--a stream of particles emitted by -the eye (their "divine fire"), which united with the solar rays, and, -after the combination had met a stream from the object, returned to the -eye and excited vision. - -In some form or other the emission theory--that light was a longitudinal -propulsion of material particles--dominated optical thought until the -beginning of the 19th century. The authority of the Platonists was -strong enough to overcome Aristotle's theory that light was an activity -([Greek: energeia]) of a medium which he termed the _pellucid_ ([Greek: -diaphanes]); about two thousand years later Newton's exposition of his -corpuscular theory overcame the undulatory hypotheses of Descartes and -Huygens; and it was only after the acquisition of new experimental facts -that the labours of Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel indubitably -established the wave-theory. - -S 3. The experimental study of refraction, which had been almost -entirely neglected by the early Greeks, received more attention during -the opening centuries of the Christian era. Cleomedes, in his _Cyclical -Theory of Meteors_, c. A.D. 50, alludes to the apparent bending of a -stick partially immersed in water, and to the rendering visible of coins -in basins by filling up with water; and also remarks that the air may -refract the sun's rays so as to render that luminary visible, although -actually it may be below the horizon. The most celebrated of the early -writers on optics is the Alexandrian Ptolemy (2nd century). His -writings on light are believed to be preserved in two imperfect Latin -manuscripts, themselves translations from the Arabic. The subjects -discussed include the nature of light and colour; the formation of -images by various types of mirrors, refractions at the surface of glass -and of water, with tables of the angle of refraction corresponding to -given angles of incidence for rays passing from air to glass and from -air to water; and also astronomical refractions, i.e. the apparent -displacement of a heavenly body due to the refraction of light in its -passage through the atmosphere. The authenticity of these manuscripts -has been contested: the _Almagest_ contains no mention of the _Optics_, -nor is the subject of astronomical refractions noticed, but the -strongest objection, according to A. de Morgan, is the fact that their -author was a poor geometer. - -S 4. One of the results of the decadence of the Roman empire was the -suppression of the academies, and few additions were made to scientific -knowledge on European soil until the 13th century. Extinguished in the -West, the spirit of research was kindled in the East. The accession of -the Arabs to power and territory in the 7th century was followed by the -acquisition of the literary stores of Greece, and during the following -five centuries the Arabs, both by their preservation of existing works -and by their original discoveries (which, however, were but few), took a -permanent place in the history of science. Pre-eminent among Arabian -scientists is Alhazen, who flourished in the 11th century. Primarily a -mathematician and astronomer, he also investigated a wide range of -optical phenomena. He examined the anatomy of the eye, and the functions -of its several parts in promoting vision; and explained how it is that -we see one object with two eyes, and then not by a single ray or beam as -had been previously held, but by two cones of rays proceeding from the -object, one to each eye. He attributed vision to emanations from the -body seen; and on his authority the Platonic theory fell into disrepute. -He also discussed the magnifying powers of lenses; and it may be that -his writings on this subject inspired the subsequent invention of -spectacles. Astronomical observations led to the investigation of -refraction by the atmosphere, in particular, astronomical refraction; he -explained the phenomenon of twilight, and showed a connexion between its -duration and the height of the atmosphere. He also treated _optical -deceptions_, both in direct vision and in vision by reflected and -refracted light, including the phenomenon known as the _horizontal -moon_, i.e. the apparent increase in the diameter of the sun or moon -when near the horizon. This appearance had been explained by Ptolemy on -the supposition that the diameter was actually increased by refraction, -and his commentator Theon endeavoured to explain why an object appears -larger when viewed under water. But actual experiment showed that the -diameter did not increase. Alhazen gave the correct explanation, which, -however, Friar Bacon attributes to Ptolemy. We judge of distance by -comparing the angle under which an object is seen with its supposed -distance, so that if two objects be seen under nearly equal angles and -one be supposed to be more distant than the other, then the former will -be supposed to be the larger. When near the horizon the sun or moon, -conceived as very distant, are intuitively compared with terrestrial -objects, and therefore they appear larger than when viewed at -elevations. - -S 5. While the Arabs were acting as the custodians of scientific -knowledge, the institutions and civilizations of Europe were gradually -crystallizing. Attacked by the Mongols and by the Crusaders, the Bagdad -caliphate disappeared in the 13th century. At that period the Arabic -commentaries, which had already been brought to Europe, were beginning -to exert great influence on scientific thought; and it is probable that -their rarity and the increasing demand for the originals and -translations led to those forgeries which are of frequent occurrence in -the literature of the middle ages. The first treatise on optics written -in Europe was admitted by its author Vitello or Vitellio, a native of -Poland, to be based on the works of Ptolemy and Alhazen. It was written -in about 1270, and first published in 1572, with a Latin translation of -Alhazen's treatise, by F. Risner, under the title _Thesaurus opticae_. -Its tables of refraction are more accurate than Ptolemy's; the author -follows Alhazen in his investigation of lenses, but his determinations -of the foci and magnifying powers of spheres are inaccurate. He -attributed the twinkling of stars to refraction by moving air, and -observed that the scintillation was increased by viewing through water -in gentle motion; he also recognized that both reflection and refraction -were instrumental in producing the rainbow, but he gave no explanation -of the colours. - -The _Perspectiva Communis_ of John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury, -being no more than a collection of elementary propositions containing -nothing new, we have next to consider the voluminous works of Vitellio's -illustrious contemporary, Roger Bacon. His writings on light, -_Perspectiva_ and _Specula mathematica_, are included in his _Opus -majus_. It is conceivable that he was acquainted with the nature of the -images formed by light traversing a small orifice--a phenomenon noticed -by Aristotle, and applied at a later date to the construction of the -camera obscura. The invention of the magic lantern has been ascribed to -Bacon, and his statements concerning spectacles, the telescope, and the -microscope, if not based on an experimental realization of these -instruments, must be regarded as masterly conceptions of the -applications of lenses. As to the nature of light, Bacon adhered to the -theory that objects are rendered visible by emanations from the eye. - -The history of science, and more particularly the history of inventions, -constantly confronts us with the problem presented by such writings as -Friar Bacon's. Rarely has it been given to one man to promote an -entirely new theory or to devise an original instrument; it is more -generally the case that, in the evolution of a single idea, there comes -some stage which arrests our attention, and to which we assign the -dignity of an "invention." Furthermore, the obscurity that surrounds the -early history of spectacles, the magic lantern, the telescope and the -microscope, may find a partial solution in the spirit of the middle -ages. The natural philosopher who was bold enough to present to a prince -a pair of spectacles or a telescope would be in imminent danger of being -regarded in the eyes of the church as a powerful and dangerous magician; -and it is conceivable that the maker of such an instrument would -jealously guard the secret of its actual construction, however much he -might advertise its potentialities.[3] - -S 6. The awakening of Europe, which first manifested itself in Italy, -England and France, was followed in the 16th century by a period of -increasing intellectual activity. The need for experimental inquiry was -realized, and a tendency to dispute the dogmatism of the church and to -question the theories of the established schools of philosophy became -apparent. In the science of optics, Italy led the van, the foremost -pioneers being Franciscus Maurolycus (1494-1575) of Messina, and -Giambattista della Porta (1538-1615) of Naples. A treatise by Maurolycus -entitled _Photismi de Lumine et Umbra prospectivum radiorum incidentium -facientes_ (1575), contains a discussion of the measurement of the -intensity of light--an early essay in photometry; the formation of -circular patches of light by small holes of any shape, with a correct -explanation of the phenomenon; and the optical relations of the parts of -the eye, maintaining that the crystalline humour acts as a lens which -focuses images on the retina, explaining short- and long-sight (myopia -and hyper-metropia), with the suggestion that the former may be -corrected by concave, and the latter by convex, lenses. He observed the -spherical aberration due to elements beyond the axis of a lens, and also -the caustics of refraction (diacaustics) by a sphere (seen as the bright -boundaries of the luminous patches formed by receiving the transmitted -light on a screen), which he correctly regarded as determined by the -intersections of the refracted rays. His researches on refraction were -less fruitful; he assumed the angles of incidence and refraction to be -in the constant ratio of 8 to 5, and the rainbow, in which he recognized -four colours, orange, green, blue and purple, to be formed by rays -reflected in the drops along the sides of an octagon. Porta's fame rests -chiefly on his _Magia naturalis sive de miraculis rerum naturalium_, of -which four books were published in 1558, the complete work of twenty -books appearing in 1589. It attained great popularity, perhaps by reason -of its astonishing medley of subjects--pyrotechnics and perfumery, -animal reproduction and hunting, alchemy and optics,--and it was several -times reprinted, and translated into English (with the title _Natural -Magick_, 1658), German, French, Spanish, Hebrew and Arabic. The work -contains an account of the camera obscura, with the invention of which -the author has sometimes been credited; but, whoever the inventor, Porta -was undoubtedly responsible for improving and popularizing that -instrument, and also the magic lantern. In the same work practical -applications of lenses are suggested, combinations comparable with -telescopes are vaguely treated and spectacles are discussed. His _De -Refractione, optices parte_ (1593) contains an account of binocular -vision, in which are found indications of the principle of the -stereoscope. - -S 7. The empirical study of lenses led, in the opening decade of the -17th century, to the emergence of the telescope from its former -obscurity. The first form, known as the Dutch or Galileo telescope, -consisted of a convex and a concave lens, a combination which gave erect -images; the later form, now known as the "Keplerian" or "astronomical" -telescope (in contrast with the earlier or "terrestrial" telescope) -consisted of two convex lenses, which gave inverted images. With the -microscope, too, advances were made, and it seems probable that the -compound type came into common use about this time. These single -instruments were followed by the invention of binoculars, i.e. -instruments which permitted simultaneous vision with both eyes. There is -little doubt that the experimental realization of the telescope, opening -up as it did such immense fields for astronomical research, stimulated -the study of lenses and optical systems. The investigations of -Maurolycus were insufficient to explain the theory of the telescope, and -it was Kepler who first determined the principle of the Galilean -telescope in his _Dioptrice_ (1611), which also contains the first -description of the astronomical or Keplerian telescope, and the -demonstration that rays parallel to the axis of a plano-convex lens come -to a focus at a point on the axis distant twice the radius of the curved -surface of the lens, and, in the case of an equally convex lens, at an -axial point distant only once the radius. He failed, however, to -determine accurately the case for unequally convex lenses, a problem -which was solved by Bonaventura Cavalieri, a pupil of Galileo. - -Early in the 17th century great efforts were made to determine the law -of refraction. Kepler, in his _Prolegomena ad Vitellionem_ (1604), -assiduously, but unsuccessfully, searched for the law, and can only be -credited with twenty-seven empirical rules, really of the nature of -approximations, which he employed in his theory of lenses. The true -law--that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and -refraction is constant--was discovered in 1621 by Willebrord Snell -(1591-1626); but was published for the first time after his death, and -with no mention of his name, by Descartes. Whereas in Snell's manuscript -the law was stated in the form of the ratio of certain lines, -trigonometrically interpretable as a ratio of cosecants, Descartes -expressed the law in its modern trigonometrical form, viz. as the ratio -of the sines. It may be observed that the modern form was independently -obtained by James Gregory and published in his _Optica promota_ (1663). -Armed with the law of refraction, Descartes determined the geometrical -theory of the primary and secondary rainbows, but did not mention how -far he was indebted to the explanation of the primary bow by Antonio de -Dominis in 1611; and, similarly, in his additions to the knowledge of -the telescope the influence of Galileo is not recorded. - -S 8. In his metaphysical speculations on the system of nature, Descartes -formulated a theory of light at variance with the generally accepted -emission theory and showing some resemblance to the earlier views of -Aristotle, and, in a smaller measure, to the modern undulatory theory. -He imagined light to be a pressure transmitted by an infinitely elastic -medium which pervades space, and colour to be due to rotatory motions of -the particles of this medium. He attempted a mechanical explanation of -the law of refraction, and came to the conclusion that light passed more -readily through a more highly refractive medium. This view was combated -by Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), who, from the principle known as the -"law of least time," deduced the converse to be the case, i.e. that the -velocity varied inversely with the refractive index. In brief, Fermat's -argument was as follows: Since nature performs her operations by the -most direct routes or shortest paths, then the path of a ray of light -between any two points must be such that the time occupied in the -passage is a minimum. The rectilinear propagation and the law of -reflection obviously agree with this principle, and it remained to be -proved whether the law of refraction tallied. - -Although Fermat's premiss is useless, his inference is invaluable, and -the most notable application of it was made in about 1824 by Sir William -Rowan Hamilton, who merged it into his conception of the "characteristic -function," by the help of which all optical problems, whether on the -corpuscular or on the undulator theory, are solved by one common -process. Hamilton was in possession of the germs of this grand theory -some years before 1824, but it was first communicated to the Royal Irish -Academy in that year, and published in imperfect instalments some years -later. The following is his own description of it. It is of interest as -exhibiting the origin of Fermat's deduction, its relation to -contemporary and subsequent knowledge, and its connexion with other -analytical principles. Moreover, it is important as showing Hamilton's -views on a very singular part of the more modern history of the science -to which he contributed so much. - - "Those who have meditated on the beauty and utility, in theoretical - mechanics, of the general method of Lagrange, who have felt the power - and dignity of that central dynamical theorem which he deduced, in the - _Mecanique analytique_ ..., must feel that mathematical optics can - only then attain a coordinate rank with mathematical mechanics ..., - when it shall possess an appropriate method, and become the unfolding - of a central idea.... It appears that if a general method in deductive - optics can be attained at all, it must flow from some law or - principle, itself of the highest generality, and among the highest - results of induction.... [This] must be the principle, or law, called - usually the Law of Least Action; suggested by questionable views, but - established on the widest induction, and embracing every known - combination of media, and every straight, or bent, or curved line, - ordinary or extraordinary, along which light (whatever light may be) - extends its influence successively in space and time: namely, that - this linear path of light, from one point to another, is always found - to be such that, if it be compared with the other infinitely various - lines by which in thought and in geometry the same two points might be - connected, a certain integral or sum, called often _Action_, and - depending by fixed rules on the length, and shape, and position of the - path, and on the media which are traversed by it, is less than all the - similar integrals for the other neighbouring lines, or, at least, - possesses, with respect to them, a certain _stationary_ property. From - this Law, then, which may, perhaps, be named the LAW OF STATIONARY - ACTION, it seems that we may most fitly and with best hope set out, in - the synthetic or deductive process and in the search of a mathematical - method. - - "Accordingly, from this known law of least or stationary action I - deduced (long since) another connected and coextensive principle, - which may be called by analogy the LAW OF VARYING ACTION, and which - seems to offer naturally a method such as we are seeking; the one law - being as it were the last step in the ascending scale of induction, - respecting linear paths of light, while the other law may usefully be - made the first in the descending and deductive way. - - "The former of these two laws was discovered in the following manner. - The elementary principle of straight rays showed that light, under the - most simple and usual circumstances, employs the direct, and therefore - the shortest, course to pass from one point to another. Again, it was - a very early discovery (attributed by Laplace to Ptolemy), that, in - the case of a plane mirror, the bent line formed by the incident and - reflected rays is shorter than any other bent line having the same - extremities, and having its point of bending on the mirror. These - facts were thought by some to be instances and results of the - simplicity and economy of nature; and Fermat, whose researches on - maxima and minima are claimed by the Continental mathematicians as the - germ of the differential calculus, sought anxiously to trace some - similar economy in the more complex case of refraction. He believed - that by a metaphysical or cosmological necessity, arising from the - simplicity of the universe, light always takes the course which it can - traverse in the shortest time. To reconcile this metaphysical opinion - with the law of refraction, discovered experimentally by Snellius, - Fermat was led to suppose that the two lengths, or _indices_, which - Snellius had measured on the incident ray prolonged and on the - refracted ray, and had observed to have one common projection on a - refracting plane, are inversely proportional to the two successive - velocities of the light before and after refraction, and therefore - that the velocity of light is diminished on entering those denser - media in which it is observed to approach the perpendicular; for - Fermat believed that the time of propagation of light along a line - bent by refraction was represented by the sum of the two products, of - the incident portion multiplied by the index of the first medium and - of the refracted portion multiplied by the index of the second medium; - because he found, by his mathematical method, that this sum was less, - in the case of a plane refractor, than if light went by any other than - its actual path from one given point to another, and because he - perceived that the supposition of a velocity inversely as the index - reconciled his mathematical discovery of the minimum of the foregoing - sum with his cosmological principle of least time. Descartes attacked - Fermat's opinions respecting light, but Leibnitz zealously defended - them; and Huygens was led, by reasonings of a very different kind, to - adopt Fermat's conclusions of a velocity inversely as the index, and - of a _minimum time_ of propagation of light, in passing from one given - point to another through an ordinary refracting plane. Newton, - however, by his theory of emission and attraction, was led to conclude - that the velocity of light was _directly_, not _inversely_, as the - index, and that it was _increased_ instead of being _diminished_ on - entering a denser medium; a result incompatible with the theorem of - the shortest time in refraction. This theorem of shortest time was - accordingly abandoned by many, and among the rest by Maupertuis, who, - however, proposed in its stead, as a new cosmological principle, that - _celebrated law of least action_ which has since acquired so high a - rank in mathematical physics, by the improvements of Euler and - Lagrange." - -S 9. The second half of the 17th century witnessed developments in the -practice and theory of optics which equal in importance the -mathematical, chemical and astronomical acquisitions of the period. -Original observations were made which led to the discovery, in an -embryonic form, of new properties of light, and the development of -mathematical analysis facilitated the quantitative and theoretical -investigation of these properties. Indeed, mathematical and physical -optics may justly be dated from this time. The phenomenon of -_diffraction_, so named by Grimaldi, and by Newton _inflection_, which -may be described briefly as the spreading out, or deviation, from the -strictly rectilinear path of light passing through a small aperture or -beyond the edge of an opaque object, was discovered by the Italian -Jesuit, Francis Maria Grimaldi (1619-1663), and published in his -_Physico-Mathesis de Lumine_ (1665); at about the same time Newton made -his classical investigation of the spectrum or the band of colours -formed when light is transmitted through a prism,[4] and studied -_interference_ phenomena in the form of the colours of thin and thick -plates, and in the form now termed _Newton's rings_; _double -refraction_, in the form of the dual images of a single object formed by -a rhomb of Iceland spar, was discovered by Bartholinus in 1670; -Huygens's examination of the transmitted beams led to the discovery of -an absence of symmetry now called _polarization_; and the finite -velocity of light was deduced in 1676 by Ole Roemer from the comparison -of the observed and computed times of the eclipses of the moons of -Jupiter. - -These discoveries had a far-reaching influence upon the theoretical -views which had been previously held: for instance, Newton's -recombination of the spectrum by means of a second (inverted) prism -caused the rejection of the earlier view that the prism actually -manufactured the colours, and led to the acceptance of the theory that -the colours were physically present in the white light, the function of -the prism being merely to separate the physical mixture; and Roemer's -discovery of the finite velocity of light introduced the necessity of -considering the momentum of the particles which, on the accepted -emission theory, composed the light. Of greater moment was the -controversy concerning the emission or corpuscular theory championed by -Newton and the undulatory theory presented by Huygens (see section II. -of this article). In order to explain the colours of thin plates Newton -was forced to abandon some of the original simplicity of his theory; and -we may observe that by postulating certain motions for the Newtonian -corpuscles all the phenomena of light can be explained, these motions -aggregating to a transverse displacement, translated longitudinally, and -the corpuscles, at the same time, becoming otiose and being replaced by -a medium in which the vibration is transmitted. In this way the -Newtonian theory may be merged into the undulatory theory. Newton's -results are collected in his _Opticks_, the first edition of which -appeared in 1704. Huygens published his theory in his _Traite de -lumiere_ (1690), where he explained reflection, refraction and double -refraction, but did not elucidate the formation of shadows (which was -readily explicable on the Newtonian hypothesis) or polarization; and it -was this inability to explain polarization which led to Newton's -rejection of the wave theory. The authority of Newton and his masterly -exposition of the corpuscular theory sustained that theory until the -beginning of the 19th century, when it succumbed to the assiduous skill -of Young and Fresnel. - -S 10. Simultaneously with this remarkable development of theoretical and -experimental optics, notable progress was made in the construction of -optical instruments. The increased demand for telescopes, occasioned by -the interest in observational astronomy, led to improvements in the -grinding of lenses (the primary aim being to obtain forms in which -spherical aberration was a minimum), and also to the study of -achromatism, the principles of which followed from Newton's analysis and -synthesis of white light. Kepler's supposition that lenses having the -form of surfaces of revolution of the conic sections would bring rays to -a focus without spherical aberration was investigated by Descartes, and -the success of the latter's demonstration led to the grinding of -ellipsoidal and hyperboloidal lenses, but with disappointing results.[5] -The grinding of spherical lenses was greatly improved by Huygens, who -also attempted to reduce chromatic aberration in the refracting -telescope by introducing a stop (i.e. by restricting the aperture of the -rays); to the same experimenter are due compound eye-pieces, the -invention of which had been previously suggested by Eustachio Divini. -The so-called Huygenian eye-piece is composed of two plano-convex lenses -with their plane faces towards the eye; the field-glass has a focal -length three times that of the eye-glass, and the distance between them -is twice the focal length of the eye-glass. Huygens observed that -spherical aberration was diminished by making the deviations of the rays -at the two lenses equal, and Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich subsequently -pointed out that the combination was achromatic. The true development, -however, of the achromatic refracting telescope, which followed from the -introduction of compound object-glasses giving no dispersion, dates from -about the middle of the 18th century. The difficulty of obtaining lens -systems in which aberrations were minimized, and the theory of Newton -that colour production invariably attended refraction, led to the -manufacture of improved specula which permitted the introduction of -reflecting telescopes. The idea of this type of instrument had -apparently occurred to Marin Mersenne in about 1640, but the first -reflector of note was described in 1663 by James Gregory in his _Optica -promota_; a second type was invented by Newton, and a third in 1672 by -Cassegrain. Slight improvements were made in the microscope, although -the achromatic type did not appear until about 1820, some sixty years -after John Dollond had determined the principle of the achromatic -telescope (see ABERRATION, TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT). - -S 11. Passing over the discovery by Ehrenfried Walther Tschirnhausen -(1651-1708) of the caustics produced by reflection ("catacaustics") and -his experiments with large reflectors and refractors (for the -manufacture of which he established glass-works in Italy); James -Bradley's discovery in 1728 of the "aberration of light," with the -subsequent derivation of the velocity of light, the value agreeing -fairly well with Roemer's estimate; the foundation of scientific -photometry by Pierre Bouguer in an essay published in 1729 and expanded -in 1760 into his _Traite d'optique sur la graduation de la lumiere_; the -publication of John Henry Lambert's treatise on the same subject, -entitled _Photometria, sive de Mensura et Gradibus Luminis, Colorum et -Umbrae_ (1760); and the development of the telescope and other optical -instruments, we arrive at the closing decades of the 18th century. -During the forty years 1780 to 1820 the history of optics is especially -marked by the names of Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel, and in a -lesser degree by Arago, Malus, Sir William Herschel, Fraunhofer, -Wollaston, Biot and Brewster. - -Although the corpuscular theory had been disputed by Benjamin Franklin, -Leonhard Euler and others, the authority of Newton retained for it an -almost general acceptance until the beginning of the 19th century, when -Young and Fresnel instituted their destructive criticism. Basing his -views on the earlier undulatory theories and diffraction phenomena of -Grimaldi and Hooke, Young accepted the Huygenian theory, assuming, from -a false analogy with sound waves, that the wave-disturbance was -longitudinal, and ignoring the suggestion made by Hooke in 1672 that the -direction of the vibration might be transverse, i.e. at right angles to -the direction of the rays. As with Huygens, Young was unable to explain -diffraction correctly, or polarization. But the assumption enabled him -to establish the principle of interference,[6] one of the most fertile -in the science of physical optics. The undulatory theory was also -accepted by Fresnel who, perceiving the inadequacy of the researches of -Huygens and Young, showed in 1818 by an analysis which, however, is not -quite free from objection, that, by assuming that every element of a -wave-surface could act as a source of secondary waves or wavelets, the -diffraction bands were due to the interference of the secondary waves -formed by each element of a primary wave falling upon the edge of an -obstacle or aperture. One consequence of Fresnel's theory was that the -bands were independent of the nature of the diffracting edge--a fact -confirmed by experiment and therefore invalidating Young's theory that -the bands were produced by the interference between the primary wave and -the wave reflected from the edge of the obstacle. Another consequence, -which was first mathematically deduced by Poisson and subsequently -confirmed by experiment, is the paradoxical phenomenon that a small -circular disk illuminated by a point source casts a shadow having a -bright centre. - -S 12. The undulatory theory reached its zenith when Fresnel explained -the complex phenomena of polarization, by adopting the conception of -Hooke that the vibrations were transverse, and not longitudinal.[7] -Polarization by double refraction had been investigated by Huygens, and -the researches of Wollaston and, more especially, of Young, gave such an -impetus to the study that the Institute of France made double refraction -the subject of a prize essay in 1812. E. L. Malus (1775-1812) discovered -the phenomenon of polarization by reflection about 1808 and investigated -metallic reflection; Arago discovered circular polarization in quartz in -1811, and, with Fresnel, made many experimental investigations, which -aided the establishment of the Fresnel-Arago laws of the interference of -polarized beams; Biot introduced a reflecting polariscope, investigated -the colours of crystalline plates and made many careful researches on -the rotation of the plane of polarization; Sir David Brewster made -investigations over a wide range, and formulated the law connecting the -angle of polarization with the refractive index of the reflecting -medium. Fresnel's theory was developed in a strikingly original manner -by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who interpreted from Fresnel's analytical -determination of the geometrical form of the wave-surface in biaxal -crystals the existence of two hitherto unrecorded phenomena. At -Hamilton's instigation Humphrey Lloyd undertook the experimental search, -and brought to light the phenomena of external and internal conical -refraction. - -The undulatory vibration postulated by Fresnel having been generally -accepted as explaining most optical phenomena, it became necessary to -determine the mechanical properties of the aether which transmits this -motion. Fresnel, Neumann, Cauchy, MacCullagh, and, especially, Green and -Stokes, developed the "elastic-solid theory." By applying the theory of -elasticity they endeavoured to determine the constants of a medium which -could transmit waves of the nature of light. Many different allocations -were suggested (of which one of the most recent is Lord Kelvin's -"contractile aether," which, however, was afterwards discarded by its -author), and the theory as left by Green and Stokes has merits other -than purely historical. At a later date theories involving an action -between the aether and material atoms were proposed, the first of any -moment being J. Boussinesq's (1867). C. Christiansen's investigation of -anomalous dispersion in 1870, and the failure of Cauchy's formula -(founded on the elastic-solid theory) to explain this phenomenon, led to -the theories of W. Sellmeier (1872), H. von Helmholtz (1875), E. -Ketteler (1878), E. Lommel (1878) and W. Voigt (1883). A third class of -theory, to which the present-day theory belongs, followed from Clerk -Maxwell's analytical investigations in electromagnetics. Of the greatest -exponents of this theory we may mention H. A. Lorentz, P. Drude and J. -Larmor, while Lord Rayleigh has, with conspicuous brilliancy, explained -several phenomena (e.g. the colour of the sky) on this hypothesis. - - For a critical examination of these theories see section II. of this - article; reference may also be made to the _British Association - Reports_: "On Physical Optics," by Humphrey Lloyd (1834), p. 35; "On - Double Refraction," by Sir G. G. Stokes (1862), p. 253; "On Optical - Theories," by R. T. Glazebrook (1885), p. 157. - -S 13. _Recent Developments._--The determination of the velocity of light -(see section III. of this article) may be regarded as definitely -settled, a result contributed to by A. H. L. Fizeau (1849), J. B. L. -Foucault (1850, 1862), A. Cornu (1874), A. A. Michelson (1880), James -Young and George Forbes (1882), Simon Newcomb (1880-1882) and Cornu -(1900). The velocity in moving media was investigated theoretically by -Fresnel; and Fizeau (1859), and Michelson and Morley (1886) showed -experimentally that the velocity was increased in running water by an -amount agreeing with Fresnel's formula, which was based on the -hypothesis of a stationary aether. The optics of moving media have also -been investigated by Lord Rayleigh, and more especially by H. A. -Lorentz, who also assumed a stationary aether. The relative motion of -the earth and the aether has an important connexion with the phenomenon -of the aberration of light, and has been treated with masterly skill by -Joseph Larmor and others (see AETHER). The relation of the earth's -motion to the intensities of terrestrial sources of light was -investigated theoretically by Fizeau, but no experimental inquiry was -made until 1903, when Nordmeyer obtained negative results, which were -confirmed by the theoretical investigations of A. A. Bucherer and H. A. -Lorentz. - -Experimental photometry has been greatly developed since the pioneer work -of Bouguer and Lambert and the subsequent introduction of the photometers -of Ritchie, Rumford, Bunsen and Wheatstone, followed by Swan's in 1859, -and O. R. Lummer and E. Brodhun's instrument (essentially the same as -Swan's) in 1889. This expansion may largely be attributed to the increase -in the number of artificial illuminants--especially the many types of -filament- and arc-electric lights, and the incandescent gas light. Colour -photometry has also been notably developed, especially since the -enunciation of the "Purkinje phenomenon" in 1825. Sir William Abney has -contributed much to this subject, and A. M. Meyer has designed a -photometer in which advantage is taken of the phenomenon of contrast -colours. "Flicker photometry" may be dated from O. N. Rood's -investigations in 1893, and the same principle has been applied by -Haycraft and Whitman. These questions--colour and flicker -photometry--have important affinities to colour perception and the -persistence of vision (see VISION). The spectrophotometer, devised by De -Witt Bristol Brace in 1899, which permits the comparison of similarly -coloured portions of the spectra from two different sources, has done -much valuable work in the determination of absorptive powers and -extinction coefficients. Much attention has also been given to the -preparation of a standard of intensity, and many different sources have -been introduced (see PHOTOMETRY). Stellar photometry, which was first -investigated instrumentally with success by Sir John Herschel, was -greatly improved by the introduction of Zollner's photometer, E. C. -Pickering's meridian photometer and C. Pritchard's wedge photometer. -Other methods of research in this field are by photography--photographic -photometry--and radiometric method (see PHOTOMETRY, CELESTIAL). - -The earlier methods for the experimental determination of refractive -indices by measuring the deviation through a solid prism of the -substance in question or, in the case of liquids, through a hollow prism -containing the liquid, have been replaced in most accurate work by other -methods. The method of total reflection, due originally to Wollaston, -has been put into a very convenient form, applicable to both solids and -liquids, in the Pulfrich refractometer (see REFRACTION). Still more -accurate methods, based on interference phenomena, have been devised. -Jamin's interference refractometer is one of the earlier forms of such -apparatus; and Michelson's interferometer is one of the best of later -types (see INTERFERENCE). The variation of refractive index with density -has been the subject of much experimental and theoretical inquiry. The -empirical rule of Gladstone and Dale was often at variance with -experiment, and the mathematical investigations of H. A. Lorentz of -Leiden and L. Lorenz of Copenhagen on the electromagnetic theory led to -a more consistent formula. The experimental work has been chiefly -associated with the names of H. H. Landolt and J. W. Bruhl, whose -results, in addition to verifying the Lorenz-Lorentz formula, have -established that this function of the refractive index and density is a -colligative property of the molecule, i.e. it is calculable additively -from the values of this function for the component atoms, allowance -being made for the mode in which they are mutually combined (see -CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL). The preparation of lenses, in which the refractive -index decreases with the distance from the axis, by K. F. J. Exner, H. -F. L. Matthiessen and Schott, and the curious results of refraction by -non-homogeneous media, as realized by R. Wood may be mentioned (see -MIRAGE). - -The spectrum of white light produced by prismatic refraction has engaged -many investigators. The infra-red or heat waves were discovered by Sir -William Herschel, and experiments on the actinic effects of the -different parts of the spectrum on silver salts by Scheele, Senebier, -Ritter, Seebeck and others, proved the increased activity as one passed -from the red to the violet and the ultra-violet. Wollaston also made -many investigations in this field, noticing the dark lines--the -"Fraunhofer lines"--which cross the solar spectrum, which were further -discussed by Brewster and Fraunhofer, who thereby laid the foundations -of modern spectroscopy. Mention may also be made of the investigations -of Lord Rayleigh and Arthur Schuster on the resolving power of prisms -(see DIFFRACTION), and also of the modern view of the function of the -prism in analysing white light. The infra-red and ultra-violet rays are -of especial interest since, although not affecting vision after the -manner of ordinary light, they possess very remarkable properties. -Theoretical investigation on the undulatory theory of the law of -reflection shows that a surface, too rough to give any trace of regular -reflection with ordinary light, may regularly reflect the long waves, a -phenomenon experimentally realized by Lord Rayleigh. Long waves--the -so-called "residual rays" or "_Rest-strahlen_"--have also been isolated -by repeated reflections from quartz surfaces of the light from zirconia -raised to incandescence by the oxyhydrogen flame (E. F. Nichols and H. -Rubens); far longer waves were isolated by similar reflections from -fluorite (56 [mu]) and sylvite (61 [mu]) surfaces in 1899 by Rubens and -E. Aschkinass. The short waves--ultra-violet rays--have also been -studied, the researches of E. F. Nichols on the transparency of quartz -to these rays, which are especially present in the radiations of the -mercury arc, having led to the introduction of lamps made of fused -quartz, thus permitting the convenient study of these rays, which, it is -to be noted, are absorbed by ordinary clear glass. Recent researches at -the works of Schott and Genossen, Jena, however, have resulted in the -production of a glass transparent to the ultra-violet. - -Dispersion, i.e. that property of a substance which consists in having a -different refractive index for rays of different wave-lengths, was first -studied in the form known as "ordinary dispersion" in which the -refrangibility of the ray increased with the wave-length. Cases had been -observed by Fox Talbot, Le Roux, and especially by Christiansen (1870) -and A. Kundt (1871-1872) where this normal rule did not hold; to such -phenomena the name "anomalous dispersion" was given, but really there is -nothing anomalous about it at all, ordinary dispersion being merely a -particular case of the general phenomenon. The Cauchy formula, which was -founded on the elastic-solid theory, did not agree with the experimental -facts, and the germs of the modern theory, as was pointed out by Lord -Rayleigh in 1900, were embodied in a question proposed by Clerk Maxwell -for the Mathematical Tripos examination for 1869. The principle, which -occurred simultaneously to W. Sellmeier (who is regarded as the founder -of the modern theory) and had been employed about 1850 by Sir G. G. -Stokes to explain absorption lines, involves an action between the -aether and the molecules of the dispersing substance. The mathematical -investigation is associated with the names of Sellmeier, Hermann -Helmholtz, Eduard Ketteler, P. Drude, H. A. Lorentz and Lord Rayleigh, -and the experimental side with many observers--F. Paschen, Rubens and -others; absorbing media have been investigated by A. W. Pfluger, a great -many aniline dyes by K. Stockl, and sodium vapour by R. W. Wood. Mention -may also be made of the beautiful experiments of Christiansen (1884) and -Lord Rayleigh on the colours transmitted by white powders suspended in -liquids of the same refractive index. If, for instance, benzol be -gradually added to finely powdered quartz, a succession of beautiful -colours--red, yellow, green and finally blue--is transmitted, or, under -certain conditions, the colours may appear at once, causing the mixture -to flash like a fiery opal. Absorption, too, has received much -attention; the theory has been especially elaborated by M. Planck, and -the experimental investigation has been prosecuted from the purely -physical standpoint, and also from the standpoint of the physical -chemist, with a view to correlating absorption with constitution. - -Interference phenomena have been assiduously studied. The experiments -of Young, Fresnel, Lloyd, Fizeau and Foucault, of Fresnel and Arago on -the measurement of refractive indices by the shift of the interference -bands, of H. F. Talbot on the "Talbot bands" (which he insufficiently -explained on the principle of interference, it being shown by Sir G. B. -Airy that diffraction phenomena supervene), of Baden-Powell on the -"Powell bands," of David Brewster on "Brewster's bands," have been -developed, together with many other phenomena--Newton's rings, the -colours of thin, thick and mixed plates, &c.--in a striking manner, one -of the most important results being the construction of interferometers -applicable to the determination of refractive indices and wave-lengths, -with which the names of Jamin, Michelson, Fabry and Perot, and of Lummer -and E. Gehrcke are chiefly associated. The mathematical investigations -of Fresnel may be regarded as being completed by the analysis chiefly -due to Airy, Stokes and Lord Rayleigh. Mention may be made of Sir G. G. -Stokes' attribution of the colours of iridescent crystals to periodic -twinning; this view has been confirmed by Lord Rayleigh (_Phil. Mag._, -1888) who, from the purity of the reflected light, concluded that the -laminae were equidistant by the order of a wave-length. Prior to 1891 -only interference between waves proceeding in the same direction had -been studied. In that year Otto H. Wiener obtained, on a film 1/20th of -a wave-length in thickness, photographic impressions of the stationary -waves formed by the interference of waves proceeding in opposite -directions, and in 1892 Drude and Nernst employed a fluorescent film to -record the same phenomenon. This principle is applied in the Lippmann -colour photography, which was suggested by W. Zenker, realized by -Gabriel Lippmann, and further investigated by R. G. Neuhauss, O. H. -Wiener, H. Lehmann and others. - -Great progress has been made in the study of diffraction, and "this -department of optics is precisely the one in which the wave theory has -secured its greatest triumphs" (Lord Rayleigh). The mathematical -investigations of Fresnel and Poisson were placed on a dynamical basis -by Sir G. G. Stokes; and the results gained more ready interpretation by -the introduction of "Babinet's principle" in 1837, and Cornu's graphic -methods in 1874. The theory also gained by the researches of Fraunhofer, -Airy, Schwerd, E. Lommel and others. The theory of the concave grating, -which resulted from H. A. Rowland's classical methods of ruling lines of -the necessary nature and number on curved surfaces, was worked out by -Rowland, E. Mascart, C. Runge and others. The resolving power and the -intensity of the spectra have been treated by Lord Rayleigh and Arthur -Schuster, and more recently (1905), the distribution of light has been -treated by A. B. Porter. The theory of diffraction is of great -importance in designing optical instruments, the theory of which has -been more especially treated by Ernst Abbe (whose theory of microscopic -vision dates from about 1870) by the scientific staff at the Zeiss -works, Jena, by Rayleigh and others. The theory of coronae (as -diffraction phenomena) was originally due to Young, who, from the -principle involved, devised the _eriometer_ for measuring the diameters -of very small objects; and Sir G. G. Stokes subsequently explained the -appearances presented by minute opaque particles borne on a transparent -plate. The polarization of the light diffracted at a slit was noted in -1861 by Fizeau, whose researches were extended in 1892 by H. Du Bois, -and, for the case of gratings, by Du Bois and Rubens in 1904. The -diffraction of light by small particles was studied in the form of very -fine chemical precipitates by John Tyndall, who noticed the polarization -of the beautiful cerulean blue which was transmitted. This subject--one -form of which is presented in the blue colour of the sky--has been most -auspiciously treated by Lord Rayleigh on both the elastic-solid and -electromagnetic theories. Mention may be made of R. W. Wood's -experiments on thin metal films which, under certain conditions, -originate colour phenomena inexplicable by interference and diffraction. -These colours have been assigned to the principle of optical resonance, -and have been treated by Kossonogov (_Phys. Zeit._, 1903). J. C. Maxwell -Garnett (_Phil. Trans_. vol. 203) has shown that the colours of coloured -glasses are due to ultra-microscopic particles, which have been -directly studied by H. Siedentopf and R. Zsigmondy under limiting -oblique illumination. - -Polarization phenomena may, with great justification, be regarded as the -most engrossing subject of optical research during the 19th century; the -assiduity with which it was cultivated in the opening decades of that -century received a great stimulus when James Nicol devised in 1828 the -famous "Nicol prism," which greatly facilitated the determination of the -plane of vibration of polarized light, and the facts that light is -polarized by reflection, repeated refractions, double refraction and by -diffraction also contributed to the interest which the subject excited. -The rotation of the plane of polarization by quartz was discovered in -1811 by Arago; if white light be used the colours change as the Nicol -rotates--a phenomenon termed by Biot "rotatory dispersion." Fresnel -regarded rotatory polarization as compounded from right- and left-handed -(dextro- and laevo-) circular polarizations; and Fresnel, Cornu, Dove -and Cotton effected their experimental separation. Legrand des Cloizeaux -discovered the enormously enhanced rotatory polarization of cinnabar, a -property also possessed--but in a lesser degree--by the sulphates of -strychnine and ethylene diamine. The rotatory power of certain liquids -was discovered by Biot in 1815; and at a later date it was found that -many solutions behaved similarly. A. Schuster distinguishes substances -with regard to their action on polarized light as follows: substances -which act in the isotropic state are termed _photogyric_; if the -rotation be associated with crystal structure, _crystallogyric_; if the -rotation be due to a magnetic field, _magnetogyric_; for cases not -hitherto included the term _allogyric_ is employed, while optically -inactive substances are called _isogyric_. The theory of photogyric and -crystallogyric rotation has been worked out on the elastic-solid -(MacCullagh and others) and on the electromagnetic hypotheses (P. Drude, -Cotton, &c.). Allogyrism is due to a symmetry of the molecule, and is a -subject of the greatest importance in modern (and, more especially, -organic) chemistry (see STEREOISOMERISM). - -The optical properties of metals have been the subject of much -experimental and theoretical inquiry. The explanations of MacCullagh and -Cauchy were followed by those of Beer, Eisenlohr, Lundquist, Ketteler -and others; the refractive indices were determined both directly (by -Kundt) and indirectly by means of Brewster's law; and the reflecting -powers from [lambda] = 251 [mu][mu] to [lambda] = 1500 [mu][mu] were -determined in 1900-1902 by Rubens and Hagen. The correlation of the -optical and electrical constants of many metals has been especially -studied by P. Drude (1900) and by Rubens and Hagen (1903). - -The transformations of luminous radiations have also been studied. John -Tyndall discovered calorescence. Fluorescence was treated by John -Herschel in 1845, and by David Brewster in 1846, the theory being due to -Sir G. G. Stokes (1852). More recent studies have been made by Lommel, -E. L. Nichols and Merritt (_Phys. Rev._, 1904), and by Millikan who -discovered polarized fluorescence in 1895. Our knowledge of -phosphorescence was greatly improved by Becquerel, and Sir James Dewar -obtained interesting results in the course of his low temperature -researches (see LIQUID GASES). In the theoretical and experimental study -of radiation enormous progress has been recorded. The pressure of -radiation, the necessity of which was demonstrated by Clerk Maxwell on -the electromagnetic theory, and, in a simpler manner, by Joseph Larmor -in his article RADIATION in these volumes, has been experimentally -determined by E. F. Nichols and Hull, and the tangential component by J. -H. Poynting. With the theoretical and practical investigation the names -of Balfour Stewart, Kirchhoff, Stefan, Bartoli, Boltzmann, W. Wien and -Larmor are chiefly associated. Magneto-optics, too, has been greatly -developed since Faraday's discovery of the rotation of the plane of -polarization by the magnetic field. The rotation for many substances was -measured by Sir William H. Perkin, who attempted a correlation between -rotation and composition. Brace effected the analysis of the beam into -its two circularly polarized components, and in 1904 Mills measured -their velocities. The Kerr effect, discovered in 1877, and the Zeeman -effect (1896) widened the field of research, which, from its intimate -connexion with the nature of light and electromagnetics, has resulted in -discoveries of the greatest importance. - -S 14. _Optical Instruments._--Important developments have been made in -the construction and applications of optical instruments. To these three -factors have contributed. The mathematician has quantitatively analysed -the phenomena observed by the physicist, and has inductively shown what -results are to be expected from certain optical systems. A consequence -of this was the detailed study, and also the preparation, of glasses of -diverse properties; to this the chemist largely contributed, and the -manufacture of the so-called _optical glass_ (see GLASS) is possibly the -most scientific department of glass manufacture. The mathematical -investigations of lenses owe much to Gauss, Helmholtz and others, but -far more to Abbe, who introduced the method of studying the aberrations -separately, and applied his results with conspicuous skill to the -construction of optical systems. The development of Abbe's methods -constitutes the main subject of research of the present-day optician, -and has brought about the production of telescopes, microscopes, -photographic lenses and other optical apparatus to an unprecedented -pitch of excellence. Great improvements have been effected in the -stereoscope. Binocular instruments with enhanced stereoscopic vision, an -effect achieved by increasing the distance between the object glasses, -have been introduced. In the study of diffraction phenomena, which led -to the technical preparation of gratings, the early attempts of -Fraunhofer, Nobert and Lewis Morris Rutherfurd, were followed by H. A. -Rowland's ruling of plane and concave gratings which revolutionized -spectroscopic research, and, in 1898, by Michelson's invention of the -echelon grating. Of great importance are interferometers, which permit -extremely accurate determinations of refractive indices and -wave-lengths, and Michelson, from his classical evaluation of the -standard metre in terms of the wave-lengths of certain of the cadmium -rays, has suggested the adoption of the wave-length of one such ray as a -standard with which national standards of length should be compared. -Polarization phenomena, and particularly the rotation of the plane of -polarization by such substances as sugar solutions, have led to the -invention and improvements of polarimeters. The polarized light employed -in such instruments is invariably obtained by transmission through a -fixed Nicol prism--the polarizer--and the deviation is measured by the -rotation of a second Nicol--the analyser. The early forms, which were -termed "light and shade" polarimeters, have been generally replaced by -"half-shade" instruments. Mention may also be made of the microscopic -examination of objects in polarized light, the importance of which as a -method of crystallographic and petrological research was suggested by -Nicol, developed by Sorby and greatly expanded by Zirkel, Rosenbusch and -others. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There are numerous text-books which give elementary - expositions of light and optical phenomena. More advanced works, which - deal with the subject experimentally and mathematically, are A. B. - Bassett, _Treatise on Physical Optics_ (1892); Thomas Preston, _Theory - of Light_, 2nd ed. by C. F. Joly (1901); R. W. Wood, _Physical Optics_ - (1905), which contains expositions on the electromagnetic theory, and - treats "dispersion" in great detail. Treatises more particularly - theoretical are James Walker, _Analytical Theory of Light_ (1904); A. - Schuster, _Theory of Optics_ (1904); P. Drude, _Theory of Optics_, - Eng. trans. by C. R. Mann and R. A. Millikan (1902). General treatises - of exceptional merit are A. Winkelmann, _Handbuch der Physik_, vol. - vi. "Optik" (1904); and E. Mascart, _Traite d'optique_ (1889-1893); M. - E. Verdet, _Lecons d'optique physique_ (1869, 1872) is also a valuable - work. Geometrical optics is treated in R. S. Heath, _Geometrical - Optics_ (2nd ed., 1898); H. A. Herman, _Treatise on Geometrical - Optics_ (1900). Applied optics, particularly with regard to the theory - of optical instruments, is treated in H. D. Taylor, _A System of - Applied Optics_ (1906); E. T. Whittaker, _The Theory of Optical - Instruments_ (1907); in the publications of the scientific staff of - the Zeiss works at Jena: _Die Theorie der optischen Instrumente_, vol. - i. "Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten" (1904); in S. - Czapski, _Theorie der optischen Instrumente_, 2nd ed. by O. Eppenstein - (1904); and in A. Steinheil and E. Voit, _Handbuch der angewandten - Optik_ (1901). The mathematical theory of general optics receives - historical and modern treatment in the _Encyklopadie der - mathematischen Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig). Meteorological optics is - fully treated in J. Pernter, _Meteorologische Optik_; and - physiological optics in H. v Helmholtz, _Handbuch der physiologischen - Optik_ (1896) and in A. Koenig, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur - physiologischen Optik_ (1903). - - The history of the subject may be studied in J. C. Poggendorff, - _Geschichte der Physik_ (1879); F. Rosenberger, _Die Geschichte der - Physik_ (1882-1890); E. Gerland and F. Traumuller, _Geschichte der - physikalischen Experimentierkunst_ (1899); reference may also be made - to Joseph Priestley, _History and Present State of Discoveries - relating to Vision, Light and Colours_ (1772), German translation by - G. S. Klugel (Leipzig, 1775). Original memoirs are available in many - cases in their author's "collected works," e.g. Huygens, Young, - Fresnel, Hamilton, Cauchy, Rowland, Clerk Maxwell, Stokes (and also - his _Burnett Lectures on Light_), Kelvin (and also his _Baltimore - Lectures_, 1904) and Lord Rayleigh. Newton's _Opticks_ forms volumes - 96 and 97 of Ostwald's Klassiker; Huygens' _Uber d. Licht_ (1678), - vol. 20, and Kepler's _Dioptrice_ (1611), vol. 144 of the same series. - - Contemporary progress is reported in current scientific journals, e.g. - the _Transactions_ and _Proceedings_ of the Royal Society, and of the - Physical Society (London), the _Philosophical Magazine_ (London), the - _Physical Review_ (New York, 1893 seq.) and in the _British - Association Reports_; in the _Annales de chimie et de physique and - Journal de physique_ (Paris); and in the _Physikalische Zeitschrift_ - (Leipzig) and the _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_ (since 1900: - _Annalen der Physik_) (Leipzig). (C. E.*) - - -II. NATURE OF LIGHT - -1. _Newton's Corpuscular Theory._--Until the beginning of the 19th -century physicists were divided between two different views concerning -the nature of optical phenomena. According to the one, luminous bodies -emit extremely small corpuscles which can freely pass through -transparent substances and produce the sensation of light by their -impact against the retina. This _emission_ or _corpuscular theory_ of -light was supported by the authority of Isaac Newton,[8] and, though it -has been entirely superseded by its rival, the _wave-theory_, it remains -of considerable historical interest. - -2. _Explanation of Reflection and Refraction._--Newton supposed the -light-corpuscles to be subjected to attractive and repulsive forces -exerted at very small distances by the particles of matter. In the -interior of a homogeneous body a corpuscle moves in a straight line as -it is equally acted on from all sides, but it changes its course at the -boundary of two bodies, because, in a thin layer near the surface there -is a resultant force in the direction of the normal. In modern language -we may say that a corpuscle has at every point a definite potential -energy, the value of which is constant throughout the interior of a -homogeneous body, and is even equal in all bodies of the same kind, but -changes from one substance to another. If, originally, while moving in -air, the corpuscles had a definite velocity v0, their velocity v in the -interior of any other substance is quite determinate. It is given by the -equation (1/2)mv^2 - (1/2)mv0^2 = A, in which m denotes the mass of a -corpuscle, and A the excess of its potential energy in air over that in -the substance considered. - - A ray of light falling on the surface of separation of two bodies is - reflected according to the well-known simple law, if the corpuscles - are acted on by a sufficiently large force directed towards the first - medium. On the contrary, whenever the field of force near the surface - is such that the corpuscles can penetrate into the interior of the - second body, the ray is refracted. In this case the law of Snellius - can be deduced from the consideration that the projection w of the - velocity on the surface of separation is not altered, either in - direction or in magnitude. This obviously requires that the plane - passing through the incident and the refracted rays be normal to the - surface, and that, if [alpha]1 and [alpha]2 are the angles of - incidence and of refraction, v1 and v2 the velocities of light in the - two media, - - sin [alpha]1/sin [alpha]2 = w/v1 : w/v2 = v2/v1. (1) - - The ratio is constant, because, as has already been observed, v1 and - v2 have definite values. - - As to the unequal refrangibility of differently coloured light, Newton - accounted for it by imagining different kinds of corpuscles. He - further carefully examined the phenomenon of total reflection, and - described an interesting experiment connected with it. If one of the - faces of a glass prism receives on the inside a beam of light of such - obliquity that it is totally reflected under ordinary circumstances, - a marked change is observed when a second piece of glass is made to - approach the reflecting face, so as to be separated from it only by a - very thin layer of air. The reflection is then found no longer to be - total, part of the light finding its way into the second piece of - glass. Newton concluded from this that the corpuscles are attracted by - the glass even at a certain small measurable distance. - -3. _New Hypotheses in the Corpuscular Theory._--The preceding -explanation of reflection and refraction is open to a very serious -objection. If the particles in a beam of light all moved with the same -velocity and were acted on by the same forces, they all ought to follow -exactly the same path. In order to understand that part of the incident -light is reflected and part of it transmitted, Newton imagined that each -corpuscle undergoes certain alternating changes; he assumed that in some -of its different "phases" it is more apt to be reflected, and in others -more apt to be transmitted. The same idea was applied by him to the -phenomena presented by very thin layers. He had observed that a gradual -increase of the thickness of a layer produces periodic changes in the -intensity of the reflected light, and he very ingeniously explained -these by his theory. It is clear that the intensity of the transmitted -light will be a minimum if the corpuscles that have traversed the front -surface of the layer, having reached that surface while in their phase -of easy transmission, have passed to the opposite phase the moment they -arrive at the back surface. As to the nature of the alternating phases, -Newton (_Opticks_, 3rd ed., 1721, p. 347) expresses himself as -follows:--"Nothing more is requisite for putting the Rays of Light into -Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission than that they be small -Bodies which by their attractive Powers, or some other Force, stir up -Vibrations in what they act upon, which Vibrations being swifter than -the Rays, overtake them successively, and agitate them so as by turns to -increase and decrease their Velocities, and thereby put them into those -Fits." - -4. _The Corpuscular Theory and the Wave-Theory compared._--Though Newton -introduced the notion of periodic changes, which was to play so -prominent a part in the later development of the wave-theory, he -rejected this theory in the form in which it had been set forth shortly -before by Christiaan Huygens in his _Traite de la lumiere_ (1690), his -chief objections being: (1) that the rectilinear propagation had not -been satisfactorily accounted for; (2) that the motions of heavenly -bodies show no sign of a resistance due to a medium filling all space; -and (3) that Huygens had not sufficiently explained the peculiar -properties of the rays produced by the double refraction in Iceland -spar. In Newton's days these objections were of much weight. - -Yet his own theory had many weaknesses. It explained the propagation in -straight lines, but it could assign no cause for the equality of the -speed of propagation of all rays. It adapted itself to a large variety -of phenomena, even to that of double refraction (Newton says -[ibid.]:--"... the unusual Refraction of Iceland Crystal looks very much -as if it were perform'd by some kind of attractive virtue lodged in -certain Sides both of the Rays, and of the Particles of the Crystal."), -but it could do so only at the price of losing much of its original -simplicity. - -In the earlier part of the 19th century, the corpuscular theory broke -down under the weight of experimental evidence, and it received the -final blow when J. B. L. Foucault proved by direct experiment that the -velocity of light in water is not greater than that in air, as it should -be according to the formula (1), but less than it, as is required by the -wave-theory. - -5. _General Theorems on Rays of Light._--With the aid of suitable -assumptions the Newtonian theory can accurately trace the course of a -ray of light in any system of isotropic bodies, whether homogeneous or -otherwise; the problem being equivalent to that of determining the -motion of a material point in a space in which its potential energy is -given as a function of the coordinates. The application of the dynamical -principles of "least and of varying action" to this latter problem leads -to the following important theorems which William Rowan Hamilton made -the basis of his exhaustive treatment of systems of rays.[9] The total -energy of a corpuscle is supposed to have a given value, so that, since -the potential energy is considered as known at every point, the velocity -v is so likewise. - - (a) The path along which light travels from a point A to a point B is - determined by the condition that for this line the integral [int]v ds, - in which ds is an element of the line, be a minimum (provided A and B - be not too near each other). Therefore, since v = [mu]v0, if v0 is the - velocity of light _in vacuo_ and [mu] the index of refraction, we have - for every variation of the path the points A and B remaining fixed, - - [delta][int][mu] ds = 0. (2) - - (b) Let the point A be kept fixed, but let B undergo an infinitely - small displacement BB' (=q) in a direction making an angle [theta] - with the last element of the ray AB. Then, comparing the new ray AB' - with the original one, it follows that - - [delta][int][mu] ds = [mu]_B q cos [theta], (3) - - where [mu]_B is the value of [mu] at the point B. - -6. _General Considerations on the Propagation of Waves._--"Waves," i.e. -local disturbances of equilibrium travelling onward with a certain -speed, can exist in a large variety of systems. In a theory of these -phenomena, the state of things at a definite point may in general be -defined by a certain directed or vector quantity P,[10] which is zero in -the state of equilibrium, and may be called the disturbance (for -example, the velocity of the air in the case of sound vibrations, or the -displacement of the particles of an elastic body from their positions of -equilibrium). The components P_x, P_y, P_z of the disturbance in the -directions of the axes of coordinates are to be considered as functions -of the coordinates x, y, z and the time t, determined by a set of -partial differential equations, whose form depends on the nature of the -problem considered. If the equations are homogeneous and linear, as they -always are for sufficiently small disturbances, the following theorems -hold. - - (a) Values of P_x, P_y, P_z (expressed in terms of x, y, z, t) which - satisfy the equations will do so still after multiplication by a - common arbitrary constant. - - (b) Two or more solutions of the equations may be combined into a new - solution by addition of the values of P_x, those of P_y, &c., i.e. by - compounding the vectors P, such as they are in each of the particular - solutions. - - In the application to light, the first proposition means that the - phenomena of propagation, reflection, refraction, &c., can be produced - in the same way with strong as with weak light. The second proposition - contains the principle of the "superposition" of different states, on - which the explanation of all phenomena of interference is made to - depend. - - In the simplest cases (monochromatic or homogeneous light) the - disturbance is a simple harmonic function of the time ("simple - harmonic vibrations"), so that its components can be represented by - - P_x = a1 cos (nt + f1), - P_y = a2 cos (nt + f2), - P_z = a3 cos (nt + f3). - - The "phases" of these vibrations are determined by the angles nt + f1, - &c., or by the times t + f1/n, &c. The "frequency" n is constant - throughout the system, while the quantities f1, f2, f3, and perhaps - the "amplitudes" a1, a2, a3 change from point to point. It may be - shown that the end of a straight line representing the vector P, and - drawn from the point considered, in general describes a certain - ellipse, which becomes a straight line, if f1 = f2 = f3. In this - latter case, to which the larger part of this article will be - confined, we can write in vector notation - - P = A cos (nt + f), (4) - - where A itself is to be regarded as a vector. - - We have next to consider the way in which the disturbance changes from - point to point. The most important case is that of plane waves with - constant amplitude A. Here f is the same at all points of a plane - ("wave-front") of a definite direction, but changes as a linear - function as we pass from one such wave-front to the next. The axis of - x being drawn at right angles to the wave-fronts, we may write f = f0 - - kx, where f0 and k are constants, so that (4) becomes - - P = A cos (nt - kx + f0). (5) - - This expression has the period 2[pi]/n with respect to the time and - the perion 2[pi]/k with respect to x, so that the "time of vibration" - and the "wave-length" are given by T = 2[pi]/n, [lambda] = 2[pi]/k. - Further, it is easily seen that the phase belonging to certain values - of x and t is equal to that which corresponds to x + [Delta]x and t + - [Delta]t provided [Delta]x = (n/k)[Delta]t. Therefore the phase, or - the disturbance itself, may be said to be propagated in the direction - normal to the wave-fronts with a velocity (velocity of the waves) v = - n/k, which is connected with the time of vibration and the wave-length - by the relation - - [lambda] = vT. (6) - - In isotropic bodies the propagation can go on in all directions with - the same velocity. In anisotropic bodies (crystals), with which the - theory of light is largely concerned, the problem is more complicated. - As a general rule we can say that, for a given direction of the - wave-fronts, the vibrations must have a determinate direction, if the - propagation is to take place according to the simple formula given - above. It is to be understood that for a given direction of the waves - there may be two or even more directions of vibration of the kind, and - that in such a case there are as many different velocities, each - belonging to one particular direction of vibration. - -7. _Wave-surface._--After having found the values of v for a particular -frequency and different directions of the wave-normal, a very -instructive graphical representation can be employed. - - Let ON be a line in any direction, drawn from a fixed point O, OA a - length along this line equal to the velocity v of waves having ON for - their normal, or, more generally, OA, OA', &c., lengths equal to the - velocities v, v', &c., which such waves have according to their - direction of vibration, Q, Q', &c., planes perpendicular to ON through - A, A^1, &c. Let this construction be repeated for all directions of - ON, and let W be the surface that is touched by all the planes Q, Q', - &c. It is clear that if this surface, which is called the - "wave-surface," is known, the velocity of propagation of plane waves - of any chosen direction is given by the length of the perpendicular - from the centre O on a tangent plane in the given direction. It must - be kept in mind that, in general, each tangent plane corresponds to - one definite direction of vibration. If this direction is assigned in - each point of the wave-surface, the diagram contains all the - information which we can desire concerning the propagation of plane - waves of the frequency that has been chosen. - - The plane Q employed in the above construction is the position after - unit of time of a wave-front perpendicular to ON and originally - passing through the point O. The surface W itself is often considered - as the locus of all points that are reached in unit of time by a - disturbance starting from O and spreading towards all sides. Admitting - the validity of this view, we can determine in a similar way the locus - of the points reached in some infinitely short time dt, the - wave-surface, as we may say, or the "elementary wave," corresponding - to this time. It is similar to W, all dimensions of the latter surface - being multiplied by dt. It may be noticed that in a heterogeneous - medium a wave of this kind has the same form as if the properties of - matter existing at its centre extended over a finite space. - -8. _Theory of Huygens._--Huygens was the first to show that the -explanation of optical phenomena may be made to depend on the -wave-surface, not only in isotropic bodies, in which it has a spherical -form, but also in crystals, for one of which (Iceland spar) he deduced -the form of the surface from the observed double refraction. In his -argument Huygens availed himself of the following principle that is -justly named after him: Any point that is reached by a wave of light -becomes a new centre of radiation from which the disturbance is -propagated towards all sides. On this basis he determined the progress -of light-waves by a construction which, under a restriction to be -mentioned in S 13, applied to waves of any form and to all kinds of -transparent media. Let [sigma] be the surface (wave-front) to which a -definite phase of vibration has advanced at a certain time t, dt an -infinitely small increment of time, and let an elementary wave -corresponding to this interval be described around each point P of -[sigma]. Then the envelope [sigma]' of all these elementary waves is the -surface reached by the phase in question at the time t + dt, and by -repeating the construction all successive positions of the wave-front -can be found. - - Huygens also considered the propagation of waves that are laterally - limited, by having passed, for example, through an opening in an - opaque screen. If, in the first wave-front [sigma], the disturbance - exists only in a certain part bounded by the contour s, we can confine - ourselves to the elementary waves around the points of that part, and - to a portion of the new wave-front [sigma]' whose boundary passes - through the points where [sigma]' touches the elementary waves having - their centres on s. Taking for granted Huygens's assumption that a - sensible disturbance is only found in those places where the - elementary waves are touched by the new wave-front, it may be inferred - that the lateral limits of the beam of light are determined by lines, - each element of which joins the centre P of an elementary wave with - its point of contact P' with the next wave-front. To lines of this - kind, whose course can be made visible by using narrow pencils of - light, the name of "rays" is to be given in the wave-theory. The - disturbance may be conceived to travel along them with a velocity u = - PP'/dt, which is therefore called the "ray-velocity." - - The construction shows that, corresponding to each direction of the - wave-front (with a determinate direction of vibration), there is a - definite direction and a definite velocity of the ray. Both are given - by a line drawn from the centre of the wave-surface to its point of - contact with a tangent plane of the given direction. It will be - convenient to say that this line and the plane are conjugate with each - other. The rays of light, curved in non-homogeneous bodies, are always - straight lines in homogeneous substances. In an isotropic medium, - whether homogeneous or otherwise, they are normal to the wave-fronts, - and their velocity is equal to that of the waves. - - By applying his construction to the reflection and refraction of - light, Huygens accounted for these phenomena in isotropic bodies as - well as in Iceland spar. It was afterwards shown by Augustin Fresnel - that the double refraction in biaxal crystals can be explained in the - same way, provided the proper form be assigned to the wave-surface. - - In any point of a bounding surface the normals to the reflected and - refracted waves, whatever be their number, always lie in the plane - passing through the normal to the incident waves and that to the - surface itself. Moreover, if [alpha]1 is the angle between these two - latter normals, and [alpha]2 the angle between the normal to the - boundary and that to any one of the reflected and refracted waves, and - v1, v2 the corresponding wave-velocities, the relation - - sin [alpha]1/sin [alpha]2 = v1/v2 (7) - - is found to hold in all cases. These important theorems may be proved - independently of Huygens's construction by simply observing that, at - each point of the surface of separation, there must be a certain - connexion between the disturbances existing in the incident, the - reflected, and the refracted waves, and that, therefore, the lines of - intersection of the surface with the positions of an incident - wave-front, succeeding each other at equal intervals of time dt, must - coincide with the lines in which the surface is intersected by a - similar series of reflected or refracted wave-fronts. - - In the case of isotropic media, the ratio (7) is constant, so that we - are led to the law of Snellius, the index of refraction being given by - - [mu] = v1/v2 (8) - - (cf. equation 1). - - 9. _General Theorems on Rays, deduced from Huygens's - Construction._--(a) Let A and B be two points arbitrarily chosen in a - system of transparent bodies, ds an element of a line drawn from A to - B, u the velocity of a ray of light coinciding with ds. Then the - integral [int]u^(-1) ds, which represents the time required for a - motion along the line with the velocity u, is a minimum for the course - actually taken by a ray of light (unless A and B be too far apart). - This is the "principle of least time" first formulated by Pierre de - Fermat for the case of two isotropic substances. It shows that the - course of a ray of light can always be inverted. - - (b) Rays of light starting in all directions from a point A and - travelling onward for a definite length of time, reach a surface - [sigma], whose tangent plane at a point B is conjugate, in the medium - surrounding B, with the last element of the ray AB. - - (c) If all rays issuing from A are concentrated at a point B, the - integral [int]u^(-1) ds has the same value for each of them. - - (d) In case (b) the variation of the integral caused by an infinitely - small displacement q of B, the point A remaining fixed, is given by - [delta][int]u^(-1) ds = q cos [theta]/v_B. Here [theta] is the angle - between the displacement q and the normal to the surface [sigma], in - the direction of propagation, v_B the velocity of a plane wave - tangent to this surface. - - In the case of isotropic bodies, for which the relation (8) holds, we - recover the theorems concerning the integral [int][mu]ds which we have - deduced from the emission theory (S 5). - - 10. _Further General Theorems._--(a) Let V1 and V2 be two planes in a - system of isotropic bodies, let rectangular axes of coordinates be - chosen in each of these planes, and let x1, y1 be the coordinates of a - point A in V1, and x2, y2 those of a point B in V2. The integral - [int][mu]ds, taken for the ray between A and B, is a function of x1, y1, - x2, y2 and, if [xi]1 denotes either x1 or y1, and [xi]2 either x2 or - y2, we shall have - _ _ - [dP]^2 / [dP]^2 / - ------------------- | [mu] ds = ------------------- | [mu] ds. - [dP][xi]1 [dP][xi]2 _/ [dP][xi]2 [dP][xi]1 _/ - - On both sides of this equation the first differentiation may be - performed by means of the formula (3). The second differentiation - admits of a geometrical interpretation, and the formula may finally be - employed for proving the following theorem: - - Let [omega]1 be the solid angle of an infinitely thin pencil of rays - issuing from A and intersecting the plane V2 in an element [sigma]2 at - the point B. Similarly, let [omega]2 be the solid angle of a pencil - starting from B and falling on the element [sigma]1 of the plane V1 at - the point A. Then, denoting by [mu]1 and [mu]2 the indices of - refraction of the matter at the points A and B, by [theta]1 and - [theta]2 the sharp angles which the ray AB at its extremities makes - with the normals to V1 and V2, we have - - ([mu]1)^2 [sigma]1 [omega]1 cos [theta]1 = - ([mu]2)^2 [sigma]2 [omega]2 cos [theta]2. - - (b) There is a second theorem that is expressed by exactly the same - formula, if we understand by [sigma]1 and [sigma]2 elements of surface - that are related to each other as an object and its optical image--by - [omega]1, [omega]2 the infinitely small openings, at the beginning and - the end of its course, of a pencil of rays issuing from a point A of - [sigma]1 and coming together at the corresponding point B of [sigma]2, - and by [theta]1, [theta]2 the sharp angles which one of the rays makes - with the normals to [sigma]1 and [sigma]2. The proof may be based upon - the first theorem. It suffices to consider the section [sigma] of the - pencil by some intermediate plane, and a bundle of rays starting from - the points of [sigma]1 and reaching those of [sigma]2 after having all - passed through a point of that section [sigma]. - - (c) If in the last theorem the system of bodies is symmetrical around - the straight line AB, we can take for [sigma]1 and [sigma]2 circular - planes having AB as axis. Let h1 and h2 be the radii of these circles, - i.e. the linear dimensions of an object and its image, [epsilon]1 and - [epsilon]2 the infinitely small angles which a ray R going from A to B - makes with the axis at these points. Then the above formula gives - [mu]1h1[epsilon]1 = [mu]2h2[epsilon]2, a relation that was proved, for - the particular case [mu]1 = [mu]2 by Huygens and Lagrange. It is still - more valuable if one distinguishes by the algebraic sign of h2 whether - the image is direct or inverted, and by that of [epsilon]2 whether the - ray R on leaving A and on reaching B lies on opposite sides of the - axis or on the same side. - - The above theorems are of much service in the theory of optical - instruments and in the general theory of radiation. - -11. _Phenomena of Interference and Diffraction._--The impulses or -motions which a luminous body sends forth through the universal medium -or aether, were considered by Huygens as being without any regular -succession; he neither speaks of vibrations, nor of the physical cause -of the colours. The idea that monochromatic light consists of a -succession of simple harmonic vibrations like those represented by the -equation (5), and that the sensation of colour depends on the frequency, -is due to Thomas Young[11] and Fresnel,[12] who explained the phenomena -of interference on this assumption combined with the principle of -super-position. In doing so they were also enabled to determine the -wave-length, ranging from 0.000076 cm. at the red end of the spectrum to -0.000039 cm. for the extreme violet and, by means of the formula (6), -the number of vibrations per second. Later investigations have shown -that the infra-red rays as well as the ultra-violet ones are of the same -physical nature as the luminous rays, differing from these only by the -greater or smaller length of their waves. The wave-length amounts to -0.006 cm. for the least refrangible infra-red, and is as small as -0.00001 cm. for the extreme ultra-violet. - -Another important part of Fresnel's work is his treatment of diffraction -on the basis of Huygens's principle. If, for example, light falls on a -screen with a narrow slit, each point of the slit is regarded as a new -centre of vibration, and the intensity at any point behind the screen is -found by compounding with each other the disturbances coming from all -these points, due account being taken of the phases with which they come -together (see DIFFRACTION; INTERFERENCE). - -12. _Results of Later Mathematical Theory._--Though the theory of -diffraction developed by Fresnel, and by other physicists who worked on -the same lines, shows a most beautiful agreement with observed facts, -yet its foundation, Huygens's principle, cannot, in its original -elementary form, be deemed quite satisfactory. The general validity of -the results has, however, been confirmed by the researches of those -mathematicians (Simeon Denis Poisson, Augustin Louis Cauchy, Sir G. G. -Stokes, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff) who investigated the propagation of -vibrations in a more rigorous manner. Kirchhoff[13] showed that the -disturbance at any point of the aether inside a closed surface which -contains no ponderable matter can be represented as made up of a large -number of parts, each of which depends upon the state of things at one -point of the surface. This result, the modern form of Huygens's -principle, can be extended to a system of bodies of any kind, the only -restriction being that the source of light be not surrounded by the -surface. Certain causes capable of producing vibrations can be imagined -to be distributed all over this latter, in such a way that the -disturbances to which they give rise in the enclosed space are exactly -those which are brought about by the real source of light.[14] Another -interesting result that has been verified by experiment is that, -whenever rays of light pass through a focus, the phase undergoes a -change of half a period. It must be added that the results alluded to in -the above, though generally presented in the terms of some particular -form of the wave theory, often apply to other forms as well. - -13. _Rays of Light._--In working out the theory of diffraction it is -possible to state exactly in what sense light may be said to travel in -straight lines. Behind an opening _whose width is very large in -comparison with the wave-length_ the limits between the illuminated and -the dark parts of space are approximately determined by rays passing -along the borders. - - This conclusion can also be arrived at by a mode of reasoning that is - independent of the theory of diffraction.[15] If linear differential - equations admit a solution of the form (5) with A constant, they can - also be satisfied by making A a function of the coordinates, such - that, in a wave-front, it changes very little over a distance equal to - the wave-length [lambda], and that it is constant along each line - conjugate with the wave-fronts. In cases of this kind the disturbance - may truly be said to travel along lines of the said direction, and an - observer who is unable to discern lengths of the order of [lambda], - and who uses an opening of much larger dimensions, may very well have - the impression of a cylindrical beam with a sharp boundary. - - A similar result is found for curved waves. If the additional - restriction is made that their radii of curvature be very much larger - than the wave-length, Huygens's construction may confidently be - employed. The amplitudes all along a ray are determined by, and - proportional to, the amplitude at one of its points. - -14. _Polarized Light._--As the theorems used in the explanation of -interference and diffraction are true for all kinds of vibratory -motions, these phenomena can give us no clue to the special kind of -vibrations in light-waves. Further information, however, may be drawn -from experiments on plane polarized light. The properties of a beam of -this kind are completely known when the position of a certain plane -passing through the direction of the rays, and _in_ which the beam is -said to be polarized, is given. "This plane of polarization," as it is -called, coincides with the plane of incidence in those cases where the -light has been polarized by reflection on a glass surface under an angle -of incidence whose tangent is equal to the index of refraction -(Brewster's law). - -The researches of Fresnel and Arago left no doubt as to the direction of -the vibrations in polarized light with respect to that of the rays -themselves. In isotropic bodies at least, the vibrations are exactly -transverse, i.e. perpendicular to the rays, either in the plane of -polarization or at right angles to it. The first part of this statement -also applies to unpolarized light, as this can always be dissolved into -polarized components. - -Much experimental work has been done on the production of polarized rays -by double refraction and on the reflection of polarized light, either by -isotropic or by anisotropic transparent bodies, the object of inquiry -being in the latter case to determine the position of the plane of -polarization of the reflected rays and their intensity. - -In this way a large amount of evidence has been gathered by which it has -been possible to test different theories concerning the nature of light -and that of the medium through which it is propagated. A common feature -of nearly all these theories is that the aether is supposed to exist not -only in spaces void of matter, but also in the interior of ponderable -bodies. - -15. _Fresnel's Theory._--Fresnel and his immediate successors -assimilated the aether to an elastic solid, so that the velocity of -propagation of transverse vibrations could be determined by the formula -v = [root](K/[rho]), where K denotes the modulus of rigidity and [rho] -the density. According to this equation the different properties of -various isotropic transparent bodies may arise from different values of -K, of [rho], or of both. It has, however, been found that if both K and -[rho] are supposed to change from one substance to another, it is -impossible to obtain the right reflection formulae. Assuming the -constancy of K Fresnel was led to equations which agreed with the -observed properties of the reflected light, if he made the further -assumption (to be mentioned in what follows as "Fresnel's assumption") -that the vibrations of plane polarized light are perpendicular to the -plane of polarization. - - Let the indices p and n relate to the two principal cases in which the - incident (and, consequently, the reflected) light is polarized in the - plane of incidence, or normally to it, and let positive directions h - and h' be chosen for the disturbance (at the surface itself) in the - incident and for that in the reflected beam, in such a manner that, by - a common rotation, h and the incident ray prolonged may be made to - coincide with h' and the reflected ray. Then, if [alpha]1 and [alpha]2 - are the angles of incidence and refraction, Fresnel shows that, in - order to get the reflected disturbance, the incident one must be - multiplied by - - [alpha]_p = -sin ([alpha]1 - [alpha]2) / sin ([alpha]1 + [alpha]2) (9) - - in the first, and by - - [alpha]_n = tan ([alpha]1 - [alpha]2) / tan ([alpha]1 + [alpha]2) (10) - - in the second principal case. - -As to double refraction, Fresnel made it depend on the unequal -elasticity of the aether in different directions. He came to the -conclusion that, for a given direction of the waves, there are two -possible directions of vibration (S6), lying in the wave-front, at right -angles to each other, and he determined the form of the wave-surface, -both in uniaxal and in biaxal crystals. - -Though objections may be urged against the dynamic part of Fresnel's -theory, he admirably succeeded in adapting it to the facts. - -16. Electromagnetic Theory.--We here leave the historical order and pass -on to Maxwell's theory of light. - - James Clerk Maxwell, who had set himself the task of mathematically - working out Michael Faraday's views, and who, both by doing so and by - introducing many new ideas of his own, became the founder of the - modern science of electricity,[16] recognized that, at every point of - an electromagnetic field, the state of things can be defined by two - vector quantities, the "electric force" E and the "magnetic force" H, - the former of which is the force acting on unit of electricity and the - latter that which acts on a magnetic pole of unit strength. In a - non-conductor (dielectric) the force E produces a state that may be - described as a displacement of electricity from its position of - equilibrium. This state is represented by a vector D ("dielectric - displacement") whose magnitude is measured by the quantity of - electricity reckoned per unit area which has traversed an element of - surface perpendicular to D itself. Similarly, there is a vector - quantity B (the "magnetic induction") intimately connected with the - magnetic force H. Changes of the dielectric displacement constitute an - electric current measured by the rate of change of D, and represented - in vector notation by - - C = D (11) - - Periodic changes of D and B may be called "electric" and "magnetic - vibrations." Properly choosing the units, the axes of coordinates (in - the first proposition also the positive direction of s and n), and - denoting components of vectors by suitable indices, we can express in - the following way the fundamental propositions of the theory. - - (a) Let s be a closed line, [sigma] a surface bounded by it, n the - normal to [sigma]. Then, for all bodies, - _ _ _ _ - / 1 / / 1 d / - | H_s ds = --- | C_n d[sigma], | E_s ds = - --- --- | B_n d[sigma], - _/ c _/ _/ c dt _/ - - where the constant c means the ratio between the electro-magnet and - the electrostatic unit of electricity. - - From these equations we can deduce: - - ([alpha]) For the interior of a body, the equations - - [dP]H_z [dP]H_y 1 - ------- - ------- = --- C_x, - [dP]y [dP]z c - - [dP]H_x [dP]H_z 1 - ------- - ------- = --- C_y, - [dP]z [dP]x c - - [dP]H_y [dP]H_x 1 - ------- - ------- = --- C_z (12) - [dP]x [dP]y c - - [dP]E_z [dP]E_y 1 [dP]B_x - ------- - ------- = - --- -------, - [dP]y [dP]z c [dP]t - - [dP]E_x [dP]E_z 1 [dP]B_y - ------- - ------- = - --- -------, - [dP]z [dP]x c [dP]t - - [dP]E_y [dP]E_x 1 [dP]B_z - ------- - ------- = - --- -------; (13) - [dP]x [dP]y c [dP]t - - ([beta]) For a surface of separation, the continuity of the tangential - components of E and H; - - ([gamma]) The solenoidal distribution of C and B, and in a dielectric - that of D. A solenoidal distribution of a vector is one corresponding - to that of the velocity in an incompressible fluid. It involves the - continuity, at a surface, of the normal component of the vector. - - (b) The relation between the electric force and the dielectric - displacement is expressed by - - D_x = [epsilon]1 E_x, D_y = [epsilon]2 E_y, D_z = [epsilon]3 E_z, (14) - - the constants [epsilon]1, [epsilon]2, [epsilon]3 (dielectric - constants) depending on the properties of the body considered. In an - isotropic medium they have a common value [epsilon], which is equal to - unity for the free aether, so that for this medium D = E. - - (c) There is a relation similar to (14) between the magnetic force and - the magnetic induction. For the aether, however, and for all - ponderable bodies with which this article is concerned, we may write - B = H. - - It follows from these principles that, in an isotropic dielectric, - transverse electric vibrations can be propagated with a velocity - - v = c/[root][epsilon]. (15) - - Indeed, all conditions are satisfied if we put - - D_x = 0, D_y = a cos n(t - xv^(-1) + l), D_z = 0, - - H_x = 0, H_y = 0 , H_z = avc^(-1) cos n(t - xv^{-1} + l) (16) - - For the free aether the velocity has the value c. Now it had been - found that the ratio c between the two units of electricity agrees - within the limits of experimental errors with the numerical value of - the velocity of light in aether. (The mean result of the most exact - determinations[17] of c is 3,001.10^10 cm./sec., the largest - deviations being about 0,008.10^10; and Cornu[18] gives 3,001.10^10 [+-] - 0,003.10^10 as the most probable value of the velocity of light.) By - this Maxwell was led to suppose that light consists of transverse - electromagnetic disturbances. On this assumption, the equations (16) - represent a beam of plane polarized light. They show that, in such a - beam, there are at the same time electric and magnetic vibrations, - both transverse, and at right angles to each other. - - It must be added that the electromagnetic field is the seat of two - kinds of energy distinguished by the names of electric and magnetic - energy, and that, according to a beautiful theorem due to J. H. - Poynting,[19] the energy may be conceived to flow in a direction - perpendicular both to the electric and to the magnetic force. The - amounts per unit of volume of the electric and the magnetic energy are - given by the expressions - - (1/2)(E_x D_x + E_y D_y + E_z D_z), (17) - - and - - (1/2)(H_x B_x + H_y B_y + H_z B_z) = (1/2)H^2, (18) - - whose mean values for a full period are equal in every beam of light. - - The formula (15) shows that the index of refraction of a body is given - by [root][epsilon], a result that has been verified by Ludwig - Boltzmann's measurements[20] of the dielectric constants of gases. - Thus Maxwell's theory can assign the true cause of the different - optical properties of various transparent bodies. It also leads to the - reflection formulae (9) and (10), provided the electric vibrations of - polarized light be supposed to be perpendicular to the plane of - polarization, which implies that the magnetic vibrations are parallel - to that plane. - - Following the same assumption Maxwell deduced the laws of double - refraction, which he ascribes to the unequality of [epsilon]1, - [epsilon]2, [epsilon]3. His results agree with those of Fresnel and - the theory has been confirmed by Boltzmann,[21] who measured the three - coefficients in the case of crystallized sulphur, and compared them - with the principal indices of refraction. Subsequently the problem of - crystalline reflection has been completely solved and it has been - shown that, in a crystal, Poynting's flow of energy has the direction - of the rays as determined by Huygens's construction. - - Two further verifications must here be mentioned. In the first place, - though we shall speak almost exclusively of the propagation of light - in transparent dielectrics, a few words may be said about the optical - properties of conductors. The simplest assumption concerning the - electric current C in a metallic body is expressed by the equation C = - [sigma]E, where [sigma] is the coefficient of conductivity. Combining - this with his other formulae (we may say with (12) and (13)), Maxwell - found that there must be an absorption of light, a result that can be - readily understood since the motion of electricity in a conductor - gives rise to a development of heat. But, though Maxwell accounted in - this way for the fundamental fact that metals are opaque bodies, there - remained a wide divergence between the values of the coefficient of - absorption as directly measured and as calculated from the electrical - conductivity; but in 1903 it was shown by E. Hagen and H. Rubens[22] - that the agreement is very satisfactory in the case of the extreme - infra-red rays. - - In the second place, the electromagnetic theory requires that a - surface struck by a beam of light shall experience a certain pressure. - If the beam falls normally on a plane disk, the pressure is normal - too; its total amount is given by c^{-1}(i1 + i2 - i3), if i1, i2 and - i3 are the quantities of energy that are carried forward per unit of - time by the incident, the reflected, and the transmitted light. This - result has been quantitatively verified by E. F. Nicholls and G. F. - Hull.[23] - - Maxwell's predictions have been splendidly confirmed by the - experiments of Heinrich Hertz[24] and others on electromagnetic waves; - by diminishing the length of these to the utmost, some physicists have - been able to reproduce with them all phenomena of reflection, - refraction (single and double), interference, and polarization.[25] A - table of the wave-lengths observed in the aether now has to contain, - besides the numbers given in S 11, the lengths of the waves produced - by electromagnetic apparatus and extending from the long waves used in - wireless telegraphy down to about 0.6 cm. - -17. _Mechanical Models of the Electromagnetic Medium._--From the results -already enumerated, a clear idea can be formed of the difficulties which -were encountered in the older form of the wave-theory. Whereas, in -Maxwell's theory, longitudinal vibrations are excluded _ab initio_ by -the solenoidal distribution of the electric current, the elastic-solid -theory had to take them into account, unless, as was often done, one -made them disappear by supposing them to have a very great velocity of -propagation, so that the aether was considered to be practically -incompressible. Even on this assumption, however, much in Fresnel's -theory remained questionable. Thus George Green,[26] who was the first -to apply the theory of elasticity in an unobjectionable manner, arrived -on Fresnel's assumption at a formula for the reflection coefficient A_n -sensibly differing from (10). - -In the theory of double refraction the difficulties are no less serious. -As a general rule there are in an anisotropic elastic solid three -possible directions of vibration (S 6), at right angles to each other, -for a given direction of the waves, but none of these lies in the -wave-front. In order to make two of them do so and to find Fresnel's -form for the wave-surface, new hypotheses are required. On Fresnel's -assumption it is even necessary, as was observed by Green, to suppose -that in the absence of all vibrations there is already a certain state -of pressure in the medium. - - If we adhere to Fresnel's assumption, it is indeed scarcely possible - to construct an elastic model of the electromagnetic medium. It may be - done, however, if the velocities of the particles in the model are - taken to represent the magnetic force H, which, of course, implies - that the vibrations of the particles are parallel to the plane of - polarization, and that the magnetic energy is represented by the - kinetic energy in the model. Considering further that, in the case of - two bodies connected with each other, there is continuity of H in the - electromagnetic system, and continuity of the velocity of the - particles in the model, it becomes clear that the representation of H - by that velocity must be on the same scale in all substances, so that, - if [xi], [eta], [zeta] are the displacements of a particle and g a - universal constant, we may write - - [dP][xi] [dP][eta] [dP][zeta] - H_x = g --------, H_y = g ---------, H_z = g ----------. (19) - [dP]t [dP]t [dP]t - - By this the magnetic energy per unit of volume becomes - _ _ - | /[dP][xi]\^2 /[dP][eta]\^2 /[dP][zeta]\^2 | - (1/2)g^2 | ( -------- ) + ( --------- ) + ( ---------- ) |, - |_ \ [dP]t / \ [dP]t / \ [dP]t / _| - - and since this must be the kinetic energy of the elastic medium, the - density of the latter must be taken equal to g^2, so that it must be - the same in all substances. - - It may further be asked what value we have to assign to the potential - energy in the model, which must correspond to the electric energy in - the electromagnetic field. Now, on account of (11) and (19), we can - satisfy the equations (12) by putting D_x = gc ([dP][zeta]/[dP]y - - [dP][eta]/[dP]z), &c., so that the electric energy (17) per unit of - volume becomes - _ - | 1 /[dP][zeta] [dP][eta]\^2 - (1/2)g^2c^2 | ---------- ( ---------- - --------- ) + - |_[epsilon]1 \ [dP]y [dP]z / - - 1 /[dP][xi] [dP][zeta]\^2 - ---------- ( -------- - ---------- ) + - [epsilon]2 \ [dP]z [dP]x / - _ - 1 /[dP][eta] [dP][xi]\^2 | - ---------- ( --------- - -------- ) |. - [epsilon]3 \ [dP]x [dP]y / _| - - This, therefore, must be the potential energy in the model. - - It may be shown, indeed, that, if the aether has a uniform constant - density, and is so constituted that in any system, whether homogeneous - or not, its potential energy per unit of volume can be represented by - an expression of the form - - _ - | /[dP][zeta] [dP][eta]\^2 - (1/2) | L ( ---------- - --------- ) + - |_ \ [dP]y [dP]z / - - /[dP][xi] [dP][zeta]\^2 - M ( -------- - ---------- ) + - \ [dP]z [dP]x / - _ - /[dP][eta] [dP][xi]\^2 | - N ( --------- - -------- ) |, (20) - \ [dP]x [dP]y / _| - - where L, M, N are coefficients depending on the physical properties of - the substance considered, the equations of motion will exactly - correspond to the equations of the electromagnetic field. - -18. _Theories of Neumann, Green, and MacCullagh._--A theory of light in -which the elastic aether has a uniform density, and in which the -vibrations are supposed to be parallel to the plane of polarization, was -developed by Franz Ernst Neumann,[27] who gave the first deduction of -the formulas for crystalline reflection. Like Fresnel, he was, however, -obliged to introduce some illegitimate assumptions and simplifications. -Here again Green indicated a more rigorous treatment. - - By specializing the formula for the potential energy of an anisotropic - body he arrives at an expression which, if some of his coefficients - are made to vanish and if the medium is supposed to be incompressible, - differs from (20) only by the additional terms - _ - | /[dP][zeta] [dP][eta] [dP][eta] [dP][zeta]\ - 2 | L ( ---------- --------- - --------- ---------- ) + - |_ \ [dP]y [dP]z [dP]y [dP]z / - - /[dP][xi] [dP][zeta] [dP][zeta] [dP][xi]\ - M ( -------- ---------- - ---------- -------- ) + - \ [dP]z [dP]x [dP]z [dP]x / - _ - /[dP][eta] [dP][xi] [dP][xi] [dP][eta]\ | - N ( --------- -------- - -------- --------- ) |. (21) - \ [dP]x [dP]y [dP]x [dP]y / _| - - If [xi], [eta], [zeta] vanish at infinite distance the integral of - this expression over all space is zero, when L, M, N are constants, - and the same will be true when these coefficients change from point to - point, provided we add to (21) certain terms containing the - differential coefficients of L, M, N, the physical meaning of these - terms being that, besides the ordinary elastic forces, there is some - extraneous force (called into play by the displacement) acting on all - those elements of volume where L, M, N are not constant. We may - conclude from this that all phenomena can be explained if we admit the - existence of this latter force, which, in the case of two contingent - bodies, reduces to a surface-action on their common boundary. - - James MacCullagh[28] avoided this complication by simply assuming an - expression of the form (20) for the potential energy. He thus - established a theory that is perfectly consistent in itself, and may - be said to have foreshadowed the electromagnetic theory as regards the - form of the equations for transparent bodies. Lord Kelvin afterwards - interpreted MacCullagh's assumption by supposing the only action which - is called forth by a displacement to consist in certain couples acting - on the elements of volume and proportional to the components - (1/2){([dP][zeta]/[dP]y) - ([dP][eta]/[dP]z)}, &c., of their rotation - from the natural position. He also showed[29] that this "rotational - elasticity" can be produced by certain hidden rotations going on in - the medium. - -We cannot dwell here upon other models that have been proposed, and most -of which are of rather limited applicability. A mechanism of a more -general kind ought, of course, to be adapted to what is known of the -molecular constitution of bodies, and to the highly probable assumption -of the perfect permeability for the aether of all ponderable matter, an -assumption by which it has been possible to escape from one of the -objections raised by Newton (S 4) (see AETHER). - -The possibility of a truly satisfactory model certainly cannot be -denied. But it would, in all probability, be extremely complicated. For -this reason many physicists rest content, as regards the free aether, -with some such general form of the electromagnetic theory as has been -sketched in S 16. - -19. _Optical Properties of Ponderable Bodies. Theory of Electrons._--If -we want to form an adequate representation of optical phenomena in -ponderable bodies, the conceptions of the molecular and atomistic -theories naturally suggest themselves. Already, in the elastic theory, -it had been imagined that certain material particles are set vibrating -by incident waves of light. These particles had been supposed to be -acted on by an elastic force by which they are drawn back towards their -positions of equilibrium, so that they can perform free vibrations of -their own, and by a resistance that can be represented by terms -proportional to the velocity in the equations of motion, and may be -physically understood if the vibrations are supposed to be converted in -one way or another into a disorderly heat-motion. In this way it had -been found possible to explain the phenomena of dispersion and -(selective) absorption, and the connexion between them (anomalous -dispersion).[30] These ideas have been also embodied into the -electromagnetic theory. In its more recent development the extremely -small, electrically charged particles, to which the name of "electrons" -has been given, and which are supposed to exist in the interior of all -bodies, are considered as forming the connecting links between aether -and matter, and as determining by their arrangement and their motion all -optical phenomena that are not confined to the free aether.[31] - -It has thus become clear why the relations that had been established -between optical and electrical properties have been found to hold only -in some simple cases (S 16). In fact it cannot be doubted that, for -rapidly alternating electric fields, the formulae expressing the -connexion between the motion of electricity and the electric force take -a form that is less simple than the one previously admitted, and is to -be determined in each case by elaborate investigation. However, the -general boundary conditions given in S 16 seem to require no alteration. -For this reason it has been possible, for example, to establish a -satisfactory theory of metallic reflection, though the propagation of -light in the interior of a metal is only imperfectly understood. - -One of the fundamental propositions of the theory of electrons is that -an electron becomes a centre of radiation whenever its velocity changes -either in direction or in magnitude. Thus the production of Rontgen -rays, regarded as consisting of very short and irregular electromagnetic -impulses, is traced to the impacts of the electrons of the cathode-rays -against the anti-cathode, and the lines of an emission spectrum indicate -the existence in the radiating body of as many kinds of regular -vibrations, the knowledge of which is the ultimate object of our -investigations about the structure of the spectra. The shifting of the -lines caused, according to Doppler's law, by a motion of the source of -light, may easily be accounted for, as only general principles are -involved in the explanation. To a certain extent we can also elucidate -the changes in the emission that are observed when the radiating source -is exposed to external magnetic forces ("Zeeman-effect"; see -MAGNETO-OPTICS). - - 20. _Various Kinds of Light-motion._--(a) If the disturbance is - represented by - - P_x = 0, P_y = a cos (nt - kx + f), P_z = a' cos (nt - kx + f'), - - so that the end of the vector P describes an ellipse in a plane - perpendicular to the direction of propagation, the light is said to be - elliptically, or in special cases circularly, polarized. Light of this - kind can be dissolved in many different ways into plane polarized - components. - - There are cases in which plane waves must be elliptically or - circularly polarized in order to show the simple propagation of phase - that is expressed by formulae like (5). Instances of this kind occur - in bodies having the property of rotating the plane of polarization, - either on account of their constitution, or under the influence of a - magnetic field. For a given direction of the wave-front there are in - general two kinds of elliptic vibrations, each having a definite form, - orientation, and direction of motion, and a determinate velocity of - propagation. All that has been said about Huygens's construction - applies to these cases. - - (b) In a perfect spectroscope a sharp line would only be observed if - an endless regular succession of simple harmonic vibrations were - admitted into the instrument. In any other case the light will occupy - a certain extent in the spectrum, and in order to determine its - distribution we have to decompose into simple harmonic functions of - the time the components of the disturbance, at a point of the slit for - instance. This may be done by means of Fourier's theorem. - - An extreme case is that of the unpolarized light emitted by - incandescent solid bodies, consisting of disturbances whose variations - are highly irregular, and giving a continuous spectrum. But even with - what is commonly called homogeneous light, no perfectly sharp line - will be seen. There is no source of light in which the vibrations of - the particles remain for ever undisturbed, and a particle will never - emit an endless succession of uninterrupted vibrations, but at best a - series of vibrations whose form, phase and intensity are changed at - irregular intervals. The result must be a broadening of the spectral - line. - - In cases of this kind one must distinguish between the velocity of - propagation of the phase of regular vibrations and the velocity with - which the said changes travel onward (see below, iii. _Velocity of - Light_). - - (c) In a train of plane waves of definite frequency the disturbance is - represented by means of goniometric functions of the time and the - coordinates. Since the fundamental equations are linear, there are - also solutions in which one or more of the coordinates occur in an - exponential function. These solutions are of interest because the - motions corresponding to them are widely different from those of which - we have thus far spoken. If, for example, the formulae contain the - factor - - e^(-rx) cos (nt - sy + l), - - with the positive constant r, the disturbance is no longer periodic - with respect to x, but steadily diminishes as x increases. A state of - things of this kind, in which the vibrations rapidly die away as we - leave the surface, exists in the air adjacent to the face of a glass - prism by which a beam of light is totally reflected. It furnishes us - an explanation of Newton's experiment mentioned in S 2. (H. A. L.) - - -III. VELOCITY OF LIGHT - -The fact that light is propagated with a definite speed was first -brought out by Ole Roemer at Paris, in 1676, through observations of the -eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, made in different relative positions -of the Earth and Jupiter in their respective orbits. It is possible in -this way to determine the time required for light to pass across the -orbit of the earth. The dimensions of this orbit, or the distance of the -sun, being taken as known, the actual speed of light could be computed. -Since this computation requires a knowledge of the sun's distance, which -has not yet been acquired with certainty, the actual speed is now -determined by experiments made on the earth's surface. Were it possible -by any system of signals to compare with absolute precision the times at -two different stations, the speed could be determined by finding how -long was required for light to pass from one station to another at the -greatest visible distance. But this is impracticable, because no natural -agent is under our control by which a signal could be communicated with -a greater velocity than that of light. It is therefore necessary to -reflect a ray back to the point of observation and to determine the time -which the light requires to go and come. Two systems have been devised -for this purpose. One is that of Fizeau, in which the vital appliance is -a rapidly revolving toothed wheel; the other is that of Foucault, in -which the corresponding appliance is a mirror revolving on an axis in, -or parallel to, its own plane. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.] - - - Fizeau. - - The principle underlying Fizeau's method is shown in the accompanying - figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1 shows the course of a ray of light which, - emanating from a luminous point L, strikes the plane surface of a - plate of glass M at an angle of about 45 deg. A fraction of the light - is reflected from the two surfaces of the glass to a distant reflector - R, the plane of which is at right angles to the course of the ray. The - latter is thus reflected back on its own course and, passing through - the glass M on its return, reaches a point E behind the glass. An - observer with his eye at E looking through the glass sees the return - ray as a distant luminous point in the reflector R, after the light - has passed over the course in both directions. - - In actual practice it is necessary to interpose the object glass of a - telescope at a point O, at a distance from M nearly equal to its focal - length. The function of this appliance is to render the diverging - rays, shown by the dotted lines, nearly parallel, in order that more - light may reach R and be thrown back again. But the principle may be - conceived without respect to the telescope, all the rays being ignored - except the central one, which passes over the course we have - described. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.] - - Conceiving the apparatus arranged in such a way that the observer sees - the light reflected from the distant mirror R, a fine toothed wheel WX - is placed immediately in front of the glass M, with its plane - perpendicular to the course of the ray, in such a way that the ray - goes out and returns through an opening between two adjacent teeth. - This wheel is represented in section by WX in fig. 1, and a part of - its circumference, with the teeth as viewed by the observer, is shown - in fig. 2. We conceive that the latter sees the luminous point between - two of the teeth at K. Now, conceive that the wheel is set in - revolution. The ray is then interrupted as every tooth passes, so that - what is sent out is a succession of flashes. Conceive that the speed - of the mirror is such that while the flash is going to the distant - mirror and returning again, each tooth of the wheel takes the place of - an opening between the teeth. Then each flash sent out will, on its - return, be intercepted by the adjacent tooth, and will therefore - become invisible. If the speed be now doubled, so that the teeth pass - at intervals equal to the time required for the light to go and come, - each flash sent through an opening will return through the adjacent - opening, and will therefore be seen with full brightness. If the speed - be continuously increased the result will be successive disappearances - and reappearances of the light, according as a tooth is or is not - interposed when the ray reaches the apparatus on its return. The - computation of the time of passage and return is then very simple. The - speed of the wheel being known, the number of teeth passing in one - second can be computed. The order of the disappearance, or the number - of teeth which have passed while the light is going and coming, being - also determined in each case, the interval of time is computed by a - simple formula. - - - Cornu. - - The most elaborate determination yet made by Fizeau's method was that - of Cornu. The station of observation was at the Paris Observatory. The - distant reflector, a telescope with a reflector at its focus, was at - Montlhery, distant 22,910 metres from the toothed wheel. Of the wheels - most used one had 150 teeth, and was 35 millimetres in diameter; the - other had 200 teeth, with a diameter of 45 mm. The highest speed - attained was about 900 revolutions per second. At this speed, 135,000 - (or 180,000) teeth would pass per second, and about 20 (or 28) would - pass while the light was going and coming. But the actual speed - attained was generally less than this. The definitive result derived - by Cornu from the entire series of experiments was 300,400 kilometres - per second. Further details of this work need not be set forth because - the method is in several ways deficient in precision. The eclipses and - subsequent reappearances of the light taking place gradually, it is - impossible to fix with entire precision upon the moment of complete - eclipse. The speed of the wheel is continually varying, and it is - impossible to determine with precision what it was at the instant of - an eclipse. - - The defect would be lessened were the speed of the toothed wheel - placed under control of the observer who, by action in one direction - or the other, could continually check or accelerate it, so as to keep - the return point of light at the required phase of brightness. If the - phase of complete extinction is chosen for this purpose a definite - result cannot be reached; but by choosing the moment when the light is - of a certain definite brightness, before or after an eclipse, the - observer will know at each instant whether the speed should be - accelerated or retarded, and can act accordingly. The nearly constant - speed through as long a period as is deemed necessary would then be - found by dividing the entire number of revolutions of the wheel by the - time through which the light was kept constant. But even with these - improvements, which were not actually tried by Cornu, the estimate of - the brightness on which the whole result depends would necessarily be - uncertain. The outcome is that, although Cornu's discussion of his - experiments is a model in the care taken to determine so far as - practicable every source of error, his definitive result is shown by - other determinations to have been too great by about {1/1000} part of - its whole amount. - - - Young and Forbes. - - An important improvement on the Fizeau method was made in 1880 by - James Young and George Forbes at Glasgow. This consisted in using two - distant reflectors which were placed nearly in the same straight line, - and at unequal distances. The ratio of the distances was nearly 12:13. - The phase observed was not that of complete extinction of either - light, but that when the two lights appeared equal in intensity. But - it does not appear that the very necessary device of placing the speed - of the toothed wheel under control of the observer was adopted. The - accordance between the different measures was far from satisfactory, - and it will suffice to mention the result which was - - _Velocity in vacuo_ = 301,382 km. per second. - - These experimenters also found a difference of 2% between the speed of - red and blue light, a result which can only be attributed to some - unexplained source of error. - - The Foucault system is much more precise, because it rests upon the - measurement of an angle, which can be made with great precision. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.] - - - Foucault. - - The vital appliance is a rapidly revolving mirror. Let AB (fig. 3) be - a section of this mirror, which we shall first suppose at rest. A ray - of light LM emanating from a source at L, is reflected in the - direction MQR to a distant mirror R, from which it is perpendicularly - reflected back upon its original course. This mirror R should be - slightly concave, with the centre of curvature near M, so that the ray - shall always be reflected back to M on whatever point of R it may - fall. Conceiving the revolving mirror M as at rest, the return ray - will after three reflections, at M, R and M again, be returned along - its original course to the point L from which it emanated. An - important point is that the return ray will always follow the fixed - line ML no matter what the position of the movable mirror M, provided - there is a distant reflector to send the ray back. Now, suppose that, - while the ray is going and coming, the mirror M, being set in - revolution, has turned from the position in which the ray was - reflected to that shown by the dotted line. If [alpha] be the angle - through which the surface has turned, the course of the return ray, - after reflection, will then deviate from ML by the angle 2[alpha], and - so be thrown to a point E, such that the angle LME = 2[alpha]. If the - mirror is in rapid rotation the ray reflected from it will strike the - distant mirror as a series of flashes, each formed by the light - reflected when the mirror was in the position AB. If the speed of - rotation is uniform, the reflected rays from the successive flashes - while the mirror is in the dotted position will thus all follow the - same direction ME after their second reflection from the mirror. If - the motion is sufficiently rapid an eye observing the reflected ray - will see the flashes as an invariable point of light so long as the - speed of revolution remains constant. The time required for the light - to go and come is then equal to that required by the mirror to turn - through half the angle LME, which is therefore to be measured. In - practice it is necessary on this system, as well as on that of Fizeau, - to condense the light by means of a lens, Q, so placed that L and R - shall be at conjugate foci. The position of the lens may be either - between the luminous point L and the mirror M, or between M and R, the - latter being the only one shown in the figure. This position has the - advantage that more light can be concentrated, but it has the - disadvantage that, with a given magnifying power, the effect of - atmospheric undulation, when the concave reflector is situated at a - great distance, is increased in the ratio of the focal length of the - lens to the distance LM from the light to the mirror. To state the - fact in another form, the amplitude of the disturbances produced by - the air in linear measure are proportional to the focal distance of - the lens, while the magnification required increases in the inverse - ratio of the distance LM. Another difficulty associated with the - Foucault system in the form in which its originator used it is that if - the axis of the mirror is at right angles to the course of the ray, - the light from the source L will be flashed directly into the eye of - the observer, on every passage of the revolving mirror through the - position in which its normal bisects the two courses of the ray. This - may be avoided by inclining the axis of the mirror. - - In Foucault's determination the measures were not made upon a luminous - point, but upon a reticule, the image of which could not be seen - unless the reflector was quite near the revolving mirror. Indeed the - whole apparatus was contained in his laboratory. The effective - distance was increased by using several reflectors; but the entire - course of the ray measured only 20 metres. The result reached by - Foucault for the velocity of light was 298,000 kilometres per second. - - - Michelson. - - The first marked advance on Foucault's determination was made by - Albert A. Michelson, then a young officer on duty at the U.S. Naval - Academy, Annapolis. The improvement consisted in using the image of a - slit through which the rays of the sun passed after reflection from a - heliostat. In this way it was found possible to see the image of the - slit reflected from the distant mirror when the latter was nearly 600 - metres from the station of observation. The essentials of the - arrangement are those we have used in fig. 3, L being the slit. It - will be seen that the revolving mirror is here interposed between the - lens and its focus. It was driven by an air turbine, the blast of - which was under the control of the observer, so that it could be kept - at any required speed. The speed was determined by the vibrations of - two tuning forks. One of these was an electric fork, making about 120 - vibrations per second, with which the mirror was kept in unison by a - system of rays reflected from it and the fork. The speed of this fork - was determined by comparison with a freely vibrating fork from time to - time. The speed of the revolving mirror was generally about 275 turns - per second, and the deflection of the image of the slit about 112.5 - mm. The mean result of nearly 100 fairly accordant determinations - was:-- - - Velocity of light in air 299,828 km. per sec. - Reduction to a vacuum +82 - Velocity of light in a vacuum 299,910 [+-] 50 - - - Newcomb. - - While this work was in progress Simon Newcomb obtained the official - support necessary to make a determination on a yet larger scale. The - most important modifications made in the Foucault-Michelson system - were the following:-- - - 1. Placing the reflector at the much greater distance of several - kilometres. - - 2. In order that the disturbances of the return image due to the - passage of the ray through more than 7 km. of air might be reduced to - a minimum, an ordinary telescope of the "broken back" form was used to - send the ray to the revolving mirror. - - 3. The speed of the mirror was, as in Michelson's experiments, - completely under control of the observer, so that by drawing one or - the other of two cords held in the hand the return image could be kept - in any required position. In making each measure the receiving - telescope hereafter described was placed in a fixed position and - during the "run" the image was kept as nearly as practicable upon a - vertical thread passing through its focus. A "run" generally lasted - about two minutes, during which time the mirror commonly made between - 25,000 and 30,000 revolutions. The speed per second was found by - dividing the entire number of revolutions by the number of seconds in - the "run." The extreme deviations between the times of transmission of - the light, as derived from any two runs, never approached to the - thousandth part of its entire amount. The average deviation from the - mean was indeed less than {1/5000} part of the whole. - - To avoid the injurious effect of the directly reflected flash, as well - as to render unnecessary a comparison between the directions of the - outgoing and the return ray, a second telescope, turning horizontally - on an axis coincident with that of the revolving mirror, was used to - receive the return ray after reflection. This required the use of an - elongated mirror of which the upper half of the surface reflected the - outgoing ray, and the lower other half received and reflected the ray - on its return. On this system it was not necessary to incline the - mirror in order to avoid the direct reflection of the return ray. The - greatest advantage of this system was that the revolving mirror could - be turned in either direction without break of continuity, so that - the angular measures were made between the directions of the return - ray after reflection when the mirror moved in opposite directions. In - this way the speed of the mirror was as good as doubled, and the - possible constant errors inherent in the reference to a fixed - direction for the sending telescope were eliminated. The essentials of - the apparatus are shown in fig. 4. The revolving mirror was a - rectangular prism M of steel, 3 in. high and 1(1/2) in. on a side in - cross section, which was driven by a blast of air acting on two - fan-wheels, not shown in the fig., one at the top, the other at the - bottom of the mirror. NPO is the object-end of the fixed sending - telescope the rays passing through it being reflected to the mirror by - a prism P. The receiving telescope ABO is straight, and has its - objective under O. It was attached to a frame which could turn around - the same axis as the mirror. The angle through which it moved was - measured by a divided arc immediately below its eye-piece, which is - not shown in the figure. The position AB is that for receiving the ray - during a rotation of the mirror in the anti-clockwise direction; the - position A'B' that for a clockwise rotation. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.] - - In these measures the observing station was at Fort Myer, on a hill - above the west bank of the Potomac river. The distant reflector was - first placed in the grounds of the Naval Observatory, at a distance of - 2551 metres. But the definitive measures were made with the reflector - at the base of the Washington monument, 3721 metres distant. The - revolving mirror was of nickel-plated steel, polished on all four - vertical sides. Thus four reflections of the ray were received during - each turn of the mirror, which would be coincident were the form of - the mirror invariable. During the preliminary series of measures it - was found that two images of the return ray were sometimes formed, - which would result in two different conclusions as to the velocity of - light, according as one or the other was observed. The only - explanation of this defect which presented itself was a tortional - vibration of the revolving mirror, coinciding in period with that of - revolution, but it was first thought that the effect was only - occasional. - - In the summer of 1881 the distant reflector was removed from the - Observatory to the Monument station. Six measures made in August and - September showed a systematic deviation of +67 km. per second from the - result of the Observatory series. This difference led to measures for - eliminating the defect from which it was supposed to arise. The pivots - of the mirror were reground, and a change made in the arrangement, - which would permit of the effect of the vibration being determined and - eliminated. This consisted in making the relative position of the - sending and receiving telescopes interchangeable. In this way, if the - measured deflection was too great in one position of the telescopes, - it would be too small by an equal amount in the reverse position. As a - matter of fact, when the definitive measures were made, it was found - that with the improved pivots the mean result was the same in the two - positions. But the new result differed systematically from both the - former ones. Thirteen measures were made from the Monument in the - summer of 1882, the results of which will first be stated in the form - of the time required by the ray to go and come. Expressed in - millionths of a second this was:-- - - Least result of the 13 measures 24.819 - Greatest result 24.831 - Double distance between mirrors 7.44242 km. - - Applying a correction of +12 km. for a slight convexity in the face of - the revolving mirror, this gives as the mean result for the speed of - light in air, 299,778 km. per second. The mean results for the three - series were:-- - - Observatory, 1880-1881 V in air = 299,627 - Monument, 1881 V " = 299,694 - Monument, 1882 V " = 299,778 - - The last result being the only one from which the effect of distortion - was completely eliminated, has been adopted as definitive. For - reduction to a vacuum it requires a correction of +82 km. Thus the - final result was concluded to be - - _Velocity of light in vacuo_ = 299,860 km. per second. - - This result being less by 50 km. than that of Michelson, the latter - made another determination with improved apparatus and arrangements at - the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland. The result was - - _Velocity in vacuo_ = 299,853 km. per second. - - So far as could be determined from the discordance of the separate - measures, the mean error of Newcomb's result would be less than [+-]10 - km. But making allowance for the various sources of systematic error - the actual probable error was estimated at [+-]30 km. - -It seems remarkable that since these determinations were made, a period -during which great improvements have become possible in every part of -the apparatus, no complete redetermination of this fundamental physical -constant has been carried out. - -The experimental measures thus far cited have been primarily those of -the velocity of light in air, the reduction to a vacuum being derived -from theory alone. The fundamental constant at the basis of the whole -theory is the speed of light in a vacuum, such as the celestial spaces. -The question of the relation between the velocity in vacuo, and in a -transparent medium of any sort, belongs to the domain of physical -optics. Referring to the preceding section for the principles at play we -shall in the present part of the article confine ourselves to the -experimental results. With the theory of the effect of a transparent -medium is associated that of the possible differences in the speed of -light of different colours. - - - Velocity and wave-length. - -The question whether the speed of light in vacuo varies with its -wave-length seems to be settled with entire certainty by observations of -variable stars. These are situated at different distances, some being so -far that light must be several centuries in reaching us from them. Were -there any difference in the speed of light of various colours it would -be shown by a change in the colour of the star as its light waxed and -waned. The light of greatest speed preceding that of lesser speed would, -when emanated during the rising phase, impress its own colour on that -which it overtook. The slower light would predominate during the falling -phase. If there were a difference of 10 minutes in the time at which -light from the two ends of the visible spectrum arrived, it would be -shown by this test. As not the slightest effect of the kind has ever -been seen, it seems certain that the difference, if any, cannot -approximate to {1/1.000.000} part of the entire speed. The case is -different when light passes through a refracting medium. It is a -theoretical result of the undulatory theory of light that its velocity -in such a medium is inversely proportional to the refractive index of -the medium. This being different for different colours, we must expect a -corresponding difference in the velocity. - -Foucault and Michelson have tested these results of the undulatory -theory by comparing the time required for a ray of light to pass through -a tube filled with a refracting medium, and through air. Foucault thus -found, in a general way, that there actually was a retardation; but his -observations took account only of the mean retardation of light of all -the wave-lengths, which he found to correspond with the undulatory -theory. Michelson went further by determining the retardation of light -of various wave-lengths in carbon bisulphide. He made two series of -experiments, one with light near the brightest part of the spectrum; the -other with red and blue light. Putting V for the speed in a vacuum and -V1 for that in the medium, his result was - - Yellow light V : V1 = 1.758 - Refractive index for yellow 1.64 - Difference from theory +0.12 - -The estimated uncertainty was only 0.02, or 1/6 of the difference -between observation and theory. - -The comparison of red and blue light was made differentially. The -colours selected were of wave-length about 0.62 for red and 0.49 for -blue. Putting V_r and V_b for the speeds of red and blue light -respectively in bisulphide of carbon, the mean result compares with -theory as follows:-- - - Observed value of the ratio V_r, V_b 1.0245 - Theoretical value (Verdet) 1.025 - -This agreement may be regarded as perfect. It shows that the divergence -of the speed of yellow light in the medium from theory, as found above, -holds through the entire spectrum. - -The excess of the retardation above that resulting from theory is -probably due to a difference between "wave-speed" and "group-speed" -pointed out by Rayleigh. Let fig. 5 represent a short series of -progressive undulations of constant period and wave-length. The -wave-speed is that required to carry a wave crest A to the position of -the crest B in the wave time. But when a flash of light like that -measured passes through a refracting medium, the front waves of the -flash are continually dying away, as shown at the end of the figure, and -the place of each is taken by the wave following. A familiar case of -this sort is seen when a stone is thrown into a pond. The front waves -die out one at a time, to be followed by others, each of which goes -further than its predecessor, while new waves are formed in the rear. -Hence the group, as represented in the figure by the larger waves in the -middle, moves as a whole more slowly than do the individual waves. When -the speed of light is measured the result is not the wave-speed as above -defined, but something less, because the result depends on the time of -the group passing through the medium. This lower speed is called the -group-velocity of light. In a vacuum there is no dying out of the waves, -so that the group-speed and the wave-speed are identical. From -Michelson's experiments it would follow that the retardation was about -{1/14} of the whole speed. This would indicate that in carbon bisulphide -each individual light wave forming the front of a moving ray dies out in -a space of about 15 wave-lengths. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - AUTHORITIES.--For Foucault's descriptions of his experiments see - _Comptes Rendus_ (September 22 and November 24, 1862), and _Recueil de - Travaux Scientifiques de Leon Foucault_ (2 vols., 4to, Paris, 1878). - Cornu's determination is found in _Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris, - Memoires_, vol. xiii. The works of Michelson and Newcomb are published - _in extenso_ in the _Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris_, - vols. i. and ii. (S. N.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The invention of "aethers" is to be carried back, at least, to - the Greek philosophers, and with the growth of knowledge they were - empirically postulated to explain many diverse phenomena. Only one - "aether" has survived in modern science--that associated with light - and electricity, and of which Lord Salisbury, in his presidential - address to the British Association in 1894, said, "For more than two - generations the main, if not the only, function of the word 'aether' - has been to furnish a nominative case to the verb 'to undulate.'" - (See AETHER.) - - [2] With the Greeks the word "Optics" or [Greek: Optika] (from - [Greek: optomai], the obsolete present of [Greek: oro], I see) was - restricted to questions concerning vision, &c., and the nature of - light. - - [3] It seems probable that spectacles were in use towards the end of - the 13th century. The Italian dictionary of the _Accademici della - Crusca_ (1612) mentions a sermon of Jordan de Rivalto, published in - 1305, which refers to the invention as "not twenty years since"; and - Muschenbroek states that the tomb of Salvinus Armatus, a Florentine - nobleman who died in 1317, bears an inscription assigning the - invention to him. (See the articles TELESCOPE and CAMERA OBSCURA for - the history of these instruments.) - - [4] Newton's observation that a second refraction did not change the - colours had been anticipated in 1648 by Marci de Kronland - (1595-1667), professor of medicine at the university of Prague, in - his _Thaumantias_, who studied the spectrum under the name of _Iris - trigonia_. There is no evidence that Newton knew of this, although he - mentions de Dominic's experiment with the glass globe containing - water. - - [5] The geometrical determination of the form of the surface which - will reflect, or of the surface dividing two media which will - refract, rays from one point to another, is very easily effected by - using the "characteristic function" of Hamilton, which for the - problems under consideration may be stated in the form that "the - optical paths of all rays must be the same." In the case of - reflection, if A and B be the diverging and converging points, and P - a point on the reflecting surface, then the locus of P is such that - AP + PB is constant. Therefore the surface is an ellipsoid of - revolution having A and B as foci. If the rays be parallel, i.e. if A - be at infinity, the surface is a paraboloid of revolution having B as - focus and the axis parallel to the direction of the rays. In - refraction if A be in the medium of index [mu], and B in the medium - of index [mu]', the characteristic function shows that [mu]AP + - [mu]'PB, where P is a point on the surface, must be constant. Plane - sections through A and B of such surfaces were originally - investigated by Descartes, and are named Cartesian ovals. If the rays - be parallel, i.e. A be at infinity, the surface becomes an ellipsoid - of revolution having B for one focus, [mu]'/[mu] for eccentricity, - and the axis parallel to the direction of the rays. - - [6] Young's views of the nature of light, which he formulated as - _Propositions_ and _Hypotheses_, are given _in extenso_ in the - article INTERFERENCE. See also his article "Chromatics" in the - supplementary volumes to the 3rd edition of the _Encyclopaedia - Britannica_. - - [7] A crucial test of the emission and undulatory theories, which was - realized by Descartes, Newton, Fermat and others, consisted in - determining the velocity of light in two differently refracting - media. This experiment was conducted in 1850 by Foucault, who showed - that the velocity was less in water than in air, thereby confirming - the undulatory and invalidating the emission theory. - - [8] Newton, _Opticks_ (London, 1704). - - [9] _Trans. Irish Acad._ 15, p. 69 (1824); 16, part i. "Science," p. - 4 (1830), part ii., _ibid._ p. 93 (1830); 17, part i., p. 1 (1832). - - [10] This kind of type will always be used in this article to denote - vectors. - - [11] _Phil. Trans._ (1802), part i. p. 12. - - [12] _Oeuvres completes de Fresnel_ (Paris, 1866). (The researches - were published between 1815 and 1827.) - - [13] _Ann. Phys. Chem._ (1883), 18, p. 663. - - [14] H. A. Lorentz, _Zittingsversl. Akad. v. Wet. Amsterdam, 4_ - (1896), p. 176. - - [15] H. A. Lorentz, _Abhandlungen uber theoretische Physik_, 1 - (1907), p. 415. - - [16] Clerk Maxwell, _A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism_ - (Oxford, 1st ed., 1873). - - [17] H. Abraham, _Rapports presentes au congres de physique de 1900_ - (Paris), 2, p. 247. - - [18] Ibid., p. 225. - - [19] _Phil. Trans._, 175 (1884), p. 343. - - [20] _Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem._ 155 (1875), p. 403. - - [21] Ibid. 153 (1874), p. 525. - - [22] _Ann. d. Phys_. 11 (1903), p. 873. - - [23] _Phys. Review_, 13 (1901), p. 293. - - [24] _Hertz, Untersuchungen uber die Ausbreitung der elektrischen - Kraft_ (Leipzig, 1892). - - [25] A. Righi, _L'Ottica delle oscillazioni elettriche_ (Bologna, - 1897); P. Lebedew, _Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem._, 56 (1895), p. 1. - - [26] "Reflection and Refraction," _Trans. Cambr. Phil. Soc._ 7, p. 1 - (1837); "Double Refraction," ibid. p. 121 (1839). - - [27] "Double Refraction," _Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem._ 25 (1832), p. 418; - "Crystalline Reflection," _Abhandl. Akad. Berlin_ (1835), p. 1. - - [28] _Trans. Irish Acad._ 21, "Science," p. 17 (1839). - - [29] _Math. and Phys. Papers_ (London, 1890), 3, p. 466. - - [30] Helmholtz, _Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem._, 154 (1875), p. 582. - - [31] H. A. Lorentz, _Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen u. - optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern_ (1895) (Leipzig, 1906); - J. Larmor, _Aether and Matter_ (Cambridge, 1900). - - - - -LIGHTFOOT, JOHN (1602-1675), English divine and rabbinical scholar, was -the son of Thomas Lightfoot, vicar of Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, and was -born at Stoke-upon-Trent on the 29th of March 1602. His education was -received at Morton Green near Congleton, Cheshire, and at Christ's -College, Cambridge, where he was reckoned the best orator among the -undergraduates. After taking his degree he became assistant master at -Repton in Derbyshire; after taking orders he was appointed curate of -Norton-under-Hales in Shropshire. There he attracted the notice of Sir -Rowland Cotton, an amateur Hebraist of some distinction, who made him -his domestic chaplain at Bellaport. Shortly after the removal of Sir -Rowland to London, Lightfoot, abandoning an intention to go abroad, -accepted a charge at Stone in Staffordshire, where he continued for -about two years. From Stone he removed to Hornsey, near London, for the -sake of reading in the library of Sion College. His first published -work, entitled _Erubhin, or Miscellanies, Christian and Judaical, penned -for recreation at vacant hours_, and dedicated to Sir R. Cotton, -appeared at London in 1629. In September 1630 he was presented by Sir R. -Cotton to the rectory of Ashley in Staffordshire, where he remained -until June, 1642, when he went to London, probably to superintend the -publication of his next work, _A Few and New Observations upon the Book -of Genesis: the most of them certain; the rest, probable; all, harmless, -strange and rarely heard of before_, which appeared at London in that -year. Soon after his arrival in London he became minister of St -Bartholomew's church, near the Exchange; and in 1643 he was appointed to -preach the sermon before the House of Commons on occasion of the public -fast of the 29th of March. It was published under the title of _Elias -Redivivus_, the text being Luke i. 17; in it a parallel is drawn between -the Baptist's ministry and the work of reformation which in the -preacher's judgment was incumbent on the parliament of his own day. - -Lightfoot was also one of the original members of the Westminster -Assembly; his "Journal of the Proceedings of the Assembly of Divines -from January 1, 1643 to December 31, 1644," now printed in the -thirteenth volume of the 8vo edition of his _Works_, is a valuable -historical source for the brief period to which it relates. He was -assiduous in his attendance, and, though frequently standing almost or -quite alone, especially in the Erastian controversy, he exercised a -material influence on the result of the discussions of the Assembly. In -1643 Lightfoot published _A Handful of Gleanings out of the Book of -Exodus_, and in the same year he was made master of Catharine Hall by -the parliamentary visitors of Cambridge, and also, on the recommendation -of the Assembly, was promoted to the rectory of Much Munden in -Hertfordshire; both appointments he retained until his death. In 1644 -was published in London the first instalment of the laborious but never -completed work of which the full title runs _The Harmony of the Four -Evangelists among themselves, and with the Old Testament, with an -explanation of the chiefest difficulties both in Language and Sense: -Part I. From the beginning of the Gospels to the Baptism of our -Saviour._ The second part _From the Baptism of our Saviour to the first -Passover after_ followed in 1647, and the third _From the first Passover -after our Saviour's Baptism to the second_ in 1650. On the 26th of -August 1645 he again preached before the House of Commons on the day of -their monthly fast. His text was Rev. xx. 1, 2. After controverting the -doctrine of the Millenaries, he urged various practical suggestions for -the repression with a strong hand of current blasphemies, for a thorough -revision of the authorized version of the Scriptures, for the -encouragement of a learned ministry, and for a speedy settlement of the -church. In the same year appeared _A Commentary upon the Acts of the -Apostles, chronical and critical; the Difficulties of the text -explained, and the times of the Story cast into annals. From the -beginning of the Book to the end of the Twelfth Chapter. With a brief -survey of the contemporary Story of the Jews and Romans_ (down to the -third year of Claudius). In 1647 he published _The Harmony, Chronicle, -and Order of the Old Testament_, which was followed in 1655 by _The -Harmony, Chronicle, and Order of the New Testament_, inscribed to -Cromwell. In 1654 Lightfoot had been chosen vice-chancellor of the -university of Cambridge, but continued to reside by preference at -Munden, in the rectory of which, as well as in the mastership of -Catharine Hall, he was confirmed at the Restoration. The remainder of -his life was devoted to helping Brian Walton with the Polyglot Bible -(1657) and to his own best-known work, the _Horae Hebraicae et -Talmudicae_, in which the volume relating to Matthew appeared in 1658, -that relating to Mark in 1663, and those relating to 1 Corinthians, John -and Luke, in 1664, 1671 and 1674 respectively. While travelling from -Cambridge to Ely (where he had been collated in 1668 by Sir Orlando -Bridgman to a prebendal stall), he caught a severe cold, and died at Ely -on the 6th of December 1675. The _Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae impensae -in Acta Apostolorum et in Ep. S. Pauli ad Romanos_ were published -posthumously. - - The _Works_ of Lightfoot were first edited, in 2 vols. fol., by G. - Bright and Strype in 1684; the _Opera Omnia, cura Joh. Texelii_, - appeared at Rotterdam in 1686 (2 vols. fol.), and again, edited by J. - Leusden, at Franeker in 1699 (3 vols. fol.). A volume of _Remains_ was - published at London in 1700. The _Hor. Hebr. et Talm_. were also - edited in Latin by Carpzov (Leipzig, 1675-1679), and again, in - English, by Gandell (Oxford, 1859). The most complete edition is that - of the _Whole Works_, in 13 vols. 8vo, edited, with a life, by R. - Pitman (London, 1822-1825). It includes, besides the works already - noticed, numerous sermons, letters and miscellaneous writings; and - also _The Temple, especially as it stood in the Days of our Saviour_ - (London, 1650). - - See D. M. Welton, _John Lightfoot, the Hebraist_ (Leipzig, 1878). - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 5, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 16 SLICE 5 *** - -***** This file should be named 41567.txt or 41567.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/5/6/41567/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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