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diff --git a/41567-h/41567-h.htm b/41567-h/41567-h.htm index fc51444..19117bc 100644 --- a/41567-h/41567-h.htm +++ b/41567-h/41567-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVI Slice V - Letter to Lightfoot, John. @@ -147,46 +147,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 5, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 5 - "Letter" to "Lightfoot, John" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: December 6, 2012 [EBook #41567] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 16, SLICE 5 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41567 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -241,7 +202,7 @@ Letter to Lightfoot, John</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">LEVANT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">LIBERTINES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">LEVASSEUR, PIERRE EMILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">LIBERTINES, SYNAGOGUE OF THE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">LEVECHE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">LIBERTY</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">LEVÉE</a> (river embankment)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">LIBERTY PARTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">LEVÉE</a> (river embankment)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">LIBERTY PARTY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LEVEE</a> (reception)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">LIBITINA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LEVELLERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">LIBMANAN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">LEVEN, ALEXANDER LESLIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">LIBO</a></td></tr> @@ -256,7 +217,7 @@ Letter to Lightfoot, John</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">LEVI, LEONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">LICHEN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LEVIATHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">LICHENS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">LEVIRATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">LICHFIELD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">LÉVIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">LICH-GATE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">LÉVIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">LICH-GATE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">LEVITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">LEVITICUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">LICHTENBERG</a> (German principality)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">LEVY, AMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">LICINIANUS, GRANIUS</a></td></tr> @@ -275,8 +236,8 @@ Letter to Lightfoot, John</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LEWIS, MERIWETHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LEWISBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">LIEBKNECHT, WILHELM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LEWISHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">LIECHTENSTEIN</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">LEWISTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">LIÉGE</a> (province of Belgium)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">LIÉGE</a> (Belgian city)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">LEWISTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">LIÉGE</a> (province of Belgium)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">LIÉGE</a> (Belgian city)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">LEXICON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">LIEGE</a> (feudal term)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">LEXINGTON, BARON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">LIEGNITZ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">LEXINGTON</a> (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">LIEN</a></td></tr> @@ -288,7 +249,7 @@ Letter to Lightfoot, John</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">LEYS, HENDRIK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">LIFFORD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">LEYTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">LIGAMENT</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LHASA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">LIGAO</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">L’HÔPITAL, MICHEL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">LIGHT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">L’HÔPITAL, MICHEL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">LIGHT</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">LIAO-YANG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">LIGHTFOOT, JOHN</a></td></tr> </table> @@ -381,7 +342,7 @@ of the Treasury and Admiralty (Anson, <i>Const.</i> ii. 47). Letters patent are also used to incorporate bodies by charter—in the British colonies, this mode of legislation is frequently applied to joint stock companies (cf. Rev. Stats. Ontario, c. 191, s. 9)—to -grant a <i>congé d’élire</i> to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop, +grant a <i>congé d’élire</i> to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop, or licence to convocation to amend canons; to grant pardon, and to confer certain offices and dignities. Among grants of offices, &c., made by letters patent the following may be enumerated: @@ -450,14 +411,14 @@ contrary to the ordinary rule, are construed in a sense favourable to the grantor (viz. the crown) rather than to the grantee; although this rule is said not to apply so strictly where the grant is made for consideration, or where it purports to be made <i>ex -certâ scientiâ et mero motu</i>. (ii.) When it appears from the face +certâ scientiâ et mero motu</i>. (ii.) When it appears from the face of the grant that the sovereign has been mistaken or deceived, either in matter of fact or in matter of law, as, <i>e.g.</i> by false suggestion on the part of the patentee, or by misrecital of former grants, or if the grant is contrary to law or uncertain, the letters patent are absolutely void, and may still, it would seem, be cancelled (except as regards letters patent for inventions, which -are revoked by a special procedure, regulated by § 26 of the +are revoked by a special procedure, regulated by § 26 of the Patents Act 1883), by the procedure known as scire facias, an action brought against the patentee in the name of the crown with the fiat of the attorney-general.</p> @@ -500,7 +461,7 @@ his will, he could decide without heeding the laws, and even in a sense contrary to the laws. This was an early conception, and in early times the order in question was simply verbal; thus some letters patent of Henry III. of France in 1576 (Isambert, -<i>Anciennes lois françaises</i>, xiv. 278) state that François de Montmorency +<i>Anciennes lois françaises</i>, xiv. 278) state that François de Montmorency was “prisoner in our castle of the Bastille in Paris by verbal command” of the late king Charles IX. But in the 14th century the principle was introduced that the order should be @@ -509,7 +470,7 @@ belonged to the class of <i>lettres closes</i>, as opposed to <i>lettres patente which contained the expression of the legal and permanent will of the king, and had to be furnished with the seal of state affixed by the chancellor. The <i>lettres de cachet</i>, on the contrary, were -signed simply by a secretary of state (formerly known as <i>secrétaire +signed simply by a secretary of state (formerly known as <i>secrétaire des commandements</i>) for the king; they bore merely the imprint of the king’s privy seal, from which circumstance they were often called, in the 14th and 15th centuries, <i>lettres de petit @@ -559,20 +520,20 @@ States-General in the royal session of the 23rd of June 1789 were abolished by the Constituent Assembly, but Napoleon re-established their equivalent by a political measure in the decree of the 9th of March 1801 on the state prisons. This was one of -the acts brought up against him by the <i>sénatus-consulte</i> of the +the acts brought up against him by the <i>sénatus-consulte</i> of the 3rd of April 1814, which pronounced his fall “considering that he has violated the constitutional laws by the decrees on the state prisons.”</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Honoré Mirabeau, <i>Les Lettres de cachet et des prisons d’état</i> +<p>See Honoré Mirabeau, <i>Les Lettres de cachet et des prisons d’état</i> (Hamburg, 1782), written in the dungeon at Vincennes into which his father had thrown him by a <i>lettre de cachet</i>, one of the ablest and most eloquent of his works, which had an immense circulation and was translated into English with a dedication to the duke of Norfolk -in 1788; Frantz Funck-Brentano, <i>Les Lettres de cachet à Paris</i> (Paris, -1904); and André Chassaigne, <i>Les Lettres de cachet sous l’ancien -régime</i> (Paris, 1903).</p> +in 1788; Frantz Funck-Brentano, <i>Les Lettres de cachet à Paris</i> (Paris, +1904); and André Chassaigne, <i>Les Lettres de cachet sous l’ancien +régime</i> (Paris, 1903).</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. P. E.)</div> @@ -587,7 +548,7 @@ a frame being set on a shallow hotbed, and, the stimulus of heat not being required, this is allowed to subside till the first week in October, when the soil, consisting of leaf-mould mixed with a little sand, is put on 6 or 7 in. thick, so that the surface is within -4½ in. of the sashes. The best time for sowing is found to be +4½ in. of the sashes. The best time for sowing is found to be about the 11th of October, one of the best varieties being Lobjoits Green Cos. When the seeds begin to germinate the sashes are drawn quite off in favourable weather during the day, and put @@ -627,7 +588,7 @@ the plants being pricked out 3 in. apart in a prepared bed, as soon as the first two leaves are fully formed. About the middle of October the plants should be taken up carefully with balls attached to the roots, and should be placed in a mild hotbed of -well-prepared dung (about 55°) covered about 1 ft. deep with a +well-prepared dung (about 55°) covered about 1 ft. deep with a compost of sandy peat, leaf-mould and a little well-decomposed manure. The Cos and Brown Dutch varieties should be planted about 9 in. apart. Give plenty of air when the weather permits, @@ -671,7 +632,7 @@ founder of the Atomistic theory, contemporary of Zeno, Empedocles and Anaxagoras. His fame was so completely overshadowed by that of Democritus, who subsequently developed the theory into a system, that his very existence was denied by -Epicurus (Diog. Laërt. x. 7), followed in modern times by +Epicurus (Diog. Laërt. x. 7), followed in modern times by E. Rohde. Epicurus, however, distinguishes Leucippus from Democritus, and Aristotle and Theophrastus expressly credit him with the invention of Atomism. There seems, therefore, no @@ -715,7 +676,7 @@ and repeatedly twinned, giving rise to twin-lamellae and to striations on the faces. When the crystals are raised to a temperature of about -500° C. they become optically isotropic, +500° C. they become optically isotropic, the twin-lamellae and striations disappearing, reappearing, however, when the crystals are again @@ -730,7 +691,7 @@ hardness is 5.5, and the specific gravity 2.5. Enclosures of other minerals, arranged in concentric zones, are frequently present in the crystals. On account of the colour and form of the crystals the mineral was early known as “white garnet.” French -authors employ R. J. Haüy’s name “amphigène.”</p> +authors employ R. J. Haüy’s name “amphigène.”</p> <div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> <div class="condensed"> @@ -821,7 +782,7 @@ augite and biotite. Sodalite or hauyne may also be present, but nepheline is typically absent. Rocks of this class occur also in the tuffs of the Phlegraean Fields, near Naples. The leucitophyres are rare rocks which have been described from various parts of the -volcanic district of the Rhine (Olbrück, Laacher See, &c.) and from +volcanic district of the Rhine (Olbrück, Laacher See, &c.) and from Monte Vulture in Italy. They are rich in leucite, but contain also some sanidine and often much nepheline with hauyne or nosean. Their pyroxene is principally aegirine or aegirine augite; some of @@ -906,28 +867,28 @@ supremacy in Greece.</p> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, vi. 4. 3-15; Diodorus xi. 53-56; Plutarch, <i>Pelopidas</i>, chs. 20-23; Pausanias ix. 13. 2-10; G. B. Grundy, <i>The Topography of the Battle of Plataea</i> (London, -1894), pp. 73-76; H. Delbrück, <i>Geschichte der Kriegskunst</i> (Berlin, +1894), pp. 73-76; H. Delbrück, <i>Geschichte der Kriegskunst</i> (Berlin, 1900), i. 130 ff.</p> </div> <div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEUK<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Loèche Ville</i>), an ancient and very picturesque +<p><span class="bold">LEUK<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Loèche Ville</i>), an ancient and very picturesque little town in the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is built above the right bank of the Rhone, and is about 1 m. from the Leuk-Susten -station (15½ m. east of Sion and 17½ m. west of Brieg) on +station (15½ m. east of Sion and 17½ m. west of Brieg) on the Simplon railway. In 1900 it had 1592 inhabitants, all but -wholly German-speaking and Romanists. About 10½ m. by a +wholly German-speaking and Romanists. About 10½ m. by a winding carriage road N. of Leuk, and near the head of the Dala valley, at a height of 4629 ft. above the sea-level, and overshadowed by the cliffs of the Gemmi Pass (7641 ft.; <i>q.v.</i>) leading over to the Bernese Oberland, are the Baths of Leuk (<i>Leukerbad</i>, -or <i>Loèche les Bains</i>). They have only 613 permanent inhabitants, +or <i>Loèche les Bains</i>). They have only 613 permanent inhabitants, but are much frequented in summer by visitors (largely French and Swiss) attracted by the hot mineral springs. These are 22 in number, and are very abundant. The principal is that of -St Laurence, the water of which has a temperature of 124° F. +St Laurence, the water of which has a temperature of 124° F. The season lasts from June to September. The village in winter is long deprived of sunshine, and is much exposed to avalanches, by which it was destroyed in 1518, 1719 and 1756, but it is now @@ -939,11 +900,11 @@ protected by a strong embankment from a similar catastrophe.</p> <p><span class="bold">LEUTHEN,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a village of Prussian Silesia, 10 m. W. of Breslau, memorable as the scene of Frederick the Great’s victory over the Austrians on December 5, 1757. The high road from Breslau -to Lüben crosses the marshy Schweidnitz Water at Lissa, +to Lüben crosses the marshy Schweidnitz Water at Lissa, and immediately enters the rolling country about Neumarkt. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> Leuthen itself stands some 4000 paces south of the road, and a -similar distance south again lies Sagschütz, while Nypern, on +similar distance south again lies Sagschütz, while Nypern, on the northern edge of the hill country, is 5000 paces from the road. On Frederick’s approach the Austrians took up a line of battle resting on the two last-named villages. Their whole position @@ -966,8 +927,8 @@ were marching against Nadasdy in two columns, which preserved their distances with an exactitude which has excited the wonder of modern generations of soldiers; at the due place they wheeled into line of battle obliquely to the Austrian front, and in one -great <i>échelon</i>,—the cavalry of the right wing foremost, and that -of the left “refused,”—Frederick advanced on Sagschütz. +great <i>échelon</i>,—the cavalry of the right wing foremost, and that +of the left “refused,”—Frederick advanced on Sagschütz. Nadasdy, surprised, put a bold face on the matter and made a good defence, but he was speedily routed, and, as the Prussians advanced, battalion after battalion was rolled up towards @@ -997,13 +958,13 @@ War</a></span>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEUTZE, EMANUEL<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1816-1868), American artist, was born -at Gmünd, Württemberg, on the 24th of May 1816, and as a +at Gmünd, Württemberg, on the 24th of May 1816, and as a child was taken by his parents to Philadelphia, where he early displayed talent as an artist. At the age of twenty-five he had -earned enough to take him to Düsseldorf for a course of art study +earned enough to take him to Düsseldorf for a course of art study at the royal academy. Almost immediately he began the painting of historical subjects, his first work, “Columbus before the -Council of Salamanca,” being purchased by the Düsseldorf Art +Council of Salamanca,” being purchased by the Düsseldorf Art Union. In 1860 he was commissioned by the United States Congress to decorate a stairway in the Capitol at Washington, for which he painted a large composition, “Westward the Star @@ -1017,7 +978,7 @@ and died at Washington, D.C., on the 18th of July 1868.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEVALLOIS-PERRET,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a north-western suburb of Paris, on -the right bank of the Seine, 2½ m. from the centre of the city. +the right bank of the Seine, 2½ m. from the centre of the city. Pop. (1906) 61,419. It carries on the manufacture of motor-cars and accessories, carriages, groceries, liqueurs, perfumery, soap, &c., and has a port on the Seine.</p> @@ -1040,30 +1001,30 @@ up a household, or <i>el campo</i>, to break camp.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEVASSEUR, PIERRE EMILE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1828-  ), French economist, was born in Paris on the 8th of December 1828. Educated -in Paris, he began to teach in the lycée at Alençon in 1852, and -in 1857 was chosen professor of rhetoric at Besançon. He returned -to Paris to become professor at the lycée Saint Louis, +in Paris, he began to teach in the lycée at Alençon in 1852, and +in 1857 was chosen professor of rhetoric at Besançon. He returned +to Paris to become professor at the lycée Saint Louis, and in 1868 he was chosen a member of the academy of moral and political sciences. In 1872 he was appointed professor of -geography, history and statistics in the Collège de France, and +geography, history and statistics in the Collège de France, and subsequently became also professor at the Conservatoire des -arts et métiers and at the École libre des sciences politiques. +arts et métiers and at the École libre des sciences politiques. Levasseur was one of the founders of the study of commercial geography, and became a member of the Council of Public Instruction, president of the French society of political economy and honorary president of the French geographical society.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His numerous writings include: <i>Histoire des classes ouvrières en -France depuis la conquête de Jules César jusqu’à la Révolution</i> (1859); -<i>Histoire des classes ouvrières en France depuis la Révolution jusqu’à -nos jours</i> (1867); <i>L’Étude et l’enseignement de la géographie</i> (1871); -<i>La Population française</i> (1889-1892); <i>L’Agriculture aux États-Unis</i> -(1894); <i>L’Enseignement primaire dans les pays civilisés</i> (1897); -<i>L’Ouvrier américain</i> (1898); <i>Questions ouvrières et industrielles sous -la troisième République</i> (1907); and <i>Histoire des classes ouvrières -et de l’industrie en France de 1789 à 1870</i> (1903-1904). He also published -a <i>Grand Atlas de géographie physique et politique</i> (1890-1892).</p> +<p>His numerous writings include: <i>Histoire des classes ouvrières en +France depuis la conquête de Jules César jusqu’à la Révolution</i> (1859); +<i>Histoire des classes ouvrières en France depuis la Révolution jusqu’à +nos jours</i> (1867); <i>L’Étude et l’enseignement de la géographie</i> (1871); +<i>La Population française</i> (1889-1892); <i>L’Agriculture aux États-Unis</i> +(1894); <i>L’Enseignement primaire dans les pays civilisés</i> (1897); +<i>L’Ouvrier américain</i> (1898); <i>Questions ouvrières et industrielles sous +la troisième République</i> (1907); and <i>Histoire des classes ouvrières +et de l’industrie en France de 1789 à 1870</i> (1903-1904). He also published +a <i>Grand Atlas de géographie physique et politique</i> (1890-1892).</p> </div> @@ -1076,7 +1037,7 @@ Malaga for a distance of some 10 m. inland.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEVÉE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>lever</i>, to raise), an embankment which keeps a +<p><span class="bold">LEVÉE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>lever</i>, to raise), an embankment which keeps a river in its channel. A river such as the Mississippi (<i>q.v.</i>), draining a large area, carries a great amount of sediment from its swifter head-streams to the lower ground. As soon as a stream’s velocity @@ -1089,27 +1050,27 @@ bodily upwards in its bed, and flows above the level of the surrounding country. In flood-time the muddy water flows over the river’s banks, where its velocity is at once checked as it flows gently down the outer side, causing more material to be deposited -there, and a long alluvial ridge, called a natural levée, to be built +there, and a long alluvial ridge, called a natural levée, to be built up on either side of the stream. These ridges may be wide or narrow, but they slope from the stream’s outer banks to the plain below, and in consequence require careful watching, for if -the levée is broken by a “crevasse,” the whole body of the river +the levée is broken by a “crevasse,” the whole body of the river may pour through and flood the country below. In 1890 the Mississippi near New Orleans broke through the Nita crevasse and flowed eastward with a current of 15 m. an hour, spreading destruction in its path. The Hwang-ho river in China is -peculiarly liable to these inundations. The word levée is also +peculiarly liable to these inundations. The word levée is also sometimes used to denote a riverside quay or landing-place.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEVEE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (from the French substantival use of <i>lever</i>, to rise; -there is no French substantival use of <i>levée</i> in the English sense), +there is no French substantival use of <i>levée</i> in the English sense), a reception or assembly held by the British sovereign or his representative, in Ireland by the lord-lieutenant, in India by the viceroy, in the forenoon or early afternoon, at which men only are present in distinction from a “drawing-room,” at which ladies -also are presented or received. Under the <i>ancien règime</i> in +also are presented or received. Under the <i>ancien règime</i> in France the <i>lever</i> of the king was regulated, especially under Louis XIV., by elaborate etiquette, and the various divisions of the ceremonial followed the stages of the king’s rising from bed, @@ -1118,8 +1079,8 @@ from which it gained its name. The <i>petit lever</i> began when the king had washed and said his daily offices; to this were admitted the princes of the blood, certain high officers of the household and those to whom a special permit had been granted; then -followed the <i>première entrée</i>, to which came the secretaries and -other officials and those having the <i>entrée</i>; these were received +followed the <i>première entrée</i>, to which came the secretaries and +other officials and those having the <i>entrée</i>; these were received by the king in his dressing-gown. Finally, at the <i>grand lever</i>, the remainder of the household, the nobles and gentlemen of the court were received; the king by that time was shaved, had @@ -1244,13 +1205,13 @@ fought in many campaigns with honour. In 1626 Leslie had risen by merit to the rank of lieutenant-general, and had been knighted by Gustavus. In 1628 he distinguished himself by his constancy and energy in the defence of Stralsund against Wallenstein, -and in 1630 seized the island of Rügen in the name of +and in 1630 seized the island of Rügen in the name of the king of Sweden. In the same year he returned to Scotland to assist in recruiting and organizing the corps of Scottish volunteers which James, 3rd marquis of Hamilton, brought over to Gustavus in 1631. Leslie received a severe wound in the following winter, but was able nevertheless to be present -at Gustavus’s last battle at Lützen. Like many others of the +at Gustavus’s last battle at Lützen. Like many others of the soldiers of fortune who served under Gustavus, Leslie cherished his old commander’s memory to the day of his death, and he kept with particular care a jewel and miniature presented to him @@ -1297,7 +1258,7 @@ consistent attitude. However, his influence was exercised chiefly to put an end to, even to hush up, the troubles, and he is found, now giving a private warning to plotters against the king to enable them to escape, now guarding the Scottish -parliament against a royalist <i>coup d’état</i>, and now securing for +parliament against a royalist <i>coup d’état</i>, and now securing for an old comrade of the German wars, Patrick Ruthven, Lord Ettrick, indemnity for having held Edinburgh Castle for the king against the parliament. Charles created him, by patent @@ -1363,7 +1324,7 @@ him responsible. But once more the parliament refused to accept his resignation. Leven at last fell into the hands of a party of English dragoons in August 1651, and with some others was sent to London. He remained incarcerated in the Tower -for some time, till released on finding securities for £20,000, +for some time, till released on finding securities for £20,000, upon which he retired to his residence in Northumberland. While on a visit to London he was again arrested, for a technical breach of his engagement, but by the intercession of the queen @@ -1381,7 +1342,7 @@ in the Carse of Gowrie, which he called Inchleslie.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEVEN,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 5577. It is situated on the Firth of Forth, at the mouth of the -Leven, 5¾ m. E. by N. of Thornton Junction by the North +Leven, 5¾ m. E. by N. of Thornton Junction by the North British railway. The public buildings include the town hall, public hall and people’s institute, in the grounds of which the old town cross has been erected. The industries are numerous, @@ -1416,8 +1377,8 @@ of its time. When he was past active service he had a canal cut from his house to the parish church, to which he was rowed every Sunday in an eight-oared barge. Largo House was granted to him by James III., and the tower of the original structure still -exists. About 1½ m. from the coast rises the height of Largo Law -(948 ft.). Kellie Law lies some 5½ m. to the east.</p> +exists. About 1½ m. from the coast rises the height of Largo Law +(948 ft.). Kellie Law lies some 5½ m. to the east.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -1430,7 +1391,7 @@ maximum of 83 ft., the lake being thus one of the shallowest in Scotland. Reclamation works carried on from 1826 to 1836 reduced its area by one quarter, but it still possesses a surface <span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span> -area of 5½ sq. m. It drains the county and is itself drained by +area of 5½ sq. m. It drains the county and is itself drained by the Leven. It is famous for the Loch Leven trout (<i>Salmo levenensis</i>, considered by some a variety of <i>S. trutta</i>), which are remarkable for size and quality. The fishings are controlled @@ -1553,7 +1514,7 @@ of Indians and had to escape at the risk of his life, like his own Bagenal Daly.</p> <p>Back in Europe, he travelled in the guise of a student from -Göttingen to Weimar (where he saw Goethe), thence to Vienna; +Göttingen to Weimar (where he saw Goethe), thence to Vienna; he loved the German student life with its beer, its fighting and its fun, and several of his merry songs, such as “The Pope he loved a merry life” (greatly envied by Titmarsh), are on @@ -1594,7 +1555,7 @@ Ours</i> (1843), written under the spur of the writer’s chronic extravagance, contain some splendid military writing and some of the most animated battle-pieces on record. In pages of <i>O’Malley</i> and <i>Tom Burke</i> Lever anticipates not a few of the best -effects of Marbot, Thiébaut, Lejeune, Griois, Seruzier, Burgoyne +effects of Marbot, Thiébaut, Lejeune, Griois, Seruzier, Burgoyne and the like. His account of the Douro need hardly fear comparison, it has been said, with Napier’s. Condemned by the critics, Lever had completely won the general reader from the Iron @@ -1621,7 +1582,7 @@ complete <i>Tom Burke</i>, <i>The O’Donoghue</i> and <i>Arthur O’Lea (1845), made his native land an impossible place for Lever to continue in. Templeogue would soon have proved another Abbotsford. Thackeray suggested London. But Lever required -a new field of literary observation and anecdote. His <i>sève +a new field of literary observation and anecdote. His <i>sève originel</i> was exhausted and he decided to renew it on the continent. In 1845 he resigned his editorship and went back to Brussels, whence he started upon an unlimited tour of central Europe @@ -1687,7 +1648,7 @@ brightest books, such as <i>Lorrequer</i>, <i>O’Malley</i> and <i>Tom Burk in fact little more than recitals of scenes in the life of a particular “hero,” unconnected by any continuous intrigue. The type of character he depicted is for the most part elementary. His -women are mostly rouées, romps or Xanthippes; his heroes have +women are mostly rouées, romps or Xanthippes; his heroes have too much of the Pickle temper about them and fall an easy prey to the serious attacks of Poe or to the more playful gibes of Thackeray in <i>Phil Fogarty</i> or Bret Harte in <i>Terence Deuville</i>. @@ -1710,12 +1671,12 @@ romance.</p> the later books approximate it may be thought to the good <i>ordinary</i> novel of commerce, but they lack the <i>extraordinary</i> qualities, the incommunicable “go” of the early books—the -élan of Lever’s untamed youth. Artless and almost formless +élan of Lever’s untamed youth. Artless and almost formless these productions may be, but they represent to us, as very few other books can, that pathetic ejaculation of Lever’s own—“Give us back the wild freshness of the morning!” We know the novelist’s teachers, Maxwell, Napier, the old-fashioned compilation -known as <i>Victoires, conquêtes et désastres des Français</i> +known as <i>Victoires, conquêtes et désastres des Français</i> (1835), and the old buffers at Brussels who emptied the room by uttering the word “Badajos.” But where else shall we find the equals of the military scenes in <i>O’Malley</i> and <i>Tom Burke</i>, @@ -1768,10 +1729,10 @@ the piece to be moved, and power is applied at another point <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEVERRIER, URBAIN JEAN JOSEPH<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1811-1877), French -astronomer, was born at St Lô in Normandy on the 11th of March +astronomer, was born at St Lô in Normandy on the 11th of March 1811. His father, who held a small post under government, made great efforts to send him to Paris, where a brilliant examination -gained him, in 1831, admittance to the École Polytechnique. +gained him, in 1831, admittance to the École Polytechnique. The distinction of his career there was rewarded with a free choice amongst the departments of the public service open to pupils of the school. He selected the administration of tobaccos, @@ -1781,7 +1742,7 @@ two papers on the combinations of phosphorus with hydrogen and oxygen, published in <i>Annales de Chimie et de Physique</i> (1835 and 1837). His astronomical vocation, like that of Kepler, came from without. The place of teacher of that science at the -École Polytechnique falling vacant in 1837, it was offered to +École Polytechnique falling vacant in 1837, it was offered to and accepted by Leverrier, who, “docile to circumstance,” instantly abandoned chemistry, and directed the whole of his powers to celestial mechanics. The first fruits of his labours @@ -1790,8 +1751,8 @@ September 16 and October 14, 1839. Pursuing the investigations of Laplace, he demonstrated with greater rigour the stability of the solar system, and calculated the limits within which the eccentricities and inclinations of the planetary orbits vary. This -remarkable début excited much attention, and, on the recommendation -of François Arago, he took in hand the theory of +remarkable début excited much attention, and, on the recommendation +of François Arago, he took in hand the theory of Mercury, producing, in 1843, vastly improved tables of that planet. The perturbations of the comets discovered, the one by H. A. E. A. Faye in November 1843, the other by Francesco de @@ -1821,9 +1782,9 @@ he was appointed adjunct astronomer to the Bureau of Longitudes. Returned to the Legislative Assembly in 1849 by his native department of Manche, he voted with the anti-republican party, but devoted his principal attention to subjects connected -with science and education. After the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851 he +with science and education. After the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851 he became a senator and inspector-general of superior instruction, -sat upon the commission for the reform of the École Polytechnique +sat upon the commission for the reform of the École Polytechnique (1854), and, on the 30th of January 1854, succeeded Arago as director of the Paris observatory. His official work in the latter capacity would alone have strained the energies of an @@ -1834,7 +1795,7 @@ it to its due rank among the observatories of Europe. He did not escape the common lot of reformers. His uncompromising measures and unconciliatory manner of enforcing them raised a storm only appeased by his removal on the 5th of February 1870. -On the death of his successor Charles Eugène Delaunay (1816-1872), +On the death of his successor Charles Eugène Delaunay (1816-1872), he was reinstated by Thiers, but with authority restricted by the supervision of a council. In the midst of these disquietudes, he executed a task of gigantic proportions. This was @@ -1853,7 +1814,7 @@ him little more than a month, he left a son and daughter.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The discovery with which Leverrier’s name is popularly identified was only an incident in his career. The elaboration of the scheme of -the heavens traced out by P. S. Laplace in the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> +the heavens traced out by P. S. Laplace in the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> was its larger aim, for the accomplishment of which forty years of unremitting industry barely sufficed. He nevertheless found time to organize the meteorological service in France and to promote the @@ -1869,7 +1830,7 @@ degree of LL.D. His planetary and solar tables were adopted by the <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, as well as by the <i>Connaissance des temps</i>.</p> <p>The <i>Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris</i>, the publication of which -was set on foot by Leverrier, contain, in vols. i.-vi. (<i>Mémoires</i>) +was set on foot by Leverrier, contain, in vols. i.-vi. (<i>Mémoires</i>) (1855-1861) and x.-xiv. (1874-1877), his theories and tables of the several planets. In vol. i. will be found, besides his masterly report on the observatory, a general theory of secular inequalities, in which @@ -1879,20 +1840,20 @@ had previously been attempted.</p> <p>The memoirs and papers communicated by him to the Academy were summarized in <i>Comptes rendus</i> (1839-1876), and the more important published in full either separately or in the <i>Conn. des temps</i> -and the <i>Journal des mathématiques</i>. That entitled <i>Développemens -sur différents points de la théorie des perturbations</i> (1841), was translated +and the <i>Journal des mathématiques</i>. That entitled <i>Développemens +sur différents points de la théorie des perturbations</i> (1841), was translated in part xviii. of Taylor’s <i>Scientific Memoirs</i>. For his scientific work see Professor Adams’s address, <i>Monthly Notices</i>, xxxvi. 232, and F. Tisserand’s review in <i>Ann. de l’Obs.</i> tom. xv. (1880); -for a notice of his life, J. Bertrand’s “Éloge historique,” <i>Mém. de -l’Ac. des Sciences</i>, tom, xli., 2<span class="sp">me</span> série.</p> +for a notice of his life, J. Bertrand’s “Éloge historique,” <i>Mém. de +l’Ac. des Sciences</i>, tom, xli., 2<span class="sp">me</span> série.</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEVERTIN, OSCAR IVAN<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1862-1906), Swedish poet and -man of letters, was born of Jewish parents at Norrköping on the +man of letters, was born of Jewish parents at Norrköping on the 17th of July 1862. He received his doctorate in letters at Upsala in 1887, and was subsequently <i>docent</i> at Upsala, and later professor of literature at Stockholm. Enforced sojourns in southern @@ -1900,7 +1861,7 @@ Europe on account of health familiarized him with foreign languages. He began by being an extreme follower of the naturalist school, but on his return in 1890 from a two years’ residence in Davos he wrote, in collaboration with the poet C. G. Verner -von Heidenstam (b. 1859), a novel, <i>Pepitas bröllop</i> (1890), which +von Heidenstam (b. 1859), a novel, <i>Pepitas bröllop</i> (1890), which was a direct attack on naturalism. His later volumes of short stories, <i>Rococonoveller</i> and <i>Sista noveller</i>, are fine examples of modern Swedish fiction. The lyrical beauty of his poems, @@ -1914,7 +1875,7 @@ on an eastern legend. As a critic he first attracted attention by his books on the Gustavian age of Swedish letters: <i>Teater och drama under Gustaf III.</i> (1889), &c. He was an active collaborator in the review <i>Ord och Bild</i>. He died in 1906, at a time -when he was engaged on his <i>Linné</i>, posthumously published, +when he was engaged on his <i>Linné</i>, posthumously published, a fragment of a great work on Linnaeus.</p> @@ -1925,7 +1886,7 @@ son of a Jewish rabbi. He was educated at Giessen and Mannheim, and came under Vincenz Lachner’s notice. From 1855 to 1858 Levi studied at the Leipzig conservatorium, and after a series of travels which took him to Paris, he obtained his first -post as music director at Saarbrücken, which post he exchanged +post as music director at Saarbrücken, which post he exchanged for that at Mannheim in 1861. From 1862 to 1864 he was chief conductor of the German opera in Rotterdam, then till 1872 at Carlsruhe, when he went to Munich, a post he held until 1896, @@ -1955,7 +1916,7 @@ Appointed in 1852 to the chair of commercial law in King’s College, London, he proved himself a highly competent and popular instructor, and his evening classes were a most successful innovation. He was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1859, -and received from the university of Tübingen the degree of +and received from the university of Tübingen the degree of doctor of political science. His chief work—<i>History of British Commerce and of the Economic Progress of the British Nation</i>, 1763-1870, is perhaps a rather too partisan account of British @@ -2080,7 +2041,7 @@ Stud. d. Ethnolog. Jurisprud</i>. (1886).</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An expression of this idea is quoted from the <i>Mahābhārata</i> -(Muir’s trans.), by Max Müller (Gifford Lectures), <i>Anthropological +(Muir’s trans.), by Max Müller (Gifford Lectures), <i>Anthropological Religion</i>, p. 31—</p> <table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> @@ -2093,17 +2054,17 @@ Religion</i>, p. 31—</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LÉVIS<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (formerly Pointe Levi), the chief town of Lévis county, +<p><span class="bold">LÉVIS<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (formerly Pointe Levi), the chief town of Lévis county, Quebec, Canada, situated on the precipitous south bank of the St Lawrence, opposite Quebec city. Pop. (1901) 7783. It is on the Intercolonial railway, and is the eastern terminus of the Grand Trunk and Quebec Central railways. It contains the Lorne dock, a Dominion government graving dock, 445 ft. long, -100 ft. wide, with a depth on the sill of 26½ and 20½ ft. at high +100 ft. wide, with a depth on the sill of 26½ and 20½ ft. at high water, spring and neap tides respectively. It is an important centre of the river trade, and is connected by steam ferries -with the city of Quebec. It is named after the maréchal duc -de Lévis, the last commander of the French troops in Canada.</p> +with the city of Quebec. It is named after the maréchal duc +de Lévis, the last commander of the French troops in Canada.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -2242,7 +2203,7 @@ standpoints.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a>< <div class="condensed"> <p>No argument in support of the traditional theory can be drawn -from the account of Korah’s revolt (Num. xvi. sqq., see § 3) or from +from the account of Korah’s revolt (Num. xvi. sqq., see § 3) or from the Levitical cities (Num. xxxv.; Josh. xxi.). Some of the latter were either not conquered by the Israelites until long after the invasion, or, if conquered, were not held by Levites; and names are @@ -2297,7 +2258,7 @@ tendency to co-ordinate all the religious classes (see <span class="sc"><a href= <i>Biblical</i>). The genealogies in their complete form pay little heed to Moses, although Aaron and Moses could typify the priesthood and other Levites generally (1 Chron. xxiii. 14). -Certain priesthoods in the first stage (§ 1 [<i>a</i>]) claimed descent +Certain priesthoods in the first stage (§ 1 [<i>a</i>]) claimed descent from these prototypes, and it is interesting to observe (1) the growing importance of Aaron in the later sources of “the Exodus,” and (2) the relation between Mosheh (Moses) and his @@ -2391,7 +2352,7 @@ the first chief priest contemporary with the foundation of the <i>first</i> temple (1 Kings ii. 27, 35). These situations cannot be severed from what is known elsewhere of the Deuteronomic teaching, of the reform ascribed to Josiah, or of the principle inculcated by Ezekiel (see -§ 1 [<i>b</i>]). The late specific tendency in favour of Jerusalem agrees +§ 1 [<i>b</i>]). The late specific tendency in favour of Jerusalem agrees with the Deuteronomic editor of Kings who condemns the sanctuaries of Dan and Bethel for calf-worship (1 Kings xii. 28-31), and does not acknowledge the northern priesthood to be Levitical (1 Kings xii. 31, @@ -2446,7 +2407,7 @@ the earlier sources for the pre-monarchical history, as incorporated by late compilers, are necessarily trustworthy confuses the inquiry (on Gen. xxxiv., see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Simeon</a></span>), and even the probability of a reforming spirit in Jehu’s age depends upon the internal criticism -of the related records (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, §§ 11-14). The view that the +of the related records (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, §§ 11-14). The view that the Levites came from the south may be combined with the conviction that there Yahweh had his seat (cf. Deut. xxxiii. 2; Judges v. 4; Hab. iii. 3), but the latter is only one view, and the @@ -2489,12 +2450,12 @@ attractive and suggestive view requires confirmation and independent support.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For the argument in § 1, see Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena</i>, +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For the argument in § 1, see Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena</i>, pp. 121-151; W. R. Smith, <i>Old Test. in Jew. Church</i> (2nd ed., -Index, s.v. “Levites”); A. Kuenen, <i>Hexateuch</i>, §§ 3 n. 16; 11, pp. +Index, s.v. “Levites”); A. Kuenen, <i>Hexateuch</i>, §§ 3 n. 16; 11, pp. 203 sqq.; 15 n. 15 (more technical); also the larger commentaries on Exodus-Joshua and the ordinary critical works on Old Testament -literature. In § 1 and part of § 2 use has been freely made of +literature. In § 1 and part of § 2 use has been freely made of W. R. Smith’s article “Levites” in the 9th edition of the <i>Ency. Brit.</i> (see the revision by A. Bertholet, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 2770 sqq.). For the history of the Levites in the post-exilic and later ages, @@ -2508,7 +2469,7 @@ in his <i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen</i> (ed. K. Budde, 1894). See further <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the derivation of “Levi” see below § 4 end.</p> +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the derivation of “Levi” see below § 4 end.</p> <p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The words “beside that which cometh of the sale of his patrimony” (lit. “his sellings according to the fathers”) are obscure; @@ -2524,7 +2485,7 @@ Bib.</i> cols. 3397 sqq.</p> Priests</i> (1877), with which his later attitude should be contrasted (see <i>Primitive Semitic Religion To-day</i>, pp. 14, 50, 133 seq., 171, 238 sqq., 241 sqq.); W. L. Baxter, <i>Sanctuary and Sacrifice</i> (1895); -A. van Hoonacker, <i>Le Sacerdoce lévitique</i> (1899); and J. Orr, +A. van Hoonacker, <i>Le Sacerdoce lévitique</i> (1899); and J. Orr, <i>Problem of the O.T.</i> (1905). These and other apologetic writings have so far failed to produce any adequate alternative hypothesis, and while they argue for the traditional theory, later revision @@ -2543,8 +2504,8 @@ priestly and Levitical ministry. 1 Sam. vi. 15, too, brings in the Levites, but the verse breaks the connexion between 14 and 16. For the present disorder in the text of 2 Sam. xv. 24, see the commentaries.</p> -<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Father H. Vincent, O.P., <i>Canaan d’après l’exploration -récente</i> (1907), pp. 151, 200 sqq., 463 sq.</p> +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Father H. Vincent, O.P., <i>Canaan d’après l’exploration +récente</i> (1907), pp. 151, 200 sqq., 463 sq.</p> <p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> So Gen. xxxiv. 7, Hamor has wrought folly “in Israel” (cf. Judges xx. 6 and often), and in v. 30 “Jacob” is not a personal but a collective @@ -2555,7 +2516,7 @@ in Gen. xlix. the two are spoken of as “brothers” with a communal assembly. See, for other examples of personification, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genealogy</a></span>: <i>Biblical</i>.</p> -<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See E. Meyer, <i>Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, pp. 299 sqq. +<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See E. Meyer, <i>Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, pp. 299 sqq. (passim); S. A. Cook, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 1665 seq.; <i>Crit. Notes on O.T. History</i>, pp. 84 sqq., 122-125.</p> @@ -2595,9 +2556,9 @@ vi. 8, ix. 17).</p> <p><a name="ft14b" id="ft14b" href="#fa14b"><span class="fn">14</span></a> For some suggestive remarks on the relation between nomadism and the Levites, and their influence upon Israelite religion and -literary tradition, see E. Meyer, <i>Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i> +literary tradition, see E. Meyer, <i>Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i> (1906), pp. 82-89, 138; on the problems of early Israelite history, see -<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Simeon</a></span> (end), <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, §§ 5, 8, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>, <i>History</i>.</p> +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Simeon</a></span> (end), <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, §§ 5, 8, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>, <i>History</i>.</p> </div> @@ -3365,14 +3326,14 @@ whole must be assigned to a later stratum of P, for while <i>vv.</i> 2-25 (P); <i>vv.</i> 26-29 (on firstlings and devoted things) are supplementary restrictions to <i>vv.</i> 2-25.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—<i>Commentaries</i>: Dillmann-Ryssel, <i>Die Bücher Exodus und +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—<i>Commentaries</i>: Dillmann-Ryssel, <i>Die Bücher Exodus und Leviticus</i> (1897); Driver and White, <i>SBOT. Leviticus</i> (English, 1898); B. Baentsch, <i>Exod. Lev. u. Num.</i> (HK, 1900); Bertholet, <i>Leviticus</i> (KHC, 1901). <i>Criticism</i>: The Introductions to the Old Testament by -Kuenen, Holzinger, Driver, Cornill, König and the archaeological +Kuenen, Holzinger, Driver, Cornill, König and the archaeological works of Benzinger and Nowack. Wellhausen, <i>Die Composition des Hexateuchs</i>, &c. (1899); Kayser, <i>Das vorexilische Buch der -Urgeschichte Isr.</i> (1874); Klostermann, <i>Zeitschrift für Luth. +Urgeschichte Isr.</i> (1874); Klostermann, <i>Zeitschrift für Luth. Theologie</i> (1877); Horst, <i>Lev. xvii.-xxvi. and Hezekiel</i> (1881); Wurster, <i>ZATW</i> (1884); Baentsch, <i>Das Heiligkeitsgesetz</i> (1893); L. P. Paton, “The Relation of Lev. 20 to Lev. 17-19,” <i>Hebraica</i> (1894); @@ -3411,28 +3372,28 @@ determination of minerals. In his many contributions to scientific journals he described the granulite group, and dealt with pegmatites, variolites, eurites, the ophites of the Pyrenees, the extinct volcanoes of Central France, gneisses, and the origin of crystalline schists. -He wrote <i>Structures et classification des roches éruptives</i> (1889), -but his more elaborate studies were carried on with F. Fouqué. +He wrote <i>Structures et classification des roches éruptives</i> (1889), +but his more elaborate studies were carried on with F. Fouqué. Together they wrote on the artificial production of felspar, nepheline and other minerals, and also of meteorites, and produced -<i>Minéralogie micrographique</i> (1879) and <i>Synthèse des -minéraux et des roches</i> (1882). Levy also collaborated with -A. Lacroix in <i>Les Minéraux des roches</i> (1888) and <i>Tableau des -minéraux des roches</i> (1889).</p> +<i>Minéralogie micrographique</i> (1879) and <i>Synthèse des +minéraux et des roches</i> (1882). Levy also collaborated with +A. Lacroix in <i>Les Minéraux des roches</i> (1888) and <i>Tableau des +minéraux des roches</i> (1889).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LEVY<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Fr. <i>levée</i>, from <i>lever</i>, Lat. <i>levare</i>, to lift, raise), the +<p><span class="bold">LEVY<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Fr. <i>levée</i>, from <i>lever</i>, Lat. <i>levare</i>, to lift, raise), the raising of money by the collection of an assessment, &c., a tax or compulsory contribution; also the collection of a body of men for military or other purposes. When all the able-bodied men -of a nation are enrolled for service, the French term <i>levée en +of a nation are enrolled for service, the French term <i>levée en masse</i>, levy in mass, is frequently used.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LEWALD, FANNY<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1811-1889), German author, was born at -Königsberg in East Prussia on the 24th of March 1811, of Jewish +Königsberg in East Prussia on the 24th of March 1811, of Jewish parentage. When seventeen years of age she embraced Christianity, and after travelling in Germany, France and Italy, settled in 1845 at Berlin. Here, in 1854, she married the author, Adolf @@ -3444,15 +3405,15 @@ matter-of-fact works, though displaying considerable talent and culture, than for her championship of “women’s rights,” a question which she was practically the first German woman to take up, and for her scathing satire on the sentimentalism of -the Gräfin Hahn Hahn. This authoress she ruthlessly attacked -in the exquisite parody (<i>Diogena, Roman von Iduna Gräfin +the Gräfin Hahn Hahn. This authoress she ruthlessly attacked +in the exquisite parody (<i>Diogena, Roman von Iduna Gräfin H.... H....</i> (2nd ed., 1847). Among the best known of her novels are <i>Klementine</i> (1842); <i>Prinz Louis Ferdinand</i> -(1849; 2nd ed., 1859); <i>Das Mädchen von Hela</i> (1860); <i>Von +(1849; 2nd ed., 1859); <i>Das Mädchen von Hela</i> (1860); <i>Von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht</i> (8 vols., 1863-1865); <i>Benvenuto</i> (1875), and <i>Stella</i> (1883; English by B. Marshall, 1884). Of her writings -in defence of the emancipation of women <i>Osterbriefe für die -Frauen</i> (1863) and <i>Für und wider die Frauen</i> (1870) are conspicuous. +in defence of the emancipation of women <i>Osterbriefe für die +Frauen</i> (1863) and <i>Für und wider die Frauen</i> (1870) are conspicuous. Her autobiography, <i>Meine Lebensgeschichte</i> (6 vols., 1861-1862), is brightly written and affords interesting glimpses of the literary life of her time.</p> @@ -3460,7 +3421,7 @@ of the literary life of her time.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>A selection of her works was published under the title <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> in 12 vols. (1870-1874). Cf. K. Frenzel, <i>Erinnerungen und -Strömungen</i> (1890).</p> +Strömungen</i> (1890).</p> </div> @@ -3490,13 +3451,13 @@ the torture and murder of his own brother led to open rebellion, and it was only through extreme presence of mind that the chief escaped with his life into exile. His cousin, Akufuna or Tatela, was then proclaimed chief. It was during his brief -reign that François Coillard, the eminent missionary, arrived +reign that François Coillard, the eminent missionary, arrived at Lialui, the capital. The following year Lewanika, having collected his partisans, deposed the usurper and re-established his power. Ruthless revenge not unmixed with treachery characterized his return to power, but gradually the strong <span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> -personality of the high-minded François Coillard so far influenced +personality of the high-minded François Coillard so far influenced him for good that from about 1887 onward he ruled tolerantly and showed a consistent desire to better the condition of his people. In 1890 Lewanika, who two years previously had @@ -3504,7 +3465,7 @@ proposed to place himself under the protection of Great Britain, concluded a treaty with the British South Africa Company, acknowledging its supremacy and conceding to it certain mineral rights. In 1897 Mr R. T. Coryndon took up his position at -Lialui as British agent, and the country to the east of 25° E. +Lialui as British agent, and the country to the east of 25° E. was thrown open to settlers, that to the west being reserved to the Barotse chief. In 1905 the king of Italy’s award in the Barotse boundary dispute with Portugal deprived Lewanika @@ -3515,7 +3476,7 @@ recognized heir was his eldest son Letia.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barotse</a></span>, and the works there cited, especially <i>On the Threshold -of Central Africa</i> (London, 1897), by François Coillard.</p> +of Central Africa</i> (London, 1897), by François Coillard.</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. St. H. G.)</div> @@ -3526,7 +3487,7 @@ son of a hosier in London. After attending a school at Ambleside he returned to London, where he found employment as a postman; but about 1760 he went on the stage in the provinces, and some three years later began to appear in minor parts at Covent -Garden Theatre. His first rôle of importance was that of +Garden Theatre. His first rôle of importance was that of “Young Marlow” in <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>, at its production of that comedy in 1773, when he delivered an epilogue specially written for him by Goldsmith. He remained a member of the @@ -3534,7 +3495,7 @@ Covent Garden company till 1783, appearing in many parts, among which were “Fag” in <i>The Rivals</i>, which he “created,” and “Sir Anthony Absolute” in the same comedy. In 1783 he removed to Drury Lane, where he assumed the Shakespearian -rôles of “Touchstone,” “Lucio” and “Falstaff.” In 1787 +rôles of “Touchstone,” “Lucio” and “Falstaff.” In 1787 he left London for Edinburgh, where he gave recitations, including Cowper’s “John Gilpin.” For a short time in 1792 Lewes assisted Stephen Kemble in the management of the Dundee @@ -3784,7 +3745,7 @@ discovered, and the numerous tumuli and earthworks which surround Lewes, indicate its remote origin. The town Lewes (Loewas, Loewen, Leswa, Laquis, Latisaquensis) was in the royal demesne of the Saxon kings, from whom it received the privilege -of a market. Æthelstan established two royal mints there, and +of a market. Æthelstan established two royal mints there, and by the reign of Edward the Confessor, and probably before, Lewes was certainly a borough. William I. granted the whole barony of Lewes, including the revenue arising from the town, to @@ -3858,7 +3819,7 @@ Lewes is served by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington (Pennsylvania System), and the Maryland, Delaware & Virginia railways. Its harbour is formed by the Delaware Breakwater, built by the national government and completed in 1869, and -2¼ m. above it another breakwater was completed in December +2¼ m. above it another breakwater was completed in December 1901 by the government. The cove between them forms a harbour of refuge of about 550 acres. At the mouth of Delaware Bay, about 2 m. below Lewes, is the Henlopen Light, one of @@ -3939,9 +3900,9 @@ Political Terms</i> (London, 1832) may have been suggested by Bentham’s <i>Book of Parliamentary Fallacies</i>, but it shows all that power of clear sober original thinking which marks his larger and later political works. Moreover, he translated -Boeckh’s <i>Public Economy of Athens</i> and Müller’s <i>History of +Boeckh’s <i>Public Economy of Athens</i> and Müller’s <i>History of Greek Literature</i>, and he assisted Tufnell in the translation of -Müller’s <i>Dorians</i>. Some time afterwards he edited a text of +Müller’s <i>Dorians</i>. Some time afterwards he edited a text of the <i>Fables</i> of Babrius. While his friend Hayward conducted the <i>Law Magazine</i>, he wrote in it frequently on such subjects as secondary punishments and the penitentiary system. In 1836, @@ -4093,7 +4054,7 @@ Lewis, was born in London on the 9th of July 1775. He was educated for a diplomatic career at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, spending most of his vacations abroad in the study of modern languages; and in 1794 he proceeded to -the Hague as attaché to the British embassy. His stay there +the Hague as attaché to the British embassy. His stay there lasted only a few months, but was marked by the composition, in ten weeks, of his romance <i>Ambrosio, or the Monk</i>, which was published in the summer of the following year. It immediately @@ -4176,7 +4137,7 @@ Louis, where the men were subjected to rigid training. On the 14th of May 1804 the party, with sixteen additional members, who, however, were to go only a part of the way, started up the Missouri river in three boats, and by the 2nd of November had -made the difficult ascent of the stream as far as 47° 21′ N. lat., +made the difficult ascent of the stream as far as 47° 21′ N. lat., near the site of the present Bismarck, North Dakota, where, among the Mandan Indians, they passed the second winter. Early in April 1805 the ascent of the Missouri was continued as @@ -4329,7 +4290,7 @@ and in 1854-1870 at New Hampton, New Hampshire, was removed to Lewiston in 1870 and became a department (known as Bates Theological Seminary until 1888) of Bates College, with which it was merged in 1908. Lewiston has a fine city -hall, a Carnegie library and a public park of 10½ acres, with a +hall, a Carnegie library and a public park of 10½ acres, with a bronze soldiers’ monument by Franklin Simmons, who was born in 1839 at Webster near Lewiston, and is known for his statues of Roger Williams, William King, Francis H. Pierpont and U. S. @@ -4418,13 +4379,13 @@ Lewis and Harris is composed of peat and swamp; there are scanty fragments of an ancient forest. The rainfall for the year averages 41.7 in., autumn and winter being very wet. Owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, however, the temperature -is fairly high, averaging for the year 46.6° F., for January 39.5° F. -and for August 56.5° F.</p> +is fairly high, averaging for the year 46.6° F., for January 39.5° F. +and for August 56.5° F.</p> <p>The economic conditions of the island correspond with its physical conditions. The amount of cultivable land is small and poor. Sir James Matheson (1796-1878), who purchased -the island in 1844, is said to have spent nearly £350,000 in +the island in 1844, is said to have spent nearly £350,000 in reclamation and improvements. Barley and potatoes are the chief crops. A large number of black cattle are reared and some sheep-farming is carried on in Harris. Kelp-making, once @@ -4727,7 +4688,7 @@ to West Newton in 1844 and to Framingham in 1853.</p> Missouri, U.S.A., situated on the S. bank of the Missouri river, about 40 m. E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1900) 4190, including 1170 negroes and 283 foreign-born; (1910) 5242. It is served by the -Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Wabash (at Lexington +Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Wabash (at Lexington Junction, 4 m. N.W.), and the Missouri Pacific railway systems. The city lies for the most part on high broken ground at the summit of the river bluffs, but in part upon their face. Lexington @@ -4742,7 +4703,7 @@ Higginsville (pop. in 1910, 2628), about 12 m. S.E., in the same county, also being important. Lexington was founded in 1819, was laid out in 1832, and, with various additions, was chartered as a city in 1845. A new charter was received in 1870. Lexington -succeeded Sibley as the eastern terminus of the Santa Fé +succeeded Sibley as the eastern terminus of the Santa Fé trade, and was in turn displaced by Independence; it long owed its prosperity to the freighting trade up the Missouri, and at the opening of the Civil War it was the most important river town @@ -4966,10 +4927,10 @@ When the jar is charged, it is usually discharged through a metallic arc called the discharging tongs, and this discharge is in the form of an oscillatory current (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrokinetics</a></span>). The energy stored up in the jar in joules is expressed by the value -of ½ CV<span class="sp">2</span>, where C is the capacity measured in farads and V the +of ½ CV<span class="sp">2</span>, where C is the capacity measured in farads and V the potential difference of the coatings in volts. If the capacity C is reckoned in microfarads then the energy storage is equal to -CV<span class="sp">2</span>/2 × 10<span class="sp">6</span> joules or 0.737 CV<span class="sp">2</span>/2 × 10<span class="sp">6</span> foot-pounds. The size +CV<span class="sp">2</span>/2 × 10<span class="sp">6</span> joules or 0.737 CV<span class="sp">2</span>/2 × 10<span class="sp">6</span> foot-pounds. The size of jar commonly known as a quart size may have a capacity from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">400</span>th to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">800</span>th of a microfarad, and if charged to 20,000 volts stores up energy from a quarter to half a joule or from @@ -5044,7 +5005,7 @@ inductivity may replace the air.</p> <p>See J. A. Fleming, <i>Electric Wave Telegraphy</i> (London, 1906); R. A. Fessenden, “Compressed Air for Condensers,” <i>Electrician</i>, 1905, 55, p. 795; Moscicki, “Construction of High Tension Condensers,” -<i>L’Éclairage électrique</i>, 1904, 41, p. 14, or <i>Engineering</i>, +<i>L’Éclairage électrique</i>, 1904, 41, p. 14, or <i>Engineering</i>, 1904, p. 865.</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. A. F.)</div> @@ -5065,18 +5026,18 @@ under Wappers at the Antwerp Academy. In 1833 he painted year “Combat de Bourguignons et Flamands.” In 1835 he went to Paris where he was influenced by the Romantic movement. Examples of this period of his painting are “Massacre -des échevins de Louvain,” “Mariage flamand,” “Le Roi des -arbalétriers” and other works. Leys was an imitative painter +des échevins de Louvain,” “Mariage flamand,” “Le Roi des +arbalétriers” and other works. Leys was an imitative painter in whose works may rapidly be detected the schools which he had been studying before he painted them. Thus after his visit to Holland in 1839 he reproduced many of the characteristics of the Dutch genre painters in such works as “Franz Floris se rendant -à une fête” (1845) and “Service divin en Hollande” (1850). +à une fête” (1845) and “Service divin en Hollande” (1850). So too the methods of Quentin Matsys impressed themselves upon him after he had travelled in Germany in 1852. In 1862 Leys was created a baron. At the time of his death, which occurred in August 1869, he was engaged in decorating with -fresco the large hall of the Antwerp Hôtel de Ville.</p> +fresco the large hall of the Antwerp Hôtel de Ville.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -5101,7 +5062,7 @@ the Essex County Cricket Club is at Leyton.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LHASA<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Lhassa</span>, <span class="sc">Lassa</span>, “God’s ground”), the capital of -Tibet. It lies in 29° 39′ N., 91° 5′ E., 11,830 ft. above sea-level. +Tibet. It lies in 29° 39′ N., 91° 5′ E., 11,830 ft. above sea-level. Owing to the inaccessibility of Tibet and the political and religious exclusiveness of the lamas, Lhasa was long closed to European travellers, all of whom during the latter half of the 19th century @@ -5115,7 +5076,7 @@ mission of 1904 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tibet</a></span>).</p> <p><i>Site and General Aspect.</i>—The city stands in a tolerably level plain, which is surrounded on all sides by hills. Along its <span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span> -southern side, about ½ m. south of Lhasa, runs a considerable +southern side, about ½ m. south of Lhasa, runs a considerable river called the Kyichu (Ki-chu) or Kyi, flowing here from E.N.E., and joining the great Tsangpo (or upper course of the Brahmaputra) some 38 m. to the south-west. The hills round the city @@ -5201,7 +5162,7 @@ the workmanship of the whole is crude. In the second and third storeys of the temple are shrines and representations of a number of gods and goddesses. The temple contains a vast accumulation of images, gold and silver vessels, lamps, reliquaries and precious -bric-à-brac of every kind. The daily offices are attended by crowds +bric-à -brac of every kind. The daily offices are attended by crowds of worshippers, and a sacred way which leads round the main building is constantly traversed by devotees who perform the circuit as a work of merit, always in a particular direction. The temple was @@ -5258,7 +5219,7 @@ portico running all round and adorned with paintings. Its name, which dwelt here and must be propitiated lest it should cause the waters to rise and flood Lhasa.</p> -<p>Another great and famous temple is Ramo-ché, at the north side +<p>Another great and famous temple is Ramo-ché, at the north side of the city. This is also regarded as a foundation of Srong-tsan-gampo, and is said to contain the body of his Chinese wife and the second of the primeval palladia, the image that she brought with @@ -5272,8 +5233,8 @@ famous as a school of orthodox magic, it is noted also for the printing-house in the convent garden. This convent was the temporary residence of the regent during the visit of the British mission in 1904. Other monasteries in or near the city are the Tsamo Ling or -Chomoling at the north-west corner; the Tangyä Ling or Tengyeling -at the west of the city; the Kundä Ling or Kundeling about 1 m. +Chomoling at the north-west corner; the Tangyä Ling or Tengyeling +at the west of the city; the Kundä Ling or Kundeling about 1 m. west of the city, at the foot of a low isolated hill called Chapochi. Three miles south, beyond the river, is the Tsemchog Ling or Tsecholing. These four convents are known as “The Four Ling.” From @@ -5337,11 +5298,11 @@ with miraculous circumstances; here is his tomb, of marble and malachite, with a great shrine said to be of gold, and here are other relics of him, such as the impression of his hands and feet.</p> -<p><i>Samyé</i> is another famous convent intimately connected with Lhasa, +<p><i>Samyé</i> is another famous convent intimately connected with Lhasa, being said to be used as a treasury by the government, but it lies some 36 m. south-east on the left bank of the great Tsangpo. It was founded in 770, and is the oldest extant monastery in Tibet. -It is surrounded by a very high circular stone wall, 1½ m. in circumference, +It is surrounded by a very high circular stone wall, 1½ m. in circumference, with gates facing the four points of the compass. On this wall Nain Singh, who was here on his journey in 1874, counted 1030 votive piles of brick. One very large temple occupies the @@ -5407,7 +5368,7 @@ the setting in of the rains renders the rivers impassable.</p> absolute necessary to the Tibetan. The tea is of various qualities, from the coarsest, used only for “buttered” tea (a sort of broth), to the fine quality drunk by the wealthy. This is pressed into -bricks or cakes weighing about 5½ ℔, and often passes as currency. +bricks or cakes weighing about 5½ ℔, and often passes as currency. The quantity that pays duty at Tachienlu is about 10,000,000 ℔, besides some amount smuggled. No doubt a large part of this comes to Lhasa.</p> @@ -5495,8 +5456,8 @@ omen would be appalling; so this is effectually barred by false dice. The victim is then marched outside the city, followed by the troops and by the whole populace, hooting, shouting and firing volleys after him. Once he is driven off, the people return, and he is carried off -to the Samyé convent. Should he die shortly after, this is auspicious; -if not, he is kept in ward at Samyé for a twelvemonth.</p> +to the Samyé convent. Should he die shortly after, this is auspicious; +if not, he is kept in ward at Samyé for a twelvemonth.</p> <p>Nain Singh, whose habitual accuracy is attested by many facts, mentions a strange practice of comparatively recent origin, according @@ -5531,7 +5492,7 @@ symbolize the elements that have moulded the culture of Lhasa. His son, the last of the great orthodox kings, in the next century, is said to have summoned artists from Nepal and India, and among many splendid foundations to have erected a sanctuary -(at Samyé) of vast height, which had nine storeys, the three lower +(at Samyé) of vast height, which had nine storeys, the three lower of stone, the three middle of brick, the three uppermost of timber. With this king the glory of Tibet and of ancient Lhasa reached its zenith, and in 822, a monument recording his treaty @@ -5625,7 +5586,7 @@ were extended and embellished.</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name given by Köppen (<i>Die lamaische Kirche</i>, Berlin, +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name given by Köppen (<i>Die lamaische Kirche</i>, Berlin, 1859, p. 74) is “La Brang,” by which it is sometimes known.</p> <p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Among articles sold in the Lhasa bazaars are fossil bones, called @@ -5635,9 +5596,9 @@ virtues.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">L’HÔPITAL<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">L’Hospital</span>), <span class="bold">MICHEL DE</span> (<i>c.</i> 1505-1573), +<p><span class="bold">L’HÔPITAL<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">L’Hospital</span>), <span class="bold">MICHEL DE</span> (<i>c.</i> 1505-1573), French statesman, was born near Aigueperse in Auvergne (now -Puy-de-Dôme). His father, who was physician to the constable +Puy-de-Dôme). His father, who was physician to the constable Charles of Bourbon, sent him to study at Toulouse, whence at the age of eighteen he was driven, a consequence of the evil fortunes of the family patron, to Padua, where he studied law @@ -5652,14 +5613,14 @@ parlement of Paris. This office he held until 1547, when he was sent by Henry II. on a mission to Bologna, where the council of Trent was at that time sitting; after sixteen months of wearisome inactivity there, he was by his own desire recalled -at the close of 1548. L’Hôpital now for some time held the +at the close of 1548. L’Hôpital now for some time held the position of chancellor to the king’s sister, Margaret, duchess of Berry. In 1553, on the recommendation of the Cardinal of Lorraine, he was named master of the requests, and afterwards president of the chambre des comptes. In 1559 he accompanied the princess Margaret, now duchess of Savoy, to Nice, where, in the following year, tidings reached him that he had been -chosen to succeed François Olivier (1487-1560) in the chancellorship +chosen to succeed François Olivier (1487-1560) in the chancellorship of France.</p> <p>One of his first acts after entering on the duties of his office @@ -5679,10 +5640,10 @@ The States General met in December; the edict of Orleans the edict of January 1562, the most liberal, except that of Nantes, ever obtained by the Protestants of France. Its terms, however, were not carried out, and during the war which was the inevitable -result of the massacre of Vassy in March, L’Hôpital, whose +result of the massacre of Vassy in March, L’Hôpital, whose dismissal had been for some time urged by the papal legate Hippolytus of Este, found it necessary to retire to his estate -at Vignay, near Étampes, whence he did not return until after +at Vignay, near Étampes, whence he did not return until after the pacification of Amboise (March 19, 1563). It was by his advice that Charles IX. was declared of age at Rouen in August 1563, a measure which really increased the power Of Catherine @@ -5694,47 +5655,47 @@ king on an extended tour through France; and in 1566 he was instrumental in the promulgation of an important edict for the reform of abuses in the administration of justice. The renewal of the religious war in September 1567, however, was at once -a symptom and a cause of diminished influence to L’Hôpital, +a symptom and a cause of diminished influence to L’Hôpital, and in February 1568 he obtained his letters of discharge, which were registered by the parlement on the 11th of May, his titles, honours and emoluments being reserved to him during the remainder of his life. Henceforward he lived a life of unbroken seclusion at Vignay, his only subsequent public appearance -being by means of a <i>mémoire</i> which he addressed to the king in +being by means of a <i>mémoire</i> which he addressed to the king in 1570 under the title <i>Le But de la guerre et de la paix, ou discours -du chancelier l’Hospital pour exhorter Charles IX. à donner la -paix à ses sujets</i>. Though not exempt from considerable danger, +du chancelier l’Hospital pour exhorter Charles IX. à donner la +paix à ses sujets</i>. Though not exempt from considerable danger, he passed in safety through the troubles of St Bartholomew’s eve. -His death took place either at Vignay or at Bellébat on the 13th +His death took place either at Vignay or at Bellébat on the 13th of March 1573.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>After his death Pibrac, assisted by De Thou and Scévole de -Sainte-Marthe, collected a volume of the <i>Poemata</i> of L’Hôpital, +<p>After his death Pibrac, assisted by De Thou and Scévole de +Sainte-Marthe, collected a volume of the <i>Poemata</i> of L’Hôpital, and in 1585 his grandson published <i>Epistolarum seu Sermonum -libri sex</i>. The complete <i>Œuvres de l’Hôpital</i> were published for the +libri sex</i>. The complete <i>Œuvres de l’Hôpital</i> were published for the first time by P. J. S. Dufey (5 vols., Paris, 1824-1825). They include -his “Harangues” and “Remonstrances,” the <i>Epistles</i>, the <i>Mémoire</i> -to Charles IX., a <i>Traité de la réformation de la justice</i>, and his will. -See also A. F. Villemain, <i>Vie du Chancelier de l’Hôpital</i> (Paris, 1874); -R. G. E. T; St-René Taillandier, <i>Le Chancelier de l’Hospital</i> (Paris, -1861); Dupré-Lasalle, <i>Michel de l’Hospital avant son élévation au +his “Harangues” and “Remonstrances,” the <i>Epistles</i>, the <i>Mémoire</i> +to Charles IX., a <i>Traité de la réformation de la justice</i>, and his will. +See also A. F. Villemain, <i>Vie du Chancelier de l’Hôpital</i> (Paris, 1874); +R. G. E. T; St-René Taillandier, <i>Le Chancelier de l’Hospital</i> (Paris, +1861); Dupré-Lasalle, <i>Michel de l’Hospital avant son élévation au poste de chancelier de France</i> (Paris, 1875-1899); Amphoux, <i>Michel -de l’Hospital et la liberté de conscience au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1900); +de l’Hospital et la liberté de conscience au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1900); C. T. Atkinson, <i>Michel de l’Hospital</i> (London, 1900), containing an appendix on bibliography and sources; A. E. Shaw, <i>Michel de -l’Hospital and his Policy</i> (London, 1905); and Eugène and Emile +l’Hospital and his Policy</i> (London, 1905); and Eugène and Emile Haag, <i>La France protestante</i> (2nd ed., 1877 seq.).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIAO-YANG,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a city of China, formerly the chief town of the -province of Liao-tung or Shêng-king (southern Manchuria), +province of Liao-tung or Shêng-king (southern Manchuria), 35 m. S of Mukden. It is situated in a rich cotton district in the fertile valley of the Liao, on the road between Niuchwang and Mukden, and carries on a considerable trade. The walls -include an area about 2½ m. long by 2 m. broad, and there are +include an area about 2½ m. long by 2 m. broad, and there are fairly extensive suburbs; but a good deal even of the enclosed area is under cultivation. The population is estimated at 100,000. Liao-yang was one of the first objectives of the Japanese during @@ -5849,12 +5810,12 @@ it appears also on the Pacific coast of North America.</p> <td class="tcl rb bb">Lower Series with<br /> Sandy and Marly<br /> Beds</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Am. oxynotus</i><br /><i>Am. Bucklandi</i><br /><i>Am. angulatus</i><br /><i>Am. planorbis</i></td> <td class="tccm cl rb">L.</td> - <td class="tclm allb">Sinémourien.<br />Hettangien including “White<br />Lias.”</td></tr> + <td class="tclm allb">Sinémourien.<br />Hettangien including “White<br />Lias.”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tclm allb">Rhétien.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tclm allb">Rhétien.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="6">* The brackets indicate the divisions made by R. Tate and J. F. Blake.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="6">** <i>Traité de géologie</i> (5th ed., Paris, 1906).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="6">** <i>Traité de géologie</i> (5th ed., Paris, 1906).</td></tr> </table> <div class="condensed"> @@ -5945,11 +5906,11 @@ by the Italian humanist F. Zambeccari (15th century).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Editions: Orations and declamations, J. J. Reiske (1791-1797); letters, J. C. Wolf (1738); two additional declamations, -R. Förster (<i>Hermes</i>, ix. 22, xii. 217), who in 1903 began the publication +R. Förster (<i>Hermes</i>, ix. 22, xii. 217), who in 1903 began the publication of a complete edition; <i>Apologia Socratis</i>, Y. H. Rogge (1891). See also E. Monnier, <i>Histoire de Libanius</i> (1866); L. Petit, <i>Essai sur la vie et la correspondance du sophiste Libanius</i> (1866); G. R. -Sievers, <i>Das Leben des Libanius</i> (1868); R. Förster, <i>F. Zambeccari +Sievers, <i>Das Leben des Libanius</i> (1868); R. Förster, <i>F. Zambeccari und die Briefe des Libanius</i> (1878). Some letters from the emperor Julian to Libanius will be found in R. Hercher, <i>Epistolographi Graeci</i> (1873). Sixteen letters to Julian have been translated by @@ -5959,7 +5920,7 @@ C. W. King (in Bohn’s “Classical Library,” London, 1888), and that in Defence of the Temples of the Heathen by Dr Lardner (in a volume of translations by Thomas Taylor, from Celsus and others, 1830). See further J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, i. -(1906), and A. Harrent, <i>Les Écoles d’Antioche</i> (1898).</p> +(1906), and A. Harrent, <i>Les Écoles d’Antioche</i> (1898).</p> </div> @@ -5969,9 +5930,9 @@ something, to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity, &c.; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="leibein">λείβειν</span>), a drink offering, the pouring out of a small quantity of wine, milk or other liquid as a ceremonial act. Such an act was performed in honour of the dead (Gr. <span class="grk" title="choai">χοαί</span>, Lat. -<i>profusiones</i>), in making of treaties (Gr. <span class="grk" title="spondê, spendein">σπονδή, σπένδειν</span> = <i>libare</i>, +<i>profusiones</i>), in making of treaties (Gr. <span class="grk" title="spondê, spendein">σπονδή, σπένδειν</span> = <i>libare</i>, whence <span class="grk" title="spondai">σπονδαί</span>, treaty), and particularly in honour of the gods -(Gr. <span class="grk" title="loibê">λοιβή</span>, Lat. <i>libatio</i>, <i>libamentum</i>, <i>libamen</i>). Such libations to +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="loibê">λοιβή</span>, Lat. <i>libatio</i>, <i>libamentum</i>, <i>libamen</i>). Such libations to the gods were made as part of the daily ritual of domestic worship, or at banquets or feasts to the Lares, or to special deities, as by the Greeks to Hermes, the god of sleep, when going to rest.</p> @@ -5995,10 +5956,10 @@ for colours, explosives, machinery belts, sails and ropes, tobacco, furniture, matches, as well as iron works, agricultural machinery works, tin-plate works, soap works, saw-mills, breweries, oil-mills, cork and linoleum factories and flour-mills. The exports -reach the annual value of £3,250,000 to £5,500,000, oats being +reach the annual value of £3,250,000 to £5,500,000, oats being the chief export, with flour, wheat, rye, butter, eggs, spirits, flax, linseed, oilcake, pork, timber, horses and petroleum. The -imports average £1,500,000 to £2,000,000 annually. Shipbuilding, +imports average £1,500,000 to £2,000,000 annually. Shipbuilding, including steamers for open-sea navigation, is on the increase. North of the commercial harbour and enclosing it the Russian government made (1893-1906) a very extensive fortified naval @@ -6472,8 +6433,8 @@ described by Dr Fritz Krebs, the latter by Dr K. Wessely: both are given and commented upon by Dr Benson. There is a remarkable similarity between them: in each the form is that N. “was ever constant in sacrificing to the gods”; and that he now, in -the presence of the commissioners of the sacrifices (<span class="grk" title="hoi hêrêmenoi tôn -thysôn">οἱ ἡρημένοι τῶν θυσῶν</span>), has both sacrificed and drunk [<i>or</i> has poured libations], +the presence of the commissioners of the sacrifices (<span class="grk" title="hoi hêrêmenoi tôn +thysôn">οἱ ἡρημένοι τῶν θυσῶν</span>), has both sacrificed and drunk [<i>or</i> has poured libations], and has tasted of the victims, in witness whereof he begs them to sign this certificate. Then follows the signature, with attestations. The former of the two is dated, and the date must fall @@ -6625,7 +6586,7 @@ was, however, published in France by the Jesuit, Jean Garnier, in 1680, and other editions quickly followed.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The best modern editions are one by Eugène de Rozière (Paris, +<p>The best modern editions are one by Eugène de Rozière (Paris, 1869) and another by T. E. von Sichel (Vienna, 1889), both of which contain critical introductions. The two existing manuscripts of the <i>Liber</i> are in the Vatican library, Rome, and in the library of St @@ -6639,19 +6600,19 @@ Ambrose at Milan.</p> the coast of northern Guinea about 300 m., between the British colony of Sierra Leone on the N.W. and the French colony of the Ivory Coast on the S.E. The westernmost point of Liberia (at -the mouth of the river Mano) lies in about 6° 55′ N. and 11° +the mouth of the river Mano) lies in about 6° 55′ N. and 11° 32′ W. The southernmost point of Liberia, and at the same time almost its most eastern extension, is at the mouth of the Cavalla, -beyond Cape Palmas, only 4° 22′ N. of the equator, and in about -7° 33′ W. The width of Liberia inland varies very considerably; +beyond Cape Palmas, only 4° 22′ N. of the equator, and in about +7° 33′ W. The width of Liberia inland varies very considerably; it is greatest, about 200 m., from N.E. to S.W. The Liberia-Sierra Leone boundary was determined by a frontier commission in 1903. Commencing at the mouth of the river Mano, it follows -the Mano up stream till that river cuts 10° 40′ W. It then +the Mano up stream till that river cuts 10° 40′ W. It then followed this line of longitude to its intersection with N. latitude -9° 6′, but by the Franco-Liberian understanding of 1907 the -frontier on this side was withdrawn to 8° 25′ N., where the river -Makona crosses 10° 40’ W. The Liberian frontier with the +9° 6′, but by the Franco-Liberian understanding of 1907 the +frontier on this side was withdrawn to 8° 25′ N., where the river +Makona crosses 10° 40’ W. The Liberian frontier with the adjacent French possessions was defined by the Franco-Liberian treaty of 1892, but as the definition therein given was found to be very difficult of reconciliation with geographical features @@ -6684,7 +6645,7 @@ Makona and be carried in a south-easterly direction to the source of the most north-westerly affluent of the Nuon river or Western Cavalla. This line shall be so drawn as to leave on the French side of the boundary the following towns: Kutumai, Kisi Kurumai, -Sundibú, Zuapa, Nzibila, Koiama, Bangwedu and Lola. From the +Sundibú, Zuapa, Nzibila, Koiama, Bangwedu and Lola. From the north-westernmost source of the Nuon the boundary shall follow the right bank of the said Nuon river down stream to its presumed confluence with the Cavalla, and thenceforward the right bank of the @@ -6696,8 +6657,8 @@ of Tuleplan due E. to the Cavalla river, and thence shall follow the right bank of the Cavalla river to the sea.</p> <p>(The delimitation commission proved that the Nuon does not flow -into the Cavalla, but about 6° 30′ N. it flows very near the north-westernmost -bend of that river. Tuleplan is in about lat. 6° 50′ N. +into the Cavalla, but about 6° 30′ N. it flows very near the north-westernmost +bend of that river. Tuleplan is in about lat. 6° 50′ N. The river Makona takes a much more northerly course than had been estimated. The river Nuon also is situated 20 or 30 m. farther to the east than had been supposed. Consequently the territory of @@ -6760,9 +6721,9 @@ of the country. Notably it traced the upper Cavalla, proving that that river was not connected either with the Nuon on the west or the Ko or Zo on the east. The upper river and the left bank of the lower river of the Cavalla are in French territory. It rises in -about 7° 50′ N., 8° 30′ W. in the Nimba mountains, where also rise +about 7° 50′ N., 8° 30′ W. in the Nimba mountains, where also rise the Nuon, St John’s and Dukwia rivers. After flowing S.E. the -Cavalla, between 7° and 6° N., under the name of Dugu, makes a +Cavalla, between 7° and 6° N., under the name of Dugu, makes a very considerable elbow to the west, thereafter resuming its south-easterly course. It is navigable from the sea for some 80 m. from its mouth and after a long series of rapids is again navigable. Unfortunately @@ -6771,14 +6732,14 @@ into the rich hinterland of Liberia on account of the bad bar at its mouth. The Nuon (or Nipwe), which up to 1908 was described sometimes as the western Cavalla and sometimes as the upper course of the St John’s river, has been shown to be the upper course of the -Cestos. About 6° 30′ N. it approaches within 16 m. of the Cavalla. +Cestos. About 6° 30′ N. it approaches within 16 m. of the Cavalla. It rises in the Nimba mountains some 10 m. S. of the source of the Cavalla, and like all the Liberian rivers (except the Cavalla) it has a general S.W. flow. The St Paul, though inferior to the Cavalla in length, is a large river with a considerable volume of water. The -main branch rises in the Beila country nearly as far north as 9° N. -under the name of Diani. Between 8° and 7° N. it is joined by the -Wé from the west and the Walé from the east. The important river +main branch rises in the Beila country nearly as far north as 9° N. +under the name of Diani. Between 8° and 7° N. it is joined by the +Wé from the west and the Walé from the east. The important river Lofa flows nearly parallel with the St Paul’s river and enters the sea about 40 m. to the west, under the name of Little Cape Mount river. The Mano or Bewa river rises in the dense Gora forest, but is of no @@ -6787,7 +6748,7 @@ Sierra Leone. The Dukwia and Farmington are tortuous rivers entering the sea under the name of the river Junk (Portuguese, <i>Junco</i>). The Farmington is a short stream, but the Dukwia is believed to be the lower course of the Mani, which rises as the Tigney -(Tige), north of the source of the Cavalla, just south of 8° N. The +(Tige), north of the source of the Cavalla, just south of 8° N. The St John’s river of the Basa country appears to be of considerable importance and volume. The Sino river rises in the Niete mountains and brings down a great volume of water to the sea, though it is @@ -6807,7 +6768,7 @@ is not quite so rainy, and the weather is much cooler during the dry season. This region beyond the hundred-miles coast belt is far more agreeable and healthy to Europeans.</p> -<p><i>Forests.</i>—Outside a coast belt of about 20 m. and south of 8° N. +<p><i>Forests.</i>—Outside a coast belt of about 20 m. and south of 8° N. the country is one vast forest, except where the natives have cleared the land for cultivation. In many districts the land has been cleared and cultivated and then abandoned, and has relapsed into scrub @@ -6842,7 +6803,7 @@ there is an interesting local development of the Diana monkey, sometimes called the bay-thighed monkey (<i>Cercopithecus diana ignita</i>) on account of its brilliant orange-red thighs. One or more species of bats are peculiar to the country—<i>Vespertilio stampflii</i>, -and perhaps <i>Roussettus büttikoferi</i>; two species of shrew (<i>Crocidura</i>), +and perhaps <i>Roussettus büttikoferi</i>; two species of shrew (<i>Crocidura</i>), one dormouse (<i>Graphiurus nagtglasii</i>); the pygmy hippopotamus (<i>H. liberiensis</i>)—differing from the common hippopotamus by its much smaller size and by the reduction of the incisor teeth to a @@ -6872,7 +6833,7 @@ West African hartebeest (beyond the forest), pygmy antelope There is the interesting white-necked guineafowl, <i>Agelastes</i> (which is found on the Gold Coast and elsewhere west of the lower Niger); there is one peculiar species of eagle owl (<i>Bubo lettii</i>) and a very -handsome sparrow-hawk (<i>Accipiter büttikoferi</i>); a few sun-birds, +handsome sparrow-hawk (<i>Accipiter büttikoferi</i>); a few sun-birds, warblers and shrikes are peculiar to the region. The other birds are mainly those of Senegambia and of the West African forest region generally. A common and handsome bird is the blue plantain-eater @@ -7077,7 +7038,7 @@ customs. In July 1910 it was announced that the American government, acting in general agreement with Great Britain, France and Germany, would take charge of the finances, military organization, agriculture and boundary questions of the republic. -A loan for £400,000 was also arranged. Meantime +A loan for £400,000 was also arranged. Meantime the attempts of the Liberian government to control the Kru coast led to various troubles, such as the fining or firing upon foreign steamships for alleged contraventions of regulations. @@ -7131,7 +7092,7 @@ gradually been filling the position of Liberian citizens.</p> counties, Montserrado, Basa, Sino and Maryland, but Cape Mount in the far west and the district round it has almost the status of a fifth county. The approximate revenue for 1906 -was £65,000, and the expenditure about £60,000, but some of +was £65,000, and the expenditure about £60,000, but some of the revenue was still collected in paper of uncertain value. There are three custom-houses, or ports of entry on the Sierra Leone land frontier between the Moa river on the north and the Mano @@ -7164,7 +7125,7 @@ the densest forest region between the Mano and the St Paul’s river is the powerful Gora tribe of unknown linguistic affinities. (3) In the coast region between the St Paul’s river and the Cavalla (and beyond) are the different tribes of Kru stock and -language family—Dē, Basā, Gibi, Kru, Grebo, Putu, Sikoñ, &c. +language family—Dē, Basā, Gibi, Kru, Grebo, Putu, Sikoñ, &c. &c. The actual Kru tribe inhabits the coast between the river Cestos on the west and Grand Sesters on the east. It is known all over the Atlantic coasts of Africa, as it furnishes such a large @@ -7184,11 +7145,11 @@ Mandingos have an almost European cast of feature.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Col. Wauwerman, <i>Liberia; Histoire de la fondation -d’un état nègre</i> (Brussels, 1885); J. Büttikofer, <i>Reisebilder aus +d’un état nègre</i> (Brussels, 1885); J. Büttikofer, <i>Reisebilder aus Liberia</i> (Leiden, 1890); Sir Harry Johnston, <i>Liberia</i> (2 vols., London, 1906), with full bibliography; Maurice Delafosse, <i>Vocabulaires -comparatifs de plus de 60 langues et dialectes parlés à la Côte d’Ivoire -et dans la région limitrophe</i> (1904), a work which, though it professes +comparatifs de plus de 60 langues et dialectes parlés à la Côte d’Ivoire +et dans la région limitrophe</i> (1904), a work which, though it professes to deal mainly with philology, throws a wonderful light on the relationships and history of the native tribes of Liberia.</p> </div> @@ -7277,9 +7238,9 @@ was first printed at Mainz in 1602. Among other editions is the one edited by T. Mommsen for the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica. Gesta Romanorum pontificum</i>, Band i., but the best is the one by L. Duchesne, <i>Le Liber pontificalis: texte, introduction, commentaire</i> -(Paris, 1884-1892). See also the same writer’s <i>Étude sur le Liber +(Paris, 1884-1892). See also the same writer’s <i>Étude sur le Liber pontificalis</i> (Paris, 1877); and the article by A. Brackmann in -Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, Band xi. (Leipzig, 1902).</p> +Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, Band xi. (Leipzig, 1902).</p> </div> @@ -7294,7 +7255,7 @@ of a narrow, arid, sandy coast zone and the western slopes of the Cordillera broken into valleys by short mountain spurs, and the eastern a high inter-Andine valley lying between the Western and Central Cordilleras and traversed by the upper -Marañon or Amazon, which at one point is less than 90 m. in +Marañon or Amazon, which at one point is less than 90 m. in a straight line from the Pacific coast. The coast region is traversed by several short streams, which are fed by the melting snows of the Cordillera and are extensively used for irrigation. @@ -7318,14 +7279,14 @@ and alpaca were reared throughout this “sierra” country long before the Spanish conquest. Gold and silver mines are worked in the districts of Huamachuco, Otuzco and Pataz, and coal has been found in the first two. The department had 169 m. of railway -in 1906, viz.: from Pacasmayo to Yonán (in Cajamarca) +in 1906, viz.: from Pacasmayo to Yonán (in Cajamarca) with a branch to Guadalupe, 60 m.; from Salaverry to Trujillo with its extension to Ascope, 47 m.; from Trujillo to Laredo, -Galindo and Menocucho, 18½ m.; from Huanchaco to Roma, -25 m.; and from Chicama to Pampas, 18½ m. The principal +Galindo and Menocucho, 18½ m.; from Huanchaco to Roma, +25 m.; and from Chicama to Pampas, 18½ m. The principal ports are Pacasmayo and Salaverry, which have long iron piers built by the national government; Malabrigo, Huanchuco, -Guañape and Chao are open roadsteads. The capital of the +Guañape and Chao are open roadsteads. The capital of the department is Trujillo. The other principal towns are San <span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span> Pedro, Otuzco, Huamachuco, Santiago de Chuco and Tuyabamba—all provincial capitals and important only through their @@ -7378,7 +7339,7 @@ Calvin (who had met Quintin in Paris) describes the doctrines he impugns as pantheistic and antinomian.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Choisy in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1902).</p> +<p>See Choisy in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1902).</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> @@ -7386,8 +7347,8 @@ he impugns as pantheistic and antinomian.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIBERTINES, SYNAGOGUE OF THE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a section of the Hellenistic Jews who attacked Stephen (Acts vi. 9). The passage -reads, <span class="grk" title="tines tôn êk tês sunagôgês tês legomenês Libertinôn, kai -Kurênaiôn kai Alexandreôn, kai tôn apo Kilikias kai Asias">τίνες τῶν ἐκ τῆς συναγωγῆς τῆς λεγομένης Λιβερτίνων, καὶ +reads, <span class="grk" title="tines tôn êk tês sunagôgês tês legomenês Libertinôn, kai +Kurênaiôn kai Alexandreôn, kai tôn apo Kilikias kai Asias">τίνες τῶν ἐκ τῆς συναγωγῆς τῆς λεγομένης Λιβερτίνων, καὶ Κυρηναίων καὶ Ἀλεξανδρέων, καὶ τῶν ἀπὸ Κιλικίας καὶ Ἀσίας</span>, and opinion is divided as to the number of synagogues here named. The probability is that there are three, corresponding @@ -7395,12 +7356,12 @@ to the geographical regions involved, (1) Rome and Italy, (2) N.E. Africa, (3) Asia Minor. In this case “the Synagogue of the Libertines” is the assembly of “the Freedmen” from Rome, descendants of the Jews enslaved by Pompey after his -conquest of Judaea 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> If, however, we take <span class="grk" title="Libertinôn kai -Kurênaiôn kai Alexandreôn">Λιβερτίνων καὶ Κυρηναίων καὶ Ἀλεξανδρέων</span> closely together, the first name must +conquest of Judaea 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> If, however, we take <span class="grk" title="Libertinôn kai +Kurênaiôn kai Alexandreôn">Λιβερτίνων καὶ Κυρηναίων καὶ Ἀλεξανδρέων</span> closely together, the first name must denote the people of some city or district. The obscure town Libertum (inferred from the title Episcopus Libertinensis in connexion with the synod of Carthage, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 411) is less likely -than the reading (<span class="grk" title="Libuôn">Λιβύων</span> or) <span class="grk" title="Libustinôn">Λιβυστίνων</span> underlying certain +than the reading (<span class="grk" title="Libuôn">Λιβύων</span> or) <span class="grk" title="Libustinôn">Λιβυστίνων</span> underlying certain Armenian versions and Syriac commentaries. The Greek towns lying west from Cyrene would naturally be called Libyan. In any case the interesting point is that these returned Jews, @@ -7640,8 +7601,8 @@ Nothing Party</a></span>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIBMANAN,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Libmanan river, 11 m. N.W. of -Nueva Cáceres, the capital. Pop. (1903) 17,416. It is about -4½ m. N.E. of the Bay of San Miguel. Rice, coco-nuts, hemp, +Nueva Cáceres, the capital. Pop. (1903) 17,416. It is about +4½ m. N.E. of the Bay of San Miguel. Rice, coco-nuts, hemp, Indian corn, sugarcane, bejuco, arica nuts and camotes, are grown in the vicinity, and the manufactures include hemp goods, alcohol (from coco-nut-palm sap), copra, and baskets, chairs, @@ -7674,7 +7635,7 @@ the well-known coin of L. Scribonius Libo, representing the puteal of Libo, which rather resembles a <i>cippus</i> (sepulchral monument) or an altar, with laurel wreaths, two lyres and a pair of pincers or tongs below the wreaths (perhaps symbolical of Vulcanus as forger -of lightning), see C. Hülsen, <i>The Roman Forum</i> (Eng. trans. by +of lightning), see C. Hülsen, <i>The Roman Forum</i> (Eng. trans. by J. B. Carter, 1906), p. 150, where a marble imitation found at Veii is also given.</p> </div> @@ -7697,7 +7658,7 @@ build the great temple of Zeus at Olympia (<i>q.v.</i>) about 460 <span class="s <p><span class="bold">LIBOURNE,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement of the department of Gironde, situated at the confluence of the Isle with the Dordogne, 22 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux -on the railway to Angoulême. Pop. (1906) town, 15,280; +on the railway to Angoulême. Pop. (1906) town, 15,280; commune, 19,323. The sea is 56 m. distant, but the tide affects the river so as to admit of vessels drawing 14 ft. reaching the town at the highest tides. The Dordogne is here crossed by a @@ -7848,7 +7809,7 @@ and we have references to temple libraries in the Silsileh “Nile” stelae and perhaps in the great Harris papyri. The most famous of the Egyptian libraries is that of King Osymandyas, described by Diodorus Siculus, who relates that it bore an inscription -which he renders by the Greek words <span class="grk" title="PSUCHÊS IATREION">ΨΥΧΗΣ ΙΑΤΡΕΙΟΝ</span> “the +which he renders by the Greek words <span class="grk" title="PSUCHÊS IATREION">ΨΥΧΗΣ ΙΑΤΡΕΙΟΝ</span> “the Dispensary of the Soul.” Osymandyas has been identified with the great king Rameses II. (1300-1236 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the seat of the library is supposed to have been the Ramessaeum at Western @@ -8103,8 +8064,8 @@ memory of his father, pro-consul of Asia in the time of Trajan, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 106-107. The library at Timegad was established at a cost of 400,000 sesterces by M. Julius Quintianus Flavius Rogatianus, who probably lived in the 3rd century (R. Cagnat, -“Les Bibliothèques municipales dans l’Empire Romain,” 1906, -<i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Insc.</i>, tom. xxxviii. pt. 1). At Ephesus +“Les Bibliothèques municipales dans l’Empire Romain,” 1906, +<i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Insc.</i>, tom. xxxviii. pt. 1). At Ephesus the light came through a circular opening in the roof; the library at Timegad greatly resembles that discovered at Pompeii and possesses a system of book stores. All these buildings @@ -8224,7 +8185,7 @@ Gaul. Publius Consentius possessed a library at his villa near Narbonne which was due to the labour of three generations. The most notable of these appears to have been the prefect Tonantius Ferreolus, who had formed in his villa of Prusiana, -near Nîmes, a collection which his friend playfully compares to +near Nîmes, a collection which his friend playfully compares to that of Alexandria. The Goths, who had been introduced to the Scriptures in their own language by Ulfilas in the 4th century, began to pay some attention to Latin literature. Cassiodorus, @@ -8277,7 +8238,7 @@ Tours. While Alcuin thus increased the library at Tours, Charlemagne enlarged that at Fulda, which had been founded in 774, and which all through the middle ages stood in great respect. Lupus Servatus, a pupil of -Hrabanus Maurus at Fulda, and afterwards abbot of Ferrières, +Hrabanus Maurus at Fulda, and afterwards abbot of Ferrières, was a devoted student of the classics and a great collector of books. His correspondence illustrates the difficulties which then attended the study of literature through the paucity and @@ -8323,7 +8284,7 @@ for the splendour of their libraries. In a later age the labours of the congregation of St Maur form one of the most striking chapters in the history of learning. The Augustinians and the Dominicans rank next to the Benedictines in their care for -literature. The libraries of St Geneviève and St Victor, belonging +literature. The libraries of St Geneviève and St Victor, belonging to the former, were amongst the largest of the monastic collections. Although their poverty might seem to put them at a disadvantage as collectors, the mendicant orders cultivated @@ -8369,7 +8330,7 @@ Of the collection at Corbie in Picardy we have also catalogues dating from the 12th and from the 17th centuries. Corbie was famous for the industry of its transcribers, and appears to have stood in active literary intercourse with other monasteries. In -1638, 400 of its choicest manuscripts were removed to St Germain-des-Prés. +1638, 400 of its choicest manuscripts were removed to St Germain-des-Prés. The remainder were removed after 1794, partly to the national library at Paris, partly to the town library of Amiens.</p> @@ -8479,7 +8440,7 @@ libraries being specially built at Canterbury, Durham, Citeaux, Clairvaux and elsewhere, and with this specialization there grew up increased liberality in the use of books and learned strangers were admitted. Even at an early date students were permitted -to borrow from the Benedictines at St Germain-des-Prés at Paris, +to borrow from the Benedictines at St Germain-des-Prés at Paris, of which a later foundation owned in 1513 a noble library erected over the south wall of the cloister, and enlarged and made very accessible to the outer world in the 17th and 18th centuries. @@ -8664,12 +8625,12 @@ library reaped all the benefits bestowed upon it by the Copyright Act.</p> <p>The foundation of the British Museum dates from 1753, when -effect was given to the bequest (in exchange for £20,000 to be +effect was given to the bequest (in exchange for £20,000 to be paid to his executors) by Sir Hans Sloane, of his books, manuscripts, curiosities, &c., to be held by trustees for the use of the nation. A bill was passed through parliament for the purchase of the Sloane collections and of the Harleian MSS., costing -£10,000. To these, with the Cottonian MSS., acquired by the +£10,000. To these, with the Cottonian MSS., acquired by the country in 1700, was added by George II., in 1757, the royal library of the former kings of England, coupled with the privilege, which that library had for many years enjoyed, of obtaining @@ -8694,7 +8655,7 @@ other libraries have since then been incorporated in the museum, the most valuable being George III.’s royal collection (15,000 vols. of tracts, and 65,259 vols. of printed books, including many of the utmost rarity, which had cost the king about -£130,000), which was presented (for a pecuniary consideration, +£130,000), which was presented (for a pecuniary consideration, it has been said) by George IV. in 1823, and that of the Right Honourable Thomas Grenville (20,240 vols. of rare books, all in fine condition and binding), which was acquired under bequest @@ -8988,7 +8949,7 @@ Library,” now called the “Radcliffe Camera,” was offered to the curators of the Bodleian by the Radcliffe trustees. The Radcliffe Library was founded by the famous physician Dr John Radcliffe, who died in 1714, and bequeathed, besides a -permanent endowment of £350 a year, the sum of £40,000 for +permanent endowment of £350 a year, the sum of £40,000 for a building. The library was opened in 1749. Many years ago the trustees resolved to confine their purchases of books to works on medicine and natural science. When the university @@ -9015,7 +8976,7 @@ of the university. The administration and control of the library are committed to a librarian and board of thirteen curators. The permanent endowment is comparatively small; the ordinary expenditure, chiefly defrayed from the university chest, is about -£10,000. Within recent years the use of wheeling metal +£10,000. Within recent years the use of wheeling metal bookcases has been greatly extended, and a large repository has been arranged for economical book storage underground.</p> @@ -9029,8 +8990,8 @@ European philology, with a special Dante collection, about 1000 Mazarinades and 400 Luther pamphlets. The Finch collection, left to the university in 1830, is also kept with the Taylor Library. Books are lent out to members of the university and to others on a -proper introduction. The endowment affords an income of £800 to -£1000 for library purposes.</p> +proper introduction. The endowment affords an income of £800 to +£1000 for library purposes.</p> <p>The libraries of the several colleges vary considerably in extent and character, although, owing chiefly to limited funds, the changes and @@ -9040,7 +9001,7 @@ bequest of Christopher Codrington. It devotes special attention to jurisprudence, of which it has a large collection. It possesses 40,000 printed volumes and 300 MSS., and fills a splendid hall 200 ft. long. The library of Brasenose College has a special endowment fund, so -that it has, for a college library, the unusually large income of £200. +that it has, for a college library, the unusually large income of £200. The library of Christ Church is rich in divinity and topography. It embraces the valuable library bequeathed by Charles Boyle, 4th earl of Orrery, amounting to 10,000 volumes, the books and MSS. @@ -9104,9 +9065,9 @@ In 1715 George I. presented the library of Bishop Moore, which was very rich in early English printed books, forming over 30,000 vols. of printed books and manuscripts. The funds bequeathed by William Worts and John Manistre, together with -that of Rustat, produce at present about £1500 a year. The +that of Rustat, produce at present about £1500 a year. The share of university dues appropriated to library purposes -amounts to £3000 a year. In addition the library is entitled to +amounts to £3000 a year. In addition the library is entitled to new books under the Copyright Acts. The number of printed volumes in the library cannot be exactly stated, as no recent calculation on the subject exists. It has been estimated at half @@ -9129,7 +9090,7 @@ volumes. A catalogue of English books before 1640 is in course of publication. The regulations of the library with regard to the lending of books are very liberal, as many as ten volumes being allowed out to one borrower at the same time. The annual income -is about £7000.</p> +is about £7000.</p> </div> <p>There is a library attached to the Fitzwilliam Museum, bequeathed @@ -9237,7 +9198,7 @@ beneficed metropolitan clergyman. The library is especially rich in liturgies, Port-Royal authors, pamphlets, &c., and contains about 100,000 vols. classified on a modification of the Decimal system. The copyright privilege was commuted in 1835 for an -annual sum of £363, 15s. 2d. The present building was opened +annual sum of £363, 15s. 2d. The present building was opened in 1886 and is one of the striking buildings of the Victoria Embankment.</p> @@ -9289,7 +9250,7 @@ of books, of which he printed a catalogue in 1627, and circulated an appeal for assistance from others. In 1678 the library received a bequest of 2000 vols. from the Rev. James Nairne. In 1709 the library became entitled to the copy privilege, which -has since been commuted for a payment of £575 per annum. +has since been commuted for a payment of £575 per annum. In 1831 the books were removed to the present library buildings, for which a parliamentary grant had been obtained. The main library hall (190 ft. in length) is one of the most splendid apartments @@ -9307,7 +9268,7 @@ century, and numbers George Buchanan and many other distinguished men amongst its early benefactors. A classified subject-catalogue has been printed, and there is also a printed dictionary catalogue. The annual accessions are about 1500, -and the commutation-grant £707. Connected with the university, +and the commutation-grant £707. Connected with the university, which is trustee for the public, is the library of the Hunterian Museum, formed by the eminent anatomist Dr William Hunter. It is a collection of great bibliographical @@ -9335,7 +9296,7 @@ and Wilson, and contains some very valuable books. The general library is located in Old Aberdeen in a room of imposing design, while the medical and law books are in the New Town in Marischal College. The library has a grant, in lieu of the copyright privilege, -of £320. The annual income of the library is £2500, and it contains +of £320. The annual income of the library is £2500, and it contains over 180,000 vols. The books are classified on a modification of the decimal system, and there are printed author and MS. subject-catalogues. By arrangement with the municipal library authority, books @@ -9361,12 +9322,12 @@ was given to Ussher and Challoner as trustees of the singular donation which laid the foundation of the library. In the year 1601 the English army determined to commemorate their victory over the Spanish troops at Kinsale by some permanent monument. -Accordingly they subscribed the sum of £1800 to establish +Accordingly they subscribed the sum of £1800 to establish a library in the university of Dublin. For Ussher’s own collection, consisting of 10,000 vols. and many valuable MSS., the college was also indebted to military generosity. On his death in 1655 the officers and soldiers of the English army then in Ireland -purchased the whole collection for £22,000 with the design of +purchased the whole collection for £22,000 with the design of presenting it to the college. Cromwell, however, interfered, alleging that he proposed to found a new college, where the books might more conveniently be preserved. They were @@ -9380,7 +9341,7 @@ and arranged. In 1745 the library received a valuable collection of MSS. as a bequest from Dr Stearne. In 1802 the collection formed by the pensionary Fagel, which had been removed to England on the French invasion of Holland, was -acquired for £10,000. It consisted of over 20,000 vols. In +acquired for £10,000. It consisted of over 20,000 vols. In 1805 Mr Quin bequeathed a choice collection of classical and Italian books. There have been many other smaller donations, in addition to which the library is continually increased by the @@ -9454,7 +9415,7 @@ increased in more modern times, and now contains 15,000 vols. It is especially rich in MSS., some of which are of great beauty and value; a catalogue of them was printed in 1825. The library has good topographical and entomological collections. The chapter spend -£370 per annum in salaries and in books. The library at York +£370 per annum in salaries and in books. The library at York numbers about 11,000 vols., and has been very liberally thrown open to the public. It is kept in the former chapel of the archbishop’s palace, and has many valuable MSS. and early printed books. The @@ -9585,7 +9546,7 @@ and other items.</p> <p>Other endowed libraries in the English provinces which deserve mention are the Bingham Public Library (1905) at Cirencester; -the Guille-Allès Library (1856), Guernsey; St Deiniol’s Library +the Guille-Allès Library (1856), Guernsey; St Deiniol’s Library (1894), Hawarden, founded by William Ewart Gladstone, the great statesman; and the Shakespeare Memorial Library and theatre (1879) at Stratford-upon-Avon.</p> @@ -9594,7 +9555,7 @@ statesman; and the Shakespeare Memorial Library and theatre <p>The most important endowed library in Scotland is the Mitchell Library in Glasgow, founded by Stephen Mitchell, tobacco-manufacturer -(1874), who left £70,000 for the purpose. It was opened in +(1874), who left £70,000 for the purpose. It was opened in 1877 in temporary premises, and after various changes will soon be transferred to a very fine new building specially erected. It contains some very valuable special collections, among which may be @@ -9718,19 +9679,19 @@ Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, who may be regarded as the founder of the library. In 1684 the first librarian was appointed, and the library appears to have made rapid progress, since it appears from the treasurer’s accounts that in 1686 the books and furniture were -valued at upwards of £11,000 Scots, exclusive of donations. In the +valued at upwards of £11,000 Scots, exclusive of donations. In the year 1700, the rooms in the Exchange Stairs, Parliament Close, in which the library was kept, being nearly destroyed by fire the collection was removed to the ground floor of the Parliament House, where it has ever since remained. The library retains the copyright privilege conferred upon it in 1709. Of the special collections the most important are the Astorga collection of old Spanish books, -purchased by the faculty in 1824 for £4000; the Thorkelin collection, +purchased by the faculty in 1824 for £4000; the Thorkelin collection, consisting of about 1200 vols., relating chiefly to the history and antiquities of the northern nations, and including some rare books on old Scottish poetry; the Dietrich collection of over 100,000 German pamphlets and dissertations, including many of the writings of -Luther and Melanchthon, purchased for the small sum of £80; and +Luther and Melanchthon, purchased for the small sum of £80; and the Combe collection.</p> <p>The faculty appear early to have turned their attention to the @@ -9848,7 +9809,7 @@ The first in Birmingham was opened by Hutton in 1757. The idea of a proprietary library appears to have been first carried out at Liverpool in 1758. The library then formed still flourishes at the Lyceum, and possesses a collection of 55,000 vols. and an income of -£1000 a year. In 1760 a library was formed at Warrington which +£1000 a year. In 1760 a library was formed at Warrington which has been merged in the Warrington Museum. The Leeds library was established in 1768, and now has 64,000 vols. In 1772 the Bristol museum and library was formed, and numbered Coleridge, Southey @@ -9907,11 +9868,11 @@ prove the necessity for providing public libraries. Ewart obtained both committees and also, in 1845, procured an act for “encouraging the establishment of museums in large towns.” Neither the 1845 nor 1850 acts proved effective, owing chiefly -to the limitation of the library rate to ½d. in the £ of rental, +to the limitation of the library rate to ½d. in the £ of rental, which produced in most cases an insufficient revenue. In 1853 the Library Act of 1850 was extended to Ireland and Scotland, and in 1854 Scotland obtained an act increasing the rate limit -from ½d. to 1d. in the £. In 1855 Ireland also obtained a penny +from ½d. to 1d. in the £. In 1855 Ireland also obtained a penny rate, and later in the same year England obtained the same power by an act which remained the principal library act, with some intermediate amendments, till 1892, when a Public Library @@ -9940,8 +9901,8 @@ penny in the pound of the rateable value of the district, though in some towns power has been obtained by special legislation for local purposes to increase the amount to 2d. In a few cases, as at Birmingham, no limit is fixed. The incomes produced by the penny -in the pound range from less than £10 in a rural district to over -£25,000 in a large city.</p> +in the pound range from less than £10 in a rural district to over +£25,000 in a large city.</p> <p>(<i>c</i>) Municipal libraries are managed by committees appointed by the local authorities, who may, if so disposed, delegate to them all @@ -9960,7 +9921,7 @@ science, art galleries, and schools for art. Needless to say it is impossible to carry on so many departments with the strictly limited means provided by the acts, although some towns have attempted to do so. The Museums and Gymnasiums Act of 1891 enables an -additional rate of ½d. to be raised for either purpose, and many places +additional rate of ½d. to be raised for either purpose, and many places which have established museums or art galleries under the provisions of the Libraries Acts have also adopted the Museums Act in order to increase their revenues.</p> @@ -10033,7 +9994,7 @@ library purposes. In 1840 a catalogue of 10,000 vols. was printed, and in 1859 a second was prepared of 40,000 vols. In consequence of the large and increasing number of the readers, the present fine building was commenced about ten years later, -and, after having cost £90,000, was opened in 1873 as a free +and, after having cost £90,000, was opened in 1873 as a free public library.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -10273,7 +10234,7 @@ so strict in every case, and an effort is made to bring the libraries into closer relations with the educational machinery of each colony. There is, for example, no rate limit in Tasmania; and South Australia may raise a library rate equivalent to 3d. in the -£, although, in both cases, owing to the absence of large towns, +£, although, in both cases, owing to the absence of large towns, the legislation existing has not been adopted. In Africa, Australia and Canada the governments make grants to public libraries up to a certain amount, on condition that the reading-rooms @@ -10288,7 +10249,7 @@ the plan followed in England.</p> <p>There are several important libraries in South Africa, and many small town libraries which used to receive a government grant equal to the subscriptions of the members, but in no case -did such grants exceed £150 for any one library in one year. +did such grants exceed £150 for any one library in one year. These grants fluctuate considerably owing to the changes and temper of successive governments, and since the last war they have been considerably reduced everywhere. One of the oldest @@ -10320,7 +10281,7 @@ to the number of about 20,000 vols. per annum. The public library of Victoria, Melbourne (1853), with about 220,000 vols., also sends books to 443 country libraries of various kinds, which among them possess 750,000 vols., and circulate annually considerably -over 2½ million vols. The university library at Melbourne +over 2½ million vols. The university library at Melbourne (1855) has over 20,000 vols., and the libraries connected with the parliament and various learned societies are important. The public library of South Australia, Adelaide, has about @@ -10509,7 +10470,7 @@ H. W. Fovargue, <i>The Law relating to Public Libraries</i> (4th ed., 1899); J. W. Clark, <i>The Care of Books</i> (1909); E. Edwards, <i>Memoirs of Libraries</i> (1859); T. Greenwood, <i>Edward Edwards</i> (1901) and <i>Public Libraries</i> (4th ed., revised, 1891); J. J. Ogle, <i>The Free Library</i> -(1897); Maurice Pellisson, <i>Les Bibliothèques populaires à l’etranger et +(1897); Maurice Pellisson, <i>Les Bibliothèques populaires à l’etranger et en France</i> (Paris, 1906); R. A. Rye, <i>The Libraries of London</i> (1910); E. A. Savage, <i>The Story of Libraries and Book-Collectors</i> (1909).</p> @@ -10518,12 +10479,12 @@ Economy</i> (1907); F. J. Burgoyne, <i>Library Construction, &c.</i> (1897); A. L. Champneys, <i>Public Libraries: a Treatise on their Design</i> (1907); J. C. Dana, <i>A Library Primer</i> (Chicago, 1910); Arnim Graesel, <i>Handbuch der Bibliothekslehre</i> (Leipzig, 1902); Albert Maire, <i>Manuel -pratique du bibliothécaire</i> (Paris, 1896). On the subject of classification +pratique du bibliothécaire</i> (Paris, 1896). On the subject of classification consult J. D. Brown, <i>Manual of Library Classification</i> (1898) and <i>Subject Classification</i> (1906); C. A. Cutter, <i>Expansive Classification</i> (1891-1893) (not yet completed); M. Dewey, <i>Decimal Classification</i> (6th ed., 1899), and <i>Institut International de Bibliographie: Classification -bibliographique décimale</i> (Brussels, 1905); E. C. Richardson, +bibliographique décimale</i> (Brussels, 1905); E. C. Richardson, <i>Classification: Theoretical and Practical</i> (1901).</p> <p>Various methods of cataloguing books are treated in <i>Cataloguing @@ -10571,7 +10532,7 @@ every publication which claims copyright are required to be deposited. Cards for these are now printed and copies are sold to other libraries for an annual subscription fixed according to the number taken. The building in which the library is now -housed was opened in 1897. It covers 3½ acres of ground, +housed was opened in 1897. It covers 3½ acres of ground, contains 10,000,000 cub. ft. of space, and has possible accommodation for over 4 million vols. Its cost was $6,500,000, or including the land, $7,000,000. It is the largest, most ornate @@ -10727,7 +10688,7 @@ to give an idea of the large number of donors who have given money to libraries. Silas Bronson (Waterbury), Annie T. Howard (New Orleans), Joshua Bates (Boston), Charles E. Forbes (Northampton, Mass.), Mortimer F. Reynolds (Rochester, N.Y.), Leonard Case -(Cleveland), I. Osterhout (Wilkes-Barré, Pa.), and above all Andrew +(Cleveland), I. Osterhout (Wilkes-Barré, Pa.), and above all Andrew Carnegie, whose library benefactions exceed $53,000,000.</p> <p>It remains to mention another group of proprietary and society @@ -10771,9 +10732,9 @@ Hampshire, which fix no limit. In every American town the amount derived from the library tax usually exceeds by double or more the same rate raised in Britain in towns of similar size. For example, East Orange, N.J., with a population of -35,000, expends £2400, while Dumfries in Scotland, with 23,000 -pop. expends £500. Cincinnati, 345,000 pop., expenditure -£26,000; Islington (London), 350,000 pop., expenditure £8200, +35,000, expends £2400, while Dumfries in Scotland, with 23,000 +pop. expends £500. Cincinnati, 345,000 pop., expenditure +£26,000; Islington (London), 350,000 pop., expenditure £8200, is another example. In the smaller towns the difference is not so marked, but generally the average American municipal library income is considerably in excess of the British one. @@ -10877,7 +10838,7 @@ above) were taken over by the city, and in addition, $2,000,000 was given by one of the heirs of Mr S. J. Tilden, who had bequeathed about $4,000,000 for library purposes in New York but whose will had been upset in the law courts. In 1901 -Mr Andrew Carnegie gave about £1,500,000 for the purpose +Mr Andrew Carnegie gave about £1,500,000 for the purpose of providing 65 branches, and these are now nearly all erected. A very fine central library building has been erected, and when the organization is completed there will be no system of @@ -10895,7 +10856,7 @@ building which was completed in 1895. The central library contains many fine special collections, and there are 28 branch and numerous school libraries in connexion. It possesses about 1,000,000 vols. altogether, its annual circulation is about -1,500,000 vols., and its annual expenditure is nearly £70,000.</p> +1,500,000 vols., and its annual expenditure is nearly £70,000.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Other notable municipal libraries are those of Philadelphia (1891), @@ -10937,7 +10898,7 @@ Besides the unrivalled library accommodation of the capital, France possesses a remarkable assemblage of provincial libraries. The communal and school libraries also form striking features of the French free library system. Taking as a basis for comparison -the <i>Tableau statistique des bibliothèques publiques</i> (1857), +the <i>Tableau statistique des bibliothèques publiques</i> (1857), there were at that date 340 departmental libraries with a total of 3,734,260 vols., and 44,436 MSS. In 1908 the number of volumes in all the public libraries; communal, university, @@ -10947,7 +10908,7 @@ alone now possesses over 10,570,000 printed vols., 147,543 MSS., 5000 incunabula, 609,439 maps and plans, 2,000,000 prints (designs and reproductions).</p> -<p>The Bibliothèque Nationale (one of the most extensive libraries +<p>The Bibliothèque Nationale (one of the most extensive libraries in the world) has had an advantage over others in the length of time during which its contents have been accumulating, and in the great zeal shown for it by several @@ -10960,24 +10921,24 @@ the few precious relics of them which the national library now possesses have been acquired at a much later date. Of the library which St Louis formed in the 13th century (in imitation of what he had seen in the East) nothing has fallen into the -possession of the Bibliothèque Nationale, but much has remained +possession of the Bibliothèque Nationale, but much has remained of the royal collections made by kings of the later dynasties. The real foundation of the institution (formerly known as the -Bibliothèque du Roi) may be said to date from the reign of King +Bibliothèque du Roi) may be said to date from the reign of King John, the Black Prince’s captive, who had a considerable taste for books, and bequeathed his “royal library” of MSS. to his successor Charles V. Charles V. organized his library in a very -effective manner, removing it from the Palais de la Cité to the +effective manner, removing it from the Palais de la Cité to the Louvre, where it was arranged on desks in a large hall of three storeys, and placed under the management of the first librarian and cataloguer, Claude Mallet, the king’s valet-de-chambre. His catalogue was a mere shelf-list, entitled <i>Inventaire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au chastel du Louvre</i>; it is still extant, as well as the further inventories made by Jean Blanchet -in 1380, and by Jean le Bègue in 1411 and 1424. Charles V. +in 1380, and by Jean le Bègue in 1411 and 1424. Charles V. was very liberal in his patronage of literature, and many of the early monuments of the French language are due to his having -employed Nicholas Oresme, Ràoul de Presle and other scholars +employed Nicholas Oresme, Rà oul de Presle and other scholars to make translations from ancient texts. Charles VI. added some hundreds of MSS. to the royal library, which, however, was sold to the regent, duke of Bedford, after a valuation had been @@ -10994,7 +10955,7 @@ developed gradually with the help of confiscation. Charles VIII. enriched it with many fine MSS. executed by his order, and also with most of the books that had formed the library of the kings of Aragon, seized by him at Naples. Louis XII., on -coming to the throne, incorporated the Bibliothèque du Roi +coming to the throne, incorporated the Bibliothèque du Roi with the fine Orleans library at Blois, which he had inherited. The Blois library, thus augmented, and further enriched by plunder from the palaces of Pavia, and by the purchase of the @@ -11006,7 +10967,7 @@ was still more cultivated by Henry II., and which has never died out in France. During the librarianship of Amyot (the translator of Plutarch) the library was transferred from Fontainebleau to Paris, not without the loss of several books coveted by -powerful thieves. Henry IV. removed it to the Collége de +powerful thieves. Henry IV. removed it to the Collége de Clermont, but in 1604 another change was made, and in 1622 it was installed in the Rue de la Harpe. Under the librarianship of J. A. de Thou it acquired the library of Catherine de’ Medici, @@ -11017,7 +10978,7 @@ Louis XIV.’s time. The first catalogue worthy of the name was finished in 1622, and contains a description of some 6000 vols., chiefly MSS. Many additions were made during Louis XIII.’s reign, notably that of the Dupuy collection, but a new -era dawned for the Bibliothèque du Roi under the patronage of +era dawned for the Bibliothèque du Roi under the patronage of Louis XIV. The enlightened activity of Colbert, one of the greatest of collectors, so enriched the library that it became necessary for want of space to make another removal. It was @@ -11026,8 +10987,8 @@ far from its present habitat. The departments of engravings and medals were now created, and before long rose to nearly equal importance with that of books. Marolles’s prints, Foucquet’s books, and many from the Mazarin library were added to -the collection, and, in short, the Bibliothèque du Roi had its -future pre-eminence undoubtedly secured. Nic. Clément made +the collection, and, in short, the Bibliothèque du Roi had its +future pre-eminence undoubtedly secured. Nic. Clément made a catalogue in 1684 according to an arrangement which has been followed ever since (that is, in twenty-three classes, each one designated by a letter of the alphabet), with an alphabetical index @@ -11035,11 +10996,11 @@ to it. After Colbert’s death Louvois emulated his predecessor’s labours, and employed Mabillon, Thevenot and others to procure fresh accessions from all parts of the world. A new catalogue was compiled in 1688 in 8 vols, by several distinguished scholars. -The Abbé Louvois, the minister’s son, became head of the library +The Abbé Louvois, the minister’s son, became head of the library in 1691, and opened it to all students—a privilege which although soon withdrawn was afterwards restored. Towards the end of Louis XIV.’s reign it contained over 70,000 vols. Under the -management of the Abbé Bignon numerous additions were made +management of the Abbé Bignon numerous additions were made in all departments, and the library was removed to its present home in the Rue Richelieu. Among the more important acquisitions were 6000 MSS. from the private library of the Colbert @@ -11048,19 +11009,19 @@ of Oriental books imported by missionaries from the farther East, and by special agents from the Levant. Between 1739 and 1753 a catalogue in 11 vols, was printed, which enabled the administration to discover and to sell its duplicates. In Louis XVI.’s -reign the sale of the La Vallière library furnished a valuable +reign the sale of the La Vallière library furnished a valuable increase both in MSS. and printed books. A few years before the Revolution broke out the latter department contained over 300,000 vols, and opuscules. The Revolution was serviceable -to the library, now called the Bibliothèque Nationale, by increasing -it with the forfeited collections of the <i>émigrés</i>, as well as +to the library, now called the Bibliothèque Nationale, by increasing +it with the forfeited collections of the <i>émigrés</i>, as well as of the suppressed religious communities. In the midst of the difficulties of placing and cataloguing these numerous acquisitions, the name of Van Praet appears as an administrator of the first order. Napoleon increased the amount of the government grant; and by the strict enforcement of the law concerning new publications, as well as by the acquisition of several special collections, -the Bibliothèque made considerable progress during his reign +the Bibliothèque made considerable progress during his reign towards realizing his idea that it should be universal in character. At the beginning of last century the recorded numbers were 250,000 printed vols., 83,000 MSS., and 1,500,000 engravings. @@ -11073,13 +11034,13 @@ enlightened administration of MM. Taschereau and Delisle and Marcel, the accessions have been very extensive.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>According to the statistics for 1908 the riches of the Bibliothèque -Nationale may be enumerated as follows: (1) Département des -Imprimés: more than 3,000,000 vols.; Maps and plans, 500,000 -in 28,000 vols. (2) Département des Manuscrits: 110,000 MSS. +<p>According to the statistics for 1908 the riches of the Bibliothèque +Nationale may be enumerated as follows: (1) Département des +Imprimés: more than 3,000,000 vols.; Maps and plans, 500,000 +in 28,000 vols. (2) Département des Manuscrits: 110,000 MSS. thus divided: Greek 4960, Latin 21,544, French 44,913, Oriental and -miscellaneous 38,583. (3) Département des Estampes: 1,000,000 -pieces. (4) Département des Médailles: 207,096 pieces.</p> +miscellaneous 38,583. (3) Département des Estampes: 1,000,000 +pieces. (4) Département des Médailles: 207,096 pieces.</p> <p>Admittance to the “salle de travail” is obtained through a card procured from the secretarial office; the “salle publique” contains @@ -11092,111 +11053,111 @@ gives a list of all accessions since that date; it is divided into two parts, one for the names of authors and the other for subjects. There is not yet, as at the British Museum, an alphabetical catalogue of all the printed works and kept up by periodical supplements, but since -1897 a <i>Catalogue général des livres imprimés</i> has been begun. In +1897 a <i>Catalogue général des livres imprimés</i> has been begun. In 1909 the 38th vol. containing letters A to Delp had appeared. Some volumes are published each year, but the earlier volumes only contain a selection of the books; this inconvenience has now been remedied. Among the other catalogues published by the Printed -Book Department, the following may be mentioned: <i>Répertoire -alphabétique des livres mis à la disposition des lecteurs dans la salle de -travail</i> (1896, 8vo), <i>Liste des périodiques français et étrangers mis à la -disposition des lecteurs</i> (1907, 4to, autogr.), <i>Liste des périodiques -étrangers</i> (new ed., 1896, 8vo) and <i>Supplement</i> (1902, 8vo), <i>Bulletin -des récentes publications françaises</i> (from 1882, 8vo), <i>Catalogue des -dissertations et écrits académiques provenant des échanges avec les -universités étrangères</i> (from 1882, 8vo). The other extensive catalogues +Book Department, the following may be mentioned: <i>Répertoire +alphabétique des livres mis à la disposition des lecteurs dans la salle de +travail</i> (1896, 8vo), <i>Liste des périodiques français et étrangers mis à la +disposition des lecteurs</i> (1907, 4to, autogr.), <i>Liste des périodiques +étrangers</i> (new ed., 1896, 8vo) and <i>Supplement</i> (1902, 8vo), <i>Bulletin +des récentes publications françaises</i> (from 1882, 8vo), <i>Catalogue des +dissertations et écrits académiques provenant des échanges avec les +universités étrangères</i> (from 1882, 8vo). The other extensive catalogues apart from those of the 18th century are: <i>Catalogue de l’histoire de France</i> (1885-1889, 4to, 11 vols.); <i>Table des auteurs,</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span> par P. Marchal (1895, 4to), with the following autographed supplements: -<i>Histoire locale</i> (1880); <i>Histoire généalogique et biographies</i> -(1884); <i>Mœurs et coutumes, archéologie</i> (1885); <i>Histoire maritime et -militaire</i> (1894); <i>Histoire constitutionnelle</i> (1895); <i>Sciences médicales</i> +<i>Histoire locale</i> (1880); <i>Histoire généalogique et biographies</i> +(1884); <i>Mœurs et coutumes, archéologie</i> (1885); <i>Histoire maritime et +militaire</i> (1894); <i>Histoire constitutionnelle</i> (1895); <i>Sciences médicales</i> (1857-1889, 3 vols., 4to); <i>Histoire de la Grande-Bretagne</i> (1875-1878, autogr.); <i>Histoire de l’Espagne et du Portugal</i> (1883, autogr.); <i>Histoire de l’Asie</i> (1894); <i>Histoire de l’Afrique</i> (1895, autogr.); -<i>Histoire de l’Amérique</i>, par G. Barringer (1903-1908, autogr.); -<i>Factums et autres documents judiciaires antérieurs à 1790</i>, par Corda +<i>Histoire de l’Amérique</i>, par G. Barringer (1903-1908, autogr.); +<i>Factums et autres documents judiciaires antérieurs à 1790</i>, par Corda et A. Trudon des Ormes (1890-1907, 8 vols., 8vo); <i>Catalogue -général des incunables des bibliothèques publiques de France</i>, par M. +général des incunables des bibliothèques publiques de France</i>, par M. Pellechet et L. Polain, t. i.-iii. (1897-1909, 8vo); <i>Livres d’heures -imprimés au XV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle conservés dans les bibliothèques publiques de +imprimés au XV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle conservés dans les bibliothèques publiques de Paris</i>, par P. Lacombe (1907, 8vo), &c. In the Geographical -section there is L. Vallée’s <i>Catalogue des cartes et plans relatifs à +section there is L. Vallée’s <i>Catalogue des cartes et plans relatifs à Paris et aux environs de Paris</i> (1908, 8vo). The following should be -mentioned: <i>Bibliographie générale des travaux historiques et archéologiques -publiés par les sociétés savantes de la France</i>, par R. de -Lasteyrie avec la collaboration d’E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, S. Bougenot, +mentioned: <i>Bibliographie générale des travaux historiques et archéologiques +publiés par les sociétés savantes de la France</i>, par R. de +Lasteyrie avec la collaboration d’E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, S. Bougenot, A. Vidier, t. i.-vi. (1885-1908, 4to). The scientific division of this work (in two parts) is by Deniker. The printed catalogues and the -autographed and manuscript lists of the Département des Manuscrits +autographed and manuscript lists of the Département des Manuscrits are very numerous and greatly facilitate research. For the -French there are: H. Omont, <i>Catalogue général des manuscrits -français</i> (1895-1897, 9 vols. 8vo); H. Omont, <i>Nouvelles acquisitions</i> +French there are: H. Omont, <i>Catalogue général des manuscrits +français</i> (1895-1897, 9 vols. 8vo); H. Omont, <i>Nouvelles acquisitions</i> (continuation of the same catalogue, 1899-1900, 3 vols. 8vo); H. -Omont, <i>Anciens Inventaires de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i> (1908-1909, +Omont, <i>Anciens Inventaires de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i> (1908-1909, 2 vols. 8vo); E. Coyecque, <i>Inventaire de la Collection Anisson sur l’histoire de l’imprimerie et de la librairie</i> (1900, 2 vols. 8vo). Without repeating the catalogues mentioned in the tenth edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, it is yet necessary to mention the following: <i>Catalogue de la collection Baluze</i>; <i>Inventaire des sceaux de la collection Clairambault</i>; <i>Catalogue de la collection des cinq-cents -et des mélanges Colbert</i>; <i>Catalogue des collections Duchesne et de -Bréquigny</i>; those of the Dupuy, Joly de Fleury, and Moreau collections, +et des mélanges Colbert</i>; <i>Catalogue des collections Duchesne et de +Bréquigny</i>; those of the Dupuy, Joly de Fleury, and Moreau collections, and that of provincial history, &c. For the Greek collection the most important catalogues have been made by H. Omont, the present Keeper of the Manuscripts, and these are: <i>Inventaire sommaire des MSS. grecs</i> (1886-1898, 4 vols. 8vo); <i>Catalogus codicum -hagiographicorum graecorum</i> (1896, 8vo); <i>Facsimilés des plus -anciens MSS. grecs en onciale et en minuscule du IX<span class="sp">e</span> au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> +hagiographicorum graecorum</i> (1896, 8vo); <i>Facsimilés des plus +anciens MSS. grecs en onciale et en minuscule du IX<span class="sp">e</span> au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1891, fol.); as well as <i>Description des peintures et autres ornements contenus dans les MSS. latins</i>, par H. Bordier (1883, 4to). The lists of the Latin MSS. are: <i>Inventaire des manuscrits latins et nouvelles acquisitions jusqu’en 1874</i> (1863-1874, 7 pts. 8vo) and <i>Manuscrits -latins et français ajoutés aux fonds des nouvelles acquisitions 1875-1881</i> +latins et français ajoutés aux fonds des nouvelles acquisitions 1875-1881</i> (1891, 2 vols. 8vo), by M. Delisle; M. Omont published <i>Nouvelles -Acquisitions du département des manuscrits</i> (1892-1907, 8 pts. 8vo), +Acquisitions du département des manuscrits</i> (1892-1907, 8 pts. 8vo), and B. Haureau, <i>Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits latins</i> (1890-1893, 6 vols. 8vo). The principal modern catalogues of the oriental collection are: B. de Slane, <i>Catalogue des MSS. arabes, avec -supplément</i> (1883-1895, 4to); E. Blochet, <i>Catalogue des MSS. +supplément</i> (1883-1895, 4to); E. Blochet, <i>Catalogue des MSS. arabes, persans, et turcs de la collection Schefer</i> (1900); E. Blochet, <i>Inventaire des MSS. arabes de la collection Decourtemanche</i> (1906); F. -Macler, <i>Catalogue des MSS. arméniens et géorgiens</i> (1908). For other +Macler, <i>Catalogue des MSS. arméniens et géorgiens</i> (1908). For other oriental languages the following catalogues have been compiled: -<i>MSS. birmans et cambodgiens</i> (1879); <i>MSS. chinois, coréens et -japonais</i> (1900-1907); <i>MSS. coptes</i> (1906); <i>MSS. éthiopiens</i> (1859-1877); -<i>MSS. hébreux et samaritains</i> (1867-1903); MSS. <i>indo-chinois</i> -(in the press); <i>MSS. malayo-polynésiens</i> (in the press); <i>MSS. -mazdéens</i> (1900); <i>MSS. mexicains</i> (1899); <i>MSS. persans</i>, t. i. -(1905); <i>MSS. sanscrits et pâlis</i> (1899, 1907-1908); <i>MSS. siamois</i> -(1887); <i>MSS. syriaques et sabéens</i> (1874-1896); <i>MSS. thibétains</i> (in +<i>MSS. birmans et cambodgiens</i> (1879); <i>MSS. chinois, coréens et +japonais</i> (1900-1907); <i>MSS. coptes</i> (1906); <i>MSS. éthiopiens</i> (1859-1877); +<i>MSS. hébreux et samaritains</i> (1867-1903); MSS. <i>indo-chinois</i> +(in the press); <i>MSS. malayo-polynésiens</i> (in the press); <i>MSS. +mazdéens</i> (1900); <i>MSS. mexicains</i> (1899); <i>MSS. persans</i>, t. i. +(1905); <i>MSS. sanscrits et pâlis</i> (1899, 1907-1908); <i>MSS. siamois</i> +(1887); <i>MSS. syriaques et sabéens</i> (1874-1896); <i>MSS. thibétains</i> (in the press), &c. The catalogues of manuscripts in modern languages -are nearly all completed. The Départements des Médailles et des +are nearly all completed. The Départements des Médailles et des Estampes possess excellent catalogues, and the following should be mentioned: E. Babelon, <i>Catalogue des monnaies grecques</i> (1890-1893); E. Babelon, <i>Inventaire sommaire de la collection Waddington</i> -(1898); <i>Médailles fausses recueillies</i>, par Hoffmann (1902); Muret et +(1898); <i>Médailles fausses recueillies</i>, par Hoffmann (1902); Muret et Chabouillet, <i>Catalogue des monnaies gauloises</i> (1889-1892); Prou, -<i>Catalogue des monnaies françaises</i> (1892-1896); H. de la Tour, +<i>Catalogue des monnaies françaises</i> (1892-1896); H. de la Tour, <i>Catalogue de la collection Rouyer, 1<span class="sp">re</span> partie</i> (1899); <i>Catalogues des -monnaies et médailles d’Alsace</i> (1902); <i>Cat. des monnaies de -l’Amérique du Nord</i> (1861); <i>Cat. des monnaies musulmanes</i> (1887-1891); +monnaies et médailles d’Alsace</i> (1902); <i>Cat. des monnaies de +l’Amérique du Nord</i> (1861); <i>Cat. des monnaies musulmanes</i> (1887-1891); <i>Cat. des plombs</i> (1900); <i>Cat. des bronzes antiques</i> (1889); -<i>Cat. des camées antiques et modernes</i> (1897-1899); <i>Cat. des vases -peints</i> (1902-1904, 2 vols.). In the Département des Estampes the +<i>Cat. des camées antiques et modernes</i> (1897-1899); <i>Cat. des vases +peints</i> (1902-1904, 2 vols.). In the Département des Estampes the following should be mentioned: F. Courboin, <i>Catalogue sommaire -des gravures et lithographies de la Réserve</i> (1900-1901); Duplessis, -<i>Cat. des portraits français et étrangers</i> (1896-1907, 6 vols.); H. -Bouchot, <i>Les Portraits au crayon des XVI<span class="sp">e</span> et XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i> (1884); -<i>Cat. des dessins relatifs à l’histoire du théâtre</i> (1896); F. Courboin, -<i>Inventaire des dessins, photographies et gravures relatives à l’histoire -générale de l’art</i> (1895, 2 vols.), &c.</p> +des gravures et lithographies de la Réserve</i> (1900-1901); Duplessis, +<i>Cat. des portraits français et étrangers</i> (1896-1907, 6 vols.); H. +Bouchot, <i>Les Portraits au crayon des XVI<span class="sp">e</span> et XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i> (1884); +<i>Cat. des dessins relatifs à l’histoire du théâtre</i> (1896); F. Courboin, +<i>Inventaire des dessins, photographies et gravures relatives à l’histoire +générale de l’art</i> (1895, 2 vols.), &c.</p> </div> -<p>The Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal was founded by the marquis -de Paulmy (Antoine-René d’Argenson) in the 18th century; it -received in 1786 80,000 vols. from the duc de La Vallière. Before +<p>The Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal was founded by the marquis +de Paulmy (Antoine-René d’Argenson) in the 18th century; it +received in 1786 80,000 vols. from the duc de La Vallière. Before its confiscation as national property it had belonged to the comte d’Artois, who had bought it from the marquis de Paulmy in his lifetime. It contains at the present time about 600,000 @@ -11208,57 +11169,57 @@ more than 30,000 theatrical pieces.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>L’Inventaire des manuscrits</i> was made by H. Martin (1885-1899, t. i.-viii.); the other catalogues and lists are: <i>Extrait du catalogue -des journaux conservés à la Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal</i> (“Bulletin des +des journaux conservés à la Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal</i> (“Bulletin des biblioth. et des archives” t. i.); <i>Archives de la Bastille</i>, par F. Funck-Brentano -(1892-1894, 3 vols. 8vo); <i>Notice sur les dépôts littéraires</i> +(1892-1894, 3 vols. 8vo); <i>Notice sur les dépôts littéraires</i> par J. B. Labiche (1880, 8vo); <i>Catalogue des estampes, dessins et -cartes composant le cabinet des estampes de la bibliothèque de l’Arsenal</i>, +cartes composant le cabinet des estampes de la bibliothèque de l’Arsenal</i>, par G. Schefer (1894-1905, 8 pts. 8vo).</p> </div> -<p>The Bibliothèque Mazarine owes its origin to the great cardinal, -who confided the direction to Gabriel Naudé; it was open to the +<p>The Bibliothèque Mazarine owes its origin to the great cardinal, +who confided the direction to Gabriel Naudé; it was open to the public in 1642, and was transferred to Rue de Richelieu in 1648. Dispersed during the Fronde in the lifetime of Mazarin, it was reconstituted after the death of the cardinal in 1661, -when it contained 40,000 vols. which were left to the Collège des +when it contained 40,000 vols. which were left to the Collège des Quatre-Nations, which in 1691 made it again public. It now has 250,000 vols.; with excellent manuscript catalogues.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The catalogues of incunabula and manuscripts are printed: P. -Marais et A. Dufresne de Saint-Léon, <i>Catalogue des incunables de la -bibliothèque Mazarine</i> (1893, 8vo); <i>Supplément, additions et corrections</i> +Marais et A. Dufresne de Saint-Léon, <i>Catalogue des incunables de la +bibliothèque Mazarine</i> (1893, 8vo); <i>Supplément, additions et corrections</i> (1898, 4 vols. 8vo); <i>Catalogue des MSS.</i>, par A. Molinier (1885-1892, 4 vols. 8vo); <i>Inventaire sommaire des MSS. grecs</i>, par H. Omont.</p> </div> -<p>The first library of the Genovéfains had nearly disappeared -owing to bad administration when Cardinal François de la +<p>The first library of the Genovéfains had nearly disappeared +owing to bad administration when Cardinal François de la Rochefoucauld, who had charge of the reformation of that religious order, constituted in 1642 a new library with his own -books. The Bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève in 1716 possessed +books. The Bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève in 1716 possessed 45,000 vols.; important gifts were made by Letellier in 1791, -and the duc d’Orléans increased it still more. It became -national property in 1791, and was called the Bibliothèque du -Panthéon and added to the Lycée Henri IV. under the empire. +and the duc d’Orléans increased it still more. It became +national property in 1791, and was called the Bibliothèque du +Panthéon and added to the Lycée Henri IV. under the empire. In 1908 the library contained 350,000 printed vols., 1225 incunabula, 3510 manuscripts, 10,000 prints (including 7357 portraits and 3000 maps and plans).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The printed catalogues at present comprise: Poirée et Lamoureux, -<i>Catalogue abrégé de la bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève</i> (1891, 8vo); 3 +<p>The printed catalogues at present comprise: Poirée et Lamoureux, +<i>Catalogue abrégé de la bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève</i> (1891, 8vo); 3 supplements (1890-1896, 1897-1899, 1900-1902); <i>Catalogue des -incunables de la bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève, rédigé par Daunou</i>, publié -par M. Pellechet (1892, 8vo); <i>Catalogue général des MSS.</i>, par Ch. +incunables de la bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève, rédigé par Daunou</i>, publié +par M. Pellechet (1892, 8vo); <i>Catalogue général des MSS.</i>, par Ch. Kohler (1894-1896, 2 vols. 8vo); <i>Inventaire sommaire des MSS. grecs</i>, par H. Omont; <i>Notices sur quelques MSS. normands</i>, par E. Deville (1904-1906, 10 pts. 8vo), &c.</p> </div> -<p>The Bibliothèque des Archives nationales, founded in 1808 +<p>The Bibliothèque des Archives nationales, founded in 1808 by Daunou, contains 30,000 vols. on sciences auxiliary to history. It is only accessible to the officials.</p> @@ -11268,99 +11229,99 @@ academic libraries of Paris more or less open to the public, which are about 200 in number, and in the following survey we deal only with those having 10,000 vols. and over.</p> -<p>The Bibliothèque du Ministère des affaires étrangères was founded +<p>The Bibliothèque du Ministère des affaires étrangères was founded by the marquis de Torcy, minister for foreign affairs under Louis XIV.; it contains 80,000 vols. and is for official use only. The -Bibliothèque du Ministère de l’Agriculture dates from 1882 and has +Bibliothèque du Ministère de l’Agriculture dates from 1882 and has only 4000 vols. At the Ministry for the Colonies the library (of 10,000 vols.) dates from 1897; the catalogue was published in 1905; the library of the Colonial office is attached to this ministry; suppressed in 1896, it was re-established in 1899, and now contains 6000 vols., 7400 periodicals and 5000 photographs; it is open to the -public. There are 30,000 vols. in the Bibliothèque du Ministère du -commerce et de l’industrie; the Bibliothèque du Ministère des +public. There are 30,000 vols. in the Bibliothèque du Ministère du +commerce et de l’industrie; the Bibliothèque du Ministère des finances was burnt at the Commune, but has been reconstituted and now contains 35,000 vols.; connected with it are the libraries of the following offices: Contributions directes, Contributions indirectes, Enregistrement et inspection des finances; the contents of these -four libraries make a total of 13,500 vols. The Bibliothèque du -Ministère de la Guerre was formed by Louvois and possesses 130,000 +four libraries make a total of 13,500 vols. The Bibliothèque du +Ministère de la Guerre was formed by Louvois and possesses 130,000 vols. and 800 MSS. and an income of 20,000 francs; the catalogues -are <i>Bibliothèque du dépôt de la guerre: Catalogue</i> (1883-1890); -<i>Suppléments</i> (1893-1896); <i>Catalogue des MSS.</i>, par J. Lemoine +are <i>Bibliothèque du dépôt de la guerre: Catalogue</i> (1883-1890); +<i>Suppléments</i> (1893-1896); <i>Catalogue des MSS.</i>, par J. Lemoine (1910). The following libraries are connected with this department: -Comité de santé (10,000 vols.), École supérieure de guerre (70,000 -vols.), Comité technique de l’artillerie (24,000 vols.). The Bibliothèque -du Ministère de l’Intérieur was founded in 1793 and has -80,000 vols. The Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Justice possesses +Comité de santé (10,000 vols.), École supérieure de guerre (70,000 +vols.), Comité technique de l’artillerie (24,000 vols.). The Bibliothèque +du Ministère de l’Intérieur was founded in 1793 and has +80,000 vols. The Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Justice possesses 10,000 vols., and L’Imprimerie Nationale which is connected with it has a further 19,000 vols. There are also the following law libraries: <span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span> Cour d’appel (12,000 vols.); Ordre des avocats, dating from 1871 -(56,000 vols., with a catalogue printed in 1880-1882); the Bibliothèque +(56,000 vols., with a catalogue printed in 1880-1882); the Bibliothèque des avocats de la cour de Cassation (20,000 vols.); that of the -Cour de Cassation (40,000 vols.). The Bibliothèque du Ministère de +Cour de Cassation (40,000 vols.). The Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Marine is of old formation (catalogue 1838-1843); it contains 100,000 vols, and 356 MSS.; the catalogue of manuscripts was -compiled in 1907. The Bibliothèque du service hydrographique de -la Marine has 65,000 vols, and 250 MSS. The Ministère des Travaux -publics possesses 12,000 vols., and the Sous-Secrétariat des postes -et télégraphes a further 30,000 vols. The Bibliothèque de la Chambre -des députés (1796) possesses 250,000 printed books and 1546 MSS. +compiled in 1907. The Bibliothèque du service hydrographique de +la Marine has 65,000 vols, and 250 MSS. The Ministère des Travaux +publics possesses 12,000 vols., and the Sous-Secrétariat des postes +et télégraphes a further 30,000 vols. The Bibliothèque de la Chambre +des députés (1796) possesses 250,000 printed books and 1546 MSS. (<i>Catalogue des manuscrits</i>, by E. Coyecque et H. Debray, 1907; -<i>Catalogue des livres de jurisprudence, d’économie politique, de finances, -et d’administration</i>, 1883). The Bibliothèque du Sénat (1818) -contains 150,000 vols, and 1343 MSS. The Bibliothèque du Conseil -d’État has 30,000 vols. All these libraries are only accessible to +<i>Catalogue des livres de jurisprudence, d’économie politique, de finances, +et d’administration</i>, 1883). The Bibliothèque du Sénat (1818) +contains 150,000 vols, and 1343 MSS. The Bibliothèque du Conseil +d’État has 30,000 vols. All these libraries are only accessible to officials except by special permission.</p> -<p>The Bibliothèque Historique de la ville de Paris was destroyed in +<p>The Bibliothèque Historique de la ville de Paris was destroyed in 1871, but Jules Cousin reconstituted it in 1872; it possesses 400,000 vols., 3500 MSS. and 14,000 prints; the principal printed catalogues -are <i>Catalogue des imprimés de la Réserve</i> by M. Poète (1910), <i>Catalogue +are <i>Catalogue des imprimés de la Réserve</i> by M. Poète (1910), <i>Catalogue des manuscrits</i>, by F. Bournon (1893); a <i>Bulletin</i> has been issued -periodically since 1906. The Bibliothèque administrative de la -préfecture de la Seine is divided into two sections: French (40,000 +periodically since 1906. The Bibliothèque administrative de la +préfecture de la Seine is divided into two sections: French (40,000 vols.) and foreign (22,000 vols.); it is only accessible to officials and to persons having a card of introduction; the catalogues are printed.</p> <p>The other libraries connected with the city of Paris are that of the -Conseil municipal (20,000 vols.), the Bibliothèques Municipales +Conseil municipal (20,000 vols.), the Bibliothèques Municipales Populaires, 82 in number with a total of 590,000 books; those of the -22 Hospitals (92,887 vols.), the Préfecture de police (10,000 vols.), -the Bibliothèque Forney (10,000 vols. and 80,000 prints), the five -Écoles municipales supérieures (19,700 vols.), the six professional +22 Hospitals (92,887 vols.), the Préfecture de police (10,000 vols.), +the Bibliothèque Forney (10,000 vols. and 80,000 prints), the five +Écoles municipales supérieures (19,700 vols.), the six professional schools (14,200 vols.).</p> <p>The libraries of the university and the institutions dealing with higher education in Paris are well organized and their catalogues generally printed.</p> -<p>The Bibliothèque de l’Université, although at present grouped as +<p>The Bibliothèque de l’Université, although at present grouped as a system in four sections in different places, historically considered is the library of the Sorbonne. This was founded in 1762 by Montempuis and only included the faculties of Arts and Theology. It -changed its name several times; in 1800 it was the Bibliothèque -du Prytanée, in 1808 Bibliothèque des Quatre Lycées and in 1812 -Bibliothèque de l’Université de France. The sections into which the -Bibliothèque de l’Université is now divided are: (1) Facultés de -Sciences et des Lettres à la Sorbonne, (2) Faculté de Médecine, (3) -Faculté de droit, (4) École supérieure de pharmacie. Before the +changed its name several times; in 1800 it was the Bibliothèque +du Prytanée, in 1808 Bibliothèque des Quatre Lycées and in 1812 +Bibliothèque de l’Université de France. The sections into which the +Bibliothèque de l’Université is now divided are: (1) Facultés de +Sciences et des Lettres à la Sorbonne, (2) Faculté de Médecine, (3) +Faculté de droit, (4) École supérieure de pharmacie. Before the separation of Church and State there was a fifth section, that of -Protestant theology. After the Bibliothèque nationale it is the +Protestant theology. After the Bibliothèque nationale it is the richest in special collections, and above all as regards classical philology, archaeology, French and foreign literature and literary -criticism, just as the library of the Faculté des Sciences et des +criticism, just as the library of the Faculté des Sciences et des Lettres is notable for philosophy, mathematics and chemico-physical sciences. The great development which has taken place during the last thirty years, especially under the administration of M. J. de -Chantepie du Dézert, its installation since 1897 in the buildings of +Chantepie du Dézert, its installation since 1897 in the buildings of the New Sorbonne, have made it a library of the very first rank. The reading-room only seats about 300 persons. The average attendance per day is 1200, the number of books consulted varies from 1500 to 3000 vols. a day, and the loans amount to 14,000 vols. per year. The store-rooms, although they contain more than 1200 -mètres of shelves and comprise two buildings of five storeys each, are +mètres of shelves and comprise two buildings of five storeys each, are insufficient for the annual accessions, which reach nearly 10,000 vols. by purchase and presentation. Amongst the latter the most important are the bequests of Leclerc, Peccot, Lavisse, Derenbourg and @@ -11370,89 +11331,89 @@ than 550,000 vols., 2800 periodicals which include over 70,000 vols., 320 incunabula, 2106 MSS., more than 2000 maps and plans and some prints. The alphabetical catalogues are kept up day by day on slips. The classified catalogues were in 1910 almost ready for -printing, and some had already been published: Périodiques (1905); -Cartulaires (1907); <i>Mélanges jubilaires et publications commémoratives</i> +printing, and some had already been published: Périodiques (1905); +Cartulaires (1907); <i>Mélanges jubilaires et publications commémoratives</i> (1908); <i>Inventaires des MSS.</i>, by E. Chatelain (1892); <i>Incunables</i>, -by E. Chatelain (1902); and <i>Supplément, Réserve de la bibliothèque</i> +by E. Chatelain (1902); and <i>Supplément, Réserve de la bibliothèque</i> 1401-1540, by Ch. Beaulieux (1909); <i>Nouvelles acquisitions</i> -(1905-1908); <i>Catalogue des livres de G. Duplessis donnés à l’Université -de Paris</i> (1907), <i>Catalogue collectif des bibliothèques universitaires</i> -by Fécamp (1898-1901). For French thèses, of which the +(1905-1908); <i>Catalogue des livres de G. Duplessis donnés à l’Université +de Paris</i> (1907), <i>Catalogue collectif des bibliothèques universitaires</i> +by Fécamp (1898-1901). For French thèses, of which the library possesses a rich collection, the catalogues are as follows: -Mourier et Deltour, <i>Catalogue des thèses de lettres</i> (1809, &c.); A. -Maire, <i>Répertoire des thèses de lettres</i> (1809-1900); A. Maire, <i>Catalogue -des thèses de sciences</i> (1809-1890) with <i>Supplément</i> to 1900 by -Estanave; <i>Catalogue des thèses publié par le Ministère de l’Instruction +Mourier et Deltour, <i>Catalogue des thèses de lettres</i> (1809, &c.); A. +Maire, <i>Répertoire des thèses de lettres</i> (1809-1900); A. Maire, <i>Catalogue +des thèses de sciences</i> (1809-1890) with <i>Supplément</i> to 1900 by +Estanave; <i>Catalogue des thèses publié par le Ministère de l’Instruction publique</i> (1882, &c.).</p> <p>At the Sorbonne are also to be found the libraries of A. Dumont and V. Cousin (15,000 vols.), and those of the laboratories, of which the richest is the geological (30,000 specimens and books). The section relating to medicine, housed since 1891 in the new buildings of the -Faculté de Médecine, includes 180,000 vols, and 88 MSS. (catalogue -1910). The Bibliothèque de la faculté de droit dates from 1772 -and contains 80,000 vols., 239 MSS. The fourth section, l’École -supérieure de pharmacie, greatly developed since 1882, now contains +Faculté de Médecine, includes 180,000 vols, and 88 MSS. (catalogue +1910). The Bibliothèque de la faculté de droit dates from 1772 +and contains 80,000 vols., 239 MSS. The fourth section, l’École +supérieure de pharmacie, greatly developed since 1882, now contains 50,000 vols.</p> <p>The other libraries connected with higher education include that -of the École des Beaux-Arts (40,000 vols., 100,000 reproductions, -14,000 drawings). The library of the École normale supérieure +of the École des Beaux-Arts (40,000 vols., 100,000 reproductions, +14,000 drawings). The library of the École normale supérieure (1794), established in the Rue d’Ulm in 1846, has received legacies from Verdet (1867), Caboche (1887), Lerambert-Whitcomb (1890), and a portion of Cuvier’s library; the system of classification in use is practically the same as that of the Sorbonne, being devised by Philippe Lebas (librarian of the Sorbonne) about 1845; there are -200,000 vols. The library of the Muséum d’histoire naturelle dates +200,000 vols. The library of the Muséum d’histoire naturelle dates from the 18th century, and contains 220,000 vols., 2000 MSS., 8000 -original drawings on vellum beginning in 1631. The Bibliothèque -de l’Office et Musée de l’Instruction publique (formerly Musée -pédagogique), founded only in 1880, has 75,000 vols. In 1760 was -founded the Bibliothèque de l’Institut de France, which is very rich; +original drawings on vellum beginning in 1631. The Bibliothèque +de l’Office et Musée de l’Instruction publique (formerly Musée +pédagogique), founded only in 1880, has 75,000 vols. In 1760 was +founded the Bibliothèque de l’Institut de France, which is very rich; its acquisitions come particularly from gifts and exchanges (400,000 vols., numerous and scarce; valuable MSS., especially modern ones).</p> <p>The following may be briefly mentioned: Conservatoire national de musique (1775), which receives everything published in France -relating to music (200,000 vols.); the Bibliothèque du théâtre de -l’Opéra (25,000 vols., 5000 songs, 20,000 romances, and a dramatic -library of 12,000 vols. and 20,000 prints); the Théâtre français -(40,000 vols.); the Académie de médecine (15,000 vols., 10,000 vols. +relating to music (200,000 vols.); the Bibliothèque du théâtre de +l’Opéra (25,000 vols., 5000 songs, 20,000 romances, and a dramatic +library of 12,000 vols. and 20,000 prints); the Théâtre français +(40,000 vols.); the Académie de médecine (15,000 vols., 10,000 vols. of periodicals, 5000 portraits), l’Observatoire (18,400 vols.); the Bureau des Longitudes (15,000 vols. and 850 MSS.). The scholastic -libraries are: L’École centrale des arts et manufactures (16,000 vols.); -l’École coloniale (11,000 vols.); 1,’Êcole d’application du service de -santé militaire (23,000 vols.); l’École d’application du génie maritime -(14,000 vols.); l’École libre des sciences politiques (25,000 -vols., 250 periodicals); l’École normale d’instituteurs de la Seine -(10,000 vols.); l’École normale israélite (30,000 vols., 250 MSS.); -l’École nationale des ponts-et-chausées (9000 vols., 5000 MSS., 5000 -photographs); Bibliothèque de l’Institut catholique (160,000 vols.); -l’Institut national agronomique (25,000 vols.); Faculté libre de -théologie protestante (36,000 vols.); Conservatoire des arts et -métiers (46,000 vols., 2500 maps and plans); Bibliothèque polonaise, -administered by the Académie des Sciences de Cracovie (80,000 vols., -30,000 prints); Séminaire des Missions étrangères (25,000 vols.); -l’Association Valentin Haüy, established 1885 (2000 vols. printed in +libraries are: L’École centrale des arts et manufactures (16,000 vols.); +l’École coloniale (11,000 vols.); 1,’Êcole d’application du service de +santé militaire (23,000 vols.); l’École d’application du génie maritime +(14,000 vols.); l’École libre des sciences politiques (25,000 +vols., 250 periodicals); l’École normale d’instituteurs de la Seine +(10,000 vols.); l’École normale israélite (30,000 vols., 250 MSS.); +l’École nationale des ponts-et-chausées (9000 vols., 5000 MSS., 5000 +photographs); Bibliothèque de l’Institut catholique (160,000 vols.); +l’Institut national agronomique (25,000 vols.); Faculté libre de +théologie protestante (36,000 vols.); Conservatoire des arts et +métiers (46,000 vols., 2500 maps and plans); Bibliothèque polonaise, +administered by the Académie des Sciences de Cracovie (80,000 vols., +30,000 prints); Séminaire des Missions étrangères (25,000 vols.); +l’Association Valentin Haüy, established 1885 (2000 vols. printed in relief) which lends out 40,000 books per annum; l’Association -générale des Étudiants (22,000 vols.), which lends and allows reference -on the premises to books by students; Bibliothèque de la +générale des Étudiants (22,000 vols.), which lends and allows reference +on the premises to books by students; Bibliothèque de la Chambre de Commerce (40,000 vols.), the catalogues of which were -printed in 1879, 1889 and 1902; the Société nationale d’agriculture -(20,000 vols.); the Société d’anthropologie (23,000 vols.); the -Société asiatique (12,000 vols., 200 MSS.); the Société chimique de +printed in 1879, 1889 and 1902; the Société nationale d’agriculture +(20,000 vols.); the Société d’anthropologie (23,000 vols.); the +Société asiatique (12,000 vols., 200 MSS.); the Société chimique de France (10,000 vols.), the catalogue of which was published in 1907; -the Société de chirurgie, dating from 1843 (20,000 vols.); the Société -entomologique (30,000 vols.); the Société de géographie founded +the Société de chirurgie, dating from 1843 (20,000 vols.); the Société +entomologique (30,000 vols.); the Société de géographie founded 1821 (60,000 vols., 6000 maps, 22,000 photographs, 2200 portraits, -80 MSS. of which the catalogue was printed in 1901); the Société -géologique de France (15,000 vols., 30,000 specimens, 800 periodicals); -the Société de l’histoire du protestantisme français, founded in 1852 -(50,000 vols., 1000 MSS.; income 25,000 frs.); the Société d’encouragement +80 MSS. of which the catalogue was printed in 1901); the Société +géologique de France (15,000 vols., 30,000 specimens, 800 periodicals); +the Société de l’histoire du protestantisme français, founded in 1852 +(50,000 vols., 1000 MSS.; income 25,000 frs.); the Société d’encouragement pour l’industrie nationale (50,000 vols., income 8000 frs.); the -Société des Ingénieurs civils (47,000 vols.; catalogue made in 1894); -the Société de legislation comparée (15,000 vols., 4500 pamphlets); -and lastly the Bibliothèque de la Société de Statistique de Paris, +Société des Ingénieurs civils (47,000 vols.; catalogue made in 1894); +the Société de legislation comparée (15,000 vols., 4500 pamphlets); +and lastly the Bibliothèque de la Société de Statistique de Paris, founded in 1860 (60,000 vols., with a printed catalogue).</p> </div> @@ -11491,7 +11452,7 @@ specially with the state, the others are municipal and are administered under state control by municipal librarians. The original foundation of most of the libraries dates but a short time before the Revolution, but there are a few exceptions. -Thus the Bibliothèque d’Angers owes its first collection to Alain +Thus the Bibliothèque d’Angers owes its first collection to Alain de la Rue about 1376; it now contains 72,485 vols., 134 incunabula and 2039 MSS. That of Bourges dates from 1466 (36,856 vols., 325 incunabula, 741 MSS.). The library of Carpentras was @@ -11499,36 +11460,36 @@ established by Michel Anglici between 1452 and 1474 (50,000 vols., 2154 MSS.). Mathieu de la Porte is said to be the founder of the library at Clermont-Ferrand at the end of the 15th century; it contained rather more than 49,000 vols. at the time of its -union with the Bibliothèque Universitaire.</p> +union with the Bibliothèque Universitaire.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Amongst the libraries which date from the 16th century must be -mentioned that at Lyons founded by François I. in 1527; it possesses +mentioned that at Lyons founded by François I. in 1527; it possesses 113,168 vols., 870 incunabula and 5243 MSS. That of the Palais des Arts has 82,079 vols., 64 incunabula and 311 MSS.</p> <p>In the 17th century were established the following libraries: Abbeville, by Charles Sanson in 1685 (46,929 vols., 42 incunabula, -342 MSS.); Besançon by Abbé Boisot in 1696 (93,580 vols., 1000 -incunabula, 2247 MSS.). In 1604 the Consistoire réformé de la +342 MSS.); Besançon by Abbé Boisot in 1696 (93,580 vols., 1000 +incunabula, 2247 MSS.). In 1604 the Consistoire réformé de la Rochelle established a library which possesses to-day 58,900 vols., -14 incunabula, 1715 MSS. St Étienne, founded by Cardinal de +14 incunabula, 1715 MSS. St Étienne, founded by Cardinal de Villeroi, has 50,000 vols., 8 incunabula, 343 MSS.</p> <p>The principal libraries founded during the 18th century are the -following: Aix-en-Provence, established by Tournon and Méjane in +following: Aix-en-Provence, established by Tournon and Méjane in 1705 (160,000 vols., 300 incunabula, 1351 MSS.); Bordeaux, 1738 -(200,000 vols., 3491 MSS.); Chambéry, 1736 (64,200 vols., 47 incunabula, +(200,000 vols., 3491 MSS.); Chambéry, 1736 (64,200 vols., 47 incunabula, 155 MSS.); Dijon, 1701, founded by P. Fevret (125,000 vols., 211 incunabula, 1669 MSS.); Grenoble, 1772 (260,772 vols., 635 incunabula, 2485 MSS.); Marseilles, 1799 (111,672 vols., 143 incunabula, 1691 MSS.); Nancy, founded in 1750 by Stanislas (126,149 vols., 205 incunabula, 1695 MSS.); Nantes, 1753 (103,328 -vols., 140 incunabula, 2750 MSS.); Nice, founded in 1786 by Abbé -Massa (55,000 vols., 300 incunabula, 150 MSS.); Nîmes, founded by -J. T. de Séguier in 1778 (80,000 vols., 61 incunabula, 675 MSS.); +vols., 140 incunabula, 2750 MSS.); Nice, founded in 1786 by Abbé +Massa (55,000 vols., 300 incunabula, 150 MSS.); Nîmes, founded by +J. T. de Séguier in 1778 (80,000 vols., 61 incunabula, 675 MSS.); Niort, by Jean de Dieu and R. Bion in 1771 (49,413 vols., 67 incunabula, -189 MSS.); Perpignan, by Maréchal de Mailly in 1759 (27,200 +189 MSS.); Perpignan, by Maréchal de Mailly in 1759 (27,200 vols., 80 incunabula, 127 MSS.); Rennes, 1733 (110,000 vols., 116 incunabula, 602 MSS., income 8950 frs.); Toulouse, by archbishop of Brienne in 1782 (213,000 vols., 859 incunabula, 1020 MSS.).</p> @@ -11544,19 +11505,19 @@ Tours (123,000 vols., 451 incunabula, 1999 MSS.); Versailles (161,000 vols., 436 incunabula, 1213 MSS.).</p> <p>The following towns have libraries with more than 50,000 volumes: -Amiens, Auxerre, Beaune, Brest, Douai, le Hâvre, Lille, le Mans, -Orléans, Pau, Poitiers, Toulon and Verdun.</p> +Amiens, Auxerre, Beaune, Brest, Douai, le Hâvre, Lille, le Mans, +Orléans, Pau, Poitiers, Toulon and Verdun.</p> <p>The catalogues of the greater part of the municipal libraries are -printed. Especially valuable is the <i>Catalogues des MSS. des bibliothèques -de Paris et des Départements</i>, which began to appear in 1885; +printed. Especially valuable is the <i>Catalogues des MSS. des bibliothèques +de Paris et des Départements</i>, which began to appear in 1885; the MSS. of Paris fill 18 octavo volumes, and those of the provinces 50.</p> <p>The libraries of the provincial universities, thanks to their reorganization in 1882 and to the care exhibited by the general inspectors, are greatly augmented. Aix has 74,658 vols.; Alger 160,489; -Besançon 24,275; Bordeaux 216,278; Caen 127,542; Clermont +Besançon 24,275; Bordeaux 216,278; Caen 127,542; Clermont 173,000; Dijon 117,524; Grenoble 127,400; Lille 215,427; Lyons 425,624; Marseilles 53,763; Montpellier 210,938; Nancy 139,036; Poitiers 180,000; Rennes 166,427; Toulouse 232,000.</p> @@ -11566,38 +11527,38 @@ Poitiers 180,000; Rennes 166,427; Toulouse 232,000.</p> 7,757,917 vols. The purely scholastic libraries have decreased; in 1902 there were 2674 libraries with 1,034,132 vols., whilst after the reorganization (Circulaire of March 14, 1904) there -were only 1131 with 573,279 vols. The Société Franklin pour la -propagation des bibliothèques populaires et militaires distributed +were only 1131 with 573,279 vols. The Société Franklin pour la +propagation des bibliothèques populaires et militaires distributed among the libraries which it controls 55,185 vols., between the years 1900 and 1909.</p> <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Information has been given for this account by M. Albert Maire, librarian at the Sorbonne. See also the following -works:—<i>Bibliothèque Nationale:</i> I. <i>Bâtiments, collections, organisation, -département des estampes, département des médailles et antiques</i>, par -Henri Marcel, Henri Bouchot et Ernest Babelon. II. <i>Le Département -des imprimés et la section de géographie. Le Département des +works:—<i>Bibliothèque Nationale:</i> I. <i>Bâtiments, collections, organisation, +département des estampes, département des médailles et antiques</i>, par +Henri Marcel, Henri Bouchot et Ernest Babelon. II. <i>Le Département +des imprimés et la section de géographie. Le Département des manuscrits</i>, par Paul Marchal et Camille Couderc (Paris, 1907, 2 -vols); Félix Chambon, <i>Notes sur la bibliothèque de l’Université de -Paris de 1763 à 1905</i> (Ganat, 1905); Fosseyeux, <i>La Bibliothèque -des hôpitaux de Paris</i> (Revue des bibliothèques, t. 18, 1908); Alfred -Franklin, <i>Guide des savants, des littérateurs et des artistes dans les -bibliothèques de Paris</i> (Paris, 1908); <i>Instruction du 7 Mars 1899 sur -l’organisation des bibliothèques militaires</i> (Paris, 1899); Henri -Jadart, <i>Les Anciennes bibliothèques de Reims, leur sort en 1790-1791 -et la formation de la bibliothèque publique</i> (Reims, 1891); Henry -Marcel, <i>Rapport adressé au Ministre de l’Instruction Publique, sur -l’ensemble des services de la bibliothèque nationale en 1905</i> (Journal -Officiel, 1906); Henry Martin, <i>Histoire de la bibliothèque de l’Arsenal</i> -(Paris, 1899); E. Morel, <i>Le Développement des bibliothèques publiques</i> -(Paris, 1909); Théod. Mortreuil, <i>La Bibliothèque nationale, son -origine et ses accroissements; notice historique</i> (Paris, 1878); Abbé -L. V. Pécheur, <i>Histoire des bibliothèques publiques du département de -l’Aisne existant à Soissons, Laon et Saint-Quentin</i> (Soissons, 1884); -M. Poète, E. Beaurepaire and E. Clouzot, <i>Une visite à la bibliothèque -de la ville de Paris</i> (Paris, 1907); E. de Saint-Albin, <i>Les Bibliothèques +vols); Félix Chambon, <i>Notes sur la bibliothèque de l’Université de +Paris de 1763 à 1905</i> (Ganat, 1905); Fosseyeux, <i>La Bibliothèque +des hôpitaux de Paris</i> (Revue des bibliothèques, t. 18, 1908); Alfred +Franklin, <i>Guide des savants, des littérateurs et des artistes dans les +bibliothèques de Paris</i> (Paris, 1908); <i>Instruction du 7 Mars 1899 sur +l’organisation des bibliothèques militaires</i> (Paris, 1899); Henri +Jadart, <i>Les Anciennes bibliothèques de Reims, leur sort en 1790-1791 +et la formation de la bibliothèque publique</i> (Reims, 1891); Henry +Marcel, <i>Rapport adressé au Ministre de l’Instruction Publique, sur +l’ensemble des services de la bibliothèque nationale en 1905</i> (Journal +Officiel, 1906); Henry Martin, <i>Histoire de la bibliothèque de l’Arsenal</i> +(Paris, 1899); E. Morel, <i>Le Développement des bibliothèques publiques</i> +(Paris, 1909); Théod. Mortreuil, <i>La Bibliothèque nationale, son +origine et ses accroissements; notice historique</i> (Paris, 1878); Abbé +L. V. Pécheur, <i>Histoire des bibliothèques publiques du département de +l’Aisne existant à Soissons, Laon et Saint-Quentin</i> (Soissons, 1884); +M. Poète, E. Beaurepaire and E. Clouzot, <i>Une visite à la bibliothèque +de la ville de Paris</i> (Paris, 1907); E. de Saint-Albin, <i>Les Bibliothèques municipales de la ville de Paris</i> (Paris, 1896); B. Subercaze, -<i>Les Bibliothèques populaires, scolaires et pédagogiques</i> (Paris, 1892).</p> +<i>Les Bibliothèques populaires, scolaires et pédagogiques</i> (Paris, 1892).</p> </div> <p class="pt1 center"><i>Germany</i> (<i>with Austria-Hungary and Switzerland</i>).</p> @@ -11652,7 +11613,7 @@ every book published within the royal territories, and it has received many valuable accessions by purchase and otherwise. It now includes 1,230,000 printed vols. and over 30,000 MSS. The amount yearly expended upon binding and the acquisition of books, &c., is -£11,326. The catalogues are in manuscript, and include two general +£11,326. The catalogues are in manuscript, and include two general alphabetical catalogues, the one in volumes, the other on slips, as well as a systematic catalogue in volumes. The following annual printed catalogues are issued: <i>Verzeichnis der aus der neu erschienenen @@ -11672,7 +11633,7 @@ very remarkable and form the richest collection in the world as regards autographs. The building, erected about 1780 by Frederick the Great, has long been too small, and a new one was completed in 1909. The building occupies the whole space between the four -streets: Unter den Linden, Dorotheenstrasse, Universitätsstrasse +streets: Unter den Linden, Dorotheenstrasse, Universitätsstrasse and Charlottenstrasse, and besides the Royal Library, houses the University Library and the Academy of Sciences. The conditions as to the use of the collections are, as in most German libraries, very @@ -11687,7 +11648,7 @@ he can conveniently use them. In 1908-1909 264,000 vols. were used in the reading-rooms, 312,000 were lent inside Berlin, and 32,000 outside. There is a regular system of exchange between the Royal Library and a great number of Prussian libraries. It is the same in -Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden; the oldest system is that between +Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden; the oldest system is that between Darmstadt and Giessen (dating from 1837). There is either no charge for carriage to the borrower or the cost is very small. The reading-room and magazine hall are, with the exception of Sundays @@ -11700,7 +11661,7 @@ the <i>Gesamtkatalog der Preussischen wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken</i> University Libraries in one general catalogue upon slips), the Auskunftsbureau der Deutschen Bibliotheken (bureau to give information where any particular book may be consulted), and the -Kommission für den Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (to draw up a +Kommission für den Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (to draw up a complete catalogue of books printed before 1500).</p> <p>The University Library (1831) numbers 220,000 vols. together with @@ -11711,7 +11672,7 @@ to receive a copy of every work published in the province of Brandenburg.</p> <p>Some of the governmental libraries are important, especially those of the Statistisches Landesamt (184,000 vols.); Reichstag (181,000 vols.); Patent-Amt (118,000 vols.); Haus der Abgeordneten (100,000 -vols.); Auswärtiges-Amt (118,000 vols.).</p> +vols.); Auswärtiges-Amt (118,000 vols.).</p> <p>The public library of Berlin contains 102,000 vols.; connected therewith 28 municipal Volksbibliotheken and 14 municipal reading-rooms. @@ -11719,14 +11680,14 @@ The 28 Volksbibliotheken contain (1908) 194,000 vols.</p> <p>The Prussian university libraries outside Berlin include Bonn (332,000 printed vols., 1500 MSS.); Breslau (330,000 printed vols., -3700 MSS.); Göttingen, from its foundation in 1736/7 the best +3700 MSS.); Göttingen, from its foundation in 1736/7 the best administered library of the 18th century (552,000 printed vols., 6800 MSS.); Greifswald (200,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.); Halle (261,000 printed vols., 2000 MSS.); Kiel (278,000 printed vols., -2400 MSS.); Königsberg (287,000 printed vols., 1500 MSS.); -Marburg (231,000 printed vols, and about 800 MSS.); Münster +2400 MSS.); Königsberg (287,000 printed vols., 1500 MSS.); +Marburg (231,000 printed vols, and about 800 MSS.); Münster (191,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.). Under provincial administration -are the Königliche and Provinzialbibliothek at Hanover (203,000 +are the Königliche and Provinzialbibliothek at Hanover (203,000 printed vols., 4000 MSS.); the Landesbibliothek at Cassel (230,000 printed vols., 4400 MSS.); and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Bibliothek at Posen (163,000 printed vols.). A number of the larger towns possess @@ -11749,7 +11710,7 @@ of J. J. Fugger. The number of printed vols, is estimated at about incunabula, many of them being derived from the libraries of over 150 monasteries closed in 1803. The oriental MSS. are numerous and valuable, and include the library of Martin Haug. The amount -annually spent upon books and binding is £5000. The catalogues +annually spent upon books and binding is £5000. The catalogues of the printed books are in manuscript, and include (1) a general alphabetical catalogue, (2) an alphabetical repertorium of each of the 195 subdivisions of the library, (3) biographical and other subject @@ -11768,12 +11729,12 @@ number of vols. amounts to 550,000; the MSS. number 2000. Forty-six Munich libraries are described in Schwenke’s <i>Adressbuch</i>, 15 of which possessed in 1909 about 2,000,000 printed vols. and about 60,000 MSS. After the two mentioned above the most noteworthy -is the Königlich Bayrische Armee-Bibliothek (100,000 +is the Königlich Bayrische Armee-Bibliothek (100,000 printed vols., 1000 MSS.).</p> <p>The chief Bavarian libraries outside Munich are the Royal Library at Bamberg (350,000 vols., 4300 MSS.) and the University Library at -Würzburg (390,000 vols., 1500 MSS.); both include rich monastic +Würzburg (390,000 vols., 1500 MSS.); both include rich monastic libraries. The University Library at Erlangen has 237,000 vols. The Staats-Kreis and Stadtbibliothek at Augsburg owns 200,000 vols., and 2000 MSS.; Nuremberg has two great collections, the @@ -11783,7 +11744,7 @@ Bibliothek des Germanischen National-museums (250,000 vols., <p>In 1906 there were in Dresden 78 public libraries with about 1,495,000 vols. The Royal Public Library in the Japanese Palace was founded in the 16th century. Among its numerous -acquisitions have been the library of Count Bünau in +acquisitions have been the library of Count Bünau in <span class="sidenote">Dresden.</span> 1764, and the MSS. of Ebert. Special attention is devoted to history and literature. The library possesses more than 520,000 vols. (1909); @@ -11798,7 +11759,7 @@ Statistischen Landes-Amtes, has 120,000 vols.</p> <p>Leipzig is well equipped with libraries; that of the University has 550,000 vols. and 6500 MSS. The Bibliothek des Reichsgerichts has -151,000 vols., the Pädagogische Central-Bibliothek der Comenius-Stiftung +151,000 vols., the Pädagogische Central-Bibliothek der Comenius-Stiftung 150,000 vols., and the Stadtbibliothek 125,000 vols., with 1500 MSS.</p> @@ -11807,16 +11768,16 @@ in 1765, has grown so rapidly that it now possesses about 374,000 vols. of printed works and 5300 MSS. There is a famous collection of Bibles, containing over 7200 vols. The <span class="sidenote">Stuttgart.</span> -annual expenditure devoted to books and binding is £2475. The -library also enjoys the copy-privilege in Württemberg. The annual +annual expenditure devoted to books and binding is £2475. The +library also enjoys the copy-privilege in Württemberg. The annual number of borrowers is over 2600, who use nearly 29,000 vols. The number issued in the reading-room is 41,000. The number of parcels despatched from Stuttgart is nearly 23,000. Admission is also gladly granted to the Royal Private Library, founded in 1810, which contains about 137,000 vols.</p> -<p>Of the other libraries of Württemberg the University Library of -Tübingen (500,000 vols. and 4100 MSS.) need only be noted.</p> +<p>Of the other libraries of Württemberg the University Library of +Tübingen (500,000 vols. and 4100 MSS.) need only be noted.</p> <p>The Grand-ducal Library of Darmstadt was established by the grand-duke Louis I. in 1819, on the basis of the still older @@ -11855,21 +11816,21 @@ MSS. from monastic collections. It numbers about oriental MSS., chiefly collected by Seetzen, and forming one-half of the collection, is one of the best in existence.</p> -<p>The Ducal Library at Wolfenbüttel, founded in the second half +<p>The Ducal Library at Wolfenbüttel, founded in the second half of the 16th century by Duke Julius, was made over to the university of Helmstedt in 1614, whence the most important treasures were -returned to Wolfenbüttel in the 19th century; it now numbers +returned to Wolfenbüttel in the 19th century; it now numbers 300,000 vols., 7400 MSS.</p> <p>The chief libraries of the Hanse towns are: Bremen (Stadtbibliothek, -141,000 vols.), and Lübeck (Stadtbibliothek, 121,000 +141,000 vols.), and Lübeck (Stadtbibliothek, 121,000 vols.); the most important being the Stadtbibliothek at Hamburg, made public since 1648 (383,000 vols., 7300 MSS., among them many Mexican). Hamburg has also in the Kommerzbibliothek (120,000 vols.) a valuable trade collection, and the largest Volksbibliothek <span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span> (about 100,000 vols.) after that at Berlin. Alsace-Lorraine has the -most recently formed of the great German collections—the Universitäts- +most recently formed of the great German collections—the Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek at Strassburg, which, though founded only in 1871 to replace that which had been destroyed in the siege, already ranks amongst the largest libraries of the empire. @@ -11894,7 +11855,7 @@ greatly added to the wealth of the collection, including a not inconsiderable portion of the dispersed library of Corvinus. Since 1808 the library has also been entitled to the copy-privilege in respect of all books published in the empire. The sum -devoted to the purchase and binding of books is £6068 annually. +devoted to the purchase and binding of books is £6068 annually. The number of printed vols. is 1,000,000; 8000 incunabula. The MSS. amount to 27,000, with 100,000 papyri of the collection of Archduke Rainer. The main library apartment is one of the @@ -11923,7 +11884,7 @@ incunabula and 25,000 MSS. The oldest of them, and the oldest in Austria, is that of the monastery of St Peter at Salzburg, which was established by Archbishop Arno (785-821). It includes 70,000 vols., nearly 1500 incunabula. The three next in point of antiquity are -Kremsmünster (100,000), Admont (86,000) and Melk (70,000), all of +Kremsmünster (100,000), Admont (86,000) and Melk (70,000), all of them dating from the 11th century. Many of the librarians of these monastic libraries are trained in the great Vienna libraries. There is no official training as in Prussia and Bavaria.</p> @@ -11932,10 +11893,10 @@ There is no official training as in Prussia and Bavaria.</p> <p>Information about income, administration, accessions, &c., of the chief libraries in the Hungarian kingdom, are given in the Hungarian <i>Statistical Year Book</i> annually. The largest -library in Hungary is the Széchenyi-Nationalbibliothek +library in Hungary is the Széchenyi-Nationalbibliothek <span class="sidenote">Hungary.</span> at Budapest, founded in 1802 by the gift of the library of Count -Franz Széchenyi. It contains 400,000 printed vols., 16,000 MSS., +Franz Széchenyi. It contains 400,000 printed vols., 16,000 MSS., and has a remarkable collection of Hungarica. The University Library of Budapest includes 273,000 printed books and more than 2000 MSS. Since 1897 there has been in Hungary a Chief @@ -11969,7 +11930,7 @@ general catalogue of all the libraries of the republic. A valuable co-operative work is their treatment of Helvetiana. All the literature since 1848 is collected by the Landes-Bibliothek at Berne, established in 1895 for this special object. The older -literature is brought together in the Bürgerbibliothek at Lucerne, +literature is brought together in the Bürgerbibliothek at Lucerne, for which it has a government grant. The monastic libraries of St Gall and Einsiedeln date respectively from the years 830 and 946, and are of great historical and literary interest.</p> @@ -11979,15 +11940,15 @@ and 946, and are of great historical and literary interest.</p> Professor Dr A. Hortzschansky, librarian of the Royal Library, Berlin. See also <i>Adressbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken</i> by Paul Schwenke (Leipzig, 1893); <i>Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken</i> -(Leipzig, 1902-1910); <i>Berliner Bibliothekenführer</i>, by P. Schwenke +(Leipzig, 1902-1910); <i>Berliner Bibliothekenführer</i>, by P. Schwenke and A. Hortzschansky (Berlin, 1906); A. Hortzschansky, <i>Die K. -Bibliothek zu Berlin</i> (Berlin, 1908); Ed. Zarncke, <i>Leipziger Bibliothekenführer</i> +Bibliothek zu Berlin</i> (Berlin, 1908); Ed. Zarncke, <i>Leipziger Bibliothekenführer</i> (Leipzig, 1909); J. Bohatta and M. Holzmann, <i>Adressbuch -der Bibliotheken der österreich-ungarischen Monarchie</i> (Vienna, 1900); -Ri. Kukula, <i>Die österreichischen Studienbibliotheken</i> (1905); A. Hübl, -<i>Die österreichischen Klosterbibliotheken in den Jahren 1848-1908</i> (1908); +der Bibliotheken der österreich-ungarischen Monarchie</i> (Vienna, 1900); +Ri. Kukula, <i>Die österreichischen Studienbibliotheken</i> (1905); A. Hübl, +<i>Die österreichischen Klosterbibliotheken in den Jahren 1848-1908</i> (1908); P. Gulyas, <i>Das ungarische Oberinspektorat der Museen und Bibliotheken</i> -(1909); <i>Die über 10,000 Bände zählenden öffentlichen-Bibliotheken +(1909); <i>Die über 10,000 Bände zählenden öffentlichen-Bibliotheken Ungarns, im Jahre 1908</i> (Budapest, 1910); H. Escher, “Bibliothekswesen” in <i>Handbuch der Schweizer Volkswirtschaft</i>, vol. i. (1903).</p> </div> @@ -12152,7 +12113,7 @@ library grew with uninterrupted prosperity, but it was to undergo a severe blow at the end of the 18th century. In 1798, as a sequel to the Treaty of Tolentino, 500 MSS. picked from the most valuable of the different collections were sent to Paris -by the victorious French to enrich the Bibliothèque Nationale +by the victorious French to enrich the Bibliothèque Nationale and other libraries. These, however, were chiefly restored in 1815. Most of the Palatine MSS., which formed part of the plunder, found their way back to the university of Heidelberg. @@ -12286,7 +12247,7 @@ economics and administration.</p> and contains some valuable manuscripts, including a Latin Bible of the 8th century attributed to Alcuin, and some inedited writings of Baronius. It now contains 28,000 vols. and 2315 MSS. Since 1884 it -has been in the custody of the R. Società Romana di Storia Patria. +has been in the custody of the R. Società Romana di Storia Patria. The Biblioteca Lancisiana, founded in 1711 by G. M. Lancisi, is valuable for its medical collections.</p> @@ -12438,7 +12399,7 @@ Palazzo della Zecca (The Mint).</p> <p>Among the university libraries under government control some deserve special notice. First in historical importance comes the -Biblioteca della Università at Bologna, founded by the +Biblioteca della Università at Bologna, founded by the naturalist U. Aldrovandi, who bequeathed by his will in <span class="sidenote">University libraries.</span> 1605 to the senate of Bologna his collection of 3800 @@ -12459,7 +12420,7 @@ in the library, which is remarkable likewise for the number of early editions and Aldines which it contains. A collection of drawings by Agostino Caracci is another special feature of worth. The grand hall with its fine furniture in walnut wood merits particular attention. -The Biblioteca della Università at Naples was established by Joachim +The Biblioteca della Università at Naples was established by Joachim Murat in 1812 in the buildings of Monte Oliveto, and has thence been sometimes called the “Biblioteca Gioacchino.” Later it was transferred to the Royal University of studies, and was opened to the @@ -12590,9 +12551,9 @@ conquerors of Italy had become christianized, comprises nothing but MSS., all of great antiquity and value. Amongst them is an Evangeliarium S. Eusebii in Latin, supposed to be of the 4th century; also the famous codex containing the Anglo-Saxon homilies which have -been published by the Ælfric Society.</p> +been published by the Ælfric Society.</p> -<p>The Biblioteca del Monastero della S. Trinità, at La Cava dei +<p>The Biblioteca del Monastero della S. Trinità , at La Cava dei Tirreni in the province of Salerno, is said to date from the foundation of the abbey itself (beginning of the 11th century). It contains only some 10,000 vols., but these include a @@ -12622,7 +12583,7 @@ Bertoliana (1708), local literature, archives of religious corporations, <p>Popular libraries have now been largely developed in Italy, chiefly through private or municipal enterprise; they enjoy a small state -subvention of £1000. The government report for 1908 stated that +subvention of £1000. The government report for 1908 stated that 319 communes possessed <i>biblioteche popolari</i> numbering altogether 415. Of these, 313 were established by municipalities, 113 by individuals, 8 by business houses, 80 by working men’s societies and @@ -12761,7 +12722,7 @@ of the library of the Escorial (<i>q.v.</i>) has been given elsewhere. In to Madrid, but when it was returned by Ferdinand 10,000 vols. were missing. There are now about 40,000 printed vols. The Arabic MSS. have been described by M. Casiri, 1760-1770; and a catalogue -of the Greek codices by Müller was issued at the expense of the French +of the Greek codices by Müller was issued at the expense of the French government in 1848. There is a MS. catalogue of the printed books. Permission to study at the Escorial, which is one of the royal private libraries, must be obtained by special application. The Biblioteca @@ -12815,13 +12776,13 @@ libraries after the fashion of the municipal libraries of the United Kingdom and America.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The national library of Belgium is the Bibliothèque Royale at +<p>The national library of Belgium is the Bibliothèque Royale at Brussels, of which the basis may be said to consist of the famous -Bibliothèque des ducs de Bourgogne, the library of the +Bibliothèque des ducs de Bourgogne, the library of the Austrian sovereigns of the Low Countries, which had <span class="sidenote">Belgium.</span> gradually accumulated during three centuries. After suffering many -losses from thieves and fire, in 1772 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne +losses from thieves and fire, in 1772 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne received considerable augmentations from the libraries of the suppressed order of Jesuits, and was thrown open to the public. On the occupation of Brussels by the French in 1794 a number of books @@ -12830,45 +12791,45 @@ majority were returned in 1815); in 1795 the remainder were formed into a public library under the care of La Serna Santander, who was also town librarian, and who was followed by van Hulthem. At the end of the administration of van Hulthem a large part of the precious -collections of the Bollandists was acquired. In 1830 the Bibliothèque +collections of the Bollandists was acquired. In 1830 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne was added to the state archives, and the whole made available for students. Van Hulthem died in 1832, leaving one of the most important private libraries in Europe, described by Voisin in <i>Bibliotheca Hulthemiana</i> (Brussels, 1836), 5 vols., and extending to 60,000 printed vols, and 1016 MSS., mostly relating to Belgian history. The collection was purchased by the government in 1837, -and, having been added to the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne (open -since 1772) and the Bibliothèque de la Ville (open since 1794), -formed what has since been known as the Bibliothèque Royale de +and, having been added to the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne (open +since 1772) and the Bibliothèque de la Ville (open since 1794), +formed what has since been known as the Bibliothèque Royale de Belgique. The printed volumes now number over 600,000 with 30,000 MSS., 105,000 prints and 80,000 coins and medals. The special collections, each with a printed catalogue, consist of the -Fonds van Hulthem, for national history; the Fonds Fétis, for -music; the Fonds Goethals, for genealogy; and the Fonds Müller, +Fonds van Hulthem, for national history; the Fonds Fétis, for +music; the Fonds Goethals, for genealogy; and the Fonds Müller, for physiology. The catalogue of the MSS. has been partly printed, and catalogues of accessions and other departments are also in course of publication. There are libraries attached to most of the departments of the government, the ministry of war having 120,000 vols. and the ministry of the interior, 15,000 vols. An interesting library -is the Bibliothèque Collective des Sociétés Savantes founded in 1906 +is the Bibliothèque Collective des Sociétés Savantes founded in 1906 to assemble in one place the libraries of all the learned societies of Brussels. It contains about 40,000 vols. which have been catalogued -on cards. The Bibliothèque du Conservatoire royal de Musique +on cards. The Bibliothèque du Conservatoire royal de Musique (1832) contains 12,000 vols, and 6000 dramatic works. The popular or communal libraries of Brussels contain about 30,000 vols. and those of the adjoining suburbs about 50,000 vols., most of which are distributed through the primary and secondary schools. At Antwerp the Stadt Bibliothek (1805) has now 70,000 vols., and is partly supported by subscriptions and endowments. The valuable collection -of books in the Musée Plantin-Moretus (1640) should also be +of books in the Musée Plantin-Moretus (1640) should also be mentioned. It contains 11,000 MSS. and 15,000 printed books, comprising the works issued by the Plantin family and many 15th-century books.</p> <p>The University Library of Ghent, known successively as the -Bibliothèque de l’École Centrale and Bibliothèque Publique de la +Bibliothèque de l’École Centrale and Bibliothèque Publique de la Ville, was founded upon the old libraries of the Conseil de Flandres, -of the College des Échevins, and of many suppressed religious communities. +of the College des Échevins, and of many suppressed religious communities. It was declared public in 1797, and formally opened in 1798. On the foundation of the university in 1817 the town placed the collection at its disposal, and the library has since remained under @@ -12877,32 +12838,32 @@ are important special collections on archaeology, Netherlands literature, national history, books printed in Flanders, and 23,000 historical pamphlets of the 16th and 17th centuries. The main catalogue is in MS. on cards. There are printed catalogues of the works on jurisprudence -(1839), and of the MSS. (1852). The Bibliothèque de -l’Université Catholique of Louvain is based upon the collection of +(1839), and of the MSS. (1852). The Bibliothèque de +l’Université Catholique of Louvain is based upon the collection of Beyerlinck, who bequeathed it to his alma mater in 1627; this example was followed by Jacques Romain, professor of medicine, but the proper organization of the library began in 1636. There are -now said to be 211,000 vols. The Bibliothèque de l’Université of -Liége dates from 1817, when on the foundation of the university -the old Bibliothèque de la Ville was added to it. There are now -350,000 printed vols., pamphlets, MSS., &c. The Liége collection +now said to be 211,000 vols. The Bibliothèque de l’Université of +Liége dates from 1817, when on the foundation of the university +the old Bibliothèque de la Ville was added to it. There are now +350,000 printed vols., pamphlets, MSS., &c. The Liége collection (of which a printed catalogue appeared in 3 vols. 8vo., 1872), bequeathed by M. Ulysse Capitaine, extends to 12,061 vols. and -pamphlets. There are various printed catalogues. The Bibliothèques -Populaires of Liége established in 1862, now number five, and contain +pamphlets. There are various printed catalogues. The Bibliothèques +Populaires of Liége established in 1862, now number five, and contain among them 50,000 vols. which are circulated to the extent of -130,000 per annum among the school children. The Bibliothèque +130,000 per annum among the school children. The Bibliothèque publique of Bruges (1798) contains 145,600 printed books and MSS., housed in a very artistic building, once the Tonlieu or douane, 1477. There are communal libraries at Alost, Arlon (1842), Ath (1842), Courtrai, Malines (1864), Mons (1797), Namur (1800), Ostend (1861), -Tournai (1794, housed in the Hôtel des Anciens Prêtres, 1755), +Tournai (1794, housed in the Hôtel des Anciens Prêtres, 1755), Ypres (1839) and elsewhere, all conducted on the same system as the French communal libraries. Most of them range in size from 5000 to 40,000 vols, and they are open as a rule only part of the day. Every small town has a similar library, and a complete list of them, together with much other information, will be found in the <i>Annuaire -de la Belgique, scientifique, artistique et littéraire</i> (Brussels 1908 and +de la Belgique, scientifique, artistique et littéraire</i> (Brussels 1908 and later issues).</p> <p>The national library of Holland is the Koninklijke Bibliotheek at Hague, which was established in 1798, when it was decided to @@ -12938,7 +12899,7 @@ rich in the national history and literature. The Arabic and Oriental MSS. known as the Legatum Warnerianum are of great value and interest; and the collection of maps bequeathed in 1870 by J. J. Bodel Nyenhuis is also noteworthy. The library is contained in a -building which was formerly a church of the Béguines, adapted in +building which was formerly a church of the Béguines, adapted in 1860 somewhat after the style of the British Museum. The catalogues (one alphabetical and one classified) are on slips, the titles being printed. A catalogue of books and MSS. was printed in 1716, one of @@ -13016,7 +12977,7 @@ founder was Frederick III. (1648-1670); to him is mainly due the famous collection of Icelandic literature and the acquisition of Tycho Brahe’s MSS. The present building (in the Christiansborg castle) was begun in 1667. Among notable accessions may be mentioned -the collections of C. Reitzer, the count of Danneskjöld (8000 vols. +the collections of C. Reitzer, the count of Danneskjöld (8000 vols. and 500 MSS.) and Count de Thott; the last bequeathed 6039 vols. printed before 1531, and the remainder of his books, over 100,000 vols., was eventually purchased. In 1793 the library was opened to @@ -13036,7 +12997,7 @@ in 1728, and re-established shortly afterwards. A copy of every Danish publication must be deposited here. The MSS. include the famous Arne-Magnean collection. There are now about 400,000 vols. in this library. The Statsbiblioteket of Aarhus (1902) possesses -about 200,000 vols. and the Landsbókasafn Islands (National +about 200,000 vols. and the Landsbókasafn Islands (National Library) of Reykjavik, Iceland, has about 50,000 printed books and 5500 MSS. In Copenhagen there are 11 popular libraries supported in part by the city, and there are at least 50 towns in the provinces @@ -13075,7 +13036,7 @@ Gustavus II., that formed by Christina is at the Vatican, and the library brought together by Charles X. was destroyed by fire in 1697. <span class="sidenote">Sweden.</span> The present library was organized shortly afterwards. -The Benzelstjerna-Engeström Library (14,500 printed +The Benzelstjerna-Engeström Library (14,500 printed vols. and 1200 MSS.) rich in materials for Swedish history, is now annexed to it. Natural history, medicine and mathematics are left to other libraries. Among the MSS. the <i>Codex Aureus</i> of the 6th or @@ -13227,7 +13188,7 @@ missing. Hsiao Wu (139-86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) formed the plan of Repo in which books might be stored, with officers to transcribe them. Liu Hsiang (80-9 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was specially appointed to classify the literature and form a library. His task was completed by his son, -and the <i>resumé</i> of their labours is a detailed catalogue with valuable +and the <i>resumé</i> of their labours is a detailed catalogue with valuable notes describing 11,332 “sections” (volumes) by 625 authors. Similar national collections were formed by nearly every succeeding dynasty. The high estimation in which literature has always been @@ -13238,7 +13199,7 @@ temples. Chinese books are usually in several, and frequently in many volumes. The histories and encyclopaedias are mostly of vast dimensions. Collections of books are kept in wooden cupboards or on open shelves, placed on their sides, each set (<i>t’ao</i>) of volumes -(<i>pên</i>) being protected and held together by two thin wooden or +(<i>pên</i>) being protected and held together by two thin wooden or card boards, one forming the front cover (in a European book) and the other the back cover, joined by two cords or tapes running round the whole. By untying and tying these tapes the <i>t’ao</i> is opened and @@ -13279,7 +13240,7 @@ Municipal Library of Kyoto (1898) contains 46,000 vols. Other important municipal libraries in Japan are those at Akita in the province Of Ugo (1899), 47,000 vols., at Mito, province of Hitachi (1908), 25,000 vols., Narita, province of Shimosa (1901), 36,000 vols., chiefly -Buddhistic, Yamaguchi, province of Suó (1907), 23,000 vols. The +Buddhistic, Yamaguchi, province of Suó (1907), 23,000 vols. The libraries of the large temples often contain books of value to the philologist. Lending libraries of native and Chinese literature have existed in Japan from very early times.</p> @@ -13320,21 +13281,21 @@ establishment and place of publication: <i>The Library Journal</i> (Chicago, 1896); <i>The Library World</i> (London, 1898); <i>The Library Assistant</i> (1898); <i>The Library Association Record</i> (1899); <i>Library Work</i> (Minneapolis, U.S., 1906); <i>Bulletin of the American Library -Association</i> (Boston, 1907); <i>Revue des bibliothèques</i> (Paris, 1891); -<i>Bulletin des bibliothèques populaires</i> (Paris, 1906); <i>Courrier des -Bibliothèques</i> (Paris); <i>Bulletin de l’institut international de bibliographie</i> -(Brussels, 1895); <i>Revue des bibliothèques et archives de +Association</i> (Boston, 1907); <i>Revue des bibliothèques</i> (Paris, 1891); +<i>Bulletin des bibliothèques populaires</i> (Paris, 1906); <i>Courrier des +Bibliothèques</i> (Paris); <i>Bulletin de l’institut international de bibliographie</i> +(Brussels, 1895); <i>Revue des bibliothèques et archives de Belgique</i> (Brussels, 1903); <i>Tijdschrift voor <span class="correction" title="amended from boekund bibliothekwezen">boek- en bibliotheekwezen</span></i> (Hague, 1903); <i>De Boekzaal</i> (Hague, 1907); <i>Bogsamlingsbladet</i> (Copenhagen, 1906); <i>For Folke-og Barnboksamlinger</i> (Christiania, -1906); <i>Folkebibliotheksbladet</i> (Stockholm, 1903); <i>Zentralblatt für -Bibliothekswesen</i> (Leipzig, 1884); <i>Blätter für Volksbibliotheken und +1906); <i>Folkebibliotheksbladet</i> (Stockholm, 1903); <i>Zentralblatt für +Bibliothekswesen</i> (Leipzig, 1884); <i>Blätter für Volksbibliotheken und Lesehallen</i> (1899; occasional supplement to the above); <i>Bibliographie des Bibliotheks- und Buchwesens</i> (ed. by Adalbert Hortzschansky, 1904; issued in the <i>Zentralblatt</i>); <i>Jahrbuch der Deutschen Bibliotheken</i> (Leipzig, 1902); <i>Minerva. Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt</i> -(Strassburg, 1890); <i>Mitteilungen des österreichischen Vereins für -Bibliothekswesen</i> (Vienna, 1896); <i>Ceská Osvéta</i> (Novy Bydzov, +(Strassburg, 1890); <i>Mitteilungen des österreichischen Vereins für +Bibliothekswesen</i> (Vienna, 1896); <i>Ceská Osvéta</i> (Novy Bydzov, Bohemia, 1905); <i>Revista delle biblioteche e degli archivi</i> (Florence, 1890); <i>Bollettino delle biblioteche popolari</i> (Milan, 1907); <i>Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos Madrid</i> (1907); <i>The Gakuto</i> (Tokio, @@ -13344,12 +13305,12 @@ Japan, 1897).</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Menant, <i>Bibliothèque du palais de Ninive</i> (Paris, 1880).</p> +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Menant, <i>Bibliothèque du palais de Ninive</i> (Paris, 1880).</p> <p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Grote, <i>History of Greece</i>, iv. 37, following Becker.</p> <p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ritschl, <i>Die alexandrinischen Bibliotheken</i>, p. 22; <i>Opusc. phil.</i> -i. § 123.</p> +i. § 123.</p> <p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>N.A.</i> vi. 17.</p> @@ -13419,9 +13380,9 @@ old name was reintroduced by Diocletian, by whom Cyrenaica (detached from Crete) was divided into Marmarica (Libya inferior) in the east, and Cyrenaica (Libya superior) in the west. A further distinction into Libya interior and exterior is also -known. The former (<span class="grk" title="hê entós">ἡ ἐντός</span>) included the interior (known +known. The former (<span class="grk" title="hê entós">ἡ ἐντός</span>) included the interior (known and unknown) of the continent, as contrasted with the N. and -N.E. portion; the latter (<span class="grk" title="hê exô">ἡ ἔξω</span>, called also simply Libya, or +N.E. portion; the latter (<span class="grk" title="hê exô">ἡ ἔξω</span>, called also simply Libya, or <i>Libyae nomos</i>), between Egypt and Marmarica, was so called as having once formed an Egyptian “nome.” See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa, Roman</a></span>.</p> @@ -13541,7 +13502,7 @@ from its constituents; later Stahl did the same for three species. Later Bonnier (1886) succeeded in producing fertile thalli by sowing lichen spores and the appropriate algae upon sterile glass plates or portions of bark, and growing them in sterilized -air (fig. 1). Möller also in 1887 succeeded in growing small +air (fig. 1). Möller also in 1887 succeeded in growing small lichen-thalli without their algal constituent (gonidia) on nutritive solutions; in the case of <i>Calicium</i> pycnidia were actually produced under these conditions.</p> @@ -13832,7 +13793,7 @@ described by Neubner in the Caliciae.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80">After Sachs, from De Bary’s <i>Vergleichende Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze</i>, <i>Mycetozoen und Bacterien</i>, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.</td> -<td class="tcl f80">From <i>Beiträge zur Wissenschaftlichen Botanik</i>.</td></tr> +<td class="tcl f80">From <i>Beiträge zur Wissenschaftlichen Botanik</i>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Usnea barbata. (Mag. nearly 100 times.)</td> <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Section of Heteromerous @@ -13903,7 +13864,7 @@ the majority of spermatia appear to be functionless. In favour of the conidial view is the fact that in the case of <i>Collema</i> and a few other forms the spermatia have been made to germinate in artificial cultures, and in the -case of <i>Calicium parietinum</i> Möfler succeeded in producing a spermogonia +case of <i>Calicium parietinum</i> Möfler succeeded in producing a spermogonia bearing thallus from a spermatium. For the germination of the spermatia in nature there is only the observation of Hedlund, that in <i>Catillaria denigrata</i> and <i>C. prasena</i> a thallus may be derived @@ -13918,7 +13879,7 @@ fertilization takes place (see later in section on development of ascocarp). The resemblance of the spermatia and spermogonia to those of Uredineae should be pointed out, where also there is considerable evidence for their original sexual nature, though they appear in -that group to be functionless in all cases. The observations of Möller, +that group to be functionless in all cases. The observations of Möller, &c., on the germination cannot be assumed to negative the sexual hypothesis for the sexual cells of <i>Ulothrix</i> and <i>Ectocarpus</i>, for example <span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span> @@ -13953,7 +13914,7 @@ Bacterien</i>, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.</td></tr> alga is in all cases indicated by the letter <i>g</i>, the assailing hyphae by <i>h</i>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> -<p>A, <i>Pleurococcus</i>, Ag. (<i>Cystococcus</i>, Näg.) attacked by the germ-tube from a spore of <i>Physica parietina</i>.</p> +<p>A, <i>Pleurococcus</i>, Ag. (<i>Cystococcus</i>, Näg.) attacked by the germ-tube from a spore of <i>Physica parietina</i>.</p> <p>B, <i>Scytonema</i> from the thallus of <i>Stereocaulon famulosum</i>.</p></td> <td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> <p>C, <i>Nostoc</i> from the thallus of <i>Physma chalazanum</i>.</p> @@ -14011,7 +13972,7 @@ principal: (<i>a</i>) <i>peltate</i>, which are large, rounded, without any distinct thalline margin<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Usnea</i>, <i>Peltigera</i>); (<i>b</i>) <i>lecanorine</i>, or scutelliform, which are orbicular and surrounded by a distinct, more or less prominent thalline margin (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Parmelia</i>, <i>Lecanora</i>), -having sometimes also in addition a proper one¹ (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Thelotrema</i>, +having sometimes also in addition a proper one¹ (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Thelotrema</i>, <i>Urceolaria</i>); (<i>c</i>) <i>lecideine</i>, or patelliform, which are typically orbicular, with only a proper margin (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Lecidea</i>), sometimes obsolete, and which are occasionally @@ -14400,7 +14361,7 @@ and CaCl respectively, and the presence or absence of the colour reactions are represented thus, K+, CaCl+, or K−, CaCl−. If the cortical layer should exhibit positive reaction and the medulla of the same species a negative reaction with both reagents, the -result is represented thus, K±CaCl±. If a reaction is only +result is represented thus, K±CaCl±. If a reaction is only produced after the consecutive addition of the two reagents, this is symbolized by K(CaCl)+. A solution of iodine is also used as a test owing to the blue or wine-red colour which the thallus, hymenium @@ -14516,7 +14477,7 @@ had a great repute as demulcents, febrifuges, astringents, tonics, purgatives and anthelmintics. The chief of those employed for one or other, and in some cases for several, of these purposes were <i>Cladonia pyxidata</i>, <i>Usnea barbata</i>, <i>Ramalina farinacea</i>, -<i>Evernia prunastri</i>, <i>Cetraria ìslandica</i>, <i>Sticla pulmonaria</i>, +<i>Evernia prunastri</i>, <i>Cetraria ìslandica</i>, <i>Sticla pulmonaria</i>, <i>Parmelia saxatilis</i>, <i>Xanthoria parietina</i> and <i>Pertusaria amara</i>. Others again were believed to be endowed with specific virtues, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Peltigera canina</i>, which formed the basis of the celebrated @@ -14769,28 +14730,28 @@ genera (not to speak of that of individual species) of lichens would necessarily far exceed available limits.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—General: Engler and Prantl, <i>Die natürlichen +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—General: Engler and Prantl, <i>Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien</i>, Teil I, Abt. 1 * where full literature will be found -up to 1898. M. Funfstuck, “Der gegenwärtige Stand der Flechtenkunde,” +up to 1898. M. Funfstuck, “Der gegenwärtige Stand der Flechtenkunde,” <i>Refer. Generalvers. d. deut. bot. Ges.</i> (1902). Dual Nature: -J. Baranetzky, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis des selbstständigen Lebens +J. Baranetzky, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis des selbstständigen Lebens der Flechtengonidien,” <i>Prings. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot.</i> vii. (1869); E. Bornet, “Recherches sur les gonidies des lichens,” <i>Ann. de sci. -nat. bot.</i>, 5 sér. n. 17 (1873); G. Bonnier, “Recherches sur la -synthèse des lichens,” <i>Ann. de sci. nat. bot.</i>, 7 sér. n. 9 (1889); +nat. bot.</i>, 5 sér. n. 17 (1873); G. Bonnier, “Recherches sur la +synthèse des lichens,” <i>Ann. de sci. nat. bot.</i>, 7 sér. n. 9 (1889); A. Famintzin and J. Baranetzky, “Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Gonidien u. Zoosporenbildung der Lichenen,” <i>Bot. Zeit.</i> (1867, p. 189, 1868, p. 169); S. Schwendener, <i>Die Algentypen der Flechtengonidien</i> -(Basel, 1869); A. Möller, <i>Über die Kultur flechtenbildender -Ascomyceten ohne Algen</i>. (Münster, 1887). Sexuality: E. Stahl, -<i>Beiträge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Flechten</i> (Leipzig, 1877); -G. Lindau, <i>Über Anlage und Entwickelung einiger Flechtenapothecien</i> -(Flora, 1888); E. Baur, “Zur Frage nach der Sexualität der -Collemaceae,” <i>Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges.</i> (1898); “Über Anlage und +(Basel, 1869); A. Möller, <i>Ãœber die Kultur flechtenbildender +Ascomyceten ohne Algen</i>. (Münster, 1887). Sexuality: E. Stahl, +<i>Beiträge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Flechten</i> (Leipzig, 1877); +G. Lindau, <i>Ãœber Anlage und Entwickelung einiger Flechtenapothecien</i> +(Flora, 1888); E. Baur, “Zur Frage nach der Sexualität der +Collemaceae,” <i>Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges.</i> (1898); “Ãœber Anlage und <span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span> Entwicklung einiger Flechtenapothecien” (<i>Flora</i>, Bd. 88, 1901); -“Untersuchungen über die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Flechtenapothecien,” -<i>Bot. Zeit.</i> (1904); O. V. Darbishire, “Über die Apothecium-entwickelung +“Untersuchungen über die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Flechtenapothecien,” +<i>Bot. Zeit.</i> (1904); O. V. Darbishire, “Ãœber die Apothecium-entwickelung der Flechte, Physcia pulverulenta,” <i>Nyl. Prings. Jahrb.</i> (Bd. 34, 1900). Chemistry.—W. Zopf, “Vergleichende Produkte,” <i>Beitr. z. bot. Centralbl.</i> (Bd. 14, 1903); <i>Die Flechtenstoffe</i> @@ -14906,7 +14867,7 @@ By the charter of James I. the market day was changed from Wednesday to Tuesday and Friday; the Tuesday market disappeared during the 19th century; the only existing fair is a small pleasure fair of ancient origin held on Ash-Wednesday; -the annual fête on Whit-Monday claims to date from the time +the annual fête on Whit-Monday claims to date from the time of Alfred. In the Civil Wars Lichfield was divided. The cathedral authorities with a certain following were for the king, but the townsfolk generally sided with the parliament, @@ -14952,7 +14913,7 @@ a corpse.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1742-1799), German physicist and satirical writer, was born at Oberramstadt, near -Darmstadt, on the 1st of July 1742. In 1763 he entered Göttingen +Darmstadt, on the 1st of July 1742. In 1763 he entered Göttingen university, where in 1769 he became extraordinary professor of physics, and six years later ordinary professor. This post he held till his death on the 24th of February 1799. As a physicist @@ -14960,7 +14921,7 @@ held till his death on the 24th of February 1799. As a physicist he is best known for his investigations in electricity, more especially as to the so-called Lichtenberg figures, which are fully described in two memoirs <i>Super nova methodo motum ac -naturam fluidi electrici investigandi</i> (Göttingen, 1777-1778). +naturam fluidi electrici investigandi</i> (Göttingen, 1777-1778). These figures, originally studied on account of the light they were supposed to throw on the nature of the electric fluid or fluids, have reference to the distribution of electricity over @@ -15000,27 +14961,27 @@ the German writers of the 18th century. His biting wit involved him in many controversies with well-known contemporaries, such as Lavater, whose science of physiognomy he ridiculed, and Voss, whose views on Greek pronunciation called forth a -powerful satire, <i>Über die Pronunciation der Schöpse des alten +powerful satire, <i>Ãœber die Pronunciation der Schöpse des alten Griechenlandes</i> (1782). In 1769 and again in 1774 he resided for some time in England and his <i>Briefe aus England</i> (1776-1778), with admirable descriptions of Garrick’s acting, are the most -attractive of his writings. He contributed to the <i>Göttinger -Taschenkalender</i> from 1778 onwards, and to the <i>Göttingisches +attractive of his writings. He contributed to the <i>Göttinger +Taschenkalender</i> from 1778 onwards, and to the <i>Göttingisches Magazin der Literatur und Wissenschaft</i>, which he edited for three years (1780-1782) with J. G. A. Forster. He also published -in 1794-1799 an <i>Ausführliche Erklärung der Hogarthschen +in 1794-1799 an <i>Ausführliche Erklärung der Hogarthschen Kupferstiche</i>.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Lichtenberg’s <i>Vermischte Schriften</i> were published by F. Kries in 9 vols. (1800-1805); new editions in 8 vols. (1844-1846 and 1867). Selections by E. Grisebach, <i>Lichtenbergs Gedanken und Maximen</i> -(1871); by F. Robertag (in Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> +(1871); by F. Robertag (in Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (vol. 141, 1886); and by A. Wilbrandt (1893). Lichtenberg’s -<i>Briefe</i> have been published in 3 vols, by C. Schüddekopf and A. +<i>Briefe</i> have been published in 3 vols, by C. Schüddekopf and A. Leitzmann (1900-1902); his <i>Aphorismen</i> by A. Leitzmann (3 vols., 1902-1906). See also R. M. Meyer, <i>Swift und Lichtenberg</i> (1886); -F. Lauchert, <i>Lichtenbergs schriftstellerische Tätigkeit</i> (1893); and A. +F. Lauchert, <i>Lichtenbergs schriftstellerische Tätigkeit</i> (1893); and A. Leitzmann, <i>Aus Lichtenbergs Nachlass</i> (1899).</p> </div> @@ -15030,7 +14991,7 @@ Leitzmann, <i>Aus Lichtenbergs Nachlass</i> (1899).</p> the west bank of the Rhine, enclosed by the Nahe, the Blies and the Glan, now belonging to the government district of Trier, Prussian Rhine province. The principality was constructed of -parts of the electorate of Trier, of Nassau-Saarbrücken and other +parts of the electorate of Trier, of Nassau-Saarbrücken and other districts, and lay between Rhenish Bavaria and the old Prussian province of the Rhine. Originally called the lordship of Baumholder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its elevation in @@ -15038,7 +14999,7 @@ it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its elevation in it was ceded by Prussia, in 1816, in accordance with terms agreed upon at the congress of Vienna. The duke, however, restored it to Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension -of £12,000 sterling. The area is about 210 sq. m.</p> +of £12,000 sterling. The area is about 210 sq. m.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -15151,7 +15112,7 @@ the tombs explored in 1898 belonged to the fourth period (700-500 the Sicels.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>, 1898, 305 seq.; <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, +<p>See <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>, 1898, 305 seq.; <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1902, 219.</p> </div> <div class="author">(T. As.)</div> @@ -15202,7 +15163,7 @@ games, and to the aediles at the games provided by them and the theatrical representations under their supervision.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>For the fullest account of the lictors, see Mommsen, <i>Römisches +<p>For the fullest account of the lictors, see Mommsen, <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, i. 355, 374 (3rd ed., 1887).</p> </div> @@ -15214,7 +15175,7 @@ from: (<i>a</i>) <i>ligare</i>, to bind or arrest a criminal; (<i>b</i>) <i>lice as convoking assemblies or haling offenders before the magistrate; (<i>c</i>) <i>licium</i>, the girdle with which (according to some) their toga was held up; (<i>d</i>) Plutarch (<i>Quaestiones Romanae</i>, 67), assuming an -older form <span class="grk" title="litôr">λιτωρ</span>, suggests an identification with <span class="grk" title="leitourgos">λειτουργός</span>, one +older form <span class="grk" title="litôr">λιτωρ</span>, suggests an identification with <span class="grk" title="leitourgos">λειτουργός</span>, one who performs a public office.</p> </div> @@ -15355,7 +15316,7 @@ opposition to the Church Discipline Act of 1874, and in his denunciation of the Bulgarian atrocities of 1876. In 1882 he resigned his professorship and utilized his thus increased leisure by travelling in Palestine and Egypt, and showed his interest -in the Old Catholic movement by visiting Döllinger at Munich. +in the Old Catholic movement by visiting Döllinger at Munich. In 1886 he became chancellor of St Paul’s, and it is said that he declined more than one offer of a bishopric. He died on the 9th of September 1890, in the full vigour of his intellect and at @@ -15399,7 +15360,7 @@ on such themes as Buddhism, Dante, &c.</p> <p><span class="bold">LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1833-1908), Norwegian novelist, was born on the 6th of November 1833 close to Hougsund (Eker), near Drammen. In 1838, his father being appointed -sheriff of Tromsö, the family removed to that Arctic town. +sheriff of Tromsö, the family removed to that Arctic town. Here the future novelist enjoyed an untrammelled childhood among the shipping of the little Nordland capital, and gained acquaintance with the wild seafaring life which he was afterwards @@ -15407,7 +15368,7 @@ to describe. In 1846 he was sent to the naval school at Frederiksvaern, but his extreme near-sight unfitted him for the service, and he was transferred to the Latin school at Bergen. In 1851 he went to the university of Christiania, where Ibsen -and Björnson were among his fellow-students. Jonas Lie, +and Björnson were among his fellow-students. Jonas Lie, however, showed at this time no inclination to literature. He pursued his studies as a lawyer, took his degrees in law in 1858, and settled down to practice as a solicitor in the little town @@ -15426,7 +15387,7 @@ Chicago, 1879), a novel, in 1872. His first great book, however, was <i>Lodsen og hans Hustru</i> (<i>The Pilot and his Wife</i>, 1874), which placed him at the head of Norwegian novelists; it was written in the little town of Rocca di Papa in the Albano mountains. -From that time Lie enjoyed, with Björnson and Ibsen, +From that time Lie enjoyed, with Björnson and Ibsen, a stipend as poet from the Norwegian government. Lie spent the next few years partly in Dresden, partly in Stuttgart, with frequent summer excursions to Berchtesgaden in the Bavarian @@ -15476,7 +15437,7 @@ stories, <i>Med Blyanten</i>, in 1890; and is also the author of various works on literary history. An elder son, Mons Lie (b. 1864), studied the violin in Paris, but turned to literature in 1894. Among his works are the plays <i>Tragedier om Kjaerlighed</i> (1897); <i>Lombardo and -Agrippina</i> (1898); <i>Don Juan</i> (1900); and the novels, <i>Sjöfareren</i> +Agrippina</i> (1898); <i>Don Juan</i> (1900); and the novels, <i>Sjöfareren</i> (1901); <i>Adam Ravn</i> (1903) and <i>I. Kvindensnet</i> (1904).</p> </div> <div class="author">(E. G.)</div> @@ -15508,7 +15469,7 @@ to a study of the foundations of geometry, considered from the standpoint of B. Riemann and H. von Helmholtz; and he intended to publish a systematic exposition of his geometrical investigations, in conjunction with Dr G. Scheffers, but only -one volume made its appearance (<i>Geometrie der Berührungstransformationen</i>, +one volume made its appearance (<i>Geometrie der Berührungstransformationen</i>, Leipzig, 1896). Lie was a foreign member of the Royal Society, as well as an honorary member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and the London Mathematical @@ -15524,7 +15485,7 @@ honour of the Lobatchewsky prize.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIEBER, FRANCIS<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1800-1872), German-American publicist, was born at Berlin on the 18th of March 1800. He served -with his two brothers under Blücher in the campaign of 1815, +with his two brothers under Blücher in the campaign of 1815, fighting at Ligny, Waterloo and Namur, where he was twice dangerously wounded. Shortly afterwards he was arrested for his political sentiments, the chief evidence against him @@ -15559,7 +15520,7 @@ of the United States in the Field</i>, which was promulgated by the Government in General Orders No. 100 of the war department. This code suggested to Bluntschli his codification of the law of nations, as may be seen in the preface to his <i>Droit International -Codifié</i>. During this period also Lieber wrote his <i>Guerilla +Codifié</i>. During this period also Lieber wrote his <i>Guerilla Parties with Reference to the Laws and Usages of War</i>. At the time of his death he was the umpire of the commission for the adjudication of Mexican claims. He died on the 2nd of October @@ -15612,7 +15573,7 @@ artificial pathos or melodramatic exaggeration. His first success was a medal awarded him for “An Asylum for Old Men” at the 1881 Salon. In 1884 he settled again in Berlin, where he became professor of the Academy in 1898. He became a member -of the Société nationale des Beaux Arts, of the Société royale +of the Société nationale des Beaux Arts, of the Société royale belge des Aquarellistes, and of the Cercle des Aquarellistes at the Hague. Liebermann is represented in most of the German and other continental galleries. The Berlin National @@ -15622,7 +15583,7 @@ Net-Menders”; the Hanover Gallery, the “Village Street in Holland.” “The Seamstress” is at the Dresden Gallery; the “Man on the Dunes” at Leipzig; “Dutch Orphan Girls” at Strassburg; “Beer-cellar at Brandenburg” at the Luxembourg -Museum in Paris, and the “Knöpflerinnen” in Venice. +Museum in Paris, and the “Knöpflerinnen” in Venice. His etchings are to be found in the leading print cabinets of Europe.</p> @@ -15666,9 +15627,9 @@ he subsequently complained that the contagion of the true knowledge and genuine studies,” had cost him two precious years of his life—and by the liberality of Louis I., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, was enabled to go to Paris. By the help -of L. J. Thénard he gained admission to the private laboratory +of L. J. Thénard he gained admission to the private laboratory of H. F. Gaultier de Claubry (1792-1873), professor of chemistry -at the École de Pharmacie, and soon afterwards, by the influence +at the École de Pharmacie, and soon afterwards, by the influence of A. von Humboldt, to that of Gay-Lussac, where in 1824 he concluded his investigations on the composition of the fulminates. It was on Humboldt’s advice that he determined to become a @@ -15720,23 +15681,23 @@ In this domain his first research was on the fulminates of mercury and silver, and his study of these bodies led him to the discovery of the isomerism of cyanic and fulminic acids, for the composition of fulminic acid as found by him was the same as that -of cyanic acid, as found by F. Wöhler, and it became necessary to +of cyanic acid, as found by F. Wöhler, and it became necessary to admit them to be two bodies which differed in properties, though of the same percentage composition. Further work on cyanogen and connected substances yielded a great number of interesting derivatives, and he described an improved method for the manufacture of potassium cyanide, an agent which has since proved of enormous value in metallurgy and the arts. In 1832 he published, -jointly with Wöhler, one of the most famous papers in the history +jointly with Wöhler, one of the most famous papers in the history of chemistry, that on the oil of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde), wherein it was shown that the radicle benzoyl might be regarded as forming an unchanging constituent of a long series of compounds obtained from oil of bitter almonds, throughout which it behaved like an element. Berzelius hailed this discovery as marking the dawn of a new era in organic chemistry, and proposed for benzoyl -the names “Proïn” or “Orthrin” (from <span class="grk" title="prôi">πρωί</span> and <span class="grk" title="örthrus">ὄρθρυς</span>). A +the names “Proïn” or “Orthrin” (from <span class="grk" title="prôi">πρωί</span> and <span class="grk" title="örthrus">ὄρθρυς</span>). A continuation of their work on bitter almond oil by Liebig and -Wöhler, who remained firm friends for the rest of their lives, resulted +Wöhler, who remained firm friends for the rest of their lives, resulted in the elucidation of the mode of formation of that substance and in the discovery of the ferment emulsin as well as the recognition of the first glucoside, amygdalin, while another and not less important @@ -15814,28 +15775,28 @@ name, exclusive of many others published in collaboration with other investigators. A certain impetuousness of character which disposed him to rush into controversy whenever doubt was cast upon the views he supported accounted for a great deal of writing, -and he also carried on an extensive correspondence with Wöhler +and he also carried on an extensive correspondence with Wöhler and other scientific men. In 1832 he founded the <i>Annalen der Pharmazie</i>, which became the <i>Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie</i> -in 1840 when Wöhler became joint-editor with himself, and in 1837 -with Wöhler and Poggendorff he established the <i>Handwörterbuch +in 1840 when Wöhler became joint-editor with himself, and in 1837 +with Wöhler and Poggendorff he established the <i>Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie</i>. After the death of Berzelius he continued the <i>Jahresbericht</i> with H. F. M. Kopp. The following are his most important separate publications, many of which were translated into English and French almost as soon as they appeared: -<i>Anleitung zur Analyse der organischen Körper</i> (1837); +<i>Anleitung zur Analyse der organischen Körper</i> (1837); <i>Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agrikultur und Physiologie</i> (1840); <i>Die Thier-Chemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie</i> (1842); <i>Handbuch der organischen -Chemie mit Rücksicht auf Pharmazie</i> (1843); <i>Chemische Briefe</i> -(1844); <i>Chemische Untersuchungen über das Fleisch und seine -Zubereitung zum Nahrungsmittel</i> (1847); <i>Die Grundsätze der Agrikultur-Chemie</i> -(1855); <i>Über Theorie und Praxis in der Landwirthschaft</i> -(1856); <i>Naturwissenschaftliche Briefe über die moderne Landwirtschaft</i> +Chemie mit Rücksicht auf Pharmazie</i> (1843); <i>Chemische Briefe</i> +(1844); <i>Chemische Untersuchungen über das Fleisch und seine +Zubereitung zum Nahrungsmittel</i> (1847); <i>Die Grundsätze der Agrikultur-Chemie</i> +(1855); <i>Ãœber Theorie und Praxis in der Landwirthschaft</i> +(1856); <i>Naturwissenschaftliche Briefe über die moderne Landwirtschaft</i> (1859). A posthumous collection of his miscellaneous addresses and publications appeared in 1874 as <i>Reden und Abhandlungen</i>, edited by his son George (b. 1827). His criticism of Bacon, -<i>Über Francis von Verulam</i>, was first published in 1863 in the <i>Augsburger +<i>Ãœber Francis von Verulam</i>, was first published in 1863 in the <i>Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung</i>, where also most of his letters on chemistry made their first appearance.</p> @@ -15920,7 +15881,7 @@ spokesmen of the party, and he took a very important part in directing its policy. In 1881 he was expelled from Leipzig, but took up his residence in a neighbouring village. After the lapse of the Socialist law (1890) he became chief editor of the -<i>Vorwärts</i>, and settled in Berlin. If he did not always find it +<i>Vorwärts</i>, and settled in Berlin. If he did not always find it easy in his later years to follow the new developments, he preserved to his death the idealism of his youth, the hatred both of Liberalism and of State Socialism; and though he was to @@ -15928,7 +15889,7 @@ some extent overshadowed by Bebel’s greater oratorical power, he was the chief support of the orthodox Marxian tradition. Liebknecht was the author of numerous pamphlets and books, of which the most important were: <i>Robert Blum und seine Zeit</i> -(Nuremberg, 1892); <i>Geschichte der Französischen Revolution</i> +(Nuremberg, 1892); <i>Geschichte der Französischen Revolution</i> (Dresden, 1890); <i>Die Emser Depesche</i> (Nuremberg, 1899) and <i>Robert Owen</i> (Nuremberg, 1892). He died at Charlottenburg on the 6th of August 1900.</p> @@ -15948,7 +15909,7 @@ on the E. it also comprises the upper portion of the Samina glen that joins the Ill valley at Frastanz, above Feldkirch. It is about 12 m. in length, and covers an area of 61.4 or 68.8 sq. m. (according to different estimates). Its loftiest point -rises at the S.E. angle of the state, in the Rhätikon range, and +rises at the S.E. angle of the state, in the Rhätikon range, and is named to Naafkopf or the Rothe Wand (8445 ft.); on its summit the Swiss, Vorarlberg, and Liechtenstein frontiers join. In 1901 the population was 9477 (of whom 4890 were women @@ -15991,22 +15952,22 @@ Empire (till 1806) and of the German Confederation (1815-1866), having been sovereign 1806-1815 as well as since 1866.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. Falke’s <i>Geschichte d. fürstlichen Hauses Liechtenstein</i> (3 vols., +<p>See J. Falke’s <i>Geschichte d. fürstlichen Hauses Liechtenstein</i> (3 vols., Vienna, 1868-1883); J. C. Heer, <i>Vorarlberg und Liechtenstein</i> -(Feldkirch, 1906); P. Kaiser, <i>Geschichte d. Fürstenthums Liechtenstein</i> -(Coire, 1847); F. Umlauft, <i>Das Fürstenthum Liechtenstein</i> -(Vienna, 1891); E. Walder, <i>Aus den Bergen</i> (Zürich, 1896); A. -Waltenberger, <i>Algäu, Vorarlberg, und Westtirol</i> (Rtes. 25 and 26) +(Feldkirch, 1906); P. Kaiser, <i>Geschichte d. Fürstenthums Liechtenstein</i> +(Coire, 1847); F. Umlauft, <i>Das Fürstenthum Liechtenstein</i> +(Vienna, 1891); E. Walder, <i>Aus den Bergen</i> (Zürich, 1896); A. +Waltenberger, <i>Algäu, Vorarlberg, und Westtirol</i> (Rtes. 25 and 26) (10th ed., Innsbruck, 1906).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LIÉGE,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> one of the nine provinces of Belgium, touching on +<p><span class="bold">LIÉGE,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> one of the nine provinces of Belgium, touching on the east the Dutch province of Limburg and the German district of Rhenish Prussia. To a certain extent it may be assumed -to represent the old prince-bishopric. Besides the city of Liége it +to represent the old prince-bishopric. Besides the city of Liége it contains the towns of Verviers, Dolhain, Seraing, Huy, &c. The Meuse flows through the centre of the province, and its valley from Huy down to Herstal is one of the most productive @@ -16018,12 +15979,12 @@ average of 763 per sq. m.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LIÉGE<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (Walloon, <i>Lige</i>, Flemish, <i>Luik</i>, Ger. <i>Lüttich</i>), the capital +<p><span class="bold">LIÉGE<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (Walloon, <i>Lige</i>, Flemish, <i>Luik</i>, Ger. <i>Lüttich</i>), the capital of the Belgian province that bears its name. It is finely situated on the Meuse, and was long the seat of a prince-bishopric. It is the centre of the Walloon country, and Scott commits a curious mistake in <i>Quentin Durward</i> in making its people talk Flemish. -The Liége Walloon is the nearest existing approach to the old +The Liége Walloon is the nearest existing approach to the old Romance language. The importance of the city to-day arises from its being the chief manufacturing centre in Belgium, and owing to its large output of arms it has been called the Birmingham @@ -16045,26 +16006,26 @@ The university, which has separate schools for mines and arts and manufactures, is one of the largest in the country, and enjoys a high reputation for teaching in its special line.</p> -<p>Liége is a fortified position of far greater strength than is -generally appreciated. In the wars of the 18th century Liége +<p>Liége is a fortified position of far greater strength than is +generally appreciated. In the wars of the 18th century Liége played but a small part. It was then defended only by the citadel and a detached fort on the right side of the Meuse, but at a short distance from the river, called the Chartreuse. Marlborough captured these forts in 1703 in preparation for his advance in the following year into Germany which resulted in the victory of Blenheim. The citadel and the Chartreuse were still the only -defences of Liége in 1888 when, after long discussions, the Belgian +defences of Liége in 1888 when, after long discussions, the Belgian authorities decided on adequately fortifying the two important -passages of the Meuse at Liége and Namur. A similar plan was +passages of the Meuse at Liége and Namur. A similar plan was adopted at each place, viz. the construction of a number of detached forts along a perimeter drawn at a distance varying from 4 to 6 m. of the town, so as to shelter it so far as possible from -bombardment. At Liége twelve forts were constructed, six on +bombardment. At Liége twelve forts were constructed, six on the right bank and six on the left. Those on the right bank beginning at the north and following an eastern curve are -Barchon, Evegnée, Fléron, Chaudfontaine, Embourg and +Barchon, Evegnée, Fléron, Chaudfontaine, Embourg and Boncelles. The average distance between each fort is 4 m., but -Fléron and Chaudfontaine are separated by little over 1 m. +Fléron and Chaudfontaine are separated by little over 1 m. in a direct line as they defend the main line of railway from Germany. The six forts on the left bank also commencing at the north, but following a western curve, are Pontisse, Liers, @@ -16078,25 +16039,25 @@ between the different forts by military roads in all cases, and by steam tramways in some. It is estimated that 25,000 troops would be required for the defence of the twelve forts, but the number is inadequate for the defence of so important -and extensive a position. The population of Liége, which in +and extensive a position. The population of Liége, which in 1875 was only 117,600, had risen by 1900 to 157,760, and in 1905 it was 168,532.</p> -<p><i>History.</i>—Liége first appears in history about the year 558, at +<p><i>History.</i>—Liége first appears in history about the year 558, at which date St Monulph, bishop of Tongres, built a chapel near the confluence of the Meuse and the Legia. A century later the town, which had grown up round this chapel, became the favourite abode of St Lambert, bishop of Tongres, and here he was assassinated. His successor St Hubert raised a splendid church over the tomb of the martyred bishop about 720 and -made Liége his residence. It was not, however, until about 930 +made Liége his residence. It was not, however, until about 930 that the title bishop of Tongres was abandoned for that of bishop -of Liége. The episcopate of Notger (972-1008) was marked by +of Liége. The episcopate of Notger (972-1008) was marked by large territorial acquisitions, and the see obtained recognition as an independent principality of the Empire. The popular -saying was “Liége owes Notger to God, and everything else to +saying was “Liége owes Notger to God, and everything else to Notger.” By the munificent encouragement of successive -bishops Liége became famous during the 11th century as a centre +bishops Liége became famous during the 11th century as a centre of learning, but the history of the town for centuries records little else than the continuous struggles of the citizens to free themselves from the exactions of their episcopal sovereigns; @@ -16108,7 +16069,7 @@ however, a triumph of short duration, and the troubles continued, the insurgent subjects now and again obtaining a fleeting success, only to be crushed by the armies of the powerful relatives of the bishops, the houses of Brabant or of Burgundy. During -the episcopate of Louis de Bourbon (1456-1484) the Liégeois, +the episcopate of Louis de Bourbon (1456-1484) the Liégeois, having expelled the bishop, had the temerity to declare war on Philip V., duke of Burgundy. Philip’s son, Charles the Bold, utterly defeated them in 1467, and razed the walls of the town to @@ -16123,21 +16084,21 @@ The outbreak of civil war between two factions, named the <i>Cluroux</i> and the <i>Grignoux</i>, marked the opening of the 17th century. Bishop Maximilian Henry of Bavaria (1650-1688) at last put an end to the internal strife and imposed a regulation -(<i>règlement</i>) which abolished all the free institutions of the citizens +(<i>règlement</i>) which abolished all the free institutions of the citizens <span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span> and the power of the gilds. Between this date and the outbreak of the French Revolution the chief efforts of the prince-bishops were directed to maintaining neutrality in the various wars, and preserving their territory from being ravaged by invading armies. -They were only in part successful. Liége was taken by Marlborough +They were only in part successful. Liége was taken by Marlborough in 1702, and the fortress was garrisoned by the Dutch until 1718. The French revolutionary armies overran the principality in 1792, and from 1794 to the fall of Napoleon it was annexed to France, and was known as the department of -the Ourthe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 decreed that Liége +the Ourthe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 decreed that Liége with the other provinces of the southern Netherlands should form part of the new kingdom of the Netherlands under the -rule of William I., of the house of Orange. The town of Liége +rule of William I., of the house of Orange. The town of Liége took an active part in the Belgian revolt of 1830, and since that date the ancient principality has been incorporated in the kingdom of Belgium.</p> @@ -16145,19 +16106,19 @@ kingdom of Belgium.</p> <p>The see, which at first bore the name of the bishopric of Tongres, was under the metropolitan jurisdiction of the archbishops of Cologne. The principality comprised besides the -town of Liége and its district, the counties of Looz and Hoorn, +town of Liége and its district, the counties of Looz and Hoorn, the marquessate of Franchimont, and the duchy of Bouillon.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Théodore Bouille, <i>Histoire de la ville et du pays -de Liége</i> (3 vols., Liége, 1725-1732); A. Borgnet, <i>Histoire de la -révolution liégeoise</i> (2 vols., Liége, 1865); Baron B. C. de Gerlache, -<i>Histoire de Liége</i> (Brussels, 1843); J. Daris, <i>Histoire du diocèse et -de la principauté de Liége</i> (10 vols., Liége, 1868-1885); Ferdinand -Henaux, <i>Histoire du pays de Liége</i> (2 vols., Liége, 1857); L. Polain, -<i>Histoire de l’ancien pays de Liége</i> (2 vols., Liége, 1844-1847). For -full bibliography see Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources historiques</i>. -<i>Topo-bibliographie</i>, s.v. (Montbéliard, 1900).</p> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Théodore Bouille, <i>Histoire de la ville et du pays +de Liége</i> (3 vols., Liége, 1725-1732); A. Borgnet, <i>Histoire de la +révolution liégeoise</i> (2 vols., Liége, 1865); Baron B. C. de Gerlache, +<i>Histoire de Liége</i> (Brussels, 1843); J. Daris, <i>Histoire du diocèse et +de la principauté de Liége</i> (10 vols., Liége, 1868-1885); Ferdinand +Henaux, <i>Histoire du pays de Liége</i> (2 vols., Liége, 1857); L. Polain, +<i>Histoire de l’ancien pays de Liége</i> (2 vols., Liége, 1844-1847). For +full bibliography see Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources historiques</i>. +<i>Topo-bibliographie</i>, s.v. (Montbéliard, 1900).</p> </div> @@ -16170,7 +16131,7 @@ however, in the form “liege lord,” and also of the vassals, his of a sovereign, with no reference to feudal ties. It appears that <i>ligeitas</i> or <i>ligentia</i>, the medieval Latin term for this relationship, was restricted to a particular form of homage. According -to N. Broussel (<i>Nouvel examen de l’usage général des fiefs en +to N. Broussel (<i>Nouvel examen de l’usage général des fiefs en France</i>, 1727) the homage of a “liege” was a stronger form of the ordinary homage, the especial distinction being that while the ordinary vassal only undertook forty days’ military @@ -16199,7 +16160,7 @@ seems to have been the lord of a free band; and his <i>lieges</i>, though serving under him, were privileged men, free from all other obligations; their name being due to their <i>freedom</i>, not to their service” (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, ed. 1898). A. Luchaire (<i>Manuel -des institutions françaises</i>, 1892, p. 189, n. 1) considers it difficult +des institutions françaises</i>, 1892, p. 189, n. 1) considers it difficult to call a man “free” who is under a strict obligation to another; further that the “liege” was not free from all obligation to a third party, for the charters prove without doubt that the @@ -16239,7 +16200,7 @@ in 1634. On the death of the last duke of Liegnitz in 1675, the duchy came into the possession of the Empire, which retained it until the Prussian conquest of Silesia in 1742. On the 15th of August 1760 Frederick the Great gained a decisive victory near -Liegnitz over the Austrians, and in August 1813 Blücher defeated +Liegnitz over the Austrians, and in August 1813 Blücher defeated the French in the neighbourhood at the battle of the Katzbach. During the 19th century Liegnitz rapidly increased in population and prosperity. In 1906 the German autumn manœuvres @@ -16249,8 +16210,8 @@ already mentioned.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Schuchard, <i>Die Stadt Liegnitz</i> (Berlin, 1868); Sammter and Kraffert, <i>Chronik von Liegnitz</i> (Liegnitz, 1861-1873); Jander, -<i>Liegnitz in seinem Entwickelungsgange</i> (Liegnitz, 1905); and <i>Führer -für Liegnitz und seine Umgebung</i> (Liegnitz, 1897); and the <i>Urkundenbuch +<i>Liegnitz in seinem Entwickelungsgange</i> (Liegnitz, 1905); and <i>Führer +für Liegnitz und seine Umgebung</i> (Liegnitz, 1897); and the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Liegnitz bis 1455</i>, edited by Schirrmacher (Liegnitz, 1866).</p> </div> @@ -16395,7 +16356,7 @@ under the head of equitable lien, since it does not require possession, but is a lien the solicitor holds over property recovered or preserved for his client. He had the lien on an order by the court upon a fund in court by the common law, but as to property -generally it was only given by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 127, § 28; and +generally it was only given by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 127, § 28; and it has been held to attach to property recovered in a probate action (<i>ex parte Tweed</i>, C.A. 1899, 2 Q.B. 167). A banker’s lien is the right of a banker to retain securities belonging to his @@ -16540,7 +16501,7 @@ master’s wages and disbursements, and the maritime lien covers all these. The new jurisdiction given over claims for damage to cargo carried into any port in England or Wales, and on appeal from the county courts over all claims for damage -to cargo under £300, though it may be prosecuted by proceedings +to cargo under £300, though it may be prosecuted by proceedings <i>in rem</i>, <i>i.e.</i> by arrest of the ship, yet confers no maritime lien; and so also in the case of claims by material men (builders and fitters-out of ships) and for necessaries. Even though in the @@ -16596,7 +16557,7 @@ cases of claims for damage to ship and of claims for damage to cargo where no owner is domiciled in England or Wales. Irrespective of this limitation, they attach in all cases not only of damage to cargo, but also of breaches of contract to carry where the damage -does not exceed £300, when the suit must be commenced in a county +does not exceed £300, when the suit must be commenced in a county court having admiralty jurisdiction; and in cases of claims for necessaries supplied elsewhere than in the ship’s home port, for wages earned even under a special contract by masters and mariners, @@ -16680,7 +16641,7 @@ also in the nature of salvage. The value of the property may be insufficient to pay all claims, and it becomes a matter of great consequence to settle whether any, and if so which, have priority over the others, or whether all rank alike and have to divide -the proceeds of the property <i>pro ratâ</i> amongst them. The +the proceeds of the property <i>pro ratâ</i> amongst them. The following general rules apply: liens for benefits conferred rank against the fund in the inverse, and those for the reparation of damage sustained in the direct order of their attaching to the @@ -16698,7 +16659,7 @@ possessory liens, the shipwright takes the ship as she stands, <i>i.e.</i> with her incumbrances, and it appears that the lien for seaman’s wages takes precedence of a solicitor’s lien for costs, under a charging order made in pursuance of the Solicitors -Act 1860, § 28.</p> +Act 1860, § 28.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Subject to equitable considerations, the true principle appears @@ -16762,7 +16723,7 @@ quasi-vendors, or persons in the same position, such as consignors who have bought on behalf of a principal and forwarded the goods. It is, however, defeated by a lawful transfer of the document of title to the goods by the vendor to a third person, who -takes it <i>bonâ fide</i> and for valuable consideration (Factors Act +takes it <i>bonâ fide</i> and for valuable consideration (Factors Act 1889; Sale of Goods Act 1893).</p> <p><i>Assignment or Transfer of Lien</i>.—A lien being a personal @@ -16794,7 +16755,7 @@ It is, however, true that by statute certain common-law liens can be transferred, <i>e.g.</i> under the Merchant Shipping Act a master of a ship having a lien upon cargo for his freight can transfer the possession of the cargo to a wharfinger, and with -it the lien (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 494). In this case, +it the lien (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 494). In this case, however, though the matter is simplified by the statute, if the wharfinger was constituted the agent or servant of the shipmaster, his possession would be the possession of the shipmaster, @@ -16808,7 +16769,7 @@ passes out of possession, where it has to be deposited in some special place (such as the Custom-House) to comply with the law. Seamen cannot sell or assign or in any way part with their maritime lien for wages (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, -§ 156), but, nevertheless, with the sanction of the court, a person +§ 156), but, nevertheless, with the sanction of the court, a person who pays seamen their wages is entitled to stand in their place and exercise their rights (the <i>Cornelia Henrietta</i>, 1866, L.R. 1 Ad. & Ec. 51).</p> @@ -16840,12 +16801,12 @@ a right to retain the goods, and ultimately to sell by legal process, against the owner; but in certain cases a right has been given by statute to sell without the intervention of legal process, such as the right of an innkeeper to sell the goods of his customer for -his unpaid account (Innkeepers Act 1878, § 1), the right of a +his unpaid account (Innkeepers Act 1878, § 1), the right of a wharfinger to sell goods entrusted to him by a shipowner with a lien upon them for freight, and also for their own charges -(Merchant Shipping Act 1894, §§ 497, 498), and of a railway +(Merchant Shipping Act 1894, §§ 497, 498), and of a railway company to sell goods for their charges (Railway Clauses Act -1845, § 97). Property affected by an equitable lien or a maritime +1845, § 97). Property affected by an equitable lien or a maritime lien cannot be sold by the holder of the lien without the interposition of the court to enforce an order, or judgment of the court. In Admiralty cases, where a sale is necessary, no bail @@ -16959,7 +16920,7 @@ his wedding with Mary of Burgundy.</p> in Switzerland. It is a well-built but uninteresting industrial town, situated on the left bank of the Ergolz stream, and is the most populous town in the entire canton of Basel, -after Basel itself. By rail it is 9¼ m. S.E. of Basel, and 15¾ m. +after Basel itself. By rail it is 9¼ m. S.E. of Basel, and 15¾ m. N.W. of Olten. In the 15th-century town hall (<i>Rathaus</i>) is preserved the golden drinking cup of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, which was taken at the battle of Nancy in 1477. In @@ -16985,13 +16946,13 @@ tenens regis</i>) was a title borne by the officer sent with military powers to represent the king in certain provinces. With wider powers and functions, both civil as well as military, and holding authority throughout an entire province, such a representative -of the king was called <i>lieutenant général du roi</i>. The first appointment +of the king was called <i>lieutenant général du roi</i>. The first appointment of these officials dates from the reign of Philip IV. the Fair (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constable</a></span>). In the 16th century the administration of the provinces was in the hands of <i>gouverneurs</i>, to whom the <i>lieutenants du roi</i> became subordinates. The titles <i>lieutenant -civil</i> or <i>criminel</i> and <i>lieutenant général de police</i> have been borne -by certain judicial officers in France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Châtelet</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bailiff</a></span>: +civil</i> or <i>criminel</i> and <i>lieutenant général de police</i> have been borne +by certain judicial officers in France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Châtelet</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bailiff</a></span>: <i>Bailli</i>). As the title of the representative of the sovereign, “lieutenant” in English usage appears in the title of the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and of the lords lieutenant of the counties @@ -17062,9 +17023,9 @@ annually. To qualify for the appointment of deputy lieutenant a person had to be (<i>a</i>) a peer of the realm, or the heir-apparent of such a peer, having a place of residence within the county; or (<i>b</i>) have in possession an estate in land in the United Kingdom of the yearly -value of not less than £200; or (<i>c</i>) be the heir-apparent of such a +value of not less than £200; or (<i>c</i>) be the heir-apparent of such a person; or (<i>d</i>) have a clear yearly income from personalty within -the United Kingdom of not less than £200 (s. 33). If the lieutenant +the United Kingdom of not less than £200 (s. 33). If the lieutenant were absent from the United Kingdom, or through illness or other cause were unable to act, the sovereign might authorize any three deputy lieutenants to act as lieutenant (s. 31), or might appoint a @@ -17309,7 +17270,7 @@ does not reawaken.</p> the origin of life or the possibility of the artificial construction of living matter (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abiogenesis</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Biogenesis</a></span>) until the chemistry of protoplasm and specially of proteid is more advanced. -The investigations of O. Bütschli have shown how a model of +The investigations of O. Bütschli have shown how a model of protoplasm can be manufactured. Very finely triturated soluble particles are rubbed into a smooth paste with an oil of the requisite consistency. A fragment of such a paste brought @@ -17343,11 +17304,11 @@ most active, and within the limits of which it is confined, are familiar and almost constant in the world around us. On the other hand, it may be that the initial conditions for the synthesis of proteid are different from those under which proteid and living -matter display their activities. E. Pflüger has argued that the +matter display their activities. E. Pflüger has argued that the analogies between living proteid and the compounds of cyanogen are so numerous that they suggest cyanogen as the starting-point of protoplasm. Cyanogen and its compounds, so far as we -know, arise only in a state of incandescent heat. Pflüger suggests +know, arise only in a state of incandescent heat. Pflüger suggests that such compounds arose when the surface of the earth was incandescent, and that in the long process of cooling, compounds of cyanogen and hydrocarbons passed into living protoplasm @@ -17388,14 +17349,14 @@ relation to ideas of life derived from observation of the living matter we know.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—O. Bütschli, <i>Investigations on Microscopic Foams +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—O. Bütschli, <i>Investigations on Microscopic Foams and Protoplasm</i> (Eng. trans. by E. A. Minchin, 1894), with a -useful list of references; H. von Helmholtz, <i>Vorträge und Reden</i>, +useful list of references; H. von Helmholtz, <i>Vorträge und Reden</i>, ii. (1884); W. Kochs, <i>Allgemeine Naturkunde</i>, x. 673 (1890); A. Leeuwenhoek, <i>Epistolae ad Societatem regiam Anglicam</i> (1719); -E. Pflüger, “Über einige Gesetze des Eiweissstoffwechsels,” in +E. Pflüger, “Ãœber einige Gesetze des Eiweissstoffwechsels,” in <i>Archiv. Ges. Physiol.</i> liv. 333 (1893); W. Preyer, <i>Die Hypothesen -über den Ursprung des Lebens</i> (1880); H. E. Richter, <i>Zur Darwinischen +über den Ursprung des Lebens</i> (1880); H. E. Richter, <i>Zur Darwinischen Lehre</i> (1865); Herbert Spencer, <i>Principles of Biology</i>; Max Verworm, <i>General Physiology</i> (English trans. by F. S. Lee, 1899), with a very full literature.</p> @@ -17470,7 +17431,7 @@ Life-boat Institution,” was founded on the 4th of March 1824. The king patronized it; the archbishop of Canterbury presided at its birth; the most eloquent men in the land—among them Wilberforce—pleaded the cause; nevertheless, the institution -began its career with a sum of only £9826. In the first year +began its career with a sum of only £9826. In the first year twelve new life-boats were built and placed at different stations, besides which thirty-nine life-boats had been stationed on the British shores by benevolent individuals and by independent @@ -17543,9 +17504,9 @@ of the Institution in 1824 was 47,983. At this time there were only seventeen life-boats on the coast of the United Kingdom which did not belong to the Institution. In 1882 the total amount of money received by the Institution from all sources -was £57,797, whereas in 1901 the total amount received had -increased to £107,293. In 1908 the receipts were £115,303, -the expenditure £90,335.</p> +was £57,797, whereas in 1901 the total amount received had +increased to £107,293. In 1908 the receipts were £115,303, +the expenditure £90,335.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>In 1882 the Institution undertook, with the view of diminishing @@ -17694,7 +17655,7 @@ It is, however, fully recognized that boats of this description can necessarily be used at only a very limited number of stations, and where there is a harbour which never dries out. The highest speed attained by the first hydraulic steam life-boat was rather -more than 9 knots, and that secured in the latest 9½ knots. +more than 9 knots, and that secured in the latest 9½ knots. In 1909 the fleet of the Institution included 4 steam life-boats and 8 motor life-boats. The experiments with motor life-boats in previous years had proved successful.</p> @@ -17729,9 +17690,9 @@ has materially increased, more especially since 1898, the increase being mainly due to improvements and the seriously augmented charges for materials and labour. In 1881 the average cost of a fully-equipped life-boat and carriage was -£650, whereas at the end of 1901 it amounted to £1000, the +£650, whereas at the end of 1901 it amounted to £1000, the average annual cost of maintaining a station having risen -to about £125.</p> +to about £125.</p> <p>The <i>transporting-carriage</i> continues to be a most important part of the equipment of life-boats, generally of the self-righting @@ -17789,7 +17750,7 @@ Exhibition of 1900 would have produced some life-saving invention which might prove a benefit to the civilized world, but so lacking in real merit were the life-saving exhibits that the jury of experts were unable to award to any of the 435 -competitors the Andrew Pollok prize of £4000 for the best +competitors the Andrew Pollok prize of £4000 for the best method or device for saving life from shipwreck.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -17832,12 +17793,12 @@ which superseded it in England, is founded. Previously, however, in 1791, the idea of throwing a rope from a wreck to the shore by means of a shell from a mortar had occurred to Serjeant Bell of the Royal Artillery, and about the same time, to a Frenchman named -La Fère, both of whom made successful experiments with their +La Fère, both of whom made successful experiments with their apparatus. In the same year (1807) a rocket was proposed by Mr Trengrouse of Helston in Cornwall, also a hand and lead line as means of communicating with vessels in distress. The <i>heaving-cane</i> was a fruit of the latter suggestion. In 1814 forty-five mortar -stations were established, and Manby received £2000, in addition +stations were established, and Manby received £2000, in addition to previous grants, in acknowledgment of the good service rendered by his invention. Mr John Dennett of Newport, Isle of Wight, introduced the rocket, which was afterwards extensively used. In @@ -18160,7 +18121,7 @@ an annual grant from the government.</p> <p><i>Italy.</i>—Established in 1879. Voluntary association.</p> <p><i>Spain.</i>—Established in 1880. Voluntary association, but receiving -annually a grant of £1440 from government.</p> +annually a grant of £1440 from government.</p> <p><i>Canada.</i>—Established in 1880. Government service.</p> @@ -18181,9 +18142,9 @@ a small annual grant from government.</p> <p><i>Japan.</i>—The National Life-boat Institution of Japan was founded in 1889. It is a voluntary society, assisted by government. Its affairs are managed by a president and a vice-president, supported -by a very influential council. The head office is at Tôkyô; there are +by a very influential council. The head office is at Tôkyô; there are numerous branches with local committees. The Imperial government -contributes an annual subsidy of 20,000 <i>yen</i> (£2000). The +contributes an annual subsidy of 20,000 <i>yen</i> (£2000). The members of the Institution consist of three classes—honorary, ordinary and sub-ordinary, the amount contributed by the member determining the class in which he is placed. The chairman and @@ -18220,14 +18181,14 @@ Tissues</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joints</a></span>).< <p><span class="bold">LIGAO,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town near the centre of the province of Albay, Luzon, Philippine Islands, close to the left bank of a tributary of the Bicol river, and on the main road through the valley. -Pop. (1903) 17,687. East of the town rises Mayón, an active +Pop. (1903) 17,687. East of the town rises Mayón, an active volcano, and the rich volcanic soil in this region produces hemp, rice and coco-nuts. Agriculture is the sole occupation of the inhabitants. Their language is Bicol.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LIGHT.<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <i>Introduction.</i>—§ 1. “Light” may be defined subjectively +<p><span class="bold">LIGHT.<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <i>Introduction.</i>—§ 1. “Light” may be defined subjectively as the sense-impression formed by the eye. This is the most familiar connotation of the term, and suffices for the discussion of optical subjects which do not require an objective @@ -18268,7 +18229,7 @@ Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz has certainly laid the foundations of a complete theory of light and electricity, but the methods must be adopted with caution, lest one be constrained to say with Ludwig Boltzmann as in the introduction to his <i>Vorlesungen -über Maxwell’s Theorie der Elektricität und des Lichtes</i>:—</p> +über Maxwell’s Theorie der Elektricität und des Lichtes</i>:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>“So soll ich denn mit saurem Schweiss</p> @@ -18298,7 +18259,7 @@ A delimitation may then be made, inasmuch as luminous sources yield no other radiations, and also since the next series of waves, the electromagnetic waves, have a minimum wave-length of 6 mm.</p> -<p>§ 2. The commonest subjective phenomena of light are colour +<p>§ 2. The commonest subjective phenomena of light are colour and visibility, <i>i.e.</i> why are some bodies visible and others not, or, in other words, what is the physical significance of the words “transparency,” “colour” and “visibility.” What is ordinarily @@ -18354,14 +18315,14 @@ two components of different wave-lengths, each of which is of a higher degree of homogeneity, and it is not impossible that these rays may be capable of further analysis.</p> -<p>§ 3. <i>Divisions of the Subject.</i>—In the early history of the +<p>§ 3. <i>Divisions of the Subject.</i>—In the early history of the science of light or optics a twofold division was adopted: <i>Catoptrics</i> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="katoptron">κάτοπτρον</span>, a mirror), embracing the phenomena of reflection, <i>i.e.</i> the formation of images by mirrors; and <i>Dioptrics</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">διά</span>, through), embracing the phenomena of refraction, <i>i.e.</i> the bending of a ray of light when passing obliquely through the surface dividing two media.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A third -element, <i>Chromatics</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="chrôma">χρῶμα</span>, colour), was subsequently +element, <i>Chromatics</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="chrôma">χρῶμα</span>, colour), was subsequently introduced to include phenomena involving colour transformations, such as the iridescence of mother-of-pearl, feathers, soap-bubbles, oil floating on water, &c. This classification has @@ -18412,7 +18373,7 @@ the ultra-violet rays), and, on the other hand, the application of geometrical and physical investigations to the construction of optical instruments.</p> -<p>§ 4. <i>Arrangement of the Subject.</i>—The following three divisions +<p>§ 4. <i>Arrangement of the Subject.</i>—The following three divisions of this article deal with: (I.) the history of the science of light; (II.) the nature of light; (III.) the velocity of light; but a summary (which does not aim at scientific precision) may @@ -18445,7 +18406,7 @@ instrument is simply the setting up of an optical system, the are examples; instruments serviceable for simultaneous vision with both eyes are termed <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Binocular Instruments</a></span>; the <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stereoscope</a></span> may be placed in this category; the optical -action of the Zoétrope, with its modern development the +action of the Zoétrope, with its modern development the <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cinematograph</a></span>, depends upon the physiological persistence of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vision</a></span>. Meteorological optical phenomena comprise the <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corona</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Halo</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mirage</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rainbow</a></span>, colour of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sky</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Twilight</a></span>, @@ -18456,7 +18417,7 @@ of phenomena.</p> <p class="pt2 center">I. <span class="sc">History</span></p> -<p>§ 1. There is reason to believe that the ancients were more +<p>§ 1. There is reason to believe that the ancients were more familiar with optics than with any other branch of physics; and this may be due to the fact that for a knowledge of external things man is indebted to the sense of vision in a far greater @@ -18504,7 +18465,7 @@ regarded the colours as fictitious, placing them in the same category as the iridescent appearance of the feathers on a pigeon’s neck.</p> -<p>§ 2. The aversion of the Greek thinkers to detailed experimental +<p>§ 2. The aversion of the Greek thinkers to detailed experimental inquiry stultified the progress of the science; instead of acquiring facts necessary for formulating scientific laws and correcting hypotheses, the Greeks devoted their intellectual @@ -18534,7 +18495,7 @@ was only after the acquisition of new experimental facts that the labours of Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel indubitably established the wave-theory.</p> -<p>§ 3. The experimental study of refraction, which had been +<p>§ 3. The experimental study of refraction, which had been almost entirely neglected by the early Greeks, received more attention during the opening centuries of the Christian era. Cleomedes, in his <i>Cyclical Theory of Meteors</i>, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 50, alludes @@ -18560,7 +18521,7 @@ nor is the subject of astronomical refractions noticed, but the strongest objection, according to A. de Morgan, is the fact that their author was a poor geometer.</p> -<p>§ 4. One of the results of the decadence of the Roman empire +<p>§ 4. One of the results of the decadence of the Roman empire was the suppression of the academies, and few additions were made to scientific knowledge on European soil until the 13th century. Extinguished in the West, the spirit of research was @@ -18605,7 +18566,7 @@ conceived as very distant, are intuitively compared with terrestrial objects, and therefore they appear larger than when viewed at elevations.</p> -<p>§ 5. While the Arabs were acting as the custodians of scientific +<p>§ 5. While the Arabs were acting as the custodians of scientific knowledge, the institutions and civilizations of Europe were gradually crystallizing. Attacked by the Mongols and by the Crusaders, the Bagdad caliphate disappeared in the 13th century. @@ -18663,7 +18624,7 @@ of such an instrument would jealously guard the secret of its actual construction, however much he might advertise its potentialities.<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> -<p>§ 6. The awakening of Europe, which first manifested itself +<p>§ 6. The awakening of Europe, which first manifested itself in Italy, England and France, was followed in the 16th century by a period of increasing intellectual activity. The need for experimental inquiry was realized, and a tendency to dispute @@ -18711,7 +18672,7 @@ and spectacles are discussed. His <i>De Refractione, optices parte</i> (1593) contains an account of binocular vision, in which are found indications of the principle of the stereoscope.</p> -<p>§ 7. The empirical study of lenses led, in the opening decade +<p>§ 7. The empirical study of lenses led, in the opening decade of the 17th century, to the emergence of the telescope from its former obscurity. The first form, known as the Dutch or Galileo telescope, consisted of a convex and a concave lens, a combination @@ -18760,7 +18721,7 @@ of the primary bow by Antonio de Dominis in 1611; and, similarly, in his additions to the knowledge of the telescope the influence of Galileo is not recorded.</p> -<p>§ 8. In his metaphysical speculations on the system of nature, +<p>§ 8. In his metaphysical speculations on the system of nature, Descartes formulated a theory of light at variance with the generally accepted emission theory and showing some resemblance to the earlier views of Aristotle, and, in a smaller measure, to the @@ -18802,7 +18763,7 @@ so much.</p> <p>“Those who have meditated on the beauty and utility, in theoretical mechanics, of the general method of Lagrange, who have felt the power and dignity of that central dynamical theorem which he -deduced, in the <i>Mécanique analytique</i> ..., must feel that mathematical +deduced, in the <i>Mécanique analytique</i> ..., must feel that mathematical optics can only then attain a coordinate rank with mathematical mechanics ..., when it shall possess an appropriate method, and become the unfolding of a central idea.... It appears @@ -18888,7 +18849,7 @@ action</i> which has since acquired so high a rank in mathematical physics, by the improvements of Euler and Lagrange.”</p> </div> -<p>§ 9. The second half of the 17th century witnessed developments +<p>§ 9. The second half of the 17th century witnessed developments in the practice and theory of optics which equal in importance the mathematical, chemical and astronomical acquisitions of the period. Original observations were made which led to @@ -18940,7 +18901,7 @@ medium in which the vibration is transmitted. In this way the Newtonian theory may be merged into the undulatory theory. Newton’s results are collected in his <i>Opticks</i>, the first edition of which appeared in 1704. Huygens published his -theory in his <i>Traité de lumière</i> (1690), where he explained +theory in his <i>Traité de lumière</i> (1690), where he explained reflection, refraction and double refraction, but did not elucidate the formation of shadows (which was readily explicable on the Newtonian hypothesis) or polarization; and it was this inability @@ -18950,7 +18911,7 @@ exposition of the corpuscular theory sustained that theory until the beginning of the 19th century, when it succumbed to the assiduous skill of Young and Fresnel.</p> -<p>§ 10. Simultaneously with this remarkable development of +<p>§ 10. Simultaneously with this remarkable development of theoretical and experimental optics, notable progress was made in the construction of optical instruments. The increased demand for telescopes, occasioned by the interest in observational @@ -18996,7 +18957,7 @@ Dollond had determined the principle of the achromatic telescope (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aberration</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telescope</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Microscope</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Binocular Instrument</a></span>).</p> -<p>§ 11. Passing over the discovery by Ehrenfried Walther +<p>§ 11. Passing over the discovery by Ehrenfried Walther Tschirnhausen (1651-1708) of the caustics produced by reflection (“catacaustics”) and his experiments with large reflectors and refractors (for the manufacture of which he established glass-works @@ -19005,7 +18966,7 @@ in Italy); James Bradley’s discovery in 1728 of the velocity of light, the value agreeing fairly well with Roemer’s estimate; the foundation of scientific photometry by Pierre Bouguer in an essay published in 1729 and expanded in 1760 -into his <i>Traité d’optique sur la graduation de la lumière</i>; the +into his <i>Traité d’optique sur la graduation de la lumière</i>; the publication of John Henry Lambert’s treatise on the same subject, entitled <i>Photometria, sive de Mensura et Gradibus Luminis, Colorum et Umbrae</i> (1760); and the development of the telescope @@ -19049,7 +19010,7 @@ is the paradoxical phenomenon that a small circular disk illuminated by a point source casts a shadow having a bright centre.</p> -<p>§ 12. The undulatory theory reached its zenith when Fresnel +<p>§ 12. The undulatory theory reached its zenith when Fresnel explained the complex phenomena of polarization, by adopting the conception of Hooke that the vibrations were transverse, and not longitudinal.<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Polarization by double refraction had @@ -19110,7 +19071,7 @@ p. 35; “On Double Refraction,” by Sir G. G. Stokes (1862), p. 253; “On Optical Theories,” by R. T. Glazebrook (1885), p. 157.</p> </div> -<p>§ 13. <i>Recent Developments.</i>—The determination of the velocity +<p>§ 13. <i>Recent Developments.</i>—The determination of the velocity of light (see section III. of this article) may be regarded as definitely settled, a result contributed to by A. H. L. Fizeau (1849), J. B. L. Foucault (1850, 1862), A. Cornu (1874), A. A. @@ -19160,7 +19121,7 @@ Much attention has also been given to the preparation of a standard of intensity, and many different sources have been introduced (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photometry</a></span>). Stellar photometry, which was first investigated instrumentally with success by Sir John -Herschel, was greatly improved by the introduction of Zöllner’s +Herschel, was greatly improved by the introduction of Zöllner’s photometer, E. C. Pickering’s meridian photometer and C. Pritchard’s wedge photometer. Other methods of research in this field are by photography—photographic photometry—and @@ -19184,7 +19145,7 @@ and Dale was often at variance with experiment, and the mathematical investigations of H. A. Lorentz of Leiden and L. Lorenz of Copenhagen on the electromagnetic theory led to a more consistent formula. The experimental work has been chiefly -associated with the names of H. H. Landolt and J. W. Brühl, +associated with the names of H. H. Landolt and J. W. Brühl, whose results, in addition to verifying the Lorenz-Lorentz formula, have established that this function of the refractive index and density is a colligative property of the molecule, <i>i.e.</i> @@ -19223,7 +19184,7 @@ or “<i>Rest-strahlen</i>”—have also been isolated by repeated from quartz surfaces of the light from zirconia raised to incandescence by the oxyhydrogen flame (E. F. Nichols and H. Rubens); far longer waves were isolated by similar reflections -from fluorite (56 µ) and sylvite (61 µ) surfaces in 1899 by Rubens +from fluorite (56 µ) and sylvite (61 µ) surfaces in 1899 by Rubens and E. Aschkinass. The short waves—ultra-violet rays—have also been studied, the researches of E. F. Nichols on the transparency of quartz to these rays, which are especially present @@ -19258,7 +19219,7 @@ with the names of Sellmeier, Hermann Helmholtz, Eduard Ketteler, P. Drude, H. A. Lorentz and Lord Rayleigh, and the experimental side with many observers—F. Paschen, Rubens and others; absorbing media have been investigated -by A. W. Pflüger, a great many aniline dyes by K. Stöckl, and +by A. W. Pflüger, a great many aniline dyes by K. Stöckl, and sodium vapour by R. W. Wood. Mention may also be made of the beautiful experiments of Christiansen (1884) and Lord Rayleigh on the colours transmitted by white powders suspended @@ -19393,7 +19354,7 @@ of MacCullagh and Cauchy were followed by those of Beer, Eisenlohr, Lundquist, Ketteler and others; the refractive indices were determined both directly (by Kundt) and indirectly by means of Brewster’s law; and the reflecting powers from -λ = 251 µµ to λ = 1500 µµ were determined in 1900-1902 by +λ = 251 µµ to λ = 1500 µµ were determined in 1900-1902 by Rubens and Hagen. The correlation of the optical and electrical constants of many metals has been especially studied by P. Drude (1900) and by Rubens and Hagen (1903).</p> @@ -19430,7 +19391,7 @@ widened the field of research, which, from its intimate connexion with the nature of light and electromagnetics, has resulted in discoveries of the greatest importance.</p> -<p>§ 14. <i>Optical Instruments.</i>—Important developments have +<p>§ 14. <i>Optical Instruments.</i>—Important developments have been made in the construction and applications of optical instruments. To these three factors have contributed. The mathematician has quantitatively analysed the phenomena @@ -19492,8 +19453,8 @@ Walker, <i>Analytical Theory of Light</i> (1904); A. Schuster, <i>Theory of Optics</i> (1904); P. Drude, <i>Theory of Optics</i>, Eng. trans. by C. R. Mann and R. A. Millikan (1902). General treatises of exceptional merit are A. Winkelmann, <i>Handbuch der Physik</i>, vol. vi. “Optik” -(1904); and E. Mascart, <i>Traité d’optique</i> (1889-1893); M. E. Verdet, -<i>Leçons d’optique physique</i> (1869, 1872) is also a valuable work. +(1904); and E. Mascart, <i>Traité d’optique</i> (1889-1893); M. E. Verdet, +<i>Leçons d’optique physique</i> (1869, 1872) is also a valuable work. Geometrical optics is treated in R. S. Heath, <i>Geometrical Optics</i> (2nd ed., 1898); H. A. Herman, <i>Treatise on Geometrical Optics</i> (1900). Applied optics, particularly with regard to the theory of @@ -19505,7 +19466,7 @@ in optischen Instrumenten” (1904); in S. Czapski, <i>Theorie der optischen Instrumente</i>, 2nd ed. by O. Eppenstein (1904); and in A. Steinheil and E. Voit, <i>Handbuch der angewandten Optik</i> (1901). The mathematical theory of general optics receives historical and -modern treatment in the <i>Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften</i> +modern treatment in the <i>Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften</i> (Leipzig). Meteorological optics is fully treated in J. Pernter, <i>Meteorologische Optik</i>; and physiological optics in H. v Helmholtz, <i>Handbuch der physiologischen Optik</i> (1896) and in A. Koenig, @@ -19513,16 +19474,16 @@ modern treatment in the <i>Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften</i> <p>The history of the subject may be studied in J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Geschichte der Physik</i> (1879); F. Rosenberger, <i>Die Geschichte der -Physik</i> (1882-1890); E. Gerland and F. Traumüller, <i>Geschichte der +Physik</i> (1882-1890); E. Gerland and F. Traumüller, <i>Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst</i> (1899); reference may also be made to Joseph Priestley, <i>History and Present State of Discoveries relating to Vision, Light and Colours</i> (1772), German translation by -G. S. Klügel (Leipzig, 1775). Original memoirs are available in +G. S. Klügel (Leipzig, 1775). Original memoirs are available in many cases in their author’s “collected works,” <i>e.g.</i> Huygens, Young, Fresnel, Hamilton, Cauchy, Rowland, Clerk Maxwell, Stokes (and also his <i>Burnett Lectures on Light</i>), Kelvin (and also his <i>Baltimore Lectures</i>, 1904) and Lord Rayleigh. Newton’s <i>Opticks</i> -forms volumes 96 and 97 of Ostwald’s Klassiker; Huygens’ <i>Über d. +forms volumes 96 and 97 of Ostwald’s Klassiker; Huygens’ <i>Ãœber d. Licht</i> (1678), vol. 20, and Kepler’s <i>Dioptrice</i> (1611), vol. 144 of the same series.</p> @@ -19564,7 +19525,7 @@ is even equal in all bodies of the same kind, but changes from one substance to another. If, originally, while moving in air, the corpuscles had a definite velocity v<span class="su">0</span>, their velocity v in the interior of any other substance is quite determinate. It is given -by the equation ½mv<span class="sp">2</span> − ½mv<span class="su">0</span><span class="sp">2</span> = A, in which m denotes the mass +by the equation ½mv<span class="sp">2</span> − ½mv<span class="su">0</span><span class="sp">2</span> = A, in which m denotes the mass of a corpuscle, and A the excess of its potential energy in air over that in the substance considered.</p> @@ -19636,7 +19597,7 @@ Newton introduced the notion of periodic changes, which was to play so prominent a part in the later development of the wave-theory, he rejected this theory in the form in which it had been set forth shortly before by Christiaan Huygens in -his <i>Traité de la lumière</i> (1690), his chief objections being: (1) that +his <i>Traité de la lumière</i> (1690), his chief objections being: (1) that the rectilinear propagation had not been satisfactorily accounted for; (2) that the motions of heavenly bodies show no sign of a resistance due to a medium filling all space; and (3) that Huygens @@ -19679,11 +19640,11 @@ as known at every point, the velocity v is so likewise.</p> <p>(<i>a</i>) The path along which light travels from a point A to a point B is determined by the condition that for this line the integral ∫v ds, in which ds is an element of the line, be a minimum (provided A and -B be not too near each other). Therefore, since v = µv<span class="su">0</span>, if v<span class="su">0</span> is the -velocity of light <i>in vacuo</i> and µ the index of refraction, we have for +B be not too near each other). Therefore, since v = µv<span class="su">0</span>, if v<span class="su">0</span> is the +velocity of light <i>in vacuo</i> and µ the index of refraction, we have for every variation of the path the points A and B remaining fixed,</p> -<p class="center">δ∫µ ds = 0.</p> +<p class="center">δ∫µ ds = 0.</p> <div class="author">(2)</div> <p>(<i>b</i>) Let the point A be kept fixed, but let B undergo an infinitely @@ -19691,10 +19652,10 @@ small displacement BB′ (= q) in a direction making an angle θ with the last element of the ray AB. Then, comparing the new ray AB′ with the original one, it follows that</p> -<p class="center">δ∫µ ds = µ<span class="su">Β</span>q cos θ,</p> +<p class="center">δ∫µ ds = µ<span class="su">Β</span>q cos θ,</p> <div class="author">(3)</div> -<p class="noind">where µ<span class="su">Β</span> is the value of µ at the point B.</p> +<p class="noind">where µ<span class="su">Β</span> is the value of µ at the point B.</p> </div> <p>6. <i>General Considerations on the Propagation of Waves.</i>—“Waves,” @@ -19839,7 +19800,7 @@ him: Any point that is reached by a wave of light becomes a new centre of radiation from which the disturbance is propagated towards all sides. On this basis he determined the progress of light-waves by a construction which, under a restriction to be -mentioned in § 13, applied to waves of any form and to all kinds +mentioned in § 13, applied to waves of any form and to all kinds of transparent media. Let σ be the surface (wave-front) to which a definite phase of vibration has advanced at a certain time t, dt an infinitely small increment of time, and let an @@ -19910,7 +19871,7 @@ series of reflected or refracted wave-fronts.</p> <p>In the case of isotropic media, the ratio (7) is constant, so that we are led to the law of Snellius, the index of refraction being given by</p> -<p class="center">µ = v<span class="su">1</span>/v<span class="su">2</span> (8)</p> +<p class="center">µ = v<span class="su">1</span>/v<span class="su">2</span> (8)</p> <div class="author">(8)</div> <p class="noind">(cf. equation 1).</p> @@ -19941,20 +19902,20 @@ q and the normal to the surface σ, in the direction of propagation, v<span class="su">B</span> the velocity of a plane wave tangent to this surface.</p> <p>In the case of isotropic bodies, for which the relation (8) holds, -we recover the theorems concerning the integral ∫µds which we have -deduced from the emission theory (§ 5).</p> +we recover the theorems concerning the integral ∫µds which we have +deduced from the emission theory (§ 5).</p> <p>10. <i>Further General Theorems.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Let V<span class="su">1</span> and V<span class="su">2</span> be two planes in a system of isotropic bodies, let rectangular axes of coordinates be chosen in each of these planes, and let x<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">1</span> be the coordinates of a -point A in V<span class="su">1</span>, and x<span class="su">2</span>, y<span class="su">2</span> those of a point B in V<span class="su">2</span>. The integral ∫µds, +point A in V<span class="su">1</span>, and x<span class="su">2</span>, y<span class="su">2</span> those of a point B in V<span class="su">2</span>. The integral ∫µds, taken for the ray between A and B, is a function of x<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, y<span class="su">2</span> and, if ξ<span class="su">1</span> denotes either x<span class="su">1</span> or y<span class="su">1</span>, and ξ<span class="su">2</span> either x<span class="su">2</span> or y<span class="su">2</span>, we shall have</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td>∂<span class="sp">2</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> µ ds =</td> <td>∂<span class="sp">2</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> µ ds.</td></tr> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> µ ds =</td> <td>∂<span class="sp">2</span> </td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> µ ds.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">∂ξ<span class="su">1</span> ∂ξ<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="denom">∂ξ<span class="su">2</span> ∂ξ<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table> <p class="noind">On both sides of this equation the first differentiation may be performed @@ -19966,12 +19927,12 @@ be employed for proving the following theorem:</p> from A and intersecting the plane V<span class="su">2</span> in an element σ<span class="su">2</span> at the point B. Similarly, let ω<span class="su">2</span> be the solid angle of a pencil starting from B and falling on the element σ<span class="su">1</span> of the plane V<span class="su">1</span> at the point A. Then, -denoting by µ<span class="su">1</span> and µ<span class="su">2</span> the indices of refraction of the matter at the +denoting by µ<span class="su">1</span> and µ<span class="su">2</span> the indices of refraction of the matter at the points A and B, by θ<span class="su">1</span> and θ<span class="su">2</span> the sharp angles which the ray AB at its extremities makes with the normals to V<span class="su">1</span> and V<span class="su">2</span>, we have</p> -<p class="center">µ<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> σ<span class="su">1</span> ω<span class="su">1</span> cos θ<span class="su">1</span> = - µ<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span> σ<span class="su">2</span> ω<span class="su">2</span> cos θ<span class="su">2</span>.</p> +<p class="center">µ<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> σ<span class="su">1</span> ω<span class="su">1</span> cos θ<span class="su">1</span> = + µ<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span> σ<span class="su">2</span> ω<span class="su">2</span> cos θ<span class="su">2</span>.</p> <p>(<i>b</i>) There is a second theorem that is expressed by exactly the same formula, if we understand by σ<span class="su">1</span> and σ<span class="su">2</span> elements of surface that are @@ -19992,8 +19953,8 @@ having AB as axis. Let h<span class="su">1</span> and h<span class="su">2</span> the linear dimensions of an object and its image, ε<span class="su">1</span> and ε<span class="su">2</span> the infinitely small angles which a ray R going from A to B makes with the axis at these points. Then the above formula gives -µ<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span>ε<span class="su">1</span> = µ<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">2</span>ε<span class="su">2</span>, -a relation that was proved, for the particular case µ<span class="su">1</span> = µ<span class="su">2</span> by Huygens +µ<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span>ε<span class="su">1</span> = µ<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">2</span>ε<span class="su">2</span>, +a relation that was proved, for the particular case µ<span class="su">1</span> = µ<span class="su">2</span> by Huygens and Lagrange. It is still more valuable if one distinguishes by the algebraic sign of h<span class="su">2</span> whether the image is direct or inverted, and by that of ε<span class="su">2</span> whether the ray R on leaving A and on reaching B lies @@ -20040,7 +20001,7 @@ who worked on the same lines, shows a most beautiful agreement with observed facts, yet its foundation, Huygens’s principle, cannot, in its original elementary form, be deemed quite satisfactory. The general validity of the results has, however, been -confirmed by the researches of those mathematicians (Siméon +confirmed by the researches of those mathematicians (Siméon Denis Poisson, Augustin Louis Cauchy, Sir G. G. Stokes, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff) who investigated the propagation of vibrations in a more rigorous manner. Kirchhoff<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> showed that the disturbance @@ -20169,7 +20130,7 @@ multiplied by</p> <p>As to double refraction, Fresnel made it depend on the unequal elasticity of the aether in different directions. He came to the conclusion that, for a given direction of the waves, there are two -possible directions of vibration (§ 6), lying in the wave-front, +possible directions of vibration (§ 6), lying in the wave-front, at right angles to each other, and he determined the form of the wave-surface, both in uniaxal and in biaxal crystals.</p> @@ -20277,7 +20238,7 @@ and the electrostatic unit of electricity.</p> <td class="denom">∂t</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(13)</div> -<p>(ß) For a surface of separation, the continuity of the tangential +<p>(ß) For a surface of separation, the continuity of the tangential components of <b>E</b> and <b>H</b>;</p> <p>(γ) The solenoidal distribution of <b>C</b> and <b>B</b>, and in a dielectric that @@ -20319,8 +20280,8 @@ transverse electric vibrations can be propagated with a velocity</p> found that the ratio c between the two units of electricity agrees within the limits of experimental errors with the numerical value of the velocity of light in aether. (The mean result of the most exact -determinations<a name="fa17n" id="fa17n" href="#ft17n"><span class="sp">17</span></a> of c is 3,001·10<span class="sp">10</span> cm./sec., the largest deviations -being about 0,008·10<span class="sp">10</span>; and Cornu<a name="fa18n" id="fa18n" href="#ft18n"><span class="sp">18</span></a> gives 3,001·10<span class="sp">10</span> ± 0,003·10<span class="sp">10</span> +determinations<a name="fa17n" id="fa17n" href="#ft17n"><span class="sp">17</span></a> of c is 3,001·10<span class="sp">10</span> cm./sec., the largest deviations +being about 0,008·10<span class="sp">10</span>; and Cornu<a name="fa18n" id="fa18n" href="#ft18n"><span class="sp">18</span></a> gives 3,001·10<span class="sp">10</span> ± 0,003·10<span class="sp">10</span> as the most probable value of the velocity of light.) By this Maxwell was led to suppose that light consists of transverse electromagnetic disturbances. On this assumption, the equations (16) represent a @@ -20336,12 +20297,12 @@ perpendicular both to the electric and to the magnetic force. The amounts per unit of volume of the electric and the magnetic energy are given by the expressions</p> -<p class="center">½ (<b>E</b><span class="su">x</span><b>D</b><span class="su">x</span> + <b>E</b><span class="su">y</span><b>D</b><span class="su">y</span> + <b>E</b><span class="su">z</span><b>D</b><span class="su">z</span>),</p> +<p class="center">½ (<b>E</b><span class="su">x</span><b>D</b><span class="su">x</span> + <b>E</b><span class="su">y</span><b>D</b><span class="su">y</span> + <b>E</b><span class="su">z</span><b>D</b><span class="su">z</span>),</p> <div class="author">(17)</div> <p class="noind">and</p> -<p class="center">½ (<b>H</b><span class="su">x</span><b>B</b><span class="su">x</span> + <b>H</b><span class="su">y</span><b>B</b><span class="su">y</span> + <b>H</b><span class="su">z</span><b>B</b><span class="su">z</span>) = ½ <b>H</b><span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<p class="center">½ (<b>H</b><span class="su">x</span><b>B</b><span class="su">x</span> + <b>H</b><span class="su">y</span><b>B</b><span class="su">y</span> + <b>H</b><span class="su">z</span><b>B</b><span class="su">z</span>) = ½ <b>H</b><span class="sp">2</span>,</p> <div class="author">(18)</div> <p class="noind">whose mean values for a full period are equal in every beam of light.</p> @@ -20398,7 +20359,7 @@ physicists have been able to reproduce with them all phenomena of reflection, refraction (single and double), interference, and polarization.<a name="fa25n" id="fa25n" href="#ft25n"><span class="sp">25</span></a> A table of the wave-lengths observed in the aether now has <span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span> -to contain, besides the numbers given in § 11, the lengths of the +to contain, besides the numbers given in § 11, the lengths of the waves produced by electromagnetic apparatus and extending from the long waves used in wireless telegraphy down to about 0.6 cm.</p> </div> @@ -20420,7 +20381,7 @@ coefficient A<span class="su">n</span> sensibly differing from (10).</p> <p>In the theory of double refraction the difficulties are no less serious. As a general rule there are in an anisotropic elastic -solid three possible directions of vibration (§ 6), at right angles +solid three possible directions of vibration (§ 6), at right angles to each other, for a given direction of the waves, but none of these lies in the wave-front. In order to make two of them do so and to find Fresnel’s form for the wave-surface, new hypotheses are @@ -20455,7 +20416,7 @@ constant, we may write</p> <p class="noind">By this the magnetic energy per unit of volume becomes</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">½ g<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">{ (</span></td> <td>∂ξ</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">½ g<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">{ (</span></td> <td>∂ξ</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td> <td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>∂η</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td> @@ -20478,7 +20439,7 @@ energy in the electromagnetic field. Now, on account of (11) and &c., so that the electric energy (17) per unit of volume becomes</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">½ g<span class="sp">2</span>c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">{</span></td> <td>1</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">½ g<span class="sp">2</span>c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">{</span></td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>∂ζ</td> <td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>∂η</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span><span class="sp1">2</span> +</td> <td>1</td> @@ -20506,7 +20467,7 @@ or not, its potential energy per unit of volume can be represented by an expression of the form</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">½ <span class="f150">{</span> L <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>∂ζ</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">½ <span class="f150">{</span> L <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>∂ζ</td> <td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>∂η</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span><span class="sp1">2</span> + M <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>∂ξ</td> <td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>∂ζ</td> @@ -20589,7 +20550,7 @@ the form of the equations for transparent bodies. Lord Kelvin afterwards interpreted MacCullagh’s assumption by supposing the only action which is called forth by a displacement to consist in certain couples acting on the elements of volume and proportional -to the components ½ {(∂ζ/∂y) − (∂η/∂z)}, &c., of their rotation from +to the components ½ {(∂ζ/∂y) − (∂η/∂z)}, &c., of their rotation from the natural position. He also showed<a name="fa29n" id="fa29n" href="#ft29n"><span class="sp">29</span></a> that this “rotational elasticity” can be produced by certain hidden rotations going on in the medium.</p> @@ -20602,13 +20563,13 @@ adapted to what is known of the molecular constitution of bodies, and to the highly probable assumption of the perfect permeability for the aether of all ponderable matter, an assumption by which it has been possible to escape from one of the objections -raised by Newton (§ 4) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aether</a></span>).</p> +raised by Newton (§ 4) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aether</a></span>).</p> <p>The possibility of a truly satisfactory model certainly cannot be denied. But it would, in all probability, be extremely complicated. For this reason many physicists rest content, as regards the free aether, with some such general form of the -electromagnetic theory as has been sketched in § 16.</p> +electromagnetic theory as has been sketched in § 16.</p> <p>19. <i>Optical Properties of Ponderable Bodies. Theory of Electrons.</i>—If we want to form an adequate representation of optical @@ -20636,14 +20597,14 @@ optical phenomena that are not confined to the free aether.<a name="fa31n" id="f <p>It has thus become clear why the relations that had been established between optical and electrical properties have been found -to hold only in some simple cases (§ 16). In fact it cannot be +to hold only in some simple cases (§ 16). In fact it cannot be doubted that, for rapidly alternating electric fields, the formulae expressing the connexion between the motion of electricity and the electric force take a form that is less simple than the one previously admitted, and is to be determined in each case by <span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span> elaborate investigation. However, the general boundary conditions -given in § 16 seem to require no alteration. For this +given in § 16 seem to require no alteration. For this reason it has been possible, for example, to establish a satisfactory theory of metallic reflection, though the propagation of light in the interior of a metal is only imperfectly understood.</p> @@ -20651,7 +20612,7 @@ interior of a metal is only imperfectly understood.</p> <p>One of the fundamental propositions of the theory of electrons is that an electron becomes a centre of radiation whenever its velocity changes either in direction or in magnitude. Thus -the production of Röntgen rays, regarded as consisting of very +the production of Röntgen rays, regarded as consisting of very short and irregular electromagnetic impulses, is traced to the impacts of the electrons of the cathode-rays against the anti-cathode, and the lines of an emission spectrum indicate the @@ -20728,7 +20689,7 @@ with respect to x, but steadily diminishes as x increases. A state of things of this kind, in which the vibrations rapidly die away as we leave the surface, exists in the air adjacent to the face of a glass prism by which a beam of light is totally reflected. It furnishes us -an explanation of Newton’s experiment mentioned in § 2.</p> +an explanation of Newton’s experiment mentioned in § 2.</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. A. L.)</div> @@ -20770,7 +20731,7 @@ figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1 shows the course of a ray of light which, emanating from a luminous point L, strikes the plane surface of a plate of glass M at an angle of about <span class="sidenote">Fizeau.</span> -45°. A fraction of the light is reflected from the two surfaces of +45°. A fraction of the light is reflected from the two surfaces of the glass to a distant reflector R, the plane of which is at right angles to the course of the ray. The latter is thus reflected back on its own course and, passing @@ -20830,7 +20791,7 @@ simple formula.</p> <p>The most elaborate determination yet made by Fizeau’s method was that of Cornu. The station of observation was at the Paris Observatory. The distant reflector, a telescope with a -reflector at its focus, was at Montlhéry, distant 22,910 +reflector at its focus, was at Montlhéry, distant 22,910 <span class="sidenote">Cornu.</span> metres from the toothed wheel. Of the wheels most used one had 150 teeth, and was 35 millimetres in diameter; the other had 200 @@ -20986,7 +20947,7 @@ determinations was:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl">Velocity of light in air</td> <td class="tcl">299,828 km. per sec.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Reduction to a vacuum</td> <td class="tcl">  +82</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Velocity of light in a vacuum</td> <td class="tcl">299,910 ± 50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Velocity of light in a vacuum</td> <td class="tcl">299,910 ± 50</td></tr> </table> <p>While this work was in progress Simon Newcomb obtained the @@ -21041,7 +21002,7 @@ good as doubled, and the possible constant errors inherent in the reference to a fixed direction for the sending telescope were eliminated. The essentials of the apparatus are shown in fig. 4. The revolving mirror was a rectangular prism M of steel, 3 in. high -and 1½ in. on a side +and 1½ in. on a side in cross section, which was driven by a blast of air @@ -21133,8 +21094,8 @@ result was</p> <p class="noind">So far as could be determined from the discordance of the separate measures, the mean error of Newcomb’s result would be less than -±10 km. But making allowance for the various sources of systematic -error the actual probable error was estimated at ±30 km.</p> +±10 km. But making allowance for the various sources of systematic +error the actual probable error was estimated at ±30 km.</p> </div> <p>It seems remarkable that since these determinations were @@ -21199,7 +21160,7 @@ his result was</p> <tr><td class="tcl">  Difference from theory</td> <td class="tcl">+0.12 </td></tr> </table> -<p class="noind">The estimated uncertainty was only 0·02, or <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> of the difference +<p class="noind">The estimated uncertainty was only 0·02, or <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> of the difference between observation and theory.</p> <p>The comparison of red and blue light was made differentially. @@ -21251,9 +21212,9 @@ the front of a moving ray dies out in a space of about 15 wave-lengths.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For Foucault’s descriptions of his experiments see <i>Comptes Rendus</i> (September 22 and November 24, 1862), and -<i>Recueil de Travaux Scientifiques de Léon Foucault</i> (2 vols., 4to, +<i>Recueil de Travaux Scientifiques de Léon Foucault</i> (2 vols., 4to, Paris, 1878). Cornu’s determination is found in <i>Annales de l’Observatoire -de Paris, Mémoires</i>, vol. xiii. The works of Michelson and +de Paris, Mémoires</i>, vol. xiii. The works of Michelson and Newcomb are published <i>in extenso</i> in the <i>Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris</i>, vols. i. and ii.</p> </div> @@ -21272,7 +21233,7 @@ than two generations the main, if not the only, function of the word undulate.’” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aether</a></span>.)</p> <p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> With the Greeks the word “Optics” or <span class="grk" title="Optika">Ὀπτικά</span> (from <span class="grk" title="optomai">ὄπτομαι</span>, -the obsolete present of <span class="grk" title="orô">ὁρῶ</span>, I see) was restricted to questions +the obsolete present of <span class="grk" title="orô">ὁρῶ</span>, I see) was restricted to questions concerning vision, &c., and the nature of light.</p> <p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It seems probable that spectacles were in use towards the end @@ -21304,13 +21265,13 @@ constant. Therefore the surface is an ellipsoid of revolution having A and B as foci. If the rays be parallel, <i>i.e.</i> if A be at infinity, the surface is a paraboloid of revolution having B as focus and the axis parallel to the direction of the rays. In refraction if A be in the -medium of index µ, and B in the medium of index µ′, the characteristic -function shows that µAP + µ′PB, where P is a point on +medium of index µ, and B in the medium of index µ′, the characteristic +function shows that µAP + µ′PB, where P is a point on the surface, must be constant. Plane sections through A and B of such surfaces were originally investigated by Descartes, and are named Cartesian ovals. If the rays be parallel, <i>i.e.</i> A be at infinity, the surface becomes an ellipsoid of revolution having B for one -focus, µ′/µ for eccentricity, and the axis parallel to the direction of +focus, µ′/µ for eccentricity, and the axis parallel to the direction of the rays.</p> <p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Young’s views of the nature of light, which he formulated as @@ -21335,7 +21296,7 @@ vectors.</p> <p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Phil. Trans.</i> (1802), part i. p. 12.</p> -<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Œuvres complètes de Fresnel</i> (Paris, 1866). (The researches were +<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Œuvres complètes de Fresnel</i> (Paris, 1866). (The researches were published between 1815 and 1827.)</p> <p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Ann. Phys. Chem.</i> (1883), 18, p. 663.</p> @@ -21343,13 +21304,13 @@ published between 1815 and 1827.)</p> <p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> H. A. Lorentz, <i>Zittingsversl. Akad. v. Wet. Amsterdam, 4</i> (1896), p. 176.</p> -<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> H. A. Lorentz, <i>Abhandlungen über theoretische Physik</i>, 1 (1907), +<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> H. A. Lorentz, <i>Abhandlungen über theoretische Physik</i>, 1 (1907), p. 415.</p> <p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Clerk Maxwell, <i>A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</i> (Oxford, 1st ed., 1873).</p> -<p><a name="ft17n" id="ft17n" href="#fa17n"><span class="fn">17</span></a> H. Abraham, <i>Rapports présentés au congrès de physique de 1900</i> +<p><a name="ft17n" id="ft17n" href="#fa17n"><span class="fn">17</span></a> H. Abraham, <i>Rapports présentés au congrès de physique de 1900</i> (Paris), 2, p. 247.</p> <p><a name="ft18n" id="ft18n" href="#fa18n"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 225.</p> @@ -21364,7 +21325,7 @@ p. 415.</p> <p><a name="ft23n" id="ft23n" href="#fa23n"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Phys. Review</i>, 13 (1901), p. 293.</p> -<p><a name="ft24n" id="ft24n" href="#fa24n"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Hertz, Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen +<p><a name="ft24n" id="ft24n" href="#fa24n"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Hertz, Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen Kraft</i> (Leipzig, 1892).</p> <p><a name="ft25n" id="ft25n" href="#fa25n"><span class="fn">25</span></a> A. Righi, <i>L’Ottica delle oscillazioni elettriche</i> (Bologna, 1897); @@ -21383,7 +21344,7 @@ P. Lebedew, <i>Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem.</i>, 56 (1895), p. 1.</p> <p><a name="ft30n" id="ft30n" href="#fa30n"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Helmholtz, <i>Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem.</i>, 154 (1875), p. 582.</p> <p><a name="ft31n" id="ft31n" href="#fa31n"><span class="fn">31</span></a> H. A. Lorentz, <i>Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen u. optischen -Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern</i> (1895) (Leipzig, 1906); J. +Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern</i> (1895) (Leipzig, 1906); J. Larmor, <i>Aether and Matter</i> (Cambridge, 1900).</p> </div> @@ -21498,382 +21459,7 @@ our Saviour</i> (London, 1650).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 5, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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