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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 12:26:22 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 12:26:22 -0800 |
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diff --git a/41567-0.txt b/41567-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4759e52 --- /dev/null +++ b/41567-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19438 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41567 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters; [dP] for partial differential symbol. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE LIBRARIES: "... to be called the Nationale Bibliotheek. In + 1805 the present name was adopted; and since 1815 it has become the + national library." 'Nationale' amended from 'National'. + + ARTICLE LIBRARIES: "Tijdschrift voor boek- en bibliotheekwezen + (Hague, 1903); ..." 'boek- en bibliotheekwezen' amended from + 'boekund bibliothekwezen'. + + ARTICLE LICHENS: "... thus Chroolepus umbrinus is found as the + gonidia of 13 different lichen genera." 'Chroolepus' amended from + 'Chroolepns'. + + ARTICLE LICHENS: "The soredia are the most successful method of + reproduction in lichens, for not only are some forms nearly always + without spore-formation and in others the spores largely abortive + ..." 'largely' amended from 'laregly'. + + ARTICLE LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON: "... but of the mineral constituents + the supply is limited because the soil cannot afford an indefinite + amount of them ..." 'constituents' amended from 'constitutents'. + + ARTICLE LIGHT: "... and also to the study of achromatism, the + principles of which followed from Newton's analysis and synthesis + of white light." 'synthesis' amended from 'snythesis'. + + ARTICLE LIGHT: "It follows from these principles that, in an + isotropic dielectric, transverse electric vibrations can be + propagated with a velocity ..." 'dielectric' amended from + 'dialectric'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVI, SLICE V + + Letter to Lightfoot, John + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + LETTER LIAS + LETTERKENNY LIBANIUS + LETTER OF CREDIT LIBATION + LETTERS PATENT LIBAU + LETTRES DE CACHET LIBEL and SLANDER + LETTUCE LIBELLATICI + LEUCADIA LIBER and LIBERA + LEUCIPPUS LIBERAL PARTY + LEUCITE LIBER DIURNUS ROMANORUM PONTIFICUM + LEUCTRA LIBERIA + LEUK LIBERIUS + LEUTHEN LIBER PONTIFICALIS + LEUTZE, EMANUEL LIBERTAD + LEVALLOIS-PERRET LIBERTARIANISM + LEVANT LIBERTINES + LEVASSEUR, PIERRE EMILE LIBERTINES, SYNAGOGUE OF THE + LEVECHE LIBERTY + LEVÉE (river embankment) LIBERTY PARTY + LEVEE (reception) LIBITINA + LEVELLERS LIBMANAN + LEVEN, ALEXANDER LESLIE LIBO + LEVEN (Scotish burgh) LIBON + LEVEN, LOCH LIBOURNE + LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF LIBRA + LEVER, CHARLES JAMES LIBRARIES + LEVER LIBRATION + LEVERRIER, URBAIN JEAN JOSEPH LIBYA + LEVERTIN, OSCAR IVAN LICATA + LEVI, HERMANN LICENCE + LEVI, LEONE LICHEN + LEVIATHAN LICHENS + LEVIRATE LICHFIELD + LÉVIS LICH-GATE + LEVITES LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH + LEVITICUS LICHTENBERG (German principality) + LEVY, AMY LICINIANUS, GRANIUS + LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL LICINIUS + LEVY (money raising) LICINIUS CALVUS STOLO, GAIUS + LEWALD, FANNY LICINIUS MACER CALVUS, GAIUS + LEWANIKA LICODIA EUBEA + LEWES, CHARLES LEE LICTORS + LEWES, GEORGE HENRY LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE + LEWES (town of England) LIDDESDALE + LEWES (Delaware, U.S.A.) LIDDON, HENRY PARRY + LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL + LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS + LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK LIEBER, FRANCIS + LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY LIEBERMANN, MAX + LEWIS, MERIWETHER LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON + LEWISBURG LIEBKNECHT, WILHELM + LEWISHAM LIECHTENSTEIN + LEWISTON LIÉGE (province of Belgium) + LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS LIÉGE (Belgian city) + LEXICON LIEGE (feudal term) + LEXINGTON, BARON LIEGNITZ + LEXINGTON (Kentucky, U.S.A.) LIEN + LEXINGTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) LIERRE + LEXINGTON (Missouri, U.S.A.) LIESTAL + LEXINGTON (Virginia, U.S.A.) LIEUTENANT + LEYDEN, JOHN LIFE + LEYDEN JAR LIFE-BOAT, and LIFE-SAVING SERVICE + LEYS, HENDRIK LIFFORD + LEYTON LIGAMENT + LHASA LIGAO + L'HÔPITAL, MICHEL DE LIGHT + LIAO-YANG LIGHTFOOT, JOHN + + + + +LETTER (through Fr. _lettre_ from Lat. _littera_ or _litera_, letter of +the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably +no connexion with the root of _linere_, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an +inscription with a stilus), a character or symbol expressing any one of +the elementary sounds into which a spoken word may be analysed, one of +the members of an alphabet. As applied to things written, the word +follows mainly the meanings of the Latin plural _litterae_, the most +common meaning attaching to the word being that of a written +communication from one person to another, an epistle (q.v.). For the +means adopted to secure the transmission of letters see POST AND POSTAL +SERVICE. The word is also, particularly in the plural, applied to many +legal and formal written documents, as in letters patent, letters +rogatory and dismissory, &c. The Latin use of the plural is also +followed in the employment of "letters" in the sense of literature +(q.v.) or learning. + + + + +LETTERKENNY, a market town of Co. Donegal, Ireland, 23 m. W. by S. of +Londonderry by the Londonderry and Lough Swilly and Letterkenny railway. +Pop. (1901) 2370. It has a harbour at Port Ballyrane, 1 m. distant on +Lough Swilly. In the market square a considerable trade in grain, flax +and provisions is prosecuted. Rope-making and shirt-making are +industries. The handsome Roman Catholic cathedral for the diocese of +Raphoe occupies a commanding site, and cost a large sum, as it contains +carving from Rome, glass from Munich and a pulpit of Irish and Carrara +marble. It was consecrated in 1901. There is a Catholic college +dedicated to St Ewnan. The town, which is governed by an urban district +council, is a centre for visitors to the county. Its name signifies the +"hill of the O'Cannanans," a family who lorded over Tyrconnell before +the rise of the O'Donnells. + + + + +LETTER OF CREDIT, a letter, open or sealed, from a banker or merchant, +containing a request to some other person or firm to advance the bearer +of the letter, or some other person named therein, upon the credit of +the writer a particular or an unlimited sum of money. A letter of credit +is either general or special. It is general when addressed to merchants +or other persons in general, requesting an advance to a third person, +and special when addressed to a particular person by name requesting him +to make such an advance. A letter of credit is not a negotiable +instrument. When a letter of credit is given for the purchase of goods, +the letter of credit usually states the particulars of the merchandise +against which bills are to be drawn, and shipping documents (bills of +lading, invoices, insurance policies) are usually attached to the draft +for acceptance. + + + + +LETTERS PATENT. It is a rule alike of common law and sound policy that +grants of freehold interests, franchises, liberties, &c., by the +sovereign to a subject should be made only after due consideration, and +in a form readily accessible to the public. These ends are attained in +England through the agency of that piece of constitutional machinery +known as "letters patent." It is here proposed to consider only the +characteristics of letters patent generally. The law relating to letters +patent for inventions is dealt with under the heading PATENTS. + +Letters patent (_litterae patentes_) are letters addressed by the +sovereign "to all to whom these presents shall come," reciting the grant +of some dignity, office, monopoly, franchise or other privilege to the +patentee. They are not sealed up, but are left open (hence the term +"patent"), and are recorded in the Patent Rolls in the Record Office, or +in the case of very recent grants, in the Chancery Enrolment Office, so +that all subjects of the realm may read and be bound by their contents. +In this respect they differ from certain other letters of the sovereign +directed to particular persons and for particular purposes, which, not +being proper for public inspection, are closed up and sealed on the +outside, and are thereupon called _writs close_ (_litterae clausae_) and +are recorded in the Close Rolls. Letters patent are used to put into +commission various powers inherent in the crown--legislative powers, as +when the sovereign entrusts to others the duty of opening parliament or +assenting to bills; judicial powers, e.g. of gaol delivery; executive +powers, as when the duties of Treasurer and Lord High Admiral are +assigned to commissioners of the Treasury and Admiralty (Anson, _Const._ +ii. 47). Letters patent are also used to incorporate bodies by +charter--in the British colonies, this mode of legislation is frequently +applied to joint stock companies (cf. Rev. Stats. Ontario, c. 191, s. +9)--to grant a _congé d'élire_ to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop, +or licence to convocation to amend canons; to grant pardon, and to +confer certain offices and dignities. Among grants of offices, &c., made +by letters patent the following may be enumerated: offices in the +Heralds' College; the dignities of a peer, baronet and knight bachelor; +the appointments of lord-lieutenant, custos rotulorum of counties, judge +of the High Court and Indian and Colonial judgeships, king's counsel, +crown livings; the offices of attorney- and solicitor-general, +commander-in-chief, master of the horse, keeper of the privy seal, +postmaster-general, king's printer; grants of separate courts of +quarter-sessions. The fees payable in respect of the grant of various +forms of letters patent are fixed by orders of the lord chancellor, +dated 20th of June 1871, 18th of July 1871 and 11th of Aug. 1881. (These +orders are set out at length in the _Statutory Rules and Orders Revised_ +(ed. 1904), vol. ii. _tit._ "Clerk of the Crown in Chancery," pp. i. et +seq.) Formerly each colonial governor was appointed and commissioned by +letters patent under the great seal of the United Kingdom. But since +1875, the practice has been to create the office of governor in each +colony by letters patent, and then to make each appointment to the +office by commission under the Royal Sign Manual and to give to the +governor so appointed instructions in a uniform shape under the Royal +Sign Manual. The letters patent, commission and instructions, are +commonly described as the Governor's Commission (see Jenkyns, _British +Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas_, p. 100; the forms now in use are +printed in Appx. iv. Also the _Statutory Rules and Codes Revised_, ed. +1904, under the title of the colony to which they relate). The Colonial +Letters Patent Act 1863 provides that letters patent shall not take +effect in the colonies or possessions beyond the seas until their +publication there by proclamation or otherwise (s. 2), and shall be +void unless so published within nine months in the case of colonies east +of Bengal or west of Cape Horn, and within six months in any other case. +Colonial officers and judges holding offices by patent for life or for a +term certain, are removable by a special procedure--"amotion"--by the +Governor and Council, subject to a right of appeal to the king in +Council (Leave of Absence Act, formerly cited as "Burke's Act" 1782; see +_Montagu_ v. _Governor of Van Diemen's Land_, 1849, 6 Moo. P.C. 491; +_Willis_ v. _Gipps_, 1846, 6 St. Trials [N.S., 311]). The law of +conquered or ceded colonies may be altered by the crown by letters +patent under the Great Seal as well as by Proclamation or Order in +Council (_Jephson_ v. _Riera_, 1835, 3 Knapp, 130; 3 St. Trials [N.S.] +591). + +_Procedure._--Formerly letters patent were always granted under the +Great Seal. But now, under the Crown Office Act 1877, and the Orders in +Council made under it, many letters patent are sealed with the wafer +great seal. Letters patent for inventions are issued under the seal of +the Patent Office. The procedure by which letters patent are obtained is +as follows: A warrant for the issue of letters patent is drawn up; and +is signed by the lord chancellor; this is submitted to the law officers +of the crown, who countersign it; finally, the warrant thus signed and +countersigned is submitted to His Majesty, who affixes his signature. +The warrant is then sent to the Crown Office and is filed, after it has +been acted upon by the issue of letters patent under the great or under +the wafer seal as the case may be. The letters patent are then delivered +into the custody of those in whose favour they are granted. + +_Construction._--The construction of letters patent differs from that of +other grants in certain particulars: (i.) Letters patent, contrary to +the ordinary rule, are construed in a sense favourable to the grantor +(viz. the crown) rather than to the grantee; although this rule is said +not to apply so strictly where the grant is made for consideration, or +where it purports to be made _ex certâ scientiâ et mero motu_. (ii.) +When it appears from the face of the grant that the sovereign has been +mistaken or deceived, either in matter of fact or in matter of law, as, +e.g. by false suggestion on the part of the patentee, or by misrecital +of former grants, or if the grant is contrary to law or uncertain, the +letters patent are absolutely void, and may still, it would seem, be +cancelled (except as regards letters patent for inventions, which are +revoked by a special procedure, regulated by § 26 of the Patents Act +1883), by the procedure known as scire facias, an action brought against +the patentee in the name of the crown with the fiat of the +attorney-general. + + As to letters patent generally, see Bacon's _Abridgment_ + ("Prerogative," F.); Chitty's _Prerogative_; Hindmarsh on _Patents_ + (1846); Anson, _Law and Custom of the Const._ ii. (3rd ed., Oxford and + London, 1907-1908). (A. W. R.) + + + + +LETTRES DE CACHET. Considered solely as French documents, _lettres de +cachet_ may be defined as letters signed by the king of France, +countersigned by one of his ministers, and closed with the royal seal +(_cachet_). They contained an order--in principle, any order +whatsoever--emanating directly from the king, and executory by himself. +In the case of organized bodies _lettres de cachet_ were issued for the +purpose of enjoining members to assemble or to accomplish some definite +act; the provincial estates were convoked in this manner, and it was by +_a lettre de cachet_ (called _lettre de jussion_) that the king ordered +a parlement to register a law in the teeth of its own remonstrances. The +best-known _lettres de cachet_, however, were those which may be called +penal, by which the king sentenced a subject without trial and without +an opportunity of defence to imprisonment in a state prison or an +ordinary gaol, confinement in a convent or a hospital, transportation to +the colonies, or relegation to a given place within the realm. + +The power which the king exercised on these various occasions was a +royal privilege recognized by old French law, and can be traced to a +maxim which furnished a text of the _Digest_ of Justinian: "Rex solutus +est a legibus." This signified particularly that when the king +intervened directly in the administration proper, or in the +administration of justice, by a special act of his will, he could +decide without heeding the laws, and even in a sense contrary to the +laws. This was an early conception, and in early times the order in +question was simply verbal; thus some letters patent of Henry III. of +France in 1576 (Isambert, _Anciennes lois françaises_, xiv. 278) state +that François de Montmorency was "prisoner in our castle of the Bastille +in Paris by verbal command" of the late king Charles IX. But in the 14th +century the principle was introduced that the order should be written, +and hence arose the _lettre de cachet_. The _lettre de cachet_ belonged +to the class of _lettres closes_, as opposed to _lettres patentes_, +which contained the expression of the legal and permanent will of the +king, and had to be furnished with the seal of state affixed by the +chancellor. The _lettres de cachet_, on the contrary, were signed simply +by a secretary of state (formerly known as _secrétaire des +commandements_) for the king; they bore merely the imprint of the king's +privy seal, from which circumstance they were often called, in the 14th +and 15th centuries, _lettres de petit signet_ or _lettres de petit +cachet_, and were entirely exempt from the control of the chancellor. + +While serving the government as a silent weapon against political +adversaries or dangerous writers and as a means of punishing culprits of +high birth without the scandal of a suit at law, the _lettres de cachet_ +had many other uses. They were employed by the police in dealing with +prostitutes, and on their authority lunatics were shut up in hospitals +and sometimes in prisons. They were also often used by heads of families +as a means of correction, e.g. for protecting the family honour from the +disorderly or criminal conduct of sons; wives, too, took advantage of +them to curb the profligacy of husbands and vice versa. They were issued +by the intermediary on the advice of the intendants in the provinces and +of the lieutenant of police in Paris. In reality, the secretary of state +issued them in a completely arbitrary fashion, and in most cases the +king was unaware of their issue. In the 18th century it is certain that +the letters were often issued blank, i.e. without containing the name of +the person against whom they were directed; the recipient, or mandatary, +filled in the name in order to make the letter effective. + +Protests against the _lettres de cachet_ were made continually by the +parlement of Paris and by the provincial parlements, and often also by +the States-General. In 1648 the sovereign courts of Paris procured their +momentary suppression in a kind of charter of liberties which they +imposed upon the crown, but which was ephemeral. It was not until the +reign of Louis XVI. that a reaction against this abuse became clearly +perceptible. At the beginning of that reign Malesherbes during his short +ministry endeavoured to infuse some measure of justice into the system, +and in March 1784 the baron de Breteuil, a minister of the king's +household, addressed a circular to the intendants and the lieutenant of +police with a view to preventing the crying abuses connected with the +issue of _lettres de cachet_. In Paris, in 1779, the _Cour des Aides_ +demanded their suppression, and in March 1788 the parlement of Paris +made some exceedingly energetic remonstrances, which are important for +the light they throw upon old French public law. The crown, however, did +not decide to lay aside this weapon, and in a declaration to the +States-General in the royal session of the 23rd of June 1789 (art. 15) +it did not renounce it absolutely. _Lettres de cachet_ were abolished by +the Constituent Assembly, but Napoleon re-established their equivalent +by a political measure in the decree of the 9th of March 1801 on the +state prisons. This was one of the acts brought up against him by the +_sénatus-consulte_ of the 3rd of April 1814, which pronounced his fall +"considering that he has violated the constitutional laws by the decrees +on the state prisons." + + See Honoré Mirabeau, _Les Lettres de cachet et des prisons d'état_ + (Hamburg, 1782), written in the dungeon at Vincennes into which his + father had thrown him by a _lettre de cachet_, one of the ablest and + most eloquent of his works, which had an immense circulation and was + translated into English with a dedication to the duke of Norfolk in + 1788; Frantz Funck-Brentano, _Les Lettres de cachet à Paris_ (Paris, + 1904); and André Chassaigne, _Les Lettres de cachet sous l'ancien + régime_ (Paris, 1903). (J. P. E.) + + + + +LETTUCE, known botanically as _Lactuca sativa_ (nat. ord. Compositae), a +hardy annual, highly esteemed as a salad plant. The London +market-gardeners make preparation for the first main crop of Cos +lettuces in the open ground early in August, a frame being set on a +shallow hotbed, and, the stimulus of heat not being required, this is +allowed to subside till the first week in October, when the soil, +consisting of leaf-mould mixed with a little sand, is put on 6 or 7 in. +thick, so that the surface is within 4½ in. of the sashes. The best time +for sowing is found to be about the 11th of October, one of the best +varieties being Lobjoits Green Cos. When the seeds begin to germinate +the sashes are drawn quite off in favourable weather during the day, and +put on, but tilted, at night in wet weather. Very little watering is +required, and the aim should be to keep the plants gently moving till +the days begin to lengthen. In January a more active growth is +encouraged, and in mild winters a considerable extent of the planting +out is done, but in private gardens the preferable time would be +February. The ground should be light and rich, and well manured below, +and the plants put out at 1 ft. apart each way with the dibble. Frequent +stirring of the ground with the hoe greatly encourages the growth of the +plants. A second sowing should be made about the 5th of November, and a +third in frames about the end of January or beginning of February. In +March a sowing may be made in some warm situation out of doors; +successional sowings may be made in the open border about every third or +fourth week till August, about the middle of which month a crop of Brown +Cos, Hardy Hammersmith or Hardy White Cos should be sown, the latter +being the most reliable in a severe winter. These plants may be put out +early in October on the sides of ridges facing the south or at the front +of a south wall, beyond the reach of drops from the copings, being +planted 6 or 8 in. apart. Young lettuce plants should be thinned out in +the seed-beds before they crowd or draw each other, and transplanted as +soon as possible after two or three leaves are formed. Some cultivators +prefer that the summer crops should not be transplanted, but sown where +they are to stand, the plants being merely thinned out; but +transplanting checks the running to seed, and makes the most of the +ground. + +For a winter supply by gentle forcing, the Hardy Hammersmith and Brown +Dutch Cabbage lettuces, and the Brown Cos and Green Paris Cos lettuces, +should be sown about the middle of August and in the beginning of +September, in rich light soil, the plants being pricked out 3 in. apart +in a prepared bed, as soon as the first two leaves are fully formed. +About the middle of October the plants should be taken up carefully with +balls attached to the roots, and should be placed in a mild hotbed of +well-prepared dung (about 55°) covered about 1 ft. deep with a compost +of sandy peat, leaf-mould and a little well-decomposed manure. The Cos +and Brown Dutch varieties should be planted about 9 in. apart. Give +plenty of air when the weather permits, and protect from frost. For +winter work Stanstead Park Cabbage Lettuce is greatly favoured now by +London market-gardeners, as it stands the winter well. Lee's Immense is +another good variety, while All the Year Round may be sown for almost +any season, but is better perhaps for summer crops. + +There are two races of the lettuce, the Cos lettuce, with erect oblong +heads, and the Cabbage lettuce, with round or spreading heads,--the +former generally crisp, the latter soft and flabby in texture. Some of +the best lettuces for general purposes of the two classes are the +following:-- + +_Cos:_ White Paris Cos, best for summer; Green Paris Cos, hardier than +the white; Brown Cos, Lobjoits Green Cos, one of the hardiest and best +for winter; Hardy White Cos. + +_Cabbage:_ Hammersmith Hardy Green; Stanstead Park, very hardy, good for +winter; Tom Thumb; Brown Dutch; Neapolitan, best for summer; All the +Year Round; Golden Ball, good for forcing in private establishments. + +_Lactuca virosa_, the strong-scented lettuce, contains an alkaloid which +has the power of dilating the pupil and may possibly be identical with +hyoscyamine, though this point is as yet not determined. No variety of +lettuce is now used for any medicinal purpose, though there is probably +some slight foundation for the belief that the lettuce has faint +narcotic properties. + + + + +LEUCADIA, the ancient name of one of the Ionian Islands, now Santa Maura +(q.v.), and of its chief town (Hamaxichi). + + + + +LEUCIPPUS, Greek philosopher, born at Miletus (or Elea), founder of the +Atomistic theory, contemporary of Zeno, Empedocles and Anaxagoras. His +fame was so completely overshadowed by that of Democritus, who +subsequently developed the theory into a system, that his very existence +was denied by Epicurus (Diog. Laërt. x. 7), followed in modern times by +E. Rohde. Epicurus, however, distinguishes Leucippus from Democritus, +and Aristotle and Theophrastus expressly credit him with the invention +of Atomism. There seems, therefore, no reason to doubt his existence, +although nothing is known of his life, and even his birthplace is +uncertain. Between Leucippus and Democritus there is an interval of at +least forty years; accordingly, while the beginnings of Atomism are +closely connected with the doctrines of the Eleatics, the system as +developed by Democritus is conditioned by the sophistical views of his +time, especially those of Protagoras. While Leucippus's notion of Being +agreed generally with that of the Eleatics, he postulated its plurality +(atoms) and motion, and the reality of not-Being (the void) in which his +atoms moved. + + See DEMOCRITUS. On the Rohde-Diels controversy as to the existence of + Leucippus, see F. Lortzing in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, vol. cxvi. + (1904); also J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_ (1892). + + + + +LEUCITE, a rock-forming mineral composed of potassium and aluminium +metasilicate KAl(SiO3)2. Crystals have the form of cubic icositetrahedra +{211}, but, as first observed by Sir David Brewster in 1821, they are +not optically isotropic, and are therefore pseudo-cubic. Goniometric +measurements made by G. vom Rath in 1873 led him to refer the crystals +to the tetragonal system, the faces o being distinct from those lettered +i in the adjoining figure. Optical investigations have since proved the +crystals to be still more complex in character, and to consist of +several orthorhombic or monoclinic individuals, which are optically +biaxial and repeatedly twinned, giving rise to twin-lamellae and to +striations on the faces. When the crystals are raised to a temperature +of about 500° C. they become optically isotropic, the twin-lamellae and +striations disappearing, reappearing, however, when the crystals are +again cooled. This pseudo-cubic character of leucite is exactly the same +as that of the mineral boracite (q.v.). + +[Illustration] + +The crystals are white (hence the name suggested by A. G. Werner in +1791, from [Greek: leukos]) or ash-grey in colour, and are usually dull +and opaque, but sometimes transparent and glassy; they are brittle and +break with a conchoidal fracture. The hardness is 5.5, and the specific +gravity 2.5. Enclosures of other minerals, arranged in concentric zones, +are frequently present in the crystals. On account of the colour and +form of the crystals the mineral was early known as "white garnet." +French authors employ R. J. Haüy's name "amphigène." (L. J. S.) + + _Leucite Rocks._--Although rocks containing leucite are numerically + scarce, many countries such as England being entirely without them, + yet they are of wide distribution, occurring in every quarter of the + globe. Taken collectively, they exhibit a considerable variety of + types and are of great interest petrographically. For the presence of + this mineral it is necessary that the silica percentage of the rock + should not be high, for leucite never occurs in presence of free + quartz. It is most common in lavas of recent and Tertiary age, which + have a fair amount of potash, or at any rate have potash equal to or + greater than soda; if soda preponderates nepheline occurs rather than + leucite. In pre-Tertiary rocks leucite is uncommon, since it readily + decomposes and changes to zeolites, analcite and other secondary + minerals. Leucite also is rare in plutonic rocks and dike rocks, but + leucite-syenite and leucite-tinguaite bear witness to the possibility + that it may occur in this manner. The rounded shape of its crystals, + their white or grey colour, and rough cleavage, make the presence of + leucite easily determinable in many of these rocks by simple + inspection, especially when the crystals are large. "Pseudo-leucites" + are rounded areas consisting of felspar, nepheline, analcite, &c., + which have the shape, composition and sometimes even the crystalline + forms of leucite; they are probably pseudomorphs or paramorphs, which + have developed from leucite because this mineral, in its isometric + crystals, is not stable at ordinary temperatures and may be expected + under favourable conditions to undergo spontaneous change into an + aggregate of other minerals. Leucite is very often accompanied by + nepheline, sodalite or nosean; other minerals which make their + appearance with some frequency are melanite, garnet and melilite. + + The plutonic leucite-bearing rocks are leucite-syenite and missourite. + Of these the former consists of orthoclase, nepheline, sodalite, + diopside and aegirine, biotite and sphene. Two occurrences are known, + one in Arkansas, the other in Sutherlandshire, Scotland. The Scottish + rock has been called borolanite. Both examples show large rounded + spots in the hand specimens; they are pseudo-leucites and under the + microscope prove to consist of orthoclase, nepheline, sodalite and + decomposition products. These have a radiate arrangement externally, + but are of irregular structure at their centres; it is interesting to + note that in both rocks melanite is an important accessory. The + missourites are more basic and consist of leucite, olivine, augite and + biotite; the leucite is partly fresh, partly altered to analcite, and + the rock has a spotted character recalling that of the + leucite-syenites. It has been found only in the Highwood Mountains of + Montana. + + The leucite-bearing dike-rocks are members of the tinguaite and + monchiquite groups. The leucite-tinguaites are usually pale grey or + greenish in colour and consist principally of nepheline, + alkali-felspar and aegirine. The latter forms bright green moss-like + patches and growths of indefinite shape, or in other cases scattered + acicular prisms, among the felspars and nephelines of the ground mass. + Where leucite occurs, it is always eumorphic in small, rounded, + many-sided crystals in the ground mass, or in larger masses which have + the same characters as the pseudo-leucites. Biotite occurs in some of + these rocks, and melanite also is present. Nepheline appears to + decrease in amount as leucite increases. Rocks of this group are known + from Rio de Janeiro, Arkansas, Kola (in Finland), Montana and a few + other places. In Greenland there are leucite-tinguaites with much + arfvedsonite (hornblende) and eudyalite. Wherever they occur they + accompany leucite- and nepheline-syenites. Leucite-monchiquites are + fine-grained dark rocks consisting of olivine, titaniferous augite and + iron oxides, with a glassy ground mass in which small rounded crystals + of leucite are scattered. They have been described from Bohemia. + + By far the greater number of the rocks which contain leucite are lavas + of Tertiary or recent geological age. They are never acid rocks which + contain quartz, but felspar is usually present, though there are + certain groups of leucite lavas which are non-felspathic. Many of them + also contain nepheline, sodalite, hauyne and nosean; the much rarer + mineral melilite appears also in some examples. The commonest + ferromagnesian mineral is augite (sometimes rich in soda), with + olivine in the more basic varieties. Hornblende and biotite occur + also, but are less common. Melanite is found in some of the lavas, as + in the leucite-syenites. + + The rocks in which orthoclase (or sanidine) is present in considerable + amount are leucite-trachytes, leucite-phonolites and leucitophyres. Of + these groups the two former, which are not sharply distinguished from + one another by most authors, are common in the neighbourhood of Rome + (L. Bracciano, L. Bolsena). They are of trachytic appearance, + containing phenocysts of sanidine, leucite, augite and biotite. + Sodalite or hauyne may also be present, but nepheline is typically + absent. Rocks of this class occur also in the tuffs of the Phlegraean + Fields, near Naples. The leucitophyres are rare rocks which have been + described from various parts of the volcanic district of the Rhine + (Olbrück, Laacher See, &c.) and from Monte Vulture in Italy. They are + rich in leucite, but contain also some sanidine and often much + nepheline with hauyne or nosean. Their pyroxene is principally + aegirine or aegirine augite; some of them are rich in melanite. + Microscopic sections of some of these rocks are of great interest on + account of their beauty and the variety of felspathoid minerals which + they contain. In Brazil leucitophyres have been found which belong to + the Carboniferous period. + + Those leucite rocks which contain abundant essential plagioclase + felspar are known as leucite-tephrites and leucite-basanites. The + former consist mainly of plagioclase, leucite and augite, while the + latter contain olivine in addition. The leucite is often present in + two sets of crystals, both porphyritic and as an ingredient of the + ground mass. It is always idiomorphic with rounded outlines. The + felspar ranges from bytownite to oligoclase, being usually a variety + of labradorite; orthoclase is scarce. The augite varies a good deal in + character, being green, brown or violet, but aegirine (the dark green + pleochroic soda-iron-augite) is seldom present. Among the accessory + minerals biotite, brown hornblende, hauyne, iron oxides and apatite + are the commonest; melanite and nepheline may also occur. The ground + mass of these rocks is only occasionally rich in glass. The + leucite-tephrites and leucite-basanites of Vesuvius and Somma are + familiar examples of this class of rocks. They are black or ashy-grey + in colour, often vesicular, and may contain many large grey phenocysts + of leucite. Their black augite and yellow green olivine are also + easily detected in hand specimens. From Volcanello, Sardinia and + Roccamonfina similar rocks are obtained; they occur also in Bohemia, + in Java, Celebes, Kilimanjaro (Africa) and near Trebizond in Asia + Minor. + + Leucite lavas from which felspar is absent are divided into the + leucitites and leucite basalts. The latter contain olivine, the former + do not. Pyroxene is the usual ferromagnesian mineral, and resembles + that of the tephrites and basanites. Sanidine, melanite, hauyne and + perofskite are frequent accessory minerals in these rocks, and many of + them contain melilite in some quantity. The well-known leucitite of + the Capo di Bove, near Rome, is rich in this mineral, which forms + irregular plates, yellow in the hand specimen, enclosing many small + rounded crystals of leucite. Bracciano and Roccamonfina are other + Italian localities for leucitite, and in Java, Montana, Celebes and + New South Wales similar rocks occur. The leucite-basalts belong to + more basic types and are rich in olivine and augite. They occur in + great numbers in the Rhenish volcanic district (Eifel, Laacher See) + and in Bohemia, and accompany tephrites or leucitites in Java, + Montana, Celebes and Sardinia. The "peperino" of the neighbourhood of + Rome is a leucitite tuff. (J. S. F.) + + + + +LEUCTRA, a village of Boeotia in the territory of Thespiae, chiefly +noticeable for the battle fought in its neighbourhood in 371 B.C. +between the Thebans and the Spartans and their allies. A Peloponnesian +army, about 10,000 strong, which had invaded Boeotia from Phocis, was +here confronted by a Boeotian levy of perhaps 6000 soldiers under +Epaminondas (q.v.). In spite of inferior numbers and the doubtful +loyalty of his Boeotian allies, Epaminondas offered battle on the plain +before the town. Massing his cavalry and the 50-deep column of Theban +infantry on his left wing, he sent forward this body in advance of his +centre and right wing. After a cavalry engagement in which the Thebans +drove their enemies off the field, the decisive issue was fought out +between the Theban and Spartan foot. The latter, though fighting well, +could not sustain in their 12-deep formation the heavy impact of their +opponents' column, and were hurled back with a loss of about 2000 men, +of whom 700 were Spartan citizens, including the king Cleombrotus. +Seeing their right wing beaten, the rest of the Peloponnesians retired +and left the enemy in possession of the field. Owing to the arrival of a +Thessalian army under Jason of Pherae, whose friendship they did not +trust, the Thebans were unable to exploit their victory. But the battle +is none the less of great significance in Greek history. It marks a +revolution in military tactics, affording the first known instance of a +deliberate concentration of attack upon the vital point of the enemy's +line. Its political effects were equally far-reaching, for the loss in +material strength and prestige which the Spartans here sustained +deprived them for ever of their supremacy in Greece. + + AUTHORITIES.--Xenophon, _Hellenica_, vi. 4. 3-15; Diodorus xi. 53-56; + Plutarch, _Pelopidas_, chs. 20-23; Pausanias ix. 13. 2-10; G. B. + Grundy, _The Topography of the Battle of Plataea_ (London, 1894), pp. + 73-76; H. Delbrück, _Geschichte der Kriegskunst_ (Berlin, 1900), i. + 130 ff. (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +LEUK (Fr. _Loèche Ville_), an ancient and very picturesque little town +in the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is built above the right bank of +the Rhone, and is about 1 m. from the Leuk-Susten station (15½ m. east +of Sion and 17½ m. west of Brieg) on the Simplon railway. In 1900 it had +1592 inhabitants, all but wholly German-speaking and Romanists. About +10½ m. by a winding carriage road N. of Leuk, and near the head of the +Dala valley, at a height of 4629 ft. above the sea-level, and +overshadowed by the cliffs of the Gemmi Pass (7641 ft.; q.v.) leading +over to the Bernese Oberland, are the Baths of Leuk (_Leukerbad_, or +_Loèche les Bains_). They have only 613 permanent inhabitants, but are +much frequented in summer by visitors (largely French and Swiss) +attracted by the hot mineral springs. These are 22 in number, and are +very abundant. The principal is that of St Laurence, the water of which +has a temperature of 124° F. The season lasts from June to September. +The village in winter is long deprived of sunshine, and is much exposed +to avalanches, by which it was destroyed in 1518, 1719 and 1756, but it +is now protected by a strong embankment from a similar catastrophe. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LEUTHEN, a village of Prussian Silesia, 10 m. W. of Breslau, memorable +as the scene of Frederick the Great's victory over the Austrians on +December 5, 1757. The high road from Breslau to Lüben crosses the marshy +Schweidnitz Water at Lissa, and immediately enters the rolling country +about Neumarkt. Leuthen itself stands some 4000 paces south of the +road, and a similar distance south again lies Sagschütz, while Nypern, +on the northern edge of the hill country, is 5000 paces from the road. +On Frederick's approach the Austrians took up a line of battle resting +on the two last-named villages. Their whole position was strongly +garrisoned and protected by obstacles, and their artillery was numerous +though of light calibre. A strong outpost of Saxon cavalry was in Borne +to the westward. Frederick had the previous day surprised the Austrian +bakeries at Neumarkt, and his Prussians, 33,000 to the enemy's 82,000, +moved towards Borne and Leuthen early on the 5th. The Saxon outpost was +rushed at in the morning mist, and, covered by their advanced guard on +the heights beyond, the Prussians wheeled to their right. Prince Charles +of Lorraine, the Austrian commander-in-chief, on Leuthen Church tower, +could make nothing of Frederick's movements, and the commander of his +right wing (Lucchesi) sent him message after message from Nypem and +Gocklerwitz asking for help, which was eventually despatched. But the +real blow was to fall on the left under Nadasdy. While the Austrian +commander was thus wasting time, the Prussians were marching against +Nadasdy in two columns, which preserved their distances with an +exactitude which has excited the wonder of modern generations of +soldiers; at the due place they wheeled into line of battle obliquely to +the Austrian front, and in one great _échelon_,--the cavalry of the +right wing foremost, and that of the left "refused,"--Frederick advanced +on Sagschütz. Nadasdy, surprised, put a bold face on the matter and made +a good defence, but he was speedily routed, and, as the Prussians +advanced, battalion after battalion was rolled up towards Leuthen until +the Austrians faced almost due south. The fighting in Leuthen itself was +furious; the Austrians stood, in places, 100 deep, but the disciplined +valour of the Prussians carried the village. For a moment the victory +was endangered when Lucchesi came down upon the Prussian left wing from +the north, but Driesen's cavalry, till then refused, charged him in +flank and scattered his troopers in wild rout. This stroke ended the +battle. The retreat on Breslau became a rout almost comparable to that +of Waterloo, and Prince Charles rallied, in Bohemia, barely 37,000 out +of his 82,000. Ten thousand Austrians were left on the field, 21,000 +taken prisoners (besides 17,000 in Breslau a little later), with 51 +colours and 116 cannon. The Prussian loss in all was under 5500. It was +not until 1854 that a memorial of this astonishing victory was erected +on the battlefield. + + See Carlyle, _Frederick_, bk. xviii. cap. x.; V. Ollech, _Friedrich + der Grosse von Kolin bis Leuthen_ (Berlin, 1858); Kutzen, _Schlacht + bei Leuthen_ (Breslau, 1851 ); and bibliography under SEVEN YEARS' + WAR. + + + + +LEUTZE, EMANUEL (1816-1868), American artist, was born at Gmünd, +Württemberg, on the 24th of May 1816, and as a child was taken by his +parents to Philadelphia, where he early displayed talent as an artist. +At the age of twenty-five he had earned enough to take him to Düsseldorf +for a course of art study at the royal academy. Almost immediately he +began the painting of historical subjects, his first work, "Columbus +before the Council of Salamanca," being purchased by the Düsseldorf Art +Union. In 1860 he was commissioned by the United States Congress to +decorate a stairway in the Capitol at Washington, for which he painted a +large composition, "Westward the Star of Empire takes its Way." His +best-known work, popular through engraving, is "Washington crossing the +Delaware," a large canvas containing a score of life-sized figures; it +is now owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. He became a +member of the National Academy of Design in 1860, and died at +Washington, D.C., on the 18th of July 1868. + + + + +LEVALLOIS-PERRET, a north-western suburb of Paris, on the right bank of +the Seine, 2½ m. from the centre of the city. Pop. (1906) 61,419. It +carries on the manufacture of motor-cars and accessories, carriages, +groceries, liqueurs, perfumery, soap, &c., and has a port on the Seine. + + + + +LEVANT (from the French use of the participle of _lever_, to rise, for +the east, the orient), the name applied widely to the coastlands of the +eastern Mediterranean Sea from Greece to Egypt, or, in a more restricted +and commoner sense, to the Mediterranean coastlands of Asia Minor and +Syria. In the 16th and 17th centuries the term "High Levant" was used of +the Far East. The phrase "to levant," meaning to abscond, especially of +one who runs away leaving debts unpaid, particularly of a betting man or +gambler, is taken from the Span. _levantar_, to lift or break up, in +such phrases as _levantar la casa_, to break up a household, or _el +campo_, to break camp. + + + + +LEVASSEUR, PIERRE EMILE (1828- ), French economist, was born in Paris +on the 8th of December 1828. Educated in Paris, he began to teach in the +lycée at Alençon in 1852, and in 1857 was chosen professor of rhetoric +at Besançon. He returned to Paris to become professor at the lycée Saint +Louis, and in 1868 he was chosen a member of the academy of moral and +political sciences. In 1872 he was appointed professor of geography, +history and statistics in the Collège de France, and subsequently became +also professor at the Conservatoire des arts et métiers and at the École +libre des sciences politiques. Levasseur was one of the founders of the +study of commercial geography, and became a member of the Council of +Public Instruction, president of the French society of political economy +and honorary president of the French geographical society. + + His numerous writings include: _Histoire des classes ouvrières en + France depuis la conquête de Jules César jusqu'à la Révolution_ + (1859); _Histoire des classes ouvrières en France depuis la Révolution + jusqu'à nos jours_ (1867); _L'Étude et l'enseignement de la + géographie_ (1871); _La Population française_ (1889-1892); + _L'Agriculture aux États-Unis_ (1894); _L'Enseignement primaire dans + les pays civilisés_ (1897); _L'Ouvrier américain_ (1898); _Questions + ouvrières et industrielles sous la troisième République_ (1907); and + _Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l'industrie en France de 1789 à + 1870_ (1903-1904). He also published a _Grand Atlas de géographie + physique et politique_ (1890-1892). + + + + +LEVECHE, the name given to the dry hot sirocco wind in Spain; often +incorrectly called the "solano." The direction of the Leveche is mostly +from S.E., S. or S.W., and it occurs along the coast from Cabo de Gata +to Cabo de Nao, and even beyond Malaga for a distance of some 10 m. +inland. + + + + +LEVÉE (from Fr. _lever_, to raise), an embankment which keeps a river in +its channel. A river such as the Mississippi (q.v.), draining a large +area, carries a great amount of sediment from its swifter head-streams +to the lower ground. As soon as a stream's velocity is checked, it drops +a portion of its load of sediment and spreads an alluvial fan in the +lower part of its course. This deposition of material takes place +particularly at the sides of the stream where the velocity is least, and +the banks are in consequence raised above the main channel, so that the +river becomes lifted bodily upwards in its bed, and flows above the +level of the surrounding country. In flood-time the muddy water flows +over the river's banks, where its velocity is at once checked as it +flows gently down the outer side, causing more material to be deposited +there, and a long alluvial ridge, called a natural levée, to be built up +on either side of the stream. These ridges may be wide or narrow, but +they slope from the stream's outer banks to the plain below, and in +consequence require careful watching, for if the levée is broken by a +"crevasse," the whole body of the river may pour through and flood the +country below. In 1890 the Mississippi near New Orleans broke through +the Nita crevasse and flowed eastward with a current of 15 m. an hour, +spreading destruction in its path. The Hwang-ho river in China is +peculiarly liable to these inundations. The word levée is also sometimes +used to denote a riverside quay or landing-place. + + + + +LEVEE (from the French substantival use of _lever_, to rise; there is no +French substantival use of _levée_ in the English sense), a reception or +assembly held by the British sovereign or his representative, in Ireland +by the lord-lieutenant, in India by the viceroy, in the forenoon or +early afternoon, at which men only are present in distinction from a +"drawing-room," at which ladies also are presented or received. Under +the _ancien règime_ in France the _lever_ of the king was regulated, +especially under Louis XIV., by elaborate etiquette, and the various +divisions of the ceremonial followed the stages of the king's rising +from bed, from which it gained its name. The _petit lever_ began when +the king had washed and said his daily offices; to this were admitted +the princes of the blood, certain high officers of the household and +those to whom a special permit had been granted; then followed the +_première entrée_, to which came the secretaries and other officials and +those having the _entrée_; these were received by the king in his +dressing-gown. Finally, at the _grand lever_, the remainder of the +household, the nobles and gentlemen of the court were received; the king +by that time was shaved, had changed his linen and was in his wig. In +the United States the term "levee" was formerly used of the public +receptions held by the president. + + + + +LEVELLERS, the name given to an important political party in England +during the period of the Civil War and the Commonwealth. The germ of the +Levelling movement must be sought for among the Agitators (q.v.), men of +strong republican views, and the name Leveller first appears in a letter +of the 1st of November 1647, although it was undoubtedly in existence as +a nickname before this date (Gardiner, _Great Civil War_, iii. 380). +This letter refers to these extremists thus: "They have given themselves +a new name, viz. Levellers, for they intend to sett all things straight, +and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom." + +The Levellers first became prominent in 1647 during the protracted and +unsatisfactory negotiations between the king and the parliament, and +while the relations between the latter and the army were very strained. +Like the Agitators they were mainly found among the soldiers; they were +opposed to the existence of kingship, and they feared that Cromwell and +the other parliamentary leaders were too complaisant in their dealings +with Charles; in fact they doubted their sincerity in this matter. Led +by John Lilburne (q.v.) they presented a manifesto, _The Case of the +Army truly stated_, to the commander-in-chief, Lord Fairfax, in October +1647. In this they demanded a dissolution of parliament within a year +and substantial changes in the constitution of future parliaments, which +were to be regulated by an unalterable "law paramount." In a second +document, _The Agreement of the People_, they expanded these ideas, +which were discussed by Cromwell, Ireton and other officers on the one +side, and by John Wildman, Thomas Rainsborough and Edward Sexby for the +Levellers on the other. But no settlement was made; some of the +Levellers clamoured for the king's death, and in November 1647, just +after his flight from Hampton Court to Carisbrooke, they were +responsible for a mutiny which broke out in two regiments at Corkbush +Field, near Ware. This, however, was promptly suppressed by Cromwell. +During the twelve months which immediately preceded the execution of the +king the Levellers conducted a lively agitation in favour of the ideas +expressed in the _Agreement of the people_, and in January 1648 Lilburne +was arrested for using seditious language at a meeting in London. But no +success attended these and similar efforts, and their only result was +that the Levellers regarded Cromwell with still greater suspicion. + +Early in 1649, just after the death of the king, the Levellers renewed +their activity. They were both numerous and dangerous, and they stood +up, says Gardiner, "for an exaggeration of the doctrine of parliamentary +supremacy." In a pamphlet, _England's New Chains_, Lilburne asked for +the dissolution of the council of state and for a new and reformed +parliament. He followed this up with the _Second Part of England's New +Chains_; his writings were declared treasonable by parliament, and in +March 1649 he and three other leading Levellers, Richard Overton, +William Walwyn and Prince were arrested. The discontent which was +spreading in the army was fanned when certain regiments were ordered to +proceed to Ireland, and in April 1649 there was a meeting in London; but +this was quickly put down by Fairfax and Cromwell, and its leader, +Robert Lockyer, was shot. Risings at Burford and at Banbury were also +suppressed without any serious difficulty, and the trouble with the +Levellers was practically over. Gradually they became less prominent, +but under the Commonwealth they made frequent advances to the exiled +king Charles II., and there was some danger from them early in 1655 when +Wildman was arrested and Sexby escaped from England. The distinguishing +mark of the Leveller was a sea-green ribbon. + +Another but more harmless form of the same movement was the assembling +of about fifty men on St George's Hill near Oatlands in Surrey. In April +1649 these "True Levellers" or "Diggers," as they were called, took +possession of some unoccupied ground which they began to cultivate. They +were, however, soon dispersed, and their leaders were arrested and +brought before Fairfax, when they took the opportunity of denouncing +landowners. It is interesting to note that Lilburne and his colleagues +objected to being designated Levellers, as they had no desire to take +away "the proper right and title that every man has to what is his own." + +Cromwell attacked the Levellers in his speech to parliament in September +1654 (Carlyle, _Cromwell's Letters and Speeches_, Speech II.). He said: +"A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these; that is a +good interest of the nation, and a great one. The 'natural' magistracy +of the nation, was it not almost trampled under foot, under despite and +contempt, by men of Levelling principles? I beseech you, for the orders +of men and ranks of men, did not that Levelling principle tend to the +reducing of all to an equality? Did it 'consciously' think to do so; or +did it 'only unconsciously' practise towards that for property and +interest? 'At all events,' what was the purport of it but to make the +tenant as liberal a fortune as the landlord? Which, I think, if +obtained, would not have lasted long." + + In 1724 there was a rising against enclosures in Galloway, and a + number of men who took part therein were called Levellers or + Dyke-breakers (A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. iv.). The word was + also used in Ireland during the 18th century to describe a secret + revolutionary society similar to the Whiteboys. (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LEVEN, ALEXANDER LESLIE, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1580-1661), Scottish general, +was the son of George Leslie, captain of Blair-in-Athol, and a member of +the family of Leslie of Balquhain. After a scanty education he sought +his fortune abroad, and became a soldier, first under Sir Horace Vere in +the Low Countries, and afterwards (1605) under Charles IX. and Gustavus +Adolphus of Sweden, in whose service he remained for many years and +fought in many campaigns with honour. In 1626 Leslie had risen by merit +to the rank of lieutenant-general, and had been knighted by Gustavus. In +1628 he distinguished himself by his constancy and energy in the defence +of Stralsund against Wallenstein, and in 1630 seized the island of Rügen +in the name of the king of Sweden. In the same year he returned to +Scotland to assist in recruiting and organizing the corps of Scottish +volunteers which James, 3rd marquis of Hamilton, brought over to +Gustavus in 1631. Leslie received a severe wound in the following +winter, but was able nevertheless to be present at Gustavus's last +battle at Lützen. Like many others of the soldiers of fortune who served +under Gustavus, Leslie cherished his old commander's memory to the day +of his death, and he kept with particular care a jewel and miniature +presented to him by the king. He continued as a general officer in the +Swedish army for some years, was promoted in 1636 to the rank of field +marshal, and continued in the field until 1638, when events recalled him +to his own country. He had married long before this--in 1637 his eldest +son was made a colonel in the Swedish army--and he had managed to keep +in touch with Scottish affairs. + +As the foremost Scottish soldier of his day he was naturally nominated +to command the Scottish army in the impending war with England, a post +which, resigning his Swedish command, he accepted with a glad heart, for +he was an ardent Covenanter and had caused "a great number of our +commanders in Germany subscryve our covenant" (Baillie's _Letters_). On +leaving Sweden he brought back his arrears of pay in the form of cannon +and muskets for his new army. For some months he busied himself with the +organization and training of the new levies, and with inducing Scottish +officers abroad to do their duty to their country by returning to lead +them. Diminutive in size and somewhat deformed in person as he was, his +reputation and his shrewdness and simple tact, combined with the +respect for his office of lord general that he enforced on all ranks, +brought even the unruly nobles to subordination. He had by now amassed a +considerable fortune and was able to live in a manner befitting a +commander-in-chief, even when in the field. One of his first exploits +was to take the castle of Edinburgh by surprise, without the loss of a +man. He commanded the Scottish army at Dunse Law in May of that year, +and in 1640 he invaded England, and defeated the king's troops at +Newburn on the Tyne, which gave him possession of Newcastle and of the +open country as far as the Tees. At the treaty with the king at Ripon, +Leslie was one of the commissioners of the Scottish parliament, and when +Charles visited Edinburgh Leslie entertained him magnificently and +accompanied him when he drove through the streets. His affirmations of +loyalty to the crown, which later events caused to be remembered against +him, were sincere enough, but the complicated politics of the time made +it difficult for Leslie, the lord general of the Scottish army, to +maintain a perfectly consistent attitude. However, his influence was +exercised chiefly to put an end to, even to hush up, the troubles, and +he is found, now giving a private warning to plotters against the king +to enable them to escape, now guarding the Scottish parliament against a +royalist _coup d'état_, and now securing for an old comrade of the +German wars, Patrick Ruthven, Lord Ettrick, indemnity for having held +Edinburgh Castle for the king against the parliament. Charles created +him, by patent dated Holyrood, October 11, 1641, earl of Leven and Lord +Balgonie, and made him captain of Edinburgh Castle and a privy +councillor. The parliament recognized his services by a grant, and, on +his resigning the lord generalship, appointed him commander of the +permanent forces. A little later, Leven, who was a member of the +committee of the estates which exercised executive powers during the +recess of parliament, used his great influence in support of a proposal +to raise a Scottish army to help the elector palatine in Germany, but +the Ulster massacres gave this force, when raised, a fresh direction and +Leven himself accompanied it to Ireland as lord general. He did not +remain there long, for the Great Rebellion (q.v.) had begun in England, +and negotiations were opened between the English and the Scottish +parliaments for mutual armed assistance. Leven accepted the command of +the new forces raised for the invasion of England, and was in +consequence freely accused of having broken his personal oath to +Charles, but he could hardly have acted otherwise than he did, and at +that time, and so far as the Scots were concerned, to the end of the +struggle, the parliaments were in arms, professedly and to some extent +actually, to rescue his majesty from the influence of evil counsellors. + +The military operations preceding Marston Moor are described under GREAT +REBELLION, and the battle itself under its own heading. Leven's great +reputation, wisdom and tact made him an ideal commander for the allied +army formed by the junction of Leven's, Fairfax's and Manchester's in +Yorkshire. After the battle the allied forces separated, Leven bringing +the siege of Newcastle to an end by storming it. In 1645 the Scots were +less successful, though their operations ranged from Westmorland to +Hereford, and Leven himself had many administrative and political +difficulties to contend with. These difficulties became more pronounced +when in 1646 Charles took refuge with the Scottish army. The king +remained with Leven until he was handed over to the English parliament +in 1647, and Leven constantly urged him to take the covenant and to make +peace. Presbyterians and Independents had now parted, and with no more +concession than the guarantee of the covenant the Scottish and English +Presbyterians were ready to lay down their arms, or to turn them against +the "sectaries." Leven was now old and infirm, and though retained as +nominal commander-in-chief saw no further active service. He acted with +Argyll and the "godly" party in the discussions preceding the second +invasion of England, and remained at his post as long as possible in the +hope of preventing the Scots becoming merely a royalist instrument for +the conquest of the English Independents. But be was induced in the end +to resign, though he was appointed lord general of all new forces that +might be raised for the defence of Scotland. The occasion soon came, for +Cromwell annihilated the Scottish invaders at Preston and Uttoxeter, and +thereupon Argyll assumed political and Leven military control at +Edinburgh. But he was now over seventy years of age, and willingly +resigned the effective command to his subordinate David Leslie (see +NEWARK, LORD), in whom he had entire confidence. After the execution of +Charles I. the war broke out afresh, and this time the "godly" party +acted with the royalists. In the new war, and in the disastrous campaign +of Dunbar, Leven took but a nominal part, though attempts were +afterwards made to hold him responsible. But once more the parliament +refused to accept his resignation. Leven at last fell into the hands of +a party of English dragoons in August 1651, and with some others was +sent to London. He remained incarcerated in the Tower for some time, +till released on finding securities for £20,000, upon which he retired +to his residence in Northumberland. While on a visit to London he was +again arrested, for a technical breach of his engagement, but by the +intercession of the queen of Sweden he obtained his liberty. He was +freed from his engagements in 1654, and retired to his seat at Balgonie +in Fifeshire, where he died at an advanced age in 1661. He acquired +considerable landed property, particularly Inchmartin in the Carse of +Gowrie, which he called Inchleslie. + + See LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF, below. + + + + +LEVEN, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 5577. It is +situated on the Firth of Forth, at the mouth of the Leven, 5¾ m. E. by +N. of Thornton Junction by the North British railway. The public +buildings include the town hall, public hall and people's institute, in +the grounds of which the old town cross has been erected. The industries +are numerous, comprising flax-spinning, brewing, linen-weaving, +paper-making, seed-crushing and rope-making, besides salt-works, a +foundry, saw-mill and brick-works. The wet dock is not much used, owing +to the constant accumulation of sand. The golf-links extending for 2 m. +to Lundin are among the best in Scotland. Two miles N.E. is Lundin Mill +and Drumochie, usually called LUNDIN (pop. 570), at the mouth of Kiel +Burn, with a station on the Links. The three famous standing stones are +supposed to be either of "Druidical" origin or to mark the site of a +battle with the Danes. In the vicinity are the remains of an old house +of the Lundins, dating from the reign of David II. To the N.W. of Leven +lies the parish of KENNOWAY (pop. 870). In Captain Seton's house, which +still stands in the village of Kennoway, Archbishop Sharp spent the +night before his assassination (1679). One mile east of Lundin lies +LARGO (pop. of parish 2046), consisting of Upper Largo, or Kirkton of +Largo, and Lower Largo. The public buildings include Simpson institute, +with a public hall, library, reading-room, bowling-green and lawn-tennis +court, and John Wood's hospital, founded in 1659 for poor persons +bearing his name. A statue of Alexander Selkirk, or Selcraig +(1676-1721), the prototype of "Robinson Crusoe," who was born here, was +erected in 1886. Sir John Leslie (1766-1832), the natural philosopher, +was also a native. Largo claims two famous sailors, Admiral Sir Philip +Durham (1763-1845), commander-in-chief at Portsmouth from 1836 to 1839, +and Sir Andrew Wood (d. 1515), the trusted servant of James III. and +James IV., who sailed the "Great Michael," the largest ship of its time. +When he was past active service he had a canal cut from his house to the +parish church, to which he was rowed every Sunday in an eight-oared +barge. Largo House was granted to him by James III., and the tower of +the original structure still exists. About 1½ m. from the coast rises +the height of Largo Law (948 ft.). Kellie Law lies some 5½ m. to the +east. + + + + +LEVEN, LOCH, a lake of Kinross-shire, Scotland. It has an oval shape, +the longer axis running from N.W. to S.E., has a length of 3{2/3} m., +and a breadth of 2{2/3} m. and is situated near the south and east +boundaries of the shire. It lies at a height of 350 ft. above the sea. +The mean depth is less than 15 ft., with a maximum of 83 ft., the lake +being thus one of the shallowest in Scotland. Reclamation works carried +on from 1826 to 1836 reduced its area by one quarter, but it still +possesses a surface area of 5½ sq. m. It drains the county and is +itself drained by the Leven. It is famous for the Loch Leven trout +(_Salmo levenensis_, considered by some a variety of _S. trutta_), which +are remarkable for size and quality. The fishings are controlled by the +Loch Leven Angling Association, which organizes competitions attracting +anglers from far and near. The loch contains seven islands. Upon St +Serf's, the largest, which commemorates the patron saint of Fifeshire, +are the ruins of the Priory of Portmoak--so named from St Moak, the +first abbot--the oldest Culdee establishment in Scotland. Some time +before 961 it was made over to the bishop of St Andrews, and shortly +after 1144 a body of canons regular was established on it in connexion +with the priory of canons regular founded in that year at St Andrews. +The second largest island, Castle Island, possesses remains of even +greater interest. The first stronghold is supposed to have been erected +by Congal, son of Dongart, king of the Picts. The present castle dates +from the 13th century and was occasionally used as a royal residence. It +is said to have been in the hands of the English for a time, from whom +it was delivered by Wallace. It successfully withstood Edward Baliol's +siege in 1335, and was granted by Robert II. to Sir William Douglas of +Lugton. It became the prison at various periods of Robert II.; of +Alexander Stuart, earl of Buchan, "the Wolf of Badenoch"; Archibald, +earl of Douglas (1429); Patrick Graham, archbishop of St Andrews (who +died, still in bondage, on St Serf's Island in 1478), and of Mary, queen +of Scots. The queen had visited it more than once before her detention, +and had had a presence chamber built in it. Conveyed hither in June 1567 +after her surrender at Carberry, she signed her abdication within its +walls on the 4th of July and effected her escape on the 2nd of May 1568. +The keys of the castle, which were thrown into the loch during her +flight, were found and are preserved at Dalmahoy in Midlothian. Support +of Mary's cause had involved Thomas Percy, 7th earl of Northumberland +(b. 1528). He too was lodged in the castle in 1569, and after three +years' imprisonment was handed over to the English, by whom he was +beheaded at York in 1572. The proverb that "Those never got luck who +came to Loch Leven" sums up the history of the castle. The causeway +connecting the isle with the mainland was long submerged too deeply for +use, but the reclamation operations already referred to almost brought +it into view again. + + + + +LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF. The family of Melville which now holds +these two earldoms is descended from Sir John Melville of Raith in +Fifeshire. Sir John, who was a member of the reforming party in +Scotland, was put to death for high treason on the 13th of December +1548; he left with other children a son Robert (1527-1621), who in 1616 +was created a lord of parliament as Lord Melville of Monymaill. Before +his elevation to the Scottish peerage Melville had been a stout partisan +of Mary, queen of Scots, whom he represented at the English court, and +he had filled several important offices in Scotland under her son James +VI. The fourth holder of the lordship of Melville was George (c. +1634-1707), a son of John, the 3rd lord (d. 1643), and a descendant of +Sir John Melville. Implicated in the Rye House plot against Charles II., +George took refuge in the Netherlands in 1683, but he returned to +England after the revolution of 1688 and was appointed secretary for +Scotland by William III. in 1689, being created earl of Melville in the +following year. He was made president of the Scottish privy council in +1696, but he was deprived of his office when Anne became queen in 1702, +and he died on the 20th of May 1707. His son David, 2nd earl of Melville +(1660-1728), fled to Holland with his father in 1683; after serving in +the army of the elector of Brandenburg he accompanied William of Orange +to England in 1688. At the head of a regiment raised by himself he +fought for William at Killiecrankie and elsewhere, and as +commander-in-chief of the troops in Scotland he dealt promptly and +effectively with the attempted Jacobite rising of 1708. In 1712, +however, his office was taken from him and he died on the 6th of June +1728. + +Alexander Leslie, 1st earl of Leven (q.v.), was succeeded in his earldom +by his grandson Alexander, who died without sons in July 1664. The +younger Alexander's two daughters were then in turn countesses of Leven +in their own right; and after the death of the second of these two +ladies in 1676 a dispute arose over the succession to the earldom +between John Leslie, earl (afterwards duke) of Rothes, and David +Melville, 2nd earl of Melville, mentioned above. In 1681, however, +Rothes died, and Melville, who was a great-grandson of the 1st earl of +Leven, assumed the title, calling himself earl of Leven and Melville +after he succeeded his father as earl of Melville in May 1707. Since +1805 the family has borne the name of Leslie-Melville. In 1906 John +David Leslie-Melville (b. 1886) became 12th earl of Leven and 11th earl +of Melville. + + See Sir W. Fraser, _The Melvilles, Earls of Melville, and the Leslies, + Earls of Leven_ (1890); and the _Leven and Melville Papers_, edited by + the Hon. W. H. Leslie-Melville for the Bannatyne Club (1843). + + + + +LEVER, CHARLES JAMES (1806-1872), Irish novelist, second son of James +Lever, a Dublin architect and builder, was born in the Irish capital on +the 31st of August 1806. His descent was purely English. He was educated +in private schools, where he wore a ring, smoked, read novels, was a +ringleader in every breach of discipline, and behaved generally like a +boy destined for the navy in one of Captain Marryat's novels. His +escapades at Trinity College, Dublin (1823-1828), whence he took the +degree of M.B. in 1831, form the basis of that vast cellarage of +anecdote from which all the best vintages in his novels are derived. The +inimitable Frank Webber in _Charles O'Malley_ (spiritual ancestor of +Foker and Mr Bouncer) was a college friend, Robert Boyle, later on an +Irish parson. Lever and Boyle sang ballads of their own composing in the +streets of Dublin, after the manner of Fergusson or Goldsmith, filled +their caps with coppers and played many other pranks embellished in the +pages of _O'Malley_, _Con Cregan_ and _Lord Kilgobbin_. Before seriously +embarking upon the medical studies for which he was designed, Lever +visited Canada as an unqualified surgeon on an emigrant ship, and has +drawn upon some of his experiences in _Con Cregan_, _Arthur O'Leary_ and +_Roland Cashel_. Arrived in Canada he plunged into the backwoods, was +affiliated to a tribe of Indians and had to escape at the risk of his +life, like his own Bagenal Daly. + +Back in Europe, he travelled in the guise of a student from Göttingen to +Weimar (where he saw Goethe), thence to Vienna; he loved the German +student life with its beer, its fighting and its fun, and several of his +merry songs, such as "The Pope he loved a merry life" (greatly envied by +Titmarsh), are on _Student-lied_ models. His medical degree admitted him +to an appointment from the Board of Health in Co. Clare and then as +dispensary doctor at Port Stewart, but the liveliness of his diversions +as a country doctor seems to have prejudiced the authorities against +him. In 1833 he married his first love, Catherine Baker, and in February +1837, after varied experiences, he began running _The Confessions of +Harry Lorrequer_ through the pages of the recently established _Dublin +University Magazine_. During the previous seven years the popular taste +had declared strongly in favour of the service novel as exemplified by +_Frank Mildmay_, _Tom Cringle_, _The Subaltern_, _Cyril Thornton_, +_Stories of Waterloo_, _Ben Brace_ and _The Bivouac_; and Lever himself +had met William Hamilton Maxwell, the titular founder of the genre. +Before _Harry Lorrequer_ appeared in volume form (1839), Lever had +settled on the strength of a slight diplomatic connexion as a +fashionable physician in Brussels (16, Rue Ducale). _Lorrequer_ was +merely a string of Irish and other stories good, bad and indifferent, +but mostly rollicking, and Lever, who strung together his anecdotes late +at night after the serious business of the day was done, was astonished +at its success. "If this sort of thing amuses them, I can go on for +ever." Brussels was indeed a superb place for the observation of +half-pay officers, such as Major Monsoon (Commissioner Meade), Captain +Bubbleton and the like, who terrorized the _tavernes_ of the place with +their endless peninsular stories, and of English society a little +damaged, which it became the specialty of Lever to depict. He sketched +with a free hand, wrote, as he lived, from hand to mouth, and the chief +difficulty he experienced was that of getting rid of his characters who +"hung about him like those tiresome people who never can make up their +minds to bid you good night." Lever had never taken part in a battle +himself, but his next three books, _Charles O'Malley_ (1841), _Jack +Hinton_ and _Tom Burke of Ours_ (1843), written under the spur of the +writer's chronic extravagance, contain some splendid military writing +and some of the most animated battle-pieces on record. In pages of +_O'Malley_ and _Tom Burke_ Lever anticipates not a few of the best +effects of Marbot, Thiébaut, Lejeune, Griois, Seruzier, Burgoyne and the +like. His account of the Douro need hardly fear comparison, it has been +said, with Napier's. Condemned by the critics, Lever had completely won +the general reader from the Iron Duke himself downwards. + +In 1842 he returned to Dublin to edit the _Dublin University Magazine_, +and gathered round him a typical coterie of Irish wits (including one or +two hornets) such as the O'Sullivans, Archer Butler, W. Carleton, Sir +William Wilde, Canon Hayman, D. F. McCarthy, McGlashan, Dr Kenealy and +many others. In June 1842 he welcomed at Templeogue, 4 m. south-west of +Dublin, the author of the _Snob Papers_ on his Irish tour (the _Sketch +Book_ was, later, dedicated to Lever). Thackeray recognized the fund of +Irish sadness beneath the surface merriment. "The author's character is +not humour but sentiment. The spirits are mostly artificial, the _fond_ +is sadness, as appears to me to be that of most Irish writing and +people." The Waterloo episode in _Vanity Fair_ was in part an outcome of +the talk between the two novelists. But the "Galway pace," the display +he found it necessary to maintain at Templeogue, the stable full of +horses, the cards, the friends to entertain, the quarrels to compose and +the enormous rapidity with which he had to complete _Tom Burke_, _The +O'Donoghue_ and _Arthur O'Leary_ (1845), made his native land an +impossible place for Lever to continue in. Templeogue would soon have +proved another Abbotsford. Thackeray suggested London. But Lever +required a new field of literary observation and anecdote. His _sève +originel_ was exhausted and he decided to renew it on the continent. In +1845 he resigned his editorship and went back to Brussels, whence he +started upon an unlimited tour of central Europe in a family coach. Now +and again he halted for a few months, and entertained to the limit of +his resources in some ducal castle or other which he hired for an off +season. Thus at Riedenburg, near Bregenz, in August 1846, he entertained +Charles Dickens and his wife and other well-known people. Like his own +_Daltons_ or _Dodd Family Abroad_ he travelled continentally, from +Carlsruhe to Como, from Como to Florence, from Florence to the Baths of +Lucca and so on, and his letters home are the litany of the literary +remittance man, his ambition now limited to driving a pair of novels +abreast without a diminution of his standard price for serial work +("twenty pounds a sheet"). In the _Knight of Gwynne_, a story of the +Union (1847), _Con Cregan_ (1849), _Roland Cashel_ (1850) and _Maurice +Tiernay_ (1852) we still have traces of his old manner; but he was +beginning to lose his original joy in composition. His _fond_ of sadness +began to cloud the animal joyousness of his temperament. Formerly he had +written for the happy world which is young and curly and merry; now he +grew fat and bald and grave. "After 38 or so what has life to offer but +one universal declension. Let the crew pump as hard as they like, the +leak gains every hour." But, depressed in spirit as he was, his wit was +unextinguished; he was still the delight of the _salons_ with his +stories, and in 1867, after a few years' experience of a similar kind at +Spezia, he was cheered by a letter from Lord Derby offering him the more +lucrative consulship of Trieste. "Here is six hundred a year for doing +nothing, and you are just the man to do it." The six hundred could not +atone to Lever for the lassitude of prolonged exile. Trieste, at first +"all that I could desire," became with characteristic abruptness +"detestable and damnable." "Nothing to eat, nothing to drink, no one to +speak to." "Of all the dreary places it has been my lot to sojourn in +this is the worst" (some references to Trieste will be found in _That +Boy of Norcott's_, 1869). He could never be alone and was almost +morbidly dependent upon literary encouragement. Fortunately, like +Scott, he had unscrupulous friends who assured him that his last +efforts were his best. They include _The Fortunes of Glencore_ (1857), +_Tony Butler_ (1865), _Luttrell of Arran_ (1865), _Sir Brooke Fosbrooke_ +(1866), _Lord Kilgobbin_ (1872) and the table-talk of _Cornelius +O'Dowd_, originally contributed to Blackwood. His depression, partly due +to incipient heart disease, partly to the growing conviction that he was +the victim of literary and critical conspiracy, was confirmed by the +death of his wife (23rd April 1870), to whom he was tenderly attached. +He visited Ireland in the following year and seemed alternately in very +high and very low spirits. Death had already given him one or two +runaway knocks, and, after his return to Trieste, he failed gradually, +dying suddenly, however, and almost painlessly, from failure of the +heart's action on the 1st of June 1872. His daughters, one of whom, +Sydney, is believed to have been the real author of _The Rent in a +Cloud_ (1869), were well provided for. + +Trollope praised Lever's novels highly when he said that they were just +like his conversation. He was a born raconteur, and had in perfection +that easy flow of light description which without tedium or hurry leads +up to the point of the good stories of which in earlier days his supply +seemed inexhaustible. With little respect for unity of action or +conventional novel structure, his brightest books, such as _Lorrequer_, +_O'Malley_ and _Tom Burke_, are in fact little more than recitals of +scenes in the life of a particular "hero," unconnected by any continuous +intrigue. The type of character he depicted is for the most part +elementary. His women are mostly rouées, romps or Xanthippes; his heroes +have too much of the Pickle temper about them and fall an easy prey to +the serious attacks of Poe or to the more playful gibes of Thackeray in +_Phil Fogarty_ or Bret Harte in _Terence Deuville_. This last is a +perfect bit of burlesque. Terence exchanges nineteen shots with the Hon. +Captain Henry Somerset in the glen. "At each fire I shot away a button +from his uniform. As my last bullet shot off the last button from his +sleeve, I remarked quietly, 'You seem now, my lord, to be almost as +ragged as the gentry you sneered at,' and rode haughtily away." And yet +these careless sketches contain such haunting creations as Frank Webber, +Major Monsoon and Micky Free, "the Sam Weller of Ireland." Falstaff is +alone in the literature of the world; but if ever there came a later +Falstaff, Monsoon was the man. As for Baby Blake, is she not an Irish Di +Vernon? The critics may praise Lever's thoughtful and careful later +novels as they will, but _Charles O'Malley_ will always be the pattern +of a military romance. + +Superior, it is sometimes claimed, in construction and style, the later +books approximate it may be thought to the good _ordinary_ novel of +commerce, but they lack the _extraordinary_ qualities, the +incommunicable "go" of the early books--the élan of Lever's untamed +youth. Artless and almost formless these productions may be, but they +represent to us, as very few other books can, that pathetic ejaculation +of Lever's own--"Give us back the wild freshness of the morning!" We +know the novelist's teachers, Maxwell, Napier, the old-fashioned +compilation known as _Victoires, conquêtes et désastres des Français_ +(1835), and the old buffers at Brussels who emptied the room by uttering +the word "Badajos." But where else shall we find the equals of the +military scenes in _O'Malley_ and _Tom Burke_, or the military episodes +in _Jack Hinton_, _Arthur O'Leary_ (the story of Aubuisson) or _Maurice +Tiernay_ (nothing he ever did is finer than the chapter introducing "A +remnant of Fontenoy")? It is here that his true genius lies, even more +than in his talent for conviviality and fun, which makes an early copy +of an early Lever (with Phiz's illustrations) seem literally to exhale +an atmosphere of past and present entertainment. It is here that he is a +true romancist, not for boys only, but also for men. + +Lever's lack of artistry and of sympathy with the deeper traits of the +Irish character have been stumbling-blocks to his reputation among the +critics. Except to some extent in _The Martins of Cro' Martin_ (1856) it +may be admitted that his portraits of Irish are drawn too exclusively +from the type depicted in Sir Jonah Barrington's _Memoirs_ and already +well known on the English stage. He certainly had no deliberate +intention of "lowering the national character." Quite the reverse. Yet +his posthumous reputation seems to have suffered in consequence, in +spite of all his Gallic sympathies and not unsuccessful endeavours to +apotheosize the "Irish Brigade." + + The chief authorities are the _Life_, by W. J. Fitzpatrick (1879), and + the _Letters_, ed. in 2 vols. by Edmund Downey (1906), neither of + which, however, enables the reader to penetrate below the surface. See + also Dr Garnett in _Dict. Nat. Biog.; Dublin Univ. Mag._ (1880), 465 + and 570; Anthony Trollope's _Autobiography; Blackwood_ (August 1862); + _Fortnightly Review_, vol. xxxii.; Andrew Lang's _Essays in Little_ + (1892); Henley's _Views and Reviews_; Hugh Walker's _Literature of the + Victorian Era_ (1910); _The Bookman Hist. of English Literature_ + (1906), p. 467; _Bookman_ (June 1906; portraits). A library edition of + the novels in 37 vols. appeared 1897-1899 under the superintendence of + Lever's daughter, Julie Kate Neville. (T. Se.) + + + + +LEVER (through O. Fr. _leveour_, _levere_, mod. _levier_, from Lat. +_levare_, to lift, raise), a mechanical device for raising bodies; the +"simple" lever consists of a rigid bar free to move about a fixed point, +termed the _fulcrum_; one point of the rod is connected to the piece to +be moved, and power is applied at another point (see MECHANICS). + + + + +LEVERRIER, URBAIN JEAN JOSEPH (1811-1877), French astronomer, was born +at St Lô in Normandy on the 11th of March 1811. His father, who held a +small post under government, made great efforts to send him to Paris, +where a brilliant examination gained him, in 1831, admittance to the +École Polytechnique. The distinction of his career there was rewarded +with a free choice amongst the departments of the public service open to +pupils of the school. He selected the administration of tobaccos, +addressing himself especially to chemical researches under the guidance +of Gay-Lussac, and gave striking proof of ability in two papers on the +combinations of phosphorus with hydrogen and oxygen, published in +_Annales de Chimie et de Physique_ (1835 and 1837). His astronomical +vocation, like that of Kepler, came from without. The place of teacher +of that science at the École Polytechnique falling vacant in 1837, it +was offered to and accepted by Leverrier, who, "docile to circumstance," +instantly abandoned chemistry, and directed the whole of his powers to +celestial mechanics. The first fruits of his labours were contained in +two memoirs presented to the Academy, September 16 and October 14, 1839. +Pursuing the investigations of Laplace, he demonstrated with greater +rigour the stability of the solar system, and calculated the limits +within which the eccentricities and inclinations of the planetary orbits +vary. This remarkable début excited much attention, and, on the +recommendation of François Arago, he took in hand the theory of Mercury, +producing, in 1843, vastly improved tables of that planet. The +perturbations of the comets discovered, the one by H. A. E. A. Faye in +November 1843, the other by Francesco de Vico a year later, were +minutely investigated by Leverrier, with the result of disproving the +supposed identity of the first with Lexell's lost comet of 1770, and of +the other with Tycho's of 1585. On the other hand, he made it appear all +but certain that Vico's comet was the same with one seen by Philippe de +Lahire in 1678. Recalled once more, by the summons of Arago, to +planetary studies, he was this time invited to turn his attention to +Uranus. Step by step, with sagacious and patient accuracy, he advanced +to the great discovery which has immortalized his name. Carefully +sifting all the known causes of disturbance, he showed that one +previously unknown had to be reckoned with, and on the 23rd of September +1846 the planet Neptune was discerned by J. G. Galle (d. 1910) at +Berlin, within one degree of the spot Leverrier had indicated (see +NEPTUNE). + +This memorable achievement was greeted with an outburst of public +enthusiasm. Academies vied with each other in enrolling Leverrier among +their members; the Royal Society awarded him the Copley medal; the king +of Denmark sent him the order of the Dannebrog; he was named officer in +the Legion of Honour, and preceptor to the comte de Paris; a chair of +astronomy was created for his benefit at the Faculty of Sciences; he was +appointed adjunct astronomer to the Bureau of Longitudes. Returned to +the Legislative Assembly in 1849 by his native department of Manche, he +voted with the anti-republican party, but devoted his principal +attention to subjects connected with science and education. After the +_coup d'état_ of 1851 he became a senator and inspector-general of +superior instruction, sat upon the commission for the reform of the +École Polytechnique (1854), and, on the 30th of January 1854, succeeded +Arago as director of the Paris observatory. His official work in the +latter capacity would alone have strained the energies of an ordinary +man. The institution had fallen into a state of lamentable inefficiency. +Leverrier placed it on a totally new footing, freed it from the control +of the Bureau of Longitudes, and raised it to its due rank among the +observatories of Europe. He did not escape the common lot of reformers. +His uncompromising measures and unconciliatory manner of enforcing them +raised a storm only appeased by his removal on the 5th of February 1870. +On the death of his successor Charles Eugène Delaunay (1816-1872), he +was reinstated by Thiers, but with authority restricted by the +supervision of a council. In the midst of these disquietudes, he +executed a task of gigantic proportions. This was nothing less than the +complete revision cf the planetary theories, followed by a laborious +comparison of results with the most authentic observations, and the +construction of tables representing the movements thus corrected. It +required all his indomitable perseverance to carry through a purpose +which failing health continually menaced with frustration. He had, +however, the happiness of living long enough to perfect his work. Three +weeks after he had affixed his signature to the printed sheets of the +theory of Neptune he died at Paris on the 23rd of September 1877. By his +marriage with Mademoiselle Choquet, who survived him little more than a +month, he left a son and daughter. + + The discovery with which Leverrier's name is popularly identified was + only an incident in his career. The elaboration of the scheme of the + heavens traced out by P. S. Laplace in the _Mécanique céleste_ was its + larger aim, for the accomplishment of which forty years of unremitting + industry barely sufficed. He nevertheless found time to organize the + meteorological service in France and to promote the present system of + international weather-warnings. He founded the Association + Scientifique, and was active in introducing a practical scientific + element into public education. His inference of the existence, between + Mercury and the sun, of an appreciable quantity of circulating matter + (_Comptes rendus_, 1859, ii. 379), has not yet been verified. He was + twice, in 1868 and 1876, the recipient of the gold medal of the Royal + Astronomical Society, London, and the university of Cambridge + conferred upon him, in 1875, the honorary degree of LL.D. His + planetary and solar tables were adopted by the _Nautical Almanac_, as + well as by the _Connaissance des temps_. + + The _Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris_, the publication of which was + set on foot by Leverrier, contain, in vols. i.-vi. (_Mémoires_) + (1855-1861) and x.-xiv. (1874-1877), his theories and tables of the + several planets. In vol. i. will be found, besides his masterly report + on the observatory, a general theory of secular inequalities, in which + the development of the disturbing function was carried further than + had previously been attempted. + + The memoirs and papers communicated by him to the Academy were + summarized in _Comptes rendus_ (1839-1876), and the more important + published in full either separately or in the _Conn. des temps_ and + the _Journal des mathématiques_. That entitled _Développemens sur + différents points de la théorie des perturbations_ (1841), was + translated in part xviii. of Taylor's _Scientific Memoirs_. For his + scientific work see Professor Adams's address, _Monthly Notices_, + xxxvi. 232, and F. Tisserand's review in _Ann. de l'Obs._ tom. xv. + (1880); for a notice of his life, J. Bertrand's "Éloge historique," + _Mém. de l'Ac. des Sciences_, tom, xli., 2^(me) série. (A. M. C.) + + + + +LEVERTIN, OSCAR IVAN (1862-1906), Swedish poet and man of letters, was +born of Jewish parents at Norrköping on the 17th of July 1862. He +received his doctorate in letters at Upsala in 1887, and was +subsequently _docent_ at Upsala, and later professor of literature at +Stockholm. Enforced sojourns in southern Europe on account of health +familiarized him with foreign languages. He began by being an extreme +follower of the naturalist school, but on his return in 1890 from a two +years' residence in Davos he wrote, in collaboration with the poet C. G. +Verner von Heidenstam (b. 1859), a novel, _Pepitas bröllop_ (1890), +which was a direct attack on naturalism. His later volumes of short +stories, _Rococonoveller_ and _Sista noveller_, are fine examples of +modern Swedish fiction. The lyrical beauty of his poems, _Legender och +visor_ (1891), placed him at the head of the romantic reaction in +Sweden. In his poems entitled _Nya Dikter_ (1894) he drew his material +partly from medieval sources, and a third volume of poetry in 1902 +sustained his reputation. His last poetical work (1905) was _Kung Salomo +och Morolf_, poems founded on an eastern legend. As a critic he first +attracted attention by his books on the Gustavian age of Swedish +letters: _Teater och drama under Gustaf III._ (1889), &c. He was an +active collaborator in the review _Ord och Bild_. He died in 1906, at a +time when he was engaged on his _Linné_, posthumously published, a +fragment of a great work on Linnaeus. + + + + +LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900), German orchestral conductor, was born at +Giessen on the 7th of November 1839, and was the son of a Jewish rabbi. +He was educated at Giessen and Mannheim, and came under Vincenz +Lachner's notice. From 1855 to 1858 Levi studied at the Leipzig +conservatorium, and after a series of travels which took him to Paris, +he obtained his first post as music director at Saarbrücken, which post +he exchanged for that at Mannheim in 1861. From 1862 to 1864 he was +chief conductor of the German opera in Rotterdam, then till 1872 at +Carlsruhe, when he went to Munich, a post he held until 1896, when +ill-health compelled him to resign. Levi's name is indissolubly +connected with the increased public appreciation of Wagner's music. He +conducted the first performance of _Parsifal_ at Bayreuth in 1882, and +was connected with the musical life of that place during the remainder +of his career. He visited London in 1895. + + + + +LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888), English jurist and statistician, was born of +Jewish parents on the 6th of June 1821, at Ancona, Italy. After +receiving an early training in a business house in his native town, he +went to Liverpool in 1844, became naturalized, and changing his faith, +joined the Presbyterian church. Perceiving the necessity, in view of the +unsystematic condition of the English law on the subject, for the +establishment of chambers and tribunals of commerce in England, he +warmly advocated their institution in numerous pamphlets; and as a +result of his labours the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, of which Levi +was made secretary, was founded in 1849. In 1850 Levi published his +_Commercial Law of the World_, being an exhaustive and comparative +treatise upon the laws and codes of mercantile countries. Appointed in +1852 to the chair of commercial law in King's College, London, he proved +himself a highly competent and popular instructor, and his evening +classes were a most successful innovation. He was called to the bar at +Lincoln's Inn in 1859, and received from the university of Tübingen the +degree of doctor of political science. His chief work--_History of +British Commerce and of the Economic Progress of the British Nation_, +1763-1870, is perhaps a rather too partisan account of British economic +development, being a eulogy upon the blessings of Free Trade, but its +value as a work of reference cannot be gainsaid. Among his other works +are: _Work and Pay_; _Wages and Earnings of the Working Classes_; +_International Law, with Materials for a Code_. He died on the 7th of +May 1888. + + + + +LEVIATHAN, the Hebrew name (_livyathan_), occurring in the poetical +books of the Bible, of a gigantic animal, apparently the sea or water +equivalent of behemoth (q.v.), the king of the animals of the dry land. +In Job xli. 15 it would seem to represent the crocodile, in Isaiah +xxvii. 1 it is a crooked and piercing serpent, the dragon of the sea; +cf. Psalms civ. 26. The etymology of the word is uncertain, but it has +been taken to be connected with a root meaning "to twist." Apart from +its scriptural usage, the word is applied to any gigantic marine animal +such as the whale, and hence, figuratively, of very large ships, and +also of persons of outstanding strength, power, wealth or influence. +Hobbes adopted the name as the title of his principal work, applying it +to "the multitude so united in one person ... called a commonwealth.... +This is the generation of that Leviathan, or rather ... of that mortal +God, to which we owe under the immortal God, our peace and defence." + + + + +LEVIRATE (Lat. _levir_, a husband's brother), a custom, sometimes even a +law, compelling a dead man's brother to marry his widow. It seems to +have been widespread in primitive times, and is common to-day. Of the +origin and primitive purpose of the levirate marriage various +explanations have been put forward:-- + +1. It has been urged that the custom was primarily based on the law of +inheritance; a wife, regarded as a chattel, being inherited like other +possessions. The social advantage of providing one who should maintain +the widow doubtless aided the spread of the custom. The abandonment of a +woman and her children in the nomadic stage of civilization would be +equivalent to death for them; hence with some peoples the levirate +became a duty rather than a right. Among the Thlinkets, for example, +when a man dies, his brother or his sister's son must marry the widow, a +failure in this duty occasioning feuds. The obligation on a man to +provide for his sister-in-law is analogous to other duties devolving on +kinsfolk, such as the vendetta. + +2. J. F. McLennan, however, would assume the levirate to be a relic of +polyandry, and in his argument lays much stress on the fact that it is +the dead man's _brother_ who inherits the widow. But among many races +who follow the custom, such as the Fijians, Samoans, Papuans of New +Guinea, the Caroline Islanders, and some tribes in the interior of +Western Equatorial Africa, the rule of inheritance is to the brother +first. Thus among the Santals, "when the elder brother dies, the next +younger inherits the widow, children and all the property." Further, +there is no known race where it is permitted to a son to marry his own +mother. Inheriting a woman in primitive societies would be always +tantamount to marrying her, and, apart from any special laws of +inheritance, it would be natural for the brother to take over the widow. +In polygamous countries where a man leaves many widows the son would +have a right of ownership over these, and could dispose of them or keep +them as he pleased, his own mother alone excepted. Thus among the +Bakalai, an African tribe, widows may marry the son of their dead +husband, or in default of a son, can live with the brother. The Negroes +of Benin and the Gabun and the Kaffirs of Natal have similar customs. In +New Caledonia every man, married or single, must immediately marry his +brother's widow. In Polynesia the levirate has the force of law, and it +is common throughout America and Asia. + +3. Another explanation of the custom has been sought in a semi-religious +motive which has had extraordinary influence in countries where to die +without issue is regarded as a terrible calamity. The fear of this +catastrophe would readily arise among people who did not believe in +personal immortality, and to whom the extinction of their line would be +tantamount to annihilation. Or it is easily conceivable as a natural +result of ancestor-worship, under which failure of offspring entailed +deprivation of cherished rites and service.[1] Thus it is only when the +dead man has no offspring that the Jewish, Hindu and Malagasy laws +prescribe that the brother shall "raise up seed" to him. In this sense +the levirate forms part of the Deuteronomic Code, under which, however, +the obligation is restricted to the brother who "dwelleth together" +(i.e. on the family estate) with the dead man, and the first child only +of the levirate marriage is regarded as that of the dead man. That the +custom was obsolescent seems proved by the enjoining of ceremony on any +brother who wished to evade the duty, though he had to submit to an +insult from his sister-in-law, who draws off his sandal and spits in his +face. The biblical story of Ruth exemplifies the custom, though with +further modifications (see RUTH, BOOK OF). Finally the custom is +forbidden in Leviticus, though in New Testament times the levirate law +was still observed by some Jews. The ceremony ordained by Deuteronomy is +still observed among the orthodox. Among the Hindus the _levir_ did not +take his brother's widow as wife, but he had intercourse with her. This +practice was called _niyoga_. + +4. Yet another suggested origin of the levirate is agrarian, the motive +being to keep together under the levirate husband the property which +would otherwise have been divided among all the brothers or next of kin. + + See J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_ (London, 1886) and + "The Levirate and Polyandry," in _The Fortnightly Review_, n.s. vol. + xxi. (1877); C. N. Starcke, _The Primitive Family in its Origin and + Development_ (London, 1889); Edward Westermarck, _History of Human + Marriage_ (London, 1894), pp. 510-514, where are valuable notes + containing references to numerous books of travel; H. Spencer, + _Principles of Sociology_, ii. 649; A. H. Post, _Einleitung in das + Stud. d. Ethnolog. Jurisprud_. (1886). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] An expression of this idea is quoted from the _Mahabharata_ + (Muir's trans.), by Max Müller (Gifford Lectures), _Anthropological + Religion_, p. 31-- + + "That stage completed, seek a wife + And gain the fruit of wedded life, + A race of sons, by rites to seal, + When thou art gone, thy spirit's weal." + + + + +LÉVIS (formerly Pointe Levi), the chief town of Lévis county, Quebec, +Canada, situated on the precipitous south bank of the St Lawrence, +opposite Quebec city. Pop. (1901) 7783. It is on the Intercolonial +railway, and is the eastern terminus of the Grand Trunk and Quebec +Central railways. It contains the Lorne dock, a Dominion government +graving dock, 445 ft. long, 100 ft. wide, with a depth on the sill of +26½ and 20½ ft. at high water, spring and neap tides respectively. It is +an important centre of the river trade, and is connected by steam +ferries with the city of Quebec. It is named after the maréchal duc de +Lévis, the last commander of the French troops in Canada. + + + + +LEVITES, or sons of Levi (son of Jacob by Leah), a sacred caste in +ancient Israel, the guardians of the temple service at Jerusalem.[1] + +1. _Place in Ritual._--In the developed hierarchical system the +ministers of the sanctuary are divided into distinct grades. All are +"Levites" by descent, and are thus correlated in the genealogical and +other lists, but the true priesthood is confined to the sons of Aaron, +while the mass of the Levites are subordinate servants who are not +entitled to approach the altar or to perform any strictly priestly +function. All access to the Deity is restricted to the one priesthood +and to the one sanctuary at Jerusalem; the worshipping subject is the +nation of Israel as a unity, and the function of worship is discharged +on its behalf by divinely chosen priests. The ordinary individual may +not intrude under penalty of death; only those of Levitical origin may +perform service, and they are essentially the servants and hereditary +serfs of the Aaronite priests (see Num. xviii.). But such a scheme finds +no place in the monarchy; it presupposes a hierocracy under which the +priesthood increased its rights by claiming the privileges which past +kings had enjoyed; it is the outcome of a complicated development in Old +Testament religion in the light of which it is to be followed (see +HEBREW RELIGION). + +First (a), in the earlier biblical writings which describe the state of +affairs under the Hebrew monarchy there is not this fundamental +distinction among the Levites, and, although a list of Aaronite +high-priests is preserved in a late source, internal details and the +evidence of the historical books render its value extremely doubtful (1 +Chron. vi. 3-15, 49-53). In Jerusalem itself the subordinate officers of +the temple were not members of a holy gild, but of the royal body-guard, +or bond-slaves who had access to the sacred courts, and might even be +uncircumcised foreigners (Josh. ix. 27; 1 Kings xiv. 28; 2 Kings xi.; +cf. Zeph. i. 8 seq.; Zech. xiv. 21). Moreover, ordinary individuals +might serve as priests (1 Sam. ii II, 18, vii. 1; see 2 Sam. viii. 18, +deliberately altered in 1 Chron. xviii. 17); however, every Levite was a +priest, or at least qualified to become one (Deut. x. 8, xviii. 7; +Judges xvii. 5-13), and when the author of 1 Kings xii. 31, wishes to +represent Jeroboam's priests as illegitimate, he does not say that they +were not Aaronites, but that they were not of the sons of Levi. + +The next stage (b) is connected with the suppression of the local +high-places or minor shrines in favour of a central sanctuary. This +involved the suppression of the Levitical priests in the country (cf. +perhaps the allusion in Deut. xxi. 5); and the present book of +Deuteronomy, in promulgating the reform, represents the Levites as poor +scattered "sojourners" and recommends them to the charity of the people +(Deut. xii. 12, 18 seq., xiv. 27, 29, xvi. 11, 14, xxvi. 11 sqq.). +However, they are permitted to congregate at "the place which Yahweh +shall choose," where they may perform the usual priestly duties together +with their brethren who "stand there before Yahweh," and they are +allowed their share of the offerings (Deut. xviii. 6-8).[2] The +Deuteronomic history of the monarchy actually ascribes to the Judaean +king Josiah (621 B.C.) the suppression of the high-places, and states +that the local priests were brought to Jerusalem and received support, +but did not minister at the altar (2 Kings xxiii. 9). Finally, a scheme +of ritual for the second temple raises this exclusion to the rank of a +principle. The Levites who had been idolatrous are punished by exclusion +from the proper priestly work, and take the subordinate offices which +the uncircumcised and polluted foreigners had formerly filled, while the +sons of Zadok, who had remained faithful, are henceforth the legitimate +priests, the only descendants of Levi who are allowed to minister unto +Yahweh (Ezek. xliv. 6-15, cf. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xlviii. 11). "A +threefold cord is not quickly broken," and these three independent +witnesses agree in describing a significant innovation which ends with +the supremacy of the Zadokites of Jerusalem over their brethren. + +In the last stage (c) the exclusion of the ordinary Levites from all +share in the priesthood of the sons of Aaron is looked upon as a matter +of course, dating from the institution of priestly worship by Moses. The +two classes are supposed to have been founded separately (Exod. xxviii., +cf. xxix. 9; Num. iii. 6-10), and so far from any degradation being +attached to the rank and file of the Levites, their position is +naturally an honourable one compared with that of the mass of +non-Levitical worshippers (see Num. i. 50-53), and they are taken by +Yahweh as a surrogate for the male first-born of Israel (iii. 11-13). +They are inferior only to the Aaronites to whom they are "joined" +(xviii. 2, a play on the name Levi) as assistants. Various adjustments +and modifications still continue, and a number of scattered details may +indicate that internal rivalries made themselves felt. But the different +steps can hardly be recovered clearly, although the fact that the +priesthood was extended beyond the Zadokites to families of the +dispossessed priests points to some compromise (1 Chron. xxiv.). +Further, it is subsequently found that certain classes of temple +servants, the singers and porters, who had once been outside the +Levitical gilds, became absorbed as the term "Levite" was widened, and +this change is formally expressed by the genealogies which ascribe to +Levi, the common "ancestor" of them all, the singers and even certain +families whose heathenish and foreign names show that they were once +merely servants of the temple.[3] + +2. _Significance of the Development._--Although the legal basis for the +final stage is found in the legislation of the time of Moses (latter +part of the second millennium B.C.), it is in reality scarcely earlier +than the 5th century B.C., and the Jewish theory finds analogies when +developments of the Levitical service are referred to David (1 Chron. +xv. seq., xxiii. sqq.), Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix.) and Josiah +(xxxv.)--contrast the history in the earlier books of Samuel and +Kings--or when the still later book of Jubilees (xxxii.) places the rise +of the Levitical priesthood in the patriarchal period. The traditional +theory of the Mosaic origin of the elaborate Levitical legislation +cannot be maintained save by the most arbitrary and inconsequential +treatment of the evidence and by an entire indifference to the +historical spirit; and, although numerous points of detail still remain +very obscure, the three leading stages in the Levitical institutions are +now recognized by nearly all independent scholars. These stages with a +number of concomitant features confirm the literary hypothesis that +biblical history is in the main due to two leading recensions, the +Deuteronomic and the Priestly (cf. [b] and [c] above), which have +incorporated older sources.[4] If the hierarchical system as it existed +in the post-exilic age was really the work of Moses, it is inexplicable +that all trace of it was so completely lost that the degradation of the +non-Zadokites in Ezekiel was a new feature and a punishment, whereas in +the Mosaic law the ordinary Levites, on the traditional view, was +already forbidden priestly rights under penalty of death. There is in +fact no clear evidence of the existence of a distinction between priests +and Levites in any Hebrew writing demonstrably earlier than the +Deuteronomic stage, although, even as the Pentateuch contains ordinances +which have been carried back by means of a "legal convention" to the +days of Moses, writers have occasionally altered earlier records of the +history to agree with later standpoints.[5] + + No argument in support of the traditional theory can be drawn from the + account of Korah's revolt (Num. xvi. sqq., see § 3) or from the + Levitical cities (Num. xxxv.; Josh. xxi.). Some of the latter were + either not conquered by the Israelites until long after the invasion, + or, if conquered, were not held by Levites; and names are wanting of + places in which priests are actually known to have lived. Certainly + the names are largely identical with ancient holy cities, which, + however, are holy because they possessed noted shrines, not because + the inhabitants were members of a holy tribe. Gezer and Taanach, for + example, are said to have remained in the hands of Canaanites (Judges + i. 27, 29; cf. 1 Kings ix. 16), and recent excavation has shown how + far the cultus of these cities was removed from Mosaic religion and + ritual and how long the grosser elements persisted.[6] On the other + hand, the sanctuaries obviously had always their local ministers, all + of whom in time could be called Levitical, and it is only in this + sense, not in that of the late priestly legislation, that a place like + Shechem could ever have been included. Further, instead of holding + cities and pasture-grounds, the Levites are sometimes described as + scattered and divided (Gen. xlix. 7; Deut. xviii. 6), and though they + may naturally possess property as private individuals, they alone of + all the tribes of Israel possess no tribal inheritance (Num. xviii. + 23, xxvi. 62; Deut. x. 9; Josh. xiv. 3). This fluctuation finds a + parallel in the age at which the Levites were to serve; for neither + has any reasonable explanation been found on the traditional view. + Num. iv. 3 fixes the age at thirty, although in i. 3 it has been + reduced to twenty; but in 1 Chron. xxiii. 3, David is said to have + numbered them from the higher limit, whereas in vv. 24, 27 the lower + figure is given on the authority of "the last words (or acts) of + David." In Num. viii. 23-26, the age is given as twenty-five, but + twenty became usual and recurs in Ezra iii. 8 and 2 Chron. xxxi. 17. + There are, however, independent grounds for believing that 1 Chron. + xxiii. 24, 27, 2 Chron. xxxi. 17 belong to later insertions and that + Ezr. iii. 8 is relatively late. + +When, in accordance with the usual methods of Hebrew genealogical +history, the Levites are defined as the descendants of Levi, the third +son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxix. 34), a literal interpretation is +unnecessary, and the only narrative wherein Levi appears as a person +evidently delineates under the form of personification events in the +history of the Levites (Gen. xxxiv.).[7] They take their place in Israel +as the tribe set apart for sacred duties, and without entering into the +large question how far the tribal schemes can be used for the earlier +history of Israel, it may be observed that no adequate interpretation +has yet been found of the ethnological traditions of Levi and other sons +of Leah in their historical relation to one another or to the other +tribes. However intelligible may be the notion of a tribe _reserved_ for +priestly service, the fact that it does not apply to early biblical +history is apparent from the heterogeneous details of the Levitical +divisions. The incorporation of singers and porters is indeed a late +process, but it is typical of the tendency to co-ordinate all the +religious classes (see GENEALOGY: _Biblical_). The genealogies in their +complete form pay little heed to Moses, although Aaron and Moses could +typify the priesthood and other Levites generally (1 Chron. xxiii. 14). +Certain priesthoods in the first stage (§ 1 [a]) claimed descent from +these prototypes, and it is interesting to observe (1) the growing +importance of Aaron in the later sources of "the Exodus," and (2) the +relation between Mosheh (Moses) and his two sons Gershom and Eliezer, on +the one side, and the Levitical names Mushi (i.e. the Mosaite), Gershon +and the Aaronite priest Eleazar, on the other. There are links, also, +which unite Moses with Kenite, Rechabite, Calebite and Edomite families, +and the Levitical names themselves are equally connected with the +southern tribes of Judah and Simeon and with the Edomites.[8] It is to +be inferred, therefore, that some relationship subsisted, or was thought +to subsist, among (1) the Levites, (2) clans actually located in the +south of Palestine, and (3) families whose names and traditions point to +a southern origin. The exact meaning of these features is not clear, but +if it be remembered (a) that the Levites of post-exilic literature +represent only the result of a long and intricate development, (b) that +the name "Levite," in the later stages at least, was extended to include +all priestly servants, and (c) that the priesthoods, in tending to +become hereditary, included priests who were Levites by adoption and not +by descent, it will be recognized that the examination of the evidence +for the earlier stages cannot confine itself to those narratives where +the specific term alone occurs. + +3. _The Traditions of the Levites._--In the "Blessing of Moses" (Deut, +xxxiii. 8-11), Levi is a collective name for the priesthood, probably +that of (north) Israel. He is the guardian of the sacred oracles, +knowing no kin, and enjoying his privileges for proofs of fidelity at +Massah and Meribah. That these places (in the district of Kadesh) were +traditionally associated with the origin of the Levites is suggested by +various Levitical stories, although it is in a narrative now in a +context pointing to Horeb or Sinai that the Levites are Israelites who +for some cause (now lost) severed themselves from their people and took +up a stand on behalf of Yahweh (Exod. xxxii.). Other evidence allows us +to link together the Kenites, Calebites and Danites in a tradition of +some movement into Palestine, evidently quite distinct from the great +invasion of Israelite tribes which predominates in the existing records. +The priesthood of Dan certainly traced its origin to Moses (Judges xvii. +9, xviii. 30); that of Shiloh claimed an equally high ancestry (1 Sam. +ii. 27 seq.).[9] Some tradition of a widespread movement appears to be +ascribed to the age of Jehu, whose accession, promoted by the prophet +Elisha, marks the end of the conflict between Yahweh and Baal. To a +Rechabite (the clan is allied to the Kenites) is definitely ascribed a +hand in Jehu's sanguinary measures, and, though little is told of the +obviously momentous events, one writer clearly alludes to a bloody +period when reforms were to be effected by the sword (1 Kings xix. 17). +Similarly the story of the original selection of the Levites in the +wilderness mentions an uncompromising massacre of idolaters. +Consequently, it is very noteworthy that popular tradition preserves the +recollection of some attack by the "brothers" Levi and Simeon upon the +famous holy city of Shechem to avenge their "sister" Dinah (Gen. +xxxiv.), and that a detailed narrative tells of the bloodthirsty though +pious Danites who sacked an Ephraimite shrine on their journey to a new +home (Judges xvii. sq.). + + The older records utilized by the Deuteronomic and later compilers + indicate some common tradition which has found expression in these + varying forms. Different religious standpoints are represented in the + biblical writings, and it is now important to observe that the + prophecies of Hosea unmistakably show another attitude to the + Israelite priesthood. The condemnation of Jehu's bloodshed (Hos. i. 4) + gives another view of events in which both Elijah and Elisha were + concerned, and the change is more vividly realized when it is found + that even to Moses and Aaron, the traditional founders of Israelite + religion and ritual, is ascribed an offence whereby they incurred + Yahweh's wrath (Num. xx. 12, 24, xxvii. 14; Deut. ix. 20, xxxii. 51). + The sanctuaries of Shiloh and Dan lasted until the deportation of + Israel (Judges xviii. 30 seq.), and some of their history is still + preserved in the account of the late pre-monarchical age (12th-11th + centuries B.C.). Shiloh's priestly gild is condemned for its iniquity + (1 Sam. iii. 11-14), the sanctuary mysteriously disappears, and the + priests are subsequently found at Nob outside Jerusalem (1 Sam. xxi. + seq.). All idea of historical perspective has been lost, since the + fall of Shiloh was apparently a recent event at the close of the 7th + century (Jer. vii. 12-15, xxvi. 6-9). But the tendency to ascribe the + disasters of northern Israel to the priesthood (see esp. Hosea) takes + another form when an inserted prophecy revokes the privileges of the + ancient and honourable family, foretells its overthrow, and announces + the rise of a new faithful and everlasting priesthood, at whose hands + the dispossessed survivors, reduced to poverty, would beg some + priestly office to secure a livelihood (1 Sam. ii. 27-36). The sequel + to this phase is placed in the reign of Solomon, when David's old + priest Abiathar, sole survivor of the priests of Shiloh, is expelled + to Anathoth (near Jerusalem), and Zadok becomes the first chief priest + contemporary with the foundation of the _first_ temple (1 Kings ii. + 27, 35). These situations cannot be severed from what is known + elsewhere of the Deuteronomic teaching, of the reform ascribed to + Josiah, or of the principle inculcated by Ezekiel (see § 1 [b]). The + late specific tendency in favour of Jerusalem agrees with the + Deuteronomic editor of Kings who condemns the sanctuaries of Dan and + Bethel for calf-worship (1 Kings xii. 28-31), and does not acknowledge + the northern priesthood to be Levitical (1 Kings xii. 31, note the + interpretation in 2 Chron. xi. 14, xiii. 9). It is from a similar + standpoint that Aaron is condemned for the manufacture of the golden + calf, and a compiler (not the original writer) finds its sequel in the + election of the faithful Levites.[10] + +In the third great stage there is another change in the tone. The +present (priestly) recension of Gen. xxxiv. has practically justified +Levi and Simeon from its standpoint of opposition to intermarriage, and +in spite of Jacob's curse (Gen. xlix. 5-7) later traditions continue to +extol the slaughter of the Shechemitcs as a pious duty. Post-exilic +revision has also hopelessly obscured the offence of Moses and Aaron, +although there was already a tendency to place the blame upon the people +(Deut. i. 37, iii. 26, iv. 21). When two-thirds of the priestly families +are said to be Zadokites and one-third are of the families of Abiathar, +some reconciliation, some adjustment of rivalries, is to be recognized +(1 Chron. xxiv.). Again, in the composite story of Korah's revolt, one +version reflects a contest between Aaronites and the other Levites who +claimed the priesthood (Num. xvi. 8-11, 36-40), while another shows the +supremacy of the Levites as a caste either over the rest of the people +(? cf. the prayer, Deut. xxxiii. 11), or, since the latter are under the +leadership of Korah, later the eponym of a gild of singers, perhaps over +the more subordinate ministers who once formed a separate class.[11] In +the composite work Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah (dating after the +post-exilic Levitical legislation) a peculiar interest is taken in the +Levites, more particularly in the singers, and certain passages even +reveal some animus against the Aaronites (2 Chron. xxix. 34, xxx. 3). A +Levite probably had a hand in the work, and this, with the evidence for +the Levitical Psalms (see PSALMS), gives the caste an interesting place +in the study of the transmission of the biblical records.[12] But the +history of the Levites in the early post-exilic stage and onwards is a +separate problem, and the work of criticism has not advanced +sufficiently for a proper estimate of the various vicissitudes. However, +the feeling which was aroused among the priests when some centuries +later the singers obtained from Agrippa the privilege of wearing the +priestly linen dress (Josephus, _Ant._ xx. 9. 6), at least enables one +to appreciate more vividly the scantier hints of internal jealousies +during the preceding years.[13] + +4. _Summary._--From the inevitable conclusion that there are three +stages in the written sources for the Levitical institutions, the next +step is the correlation of allied traditions on the basis of the +genealogical evidence. But the problem of fitting these into the history +of Israel still remains. The assumption that the earlier sources for the +pre-monarchical history, as incorporated by late compilers, are +necessarily trustworthy confuses the inquiry (on Gen. xxxiv., see +SIMEON), and even the probability of a reforming spirit in Jehu's age +depends upon the internal criticism of the related records (see JEWS, §§ +11-14). The view that the Levites came from the south may be combined +with the conviction that there Yahweh had his seat (cf. Deut. xxxiii. 2; +Judges v. 4; Hab. iii. 3), but the latter is only one view, and the +traditions of the patriarchs point to another belief (cf. also Gen. iv. +26). The two are reconciled when the God of the patriarchs reveals His +name for the first time unto Moses (Exod. iii. 15, vi. 3). With these +variations is involved the problem of the early history of the +Israelites.[14] Moreover, the real Judaean tendency which associates the +fall of Eli's priesthood at Shiloh with the rise of the Zadokites +involves the literary problems of Deuteronomy, a composite work whose +age is not certainly known, and of the twofold Deuteronomic redaction +elsewhere, one phase of which is more distinctly Judaean and +anti-Samaritan. There are vicissitudes and varying standpoints which +point to a complicated literary history and require some historical +background, and, apart from actual changes in the history of the +Levites, some allowance must be made for the real character of the +circles where the diverse records originated or through which they +passed. The key must be sought in the exilic and post-exilic age where, +unfortunately, direct and decisive evidence is lacking. It is clear that +the Zadokite priests were rendered legitimate by finding a place for +their ancestor in the Levitical genealogies--through Phinehas (cf. Num. +xxv. 12 seq.), and Aaron--there was a feeling that a legitimate priest +must be an Aaronite, but the historical reason for this is uncertain +(see R. H. Kennett, _Journ. Theolog. Stud._, 1905, pp. 161 sqq.). Hence, +it is impossible at present to trace the earlier steps which led to the +grand hierarchy of post-exilic Judaism. Even the name Levite itself is +of uncertain origin. Though popularly connected with _lavah_, "be +joined, attached," an ethnic from Leah has found some favour; the +Assyrian _li'u_ "powerful, wise," has also been suggested. The term has +been more plausibly identified with _l-v-_' (fem. _l-v-'-t_), the name +given in old Arabian inscriptions (e.g. at al-'Ola, south-east of Elath) +to the priests and priestesses of the Arabian god Vadd (so especially +Hommel, _Anc. Heb. Trad._, pp. 278 seq.). The date of the evidence, +however, has not been fixed with unanimity, and this very attractive +and suggestive view requires confirmation and independent support. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the argument in § 1, see Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, + pp. 121-151; W. R. Smith, _Old Test. in Jew. Church_ (2nd ed., Index, + s.v. "Levites"); A. Kuenen, _Hexateuch_, §§ 3 n. 16; 11, pp. 203 sqq.; + 15 n. 15 (more technical); also the larger commentaries on + Exodus-Joshua and the ordinary critical works on Old Testament + literature. In § 1 and part of § 2 use has been freely made of W. R. + Smith's article "Levites" in the 9th edition of the _Ency. Brit._ (see + the revision by A. Bertholet, _Ency. Bib._ col. 2770 sqq.). For the + history of the Levites in the post-exilic and later ages, see the + commentaries on Numbers (by G. B. Gray) and Chronicles (E. L. Curtis), + and especially H. Vogelstein, _Der Kampf zwischen Priestern u. Leviten + seit den Tagen Ezechiels_, with Kuenen's review in his _Gesammelte + Abhandlungen_ (ed. K. Budde, 1894). See further PRIEST. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the derivation of "Levi" see below § 4 end. + + [2] The words "beside that which cometh of the sale of his patrimony" + (lit. "his sellings according to the fathers") are obscure; they seem + to imply some additional source of income which the Levite enjoys at + the central sanctuary. + + [3] For the _nethinim_ ("given") and "children of the slaves of + Solomon" (whose hereditary service would give them a pre-eminence + over the temple slaves), see art. NETHINIM, and Benzinger, _Ency. + Bib._ cols. 3397 sqq. + + [4] In defence of the traditional view, see S. I. Curtiss, _The + Levitical Priests_ (1877), with which his later attitude should be + contrasted (see _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, pp. 14, 50, 133 + seq., 171, 238 sqq., 241 sqq.); W. L. Baxter, _Sanctuary and + Sacrifice_ (1895); A. van Hoonacker, _Le Sacerdoce lévitique_ (1899); + and J. Orr, _Problem of the O.T._ (1905). These and other apologetic + writings have so far failed to produce any adequate alternative + hypothesis, and while they argue for the traditional theory, later + revision not being excluded, the modern critical view accepts late + dates for the literary sources in their present form, and explicitly + recognizes the presence of much that is ancient. Note the curious old + tradition that Ezra wrote out the law which had been burnt (2 Esdr. + xiv. 21 sqq.). + + [5] For example, in 1 Kings viii. 4, there are many indications that + the context has undergone considerable editing at a fairly late date. + The Septuagint translators did not read the clause which speaks of + "priests and Levites," and 2 Chron. v. 5 reads "the Levite priests," + the phrase characteristic of the Deuteronomic identification of + priestly and Levitical ministry. 1 Sam. vi. 15, too, brings in the + Levites, but the verse breaks the connexion between 14 and 16. For + the present disorder in the text of 2 Sam. xv. 24, see the + commentaries. + + [6] See Father H. Vincent, O.P., _Canaan d'après l'exploration + récente_ (1907), pp. 151, 200 sqq., 463 sq. + + [7] So Gen. xxxiv. 7, Hamor has wrought folly "in Israel" (cf. Judges + xx. 6 and often), and in v. 30 "Jacob" is not a personal but a + collective idea, for he says, "I am a few men," and the capture and + destruction of a considerable city is in the nature of things the + work of more than two individuals. In the allusion to Levi and Simeon + in Gen. xlix. the two are spoken of as "brothers" with a communal + assembly. See, for other examples of personification, GENEALOGY: + _Biblical_. + + [8] See E. Meyer, _Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme_, pp. 299 sqq. + (passim); S. A. Cook, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1665 seq.; _Crit. Notes on + O.T. History_, pp. 84 sqq., 122-125. + + [9] The second element of the name Abiathar is connected with Jether + or Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, and even Ichabod (1 Sam. iv. + 21) seems to be an intentional reshaping of Jochebed, which is + elsewhere the name of the mother of Moses. Phinehas, Eli's son, + becomes in later writings the name of a prominent Aaronite priest in + the days of the exodus from Egypt. + + [10] With this development in Israelite religion, observe that + Judaean cult included the worship of a brazen serpent, the + institution of which was ascribed to Moses, and that, according to + the compiler of Kings, Hezekiah was the first to destroy it when he + suppressed idolatrous worship in Judah (2 Kings xviii. 4). It may be + added that the faithful Kenites (found in N. Palestine, Judges iv. + 11) appear in another light when threatened with captivity by Asshur + (Num. xxiv. 22; cf. fall of Dan and Shiloh), and if their eponym is + Cain (q.v.), the story of Cain and Abel serves, amid a variety of + purposes, to condemn the murder of the settled agriculturist by the + nomad, but curiously allows that any retaliation upon Cain shall be + avenged (see below, note 5). + + [11] The name Korah itself is elsewhere Edomite (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, + 18) and Calebite (1 Chron. ii. 43). See _Ency. Bib._, s.v. + + [12]: The musical service of the temple has no place in the + Pentateuch, but was considerably developed under the second temple + and attracted the special attention of Greek observers (Theophrastus, + _apud_ Porphyry, _de Abstin._ ii. 26); see on this subject, R. + Kittel's _Handkommentar_ on Chronicles, pp. 90 sqq. + + [13] Even the tithes enjoyed by the Levites (Num. xviii. 21 seq.) + were finally transferred to the priests (so in the Talmud: see + _Yebamoth_, fol. 86a, Carpzov, _App. ad Godw._ p. 624; Hottinger, _De + Dec._ vi. 8, ix. 17). + + [14] For some suggestive remarks on the relation between nomadism and + the Levites, and their influence upon Israelite religion and literary + tradition, see E. Meyer, _Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme_ + (1906), pp. 82-89, 138; on the problems of early Israelite history, + see SIMEON (end), JEWS, §§ 5, 8, and PALESTINE, _History_. + + + + +LEVITICUS, in the Bible, the third book of the Pentateuch. The name is +derived from that of the Septuagint version ([Greek: to]) [Greek: +leu[e]itikon] (sc. [Greek: biblion]), though the English form is due to +the Latin rendering, _Leviticus_ (sc. _liber_). By the Jews the book is +called _Wayyikra_ ([Hebrew: Wayykra]) from the first word of the Hebrew +text, but it is also referred to (in the Talmud and Massorah) as _Torath +kohanim_ ([Hebrew: Totath kohanim], law of the priests), _Sepher +kohanim_ ([Hebrew: Sepher k´´], book of the priests), and _Sepher +korbanim_ ([Hebrew: Sepher korbanim], book of offerings). As a +descriptive title _Leviticus_, "the Levitical book," is not +inappropriate to the contents of the book, which exhibits an elaborate +system of sacrificial worship. In this connexion, however, the term +"Levitical" is used in a perfectly general sense, since there is no +reference in the book itself to the Levites themselves. + +The book of Leviticus presents a marked contrast to the two preceding +books of the Hexateuch in that it is derived from one document only, +viz. the Priestly Code (P), and contains no trace of the other documents +from which the Hexateuch has been compiled. Hence the dominant interest +is a priestly one, while the contents are almost entirely legislative as +opposed to historical. But though the book as a whole is assigned to a +single document, its contents are by no means homogeneous: in fact the +critical problem presented by the legislative portions of Leviticus, +though more limited in scope, is very similar to that of the other books +of the Hexateuch. Here, too, the occurrence of repetitions and +divergencies, the variations of standpoint and practice, and, at times, +the linguistic peculiarities point no less clearly to diversity of +origin. + +The historical narrative with which P connects his account of the sacred +institutions of Israel is reduced in Leviticus to a minimum, and +presents no special features. The consecration of Aaron and his sons +(viii. ix.) resumes the narrative of Exod. xl., and this is followed by +a brief notice of the death of Nadab and Abihu (x. 1-5), and later by an +account of the death of the blasphemer (xxiv. 10 f.). Apart from these +incidents, which, in accordance with the practice of P, are utilized for +the purpose of introducing fresh legislation, the book consists of three +main groups or collections of ritual laws: (1) chaps, i.-vii., laws of +sacrifice; (2) chaps, xi.-xv., laws of purification, with an appendix +(xvi.) on the Day of Atonement; (3) chaps, xvii.-xxvi., the Law of +Holiness, with an appendix (xxvii.) on vows and tithes. In part these +laws appear to be older than P, but when examined in detail the various +collections show unmistakably that they have undergone more than one +process of redaction before they assumed the form in which they are now +presented. The scope of the present article does not permit of an +elaborate analysis of the different sections, but the evidence adduced +will, it is hoped, afford sufficient proof of the truth of this +statement. + +I. _The Laws of Sacrifice._--Chaps. i.-vii. This group of laws clearly +formed no part of the original narrative of P since it interrupts the +connexion of chap. viii. with Exod. xl. For chap. viii. describes how +Moses carried out the command of Exod. xl. 12-15 in accordance with the +instructions given in Exod. xxix. 1-35, and bears the same relation to +the latter passage that Exod. xxxv. ff. bears to Exod. xxv. ff. Hence we +can only conclude that Lev. i.-vii. were added by a later editor. This +conclusion does not necessarily involve a late date for the laws +themselves, many of which have the appearance of great antiquity, +though their original form has been considerably modified. But though +these chapters form an independent collection of laws, and were +incorporated as such in P, a critical analysis of their contents shows +that they were not all derived from the same source. + + The collection falls into two divisions, (a) i.-vi. 7 (Heb. v. 26), + and (b) vi. 8 (Heb. vi. 1)-vii., the former being addressed to the + people and the latter to the priests. The laws contained in (a) refer + to (1) burnt-offerings, i.; (2) meal-offerings, ii.; (3) + peace-offerings, iii.; (4) sin-offerings, iv. (on v. 1-13 see below); + (5) trespass-offerings, v. 14-vi. 7 (Heb. v. 14-26). The laws in (b) + cover practically the same ground--(1) burnt-offerings, vi. 8-13 (Heb. + vv. 1-6); (2) meal-offerings, vi. 14-18 (Heb. vv. 7-11); (3) the + meal-offering of the priest, vi. 19-23 (Heb. vv. 12-16); (4) + sin-offerings, vi. 24-30 (Heb. vv. 17-23); (5) trespass-offerings, + vii. 1-7, together with certain regulations for the priest's share of + the burnt- and meal-offerings (vv. 8-10); (6) peace-offerings, vii. + 11-21. Then follow the prohibition of eating the fat or blood (vv. + 22-28), the priest's share of the peace-offerings (vv. 29-34), the + priest's anointing-portion (vv. 35, 36), and the subscription (vv. 37, + 38). The second group of laws is thus to a certain extent + supplementary to the first, and was, doubtless, intended as such by + the editor of chaps. i.-vii. Originally it can hardly have formed part + of the same collection; for (a) the order is different, that of the + second group being supported by its subscription, and (b) the laws in + vi. 8-vii. are regularly introduced by the formula "This is the law + (_torah_) of...." Most probably the second group was excerpted by the + editor of chaps. i.-vii. from another collection for the purpose of + supplementing the laws of i.-v., more especially on points connected + with the functions and dues of the officiating priests. + + Closer investigation, however, shows that both groups of laws contain + heterogeneous elements and that their present form is the result of a + long process of development. Thus i. and iii. seem to contain + genuinely old enactments, though i. 14-17 is probably a later + addition, since there is no reference to birds in the general heading + v. 2. Chap. ii. 1-3, on the other hand, though it corresponds in form + to i. and iii., interrupts the close connexion between those chapters, + and should in any case stand after iii.: the use of the second for the + third person in the remaining verses points to a different source. As + might be expected from the nature of the sacrifice with which it + deals, iv. (sin-offerings) seems to belong to a relatively later + period of the sacrificial system. Several features confirm this view: + (1) the blood of the sin-offering of the "anointed priest" and of the + whole congregation is brought within the veil and sprinkled on the + altar of incense, (2) the sin-offering of the congregation is a + bullock, and not, as elsewhere, a goat (ix. 15; Num. xv. 24), (3) the + altar of incense is distinguished from the altar of burnt-offering (as + opposed to Exod. xxix.; Lev. viii. ix.). Chap. v. 1-13 have usually + been regarded as an appendix to iv., setting forth (a) a number of + typical cases for which a sin-offering is required (vv. 1-6), and (b) + certain concessions for those who could not afford the ordinary + sin-offering (vv. 7-13). But vv. 1-6, which are not homogeneous (vv. 2 + and 3 treating of another question and interrupting vv. 1, 4, 5 f.), + cannot be ascribed to the same author as iv.: for (1) it presents a + different theory of the sin-offering (contrast v. 1 f. with iv. 2), + (2) it ignores the fourfold division of offerings corresponding to the + rank of the offender, (3) it fails to observe the distinction between + sin- and trespass-offering (in vv. 6, 7, "his guilt-offering" + ([Hebrew: ashamo]) appears to have the sense of a "penalty" or + "forfeit," unless with Baentsch we read [Hebrew: korbano] "his + oblation" in each case; cf. v. 11, iv. 23 ff. Verses 7-13, on the + other hand, form a suitable continuation of iv., though probably they + are secondary in character. Chap. v. 14 (Heb. v. 26)-vi. 7 contain + regulations for the trespass-offering, in which the distinctive + character of that offering is clearly brought out. The cases cited in + vi. 1-7 (Heb. v. 20-26) are clearly analogous to those in v. 14-16, + from which they are at present separated by vv. 17-19. These latter + prescribe a trespass-offering for the same case for which in iv. 22 f. + a sin-offering is required: it is noticeable also that no restitution, + the characteristic feature of the _asham_, is prescribed. It is hardly + doubtful that the verses are derived from a different source to that + of their immediate context, possibly the same as v. 1-6. + + The subscription (vii. 37, 38) is our chief guide to determining the + original extent of the second group of laws (vi. 8 [Heb. vi. 1]-vii. + 36). From it we infer that originally the collection only dealt with + the five chief sacrifices (vi. 8-13; 14-18; 24, 25, 27-30; vii. 1-6; + 11-21) already discussed in i.-v., since only these are referred to in + the colophon where they are given in the same order (the + consecration-offering [v. 37] is probably due to the same redactor who + introduced the gloss "in the day when he is anointed" in vi. 20). Of + the remaining sections vi. 19-23 (Heb. 12-16), the daily meal-offering + of the (high-) priest, betrays its secondary origin by its absence + from the subscription, cf. also the different introduction. Chaps. vi. + 26 (Heb. 19) and vii. 7 assign the offering to the officiating priest + in contrast to vi. 18 (Heb. 11), 29 (Heb. 22), vii. 6 ("every male + among the priests"), and possibly belong, together with vii. 8-10, to + a separate collection which dealt especially with priestly dues. Chap. + vii. 22-27, which prohibit the eating of fat and blood, are addressed + to the community at large, and were, doubtless, inserted here in + connexion with the sacrificial meal which formed the usual + accompaniment of the peace-offering. Chap. vii. 28-34 are also + addressed to the people, and cannot therefore have formed part of the + original priestly manual; v. 33 betrays the same hand as vi. 26 (Heb. + 19) and vii. 7, and with 35a may be assigned to the same collection as + those verses; to the redactor must be assigned vv. 32 (a doublet of v. + 33), 34, 35b and 36. + + Chaps. viii.-x. As stated, these chapters form the original sequel to + Exod. xl. They describe (a) the consecration of Aaron and his sons, a + ceremony which lasted seven days (viii.), and (b) the public worship + on the eighth day, at which Aaron and his sons officiated for the + first time as priests (ix.); then follow (c) an account of the death + of Nadab and Abihu for offering strange fire (x. 1-5); (d) various + regulations affecting the priests (vv. 12-15), and (e) an explanation, + in narrative form, of the departure in ix. 15 from the rules for the + sin-offering given in vi. 30 (vv. 16-20). + + According to Exod. xl. 1-15 Moses was commanded to set up the + Tabernacle and to consecrate the priests, and the succeeding verses + (16-38) describe how the former command was carried out. The execution + of the second command, however, is first described in Lev. viii., and + since the intervening chapters exhibit obvious traces of belonging to + another source, we may conclude with some certainty that Lev. viii. + formed the immediate continuation of Exod. xl. in the original + narrative of P. But it has already been pointed out (see Exodus) that + Exod. xxxv.-xl. belong to a later stratum of P than Exod. xxv.-xxix, + hence it is by no means improbable that Exod. xxxv-xl. have superseded + an earlier and shorter account of the fulfilment of the commands in + Exod. xxv.-xxix. If this be the case, we should naturally expect to + find that Lev. viii., which bears the same relation to Exod. xxix. + 1-35 as Exod. xxxv. ff. to Exod. xxv. ff. also belonged to a later + stratum. But Lev. viii., unlike Exod xxxv. ff., only mentions one + altar, and though in its present form the chapter exhibits marks of + later authorship, these marks form no part of the original account, + but are clearly the work of a later editor. These additions, the + secondary character of which is obvious both from the way in which + they interrupt the context and also from their contents, are (1), v. + 10, the anointing of the Tabernacle in accordance with Exod. xxx. 26 + ff.: it is not enjoined in Exod. xxix.; (2) v. 11, the anointing of + the altar and the laver (cf. Exod. xxx. 17 ff.) as in Exod. xxix. 36b, + xxx. 26 ff.; (3) v. 30, the sprinkling of blood and oil on Aaron and + his sons. Apart from these secondary elements, which readily admit of + excision, the chapter is in complete accord with P as regards point of + view and language, and is therefore to be assigned to that source. + + The consecration of Aaron and his sons was, according to P, a + necessary preliminary to the offering of sacrifice, and chap. ix. + accordingly describes the first solemn act of worship. The ceremony + consists of (a) the offerings for Aaron, and (b) those for the + congregation; then follows the priestly blessing (v. 22), after which + Moses and Aaron enter the sanctuary, and on reappearing once more + bless the people. The ceremony terminates with the appearance of the + glory of Yahweh, accompanied by a fire which consumes the sacrifices + on the altar. Apart from a few redactional glosses the chapter as a + whole belongs to P. The punishment of Nadab and Abihu by death for + offering "strange fire" (x. 1-5) forms a natural sequel to chap. ix. + To this incident a number of disconnected regulations affecting the + priests have been attached, of which the first, viz. the prohibition + of mourning to Aaron and his sons (vv. 6, 7), alone has any connexion + with the immediate context; as it stands, the passage is late in form + (cf. xxi. 10 ff.). The second passage, vv. 8, 9, which prohibits the + use of wine and strong drink to the priest when on duty, is clearly a + later addition. The connexion between these verses and the following + is extremely harsh, and since vv. 10, 11 relate to an entirely + different subject (cf. xi. 47), the latter verses must be regarded as + a misplaced fragment. Verses 12-15 relate to the portions of the meal- + and peace-offerings which fell to the lot of the priests, and connect, + therefore, with chap. ix.; possibly they have been wrongly transferred + from that chapter. In the remaining paragraph, x. 16-20, we have an + interesting example of the latest type of additions to the Hexateuch. + According to ix. 15 (cf. v. 11) the priests had burnt the flesh of the + sin-offering which had been offered on behalf of the congregation, + although its blood had not been taken into the inner sanctuary (cf. + iv. 1-21, vi. 26). Such treatment, though perfectly legitimate + according to the older legislation (Exod. xxix. 14; cf. Lev. viii. + 17), was in direct contradiction to the ritual of vi. 24 ff., which + prescribed that the flesh of ordinary sin-offerings should be eaten by + the priests. Such a breach of ritual on the part of Aaron and his sons + seemed to a later redactor to demand an explanation, and this is + furnished in the present section. + +II. _The Laws of Purification._--Chaps. xi.-xv. This collection of laws +comprises four main sections relating to (1) clean and unclean beasts +(xi.), (2) childbirth (xii.), (3) leprosy (xiii. xiv.), and (4) certain +natural secretions (xv.). These laws, or _toroth_, are so closely allied +to each other by the nature of their contents and their literary form +(cf. especially the recurring formula "This is the law of ..." xi. 46, +xii. 7, xiii. 59, xiv. 32, 54, 57, xv. 32) that they must originally +have formed a single collection. The collection, however, has clearly +undergone more than one redaction before reaching its final form. This +is made evident not only by the present position of chap. xii. which in +v. 2 presupposes chap. xv. (cf. xv. 19), and must originally have +followed after that chapter, but also by the contents of the different +sections, which exhibit clear traces of repeated revision. At the same +time it seems, like chaps. i.-vii., xvii.-xxvi., to have been formed +independently of P and to have been added to that document by a later +editor; for in its present position it interrupts the main thread of P's +narrative, chap. xvi. forming the natural continuation of chap. x.; and, +further, the inclusion of Aaron as well as Moses in the formula of +address (xi. 1, xiii. 1, xiv. 33, xv. 1) is contrary to the usage of P. + + 1. Chap. xi. consists of two main sections, of which the first (vv. + 1-23, 41-47) contains directions as to the clean and unclean animals + which may or may not be used for food, while the second (vv: 24-40) + treats of the defilement caused by contact with the carcases of + unclean animals (in v. 39 f. contact with clean animals after death is + also forbidden), and prescribes certain rites of purification. The + main interest of the chapter, from the point of view of literary + criticism, centres in the relation of the first section to the Law of + Holiness (xvii.-xxvi.) and to the similar laws in Deut. xiv. 3-20. + From xx. 25 it has been inferred with considerable probability that H, + or the Law of Holiness, originally contained legislation of a similar + character with reference to clean and unclean animals; and many + scholars have held that the first section (vv. 1 [or 2]-23 and 41-47) + really belongs to that code. But while vv. 43-45 may unhesitatingly be + assigned to H, the remaining verses fail to exhibit any of the + characteristic features of that code. We must assign them, therefore, + to another source, though, in view of xx. 25 and xi. 43-45, it is + highly probable that they have superseded similar legislation + belonging to H. + + The relation of Lev. xi. 2-23 to Deut. xiv. 4-20 is less easy to + determine, since the phenomena presented by the two texts are somewhat + inconsistent. The two passages are to a large extent verbally + identical, but while Deut. xiv. 4b, 5 both defines and exemplifies the + clean animals (as opposed to Lev. xi. 3; which only defines them), the + rest of the Deuteronomic version is much shorter than that of + Leviticus. Thus, except for vv. 4b, 5, the Deuteronomic version, which + in its general style, and to a certain extent in its phraseology (cf. + [Hebrew: min] _kind_, vv. 13, 15, 18, and [Hebrew: sheretz] _swarm_, + v. 19), shows traces of a priestly origin, might be regarded as an + abridgment of Lev. xi. But the Deuteronomic version uses [Hebrew: + tame] _unclean_ throughout (vv. 7, 10. 19), while Lev xi. from v. 11 + onwards employs the technical term [Hebrew: sheketz] _detestable + thing_, and it is at least equally possible to treat the longer + version of Leviticus as an expansion of Deut. xiv. 4-20. The fact that + Deut. xiv. 21 permits the stranger ([Hebrew: gher]) to eat the flesh + of any animal that dies a natural death, while Lev. xvii. 25 places + him on an equal footing with the Israelite, cannot be cited in favour + of the priority of Deuteronomy since v. 21 is clearly supplementary; + cf. also Lev. xi. 39. On the whole it seems best to accept the view + that both passages are derived separately from an earlier source. + + 2. Chap. xii. prescribes regulations for the purification of a woman + after the birth of (a) a male and (b) a female child. It has been + already pointed out that this chapter would follow more suitably after + chap. xv., with which it is closely allied in regard to + subject-matter. The closing formula (v. 7) shows clearly that, as in + the case of v. 7-13 (cf. i. 14-17), the concessions in favour of the + poorer worshipper are a later addition. + + 3. Chaps. xiii., xiv. The regulations concerning leprosy fall readily + into four main divisions: (a) xiii. 1-46a, an elaborate description of + the symptoms common to the earlier stages of leprosy and other skin + diseases to guide the priest in deciding as to the cleanness or + uncleanness of the patient; (b) xiii. 47-59, a further description of + different kinds of mould or fungus growth affecting stuffs and + leather; (c) xiv. 1-32, the rites of purification to be employed after + the healing of leprosy; and (d) xiv. 33-53, regulations dealing with + the appearance of patches of mould or mildew on the walls of a house. + Like other collections the group of laws on leprosy easily betrays its + composite character and exhibits unmistakable evidence of its gradual + growth. There is, however, no reason to doubt that a large portion of + the laws is genuinely old since the subject is one that would + naturally call for early legislation; moreover, Deut. xxiv. 8 + presupposes the existence of regulations concerning leprosy, + presumably oral, which were in the possession of the priests. The + earliest sections are admittedly xiii. 1-46a and xiv. 2-8a, the ritual + of the latter being obviously of a very archaic type. The secondary + character of xiii. 47-59 is evident: it interrupts the close connexion + between xiii. 1-46a and xiv. 2-8a, and further it is provided with its + own colophon in v. 59. A similar character must be assigned to the + remaining verses of chap. xiv., with the exception of the colophon in + v. 57b; the latter has been successively expanded in vv. 54-57a so as + to include the later additions. Thus xiv. 9-20 prescribes a second and + more elaborate ritual of purification after the healing of leprosy, + though the leper, according to v. 8a, is already clean; its secondary + character is further shown by the heightening of the ceremonial which + seems to be modelled on that of the consecration of the priest (viii. + 23 ff.), the multiplication of sacrifices and the minute regulations + with regard to the blood and oil. The succeeding section (vv. 21-32) + enjoins special modifications for those who cannot afford the more + costly offerings of vv. 9-20, and like v. 7-13, xii. 8 is clearly a + later addition; cf. the separate colophon, v. 32. The closing section + xiv. 33-53 is closely allied to xiii. 47-59, though probably later in + date: probably the concluding verses (48-53), in which the same rites + are prescribed for the purification of a house as are ordained for a + person in vv. 3-8a, were added at a still later period. + + 4. Chap. xv. deals with the rites of purification rendered necessary + by various natural secretions, and is therefore closely related to + chap. xii. On the analogy of the other laws it is probable that the + old _torah_, which forms the basis of the chapter, has been + subsequently expanded, but except in the colophon (vv. 32-34), which + displays marks of later redaction, there is nothing to guide us in + separating the additional matter. + + Chap. xvi. It may be regarded as certain that this chapter consists of + three main elements, only one of which was originally connected with + the ceremonial of the Day of Atonement, and that it has passed through + more than one stage of revision. Since the appearance of Benzinger's + analysis _ZATW_ (1889), critics in the main have accepted the division + of the chapter into three independent sections: (1) vv. 1-4, 6, 12, + 13, 34b (probably vv. 23, 24 also form part of this section), + regulations to be observed by Aaron whenever he might enter "the holy + place within the veil." These regulations are the natural outcome of + the death of Nadab and Abihu (x. 1-5), and their object is to guard + Aaron from a similar fate; the section thus forms the direct + continuation of chap. x.; (2) vv. 29-34a, rules for the observance of + a yearly fast day, having for their object the purification of the + sanctuary and of the people; (3) vv. 5, 7-10, 14-22, 26-28, a later + expansion of the blood-ritual to be performed by the high-priest when + he enters the Holy of Holies, with which is combined the strange + ceremony of the goat which is sent away into the wilderness to Azazel. + The matter common to the first two sections, viz. the entrance of the + high priest into the Holy of Holies, was doubtless the cause of their + subsequent fusion; beyond this, however, the sections have no + connexion with one another, and must originally have been quite + independent. Doubtless, as Benzinger suggests, the rites to be + performed by the officiating high priest on the annual Day of + Atonement, which are not prescribed in vv. 29-34a, were identical with + those laid down in chap. ix. That the third section belongs to a later + stage of development and was added at a later date is shown by (a) the + incongruity of vv. 14 ff. with v. 6--according to the latter the + purification of Aaron is a preliminary condition of his entrance + within the veil--and (b) the elaborate ceremonial in connexion with + the sprinkling of the blood. The first section, doubtless, belongs to + the main narrative of P; it connects directly with chap. x. and + presupposes only one altar (cf. v. 12, Exod. xxviii. 35). The second + and third sections, however, must be assigned to a later stratum of P, + if only because they appear to have been unknown to Ezra (Neh. ix. 1); + the fact that Ezra's fast day took place on the twenty-fourth day of + the seventh month (as opposed to Lev. xvi. 29, xxiii. 26 f.) acquires + an additional importance in view of the agreement between Neh. viii. + 23 f. and Lev. xxiii. 33 f. as to the date of the Feast of + Tabernacles. No mention is made of the Day of Atonement in the + pre-exilic period, and it is a plausible conjecture that the present + law arose from the desire to turn the spontaneous fasting of Neh. ix. + 1 into an annual ceremony; in any case directions as to the annual + performance of the rite must originally have preceded vv. 29 ff. + Possibly the omission of this introduction is due to the redactor who + combined (1) and (2) by transferring the regulations of (1) to the + ritual of the annual Day of Atonement. At a later period the ritual + was further developed by the inclusion of the additional ceremonial + contained in (3). + +III. _The Law of Holiness._--Chaps. xvii.-xxvi. The group of laws +contained in these chapters has long been recognized as standing apart +from the rest of the legislation set forth in Leviticus. For, though +they display undeniable affinity with P, they also exhibit certain +features which closely distinguish them from that document. The most +noticeable of these is the prominence assigned to certain leading ideas +and motives, especially to that of _holiness_. The idea of holiness, +indeed, is so characteristic of the entire group that the title "Law of +Holiness," first given to it by Klostermann (1877), has been generally +adopted. The term "holiness" in this connexion consists positively in +the fulfilment of ceremonial obligations and negatively in abstaining +from the defilement caused by heathen customs and superstitions, but it +also includes obedience to the moral requirements of the religion of +Yahweh. + + On the literary side also the chapters are distinguished by the + paraenetic setting in which the laws are embedded and by the use of a + special terminology, many of the words and phrases occurring rarely, + if ever, in P (for a list of characteristic phrases cf. Driver, + _L.O.T._^6, p. 49). Further, the structure of these chapters, which + closely resembles that of the other two Hexateuchal codes (Exod. xx. + 22-xxiii. and Deut. xii.-xxviii.), may reasonably be adduced in + support of their independent origin. All three codes contain a + somewhat miscellaneous collection of laws; all alike commence with + regulations as to the place of sacrifice and close with an + exhortation. Lastly, some of the laws treat of subjects which have + been already dealt with in P (cf. xvii. 10-14 and vii. 26 f., xix. 6-8 + and vii. 15-18). It is hardly doubtful also that the group of laws, + which form the basis of chaps. xvii.-xxvi., besides being independent + of P, represent an older stage of legislation than that code. For the + sacrificial system of H (= Law of Holiness) is less developed than + that of P, and in particular shows no knowledge of the sin- and + trespass-offerings; the high priest is only _primus inter pares_ among + his brethren, xxi. 10 (cf. Lev. x. 6, 7, where the same prohibition is + extended to all the priests); the distinction between "holy" and "most + holy" things (Num. xviii. 8) is unknown to Lev. xxii. (Lev. xxi. 22 is + a later addition). It cannot be denied, however, that chaps. + xvii.-xxvi. present many points of resemblance with P, both in + language and subject-matter, but on closer examination these points of + contact are seen to be easily separable from the main body of the + legislation. It is highly probable, therefore, that these marks of P + are to be assigned to the compiler who combined H with P. But though + it may be regarded as certain that H existed as an independent code, + it cannot be maintained that the laws which it contains are all of the + same origin or belong to the same age. The evidence rather shows that + they were first collected by an editor before they were incorporated + in P. Thus there is a marked difference in style between the laws + themselves and the paraenetic setting in which they are embedded; and + it is not unnatural to conjecture that this setting is the work of the + first editor. + + Two other points in connexion with H are of considerable importance: + (a) the possibility of other remains of H, and (b) its relation to + Deuteronomy and Ezekiel. + + (a) It is generally recognized that H, in its present form, is + incomplete. The original code must, it is felt, have included many + other subjects now passed over in silence. These, possibly, were + omitted by the compiler of P, because they had already been dealt with + elsewhere, or they may have been transferred to other connexions. This + latter possibility is one that has appealed to many scholars, who have + accordingly claimed many other passages of P as parts of H. We have + already accepted xi. 43 ff. as an undoubted excerpt from H, but, with + the exception of Num. xv. 37-41 (on fringes), the other passages of + the Hexateuch which have been attributed to H do not furnish + sufficient evidence to justify us in assigning them to that + collection. Moore (_Ency. Bibl._ col. 2787) rightly points out that + "resemblance in the subject or formulation of laws to _toroth_ + incorporated in H may point to a relation to the _sources_ of H, but + is not evidence that these laws were ever included in that + collection." + + (b) The exact relation of H to Deuteronomy and Ezekiel is hard to + determine. That chaps. xvii.-xxvi. display a marked affinity to + Deuteronomy cannot be denied. Like D, they lay great stress on the + duties of humanity and charity both to the Israelite and to the + stranger (Deut. xxiv.; Lev. xix.; compare also laws affecting the poor + in Deut. xv.; Lev. xxv.), but in some respects the legislation of H + appears to reflect a more advanced stage than that of D, e.g. the + rules for the priesthood (chap. xxi.), the feasts (xxiii. 9-20, + 39-43), the Sabbatical year (xxv. 1-7, 18-22), weights and measures + (xix. 35 f.). It must be remembered, however, that these laws have + passed through more than one stage of revision and that the original + regulations have been much obscured by later glosses and additions; it + is therefore somewhat hazardous to base any argument on their present + form. "The mutual independence of the two (codes) is rather to be + argued from the absence of laws identically formulated, the lack of + agreement in order either in the whole or in smaller portions, and the + fact that of the peculiar motives and phrases of R_{D} there is no + trace in H (Lev. xxiii. 40 is almost solitary). It is an unwarranted + assumption that all the fragments of Israelite legislation which have + been preserved lie in one serial development" (Moore, _Ency. Bibl._ + col. 2790). + + The relation of H to Ezekiel is remarkably close, the resemblances + between the two being so striking that many writers have regarded + Ezekiel as the author of H. Such a theory, however, is excluded by the + existence of even greater differences of style and matter, so that the + main problem to be decided is whether Ezekiel is prior to H or vice + versa. The main arguments brought forward by those who maintain the + priority of Ezekiel are (1) the fact that H makes mention of a high + priest, whereas Ezekiel betrays no knowledge of such an official, and + (2) that the author of Lev. xxvi. presupposes a condition of exile and + looks forward to a restoration from it. Too much weight, however, must + not be attached to these points; for (1) the phrase used in Lev. xxi. + 10 (_literally_, "he who is greater than his brethren") cannot be + regarded as the equivalent of the definitive "chief priest" of P, and + is rather comparable with the usage of 2 Kings xxii. 4 ff., xxv. 18 + ("the chief priest"), cf. "the priest" in xi. 9 ff., xvi. 10 ff.; and + (2) the passages in Lev. xxvi. (vv. 34 f., 39-45), which are + especially cited in support of the exilic standpoint of the writer, + are just those which, on other grounds, show signs of later + interpolation. The following considerations undoubtedly suggest the + priority of H: (1) there is no trace in H of the distinction between + priests and Levites first introduced by Ezekiel; (2) Ezekiel xviii., + xx., xxii., xxiii. appear to presuppose the laws of Lev. xviii.-xx.; + (3) the calendar of Lev. xxiii. represents an earlier stage of + development than the fixed days and months of Ezek. xlv.; (4) the sin- + and trespass-offerings are not mentioned in H (cf. Ezek. xl. 39, xlii. + 13, xliv. 29, xlvi. 20); (5) the parallels to H, which are found + especially in Ezek. xviii., xx., xxii. f., include both the paraenetic + setting and the laws; and lastly, (6) a comparison of Lev. xxvi. with + Ezekiel points to the greater originality of the former. Baentsch, + however, who is followed by Bertholet, adopts the view that Lev. xxvi. + is rather an independent hortatory discourse modelled on Ezekiel. The + same writer further maintains that H consists of three separate + elements, viz. chaps. xvii.; xviii.-xx., with various ordinances in + chaps. xxiii.-xxv.; and xxii., xxiii., of which the last is certainly + later than Ezekiel, while the second is in the main prior to that + author. But the arguments which he adduces in favour of the threefold + origin of H are not sufficient to outweigh the general impression of + unity which the code presents. + + Chap. xvii. comprises four main sections which are clearly marked off + by similar introductory and closing formulae: (1) vv. 3-7, prohibition + of the slaughter of domestic animals, unless they are presented to + Yahweh; (2) vv. 8, 9, sacrifices to be offered to Yahweh alone; (3) + vv. 10-12, prohibition of the eating of blood; (4) vv. 13, 14, the + blood of animals not used in sacrifice to be poured on the ground. The + chapter as a whole is to be assigned to H. At the same time it + exhibits many marks of affinity with P, a phenomenon most easily + explained by the supposition that older laws of H have been expanded + and modified by later hands in the spirit of P. Clear instances of + such revision may be seen in the references to "the door of the tent + of meeting" (vv. 4, 5, 6, 9) and "the camp" (v. 3), as well as in vv. + 6, 11, 12-14; vv. 15, 16 (prohibiting the eating of animals that die a + natural death or are torn by beasts) differ formally from the + preceding paragraphs, and are to be assigned to P. What remains after + the excision of later additions, however, is not entirely uniform, and + points to earlier editorial work on the part of the compiler of H. + Thus vv. 3-7 reflect two points of view, vv. 3, 4 drawing a contrast + between profane slaughter and sacrifice, while vv. 5-7 distinguish + between sacrifices offered to Yahweh and those offered to demons. + + Chap. xviii. contains laws on prohibited marriages (vv. 6-18) and + various acts of unchastity (vv. 19-23) embedded in a paraenetic + setting (vv. 1-5 and 24-30), the laws being given in the 2nd pers. + sing., while the framework employs the 2nd pers. plural. With the + exception of v. 21 (on Molech worship), which is here out of place, + and has possibly been introduced from xx. 2-5, the chapter displays + all the characteristics of H. + + Chap. xix. is a collection of miscellaneous laws, partly moral, partly + religious, of which the fundamental principle is stated in v. 2 ("Ye + shall be holy"). The various laws are clearly defined by the formula + "I am Yahweh," or "I am Yahweh your God," phrases which are especially + characteristic of chaps. xviii.-xx. The first group of laws (vv. 3 f.) + corresponds to the first table of the decalogue, while vv. 11-18 are + analogous to the second table; vv. 5-8 (on peace-offerings) are + obviously out of place here, and are possibly to be restored to the + cognate passage xxii. 29 f., while the humanitarian provisions of vv. + 9 and 10 (cf. xxiii. 22) have no connexion with the immediate context; + similarly v. 20 (to which a later redactor has added vv. 21, 22, in + accordance with vi. 6 f.) appears to be a fragment from a penal code; + the passage resembles Exod. xxi. 7 ff., and the offence is clearly one + against property, the omission of the punishment being possibly due to + the redactor who added vv. 21, 22. + + Chap. xx. Prohibitions against Molech worship, vv. 2-5, witchcraft, + vv. 6 and 27, unlawful marriages and acts of unchastity, vv. 10-21. + Like chap. xviii., the main body of laws is provided with a paraenetic + setting, vv. 7, 8 and 22-24; it differs from that chapter, however, in + prescribing the death penalty in each case for disobedience. Owing to + the close resemblance between the two chapters, many critics have + assumed that they are derived from the same source and that the latter + chapter was added for the purpose of supplying the penalties. This + view, however, is not borne out by a comparison of the two chapters, + for four of the cases mentioned in chap. xviii. (vv. 7, 10, 17b, 18) + are ignored in chap. xx., while the order and in part the terminology + are also different; further, it is difficult on this view to explain + why the two chapters are separated by chap. xix. A more probable + explanation is that the compiler of H has drawn from two parallel, but + independent, sources. Signs of revision are not lacking, especially in + vv. 2-5, where vv. 4 f. are a later addition intended to reconcile the + inconsistency of v. 2 with v. 3 (R_{H}); v. 6, which is closely + connected with xix. 31, appears to be less original than v. 27, and + may be ascribed to the same hand as v. 3; v. 9 can hardly be in its + original context--it would be more suitable after xxiv. 15. The + paraenetic setting (vv. 7, 8 and 22-24) is to be assigned to the + compiler of H, who doubtless prefaced the parallel version with the + additional laws of vv. 2-6. Verses 25, 26 apparently formed the + conclusion of a law on clean and unclean animals similar to that of + chap. xi., and very probably mark the place where H's regulations on + that subject originally stood. + + Chaps. xxi., xxii. A series of laws affecting the priests and + offerings, viz. (1) regulations ensuring the holiness of (a) ordinary + priests, xxi. 1-9, and (b) the chief priest, vv. 10-15; (2) a list of + physical defects which exclude a priest from exercising his office, + vv. 16-24; (3) the enjoyment of sacred offerings limited to (a) + priests, if they are ceremonially clean, xxi. 1-9, and (b) members of + a priestly family, vv. 10-16; (4) animals offered in sacrifice must be + without blemish, vv. 17-25; (5) further regulations with regard to + sacrifices, vv. 26-30, with a paraenetic conclusion, vv. 31-33. + + These chapters present considerable difficulty to the literary critic; + for while they clearly illustrate the application of the principle of + "holiness," and in the main exhibit the characteristic phraseology of + H, they also display many striking points of contact with P and the + later strata of P, which have been closely interwoven into the + original laws. These phenomena can be best explained by the + supposition that we have here a body of old laws which have been + subjected to more than one revision. The nature of the subjects with + which they deal is one that naturally appealed to the priestly + schools, and owing to this fact the laws were especially liable to + modification and expansion at the hands of later legislators who + wished to bring them into conformity with later usage. Signs of such + revision may be traced back to the compiler of H, but the evidence + shows that the process must have been continued down to the latest + period of editorial activity in connexion with P. To redactors of the + school of P belong such phrases as "the sons of Aaron" (xxi. 1, 24, + xxii. 2, 18), "the seed of Aaron" (xxi. 21, xxii. 4 and "thy seed," v. + 17; cf. xxii. 3), "the offerings of the Lord made by fire" (xxi. 6, + 21, xxii. 22, 27), "the most holy things" (xxi. 22; cf. xxii. 3 ff. + "holy things" only), "throughout their (or your) generations" (xxi. 7, + xxii. 3), the references to the anointing of Aaron (xxi. 10, 12) and + the Veil (xxi. 23), the introductory formulae (xxi. 1, 16 f., xxii. 1 + f., 17 f., 26) and the subscription (xxi. 24). Apart from these + redactional additions, chap. xxi. is to be ascribed to H, vv. 6 and 8 + being possibly the work of R_{H}. Most critics detect a stronger + influence of P in chap. xxii., more especially in vv. 3-7 and 17-25, + 29, 30; most probably these verses have been largely recast and + expanded by later editors, but it is noticeable that they contain no + mention of either sin- or trespass-offerings. + + Chap. xxiii. A calendar of sacred seasons. The chapter consists of two + main elements which can easily be distinguished from one another, the + one being derived from P and the other from H. To the former belongs + the fuller and more elaborate description of vv. 4-8, 21, 23-38; to + the latter, vv. 9-20, 22, 39-44. Characteristic of the priestly + calendar are (1) the enumeration of "holy convocations," (2) the + prohibition of all work, (3) the careful determination of the date by + the day and month, (4) the mention of "the offerings made by fire to + Yahweh," and (5) the stereotyped form of the regulations. The older + calendar, on the other hand, knows nothing of "holy convocations," nor + of abstinence from work; the time of the feasts, which are clearly + connected with agriculture, is only roughly defined with reference to + the harvest (cf. Exod. xxiii. 14 ff., xxxiv. 22; Deut. xvi. 9 ff.). + + The calendar of P comprises (a) the Feast of Passover and the + Unleavened Cakes, vv. 4-8; (b) a fragment of Pentecost, v. 21; (c) the + Feast of Trumpets, vv. 23-25; (d) the Day of Atonement, vv. 26-32; and + (e) the Feast of Tabernacles, vv. 33-36, with a subscription in vv. + 37, 38. With these have been incorporated the older regulations of H + on the Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost, vv. 9-20, which have been + retained in place of P's account (cf. v. 21), and on the Feast of + Tabernacles, vv. 39-44, the latter being clearly intended to + supplement vv. 33-36. The hand of the redactor who combined the two + elements may be seen partly in additions designed to accommodate the + regulations of H to P (e.g. v. 39a, "on the fifteenth day of the + seventh month," and 39b, "and on the eighth day shall be a solemn + rest"), partly in the later expansions corresponding to later usage, + vv. 12 f., 18, 19a, 21b, 41. Further, vv. 26-32 (on the Day of + Atonement, cf. xvi.) are a later addition to the P sections. + + Chap. xxiv. affords an interesting illustration of the manner in which + the redactor of P has added later elements to the original code of H. + For the first part of the chapter, with its regulations as to (a) the + lamps in the Tabernacle, vv. 1-4, and (b) the Shewbread, vv. 5-9, is + admittedly derived from P, vv. 1-4, forming a supplement to Exod. xxv. + 31-40 (cf. xxvii. 20 f.) and Num. viii. 1-4, and vv. 5-9 to Exod. xxv. + 30. The rest of the chapter contains old laws (vv. 15b-22) derived + from H on blasphemy, manslaughter and injuries to the person, to which + the redactor has added an historical setting (vv. 10-14, 23) as well + as a few glosses. + + Chap. xxv. lays down regulations for the observance of (a) the + Sabbatical year, vv. 1-7, 19-22, and (b) the year of Jubilees, vv. + 8-18, 23, and then applies the principle of redemption to (1) land and + house property, vv. 24-34, and (2) persons, vv. 35-55. The rules for + the Sabbatical year (vv. 1-7) are admittedly derived from H, and vv. + 19-22 are also from the same source. Their present position after vv. + 8-18 is due to the redactor who wished to apply the same rules to the + year of Jubilee. But though the former of the two sections on the year + of Jubilee (vv. 8-18, 23) exhibits undoubted signs of P, the traces of + H are also sufficiently marked to warrant the conclusion that the + latter code included laws relating to the year of Jubilee, and that + these have been modified by R_{P} and then connected with the + regulations for the Sabbatical year. Signs of the redactor's handiwork + may be seen in vv. 9, 11-13 (the year of Jubilee treated as a fallow + year) and 15, 16 (cf. the repetition of "ye shall not wrong one + another," vv. 14 and 17). Both on historical and on critical grounds, + however, it is improbable that the principle of restitution underlying + the regulations for the year of Jubilee was originally extended to + _persons_ in the earlier code. For it is difficult to harmonize the + laws as to the release of Hebrew slaves with the other legislation on + the same subject (Exod. xxi. 2-6; Deut. xv.), while both the secondary + position which they occupy in this chapter and their more elaborate + and formal character point to a later origin for vv. 35-55. Hence + these verses in the main must be assigned to R_{P}. In this connexion + it is noticeable that vv. 35-38, 39-40a, 43, 47, 53, 55, which show + the characteristic marks of H, bear no special relation to the year of + Jubilee, but merely inculcate a more humane treatment of those + Israelites who are compelled by circumstances to sell themselves + either to their brethren or to strangers. It is probable, therefore, + that they form no part of the original legislation of the year of + Jubilee, but were incorporated at a later period. The present form of + vv. 24-34 is largely due to R_{P}, who has certainly added vv. 32-34 + (cities of the Levites) and probably vv. 29-31. + + Chap. xxvi. The concluding exhortation. After reiterating commands to + abstain from idolatry and to observe the Sabbath, vv. 1, 2, the + chapter sets forth (a) the rewards of obedience, vv. 3-13, and (b) the + penalties incurred by disobedience to the preceding laws, vv. 14-46. + The discourse, which is spoken throughout in the name of Yahweh, is + similar in character to Exod. xxiii. 20-33 and Deut. xxviii., more + especially to the latter. That it forms an integral part of H is shown + both by the recurrence of the same distinctive phraseology and by the + emphasis laid on the same motives. At the same time it is hardly + doubtful that the original discourse has been modified and expanded by + later hands, especially in the concluding paragraphs. Thus vv. 34, 35, + which refer back to xxv. 2 ff., interrupt the connexion and must be + assigned to the priestly redactor, while vv. 40-45 display obvious + signs of interpolation. With regard to the literary relation of this + chapter with Ezekiel, it must be admitted that Ezekiel presents many + striking parallels, and in particular makes use, in common with chap. + xxvi., of several expressions which do not occur elsewhere in the Old + Testament. But there are also points of difference both as regards + phraseology and subject-matter, and in view of these latter it is + impossible to hold that Ezekiel was either the author or compiler of + this chapter. + + Chap. xxvii. On the commutation of vows and tithes. The chapter as a + whole must be assigned to a later stratum of P, for while vv. 2-25 (on + vows) presuppose the year of Jubilee, the section on tithes, vv. + 30-33, marks a later stage of development than Num. xviii. 21 ff. (P); + vv. 26-29 (on firstlings and devoted things) are supplementary + restrictions to vv. 2-25. + + LITERATURE.--_Commentaries_: Dillmann-Ryssel, _Die Bücher Exodus und + Leviticus_ (1897); Driver and White, _SBOT. Leviticus_ (English, + 1898); B. Baentsch, _Exod. Lev. u. Num._ (HK, 1900); Bertholet, + _Leviticus_ (KHC, 1901). _Criticism_: The Introductions to the Old + Testament by Kuenen, Holzinger, Driver, Cornill, König and the + archaeological works of Benzinger and Nowack. Wellhausen, _Die + Composition des Hexateuchs_, &c. (1899); Kayser, _Das vorexilische + Buch der Urgeschichte Isr._ (1874); Klostermann, _Zeitschrift für + Luth. Theologie_ (1877); Horst, _Lev. xvii.-xxvi. and Hezekiel_ + (1881); Wurster, _ZATW_ (1884); Baentsch, _Das Heiligkeitsgesetz_ + (1893); L. P. Paton, "The Relation of Lev. 20 to Lev. 17-19," + _Hebraica_ (1894); "The Original Form of Leviticus," _JBL_ (1897, + 1898); "The Holiness Code and Ezekiel," _Pres. and Ref. Review_ + (1896); Carpenter, _Composition of the Hexateuch_ (1902). Articles on + Leviticus by G. F. Moore, Hastings's _Diet. Bib._, and G. Harford + Battersby, _Ency. Bib._ (J. F. St.) + + + + +LEVY, AMY (1861-1889), English poetess and novelist, second daughter of +Lewis Levy, was born at Clapham on the 10th of November 1861, and was +educated at Newnham College, Cambridge. She showed a precocious aptitude +for writing verse of exceptional merit, and in 1884 she published a +volume of poems, _A Minor Poet and Other Verse_, some of the pieces in +which had already been printed at Cambridge with the title _Xantippe and +Other Poems_. The high level of this first publication was maintained in +_A London Plane Tree and Other Poems_, a collection of lyrics published +in 1889, in which the prevailing pessimism of the writer's temperament +was conspicuous. She had already in 1888 tried her hand at prose fiction +in _The Romance of a Shop_, which was followed by _Reuben Sachs_, a +powerful novel. She committed suicide on the 10th of September 1889. + + + + +LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844- ), French geologist, was born in Paris on +the 7th of August 1844. He became inspector-general of mines, and +director of the Geological Survey of France. He was distinguished for +his researches on eruptive rocks, their microscopic structure and +origin; and he early employed the polarizing microscope for the +determination of minerals. In his many contributions to scientific +journals he described the granulite group, and dealt with pegmatites, +variolites, eurites, the ophites of the Pyrenees, the extinct volcanoes +of Central France, gneisses, and the origin of crystalline schists. He +wrote _Structures et classification des roches éruptives_ (1889), but +his more elaborate studies were carried on with F. Fouqué. Together they +wrote on the artificial production of felspar, nepheline and other +minerals, and also of meteorites, and produced _Minéralogie +micrographique_ (1879) and _Synthèse des minéraux et des roches_ (1882). +Levy also collaborated with A. Lacroix in _Les Minéraux des roches_ +(1888) and _Tableau des minéraux des roches_ (1889). + + + + +LEVY (Fr. _levée_, from _lever_, Lat. _levare_, to lift, raise), the +raising of money by the collection of an assessment, &c., a tax or +compulsory contribution; also the collection of a body of men for +military or other purposes. When all the able-bodied men of a nation are +enrolled for service, the French term _levée en masse_, levy in mass, is +frequently used. + + + + +LEWALD, FANNY (1811-1889), German author, was born at Königsberg in East +Prussia on the 24th of March 1811, of Jewish parentage. When seventeen +years of age she embraced Christianity, and after travelling in Germany, +France and Italy, settled in 1845 at Berlin. Here, in 1854, she married +the author, Adolf Wilhelm Theodor Stahr (1805-1876), and removed after +his death in 1876 to Dresden, where she resided, engaged in literary +work, until her death on the 5th of August 1889. Fanny Lewald is less +remarkable for her writings, which are mostly sober, matter-of-fact +works, though displaying considerable talent and culture, than for her +championship of "women's rights," a question which she was practically +the first German woman to take up, and for her scathing satire on the +sentimentalism of the Gräfin Hahn Hahn. This authoress she ruthlessly +attacked in the exquisite parody (_Diogena, Roman von Iduna Gräfin H.... +H...._ (2nd ed., 1847). Among the best known of her novels are +_Klementine_ (1842); _Prinz Louis Ferdinand_ (1849; 2nd ed., 1859); _Das +Mädchen von Hela_ (1860); _Von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht_ (8 vols., +1863-1865); _Benvenuto_ (1875), and _Stella_ (1883; English by B. +Marshall, 1884). Of her writings in defence of the emancipation of women +_Osterbriefe für die Frauen_ (1863) and _Für und wider die Frauen_ +(1870) are conspicuous. Her autobiography, _Meine Lebensgeschichte_ (6 +vols., 1861-1862), is brightly written and affords interesting glimpses +of the literary life of her time. + + A selection of her works was published under the title _Gesammelte + Schriften_ in 12 vols. (1870-1874). Cf. K. Frenzel, _Erinnerungen und + Strömungen_ (1890). + + + + +LEWANIKA (c. 1860- ), paramount chief of the Barotse and subject tribes +occupying the greater part of the upper Zambezi basin, was the +twenty-second of a long line of rulers, whose founder invaded the +Barotse valley about the beginning of the 17th century, and according to +tradition was the son of a woman named Buya Mamboa by a god. The graves +of successive ruling chiefs are to this day respected and objects of +pilgrimage for purposes of ancestor worship. Lewanika was born on the +upper Kabompo in troublous times, where his father--Letia, a son of a +former ruler--lived in exile during the interregnum of a foreign dynasty +(Makololo), which remained in possession from about 1830 to 1865, when +the Makololo were practically exterminated in a night by a +well-organized revolt. Once more masters of their own country, the +Barotse invited Sepopa, an uncle of Lewanika, to rule over them. Eleven +years of brutality and licence resulted in the tyrant's expulsion and +subsequent assassination, his place being taken by Ngwana-Wina, a +nephew. Within a year abuse of power brought about this chief's downfall +(1877), and he was succeeded by Lobosi, who assumed the name of Lewanika +in 1885. The early years of his reign were also stained by many acts of +blood, until in 1884 the torture and murder of his own brother led to +open rebellion, and it was only through extreme presence of mind that +the chief escaped with his life into exile. His cousin, Akufuna or +Tatela, was then proclaimed chief. It was during his brief reign that +François Coillard, the eminent missionary, arrived at Lialui, the +capital. The following year Lewanika, having collected his partisans, +deposed the usurper and re-established his power. Ruthless revenge not +unmixed with treachery characterized his return to power, but gradually +the strong personality of the high-minded François Coillard so far +influenced him for good that from about 1887 onward he ruled tolerantly +and showed a consistent desire to better the condition of his people. In +1890 Lewanika, who two years previously had proposed to place himself +under the protection of Great Britain, concluded a treaty with the +British South Africa Company, acknowledging its supremacy and conceding +to it certain mineral rights. In 1897 Mr R. T. Coryndon took up his +position at Lialui as British agent, and the country to the east of 25° +E. was thrown open to settlers, that to the west being reserved to the +Barotse chief. In 1905 the king of Italy's award in the Barotse boundary +dispute with Portugal deprived Lewanika of half of his dominions, much +of which had been ruled by his ancestors for many generations. In 1902 +Lewanika attended the coronation of Edward VII. as a guest of the +nation. His recognized heir was his eldest son Letia. + + See BAROTSE, and the works there cited, especially _On the Threshold + of Central Africa_ (London, 1897), by François Coillard. + (A. St. H. G.) + + + + +LEWES, CHARLES LEE (1740-1803), English actor, was the son of a hosier +in London. After attending a school at Ambleside he returned to London, +where he found employment as a postman; but about 1760 he went on the +stage in the provinces, and some three years later began to appear in +minor parts at Covent Garden Theatre. His first rôle of importance was +that of "Young Marlow" in _She Stoops to Conquer_, at its production of +that comedy in 1773, when he delivered an epilogue specially written for +him by Goldsmith. He remained a member of the Covent Garden company till +1783, appearing in many parts, among which were "Fag" in _The Rivals_, +which he "created," and "Sir Anthony Absolute" in the same comedy. In +1783 he removed to Drury Lane, where he assumed the Shakespearian rôles +of "Touchstone," "Lucio" and "Falstaff." In 1787 he left London for +Edinburgh, where he gave recitations, including Cowper's "John Gilpin." +For a short time in 1792 Lewes assisted Stephen Kemble in the management +of the Dundee Theatre; in the following year he went to Dublin, but he +was financially unsuccessful and suffered imprisonment for debt. He +employed his time in compiling his _Memoirs_, a worthless production +published after his death by his son. He was also the author of some +poor dramatic sketches. Lewes died on the 23rd of July 1803. He was +three times married; the philosopher, George Henry Lewes, was his +grandson. + + See John Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage_ (Bath, 1832). + + + + +LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (1817-1878), British philosopher and literary +critic, was born in London in 1817. He was a grandson of Charles Lee +Lewes, the actor. He was educated in London, Jersey, Brittany, and +finally at Dr Burney's school in Greenwich. Having abandoned +successively a commercial and a medical career, he seriously thought of +becoming an actor, and between 1841 and 1850 appeared several times on +the stage. Finally he devoted himself to literature, science and +philosophy. As early as 1836 he belonged to a club formed for the study +of philosophy, and had sketched out a physiological treatment of the +philosophy of the Scottish school. Two years later he went to Germany, +probably with the intention of studying philosophy. In 1840 he married a +daughter of Swynfen Stevens Jervis (1798-1867), and during the next ten +years supported himself by contributing to the quarterly and other +reviews. These articles discuss a wide variety of subject, and, though +often characterized by hasty impulse and imperfect study, betray a +singularly acute critical judgment, enlightened by philosophic study. +The most valuable are those on the drama, afterwards republished under +the title _Actors and Acting_ (1875). With this may be taken the volume +on _The Spanish Drama_ (1846). The combination of wide scholarship, +philosophic culture and practical acquaintance with the theatre gives +these essays a high place among the best efforts in English dramatic +criticism. In 1845-1846 he published _The Biographical History of +Philosophy_, an attempt to depict the life of philosophers as an +ever-renewed fruitless labour to attain the unattainable. In 1847-1848 +he made two attempts in the field of fiction--_Ranthrope_, and _Rose, +Blanche and Violet_--which, though displaying considerable skill both +in plot, construction and in characterization, have taken no permanent +place in literature. The same is to be said of an ingenious attempt to +rehabilitate Robespierre (1849). In 1850 he collaborated with Thornton +Leigh Hunt in the foundation of the _Leader_, of which he was the +literary editor. In 1853 he republished under the title of _Comte's +Philosophy of the Sciences_ a series of papers which had appeared in +that journal. In 1851 he became acquainted with Miss Evans (George +Eliot) and in 1854 left his wife. Subsequently he lived with Miss Evans +as her husband (see ELIOT, GEORGE). + +The culmination of Lewes's work in prose literature is the _Life of +Goethe_ (1855), probably the best known of his writings. Lewes's +many-sidedness of mind, and his combination of scientific with literary +tastes, eminently fitted him to appreciate the large nature and the +wide-ranging activity of the German poet. The high position this work +has taken in Germany itself, notwithstanding the boldness of its +criticism and the unpopularity of some of its views (e.g. on the +relation of the second to the first part of _Faust_), is a sufficient +testimony to its general excellence. From about 1853 Lewes's writings +show that he was occupying himself with scientific and more particularly +biological work. He may be said to have always manifested a distinctly +scientific bent in his writings, and his closer devotion to science was +but the following out of early impulses. Considering that he had not had +the usual course of technical training, these studies are a remarkable +testimony to the penetration of his intellect. The most important of +these essays are collected in the volumes _Seaside Studies_ (1858), +_Physiology of Common Life_ (1859), _Studies in Animal Life_ (1862), and +_Aristotle, a Chapter from the History of Science_ (1864). They are much +more than popular expositions of accepted scientific truths. They +contain able criticisms of authorized ideas, and embody the results of +individual research and individual reflection. He made a number of +impressive suggestions, some of which have since been accepted by +physiologists. Of these the most valuable is that now known as the +doctrine of the functional indifference of the nerves--that what are +known as the specific energies of the optic, auditory and other nerves +are simply differences in their mode of action due to the differences of +the peripheral structures or sense-organs with which they are connected. +This idea was subsequently arrived at independently by Wundt +(_Physiologische Psychologie_, 2nd ed., p. 321). In 1865, on the +starting of the _Fortnightly Review_, Lewes became its editor, but he +retained the post for less than two years, when he was succeeded by John +Morley. This date marks the transition from more strictly scientific to +philosophic work. He had from early youth cherished a strong liking for +philosophic studies; one of his earliest essays was an appreciative +account of Hegel's _Aesthetics_. Coming under the influence of +positivism as unfolded both in Comte's own works and in J. S. Mill's +_System of Logic_, he abandoned all faith in the possibility of +metaphysic, and recorded this abandonment in the above-mentioned +_History of Philosophy_. Yet he did not at any time give an unqualified +adhesion to Comte's teachings, and with wider reading and reflection his +mind moved away further from the positivist standpoint. In the preface +to the third edition of his _History of Philosophy_ he avowed a change +in this direction, and this movement is still more plainly discernible +in subsequent editions of the work. The final outcome of this +intellectual progress is given to us in _The Problems of Life and Mind_, +which may be regarded as the crowning work of his life. His sudden death +on the 28th of November 1878 cut short the work, yet it is complete +enough to allow us to judge of the author's matured conceptions on +biological, psychological and metaphysical problems. Of his three sons +only one, Charles (1843-1891), survived him; in the first London County +Council Election (1888) he was elected for St Pancras; he was also much +interested in the Hampstead Heath extension. + + _Philosophy._--The first two volumes on _The Foundations of a Creed_ + lay down what Lewes regarded as the true principles of philosophizing. + He here seeks to effect a _rapprochement_ between metaphysic and + science. He is still so far a positivist as to pronounce all inquiry + into the ultimate nature of things fruitless. What matter, form, + spirit are in themselves is a futile question that belongs to the + sterile region of "metempirics." But philosophical questions may be so + stated as to be susceptible of a precise solution by scientific + method. Thus, since the relation of subject to object falls within our + experience, it is a proper matter for philosophic investigation. It + may be questioned whether Lewes is right in thus identifying the + methods of science and philosophy. Philosophy is not a mere extension + of scientific knowledge; it is an investigation of the nature and + validity of the knowing process itself. In any case Lewes cannot be + said to have done much to aid in the settlement of properly + philosophical questions. His whole treatment of the question of the + relation of subject to object is vitiated by a confusion between the + scientific truth that mind and body coexist in the living organism and + the philosophic truth that all knowledge of objects implies a knowing + subject. In other words, to use Shadworth Hodgson's phrase, he mixes + up the question of the _genesis_ of mental forms with the question of + their _nature_ (see _Philosophy of Reflexion_, ii. 40-58). Thus he + reaches the "monistic" doctrine that mind and matter are two aspects + of the same existence by attending simply to the parallelism between + psychical and physical processes given as a fact (or a probable fact) + of our experience, and by leaving out of account their relation as + subject and object in the cognitive act. His identification of the two + as phases of one existence is open to criticism, not only from the + point of view of philosophy, but from that of science. In his + treatment of such ideas as "sensibility," "sentience" and the like, he + does not always show whether he is speaking of physical or of + psychical phenomena. Among the other properly philosophic questions + discussed in these two volumes the nature of the casual relation is + perhaps the one which is handled with most freshness and + suggestiveness. The third volume, _The Physical Basis of Mind_, + further develops the writer's views on organic activities as a whole. + He insists strongly on the radical distinction between organic and + inorganic processes, and on the impossibility of ever explaining the + former by purely mechanical principles. With respect to the nervous + system, he holds that all its parts have one and the same elementary + property, namely, sensibility. Thus sensibility belongs as much to the + lower centres of the spinal cord as to the brain, contributing in this + more elementary form elements to the "subconscious" region of mental + life. The higher functions of the nervous system, which make up our + conscious mental life, are merely more complex modifications of this + fundamental property of nerve substance. Closely related to this + doctrine is the view that the nervous organism acts as a whole, that + particular mental operations cannot be referred to definitely + circumscribed regions of the brain, and that the hypothesis of nervous + activity passing in the centre by an isolated pathway from one + nerve-cell to another is altogether illusory. By insisting on the + complete coincidence between the regions of nerve-action and + sentience, and by holding that these are but different aspects of one + thing, he is able to attack the doctrine of animal and human + automatism, which affirms that feeling or consciousness is merely an + incidental concomitant of nerve-action and in no way essential to the + chain of physical events. Lewes's views in psychology, partly opened + up in the earlier volumes of the _Problems_, are more fully worked out + in the last two volumes (3rd series). He discusses the method of + psychology with much insight. He claims against Comte and his + followers a place for introspection in psychological research. In + addition to this subjective method there must be an objective, which + consists partly in a reference to nervous conditions and partly in the + employment of sociological and historical data. Biological knowledge, + or a consideration of the organic conditions, would only help us to + explain mental _functions_, as feeling and thinking; it would not + assist us to understand differences of mental _faculty_ as manifested + in different races and stages of human development. The organic + conditions of these differences will probably for ever escape + detection. Hence they can be explained only as the products of the + social environment. This idea of dealing with mental phenomena in + their relation to social and historical conditions is probably Lewes's + most important contribution to psychology. Among other points which he + emphasizes is the complexity of mental phenomena. Every mental state + is regarded as compounded of three factors in different + proportions--namely, a process of sensible affection, of logical + grouping and of motor impulse. But Lewes's work in psychology consists + less in any definite discoveries than in the inculcation of a sound + and just method. His biological training prepared him to view mind as + a complex unity, in which the various functions interact one on the + other, and of which the highest processes are identical with and + evolved out of the lower. Thus the operations of thought, "or the + logic of signs," are merely a more complicated form of the elementary + operations of sensation and instinct or "the logic of feeling." The + whole of the last volume of the _Problems_ may be said to be an + illustration of this position. It is a valuable repository of + psychological facts, many of them drawn from the more obscure regions + of mental life and from abnormal experience, and is throughout + suggestive and stimulating. To suggest and to stimulate the mind, + rather than to supply it with any complete system of knowledge, may be + said to be Lewes's service in philosophy. The exceptional rapidity and + versatility of his intelligence seems to account at once for the + freshness in his way of envisaging the subject-matter of philosophy + and psychology, and for the want of satisfactory elaboration and of + systematic co-ordination. (J. S.; X.) + + + + +LEWES, a market-town and municipal borough and the county town of +Sussex, England, in the Lewes parliamentary division, 50 m. S. from +London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) +11,249. It is picturesquely situated on the slope of a chalk down +falling to the river Ouse. Ruins of the old castle, supposed to have +been founded by King Alfred and rebuilt by William de Warenne shortly +after the Conquest, rise from the height. There are two mounds which +bore keeps, an uncommon feature. The castle guarded the pass through the +downs formed by the valley of the Ouse. In one of the towers is the +collection of the Sussex Archaeological Society. St Michael's church is +without architectural merit, but contains old brasses and monuments; St +Anne's church is a transitional Norman structure; St Thomas-at-Cliffe is +Perpendicular; St John's, Southover, of mixed architecture, preserves +some early Norman portions, and has some relics of the Warenne family. +In the grounds of the Cluniac priory of St Pancras, founded in 1078, the +leaden coffins of William de Warenne and Gundrada his wife were dug up +during an excavation for the railway in 1845. There is a free grammar +school dating from 1512, and among the other public buildings are the +town hall and corn exchange, county hall, prison, and the Fitzroy +memorial library. The industries include the manufacture of agricultural +implements, brewing, tanning, and iron and brass founding. The municipal +borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1042 +acres. + +The many neolithic and bronze implements that have been discovered, and +the numerous tumuli and earthworks which surround Lewes, indicate its +remote origin. The town Lewes (Loewas, Loewen, Leswa, Laquis, +Latisaquensis) was in the royal demesne of the Saxon kings, from whom it +received the privilege of a market. Æthelstan established two royal +mints there, and by the reign of Edward the Confessor, and probably +before, Lewes was certainly a borough. William I. granted the whole +barony of Lewes, including the revenue arising from the town, to William +de Warenne, who converted an already existing fortification into a place +of residence. His descendants continued to hold the barony until the +beginning of the 14th century. In default of male issue, it then passed +to the earl of Arundel, with whose descendants it remained until 1439, +when it was divided between the Norfolks, Dorsets and Abergavennys. By +1086 the borough had increased 30% in value since the beginning of the +reign, and its importance as a port and market-town is evident from +Domesday. A gild merchant seems to have existed at an early date. The +first mention of it is in a charter of Reginald de Warenne, about 1148, +by which he restored to the burgesses the privileges they had enjoyed in +the time of his grandfather and father, but of which they had been +deprived. In 1595 a "Fellowship" took the place of the old gild and in +conjunction with two constables governed the town until the beginning of +the 18th century. The borough seal probably dates from the 14th century. +Lewes was incorporated by royal charter in 1881. The town returned two +representatives to parliament from 1295 until deprived of one member in +1867. It was disfranchised in 1885. Earl Warenne and his descendants +held the fairs and markets from 1066. In 1792 the fair-days were the 6th +of May, Whit-Tuesday, the 26th of July (for wool), and the 2nd of +October. The market-day was Saturday. Fairs are now held on the 6th of +May for horses and cattle, the 20th of July for wool, and the 21st and +28th of September for Southdown sheep. A corn-market is held every +Tuesday, and a stock-market every alternate Monday. The trade in wool +has been important since the 14th century. + +Lewes was the scene of the battle fought on the 14th of May 1264 between +Henry III. and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. Led by the king and +by his son, the future king Edward I., the royalists left Oxford, took +Northampton and drove Montfort from Rochester into London. Then, +harassed on the route by their foes, they marched through Kent into +Sussex and took up their quarters at Lewes, a stronghold of the royalist +Earl Warenne. Meanwhile, reinforced by a number of Londoners, Earl Simon +left London and reached Fletching, about 9 m. north of Lewes, on the +13th of May. Efforts at reconciliation having failed he led his army +against the town, which he hoped to surprise, early on the following +day. His plan was to direct his main attack against the priory of St +Pancras, which sheltered the king and his brother Richard, earl of +Cornwall, king of the Romans, while causing the enemy to believe that +his principal objective was the castle, where Prince Edward was. But the +surprise was not complete and the royalists rushed from the town to meet +the enemy in the open field. Edward led his followers against the +Londoners, who were gathered around the standard of Montfort, put them +to flight, pursued them for several miles, and killed a great number of +them. Montfort's ruse, however, had been successful. He was not with his +standard as his foes thought, but with the pick of his men he attacked +Henry's followers and took prisoner both the king and his brother. +Before Edward returned from his chase the earl was in possession of the +town. In its streets the prince strove to retrieve his fortunes, but in +vain. Many of his men perished in the river, but others escaped, one +band, consisting of Earl Warenne and others, taking refuge in Pevensey +Castle. Edward himself took sanctuary and on the following day peace was +made between the king and the earl. + + + + +LEWES, a town in Sussex county, Delaware, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of +the state, on Delaware Bay. Pop. (1910), 2158. Lewes is served by the +Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington (Pennsylvania System), and the +Maryland, Delaware & Virginia railways. Its harbour is formed by the +Delaware Breakwater, built by the national government and completed in +1869, and 2¼ m. above it another breakwater was completed in December +1901 by the government. The cove between them forms a harbour of refuge +of about 550 acres. At the mouth of Delaware Bay, about 2 m. below +Lewes, is the Henlopen Light, one of the oldest lighthouses in America. +The Delaware Bay pilots make their headquarters at Lewes. Lewes has a +large trade with northern cities in fruits and vegetables, and is a +subport of entry of the Wilmington Customs District. The first +settlement on Delaware soil by Europeans was made near here in 1631 by +Dutch colonists, sent by a company organized in Holland in the previous +year by Samuel Blommaert, Killian van Rensselaer, David Pieterszen de +Vries and others. The settlers called the place Zwaanendael, valley of +swans. The settlement was soon entirely destroyed by the Indians, and a +second body of settlers whom de Vries, who had been made director of the +colony, brought in 1632 remained for only two years. The fact of the +settlement is important; because of it the English did not unite the +Delaware country with Maryland, for the Maryland Charter of 1632 +restricted colonization to land within the prescribed boundaries, +uncultivated and either uninhabited or inhabited only by Indians. In +1658 the Dutch established an Indian trading post, and in 1659 erected a +fort at Zwaanendael. After the annexation of the Delaware counties to +Pennsylvania in 1682, its name was changed to Lewes, after the town of +that name in Sussex, England. It was pillaged by French pirates in 1698. +One of the last naval battles of the War of Independence was fought in +the bay near Lewes on the 8th of April 1782, when the American privateer +"Hyder Ally" (16), commanded by Captain Joshua Barnes (1759-1818), +defeated and captured the British sloop "General Monk" (20), which had +been an American privateer, the "General Washington," had been captured +by Admiral Arbuthnot's squadron in 1780, and was now purchased by the +United States government and, as the "General Washington," was commanded +by Captain Barnes in 1782-1784. In March 1813 the town was bombarded by +a British frigate. + + See the "History of Lewes" in the _Papers_ of the Historical Society + of Delaware, No. xxxviii. (Wilmington, 1903); and J. T. Scharf, + _History of Delaware_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1888). + + + + +LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL, BART. (1806-1863), English statesman and +man of letters, was born in London on the 21st of April 1806. His +father, Thomas F. Lewis, of Harpton Court, Radnorshire, after holding +subordinate office in various administrations, became a poor-law +commissioner, and was made a baronet in 1846. Young Lewis was educated +at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where in 1828 he took a +first-class in classics and a second-class in mathematics. He then +entered the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1831. In 1833 he +undertook his first public work as one of the commissioners to inquire +into the condition of the poor Irish residents in the United Kingdom.[1] +In 1834 Lord Althorp included him in the commission to inquire into the +state of church property and church affairs generally in Ireland. To +this fact we owe his work on _Local Disturbances in Ireland, and the +Irish Church Question_ (London, 1836), in which he condemned the +existing connexion between church and state, proposed a state provision +for the Catholic clergy, and maintained the necessity of an efficient +workhouse organization. During this period Lewis's mind was much +occupied with the study of language. Before leaving college he had +published some observations on Whately's doctrine of the predicables, +and soon afterwards he assisted Thirlwall and Hare in starting the +_Philological Museum_. Its successor, the _Classical Museum_, he also +supported by occasional contributions. In 1835 he published an _Essay on +the Origin and Formation of the Romance Languages_ (re-edited in 1862), +the first effective criticism in England of Raynouard's theory of a +uniform romance tongue, represented by the poetry of the troubadours. He +also compiled a glossary of provincial words used in Herefordshire and +the adjoining counties. But the most important work of this earlier +period was one to which his logical and philological tastes contributed. +_The Remarks on the Use and Abuse of some Political Terms_ (London, +1832) may have been suggested by Bentham's _Book of Parliamentary +Fallacies_, but it shows all that power of clear sober original thinking +which marks his larger and later political works. Moreover, he +translated Boeckh's _Public Economy of Athens_ and Müller's _History of +Greek Literature_, and he assisted Tufnell in the translation of +Müller's _Dorians_. Some time afterwards he edited a text of the +_Fables_ of Babrius. While his friend Hayward conducted the _Law +Magazine_, he wrote in it frequently on such subjects as secondary +punishments and the penitentiary system. In 1836, at the request of Lord +Glenelg, he accompanied John Austin to Malta, where they spent nearly +two years reporting on the condition of the island and framing a new +code of laws. One leading object of both commissioners was to associate +the Maltese in the responsible government of the island. On his return +to England Lewis succeeded his father as one of the principal poor-law +commissioners. In 1841 appeared the _Essay on the Government of +Dependencies_, a systematic statement and discussion of the various +relations in which colonies may stand towards the mother country. In +1844 Lewis married Lady Maria Theresa Lister, sister of Lord Clarendon, +and a lady of literary tastes. Much of their married life was spent in +Kent House, Knightsbridge. They had no children. In 1847 Lewis resigned +his office. He was then returned for the county of Hereford, and Lord +John Russell appointed him secretary to the Board of Control, but a few +months afterwards he became under-secretary to the Home Office. In this +capacity he introduced two important bills, one for the abolition of +turnpike trusts and the management of highways by a mixed county board, +the other for the purpose of defining and regulating the law of +parochial assessment. In 1850 he succeeded Hayter as financial secretary +to the treasury. About this time, also, appeared his _Essay on the +Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion_. On the dissolution of +parliament which followed the resignation of Lord John Russell's +ministry in 1852, Lewis was defeated for Herefordshire and then for +Peterborough. Excluded from parliament he accepted the editorship of the +_Edinburgh Review_, and remained editor until 1855. During this period +he served on the Oxford commission, and on the commission to inquire +into the government of London. But its chief fruits were the _Treatise +on the Methods of Observation and Reasoning in Politics_, and the +_Enquiry into the Credibility of the Early Roman History_,[2] in which +he vigorously attacked the theory of epic lays and other theories on +which Niebuhr's reconstruction of that history had proceeded. In 1855 +Lewis succeeded his father in the baronetcy. He was at once elected +member for the Radnor boroughs, and Lord Palmerston made him chancellor +of the exchequer. He had a war loan to contract and heavy additional +taxation to impose, but his industry, method and clear vision carried +him safely through. After the change of ministry in 1859 Sir George +became home secretary under Lord Palmerston, and in 1861, much against +his wish, he succeeded Sidney Herbert (Lord Herbert of Lea) at the War +Office. The closing years of his life were marked by increasing +intellectual vigour. In 1859 he published an able _Essay on Foreign +Jurisdiction and the Extradition of Criminals_, a subject to which the +attempt on Napoleon's life, the discussions on the Conspiracy Bill, and +the trial of Bernard, had drawn general attention. He advocated the +extension of extradition treaties, and condemned the principal idea of +_Weltrechtsordnung_ which Mohl of Heidelberg had proposed. His two +latest works were the _Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients_, in +which, without professing any knowledge of Oriental languages, he +applied a sceptical analysis to the ambitious Egyptology of Bunsen; and +the _Dialogue on the Best Form of Government_, in which, under the name +of Crito, the author points out to the supporters of the various systems +that there is no one abstract government which is the best possible for +all times and places. An essay on the _Characteristics of Federal, +National, Provincial and Municipal Government_ does not seem to have +been published. Sir George died in April 1863. A marble bust by Weekes +stands in Westminster Abbey. + +Lewis was a man of mild and affectionate disposition, much beloved by a +large circle of friends, among whom were Sir E. Head, the Grotes, the +Austins, Lord Stanhope, J. S. Mill, Dean Milman, the Duff Gordons. In +public life he was distinguished, as Lord Aberdeen said, "for candour, +moderation, love of truth." He had a passion for the systematic +acquirement of knowledge, and a keen and sound critical faculty. His +name has gone down to history as that of a many-sided man, sound in +judgment, unselfish in political life, and abounding in practical good +sense. + + A reprint from the _Edinburgh Review_ of his long series of papers on + the _Administration of Great Britain_ appeared in 1864, and his + _Letters to various Friends_ (1870) were edited by his brother + Gilbert, who succeeded him in the baronetcy. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See the _Abstract of Final Report of Commissioners of Irish Poor + Enquiry_, &c., by G. C. Lewis and N. Senior (1837). + + [2] Translated into German by Liebrecht (Hanover, 1858). + + + + +LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL (1853-1888), American geologist, was born in +Philadelphia on the 16th of November 1853. Educated in the university of +Pennsylvania he took the degree of M.A. in 1876. He became attached to +the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania in 1879, serving for three years +as a volunteer member, and during this term he became greatly interested +in the study of glacial phenomena. In 1880 he was chosen professor of +mineralogy in the Philadelphia academy of natural sciences, and in 1883 +he was appointed to the chair of geology in Haverford College, +Pennsylvania. During the winters of 1885 to 1887 he studied petrology +under H. F. Rosenbusch at Heidelberg, and during the summers he +investigated the glacial geology of northern Europe and the British +Islands. His observations in North America, where he had studied under +Professor G. F. Wright, Professor T. C. Chamberlin and Warren Upham, had +demonstrated the former extension of land-ice, and the existence of +great terminal moraines. In 1884 his _Report on the Terminal Moraine in +Pennsylvania and New York_ was published: a work containing much +information on the limits of the North American ice-sheet. In Britain he +sought to trace in like manner the southern extent of the terminal +moraines formed by British ice-sheets, but before his conclusions were +matured he died at Manchester on the 21st of July 1888. The results of +his observations were published in 1894 entitled _Papers and Notes on +the Glacial Geology of Great Britain and Ireland_, edited by Dr H. W. +Crosskey. + + See "Prof. Henry Carvill Lewis and his Work in Glacial Geology," by + Warren Upham, _Amer. Geol._ vol. ii. (Dec. 1888) p. 371, with + portrait. + + + + +LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK (1805-1876), British painter, son of F. C. Lewis, +engraver, was born in London. He was elected in 1827 associate of the +Society of Painters in Water Colours, of which he became full member in +1829 and president in 1855; he resigned in 1858, and was made associate +of the Royal Academy in 1859 and academician in 1865. Much of his +earlier life was spent in Spain, Italy and the East, but he returned to +England in 1851 and for the remainder of his career devoted himself +almost exclusively to Eastern subjects, which he treated with +extraordinary care and minuteness of finish, and with much beauty of +technical method. He is represented by a picture, "Edfou: Upper Egypt," +in the National Gallery of British Art. He achieved equal eminence in +both oil and water-colour painting. + + + + +LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818), English romance-writer and +dramatist, often referred to as "Monk" Lewis, was born in London on the +9th of July 1775. He was educated for a diplomatic career at Westminster +school and at Christ Church, Oxford, spending most of his vacations +abroad in the study of modern languages; and in 1794 he proceeded to the +Hague as attaché to the British embassy. His stay there lasted only a +few months, but was marked by the composition, in ten weeks, of his +romance _Ambrosio, or the Monk_, which was published in the summer of +the following year. It immediately achieved celebrity; but some passages +it contained were of such a nature that about a year after its +appearance an injunction to restrain its sale was moved for and a rule +_nisi_ obtained. Lewis published a second edition from which he had +expunged, as he thought, all the objectionable passages, but the work +still remains of such a character as almost to justify the severe +language in which Byron in _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_ +addresses-- + + "Wonder-working Lewis, Monk or Bard, + Who fain would'st make Parnassus a churchyard; + Even Satan's self with thee might dread to dwell, + And in thy skull discern a deeper hell." + +Whatever its demerits, ethical or aesthetic, may have been, _The Monk_ +did not interfere with the reception of Lewis into the best English +society; he was favourably noticed at court, and almost as soon as he +came of age he obtained a seat in the House of Commons as member for +Hindon, Wilts. After some years, however, during which he never +addressed the House, he finally withdrew from a parliamentary career. +His tastes lay wholly in the direction of literature, and _The Castle +Spectre_ (1796, a musical drama of no great literary merit, but which +enjoyed a long popularity on the stage), _The Minister_ (a translation +from Schiller's _Kabale u. Liebe_), _Rolla_ (1797, a translation from +Kotzebue), with numerous other operatic and tragic pieces, appeared in +rapid succession. _The Bravo of Venice_, a romance translated from the +German, was published in 1804; next to _The Monk_ it is the best known +work of Lewis. By the death of his father he succeeded to a large +fortune, and in 1815 embarked for the West Indies to visit his estates; +in the course of this tour, which lasted four months, the _Journal of a +West Indian Proprietor_, published posthumously in 1833, was written. A +second visit to Jamaica was undertaken in 1817, in order that he might +become further acquainted with, and able to ameliorate, the condition of +the slave population; the fatigues to which he exposed himself in the +tropical climate brought on a fever which terminated fatally on the +homeward voyage on the 14th of May 1818. + + _The Life and Correspondence of M. G. Lewis_, in two volumes, was + published in 1839. + + + + +LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774-1809), American explorer, was born near +Charlottesville, Virginia, on the 18th of August 1774. In 1794 he +volunteered with the Virginia troops called out to suppress the "Whisky +Insurrection," was commissioned as ensign in the regular United States +army in 1795, served with distinction under General Anthony Wayne in the +campaigns against the Indians, and attained the rank of captain in 1797. +From 1801 to 1803 he was the private secretary of President Jefferson. +On the 18th of January 1803 Jefferson sent a confidential message to +Congress urging the development of trade with the Indians of the +Missouri Valley and recommending that an exploring party be sent into +this region, notwithstanding the fact that it was then held by Spain +and owned by France. Congress appropriated funds for the expedition, and +the president instructed Lewis to proceed to the head-waters of the +Missouri river and thence across the mountains to the Pacific Ocean. +With Jefferson's consent Lewis chose as a companion Lieut. William +Clark, an old friend and army comrade. The preparations were made under +the orders of the War Department, and, until the news arrived that +France had sold Louisiana to the United States, they were conducted in +secrecy. Lewis spent some time in Philadelphia, gaining additional +knowledge of the natural sciences and learning the use of instruments +for determining positions; and late in 1803 he and Clark, with +twenty-nine men from the army, went into winter quarters near St Louis, +where the men were subjected to rigid training. On the 14th of May 1804 +the party, with sixteen additional members, who, however, were to go +only a part of the way, started up the Missouri river in three boats, +and by the 2nd of November had made the difficult ascent of the stream +as far as 47° 21´ N. lat., near the site of the present Bismarck, North +Dakota, where, among the Mandan Indians, they passed the second winter. +Early in April 1805 the ascent of the Missouri was continued as far as +the three forks of the river, which were named the Jefferson, the +Gallatin and the Madison. The Jefferson was then followed to its source +in the south-western part of what is now the state of Montana. Procuring +a guide and horses from the Shoshone Indians, the party pushed westward +through the Rocky Mountains in September, and on the 7th of October +embarked in canoes on a tributary of the Columbia river, the mouth of +which they reached on the 15th of November. They had travelled upwards +of 4000 m. from their starting-point, had encountered various Indian +tribes never before seen by whites, had made valuable scientific +collections and observations, and were the first explorers to reach the +Pacific by crossing the continent north of Mexico. After spending the +winter on the Pacific coast they started on the 23rd of March 1806 on +their return journey, and, after crossing the divide, Lewis with one +party explored Maria's river, and Clark with another the Yellowstone. On +the 12th of August the two explorers reunited near the junction of the +Yellowstone and the Missouri, and on the 23rd of September reached St +Louis. In spite of exposure, hardship and peril only one member of the +party died, and only one deserted. No later feat of exploration, +perhaps, in any quarter of the globe has exceeded this in romantic +interest. The expedition was commemorated by the Lewis and Clark +Centennial Exposition at Portland, Oregon, in 1905. The leaders and men +of the exploring party were rewarded with liberal grants of land from +the public domain, Lewis receiving 1500 acres; and in March 1807 Lewis +was made governor of the northern part of the territory obtained from +France in 1803, which had been organized as the Louisiana Territory. He +performed the duties of this office with great efficiency, but it is +said that in the unwonted quiet of his new duties, his mind, always +subject to melancholy, became unbalanced, and that while on his way to +Washington he committed suicide about 60 m. south-west of Nashville, +Tennessee, on the 11th of October 1809. It is not definitely known, +however, whether he actually committed suicide or was murdered. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Jefferson's _Message from the President of the United + States_, _Communicating Discoveries made in Exploring the Missouri, + Red River and Washita by Captains Lewis and Clark, Dr Sibley and Mr + Dunbar_ (Washington, 1806, and subsequent editions) is the earliest + account, containing the reports sent back by the explorers in the + winter of 1804-1805. Patrick Gass's _Journal of the Voyages and + Travels of a Corps of Discovery under the Command of Capt. Lewis and + Capt. Clark_ (Pittsburg, 1807) is the account of a sergeant in the + party. Biddle and Allen's _History of the Expedition under the Command + of Captains Lewis and Clark_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1814) is a + condensation of the original journals. There are numerous reprints of + this work, the best being that of Elliott Coues (4 vols., New York, + 1893), which contains additions from the original manuscripts and a + new chapter, in the style of Biddle, inserted as though a part of the + original text. As a final authority consult R. G. Thwaites (ed.), _The + Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition_ (8 vols., New + York, 1904-1905), containing all the known literary records of the + expedition. For popular accounts see W. R. Lighton, _Lewis and Clark_ + (Boston, 1901); O. D. Wheeler, _The Trail of Lewis and Clark_ (2 + vols., New York, 1904); and Noah Brooks (ed.), _First across the + Continent: Expedition of Lewis and Clark_ (New York, 1901). + + + + +LEWISBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Union county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the W. bank of West Branch of the Susquehanna river, about 50 +m. N. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 3457 (60 foreign-born); (1910) 3081. It +is served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. +It is the seat of Bucknell University (coeducational), opened in 1846 as +the university of Lewisburg and renamed in 1886 in honour of William +Bucknell (1809-1890), a liberal benefactor. The university comprises a +College of Liberal Arts, an Academy for Young Men, an Institute for +Young Women, and a School of Music, and in 1908-1909 had 50 instructors +and 775 students, of whom 547 were in the College of Liberal Arts. The +city is situated in a farming region, and has various manufactures, +including flour, lumber, furniture, woollens, nails, foundry products +and carriages. Lewisburg (until about 1805 called Derrstown) was founded +and laid out in 1785 by Ludwig Derr, a German, and was chartered as a +borough in 1812. + + + + +LEWISHAM, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded N.W. by Deptford, N.E. by Greenwich, E. by Woolwich, and W. by +Camberwell, and extending S. to the boundary of the county of London. +Pop. (1901) 127,495. Its area is for the most part occupied by villas. +It includes the districts of Blackheath and Lee in the north, Hither +Green, Catford and Brockley in the central parts, and Forest Hill and +part of Sydenham in the south-west. In the districts last named +well-wooded hills rise above 300 ft., and this is an especially favoured +residential quarter, its popularity being formerly increased by the +presence of medicinal springs, discovered in 1640, on Sydenham Common. +Towards the south, in spite of the constant extension of building, there +are considerable tracts of ground uncovered, apart from public grounds. +In the north the borough includes the greater part of Blackheath (q.v.), +an open common of considerable historical interest. The other principal +pleasure grounds are Hilly Fields (46 acres) and Ladywell Recreation +Grounds (46 acres) in the north-west part of the borough; and at +Sydenham (but outside the boundary of the county of London) is the +Crystal Palace. Among institutions are the Horniman Museum, Forest Hill +(1901); Morden's College, on the south of Blackheath, founded at the +close of the 17th century by Sir John Morden for Turkey merchants who +were received as pensioners, and subsequently extended in scope; +numerous schools in the same locality; and the Park Fever Hospital, +Hither Green. The parliamentary borough of Lewisham returns one member. +The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 42 councillors. +Area, 7014.4 acres. + + + + +LEWISTON, a city of Androscoggin county, Maine, U.S.A., on the +Androscoggin river, opposite Auburn, with which it is connected by four +steel bridges, and about 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1900) 23,761, of +whom 9316 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 26,247. It is served by the +Maine Central, the Grand Trunk, the Portland & Rumford Falls and the +Lewiston, Augusta & Waterville (electric) railways. The surrounding +country is hilly and the river is picturesque; in the vicinity there are +many lakes and ponds abounding in salmon and trout. The Maine fish +hatchery is on Lake Auburn, 3 m. above the city. Lewiston is the seat of +Bates College, a non-sectarian institution, which grew out of the Maine +State Seminary (chartered in 1855), and was chartered in 1864 under its +present name, adopted in honour of Benjamin E. Bates (d. 1877), a +liberal benefactor. In 1908-1909 the college had 25 instructors and 440 +students, and its library contained 34,000 volumes. The campus of the +college is about 1 m. from the business portion of Lewiston and covers +50 acres; among the college buildings are an auditorium (1909) given by +W. Scott Libbey of Lewiston, and the Libbey Forum for the use of the +three literary societies and the two Christian associations of the +college. The literary societies give excellent training in forensics. +The matriculation pledge requires from male students total abstinence +from intoxicants as a condition of membership. There are no secret +fraternities. From the beginning women have been admitted on the same +terms as men. The Cobb Divinity School (Free Baptist), which was founded +at Parsonfield, Maine, in 1840 as a department of Parsonfield Seminary, +and was situated in 1842-1844 at Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1844-1854 at +Whitestown, New York, and in 1854-1870 at New Hampton, New Hampshire, +was removed to Lewiston in 1870 and became a department (known as Bates +Theological Seminary until 1888) of Bates College, with which it was +merged in 1908. Lewiston has a fine city hall, a Carnegie library and a +public park of 10½ acres, with a bronze soldiers' monument by Franklin +Simmons, who was born in 1839 at Webster near Lewiston, and is known for +his statues of Roger Williams, William King, Francis H. Pierpont and U. +S. Grant in the national Capitol, and for "Grief" and "History" on the +Peace Monument at Washington. In Lewiston are the Central Maine General +Hospital (1888), the Sisters' Hospital (1888), under the charge of the +French Catholic Sisters of Charity, a home for aged women, a young +women's home and the Hesley Asylum for boys. The Shrine Building (Kora +Temple), dedicated in 1909, is the headquarters of the Shriners of the +state. The river at Lewiston breaks over a ledge of mica-schist and +gneiss, the natural fall of 40 ft. having been increased to more than 50 +ft. by a strong granite dam; and 3 m. above the city at Deer Rips a +cement dam furnishes 10,000 horse-power. The water-power thus obtained +is distributed by canals from the nearer dam and transmitted by wire +from the upper dam. The manufacture of cotton goods is the principal +industry, and in 1905 the product of the city's cotton mills was valued +at about one-third of that of the mills of the whole state. Among other +industries are the manufacture of woollen goods, shirts, dry-plates, +carriages, spools and bobbins, and boots and shoes, and the dyeing and +finishing of textiles. The total factory product in 1905 was valued at +$8,527,649. The municipality owns its water works and electric lighting +plant. Lewiston was settled in 1770, incorporated as a township in 1795 +and chartered as a city in 1861. It was the home of Nelson Dingley +(1832-1899), who from 1856 until his death controlled the Lewiston +_Journal_. He was governor of the state in 1874-1876, Republican +representative in Congress in 1881-1899, and the drafter of the Dingley +Tariff Bill (1897). + + + + +LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS, the most northerly island of the Outer Hebrides, +Scotland. It is sometimes called the Long Island and is 24 m. from the +nearest point of the mainland, from which it is separated by the strait +called The Minch. It is 60 m. long and has an extreme breadth of 30 m., +its average breadth being 15 m. It is divided into two portions by a +line roughly drawn between Loch Resort on the west and Loch Seaforth on +the east, of which the larger or more northerly portion, known as Lewis +(pron. _Lews_), belongs to the county of Ross and Cromarty and the +lesser, known as Harris, to Inverness-shire. The area of the whole +island is 492,800 acres, or 770 sq. m., of which 368,000 acres belong to +Lewis. In 1891 the population of Lewis was 27,045, of Harris 3681; in +1901 the population of Lewis was 28,357, of Harris 3803, or 32,160 for +the island, of whom 17,175 were females, 11,209 spoke Gaelic only, and +17,685 both Gaelic and English. There is communication with certain +ports of the Western Highlands by steamer via Stornoway every +week--oftener during the tourist and special seasons--the steamers +frequently calling at Loch Erisort, Loch Sealg, Ardvourlie, Tarbert, +Ardvey, Rodel and The Obe. The coast is indented to a remarkable degree, +the principal sea-lochs in Harris being East and West Loch Tarbert; and +in Lewis, Loch Seaforth, Loch Erisort and Broad Bay (or Loch a Tuath) on +the east coast and Loch Roag and Loch Resort on the west. The mainland +is dotted with innumerable fresh-water lakes. The island is composed of +gneiss rocks, excepting a patch of granite near Carloway, small bands of +intrusive basalt at Gress and in Eye Peninsula and some Torridonian +sandstone at Stornoway, Tong, Vatskir and Carloway. Most of Harris is +mountainous, there being more than thirty peaks above 1000 ft. high. +Lewis is comparatively flat, save in the south-east, where Ben More +reaches 1874 ft., and in the south-west, where Mealasbhal (1885) is the +highest point; but in this division there are only eleven peaks +exceeding 1000 ft. in height. The rivers are small and unimportant. The +principal capes are the Butt of Lewis, in the extreme north, where the +cliffs are nearly 150 ft. high and crowned with a lighthouse, the light +of which is visible for 19 m.; Tolsta Head, Tiumpan Head and Cabag Head, +on the east; Renish Point, in the extreme south; and, on the west, Toe +Head and Gallon Head. The following inhabited islands in the +Inverness-shire division belong to the parish of Harris: off the S.W. +coast, Bernera (pop. 524), Ensay, Killigray and Pabbay; off the W. +coast, Scarp (160), Soay and Tarrensay (72); off the E. coast, Scalpa +(587) and Scotasay. Belonging to the county of Ross and Cromarty are +Great Bernera (580) to the W. of Lewis, in the parish of Uig, and the +Shiant Isles, about 21 m. S. of Stornoway, in the parish of Lochs, so +named from the number of its sea lochs and fresh-water lakes. The +south-eastern base of Broad Bay is furnished by the peninsula of Eye, +attached to the main mass by so slender a neck as seemingly to be on the +point of becoming itself an island. Much of the surface of both Lewis +and Harris is composed of peat and swamp; there are scanty fragments of +an ancient forest. The rainfall for the year averages 41.7 in., autumn +and winter being very wet. Owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, +however, the temperature is fairly high, averaging for the year 46.6° +F., for January 39.5° F. and for August 56.5° F. + +The economic conditions of the island correspond with its physical +conditions. The amount of cultivable land is small and poor. Sir James +Matheson (1796-1878), who purchased the island in 1844, is said to have +spent nearly £350,000 in reclamation and improvements. Barley and +potatoes are the chief crops. A large number of black cattle are reared +and some sheep-farming is carried on in Harris. Kelp-making, once +important, has been extinct for many years. Harris has obtained great +reputation for tweeds. The cloth has an aroma of heather and peat, and +is made in the dwellings of the cotters, who use dyes of +long-established excellence. The fisheries are the principal mainstay of +the people. In spite of the very considerable reductions in rent +effected by the Crofters' Commission (appointed in 1886) and the sums +expended by government, most of the crofters still live in poor huts +amid dismal surroundings. The island affords good sporting facilities. +Many of the streams abound with salmon and trout; otters and seals are +plentiful, and deer and hares common; while bird life includes grouse, +ptarmigan, woodcock, snipe, heron, widgeon, teal, eider duck, swan and +varieties of geese and gulls. There are many antiquarian remains, +including duns, megaliths, ruined towers and chapels and the like. At +RODEL, in the extreme south of Harris, is a church, all that is left of +an Augustinian monastery. The foundation is Norman and the +superstructure Early English. On the towers are curious carved figures +and in the interior several tombs of the Macleods, the most remarkable +being that of Alastair (Alexander), son of William Macleod of Dunvegan, +dated 1528. The monument, a full-length recumbent effigy of a knight in +armour, lies at the base of a tablet in the shape of an arch divided +into compartments, in which are carved in bas-relief, besides the +armorial bearings of the deceased and a rendering of Dunvegan castle, +several symbolical scenes, one of which exhibits Satan weighing in the +balance the good and evil deeds of Alastair Macleod, the good obviously +preponderating. Stornoway, the chief town (pop. 3852) is treated under a +separate heading. At CALLERNISH, 13 m. due W. of Stornoway, are several +stone circles, one of which is probably the most perfect example of +so-called "Druidical" structures in the British Isles. In this specimen +the stones are huge, moss-covered, undressed blocks of gneiss. Twelve of +such monoliths constitute the circle, in the centre of which stands a +pillar 17 ft. high. From the circle there runs northwards an avenue of +stones, comprising on the right-hand side nine blocks and on the +left-hand ten. There also branch off from the circle, on the east and +west, a single line of four stones and, on the south, a single line of +five stones. From the extreme point of the south file to the farther +end of the avenue on the north is a distance of 127 yds. and the width +from tip to tip of the east and west arms is 41 yds. Viewed from the +north end of the avenue, the design is that of a cross. The most +important fishery centre on the west coast is Carloway, where there is +the best example of a broch, or fort, in the Hebrides. Rory, the blind +harper who translated the Psalms into Gaelic, was born in the village. +Tarbert, at the head of East Loch Tarbert, is a neat, clean village, in +communication by mail-car with Stornoway. At Coll, a few miles N. by E. +of Stornoway, is a mussel cave; and at Gress, 2 m. or so beyond in the +same direction, there is a famous seals' cave, adorned with fine +stalactites. Port of Ness, where there is a harbour, is the headquarters +of the ling fishery. Loch Seaforth gave the title of earl to a branch of +the Mackenzies, but in 1716 the 5th earl was attainted for Jacobitism +and the title forfeited. In 1797 Francis Humberston Mackenzie +(1754-1815), chief of the Clan Mackenzie, was created Lord Seaforth and +Baron Mackenzie of Kintail, and made colonel of the 2nd battalion of the +North British Militia, afterwards the 3rd battalion of the Seaforth +Highlanders. The 2nd battalion of the Seaforth Highlanders was formerly +the Ross-shire Buffs, which was raised in 1771. + + + + +LEXICON, a dictionary (q.v.). The word is the Latinized form of Gr. +[Greek: lexikon], sc. [Greek: biblion], a word-book ([Greek: lexis], +word, [Greek: legein], to speak). Lexicon, rather than dictionary, is +used of word-books of the Greek language, and sometimes of Arabic and +Hebrew. + + + + +LEXINGTON, BARON, a title borne in the English family of Sutton from +1645 to 1723. Robert Sutton (1594-1668), son of Sir William Sutton of +Averham, Nottinghamshire, was a member of parliament for his native +county in 1625 and again in 1640. He served Charles I. during the Civil +War, making great monetary sacrifices for the royal cause, and in 1645 +the king created him Baron Lexington, this being a variant of the name +of the Nottinghamshire village of Laxton. His estate suffered during the +time of the Commonwealth, but some money was returned to him by Charles +II. He died on the 13th of October 1668. His only son, Robert, the 2nd +baron (1661-1723), supported in the House of Lords the elevation of +William of Orange to the throne, and was employed by that king at court +and on diplomatic business. He also served as a soldier, but he is +chiefly known as the British envoy at Vienna during the conclusion of +the treaty of Ryswick, and at Madrid during the negotiations which led +to the treaty of Utrecht. He died on the 19th of September 1723. His +letters from Vienna, selected and edited by the Hon. H. M. Sutton, were +published as the _Lexington Papers_ (1851). Lexington's barony became +extinct on his death, but his estates descended to the younger sons of +his daughter Bridget (d. 1734), the wife of John Manners, 3rd duke of +Rutland. Lord George Manners, who inherited these estates in 1762, is +the ancestor of the family of Manners-Sutton. An earlier member of this +family is Oliver Sutton, bishop of Lincoln from 1280 to 1299. + + + + +LEXINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Fayette county, Kentucky, +U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 26,369, of whom 10,130 +were negroes and 924 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 35,099. It is +served by the Louisville & Nashville, the Southern, the Chesapeake & +Ohio, the Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific, the Lexington & +Eastern, and electric railways. The city, which lies at an altitude of +about 950 ft., is situated near the centre of the celebrated "blue +grass" region, into which extend a number of turnpike roads. Its public +buildings include the court house and the Federal building, both built +of Bowling Green oolitic limestone. Among the public institutions are +two general hospitals--St Joseph's (Roman Catholic) and Good Samaritan +(controlled by the Protestant churches of the city)--the Eastern Lunatic +Asylum (1815, a state institution since 1824), with 250 acres of +grounds; a state House of Reform for Girls and a state House of Reform +for Boys (both at Greendale, a suburb); an orphan industrial school (for +negroes); and two Widows' and Orphans' Homes, one established by the Odd +Fellows of Kentucky and the other by the Knights of Pythias of the +state. Lexington is the seat of Transylvania University (non-sectarian; +coeducational), formerly Kentucky University (Disciples of Christ), +which grew out of Bacon College (opened at Georgetown, Ky., in 1836), +was chartered in 1858 as Kentucky University, and was opened at +Harrodsburg, Ky., in 1859, whence after a fire in 1864 it removed to +Lexington in 1865. At Lexington it was consolidated with the old +Transylvania University, a well-known institution which had been +chartered as Transylvania Seminary in 1783, was opened near Danville, +Ky., in 1785, was removed to Lexington in 1789, was re-chartered as +Transylvania University in 1798, and virtually ceased to exist in +1859.[1] In 1908 Kentucky University resumed the old name, Transylvania +University. It has a college of Liberal Arts, a College of Law, a +Preparatory School, a Junior College for Women, and Hamilton College for +women (founded in 1869 as Hocker Female College), over which the +university assumed control in 1903, and a College of the Bible, +organized in 1865 as one of the colleges of the university, but now +under independent control. In 1907-1908 Transylvania University, +including the College of the Bible, had 1129 students. At Lexington are +the State University, two colleges for girls--the Campbell-Hagerman +College and Sayre College--and St Catherine's Academy (Roman Catholic). +The city is the meeting-place of a Chatauqua Assembly, and has a public +library. The State University was founded (under the Federal Land Grant +Act of 1862) in 1865 as the State Agricultural and Mechanical College, +was opened in 1866, and was a college of Kentucky University until 1878. +In 1890 the college received a second Federal appropriation, and it +received various grants from the state legislature, which in 1880 +imposed a state tax of one-half of 1% for its support. In connexion with +it an Agricultural Experiment Station was established in 1885. In 1908 +its title became, by act of Legislature, the State University. The +university has a College of Agriculture, a College of Arts and Science, +a College of Law, a School of Civil Engineering, a School of Mechanical +and Electrical Engineering, and a School of mining Engineering. The +university campus is the former City Park, in the southern part of the +city. In 1907-1908 the university had 1064 students. The city is the see +of a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. + +Lexington was the home of Henry Clay from 1797 until his death in 1852, +and in his memory a monument has been erected, consisting of a +magnesian-limestone column (about 120 ft.) in the Corinthian style and +surmounted by a statue of Clay, the head of which was torn off in 1902 +by a thunderbolt. Clay's estate, "Ashland," is now one of the best known +of the stock-farms in the vicinity; the present house is a replica of +Clay's home. The finest and most extensive of these stock-farms, and +probably the finest in the world, is "Elmendorf," 6 m. from the city. On +these farms many famous trotting and running horses have been raised. +There are two race-tracks in Lexington, and annual running and trotting +race meetings attract large crowds. The city's industries consist +chiefly in a large trade in tobacco, hemp, grain and live stock--there +are large semi-annual horse sales--and in the manufacture of "Bourbon" +whisky, tobacco, flour, dressed flax and hemp, carriages, harness and +saddles. The total value of the city's factory products in 1905 was +$2,774,329 (46.9% more than in 1900). + +Lexington was named from Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1775 by a party of +hunters who were encamped here when they received the news of the battle +of Lexington; the permanent settlement dates from 1779. It was laid out +in 1781, incorporated as a town in 1782, and chartered as a city in +1832. The first newspaper published west of the Alleghany Mountains, the +_Kentucky Gazette_, was established here in 1787, to promote the +separation of Kentucky from Virginia. The first state legislature met +here in 1792, but later in the same year Frankfort became the state +capital. Until 1907, when the city was enlarged by annexation, its +limits remained as they were first laid out, a circle with a radius of 1 +m., the court house being its centre. + + See G. W. Ranck, _History of Lexington, Kentucky_ (Cincinnati, 1872). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See Robert Peter, _Transylvania University: Its Origin, Rise, + Decline and Fall_ (Louisville, 1896), and his _History of the Medical + Department of Transylvania University_ (Louisville, 1905). + + + + +LEXINGTON, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about +11 m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 3831, (1910 U.S. census) 4918. It is +traversed by the Boston & Maine railroad and by the Lowell & Boston +electric railway. Its area is about 17 sq. m., and it contains three +villages--Lexington, East Lexington and North Lexington. Agriculture is +virtually the only industry. Owing to its historic interest the village +of Lexington is visited by thousands of persons annually, for it was on +the green or common of this village that the first armed conflict of the +American War of Independence occurred. On the green stand a monument +erected by the state in 1799 to the memory of the minute-men who fell in +that engagement, a drinking fountain surmounted by a bronze statue +(1900, by Henry Hudson Kitson) of Captain John Parker, who was in +command of the minute-men, and a large boulder, which marks the position +of the minute-men when they were fired upon by the British. Near the +green, in the old burying-ground, are the graves of Captain Parker and +other American patriots--the oldest gravestone is dated 1690. The +Hancock-Clarke House (built in part in 1698) is now owned by the +Lexington Historical Society and contains a museum of revolutionary and +other relics, which were formerly exhibited in the Town Hall. The +Buckman Tavern (built about 1690), the rendezvous of the minute-men, and +the Munroe Tavern (1695), the headquarters of the British, are still +standing, and two other houses, on the common, antedate the War of +Independence. The Cary Library in this village, with 23,000 volumes +(1908), was founded in 1868, and was housed in the Town Hall from 1871 +until 1906, when it was removed to the Cary Memorial Library building. +In the library are portraits of Paul Revere, William Dawes and Lord +Percy. The Town Hall (1871) contains statues of John Hancock (by Thomas +R. Gould) and Samuel Adams (by Martin Millmore), of the "Minute-Man of +1775" and the "Soldier of 1861," and a painting by Henry Sandham, "The +Battle of Lexington." + +Lexington was settled as a part of Cambridge as early as 1642. It was +organized as a parish in 1691 and was made a township (probably named in +honour of Lord Lexington) in 1713. In the evening of the 18th of April +1775 a British force of about 800 men under Lieut.-Colonel Francis Smith +and Major John Pitcairn was sent by General Thomas Gage from Boston to +destroy military stores collected by the colonists at Concord, and to +seize John Hancock and Samuel Adams, then at Parson Clarke's house (now +known as the Hancock-Clarke House) in Lexington. Although the British +had tried to keep this movement a secret, Dr Joseph Warren discovered +their plans and sent out Paul Revere and William Dawes to give warning +of their approach. The expedition had not proceeded far when Smith, +discovering that the country was aroused, despatched an express to +Boston for reinforcements and ordered Pitcairn to hasten forward with a +detachment of light infantry. Early in the morning of the 19th Pitcairn +arrived at the green in the village of Lexington, and there found +between sixty and seventy minute-men under Captain John Parker drawn up +in line of battle. Pitcairn ordered them to disperse, and on their +refusal to do so his men fired a volley. Whether a stray shot preceded +the first volley, and from which side it came, are questions which have +never been determined. After a second volley from the British, Parker +ordered his men to withdraw. The engagement lasted only a few minutes, +but eight Americans were killed and nine were wounded; not more than two +or three of the British were wounded. Hancock and Adams had escaped +before the British troops reached Lexington. The British proceeded from +Lexington to Concord (q.v.). On their return they were continually fired +upon by Americans from behind trees, rocks, buildings and other +defences, and were threatened with complete destruction until they were +rescued at Lexington by a force of 1000 men under Lord Hugh Percy +(later, 1786, duke of Northumberland). Percy received the fugitives +within a hollow square, checked the onslaught for a time with two +field-pieces, used the Munroe Tavern for a hospital, and later in the +day carried his command with little further injury back to Boston. The +British losses for the entire day were 73 killed, 174 wounded and 26 +missing; the American losses were 49 killed, 39 wounded and 5 missing. + +In 1839 a state normal school for women (the first in Massachusetts and +the first public training school for teachers in the United States) was +opened at Lexington; it was transferred to West Newton in 1844 and to +Framingham in 1853. + + See Charles Hudson, _History of the Town of Lexington_ (Boston, 1868), + and the publications of the Lexington Historical Society, (1890 seq.). + + + + +LEXINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Lafayette county, Missouri, +U.S.A., situated on the S. bank of the Missouri river, about 40 m. E. of +Kansas City. Pop. (1900) 4190, including 1170 negroes and 283 +foreign-born; (1910) 5242. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa +Fé, the Wabash (at Lexington Junction, 4 m. N.W.), and the Missouri +Pacific railway systems. The city lies for the most part on high broken +ground at the summit of the river bluffs, but in part upon their face. +Lexington is the seat of the Lexington College for Young Women (Baptist, +established 1855), the Central College for Women (Methodist Episcopal, +South; opened 1869), and the Wentworth Military Academy (1880). There +are steam flour mills, furniture factories and various other small +manufactories; but the main economic interest of the city is in +brickyards and coal-mines in its immediate vicinity. It is one of the +principal coal centres of the state, Higginsville (pop. in 1910, 2628), +about 12 m. S.E., in the same county, also being important. Lexington +was founded in 1819, was laid out in 1832, and, with various additions, +was chartered as a city in 1845. A new charter was received in 1870. +Lexington succeeded Sibley as the eastern terminus of the Santa Fé +trade, and was in turn displaced by Independence; it long owed its +prosperity to the freighting trade up the Missouri, and at the opening +of the Civil War it was the most important river town between St Louis +and St Joseph and commanded the approach by water to Fort Leavenworth. + +After the Confederate success at Wilson's Creek (Aug. 10, 1861), General +Sterling Price advanced northward, and with about 15,000 men arrived in +the vicinity of Lexington on the 12th of September. Here he found a +Federal force of about 2800 men under Colonel James A. Mulligan +(1830-1864) throwing up intrenchments on Masonic College Hill, an +eminence adjoining Lexington on the N.E. An attack was made on the same +day and the Federals were driven within their defences, but at night +General Price withdrew to the Fair-grounds not far away and remained +there five days waiting for his wagon train and for reinforcements. On +the 18th the assault was renewed, and on the 20th the Confederates, +advancing behind movable breastworks of water-soaked bales of hemp, +forced the besieged, now long without water, to surrender. The losses +were: Confederate, 25 killed and 75 wounded; Federal, 39 killed and 120 +wounded. At the end of September General Price withdrew, leaving a guard +of only a few hundred in the town, and on the 16th of the next month a +party of 220 Federal scouts under Major Frank J. White (1842-1875) +surprised this guard, released about 15 prisoners, and captured 60 or +more Confederates. Another Federal raid on the town was made in December +of the same year by General John Pope's cavalry. Again, during General +Price's Missouri expedition in 1864, a Federal force entered Lexington +on the 16th of October, and three days later there was some fighting +about 4 m. S. of the town. + + + + +LEXINGTON, a town and the county-seat of Rockbridge county, Virginia, +U.S.A., on the North river (a branch of the James), about 30 m. N.N.W. +of Lynchburg. Pop. (1900) 3203 (1252 negroes); (1910) 2931. It is served +by the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Baltimore & Ohio railways. The famous +Natural Bridge is about 16 m. S.W., and there are mineral springs in the +vicinity--at Rockbridge Baths, 10 m. N., at Wilson's Springs, 12 m. N., +and at Rockbridge Alum Springs, 17 m. N.W. Lexington is best known as +the seat of Washington and Lee University, and of the Virginia Military +Institute. The former grew out of Augusta Academy, which was established +in 1749 in Augusta county, about 15 m. S.W. of what is now the city of +Staunton, was renamed Liberty Hall and was established near Lexington +in 1780, and was chartered as Liberty Hall Academy in 1782. In 1798 its +name was changed to Washington Academy, in recognition of a gift from +George Washington of some shares of canal stock, which he refused to +receive from the Virginia legislature. In 1802 the Virginia branch of +the Society of the Cincinnati disbanded and turned over to the academy +its funds, about $25,000; in 1813 the academy took the name Washington +College; and in 1871 its corporate name was changed to Washington and +Lee University, the addition to the name being made in honour of General +Robert E. Lee, who was the president of the college from August 1865 +until his death in 1870. He was succeeded by his son, General George +Washington Custis Lee (b. 1832), president from 1871 to 1897, and Dr +William Lyne Wilson (1843-1900), the eminent political leader and +educator, was president from 1897 to 1900. In 1908-1909 the university +comprised a college, a school of commerce, a school of engineering and a +school of law, and had a library of 47,000 volumes, 23 instructors and +565 students. In the Lee Memorial chapel, on the campus, General Robert +E. Lee is buried, and over his grave is a notable recumbent statue of +him by Edward Virginius Valentine (b. 1838). The Virginia Military +Institute was established in March 1839, when its cadet corps supplanted +the company of soldiers maintained by the state to garrison the Western +Arsenal at Lexington. The first superintendent (1839-1890) was General +Francis Henney Smith (1812-1890), a graduate (1833) of the United States +Military Academy; and from 1851 until the outbreak of the Civil War +"Stonewall" Jackson was a professor in the Institute--he is buried in +the Lexington cemetery and his grave is marked by a monument. On the +campus of the institute is a fine statue, "Virginia Mourning Her Dead," +by Moses Ezekiel (b. 1844), which commemorates the gallantry of a +battalion of 250 cadets from the institute, more than 50 of whom were +killed or wounded during the engagement at New Market on the 15th of May +1864. In 1908-1909 the institute had 21 instructors and 330 cadets. +Flour is manufactured in Lexington and lime in the vicinity. The town +owns and operates its water-works. The first settlers of Rockbridge +county established themselves in 1737 near the North river, a short +distance below Lexington. The first permanent settlement on the present +site was made about 1778. On the 11th of June 1864, during the +occupation of the town by Federal troops under General David Hunter, +most of the buildings in the town and those of the university were +damaged and all those of the institute, except the superintendent's +headquarters, were burned. + + + + +LEYDEN, JOHN (1775-1811), British orientalist and man of letters, was +born on the 8th of September 1775 at Denholm on the Teviot, not far from +Hawick. Leyden's father was a shepherd, but contrived to send his son to +Edinburgh University to study for the ministry. Leyden was a diligent +but somewhat miscellaneous student, reading everything apparently, +except theology, for which he seems to have had no taste. Though he +completed his divinity course, and in 1798 received licence to preach +from the presbytery of St Andrews, it soon became clear that the pulpit +was not his vocation. In 1794 Leyden had formed the acquaintance of Dr +Robert Anderson, editor of _The British Poets_, and of _The Literary +Magazine_. It was Anderson who introduced him to Dr Alexander Murray, +and Murray, probably, who led him to the study of Eastern languages. +They became warm friends and generous rivals, though Leyden excelled, +perhaps, in the rapid acquisition of new tongues and acquaintance with +their literature, while Murray was the more scientific philologist. +Through Anderson also he came to know Richard Heber, by whom he was +brought under the notice of Sir Walter Scott, who was then collecting +materials for his _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_. Leyden was +admirably fitted for helping in this kind of work, for he was a borderer +himself, and an enthusiastic lover of old ballads and folk-lore. Scott +tells how, on one occasion, Leyden walked 40 m. to get the last two +verses of a ballad, and returned at midnight, singing it all the way +with his loud, harsh voice, to the wonder and consternation of the poet +and his household. + +Leyden meanwhile compiled a work on the _Discoveries and Settlements of +Europeans in Northern and Western Africa_, suggested by Mungo Park's +travels, edited _The Complaint of Scotland_, printed a volume of +Scottish descriptive poems, and nearly finished his _Scenes of Infancy_, +a diffuse poem based on border scenes and traditions. He also made some +translations from Eastern poetry, Persian and Arabic. At last his +friends got him an appointment in India on the medical staff, for which +he qualified by a year's hard work. In 1803 he sailed for Madras, and +took his place in the general hospital there. He was promoted to be +naturalist to the commissioners going to survey Mysore, and in 1807 his +knowledge of the languages of India procured him an appointment as +professor of Hindustani at Calcutta; this he soon after resigned for a +judgeship, and that again to be a commissioner in the court of requests +in 1809, a post which required a familiarity with several Eastern +tongues. In 1811 he joined Lord Minto in the expedition to Java. Having +entered a library which was said to contain many Eastern MSS., without +having the place aired, he was seized with Batavian fever, and died, +after three days' illness, on the 28th of August 1811. + + + + +LEYDEN JAR, or CONDENSER, an electrical appliance consisting in one form +of a thin glass jar partly coated inside and outside with tin foil, or +in another of a number of glass plates similarly coated. When the two +metal surfaces are connected for a short time with the terminals of some +source of electromotive force, such as an electric machine, an induction +coil or a voltaic battery, electric energy is stored up in the condenser +in the form of electric strain in the glass, and can be recovered again +in the form of an electric discharge. + + + Early history. + +The earliest form of Leyden jar consisted of a glass vial or thin +Florence flask, partly full of water, having a metallic nail inserted +through the cork which touched the water. The bottle was held in the +hand, and the nail presented to the prime conductor of an electrical +machine. If the person holding the bottle subsequently touched the nail, +he experienced an electric shock. This experiment was first made by E. +G. von Kleist of Kammin in Pomerania in 1745,[1] and it was repeated in +another form in 1746 by Cunaeus and P. van Musschenbroek, of the +university of Leyden (Leiden), whence the term Leyden jar.[2] J. H. +Winkler discovered that an iron chain wound round the bottle could be +substituted for the hand, and Sir William Watson in England shortly +afterward showed that iron filings or mercury could replace the water +within the jar. Dr John Bevis of London suggested, in 1746, the use of +sheet lead coatings within and without the jar, and subsequently the use +of tin foil or silver leaf made closely adherent to the glass. Benjamin +Franklin and Bevis devised independently the form of condenser known as +a Franklin or Leyden pane, which consists of a sheet of glass, partly +coated on both sides with tin foil or silver leaf, a margin of glass all +round being left to insulate the two tin foils from each other. Franklin +in 1747 and 1748 made numerous investigations on the Leyden jar, and +devised a method of charging jars in series as well as in parallel. In +the former method, now commonly known as charging in _cascade_, the jars +are insulated and the outside coating of one jar is connected to the +inside coating of the next and so on for a whole series, the inside +coating of the first jar and the outside coating of the last jar being +the terminals of the condenser. For charging in parallel a number of +jars are collected in a box, and all the outside coatings are connected +together metallically and all the inside coatings brought to one common +terminal. This arrangement is commonly called a battery of Leyden jars. +To Franklin also we owe the important knowledge that the electric charge +resides really in the glass and not in the metal coatings, and that when +a condenser has been charged the metallic coatings can be exchanged for +fresh ones and yet the electric charge of the condenser remains. + + + Modern construction. + +In its modern form the Leyden jar consists of a wide-mouthed bottle of +thin English flint glass of uniform thickness, free from flaws. About +half the outside and half the inside surface is coated smoothly with tin +foil, and the remainder of the glazed surface is painted with shellac +varnish. A wooden stopper closes the mouth of the jar, and through it a +brass rod passes which terminates in a chain, or better still, three +elastic brass springs, which make good contact with the inner coating. +The rod terminates externally in a knob or screw terminal. The jar has a +certain capacity C which is best expressed in microfarads or +electrostatic units (see ELECTROSTATICS), and is determined by the +surface of the tin foil and thickness and quality of the glass. The jar +can be charged so that a certain potential difference V, reckoned in +volts, exists between the two coatings. If a certain critical potential +is exceeded, the glass gives way under the electric strain and is +pierced. The safe voltage for most glass jars is about 20,000 volts for +glass {1/10}th in. in thickness; this corresponds with an electric spark +of about 7 millimetres in length. When the jar is charged, it is usually +discharged through a metallic arc called the discharging tongs, and this +discharge is in the form of an oscillatory current (see +ELECTROKINETICS). The energy stored up in the jar in joules is expressed +by the value of ½ CV², where C is the capacity measured in farads and V +the potential difference of the coatings in volts. If the capacity C is +reckoned in microfarads then the energy storage is equal to CV²/2 × 10^6 +joules or 0.737 CV²/2 × 10^6 foot-pounds. The size of jar commonly known +as a quart size may have a capacity from {1/400}th to {1/800}th of a +microfarad, and if charged to 20,000 volts stores up energy from a +quarter to half a joule or from {3/16}ths to {3/8}ths of a foot-pound. + + + High tension condensers. + +Leyden jars are now much employed for the production of the high +frequency electric currents used in wireless telegraphy (see TELEGRAPHY, +WIRELESS). For this purpose they are made by Moscicki in the form of +glass tubes partly coated by silver chemically deposited on the glass on +the inner and outer surfaces. The tubes have walls thicker at the ends +than in the middle, as the tendency to puncture the glass is greatest at +the edges of the coatings. In other cases, Leyden jars or condensers +take the form of sheets of mica or micanite or ebonite partly coated +with tin foil or silver leaf on both sides; or a pile of sheets of +alternate tin foil and mica may be built up, the tin foil sheets having +lugs projecting out first on one side and then on the other. All the +lugs on one side are connected together, and so also are all the lugs on +the other side, and the two sets of tin foils separated by sheets of +mica constitute the two metallic surfaces of the Leyden jar condenser. +For the purposes of wireless telegraphy, when large condensers are +required, the ordinary Leyden jar occupies too much space in comparison +with its electrical capacity, and hence the best form of condenser +consists of a number of sheets of crown glass, each partly coated on +both sides with tin foil. The tin foil sheets have lugs attached which +project beyond the glass. The plates are placed in a vessel full of +insulating oil which prevents the glow or brush discharge taking place +over their edges. All the tin foils on one side of the glass plates are +connected together and all the tin foils on the opposite sides, so as to +construct a condenser of any required capacity. The box should be of +glass or stoneware or other non-conducting material. When glass tubes +are used it is better to employ tubes thicker at the ends than in the +middle, as it has been found that when the safe voltage is exceeded and +the glass gives way under electric strain, the piercing of the glass +nearly always takes place at the edges of the tin foil. + + + Compressed air condensers. + +Glass is still commonly used as a dielectric because of its cheapness, +high dielectric strength or resistance to electric puncture, and its +high dielectric constant (see ELECTROSTATICS). It has been found, +however, that very efficient condensers can be made with compressed air +as dielectric. If a number of metal plates separated by small distance +pieces are enclosed in an iron box which is pumped full of air to a +pressure, say, of 100 lb. to 1 sq. in., the dielectric strength of the +air is greatly increased, and the plates may therefore be brought very +near to one another without causing a spark to pass under such voltage +as would cause discharge in air at normal pressure. Condensers of this +kind have been employed by R. A. Fessenden in wireless telegraphy, and +they form a very excellent arrangement for standard condensers with +which to compare the capacity of other Leyden jars. Owing to the +variation in the value of the dielectric constant of glass with the +temperature and with the frequency of the applied electromotive force, +and also owing to electric glow discharge from the edges of the tin foil +coatings, the capacity of an ordinary Leyden jar is not an absolutely +fixed quantity, but its numerical value varies somewhat with the method +by which it is measured, and with the other circumstances above +mentioned. For the purpose of a standard condenser a number of +concentric metal tubes may be arranged on an insulating stand, alternate +tubes being connected together. One coating of the condenser is formed +by one set of tubes and the other by the other set, the air between +being the dielectric. Paraffin oil or any liquid dielectric of constant +inductivity may replace the air. + + See J. A. Fleming, _Electric Wave Telegraphy_ (London, 1906); R. A. + Fessenden, "Compressed Air for Condensers," _Electrician_, 1905, 55, + p. 795; Moscicki, "Construction of High Tension Condensers," + _L'Éclairage électrique_, 1904, 41, p. 14, or _Engineering_, 1904, p. + 865. (J. A. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Park Benjamin, _The Intellectual Rise in Electricity_, p. 512. + + [2] Ibid. p. 519. + + + + +LEYS, HENDRIK, BARON (1815-1869), Belgian painter, was born at Antwerp +on the 18th of February 1815. He studied under Wappers at the Antwerp +Academy. In 1833 he painted "Combat d'un grenadier et d'un cosaque," and +in the following year "Combat de Bourguignons et Flamands." In 1835 he +went to Paris where he was influenced by the Romantic movement. Examples +of this period of his painting are "Massacre des échevins de Louvain," +"Mariage flamand," "Le Roi des arbalétriers" and other works. Leys was +an imitative painter in whose works may rapidly be detected the schools +which he had been studying before he painted them. Thus after his visit +to Holland in 1839 he reproduced many of the characteristics of the +Dutch genre painters in such works as "Franz Floris se rendant à une +fête" (1845) and "Service divin en Hollande" (1850). So too the methods +of Quentin Matsys impressed themselves upon him after he had travelled +in Germany in 1852. In 1862 Leys was created a baron. At the time of his +death, which occurred in August 1869, he was engaged in decorating with +fresco the large hall of the Antwerp Hôtel de Ville. + + + + +LEYTON, an urban district forming one of the north-eastern suburbs of +London, England, in the Walthamstow (S.W.) parliamentary division of +Essex. Pop. (1891) 63,106; (1901) 98,912. It lies on the east (left) +bank of the Lea, along the flat open valley of which runs the boundary +between Essex and the county of London. The church of St Mary, mainly a +brick reconstruction, contains several interesting memorials; including +one to William Bowyer the printer (d. 1737), erected by his son and +namesake, more famous in the same trade. Here is also buried John Strype +the historian and biographer (d. 1737), who held the position of curate +and lecturer at this church. Leyton is in the main a residential as +distinct from a manufacturing locality. Its name is properly Low Leyton, +and the parish includes the district of Leytonstone to the east. Roman +remains have been discovered here, but no identification with a Roman +station by name has been made with certainty. The ground of the Essex +County Cricket Club is at Leyton. + + + + +LHASA (LHASSA, LASSA, "God's ground"), the capital of Tibet. It lies in +29° 39´ N., 91° 5´ E., 11,830 ft. above sea-level. Owing to the +inaccessibility of Tibet and the political and religious exclusiveness +of the lamas, Lhasa was long closed to European travellers, all of whom +during the latter half of the 19th century were stopped in their +attempts to reach it. It was popularly known as the "Forbidden City." +But its chief features were known by the accounts of the earlier Romish +missionaries who visited it and by the investigations, in modern times, +of native Indian secret explorers, and others, and the British armed +mission of 1904 (see TIBET). + +_Site and General Aspect._--The city stands in a tolerably level plain, +which is surrounded on all sides by hills. Along its southern side, +about ½ m. south of Lhasa, runs a considerable river called the Kyichu +(Ki-chu) or Kyi, flowing here from E.N.E., and joining the great Tsangpo +(or upper course of the Brahmaputra) some 38 m. to the south-west. The +hills round the city are barren. The plain, however, is fertile, though +in parts marshy. There are gardens scattered over it round the city, and +these are planted with fine trees. The city is screened from view from +the west by a rocky ridge, lofty and narrow, with summits at the north +and south, the one flanked and crowned by the majestic buildings of +Potala, the chief residence of the Dalai lama, the other by the temple +of medicine. Groves, gardens and open ground intervene between this +ridge and the city itself for a distance of about 1 m. A gate through +the centre of the ridge gives access from the west; the road thence to +the north part of the city throws off a branch to the Yutok sampa or +turquoise-tiled covered bridge, one of the noted features of Lhasa, +which crosses a former channel of the Kyi, and carries the road to the +centre of the town. + +The city is nearly circular in form, and less than 1 m. in diameter. It +was walled in the latter part of the 17th century, but the walls were +destroyed during the Chinese occupation in 1722. The chief streets are +fairly straight, but generally of no great width. There is no paving or +metal, nor any drainage system, so that the streets are dirty and in +parts often flooded. The inferior quarters are unspeakably filthy, and +are rife with evil smells and large mangy dogs and pigs. Many of the +houses are of clay and sun-dried brick, but those of the richer people +are of stone and brick. All are frequently white-washed, the doors and +windows being framed in bands of red and yellow. In the suburbs there +are houses entirely built of the horns of sheep and oxen set in clay +mortar. This construction is in some cases very roughly carried out, but +in others it is solid and highly picturesque. Some of the inferior huts +of this type are inhabited by the Ragyaba or scavengers, whose chief +occupation is that of disposing of corpses according to the practice of +cutting and exposing them to the dogs and birds of prey. The houses +generally are of two or three storeys. Externally the lower part +generally presents dead walls (the ground floor being occupied by +stables and similar apartments); above these rise tiers of large windows +with or without projecting balconies, and over all flat broad-eaved +roofs at varying levels. In the better houses there are often spacious +and well-finished apartments, and the principal halls, the verandahs and +terraces are often highly ornamented in brilliant colours. In every +house there is a kind of chapel or shrine, carved and gilt, on which are +set images and sacred books. + + + The Jokhang. + + _Temples and Monasteries._--In the centre of the city is an open + square which forms the chief market-place. Here is the great temple of + the "Jo" or Lord Buddha, called the Jokhang,[1] regarded as the centre + of all Tibet, from which all the main roads are considered to radiate. + This is the great metropolitan sanctuary and church-centre of Tibet, + the St Peter's or Lateran of Lamaism. It is believed to have been + founded by the Tibetan Constantine, Srong-tsan-gampo, in 652, as the + shrine of one of those two very sacred Buddhist images which were + associated with his conversion and with the foundation of the + civilized monarchy in Tibet. The exterior of the building is not + impressive; it rises little above the level of other buildings which + closely surround it, and the effect of its characteristic gilt roof, + though conspicuous and striking from afar, is lost close at hand. + + The main building of the Jokhang is three storeys high. The entrance + consists of a portico supported on timber columns, carved and gilt, + while the walls are engraved with Chinese, Mongolian and Tibetan + characters, and a great prayer-wheel stands on one side. Massive + folding doors, ornamented with scrollwork in iron, lead to an + antehall, and from this a second gate opens into a courtyard + surrounded by a verandah with many pillars and chapels, and frescoes + on its walls. On the left is the throne of the grand lama, laid with + cushions, together with the seats of other ecclesiastical dignitaries, + variously elevated according to the rank of their occupants. An inner + door with enclosed vestibule gives access to the quadrangular choir or + chancel, as it may be called, though its centre is open to the sky. On + either side of it are three chapels, and at the extremity is the + rectangular "holy of holies," flanked by two gilded images of the + coming Buddha, and screened by lattice-work. In it is the shrine on + which sits the great image of Sakya, set about with small figures, + lamps and a variety of offerings, and richly jewelled, though the + workmanship of the whole is crude. In the second and third storeys of + the temple are shrines and representations of a number of gods and + goddesses. The temple contains a vast accumulation of images, gold and + silver vessels, lamps, reliquaries and precious bric-à-brac of every + kind. The daily offices are attended by crowds of worshippers, and a + sacred way which leads round the main building is constantly traversed + by devotees who perform the circuit as a work of merit, always in a + particular direction. The temple was found by the members of the + British mission who visited it to be exceedingly dirty, and the + atmosphere was foul with the fumes of butter-lamps. + + Besides the convent-cells, halls of study and magazines of precious + lumber, buildings grouped about the Jokhang are occupied by the civil + administration, e.g. as treasuries, customs office, courts of justice, + &c., and there are also private apartments for the grand lama and + other high functionaries. No woman is permitted to pass the night + within the precinct. + + In front of the main entrance to the Jokhang, in the shadow of a + sacred willow tree, stands a famous monument, the Doring monolith, + which bears the inscribed record of a treaty of peace concluded in 822 + (or, according to another view, in 783) between the king of Tibet and + the emperor of China. Before this monument the apostate from Lamaism, + Langdharma, brother and successor of the last-named king, is said to + have been standing when a fanatic recluse, who had been stirred by a + vision to avenge his persecuted faith, assassinated him. + + + Potala. + + The famous Potala hill, covered by the palace of the Dalai lama, forms + a majestic mountain of building; with its vast inward-sloping walls + broken only in the upper parts by straight rows of many windows, and + its flat roofs at various levels, it is not unlike a fortress in + appearance. At the south base of the rock is a large space enclosed by + walls and gates, with great porticoes on the inner side. This swarms + with lamas and with beggars. A series of tolerably easy staircases, + broken by intervals of gentle ascent, leads to the summit of the rock. + The whole width of this is occupied by the palace. The central part of + this group of buildings (for the component parts of Potala are of + different dates) rises in a vast quadrangular mass above its + satellites to a great height, terminating in gilt canopies similar to + those on the Jokhang. Here on the lofty terrace is the grand lama's + promenade, and from this great height he looks down upon the crowds of + his votaries far below. This central member of Potala is called the + red palace from its crimson colour, which distinguishes it from the + rest. It contains the principal halls and chapels and shrines of past + Dalai lamas. There is in these much rich decorative painting, with + jewelled work, carving and other ornament, but the interior of Potala + as a whole cannot compare in magnificence with the exterior. Among the + numerous other buildings of note on or near Potala hill, one is + distinguished by the Chinese as one of the principal beauties of + Lhasa. This is a temple not far from the base of the hill, in the + middle of a lake which is surrounded by trees and shrubberies. This + temple, called Lu-kang, is circular in form, with a _loggia_ or + portico running all round and adorned with paintings. Its name, "the + serpent house," comes from the tradition of a serpent or dragon, which + dwelt here and must be propitiated lest it should cause the waters to + rise and flood Lhasa. + + Another great and famous temple is Ramo-ché, at the north side of the + city. This is also regarded as a foundation of Srong-tsan-gampo, and + is said to contain the body of his Chinese wife and the second of the + primeval palladia, the image that she brought with her to the + Snow-land; whence it is known as the "small Jokhang." This temple is + noted for the practice of magical arts. Its buildings are in a + neglected condition. + + Another monastery within the city is that of Moru, also on the north + side, remarkable for its external order and cleanliness. Though famous + as a school of orthodox magic, it is noted also for the printing-house + in the convent garden. This convent was the temporary residence of the + regent during the visit of the British mission in 1904. Other + monasteries in or near the city are the Tsamo Ling or Chomoling at the + north-west corner; the Tangyä Ling or Tengyeling at the west of the + city; the Kundä Ling or Kundeling about 1 m. west of the city, at the + foot of a low isolated hill called Chapochi. Three miles south, beyond + the river, is the Tsemchog Ling or Tsecholing. These four convents are + known as "The Four Ling." From their inmates the Dalai lama's regent, + during his minority, was formerly chosen. The temple of medicine, as + already stated, crowns the summit (Chagpa) at the end of the ridge + west of the city, opposite to that on which stands the Potala. It is + natural that in a country possessing a religious system like that of + Tibet the medical profession should form a branch of the priesthood. + "The treatment of disease, though based in some measure upon a + judicious use of the commoner simple drugs of the country, is, as was + inevitable amongst so superstitious a people, saturated with + absurdity" (Waddell, _Lhasa and its Mysteries_). + + The three great monasteries in the vicinity of Lhasa, all claiming to + be foundations of Tsongkhapa (1356-1418), the medieval reformer and + organizer of the modern orthodox Lama Church, "the yellow caps," are + the following:-- + + 1. _Debung_ (written '_Bras spungs_) is 6 m. west of Lhasa at the foot + of the hills which flank the plain on the north. It is one of the + largest monasteries in the world, having some 8000 monks. In the + middle of the convent buildings rises a kind of pavilion, brilliant + with colour and gilding, which is occupied by the Dalai Lama when he + visits Debung once a year and expounds to the inmates. The place is + frequented by the Mongol students who come to Lhasa to graduate, and + is known in the country as the Mongol convent; it has also been + notorious as a centre of political intrigue. Near it is the seat of + the chief magician of Tibet, the Nachung Chos-kyong, a building + picturesque in itself and in situation. + + 2. _Sera_ is 3 m. north of the city on the acclivity of the hills and + close to the road by which pilgrims enter from Mongolia. From a + distance the crowd of buildings and temples, rising in amphitheatre + against a background of rocky mountains, forms a pleasing picture. In + the recesses of the hill, high above the convent, are scattered cells + of lamas adopting the solitary life. The chief temple of Sera, a + highly ornate building, has a special reputation as the resting-place + of a famous _Dorje_, i.e. the _Vajra_ or Thunderbolt of Jupiter, the + symbol of the strong and indestructible, which the priest grasps and + manipulates in various ways during prayer. The emblem is a bronze + instrument, shaped much like a dumbbell with pointed ends, and it is + carried solemnly in procession to the Jokhang during the New Year's + festival. + + The hill adjoining Sera is believed to be rich in silver ore, but it + is not allowed to be worked. On the summit is a spring and a holy + place of the Lhasa Mahommedans, who resort thither. Near the monastery + there is said to be gold, which is worked by the monks. "Should they + ... discover a nugget of large size, it is immediately replaced in the + earth, under the impression that the large nuggets ... germinate in + time, producing the small lumps which they are privileged to search + for" (Nain Singh). + + 3. _Galdan._--This great convent is some 25 m. east of Lhasa, on the + other side of the Kyichu. It is the oldest monastery of the "Yellow" + sect, having been founded by Tsongkhapa and having had him for its + first superior. Here his body is said to be preserved with miraculous + circumstances; here is his tomb, of marble and malachite, with a great + shrine said to be of gold, and here are other relics of him, such as + the impression of his hands and feet. + + _Samyé_ is another famous convent intimately connected with Lhasa, + being said to be used as a treasury by the government, but it lies + some 36 m. south-east on the left bank of the great Tsangpo. It was + founded in 770, and is the oldest extant monastery in Tibet. It is + surrounded by a very high circular stone wall, 1½ m. in circumference, + with gates facing the four points of the compass. On this wall Nain + Singh, who was here on his journey in 1874, counted 1030 votive piles + of brick. One very large temple occupies the centre, and round it are + four smaller but still large temples. Many of the idols are said to be + of pure gold, and the wealth is very great. The interiors of the + temples are covered with beautiful writing in enormous characters, + which the vulgar believe to be the writing of Sakya himself. + +_Population and Trade._--The total population of Lhasa, including the +lamas in the city and vicinity, is probably about 30,000; a census in +1854 made the figure 42,000, but it is known to have greatly decreased +since. There are only some 1500 resident Tibetan laymen and about 5500 +Tibetan women. The permanent population embraces, besides Tibetans, +settled families of Chinese (about 2000 persons), as well as people from +Nepal, from Ladak, and a few from Bhotan and Mongolia. The Ladakis and +some of the other foreigners are Mahommedans, and much of the trade is +in their hands. Desideri (1716) speaks also of Armenians and even +"Muscovites." The Chinese have a crowded burial-ground at Lhasa, tended +carefully after their manner. The Nepalese (about 800) supply the +mechanics and metal-workers. There are among them excellent gold- and +silversmiths; and they make the elaborate gilded canopies crowning the +temples. The chief industries are the weaving of a great variety of +stuffs from the fine Tibetan wool; the making of earthenware and of the +wooden porringers (varying immensely in elaboration and price) of which +every Tibetan carries one about with him; also the making of certain +fragrant sticks of incense much valued in China and elsewhere. + +As Lhasa is not only the nucleus of a cluster of vast monastic +establishments, which attract students and aspirants to the religious +life from all parts of Tibet and Mongolia, but is also a great place of +pilgrimage, the streets and public places swarm with visitors from every +part of the Himalayan plateau,[2] and from all the steppes of Asia +between Manchuria and the Balkhash Lake. Naturally a great traffic +arises quite apart from the pilgrimage. The city thus swarms with +crowds attracted by devotion and the love of gain, and presents a great +diversity of language, costume and physiognomy; though, in regard to the +last point, varieties of the broad face and narrow eye greatly +predominate. Much of the retail trade of the place is in the hands of +the women. The curious practice of the women in plastering their faces +with a dark-coloured pigment is less common in Lhasa than in the +provinces. + +During December especially traders arrive from western China by way of +Tachienlu bringing every variety of silk-stuffs, carpets, china-ware and +tea; from Siningfu come silk, gold lace, Russian goods, carpets of a +superior kind, semi-precious stones, horse furniture, horses and a very +large breed of fat-tailed sheep; from eastern Tibet, musk in large +quantities, which eventually finds its way to Europe through Nepal; from +Bhotan and Sikkim, rice; from Sikkim also tobacco; besides a variety of +Indian and European goods from Nepal and Darjeeling, and _charas_ +(resinous exudation of hemp) and saffron from Ladakh and Kashmir. The +merchants leave Lhasa in March, before the setting in of the rains +renders the rivers impassable. + +The tea importation from China is considerable, for tea is an absolute +necessary to the Tibetan. The tea is of various qualities, from the +coarsest, used only for "buttered" tea (a sort of broth), to the fine +quality drunk by the wealthy. This is pressed into bricks or cakes +weighing about 5½ lb., and often passes as currency. The quantity that +pays duty at Tachienlu is about 10,000,000 lb., besides some amount +smuggled. No doubt a large part of this comes to Lhasa. + + _Lhasa Festivities._--The greatest of these is at the new year. This + lasts fifteen days, and is a kind of lamaic carnival, in which masks + and mummings, wherein the Tibetans take especial delight, play a great + part. The celebration commences at midnight, with shouts and clangour + of bells, gongs, chank-shells, drums and all the noisy repertory of + Tibetan music; whilst friends exchange early visits and administer + coarse sweetmeats and buttered tea. On the second day the Dalai Lama + gives a grand banquet, at which the Chinese and native authorities are + present, whilst in the public spaces and in front of the great + convents all sorts of shows and jugglers' performances go on. Next day + a regular Tibetan exhibition takes place. A long cable, twisted of + leather thongs, is stretched from a high point in the battlements of + Potala slanting down to the plain, where it is strongly moored. Two + men slide from top to bottom of this huge hypothenuse, sometimes lying + on the chest (which is protected by a breast-plate of strong leather), + spreading their arms as if to swim, and descending with the rapidity + of an arrow-flight. Occasionally fatal accidents occur in this + performance, which is called "the dance of the gods"; but the + survivors are rewarded by the court, and the Grand Lama himself is + always a witness of it. This practice occurs more or less over the + Himalayan plateau, and is known in the neighbourhood of the Ganges as + _Barat_. It is employed as a kind of expiatory rite in cases of + pestilence and the like. Exactly the same performance is described as + having been exhibited in St Paul's Churchyard before King Edward VI., + and again before Philip of Spain, as well as, about 1750, at Hertford + and other places in England (see Strutt's _Sports_, &c., 2nd ed., p. + 198). + + The most remarkable celebration of the new year's festivities is the + great jubilee of the _Monlam_ (_s Mon-lam_, "prayer"), instituted by + Tsongkhapa himself in 1408. Lamas from all parts of Tibet, but chiefly + from the great convents in the neighbourhood, flock to Lhasa, and + every road leading thither is thronged with troops of monks on foot or + horseback, on yaks or donkeys, carrying with them their breviaries and + their cooking-pots. Those who cannot find lodging bivouac in the + streets and squares, or pitch their little black tents in the plain. + The festival lasts six days, during which there reigns a kind of + saturnalia. Unspeakable confusion and disorder reign, while gangs of + lamas parade the streets, shouting, singing and coming to blows. The + object of this gathering is, however, supposed to be devotional. Vast + processions take place, with mystic offerings and lama-music, to the + Jokhang and Moru convents; the Grand Lama himself assists at the + festival, and from an elevated throne beside the Jokhang receives the + offerings of the multitude and bestows his benediction. + + On the 15th of the first month multitudes of torches are kept ablaze, + which lighten up the city to a great distance, whilst the interior of + the Jokhang is illuminated throughout the night by innumerable + lanterns shedding light on coloured figures in bas-relief, framed in + arabesques of animals, birds and flowers, and representing the history + of Buddha and other subjects, all modelled in butter. The figures are + executed on a large scale, and, as described by Huc, who witnessed the + festival at Kunbum on the frontier of China, with extraordinary truth + and skill. These singular works of art occupy some months in + preparation, and on the morrow are thrown away. On other days + horse-races take place from Sera to Potala, and foot-races from Potala + to the city. On the 27th of the month the holy _Dorje_ is carried in + solemn procession from Sera to the Jokhang, and to the presence of the + lama at Potala. + + Of other great annual feasts, one, in the fourth month, is assigned to + the conception of Sakya, but appears to connect itself with the old + nature-feast of the entering of spring, and to be more or less + identical with the _Huli_ of India. A second, the consecration of the + waters, in September-October, appears, on the confines of India, to be + associated with the Dasehra. + + On the 30th day of the second month there takes place a strange + ceremony, akin to that of the scapegoat (which is not unknown in + India). It is called the driving out of the demon. A man is hired to + perform the part of demon (or victim rather), a part which sometimes + ends fatally. He is fantastically dressed, his face mottled with white + and black, and is then brought forth from the Jokhang to engage in + quasi-theological controversy with one who represents the Grand Lama. + This ends in their throwing dice against each other (as it were for + the weal or woe of Lhasa). If the demon were to win the omen would be + appalling; so this is effectually barred by false dice. The victim is + then marched outside the city, followed by the troops and by the whole + populace, hooting, shouting and firing volleys after him. Once he is + driven off, the people return, and he is carried off to the Samyé + convent. Should he die shortly after, this is auspicious; if not, he + is kept in ward at Samyé for a twelvemonth. + + Nain Singh, whose habitual accuracy is attested by many facts, + mentions a strange practice of comparatively recent origin, according + to which the civil power in the city is put up to auction for the + first twenty-three days of the new year. The purchaser, who must be a + member of the Debung monastery, and is termed the _Jalno_, is a kind + of lord of misrule, who exercises arbitrary authority during that time + for his own benefit, levying taxes and capricious fines upon the + citizens. + +_History._--The seat of the princes whose family raised Tibet to a +position among the powers of Asia was originally on the Yarlung river, +in the extreme east of the region now occupied by Tibetan tribes. It was +transplanted to Lhasa in the 7th century by the king Srong-tsan-gampo, +conqueror, civilizer and proselytizer, the founder of Buddhism in Tibet, +the introducer of the Indian alphabet. On the three-peaked crag now +occupied by the palace-monastery of the Grand Lama this king is said to +have established his fortress, while he founded in the plain below +temples to receive the sacred images, brought respectively from Nepal +and from China by the brides to whom his own conversion is attributed. + +Tibet endured as a conquering power some two centuries, and the more +famous among the descendants of the founder added to the city. +This-rong-de-tsan (who reigned 740-786) is said to have erected a great +temple-palace of which the basement followed the Tibetan style, the +middle storey the Chinese, and the upper storey the Indian--a +combination which would aptly symbolize the elements that have moulded +the culture of Lhasa. His son, the last of the great orthodox kings, in +the next century, is said to have summoned artists from Nepal and India, +and among many splendid foundations to have erected a sanctuary (at +Samyé) of vast height, which had nine storeys, the three lower of stone, +the three middle of brick, the three uppermost of timber. With this king +the glory of Tibet and of ancient Lhasa reached its zenith, and in 822, +a monument recording his treaty on equal terms with the Great T'ang +emperor of China was erected in the city. There followed dark days for +Lhasa and the Buddhist church in the accession of this king's brother +Langdharma, who has been called the Julian of the lamas. This king +rejected the doctrine, persecuted and scattered its ministers, and threw +down its temples, convents and images. It was more than a century before +Buddhism recovered its hold and its convents were rehabilitated over +Tibet. The country was then split into an infinity of petty states, many +of them ruled from the convents by warlike ecclesiastics; but, though +the old monarchy never recovered, Lhasa seems to have maintained some +supremacy, and probably never lost its claim to be the chief city of +that congeries of principalities, with a common faith and a common +language, which was called Tibet. + +The Arab geographers of the 10th century speak of Tibet, but without +real knowledge, and none speaks of any city that we can identify with +Lhasa. The first passage in any Western author in which such +identification can be probably traced occurs in the narrative of Friar +Odoric of Pordenone (c. 1330). This remarkable traveller's route from +Europe to India, and thence by sea to China, can be traced +satisfactorily, but of his journey homeward through Asia the indications +are very fragmentary. He speaks, however, on this return journey of the +realm of Tibet, which lay on the confines of India proper: "The folk of +that country dwell in tents made of black felt. But the chief and royal +city is all built with walls of black and white, and all its streets are +very well paved. In this city no one shall dare to shed the blood of +any, whether man or beast, for the reverence they bear a certain idol +that is there worshipped. In that city dwelleth the _Abassi_, i.e. in +their tongue the pope, who is the head of all the idolaters, and has the +disposal of all their benefices such as they are after their manner." + +We know that Kublai Khan had constituted a young prince of the Lama +Church, Mati Dhwaja, as head of that body, and tributary ruler of Tibet, +but besides this all is obscure for a century. This passage of Odoric +shows that such authority continued under Kublai's descendants, and that +some foreshadow of the position since occupied by the Dalai Lama already +existed. But it was not till a century after Odoric that the strange +heredity of the dynasty of the Dalai Lamas of Lhasa actually began. In +the first two centuries of its existence the residence of these pontiffs +was rather at Debung or Sera than at Lhasa itself, though the latter was +the centre of devout resort. A great event for Lhasa was the conversion, +or reconversion, of the Mongols to Lamaism (c. 1577), which made the +city the focus of sanctity and pilgrimage to so vast a tract of Asia. It +was in the middle of the 17th century that Lhasa became the residence of +the Dalai Lama. A native prince, known as the Tsangpo, with his seat at +Shigatse, had made himself master of southern Tibet, and threatened to +absorb the whole. The fifth Dalai Lama, Nagwang Lobzang, called in the +aid of a Kalmuck prince, Gushi Khan, from the neighbourhood of the +Koko-nor, who defeated and slew the Tsangpo and made over full dominion +in Tibet to the lama (1641). The latter now first established his court +and built his palace on the rock-site of the fortress of the ancient +monarchy, which apparently had fallen into ruin, and to this he gave the +name of Potala. + +The founder of Potala died in 1681. He had appointed as "regent" or +civil administrator (_Deisri_, or _Deba_) one supposed to be his own +natural son. This remarkable personage, Sangye Gyamtso, of great +ambition and accomplishment, still renowned in Tibet as the author of +some of the most valued works of the native literature, concealed the +death of his master, asserting that the latter had retired, in mystic +meditation or trance, to the upper chambers of the palace. The +government continued to be carried on in the lama's name by the regent, +who leagued with Galdan Khan of Dzungaria against the Chinese (Manchu) +power. It was not till the great emperor Kang-hi was marching on Tibet +that the death of the lama, sixteen years before, was admitted. A solemn +funeral was then performed, at which 108,000 lamas assisted, and a new +incarnation was set up in the person of a youth of fifteen, Tsangs-yang +Gyamtso. This young man was the scandal of the Lamaist Church in every +kind of evil living and debauchery, so that he was deposed and +assassinated in 1701. But it was under him and the regent Sangye Gyamtso +that the Potala palace attained its present scale of grandeur, and that +most of the other great buildings of Lhasa were extended and +embellished. + + For further history and bibliography, see TIBET. Consult also LAMAISM. + (H. Y.; L. A. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The name given by Köppen (_Die lamaische Kirche_, Berlin, 1859, + p. 74) is "La Brang," by which it is sometimes known. + + [2] Among articles sold in the Lhasa bazaars are fossil bones, called + by the people "lightning bones," and believed to have healing + virtues. + + + + +L'HÔPITAL (or L'HOSPITAL), MICHEL DE (c. 1505-1573), French statesman, +was born near Aigueperse in Auvergne (now Puy-de-Dôme). His father, who +was physician to the constable Charles of Bourbon, sent him to study at +Toulouse, whence at the age of eighteen he was driven, a consequence of +the evil fortunes of the family patron, to Padua, where he studied law +and letters for about six years. On the completion of his studies he +joined his father at Bologna, and afterwards, the constable having died, +went to Rome in the suite of Charles V. For some time he held a position +in the papal court at Rome, but about 1534 he returned to France, and +becoming an advocate, his marriage, in 1537, procured for him the post +of counsellor to the parlement of Paris. This office he held until 1547, +when he was sent by Henry II. on a mission to Bologna, where the council +of Trent was at that time sitting; after sixteen months of wearisome +inactivity there, he was by his own desire recalled at the close of +1548. L'Hôpital now for some time held the position of chancellor to the +king's sister, Margaret, duchess of Berry. In 1553, on the +recommendation of the Cardinal of Lorraine, he was named master of the +requests, and afterwards president of the chambre des comptes. In 1559 +he accompanied the princess Margaret, now duchess of Savoy, to Nice, +where, in the following year, tidings reached him that he had been +chosen to succeed François Olivier (1487-1560) in the chancellorship of +France. + +One of his first acts after entering on the duties of his office was to +cause the parlement of Paris to register the edict of Romorantin, of +which he is sometimes, but erroneously, said to have been the author. +Designed to protect heretics from the secret and summary methods of the +Inquisition, it certainly had his sympathy and approval. In accordance +with the consistent policy of inclusion and toleration by which the +whole of his official life was characterized, he induced the council to +call the assembly of notables, which met at Fontainebleau in August 1560 +and agreed that the States General should be summoned, all proceedings +against heretics being meanwhile suppressed, pending the reformation of +the church by a general or national council. The States General met in +December; the edict of Orleans (January 1561) followed, and finally, +after the colloquy of Poissy, the edict of January 1562, the most +liberal, except that of Nantes, ever obtained by the Protestants of +France. Its terms, however, were not carried out, and during the war +which was the inevitable result of the massacre of Vassy in March, +L'Hôpital, whose dismissal had been for some time urged by the papal +legate Hippolytus of Este, found it necessary to retire to his estate at +Vignay, near Étampes, whence he did not return until after the +pacification of Amboise (March 19, 1563). It was by his advice that +Charles IX. was declared of age at Rouen in August 1563, a measure which +really increased the power Of Catherine de' Medici; and it was under his +influence also that the royal council in 1564 refused to authorize the +publication of the acts of the council of Trent, on account of their +inconsistency with the Gallican liberties. In 1564-1566 he accompanied +the young king on an extended tour through France; and in 1566 he was +instrumental in the promulgation of an important edict for the reform of +abuses in the administration of justice. The renewal of the religious +war in September 1567, however, was at once a symptom and a cause of +diminished influence to L'Hôpital, and in February 1568 he obtained his +letters of discharge, which were registered by the parlement on the 11th +of May, his titles, honours and emoluments being reserved to him during +the remainder of his life. Henceforward he lived a life of unbroken +seclusion at Vignay, his only subsequent public appearance being by +means of a _mémoire_ which he addressed to the king in 1570 under the +title _Le But de la guerre et de la paix, ou discours du chancelier +l'Hospital pour exhorter Charles IX. à donner la paix à ses sujets_. +Though not exempt from considerable danger, he passed in safety through +the troubles of St Bartholomew's eve. His death took place either at +Vignay or at Bellébat on the 13th of March 1573. + + After his death Pibrac, assisted by De Thou and Scévole de + Sainte-Marthe, collected a volume of the _Poemata_ of L'Hôpital, and + in 1585 his grandson published _Epistolarum seu Sermonum libri sex_. + The complete _Oeuvres de l'Hôpital_ were published for the first time + by P. J. S. Dufey (5 vols., Paris, 1824-1825). They include his + "Harangues" and "Remonstrances," the _Epistles_, the _Mémoire_ to + Charles IX., a _Traité de la réformation de la justice_, and his will. + See also A. F. Villemain, _Vie du Chancelier de l'Hôpital_ (Paris, + 1874); R. G. E. T; St-René Taillandier, _Le Chancelier de l'Hospital_ + (Paris, 1861); Dupré-Lasalle, _Michel de l'Hospital avant son + élévation au poste de chancelier de France_ (Paris, 1875-1899); + Amphoux, _Michel de l'Hospital et la liberté de conscience au XVI^e + siècle_ (Paris, 1900); C. T. Atkinson, _Michel de l'Hospital_ (London, + 1900), containing an appendix on bibliography and sources; A. E. Shaw, + _Michel de l'Hospital and his Policy_ (London, 1905); and Eugène and + Emile Haag, _La France protestante_ (2nd ed., 1877 seq.). + + + + + +LIAO-YANG, a city of China, formerly the chief town of the province of +Liao-tung or Shêng-king (southern Manchuria), 35 m. S of Mukden. It is +situated in a rich cotton district in the fertile valley of the Liao, on +the road between Niuchwang and Mukden, and carries on a considerable +trade. The walls include an area about 2½ m. long by 2 m. broad, and +there are fairly extensive suburbs; but a good deal even of the enclosed +area is under cultivation. The population is estimated at 100,000. +Liao-yang was one of the first objectives of the Japanese during the +Russo-Japanese War, and its capture by them resulted in some of the +fiercest fighting during the campaign, from the 24th of August to the +4th of September 1904. + + + + +LIAS, in geology, the lowermost group of Jurassic strata. Originally the +name seems to have been written "Lyas"; it is most probably a provincial +form of "layers," strata, employed by quarrymen in the west of England; +it has been suggested, however, that the Fr. _liais_, Breton _leach_ = a +stone, Gaelic _leac_ = flat stone, may have given rise to the English +"Lias." Liassic strata occupy an important position in England, where +they crop out at Lyme Regis on the Dorsetshire coast and extend thence +by Bath, along the western flank of the Cotswold Hills, forming Edge +Hill and appearing at Banbury, Rugby, Melton, Grantham, Lincoln, to +Redcar on the coast of Yorkshire. They occur also in Glamorganshire, +Shropshire, near Carlisle, in Skye, Raasay (Pabba, Scalpa and Broadfoot +beds), and elsewhere in the north of Scotland, and in the north-east of +Ireland. East of the belt of outcrop indicated, the Lias is known to +occur beneath the younger rocks for some distance farther east, but it +is absent from beneath London, Reading, Ware, Harwich, Dover, and in the +southern portion of the area in which these towns lie; the Liassic rocks +are probably thinned out against a concealed ridge of more ancient +rocks. The table on following page will serve to illustrate the general +characters of the English Lias and the subdivisions adopted by the +Geological Survey. By the side are shown the principal zonal ammonites, +and, for comparison, the subdivisions preferred by Messrs Tate and Blake +and by A. de Lapparent. + +The important fact is clearly demonstrated in the table, that where the +Lias is seen in contact with the Trias below or the Inferior Oolite +above, there is, as a rule, a gradual passage from the Liassic +formation, both downwards and upwards; hence Professor de Lapparent +includes in his _Liassique System_ the zone of _Ammonites opalinus_ at +the top, and the Rhaetic beds at the bottom (see OOLITE; RHAETIC). Owing +to the transgression of the Liassic sea the strata rest in places upon +older Palaeozoic rocks. The thickness of the Lias varies considerably; +in Dorsetshire it is 900 ft., near Bath it has thinned to 280 ft., and +beneath Oxford it is further reduced. In north Gloucestershire it is +1360 ft., Northampton 760 ft., Rutland 800 ft., Lincolnshire 950 ft., +and in Yorkshire about 500 ft. + +The Lias of England was laid down in conditions very similar to those +which obtained at the same time in north France and north Germany, that is +to say, on the floor of a shallow sea; but in the Alpine region limestones +are developed upon a much greater scale. Many of the limestones are red +and crystalline marbles such as the "ammonitico-rosso-inferiore" of the +Apennines; a grey, laminated limestone is known as the "Fleckenmergel." +The whitish "Hierlatzkalke," the Adnet beds and the "Grestener beds" in +the eastern Alps and Balkan Mountains are important phases of Alpine Lias. +The Grestener beds contain a considerable amount of coal. The Lias of +Spain and the Pyrenees contains much dolomitic limestone. This formation +is widely spread in western Europe; besides the localities already cited +it occurs in Swabia, the Rhenish provinces, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg, +Ardennes, Normandy, Austria-Hungary, the Balkan States, Greece and Scania. +It has not been found north of Kharkov in Russia, but it is present in the +south and in the Caucasus, in Anatolia, Persia and the Himalayas. It +appears on the eastern side of Japan, in Borneo, Timor, New Caledonia and +New Zealand (Bastion beds); in Algeria, Tunisia and elsewhere in North +Africa, and on the west coast of Madagascar. In South America it is found +in the Bolivian Andes, in Chile and Argentina; it appears also on the +Pacific coast of North America. + + +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+ + | | S. W. England and Midlands. | Yorkshire. | Ammonite Zones.* | Divisions according to | + | | | | | A. de Lapparent.** | + +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+ + | U L | Midford Sands (passage beds) | Alum shale |_Am. jurensis_ \ | (Including the _opalinus_ zone| + | p i | | | | | of the Inferior Oolite.) | + | p a | Clays with Cement-stones | Jet Rock | " _communis_ > U. | Toarcien. | + | e s | Limestones and Clays | Grey Shale | " _serpentinus_ / | | + | r . | | | " _annulatus_ \ | | + +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+------------------- | ---+-------------------------------+ + | M | | | | | | + | i L | Marlstone and Sands | Ironstone Series |_Am. spinatus_ | | | + | d i | (Rock Bed and Ironstones) | | | | | + | d a | Micaceous Clays and Sands | Sandy Series | " _margaritatus_ | | | + | l s | | | | | | + | e . | | | > M. | | + +-----+------------------------------+------------------ +------------------- | | Charmouthien. | and + | | Clays with occasional bands | Upper Series with |_Am. capricornus_ | | | + | | of Limestone | Ironstone nodules| " _Jamesoni_ | | | + | L L | | | and | | | + | o i | | | " _armatus_ / | | + | w a | | | +-------------------------------+ + | e s | Limestones and Clays | Lower Series with | " _oxynotus_ \ | | + | r . | | Sandy and Marly | " _Bucklandi_ > L. | Sinémourien. | + | | | Beds | " _angulatus_ | | Hettangien including "White | + | | | | " _planorbis_ / | Lias." | + +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+ + | | | | | Rhétien. | + +-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+ + * The brackets indicate the divisions made by R. Tate and J. F. Blake. + ** _Traité de géologie_ (5th ed., Paris, 1906). + + The economic products of the Lias are of considerable importance. In + the Lower Lias of Lincolnshire and the Middle Lias of Oxfordshire, + Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Yorkshire the beds + of ironstone are of great value. Most of these ores are limestones + that have been converted into iron carbonate with some admixture of + silicates; they weather near the surface into hydrated peroxide. At + Frodingham in Lincolnshire the oolitic iron ore reaches 30 ft. in + thickness, of which 12 ft. are workable. In Gloucestershire the top + beds of the Lower Lias and lower beds of the Middle division are the + most ferruginous; the best ores near Woodstock and Banbury and between + Market Harborough and Leicester are at the summit of the Middle Lias + in the Marlstone or Rock bed. The ironstone of Fawler is sometimes + known as Blenheim ore. The ores of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire + have a great reputation; the main seam is 11 ft. thick at Eston, where + it rests directly upon the Pecten Seam, the two together aggregating + 15 ft. 6 in. Similar iron ores of this age are worked at + Meurthe-et-Moselle, Villerupt, Marbache, Longuy, Champagneulles, &c. + Some of the Liassic limestones are used as building stones, the more + important ones being the Lower Lias Sutton stone of Glamorganshire and + Middle Lias Hornton stone, the best of the Lias building stones, from + Edge Hill. The limestones are often used for paving. The limestones of + the Lower Lias are much used for the production of hydraulic cement + and "Blue Lias" lime at Rugby, Barrow-on-Soar, Barnstone, Lyme Regis, + Abertham and many other places. Roman cement has been made from the + nodules in the Upper Lias of Yorkshire; alum is obtained from the same + horizon. A considerable trade was formerly done in jet, the best + quality being obtained from the "Serpentinus" beds, but "bastard" or + soft jet is found in many of the other strata in the Yorkshire Lias. + Both Lower and Upper Lias clays have been used in making bricks and + tiles. + + Fossils are abundant in the Lias; Lyme Regis, Shepton Mallet, Rugby, + Robin Hood's Bay, Ilminster, Whitby and Golden Cap near Charmouth are + well-known localities. The saurian reptiles, _Ichthyosaurus_ and + _Plesiosaurus_, are found in excellent preservation along with the + Pterodactyl. Among the fishes are _Hybodus_, _Dapedius_, + _Pholidophorus_, _Acrodus_. The crinoids, _Pentacrinus_ and + _Extracrinus_ are locally abundant. Insect remains are very abundant + in certain beds. Many ammonites occur in this formation in addition to + the forms used as zonal indexes mentioned in the table. _Lima + gigantea_, _Posidonomya Bronni_, _Inoceramus dubius_, _Gryphaea + cymbium_ and _G. arcuata_ are common pelecypods. _Amberleya + capitanea_, _Pleurotomaria anglica_ are Lias gasteropods. _Leptaena_, + _Spiriferina_, _Terebratella_ and _Rhynchonella tetrahedra_ and _R. + variabilis_ are among the brachiopods. + + Certain dark limestones with regular bedding which occur in the + Carboniferous System are sometimes called "Black Lias" by quarrymen. + + See "The Lias of England and Wales" (Yorkshire excepted), by H. B. + Woodward, _Geol. Survey Memoir_ (London, 1893); and, for Yorkshire, + "The Jurassic Rocks of Britain," vol. i., "Yorkshire," by C. + Fox-Strangways, _Geol. Survey Memoir_. See also JURASSIC. + (J. A. H.) + + + + +LIBANIUS (A.D. 314-393), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born at +Antioch, the capital of Syria. He studied at Athens, and spent most of +his earlier manhood in Constantinople and Nicomedia. His private classes +at Constantinople were much more popular than those of the public +professors, who had him expelled in 346 (or earlier) on the charge of +studying magic. He removed his school to Nicomedia, where he remained +five years. After another attempt to settle in Constantinople, he +finally retired to Antioch (354). Though a pagan, he enjoyed the favour +of the Christian emperors. When Julian, his special patron, restored +paganism as the state religion, Libanius showed no intolerance. Among +his pupils he numbered John Chrysostom, Basil (bishop of Caesarea) and +Ammianus Marcellinus. His works, consisting chiefly of orations +(including his autobiography), declamations on set topics, letters, life +of Demosthenes, and arguments to all his orations are voluminous. He +devoted much time to the classical Greek writers, and had a thorough +contempt for Rome and all things Roman. His speeches and letters throw +considerable light on the political and literary history of the age. The +letters number 1607 in the Greek original; with these were formerly +included some 400 in Latin, purporting to be a translation, but now +proved to be a forgery by the Italian humanist F. Zambeccari (15th +century). + + Editions: Orations and declamations, J. J. Reiske (1791-1797); + letters, J. C. Wolf (1738); two additional declamations, R. Förster + (_Hermes_, ix. 22, xii. 217), who in 1903 began the publication of a + complete edition; _Apologia Socratis_, Y. H. Rogge (1891). See also E. + Monnier, _Histoire de Libanius_ (1866); L. Petit, _Essai sur la vie et + la correspondance du sophiste Libanius_ (1866); G. R. Sievers, _Das + Leben des Libanius_ (1868); R. Förster, _F. Zambeccari und die Briefe + des Libanius_ (1878). Some letters from the emperor Julian to Libanius + will be found in R. Hercher, _Epistolographi Graeci_ (1873). Sixteen + letters to Julian have been translated by J. Duncombe (_The Works of + the Emperor Julian_, i. 303-332, 3rd ed., London, 1798). The oration + on the emperor Julian is translated by C. W. King (in Bohn's + "Classical Library," London, 1888), and that in Defence of the Temples + of the Heathen by Dr Lardner (in a volume of translations by Thomas + Taylor, from Celsus and others, 1830). See further J. E. Sandys, + _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, i. (1906), and A. Harrent, _Les + Écoles d'Antioche_ (1898). + + + + +LIBATION (Lat. _libatio_, from _libare_, to take a portion of something, +to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity, &c.; cf. Gr. +[Greek: leibein]), a drink offering, the pouring out of a small quantity +of wine, milk or other liquid as a ceremonial act. Such an act was +performed in honour of the dead (Gr. [Greek: choai], Lat. +_profusiones_), in making of treaties (Gr. [Greek: spondê, spendein] = +_libare_, whence [Greek: spondai], treaty), and particularly in honour +of the gods (Gr. [Greek: loibê], Lat. _libatio_, _libamentum_, +_libamen_). Such libations to the gods were made as part of the daily +ritual of domestic worship, or at banquets or feasts to the Lares, or to +special deities, as by the Greeks to Hermes, the god of sleep, when +going to rest. + + + + +LIBAU (Lettish, _Leepaya_), a seaport of Russia, in the government of +Courland, 145 m. by rail S.W. of Riga, at the northern extremity of a +narrow sandy peninsula which separates Lake Libau (12 m. long and 2 m. +wide) from the Baltic Sea. Its population has more than doubled since +1881 (30,000), being 64,505 in 1897. The town is well built of stone, +with good gardens, and has a naval cathedral (1903). The harbour was 2 +m. S. of the town until a canal was dug through the peninsula in 1697; +it is now deepened to 23 ft., and is mostly free from ice throughout the +year. Since being brought, in 1872, into railway connexion with Moscow, +Orel and Kharkov, Libau has become an important port. New Libau +possesses large factories for colours, explosives, machinery belts, +sails and ropes, tobacco, furniture, matches, as well as iron works, +agricultural machinery works, tin-plate works, soap works, saw-mills, +breweries, oil-mills, cork and linoleum factories and flour-mills. The +exports reach the annual value of £3,250,000 to £5,500,000, oats being +the chief export, with flour, wheat, rye, butter, eggs, spirits, flax, +linseed, oilcake, pork, timber, horses and petroleum. The imports +average £1,500,000 to £2,000,000 annually. Shipbuilding, including +steamers for open-sea navigation, is on the increase. North of the +commercial harbour and enclosing it the Russian government made +(1893-1906) a very extensive fortified naval port, protected by moles +and breakwaters. Libau is visited for sea-bathing in summer. + +The port of Libau, _Lyra portus_, is mentioned as early as 1263; it then +belonged to the Livonian Order or Brothers of the Sword. In 1418 it was +burnt by the Lithuanians, and in 1560 it was mortgaged by the +grandmaster of the Teutonic Order, to which it had passed, to the +Prussian duke Albert. In 1701 it was captured by Charles XII. of Sweden, +and was annexed to Russia in 1795. + + See Wegner, _Geschichte der Stadt Libau_ (Libau, 1898). + + + + +LIBEL and SLANDER, the terms employed in English law to denote injurious +attacks upon a man's reputation or character by words written or spoken, +or by equivalent signs. In most early systems of law verbal injuries are +treated as a criminal or quasi-criminal offence, the essence of the +injury lying not in pecuniary loss, which may be compensated by damages, +but in the personal insult which must be atoned for--a vindictive +penalty coming in the place of personal revenge. By the law of the XII. +Tables, the composition of scurrilous songs and gross noisy public +affronts were punished by death. Minor offences of the same class seem +to have found their place under the general conception of _injuria_, +which included ultimately every form of direct personal aggression which +involved contumely or insult. In the later Roman jurisprudence, which +has, on this point, exercised considerable influence over modern systems +of law, verbal injuries are dealt with in the edict under two heads. The +first comprehended defamatory and injurious statements made in a public +manner (_convicium contra bonos mores_). In this case the essence of the +offence lay in the unwarrantable public proclamation. In such a case the +truth of the statements was no justification for the unnecessarily +public and insulting manner in which they had been made. The second head +included defamatory statements made in private, and in this case the +offence lay in the imputation itself, not in the manner of its +publication. The truth was therefore a sufficient defence, for no man +had a right to demand legal protection for a false reputation. Even +belief in the truth was enough, because it took away the intention which +was essential to the notion of _injuria_. The law thus aimed at giving +sufficient scope for the discussion of a man's character, while it +protected him from needless insult and pain. The remedy for verbal +injuries was long confined to a civil action for a money penalty, which +was estimated according to the gravity of the case, and which, although +vindictive in its character, doubtless included practically the element +of compensation. But a new remedy was introduced with the extension of +the criminal law, under which many kinds of defamation were punished +with great severity. At the same time increased importance attached to +the publication of defamatory books and writings, the _libri_ or +_libelli famosi_, from which we derive our modern use of the word libel; +and under the later emperors the latter term came to be specially +applied to anonymous accusations or pasquils, the dissemination of which +was regarded as peculiarly dangerous, and visited with very severe +punishment, whether the matter contained in them were true or false. + +The earlier history of the English law of defamation is somewhat +obscure. Civil actions for damages seem to have been tolerably frequent +so far back as the reign of Edward I. There was no distinction drawn +between words written and spoken. When no pecuniary penalty was involved +such cases fell within the old jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical +courts, which was only finally abolished in the 19th century. It seems, +to say the least, uncertain whether any generally applicable criminal +process was in use. The crime of _scandalum magnatum_, spreading false +reports about the magnates of the realm, was established by statutes, +but the first fully reported case in which libel is affirmed generally +to be punishable at common law is one tried in the star chamber in the +reign of James I. In that case no English authorities are cited except a +previous case of the same nature before the same tribunal; the law and +terminology appear to be taken directly from Roman sources, with the +insertion that libels tended to a breach of the peace; and it seems +probable that that not very scrupulous tribunal had simply found it +convenient to adopt the very stringent Roman provisions regarding the +_libelli famosi_ without paying any regard to the Roman limitations. +From that time we find both the criminal and civil remedies in full +operation, and the law with regard to each at the present time may now +be considered. + +_Civil Law._--The first important distinction encountered is that +between slander and libel, between the oral and written promulgation of +defamatory statements. In the former case the remedy is limited. The law +will not take notice of every kind of abusive or defamatory language. It +must be shown either that the plaintiff has suffered actual damage as a +direct consequence of the slander, or that the imputation is of such a +nature that we are entitled to infer damage as a necessary consequence. +The special damage on which an action is founded for slanderous words +must be of the nature of pecuniary loss. Loss of reputation or of +position in society, or even illness, however clearly it may be traced +to the slander, is insufficient. When we cannot prove special damage, +the action for slander is only allowed upon certain strictly defined +grounds. These are the imputation of a crime or misdemeanour which is +punishable corporeally, e.g. by imprisonment; the imputation of a +contagious or infectious disease; statements which tend to the +disherison of an apparent heir (other cases of slander of title when the +party is in possession requiring the allegation of special damage); the +accusing a woman of unchastity (Slander of Women Act 1891); and, lastly, +slanders directed against a man's professional or business character, +which tend directly to prejudice him in his trade, profession, or means +of livelihood. In the latter case the words must either be directly +aimed at a man in his business or official character, or they must be +such as necessarily to imply unfitness for his particular office or +occupation. Thus words which merely reflect generally upon the moral +character of a tradesman or professional man are not actionable, but +they are actionable if directed against his dealings in the course of +his trade or profession. But, in the case of a merchant or trader, an +allegation which affects his credit generally is enough, and it has been +held that statements are actionable which affect the ability or moral +characters of persons who hold offices, or exercise occupation which +require a high degree of ability, or infer peculiar confidence. In every +case the plaintiff must have been at the time of the slander in the +actual exercise of the occupation or enjoyment of the office with +reference to which the slander is supposed to have affected him. + +The action for libel is not restricted in the same way as that for +slander. Originally there appears to have been no essential distinction +between them, but the establishment of libel as a criminal offence had +probably considerable influence, and it soon became settled that written +defamatory statements, or pictures and other signs which bore a +defamatory meaning, implied greater malice and deliberation, and were +generally fraught with greater injury than those made by word of mouth. +The result has been that the action for libel is not limited to special +grounds, or by the necessity of proving special damage. It may be +founded on any statement which disparages a man's private or +professional character, or which tends to hold him up to hatred, +contempt or ridicule. In one of the leading cases, for example, the +plaintiff obtained damages because it was said of him that he was a +hypocrite, and had used the cloak of religion for unworthy purposes. In +another case a charge of ingratitude was held sufficient. In civil cases +the libel must be published by being brought by the defendant under the +notice of a third party; it has been held that it is sufficient if this +has been done by gross carelessness, without deliberate intention to +publish. Every person is liable to an action who is concerned in the +publication of a libel, whether he be the author, printer or publisher; +and the extent and manner of the publication, although not affecting the +ground of the action, is a material element in estimating the damages. + +It is not necessary that the defamatory character of the words or +writing complained of should be apparent on their face. They may be +couched in the form of an insinuation, or may derive their sting from a +reference to circumstances understood by the persons to whom they are +addressed. In such a case the plaintiff must make the injurious sense +clear by an averment called an innuendo, and it is for the jury to say +whether the words bore the meaning thus ascribed to them. + +In all civil actions for slander and libel the falsity of the injurious +statements is an essential element, so that the defendant is always +entitled to justify his statements by their truth; but when the +statements are in themselves defamatory, their falsity is presumed, and +the burden of proving their truth is laid upon the defendant. There are +however a large class of false defamatory statements, commonly called +privileged, which are not actionable on account of the particular +circumstances in which they are made. The general theory of law with +regard to these cases is this. It is assumed that in every case of +defamation intention is a necessary element; but in the ordinary case, +when a statement is false and defamatory, the law presumes that it has +been made or published with an evil intent, and will not allow this +presumption to be rebutted by evidence or submitted as matter of fact to +a jury. But there are certain circumstances in which the natural +presumption is quite the other way. There are certain natural and proper +occasions on which statements may be made which are in themselves +defamatory, and which may be false, but which naturally suggest that the +statements may have been made from a perfectly proper motive and with +entire belief in their truth. In the cases of this kind which are +recognized by law, the presumption is reversed. It lies with the +plaintiff to show that the defendant was actuated by what is called +_express malice_, by an intention to do harm, and in this case the +question is not one of legal inference for the court, but a matter of +fact to be decided by the jury. Although, however, the theory of the law +seems to rest entirely upon natural presumption of intention, it is +pretty clear that in determining the limits of privilege the courts have +been almost wholly guided by considerations of public or general +expediency. + +In some cases the privilege is absolute, so that we cannot have an +action for defamation even although we prove express malice. Thus no +action of this kind can be maintained for statements made in judicial +proceedings if they are in any sense relevant to the matter in hand. In +the same way no statements or publications are actionable which are made +in the ordinary course of parliamentary proceedings. Papers published +under the authority of parliament are protected by a special act, 3 & 4 +Vict. c. 9, 1840, which was passed after a decree of the law courts +adverse to the privilege claimed. The reports of judicial and +parliamentary proceedings stand in a somewhat different position, which +has only been attained after a long and interesting conflict. The +general rule now is that all reports of parliamentary or judicial +proceedings are privileged in so far as they are honest and impartial. +Even _ex parte_ proceedings, in so far as they take place in public, now +fall within the same rule. But if the report is garbled, or if part of +it only is published, the party who is injured in consequence is +entitled to maintain an action, and to have the question of malice +submitted to a jury. + +Both absolute and qualified privilege are given to newspaper reports +under certain conditions by the Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888. The +reports must, however, be published in a newspaper as defined in the +Newspaper Libel and Registration Act 1881. Under this act a newspaper +must be published "at intervals not exceeding twenty-six days." + + By s. 3 of the act of 1888 fair and accurate reports of judicial + proceedings are absolutely privileged provided that the report is + published contemporaneously with the proceedings and no blasphemous or + indecent matter is contained therein. By s. 4 a limited privilege is + given to fair and accurate reports (1) of the proceedings of a _bona + fide_ public meeting lawfully held for a lawful purpose and for the + furtherance and discussion of any matter of public concern, even when + the admission thereto is restricted; (2) of any meeting, open either + to the public or to a reporter, of a vestry, town council, school + board, board of guardians, board of local authority, formed or + constituted under the provisions of any act of parliament, or of any + committee appointed by any of these bodies; or of any meeting of any + commissioners authorized to act by letters patent, act of parliament, + warrant under royal sign manual, or other lawful warrant or authority, + select committees of either House of parliament, justices of the peace + in quarter sessions assembled for administrative or deliberative + purposes; (3) of the publication of any notice or report issued for + the information of the public by any government office or department, + officer of state, commissioner of police or chief constable, and + published at their request. But the privilege given in s. 4 does not + authorize the publication of any blasphemous or indecent matter; nor + is the protection available as a defence if it be proved that the + reports or notices were published maliciously, in the legal sense of + the word, or the defendant has been requested to insert in the + newspaper in which the report was issued a reasonable letter or + statement by way of contradiction or explanation, and has refused or + neglected to do so. Moreover, nothing in s. 4 is to interfere with any + privilege then existing, or to protect the publication of any matter + not of public concern, or in cases where publication is not for the + public benefit. Consequently no criminal prosecution should be + commenced where the interests of the public are not affected. By the + Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888, s. 8, no criminal prosecution for + libel is to be commenced against any newspaper proprietor, publisher + or editor unless the order of a judge at chambers has been first + obtained. This protection does not cover the actual writer of the + alleged libel. + +In private life a large number of statements are privileged so long as +they remain matters of strictly private communication. It is difficult +to define the limits of private privilege without extensive reference to +concrete cases; but generally it may be said that it includes all +communications made in performance of a duty not merely legal but moral +or social, answers to _bona fide_ inquiries, communications made by +persons in confidential relations regarding matters in which one or both +are interested, and even statements made within proper limits by persons +in the _bona fide_ prosecution of their own interest. Common examples of +this kind of privilege are to be found in answer to inquiries as to the +character of servants or the solvency of a trader, warnings to a friend, +communications between persons who are jointly interested in some +matters of business. But in every case care must be taken not to exceed +the limits of publication required by the occasion, or otherwise the +privilege is lost. Thus defamatory statements may be privileged when +made to a meeting of shareholders, but not when published to others who +have no immediate concern in the business. + +In a few instances in which an action cannot be maintained even by the +averment of malice, the plaintiff may maintain an action by averring not +only malice but also want of reasonable and probable cause. The most +common instances of this kind are malicious charges made in the ordinary +course of justice and malicious prosecutions. In such cases it would be +contrary to public policy to punish or prevent every charge which was +made from a purely malicious motive, but there is no reason for +protecting accusations which are not only malicious, but destitute of +all reasonable probability. + +_Criminal Law._--Publications which are blasphemous, immoral or +seditious are frequently termed libels, and are punishable both at +common law and by various statutes. The matter, however, which +constitutes the offence in these publications lies beyond our present +scope. Libels upon individuals may be prosecuted by criminal information +or indictment, but there can be no criminal prosecution for slander. So +far as concerns the definition of libel, and its limitation by the +necessity of proving in certain cases express malice, there is no +substantial difference between the rules which apply to criminal +prosecutions and to civil actions, with the one important exception +(now considerably modified) that the falsity of a libel is not in +criminal law an essential element of the offence. If the matter alleged +were in itself defamatory, the court would not permit inquiry into its +truth. The sweeping application of this rule seems chiefly due to the +indiscriminate use, in earlier cases, of a rule in Roman law which was +only applicable to certain modes of publication, but has been supported +by various reasons of general policy, and especially by the view that +one main reason for punishing a libel was its tendency to provoke a +breach of the peace. + +An important dispute about the powers of the jury in cases of libel +arose during the 19th century in connexion with some well-known trials +for seditious libels. The point is familiar to readers of Macaulay in +connexion with the trial of the seven bishops, but the cases in which it +was brought most prominently forward, and which led to its final +settlement, were those against Woodfall (the printer of _Junius_), +Wilkes and others, and especially the case against Shipley, the dean of +St Asaph (21 St. Tr. 925), in which the question was fought by Lord +Erskine with extraordinary energy and ability. The controversy turned +upon the question whether the jury were to be strictly confined to +matters of fact which required to be proved by evidence, or whether in +every case they were entitled to form their own opinion upon the +libellous character of the publication and the intention of the author. +The jury, if they pleased, had it in their power to return a general +verdict of guilty or not guilty, but both in theory and practice they +were subject in law to the directions of the court, and had to be +informed by it as to what they were to take into consideration in +determining upon their verdict. There is no difficulty about the general +application of this principle in criminal trials. If the crime is one +which is inferred by law from certain facts, the jury are only concerned +with these facts, and must accept the construction put upon them by law. +Applying these principles to the case of libel, juries were directed +that it was for the court to determine whether the publication fell +within the definition of libel, and whether the case was one in which +malice was to be inferred by construction of law. If the case were one +in which malice was inferred by law, the only facts left to the jury +were the fact of publication and the meaning averred by innuendoes; they +could not go into the question of intention, unless the case were one of +privilege, in which express malice had to be proved. In general +principle, therefore, the decisions of the court were in accordance with +the ordinary principles of criminal law. But there were undoubtedly some +peculiarities in the case of libel. The sense of words, the inferences +to be drawn from them, and the effect which they produce are not so +easily defined as gross matters of fact. They seem to belong to those +cases in which the impression made upon a jury is more to be trusted +than the decision of a judge. Further, owing to the mode of procedure, +the defendant was often punished before the question of law was +determined. But, nevertheless, the question would scarcely have been +raised had the libels related merely to private matters. The real ground +of dispute was the liberty to be accorded to political discussion. Had +the judges taken as wide a view of privilege in discussing matters of +public interest as they do now, the question could scarcely have arisen; +for Erskine's whole contention really amounted to this, that the jury +were entitled to take into consideration the good or bad intent of the +authors, which is precisely the question which would now be put before +them in any matter which concerned the public. But at that time the +notion of a special privilege attaching to political discussion had +scarcely arisen, or was confined within very narrow limits, and the +cause of free political discussion seemed to be more safely entrusted to +juries than to courts. The question was finally settled by the Libel Act +1792, by which the jury were entitled to give a general verdict on the +whole matter put in issue. + + _Scots Law._--In Scots law there were originally three remedies for + defamation. It might be prosecuted by or with the concurrence of the + lord advocate before the court of justiciary; or, secondly, a criminal + remedy might be obtained in the commissary (ecclesiastical) courts, + which originally dealt with the defender by public retractation or + penance, but subsequently made use of fines payable to their own + procurator or to the party injured, these latter being regarded as + solatium to his feelings; or, lastly, an action of damages was + competent before the court of session, which was strictly civil in its + character and aimed at the reparation of patrimonial loss. The first + remedy has fallen into disuse; the second and third (the commissary + courts being now abolished) are represented by the present action for + damages or solatium. Originally the action before the court of session + was strictly for damages--founded, not upon the _animus injuriandi_, + but upon culpa, and could be defended by proving the truth of the + statements. But in time the court of session began to assume the + original jurisdiction of the commissary courts, and entertained + actions for solatium in which the _animus injuriandi_ was a necessary + element, and to which, as in Roman law, the truth was not necessarily + a defence. Ultimately the two actions got very much confused. We find + continual disputes as to the necessity for the _animus injuriandi_ and + the applicability of the plea of _veritas convicii_, which arose from + the fact that the courts were not always conscious that they were + dealing with two actions, to one of which these notions were + applicable, and to the other not. On the introduction of the jury + court, presided over by an English lawyer, it was quite natural that + he, finding no very clear distinction maintained between damage and + solatium, applied the English plea of truth as a justification to + every case, and retained the _animus injuriandi_ both in ordinary + cases and cases of privilege in the same shape as the English + conception of malice. The leading and almost only differences between + the English and Scots law now are that the latter makes no essential + distinction between oral and written defamation, that it practically + gives an action for every case of defamation, oral or written, upon + which in England a civil action might be maintained for libel, and + that it possesses no criminal remedy. In consequence of the latter + defect and the indiscriminate application of the plea of veritas to + every case both of damages and solatium, there appears to be no remedy + in Scotland even for the widest and most needless publication of + offensive statements if only they are true. + + _American Law._--American law scarcely if at all differs from that of + England. In so far indeed as the common law is concerned, they may be + said to be substantially identical. The principal statutes which have + altered the English criminal law are represented by equivalent + legislation in most American states. + + See generally W. B. Odgers, _Libel and Slander_; Fraser, _Law of Libel + and Slander_. + + + + +LIBELLATICI, the name given to a class of persons who, during the +persecution of Decius, A.D. 250, evaded the consequences of their +Christian belief by procuring documents (_libelli_) which certified that +they had satisfied the authorities of their submission to the edict +requiring them to offer incense or sacrifice to the imperial gods. As +thirty-eight years had elapsed since the last period of persecution, the +churches had become in many ways lax, and the number of those who failed +to hold out under the persecution was very great. The procedure of the +courts which had cognizance of the matter was, however, by no means +strict, and the judges and subordinate officials were often not +ill-disposed towards Christians, so that evasion was fairly easy. Many +of those who could not hold out were able to secure certificates which +gave them immunity from punishment without actually renouncing the +faith, just as "parliamentary certificates" of conformity used to be +given in England without any pretext of fact. It is to the persons who +received such certificates that the name _libellatici_ belonged (those +who actually fulfilled the edict being called _thurificati_ or +_sacrificati_). To calculate their number would be impossible, but we +know from the writings of Cyprian, Dionysius of Alexandria and other +contemporaries, that they were a numerous class, and that they were to +be found in Italy, in Egypt and in Africa, and among both clergy and +laity. Archbishop Benson is probably right in thinking that "there was +no systematic and regular procedure in the matter," and that the +_libelli_ may have been of very different kinds. They must, however, as +a general rule, have consisted of a certificate _from the authorities_ +to the effect that the accused person had satisfied them. [The name +_libellus_ has also been applied to another kind of document--to the +letters given by confessors, or by those who were about to suffer +martyrdom, to persons who had fallen, to be used to secure forgiveness +for them from the authorities of the Church. With such _libelli_ we are +not here concerned.] The subject has acquired a fresh interest from the +fact that two of these actual _libelli_ have been recovered, in 1893 and +1894 respectively, both from Egypt; one is now in the Brugsch Pasha +collection in the Berlin Museum; the other is in the collection of +papyri belonging to the Archduke Rainer. The former is on a papyrus leaf +about 8 by 3 in., the latter on mere fragments of papyrus which have +been pieced together. The former was first deciphered and described by +Dr Fritz Krebs, the latter by Dr K. Wessely: both are given and +commented upon by Dr Benson. There is a remarkable similarity between +them: in each the form is that N. "was ever constant in sacrificing to +the gods"; and that he now, in the presence of the commissioners of the +sacrifices ([Greek: hoi hêrêmenoi tôn thysôn]), has both sacrificed and +drunk [_or_ has poured libations], and has tasted of the victims, in +witness whereof he begs them to sign this certificate. Then follows the +signature, with attestations. The former of the two is dated, and the +date must fall in the year 250. It is impossible to prove that either of +the documents actually refers to Christians: they may have been given to +pagans who had been accused and had cleared themselves, or to former +Christians who had apostatized. But no doubt _libelli_ in this same form +were delivered, in Egypt at least, to Christians who secured immunity +without actual apostasy; and the form in Italy and Africa probably did +not differ widely from this. The practice gave rise to complicated +problems of ecclesiastical discipline, which are reflected in the +correspondence of Cyprian and especially in the Novatian controversy. + + See E. W. Benson, _Cyprian_ (London, 1897); _Theol. Literaturzeitung_, + 20th of January and 17th of March 1894. (W. E. Co.) + + + + +LIBER and LIBERA, in Roman mythology, deities, male and female, +identified with the Greek Dionysus and Persephone. In honour of Liber +(also called Liber Pater and Bacchus) two festivals were celebrated. In +the country feast of the vintage, held at the time of the gathering of +the grapes, and the city festival of March 17th called _Liberalia_ +(Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 711) we find purely Italian ceremonial unaffected +by Greek religion. The country festival was a great merry-making, where +the first-fruits of the new must were offered to the gods. It was +characterized by the grossest symbolism, in honour of the fertility of +nature. In the city festival, growing civilization had impressed a new +character on the primitive religion, and connected it with the framework +of society. At this time the youths laid aside the boy's _toga +praetexta_ and assumed the man's _toga libera_ or _virilis_ (_Fasti_, +iii. 771). Cakes of meal, honey and oil were offered to the two deities +at this festival. Liber was originally an old Italian god of the +productivity of nature, especially of the vine. His name indicated the +free, unrestrained character of his worship. When, at an early period, +the Hellenic religion of Demeter spread to Rome, Liber and Libera were +identified with Dionysus and Persephone, and associated with another +Italian goddess Ceres, who was identified with Demeter. By order of the +Sibylline books, a temple was built to these three deities near the +Circus Flaminius; the whole cultus was borrowed from the Greeks, down +even to the terminology, and priestesses were brought from the Greek +cities. + + + + +LIBERAL PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to and accepted by the +successors of the old Whig party (see WHIG AND TORY), representing the +political party opposed to Toryism or Conservatism, and claiming to be the +originators and champions of political reform and progressive legislation. +The term came into general use definitely as the name of one of the two +great parties in the state when Mr Gladstone became its leader, but before +this it had already become current coin, as a political appellation, +through a natural association with the use of such phrases as "liberal +ideas," in the sense of "favourable to change," or "in support of +political freedom and democracy." In this respect it was the outcome of +the French Revolution, and in the early years of the 19th century the term +was used in a French form; thus Southey in 1816 wrote about the "British +_Liberales_." But the Reform Act and the work of Bentham and Mill resulted +in the crystallization of the term. In Leigh Hunt's autobiography (1850) +we read of "newer and more thorough-going Whigs ... known by the name of +Radicals ... since called Liberals"; and J. S. Mill in 1865 wrote (from +his own Liberal point of view), "A Liberal is he who looks forward for his +principles of government; a Tory looks backward." The gradual adoption of +the term for one of the great parties, superseding "Whig," was helped by +the transition period of "Liberal Conservatism," describing the position +of the later Peelites; and Mr Gladstone's own career is the best instance +of its changing signification; moreover the adjective "liberal" came +meanwhile into common use in other spheres than that of parliamentary +politics, e.g. in religion, as meaning "intellectually advanced" and free +from the trammels of tradition. Broadly speaking, the Liberal party stands +for progressive legislation in accordance with freedom of social +development and advanced ethical ideas. It claims to represent government +by the people, by means of trust in the people, in a sense which denies +genuine popular sympathy to its opponents. Being largely composed of +dissenters, it has identified itself with opposition to the vested +interests of the Church of England; and, being apt to be thwarted by the +House of Lords, with attempts to override the veto of that house. Its old +watchword, "Peace, retrenchment and reform," indicated its tendency to +avoidance of a "spirited" foreign policy, and to parsimony in expenditure. +But throughout its career the Liberal party has always been pushed forward +by its extreme Radical wing, and economy in the spending of public money +is no longer cherished by those who chiefly represent the non-taxpaying +classes. The party organization lends itself to the influence of new +forces. In 1861 a central organization was started in the "Liberal +Registration Association," composed "of gentlemen of known Liberal +opinions"; and a number of "Liberal Associations" soon rose throughout the +country. Of these, that at Birmingham became, under Mr J. Chamberlain and +his active supporter Mr Schnadhorst, particularly active in the +'seventies; and it was due to Mr Schnadhorst that in 1877 a conference was +held at Birmingham which resulted in the formation of the "National +Federation of Liberal Associations," or "National Liberal Federation," +representing a system of organization which was dubbed by Lord +Beaconsfield "the Caucus." The Birmingham Caucus and the Central Liberal +Association thus coexisted, the first as an independent democratic +institution, the second as the official body representing the whips of the +party, the first more advanced and "Radical," the second inclined to +Whiggishness. Friction naturally resulted, but the 1880 elections +confirmed the success of the Caucus and consolidated its power. And in +spite of the Home Rule crisis in 1886, resulting in the splitting off of +the Liberal Unionists--"dissentient Liberals," as Mr Gladstone called +them--from the Liberal party, the organization of the National Liberal +Federation remained, in the dark days of the party, its main support. Its +headquarters were, however, removed to London, and under Mr Schnadhorst it +was practically amalgamated with the old Central Association. + +It is impossible here to write in detail the later history of the +Liberal party, but the salient facts will be found in such articles as +those on Mr Gladstone, Mr J. Chamberlain, Lord Rosebery, Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman, Mr H. H. Asquith and Mr David Lloyd George. + + See, apart from general histories of the period, M. Ostrogorski's + _Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties_ (Eng. trans. + 1902). + + + + +LIBER DIURNUS ROMANORUM PONTIFICUM, or "Journal of the Roman Pontiffs," +the name given to a collection of formulae used in the papal chancellery +in preparing official documents, such as the installation of a pope, the +bestowal of the pallium and the grant of papal privileges. It was +compiled between 685 and 751, and was constantly employed until the 11th +century, when, owing to the changed circumstances of the Church, it fell +into disuse, and was soon forgotten and lost. During the 17th century a +manuscript of the _Liber_ was discovered in Rome by the humanist, Lucas +Holstenius, who prepared an edition for publication; for politic +reasons, however, the papal authorities would not allow this to appear, +as the book asserted the superiority of a general council over the pope. +It was, however, published in France by the Jesuit, Jean Garnier, in +1680, and other editions quickly followed. + + The best modern editions are one by Eugène de Rozière (Paris, 1869) + and another by T. E. von Sichel (Vienna, 1889), both of which contain + critical introductions. The two existing manuscripts of the _Liber_ + are in the Vatican library, Rome, and in the library of St Ambrose at + Milan. + + + + +LIBERIA, a negro republic in West Africa, extending along the coast of +northern Guinea about 300 m., between the British colony of Sierra Leone +on the N.W. and the French colony of the Ivory Coast on the S.E. The +westernmost point of Liberia (at the mouth of the river Mano) lies in +about 6° 55´ N. and 11° 32´ W. The southernmost point of Liberia, and at +the same time almost its most eastern extension, is at the mouth of the +Cavalla, beyond Cape Palmas, only 4° 22´ N. of the equator, and in about +7° 33´ W. The width of Liberia inland varies very considerably; it is +greatest, about 200 m., from N.E. to S.W. The Liberia-Sierra Leone +boundary was determined by a frontier commission in 1903. Commencing at +the mouth of the river Mano, it follows the Mano up stream till that +river cuts 10° 40´ W. It then followed this line of longitude to its +intersection with N. latitude 9° 6´, but by the Franco-Liberian +understanding of 1907 the frontier on this side was withdrawn to 8° 25´ +N., where the river Makona crosses 10° 40' W. The Liberian frontier with +the adjacent French possessions was defined by the Franco-Liberian +treaty of 1892, but as the definition therein given was found to be very +difficult of reconciliation with geographical features (for in 1892 the +whole of the Liberian interior was unmapped) further negotiations were +set on foot. In 1905 Liberia proposed to France that the boundary line +should follow the river Moa from the British frontier of Sierra Leone up +stream to near the source of the Moa (or Makona), and that from this +point the boundary should run eastwards along the line of water-parting +between the system of the Niger on the north and that of the coast +rivers (Moa, Lofa, St Paul's) on the south, until the 8th degree of N. +latitude was reached, thence following this 8th degree eastwards to +where it cuts the head stream of the Cavalla river. From this point the +boundary between France and Liberia would be the course of the Cavalla +river from near its source to the sea. Within the limits above described +Liberia would possess a total area of about 43,000 to 45,000 sq. m. But +after deliberation and as the result of certain "frontier incidents" +France modified her counter-proposals in 1907, and the actual definition +of the northern and eastern frontiers of Liberia is as follows:-- + + Starting from the point on the frontier of the British colony of + Sierra Leone where the river Moa or Makona crosses that frontier, the + Franco-Liberian frontier shall follow the left bank of the river + Makona up stream to a point 5 kilometres to the south of the town of + Bofosso. From this point the frontier shall leave the line of the + Makona and be carried in a south-easterly direction to the source of + the most north-westerly affluent of the Nuon river or Western Cavalla. + This line shall be so drawn as to leave on the French side of the + boundary the following towns: Kutumai, Kisi Kurumai, Sundibú, Zuapa, + Nzibila, Koiama, Bangwedu and Lola. From the north-westernmost source + of the Nuon the boundary shall follow the right bank of the said Nuon + river down stream to its presumed confluence with the Cavalla, and + thenceforward the right bank of the river Cavalla down to the sea. If + the ultimate destination of the Nuon is not the Cavalla river, then + the boundary shall follow the right bank of the Nuon down stream as + far as the town of Tuleplan. A line shall then be drawn from the + southern outskirts of the town of Tuleplan due E. to the Cavalla + river, and thence shall follow the right bank of the Cavalla river to + the sea. + + (The delimitation commission proved that the Nuon does not flow into + the Cavalla, but about 6° 30´ N. it flows very near the + north-westernmost bend of that river. Tuleplan is in about lat. 6° 50´ + N. The river Makona takes a much more northerly course than had been + estimated. The river Nuon also is situated 20 or 30 m. farther to the + east than had been supposed. Consequently the territory of Liberia as + thus demarcated is rather larger than it would appear on the + uncorrected English maps of 1907--about 41,000 sq. m.) + +It is at the southern extremity of Liberia, Cape Palmas, that the West +African coast from Morocco to the southernmost extremity of Guinea turns +somewhat abruptly eastwards and northwards and faces the Gulf of Guinea. +As the whole coastline of Liberia thus fronts the sea route from Europe +to South Africa it is always likely to possess a certain degree of +strategical importance. The coast, however, is unprovided with a single +good harbour. The anchorage at Monrovia is safe, and with some +expenditure of money a smooth harbour could be made in front of Grand +Basa. + + _Coast Features._--The coast is a good deal indented, almost all the + headlands projecting from north-east to south-west. A good deal of + the seaboard is dangerous by reason of the sharp rocks which lie near + the surface. As most of the rivers have rapids or falls actually at + the sea coast or close to it, they are, with the exception of the + Cavalla, useless for penetrating far inland, and the whole of this + part of Africa from Cape Palmas north-west to the Senegal suggests a + sunken land. In all probability the western projection of Africa was + connected by a land bridge with the opposite land of Brazil as late as + the Eocene period of the Tertiary epoch. The Liberian coast has few + lagoons compared with the adjoining littoral of Sierra Leone or that + of the Ivory Coast. The coast, in fact, rises in some places rather + abruptly from the sea. Cape Mount (on the northern side of which is a + large lagoon--Fisherman Lake) at its highest point is 1050 ft. above + sea level. Cape Mesurado is about 350 ft., Cape Palmas about 200 ft. + above the sea. There is a salt lake or lagoon between the Cape Palmas + river and the vicinity of the Cavalla. Although very little of the + coast belt is actually swampy, a kind of natural canalization connects + many of the rivers at their mouths with each other, though some of + these connecting creeks are as yet unmarked on maps. + + _Mountains._--Although there are patches of marsh--generally the + swampy bottoms of valleys--the whole surface of Liberia inclines to be + hilly or even mountainous at a short distance inland from the coast. + In the north-east, French explorers have computed the altitudes of + some mountains at figures which would make them the highest land + surfaces of the western projection of Africa--from 6000 to 9000 ft. + But these altitudes are largely matters of conjecture. The same + mountains have been sighted by English explorers coming up from the + south and are pronounced to be "very high." It is possible that they + may reach to 6000 ft. in some places. Between the western bend of the + Cavalla river and the coast there is a somewhat broken mountain range + with altitudes of from 2000 to 5000 ft. (approximate). The Po range to + the west of the St Paul's river may reach in places to 3000 ft. + + _Rivers._--The work of the Franco-Liberian delimitation commission in + 1908-1909 cleared up many points connected with the hydrography of the + country. Notably it traced the upper Cavalla, proving that that river + was not connected either with the Nuon on the west or the Ko or Zo on + the east. The upper river and the left bank of the lower river of the + Cavalla are in French territory. It rises in about 7° 50´ N., 8° 30´ + W. in the Nimba mountains, where also rise the Nuon, St John's and + Dukwia rivers. After flowing S.E. the Cavalla, between 7° and 6° N., + under the name of Dugu, makes a very considerable elbow to the west, + thereafter resuming its south-easterly course. It is navigable from + the sea for some 80 m. from its mouth and after a long series of + rapids is again navigable. Unfortunately the Cavalla does not afford a + means of easy penetration into the rich hinterland of Liberia on + account of the bad bar at its mouth. The Nuon (or Nipwe), which up to + 1908 was described sometimes as the western Cavalla and sometimes as + the upper course of the St John's river, has been shown to be the + upper course of the Cestos. About 6° 30´ N. it approaches within 16 m. + of the Cavalla. It rises in the Nimba mountains some 10 m. S. of the + source of the Cavalla, and like all the Liberian rivers (except the + Cavalla) it has a general S.W. flow. The St Paul, though inferior to + the Cavalla in length, is a large river with a considerable volume of + water. The main branch rises in the Beila country nearly as far north + as 9° N. under the name of Diani. Between 8° and 7° N. it is joined by + the Wé from the west and the Walé from the east. The important river + Lofa flows nearly parallel with the St Paul's river and enters the sea + about 40 m. to the west, under the name of Little Cape Mount river. + The Mano or Bewa river rises in the dense Gora forest, but is of no + great importance until it becomes the frontier between Liberia and + Sierra Leone. The Dukwia and Farmington are tortuous rivers entering + the sea under the name of the river Junk (Portuguese, _Junco_). The + Farmington is a short stream, but the Dukwia is believed to be the + lower course of the Mani, which rises as the Tigney (Tige), north of + the source of the Cavalla, just south of 8° N. The St John's river of + the Basa country appears to be of considerable importance and volume. + The Sino river rises in the Niete mountains and brings down a great + volume of water to the sea, though it is not a river of considerable + length. The Duobe rises at the back of the Satro Mountains and flows + nearly parallel with the Cavalla, which it joins. The Moa or Makona + river is a fine stream of considerable volume, but its course is + perpetually interrupted by rocks and rapids. Its lower course is + through the territory of Sierra Leone, and it enters the sea as the + Sulima. + + _Climate and Rainfall._--Liberia is almost everywhere well watered. + The climate and rainfall over the whole of the coast region for about + 120 m. inland are equatorial, the rainfall in the western half of the + country being about 150 in. per annum and in the eastern half about + 100 in. North of a distance of about 120 m. inland the climate is not + quite so rainy, and the weather is much cooler during the dry season. + This region beyond the hundred-miles coast belt is far more agreeable + and healthy to Europeans. + + _Forests._--Outside a coast belt of about 20 m. and south of 8° N. the + country is one vast forest, except where the natives have cleared the + land for cultivation. In many districts the land has been cleared and + cultivated and then abandoned, and has relapsed into scrub and jungle + which is gradually returning to the condition of forest. The densest + forest of all would seem to be that known as Gora, which is almost + entirely uninhabited and occupies an area of about 6000 sq. m. between + the Po hills and the British frontier. There is another very dense + forest stretching with little interruption from the eastern side of + the St Paul's river nearly to the Cavalla. The Nidi forest is + noteworthy for its magnificent growth of _Funtumia_ rubber trees. It + extends between the Duobe and the Cavalla rivers. The extreme north of + Liberia is still for the most part a very well-watered country, + covered with a rich vegetation, but there are said to be a few breaks + that are rather stony and that have a very well-marked dry season in + which the vegetation is a good deal burnt up. In the main Liberia is + the forest country par excellence of West Africa, and although this + region of dense forests overlaps the political frontiers of both + Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast, it is a feature of physical + geography so nearly coincident with the actual frontiers of Liberia as + to give this country special characteristics clearly marked in its + existing fauna. + + _Fauna._--The fauna of Liberia is sufficiently peculiar, at any rate + as regards vertebrates, to make it very nearly identical with a + "district" or sub-province of the West African province, though in + this case the Liberian "district" would not include the northern-most + portions of the country and would overlap on the east and west into + Sierra Leone and the French Ivory Coast. It is probable that the + Liberian chimpanzee may offer one or more distinct varieties; there is + an interesting local development of the Diana monkey, sometimes called + the bay-thighed monkey (_Cercopithecus diana ignita_) on account of + its brilliant orange-red thighs. One or more species of bats are + peculiar to the country--_Vespertilio stampflii_, and perhaps + _Roussettus büttikoferi_; two species of shrew (_Crocidura_), one + dormouse (_Graphiurus nagtglasii_); the pygmy hippopotamus (_H. + liberiensis_)--differing from the common hippopotamus by its much + smaller size and by the reduction of the incisor teeth to a single + pair in either jaw, or occasionally to the odd number of three; and + two remarkable _Cephalophus_ antelopes peculiar to this region so far + as is known--these are the white-shouldered duiker, _Cephalophus + jentinki_, and the zebra antelope, _C. doriae_, a creature the size of + a small goat, of a bright bay brown, with broad black zebra-like + stripes. Amongst other interesting mammals are four species of the + long-haired _Colobus_ monkeys (black, black and white, greenish-grey + and reddish-brown); the Potto lemur, fruit bats of large size with + monstrous heads (_Hypsignathus monstrosus_); the brush-tailed African + porcupine; several very brightly coloured squirrels; the scaly-tailed + flying _Anomalurus_; the common porcupine; the leopard, serval, golden + cat (_Felis celidogaster_) in two varieties, the copper-coloured and + the grey, possibly the same animal at different ages; the striped and + spotted hyenas (beyond the forest region); two large otters; the tree + hyrax, elephant and manati; the red bush pig (_Potamochoerus porcus_); + the West African chevrotain (_Dorcatherium_); the Senegalese buffalo; + Bongo antelope (_Boocercus_); large yellow-backed duiker (_Cephalophus + sylvicultrix_), black duiker, West African hartebeest (beyond the + forest), pygmy antelope (_Neotragus_); and three species of _Manis_ or + pangolin (_M. gigantea_, _M. longicaudata_ and _M. tricuspis_). + + The birds of Liberia are not quite so peculiar as the mammals. There + is the interesting white-necked guineafowl, _Agelastes_ (which is + found on the Gold Coast and elsewhere west of the lower Niger); there + is one peculiar species of eagle owl (_Bubo lettii_) and a very + handsome sparrow-hawk (_Accipiter büttikoferi_); a few sun-birds, + warblers and shrikes are peculiar to the region. The other birds are + mainly those of Senegambia and of the West African forest region + generally. A common and handsome bird is the blue plantain-eater + (_Corythaeola_). The fishing vulture (_Gypohierax_) is found in all + the coast districts, but true vultures are almost entirely absent + except from the north, where the small brown _Percnopterus_ makes its + appearance. A flamingo (_Phoeniconaias_) visits Fisherman Lake, and + there are a good many species of herons. Cuckoos are abundant, some of + them of lovely plumage, also rollers, kingfishers and horn-bills. The + last family is well represented, especially by the three forest + forms--the elate hornbill and black hornbill (_Ceratogymna_), and the + long-tailed, white-crested hornbill (_Ortholophus leucolophus_). There + is one trogon--green and crimson, a brightly coloured ground thrush + (_Pitta_), numerous woodpeckers and barbets; glossy starlings, the + black and white African crow and a great variety of brilliantly + coloured weaver birds, waxbills, shrikes and sun-birds. + + As regards reptiles, there are at least seven poisonous snakes--two + cobras, two puff-adders and three vipers. The brilliantly coloured red + and blue lizard (_Agama colonorum_) is found in the coast region of + eastern Liberia. There are three species of crocodile, at least two + chameleons (probably more when the forest is further explored), the + large West African python (_P. sebae_) and a rare Boine snake + (Calabaria). On the sea coast there is the leathery turtle + (_Dermochelis_) and also the green turtle (_Chelone_). In the rivers + and swamps there are soft-shelled turtle (_Trionyx_ and + _Sternothaerus_). The land tortoises chiefly belong to the genus + _Cynyxis_. The fresh-water fish seem in their affinities to be nearly + allied to those of the Niger and the Nile. There is a species of + _Polypterus_, and it is probable that the _Protopterus_ or lung fish + is also found there, though its existence has not as yet been + established by a specimen. As regards invertebrates, very few species + or genera are peculiar to Liberia so far as is yet known, though there + are probably one or two butterflies of local range. The gigantic + scorpions (_Pandinus imperator_)--more than 6 in. long--are a common + feature in the forest. One noteworthy feature in Liberia, however, is + the relative absence of mosquitoes, and the white ants and some other + insect pests are not so troublesome here as in other parts of West + Africa. The absence or extreme paucity of mosquitoes no doubt accounts + for the infrequency of malarial fever in the interior. + + _Flora._--Nowhere, perhaps, does the flora of West Africa attain a + more wonderful development than in the republic of Liberia and in the + adjoining regions of Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast. This is partly + due to the equatorial position and the heavy rainfall. The region of + dense forest, however, does not cover the whole of Liberia; the Makona + river and the northern tributaries of the Lofa and St Paul's flow + through a mountainous country covered with grass and thinly scattered + trees, while the ravines and watercourses are still richly forested. A + good deal of this absence of forest is directly due to the action of + man. Year by year the influence of the Mahommedan tribes on the north + leads to the cutting down of the forest, the extension of both + planting and pasture and the introduction of cattle and even horses. + In the regions bordering the coast also a good deal of the forest has + disappeared, its place being taken (where the land is not actually + cultivated) by very dense scrub. The most striking trees in the forest + region are, in the basin of the Cavalla, the giant _Funtumia + elastica_, which grows to an altitude of 200 ft.; various kinds of + _Parinarium_, _Oldfieldia_ and _Khaya_; the bombax or cotton tree, + giant dracaenas, many kinds of fig; _Borassus_ palms, oil palms, the + climbing _Calamus_ palms, and on the coast the coconut. The most + important palm of the country perhaps is the _Raphia vinifera_, which + produces the piassava fibre of commerce. There are about twenty-two + different trees, shrubs and vines producing rubber of more or less + good quality. These belong chiefly to the Apocynaceous order. In this + order is the genus _Strophanthus_, which is represented in Liberia by + several species, amongst others _S. gratus_. This _Strophanthus_ is + not remarkable for its rubber--which is mere bird lime--but for the + powerful poison of its seeds, often used for poisoning arrows, but of + late much in use as a drug for treating diseases of the heart. Coffee + of several species is indigenous and grows wild. The best known is the + celebrated _Coffea liberica_. The kola tree is also indigenous. Large + edible nuts are derived from _Coula edulis_ of the order Olacineae. + The country is exceedingly rich in Aroids, many of which are + epiphytic, festooning the trunks of tall trees with a magnificent + drapery of abundant foliage. A genus much represented is _Culcasia_, + and swampy localities are thickly set with the giant _Cyrtosperma_ + arum, with flower spathes that are blotched with deep purple. Ground + orchids and tree orchids are well represented; _Polystachya liberica_, + an epiphytic orchid with sprays of exquisite small flowers of purple + and gold, might well be introduced into horticulture for its beauty. + The same might be said of the magnificent _Lissochilus roseus_, a + terrestrial orchid, growing to 7 ft. in height, with rose-coloured + flowers nearly 1 in. long; there are other orchids of fantastic design + in their green and white flowers, some of which have spurs (nectaries) + nearly 7 in. long. + + Many trees offer magnificent displays of flowers at certain seasons of + the year; perhaps the loveliest effect is derived from the bushes and + trailing creepers of the _Combretum_ genus, which, during the "winter" + months from December to March, cover the scrub and the forest with + mantles of rose colour. _Smaethmannia_ trees are thickly set at this + season with large blossoms of waxen white. Very beautiful also are the + red velvet or white velvet sepals of the _Mussaenda_ genus. Bamboos of + the genus _Oxytenanthera_ are indigenous. Tree ferns are found on the + mountains above 4000 ft. The bracken grows in low sandy tracts near + the coast. The country in general is a fern paradise, and the + iridescent creeping _Selaginella_ (akin to _Lycopodium_) festoons the + undergrowth by the wayside. The cultivated trees and plants of + importance are, besides rubber, the manioc or cassada, the orange + tree, lime, cacao, coffee, pineapple (which now runs wild over the + whole of Liberia), sour sop, ginger, papaw, alligator apple, avocado + pear, okro, cotton (_Gossypium peruvianum_--the kidney cotton), + indigo, sweet potato, capsicum (chillie), bread-fruit, arrowroot + (_Maranta_), banana, yam, "coco"-yam (_Colocasia antiquorum_, var. + _esculenta_), maize, sorghum, sugar cane, rice and eleusine + (_Eleusine_), besides gourds, pumpkins, cabbages and onions. + + _Minerals._--The hinterland of Liberia has been but slightly explored + for mineral wealth. In a general way it is supposed that the lands + lying between the lower St Paul's river and the Sierra Leone frontier + are not much mineralized, except that in the vicinity of river mouths + there are indications of bitumen. The sand of nearly all the rivers + contains a varying proportion of gold. Garnets and mica are everywhere + found. There have been repeated stories of diamonds obtained from the + Finley Mountains (which are volcanic) in the central province, but all + specimens sent home, except one, have hitherto proved to be quartz + crystals. There are indications of sapphires and other forms of + corundum. Corundum indeed is abundantly met with in the eastern half + of Liberia. The sand of the rivers contains monazite. Graphite has + been discovered in the Po Hills. Lead has been reported from the Nidi + or Niete Mountains. Gold is present in some abundance in the river + sand of central Liberia, and native reports speak of the far interior + as being rich in gold. Iron--haematite--is present almost everywhere. + There are other indications of bitumen, besides those mentioned, in + the coast region of eastern Liberia. + +_History and Population._--Tradition asserts that the Liberian coast was +first visited by Europeans when it was reached by the Dieppois +merchant-adventurers in the 14th century. The French in the 17th century +claimed that but for the loss of the archives of Dieppe they would be +able to prove that vessels from this Norman port had established +settlements at Grand Basa, Cape Mount, and other points on the coast of +Liberia. No proof has yet been forthcoming, however, that the Portuguese +were not the first white men to reach this coast. The first Portuguese +pioneer was Pedro de Sintra, who discovered and noted in 1461 the +remarkable promontory of Cape Mount, Cape Mesurado (where the capital, +Monrovia, is now situated) and the mouth of the Junk river. In 1462 de +Sintra returned with another Portuguese captain, Sueiro da Costa, and +penetrated as far as Cape Palmas and the Cavalla river. Subsequently the +Portuguese mapped the whole coast of Liberia, and nearly all the +prominent features--capes, rivers, islets--off that coast still bear +Portuguese names. From the 16th century onwards, English, Dutch, German, +French and other European traders contested the commerce of this coast +with the Portuguese, and finally drove them away. In the 18th century +France once or twice thought of establishing colonies here. At the end +of the 18th century, when the tide was rising in favour of the abolition +of slavery and the repatriation of slaves, the Grain Coast [so called +from the old trade in the "Grains of Paradise" or _Amomum_ pepper] was +suggested once or twice as a suitable home for repatriated negroes. +Sierra Leone, however, was chosen first on account of its possessing an +admirable harbour. But in 1821 Cape Mesurado was selected by the +American Colonization Society as an appropriate site for the first +detachment of American freed negroes, whom difficulties in regard to +extending the suffrage in the United States were driving away from a +still slave-holding America. From that date, 1821, onwards to the +present day, negroes and mulattos--freed slaves or the descendants of +such--have been crossing the Atlantic in small numbers to settle on the +Liberian coast. The great migrations took place during the first half of +the 19th century. Only two or three thousand American emigrants--at +most--have come to Liberia since 1860. + +The colony was really founded by Jehudi Ashmun, a white American, +between 1822 and 1828. The name "Liberia" was invented by the Rev. R. R. +Gurley in 1824. In 1847 the American colonists declared their country to +be an independent republic, and its status in this capacity was +recognized in 1848-1849 by most of the great powers with the exception +of the United States. Until 1857 Liberia consisted of two +republics--Liberia and Maryland. These American settlements were dotted +at intervals along the coast from the mouth of the Sewa river on the +west to the San Pedro river on the east (some 60 m. beyond Cape Palmas). +Some tracts of territory, such as the greater part of the Kru coast, +still, however, remain without foreign--American--settlers, and in a +state of quasi-independence. The uncertainty of Liberian occupation led +to frontier troubles with Great Britain and disputes with France. +Finally, by the English and French treaties of 1885 and 1892 Liberian +territory on the coast was made continuous, but was limited to the strip +of about 300 m. between the Mano river on the west and the Cavalla river +on the east. The Sierra Leone-Liberia frontier was demarcated in 1903; +then followed the negotiations with France for the exact delimitation of +the Ivory Coast-Liberia frontier, with the result that Liberia lost part +of the hinterland she had claimed. Reports of territorial encroachments +aroused much sympathy with Liberia in America and led in February 1909 +to the appointment by President Roosevelt of a commission which visited +Liberia in the summer of that year to investigate the condition of the +country. As a result of the commissioners' report negotiations were set +on foot for the adjustment of the Liberian debt and the placing of +United States officials in charge of the Liberian customs. In July 1910 +it was announced that the American government, acting in general +agreement with Great Britain, France and Germany, would take charge of +the finances, military organization, agriculture and boundary questions +of the republic. A loan for £400,000 was also arranged. Meantime the +attempts of the Liberian government to control the Kru coast led to +various troubles, such as the fining or firing upon foreign steamships +for alleged contraventions of regulations. During 1910 the natives in +the Cape Palmas district were at open warfare with the Liberian +authorities. + +One of the most notable of the Liberian presidents was J. J. Roberts, +who was nearly white, with only a small proportion of negro blood in his +veins. But perhaps the ablest statesman that this American-Negro +republic has as yet produced is a pure-blooded negro--President Arthur +Barclay, a native of Barbados in the West Indies, who came to Liberia +with his parents in the middle of the 19th century, and received all his +education there. President Barclay was of unmixed negro descent, but +came of a Dahomey stock of superior type.[1] Until the accession to +power of President Barclay in 1904 (he was re-elected in 1907), the +Americo-Liberian government on the coast had very uncertain relations +with the indigenous population, which is well armed and tenacious of +local independence. But of late Liberian influence has been extending, +more especially in the counties of Maryland and Montserrado. + +The president is now elected for a term of four years. There is a +legislature of eight senators and thirteen representatives. The type of +the constitution is very like that of the United States. Increasing +attention is being given to education, to deal with which there are +several colleges and a number of schools. The judicial functions are +discharged by four grades of officials--the local magistrates, the +courts of common pleas, the quarterly courts (five in number) and the +supreme court. + +The customs service includes British customs officers lent to the +Liberian service. A gunboat for preventive service purchased from the +British government and commanded by an Englishman, with native petty +officers and crew, is employed by the Liberian government. The language +of government and trade is English, which is understood far and wide +throughout Liberia. As the origin of the Sierra Leonis and the +Americo-Liberian settlers was very much the same, an increasing intimacy +is growing up between the English-speaking populations of these +adjoining countries. Order is maintained in Liberia to some extent by a +militia. + +The population of Americo-Liberian origin in the coast regions is +estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000. To these must be added about 40,000 +civilized and Christianized negroes who make common cause with the +Liberians in most matters, and have gradually been filling the position +of Liberian citizens. + +For administrative purposes the country is divided into four counties, +Montserrado, Basa, Sino and Maryland, but Cape Mount in the far west and +the district round it has almost the status of a fifth county. The +approximate revenue for 1906 was £65,000, and the expenditure about +£60,000, but some of the revenue was still collected in paper of +uncertain value. There are three custom-houses, or ports of entry on the +Sierra Leone land frontier between the Moa river on the north and the +Mano on the south, and nine ports of entry along the coast. At all of +these Europeans are allowed to settle and trade, and with very slight +restrictions they may now trade almost anywhere in Liberia. The rubber +trade is controlled by the Liberian Rubber Corporation, which holds a +special concession from the Liberian government for a number of years, +and is charged with the preservation of the forests. Another English +company has constructed motor roads in the Liberian hinterland to +connect centres of trade with the St Paul's river. The trade is done +almost entirely with Great Britain, Germany and Holland, but friendly +relations are maintained with Spain, as the Spanish plantations in +Fernando Po are to a great extent worked by Liberian labour. + +The indigenous population must be considered one of the assets of +Liberia. The native population--apart from the American element--is +estimated at as much as 2,000,000; for although large areas appear to +be uninhabited forest, other parts are most densely populated, owing to +the wonderful fertility of the soil. The native tribes belong more or +less to the following divisions, commencing on the west, and proceeding +eastwards: (1) Vai, Gbandi, Kpwesi, Mende, Buzi and Mandingo (the Vai, +Mende and Mandingo are Mahommedans); all these tribes speak languages +derived from a common stock. (2) In the densest forest region between +the Mano and the St Paul's river is the powerful Gora tribe of unknown +linguistic affinities. (3) In the coast region between the St Paul's +river and the Cavalla (and beyond) are the different tribes of Kru stock +and language family--De, Basa, Gibi, Kru, Grebo, Putu, Sikoñ, &c. &c. +The actual Kru tribe inhabits the coast between the river Cestos on the +west and Grand Sesters on the east. It is known all over the Atlantic +coasts of Africa, as it furnishes such a large proportion of the seamen +employed on men-of-war and merchant ships in these tropical waters. Many +of the indigenous races of Liberia in the forest belt beyond 40 m. from +the coast still practise cannibalism. In some of these forest tribes the +women still go quite naked, but clothes of a Mahommedan type are fast +spreading over the whole country. Some of the indigenous races are of +very fine physique. In the Nidi country the women are generally taller +than the men. No traces of a Pygmy race have as yet been discovered, nor +any negroes of low physiognomy. Some of the Krumen are coarse and ugly, +and this is the case with the Mende people; but as a rule the indigenes +of Liberia are handsome, well-proportioned negroes, and some of the +Mandingos have an almost European cast of feature. + + AUTHORITIES.--Col. Wauwerman, _Liberia; Histoire de la fondation d'un + état nègre_ (Brussels, 1885); J. Büttikofer, _Reisebilder aus Liberia_ + (Leiden, 1890); Sir Harry Johnston, _Liberia_ (2 vols., London, 1906), + with full bibliography; Maurice Delafosse, _Vocabulaires comparatifs + de plus de 60 langues et dialectes parlés à la Côte d'Ivoire et dans + la région limitrophe_ (1904), a work which, though it professes to + deal mainly with philology, throws a wonderful light on the + relationships and history of the native tribes of Liberia. + (H. H. J.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Amongst other remarkable negroes that Liberian education produced + was Dr E. W. Blyden (b. 1832), the author of many works dealing with + negro questions. + + + + +LIBERIUS, pope from 352 to 366, the successor of Julius I., was +consecrated according to the _Catalogus Liberianus_ on the 22nd of May. +His first recorded act was, after a synod had been held at Rome, to +write to Constantius, then in quarters at Arles (353-354), asking that a +council might be called at Aquileia with reference to the affairs of +Athanasius; but his messenger Vincentius of Capua was compelled by the +emperor at a conciliabulum held in Arles to subscribe against his will a +condemnation of the orthodox patriarch of Alexandria. In 355 Liberius +was one of the few who, along with Eusebius of Vercelli, Dionysius of +Milan and Lucifer of Cagliari, refused to sign the condemnation of +Athanasius, which had anew been imposed at Milan by imperial command +upon all the Western bishops; the consequence was his relegation to +Beroea in Thrace, Felix II. (antipope) being consecrated his successor +by three "catascopi haud episcopi," as Athanasius called them. At the +end of an exile of more than two years he yielded so far as to subscribe +a formula giving up the "homoousios," to abandon Athanasius, and to +accept the communion of his adversaries--a serious mistake, with which +he has justly been reproached. This submission led the emperor to recall +him from exile; but, as the Roman see was officially occupied by Felix, +a year passed before Liberius was sent to Rome. It was the emperor's +intention that Liberius should govern the Church jointly with Felix, but +on the arrival of Liberius, Felix was expelled by the Roman people. +Neither Liberius nor Felix took part in the council of Rimini (359). +After the death of the emperor Constantius in 361, Liberius annulled the +decrees of that assembly, but, with the concurrence of SS. Athanasius +and Hilarius, retained the bishops who had signed and then withdrawn +their adherence. In 366 Liberius gave a favourable reception to a +deputation of the Eastern episcopate, and admitted into his communion +the more moderate of the old Arian party. He died on the 24th of +September 366. + + His biographers used to be perplexed by a letter purporting to be from + Liberius, in the works of Hilary, in which he seems to write, in 352, + that he had excommunicated Athanasius at the instance of the Oriental + bishops; but the document is now held to be spurious. See Hefele, + _Conciliengesch_. i. 648 seq. Three other letters, though contested by + Hefele, seem to have been written by Liberius at the time of his + submission to the emperor. (L. D.*) + + + + +LIBER PONTIFICALIS, or GESTA PONTIFICUM ROMANORUM (i.e. book of the +popes), consists of the lives of the bishops of Rome from the time of St +Peter to the death of Nicholas I. in 867. A supplement continues the +series of lives almost to the close of the 9th century, and several +other continuations were written later. During the 16th century there +was some discussion about the authorship of the _Liber_, and for some +time it was thought to be the work of an Italian monk, Anastasius +Bibliothecarius (d. 886). It is now, however, practically certain that +it was of composite authorship and that the earlier part of it was +compiled about 530, three centuries before the time of Anastasius. This +is the view taken by Louis Duchesne and substantially by G. Waitz and T. +Mommsen, although these scholars think that it was written about a +century later. The _Liber_ contains much information about papal affairs +in general, and about endowments, martyrdoms and the like, but a +considerable part of it is obviously legendary. It assumes that the +bishops of Rome exercised authority over the Christian Church from its +earliest days. + + _The Liber_, which was used by Bede for his _Historia Ecclesiastica_, + was first printed at Mainz in 1602. Among other editions is the one + edited by T. Mommsen for the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Gesta + Romanorum pontificum_, Band i., but the best is the one by L. + Duchesne, _Le Liber pontificalis: texte, introduction, commentaire_ + (Paris, 1884-1892). See also the same writer's _Étude sur le Liber + pontificalis_ (Paris, 1877); and the article by A. Brackmann in + Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, Band xi. (Leipzig, 1902). + + + + +LIBERTAD, or LA LIBERTAD, a coast department of Peru, bounded N. by +Lambayeque and Cajamarca, E. by San Martin, S. by Ancachs, S.W. and W. +by the Pacific. Pop. (1906 estimate) 188,200; area 10,209 sq. m. +Libertad formerly included the present department of Lambayeque. The +Western Cordillera divides it into two nearly equal parts; the western +consisting of a narrow, arid, sandy coast zone and the western slopes of +the Cordillera broken into valleys by short mountain spurs, and the +eastern a high inter-Andine valley lying between the Western and Central +Cordilleras and traversed by the upper Marañon or Amazon, which at one +point is less than 90 m. in a straight line from the Pacific coast. The +coast region is traversed by several short streams, which are fed by the +melting snows of the Cordillera and are extensively used for irrigation. +These are (the names also applying to their valleys) the Jequetepeque or +Pacasmayo, in whose valley rice is an important product, the Chicama, in +whose valley the sugar plantations are among the largest and best in +Peru, the Moche, Viru, Chao and Santa; the last, with its northern +tributary, the Tablachaca, forming the southern boundary line of the +department. The Santa Valley is also noted for its sugar plantations. +Cotton is produced in several of these valleys, coffee in the Pacasmayo +district, and coca on the mountain slopes about Huamachuco and Otuzco, +at elevations of 3000 to 6000 ft. above sea-level. The upland regions, +which have a moderate rainfall and a cool, healthy climate, are partly +devoted to agriculture on a small scale (producing wheat, Indian corn, +barley, potatoes, quinua, alfalfa, fruit and vegetables), partly to +grazing and partly to mining. Cattle and sheep have been raised on the +upland pastures of Libertad and Ancachs since early colonial times, and +the llama and alpaca were reared throughout this "sierra" country long +before the Spanish conquest. Gold and silver mines are worked in the +districts of Huamachuco, Otuzco and Pataz, and coal has been found in +the first two. The department had 169 m. of railway in 1906, viz.: from +Pacasmayo to Yonán (in Cajamarca) with a branch to Guadalupe, 60 m.; +from Salaverry to Trujillo with its extension to Ascope, 47 m.; from +Trujillo to Laredo, Galindo and Menocucho, 18½ m.; from Huanchaco to +Roma, 25 m.; and from Chicama to Pampas, 18½ m. The principal ports are +Pacasmayo and Salaverry, which have long iron piers built by the +national government; Malabrigo, Huanchuco, Guañape and Chao are open +roadsteads. The capital of the department is Trujillo. The other +principal towns are San Pedro, Otuzco, Huamachuco, Santiago de Chuco +and Tuyabamba--all provincial capitals and important only through their +mining interests, except San Pedro, which stands in the fertile district +of the Jequetepeque. The population of Otuzco (35 m. N.E. of Trujillo) +was estimated to be about 4000 in 1896, that of Huamachuco (65 m. N.E. +of Trujillo) being perhaps slightly less. + + + + +LIBERTARIANISM (from Lat. _libertas_, freedom), in ethics, the doctrine +which maintains the freedom of the will, as opposed to necessitarianism +or determinism. It has been held in various forms. In its extreme form +it maintains that the individual is absolutely free to chose this or +that action indifferently (the _liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_), but +most libertarians admit that acquired tendencies, environment and the +like, exercise control in a greater or less degree. + + + + +LIBERTINES, the nickname, rather than the name, given to various +political and social parties. It is futile to deduce the name from the +Libertines of Acts vi. 9; these were "sons of freedmen," for it is vain +to make them citizens of an imaginary Libertum, or to substitute (with +Beza) Libustines, in the sense of inhabitants of Libya. In a sense akin +to the modern use of the term "libertine," i.e. a person who sets the +rules of morality, &c., at defiance, the word seems first to have been +applied, as a stigma, to Anabaptists in the Low Countries (Mark +Pattison, _Essays_, ii. 38). It has become especially attached to the +liberal party in Geneva, opposed to Calvin and carrying on the tradition +of the Liberators in that city; but the term was never applied to them +till after Calvin's death (F. W. Kampschulte, _Johann Calvin_). Calvin, +who wrote against the "Libertins qui se nomment Spirituelz" (1545), +never confused them with his political antagonists in Geneva, called +Perrinistes from their leader Amadeo Perrin. The objects of Calvin's +polemic were the Anabaptists above mentioned, whose first obscure leader +was Coppin of Lisle, followed by Quintin of Hennegau, by whom and his +disciples, Bertram des Moulins and Claude Perseval, the principles of +the sect were disseminated in France. Quintin was put to death as a +heretic at Tournai in 1546. His most notable follower was Antoine +Pocquet, a native of Enghien, Belgium, priest and almoner (1540-1549), +afterwards pensioner of the queen of Navarre, who was a guest of Bucer +at Strassburg (1543-1544) and died some time after 1560. Calvin (who had +met Quintin in Paris) describes the doctrines he impugns as pantheistic +and antinomian. + + See Choisy in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1902). (A. Go.*) + + + + +LIBERTINES, SYNAGOGUE OF THE, a section of the Hellenistic Jews who +attacked Stephen (Acts vi. 9). The passage reads, [Greek: tines tôn êk +tês sunagôgês tês legomenês Libertinôn, kai Kurênaiôn kai Alexandreôn, +kai tôn apo Kilikias kai Asias], and opinion is divided as to the number +of synagogues here named. The probability is that there are three, +corresponding to the geographical regions involved, (1) Rome and Italy, +(2) N.E. Africa, (3) Asia Minor. In this case "the Synagogue of the +Libertines" is the assembly of "the Freedmen" from Rome, descendants of +the Jews enslaved by Pompey after his conquest of Judaea 63 B.C. If, +however, we take [Greek: Libertinôn kai Kurênaiôn kai Alexandreôn] +closely together, the first name must denote the people of some city or +district. The obscure town Libertum (inferred from the title Episcopus +Libertinensis in connexion with the synod of Carthage, A.D. 411) is less +likely than the reading ([Greek: Libuôn] or) [Greek: Libustinôn] +underlying certain Armenian versions and Syriac commentaries. The Greek +towns lying west from Cyrene would naturally be called Libyan. In any +case the interesting point is that these returned Jews, instead of being +liberalized by their residence abroad, were more tenacious of Judaism +and more bitter against Stephen than those who had never left Judaea. + + + + +LIBERTY (Lat. _libertas_, from _liber_, free), generally the state of +freedom, especially opposed to subjection, imprisonment or slavery, or +with such restricted or figurative meaning as the circumstances imply. +The history of political liberty is in modern days identified +practically with the progress of civilization. In a more particular +sense, "a liberty" is the term for a franchise, a privilege or branch of +the crown's prerogative granted to a subject, as, for example, that of +executing legal process; hence the district over which the privilege +extends. Such liberties are exempt from the jurisdiction of the sheriff +and have separate commissions of the peace, but for purposes of local +government form part of the county in which they are situated. The +exemption from the jurisdiction of the sheriff was recognized in England +by the Sheriffs Act 1887, which provides that the sheriff of a county +shall appoint a deputy at the expense of the lord of the liberty, such +deputy to reside in or near the liberty. The deputy receives and opens +in the sheriff's name all writs, the return or execution of which +belongs to the bailiff of the liberty, and issues to the bailiff the +warrant required for the due execution of such writs. The bailiff then +becomes liable for non-execution, mis-execution or insufficient return +of any writs, and in the case of non-return of any writ, if the sheriff +returns that he has delivered the writ to a bailiff of a liberty, the +sheriff will be ordered to execute the writ notwithstanding the liberty, +and must cause the bailiff to attend before the high court of justice +and answer why he did not execute the writ. + +In nautical phraseology various usages of the term are derived from its +association with a sailor's leave on shore, e.g. liberty-man, +liberty-day, liberty-ticket. + + _A History of Modern Liberty_, in eight volumes, of which the third + appeared in 1906, has been written by James Mackinnon; see also Lord + Acton's lectures, and such works as J. S. Mill's _On Liberty_ and Sir + John Seeley's _Introduction to Political Science_. + + + + +LIBERTY PARTY, the first political party organized in the United States +to oppose the spread and restrict the political power of slavery, and +the lineal precursor of the Free Soil and Republican parties. It +originated in the Old North-west. Its organization was preceded there by +a long anti-slavery religious movement. James G. Birney (q.v.), to whom +more than to any other man belongs the honour of founding and leading +the party, began to define the political duties of so-called +"abolitionists" about 1836; but for several years thereafter he, in +common with other leaders, continued to disclaim all idea of forming a +political party. In state and local campaigns, however, non-partisan +political action was attempted through the questioning of Whig and +Democratic candidates. The utter futility of seeking to obtain in this +way any satisfactory concessions to anti-slavery sentiment was speedily +and abundantly proved. There arose, consequently, a division in the +American Anti-slavery Society between those who were led by W. L. +Garrison (q.v.), and advocated political non-resistance--and, besides, +had loaded down their anti-slavery views with a variety of religious and +social vagaries, unpalatable to all but a small number--and those who +were led by Birney, and advocated independent political action. The +sentiment of the great majority of "abolitionists" was, by 1838, +strongly for such action; and it was clearly sanctioned and implied in +the constitution and declared principles of the Anti-slavery Society; +but the capture of that organization by the Garrisonians, in a "packed" +convention in 1830, made it unavailable as a party nucleus--even if it +had not been already outgrown--and hastened a separate party +organization. A convention of abolitionists at Warsaw, New York, in +November 1839 had resolved that abolitionists were bound by every +consideration of duty and expediency to organize an independent +political party. Accordingly, the political abolitionists, in another +convention at Albany, in April 1840, containing delegates from six +states but not one from the North-west, launched the "Liberty Party," +and nominated Birney for the presidency. In the November election he +received 7069 votes.[1] + +The political "abolitionists" were abolitionists only as they were +restrictionists: they wished to use the federal government to exclude +(or abolish) slavery from the federal Territories and the District of +Columbia, but they saw no opportunity to attack slavery in the +states--i.e. to attack the institution _per se_; also they declared +there should be "absolute and unqualified division of the General +Government from slavery"--which implied an amendment of the +constitution. They proposed to use ordinary moral and political means to +attain their ends--not, like the Garrisonians, to abstain from voting, +or favour the dissolution of the Union. + +After 1840 the attempt began in earnest to organize the Liberty Party +thoroughly, and unite all anti-slavery men. The North-west, where "there +was, after 1840, very little known of Garrison and his methods" (T. C. +Smith), was the most promising field, but though the contest of state +and local campaigns gave morale to the party, it made scant political +gains (in 1843 it cast hardly 10% of the total vote); it could not +convince the people that slavery should be made the paramount question +in politics. In 1844, however, the Texas question gave slavery precisely +this pre-eminence in the presidential campaign. Until then, neither +Whigs nor Democrats had regarded the Liberty Party seriously; now, +however, each party charged that the Liberty movement was corruptly +auxiliary to the other. As the campaign progressed, the Whigs +alternately abused the Liberty men and made frantic appeals for their +support. But the Liberty men were strongly opposed to Clay personally; +and even if his equivocal campaign letters (see CLAY, HENRY) had not +left exceedingly small ground for belief that he would resist the +annexation of Texas, still the Liberty men were not such as to admit +that an end justifies the means; therefore they again nominated Birney. +He received 62,263 votes[2]--many more than enough in New York to have +carried that state and the presidency for Clay, had they been thrown to +his support. The Whigs, therefore, blamed the Liberty Party for +Democratic success and the annexation of Texas; but--quite apart from +the issue of political ethics--it is almost certain that though Clay's +chances were injured by the Liberty ticket, they were injured much more +outside the Liberty ranks, by his own quibbles.[3] After 1844 the +Liberty Party made little progress. Its leaders were never very strong +as politicians, and its ablest organizer, Birney, was about this time +compelled by an accident to abandon public life. Moreover, the election +of 1844 was in a way fatal to the party; for it seemed to prove that +though "abolition" was not the party programme, still its antecedents +and personnel were too radical to unite the North; and above all it +could not, after 1844, draw the disaffected Whigs, for though their +party was steadily moving toward anti-slavery their dislike of the +Liberty Party effectually prevented union. Indeed, no party of one idea +could hope to satisfy men who had been Whigs or Democrats. At the same +time, anti-slavery Whigs and Democrats were segregating in state +politics, and the issue of excluding slavery from the new territory +acquired from Mexico afforded a golden opportunity to unite all +anti-slavery men on the principle of the Wilmot Proviso (1846). The +Liberty Party reached its greatest strength (casting 74,017 votes) in +the state elections of 1846. Thereafter, though growing somewhat in New +England, it rapidly became ineffective in the rest of the North. Many, +including Birney, thought it should cease to be an isolated party of one +idea--striving for mere balance of power between Whigs and Democrats, +welcoming small concessions from them, almost dependent upon them. Some +wished to revivify it by making it a party of general reform. One result +was the secession and formation of the Liberty League, which in 1847 +nominated Gerrit Smith for the presidency. No adequate effort was made +to take advantage of the disintegration of other parties. In October +1847, at Buffalo, was held the third and last national convention. John +P. Hale--whose election to the United States Senate had justified the +first successful union of Liberty men with other anti-slavery men in +state politics--was nominated for the presidency. But the nomination by +the Democrats of Lewis Cass shattered the Democratic organization in New +York and the North-west; and when the Whigs nominated General Taylor, +adopted a non-committal platform, and showed hostility to the Wilmot +Proviso, the way was cleared for a union of all anti-slavery men. The +Liberty Party, abandoning therefore its independent nominations, joined +in the first convention and nominations of the Free Soil Party (q.v.), +thereby practically losing its identity, although it continued until +after the organization of the Republican Party to maintain something of +a semi-independent organization. The Liberty Party has the unique honour +among third-parties in the United States of seeing its principles +rapidly adopted and realized. + + See T. C. Smith, _History of the Liberty and Free Soil Parties in the + Northwest_ (Harvard University Historical Studies, New York, 1897), + and lives and writings of all the public men mentioned above; also of + G. W. Julian, J. R. Giddings and S. P. Chase. + + + + +LIBITINA, an old Roman goddess of funerals. She had a sanctuary in a +sacred grove (perhaps on the Esquiline), where, by an ordinance of +Servius Tullius, a piece of money (_lucar Libitinae_) was deposited +whenever a death took place. Here the undertakers (_libitinarii_), who +carried out all funeral arrangements by contract, had their offices, and +everything necessary was kept for sale or hire; here all deaths were +registered for statistical purposes. The word _Libitina_ then came to be +used for the business of an undertaker, funeral requisites, and (in the +poets) for death itself. By later antiquarians Libitina was sometimes +identified with Persephone, but more commonly (partly or completely) +with Venus Lubentia or Lubentina, an Italian goddess of gardens. The +similarity of name and the fact that Venus Lubentia had a sanctuary in +the grove of Libitina favoured this idea. Further, Plutarch (_Quaest. +Rom._ 23) mentions a small statue at Delphi of Aphrodite Epitymbia (A. +of tombs = Venus Libitina), to which the spirits of the dead were +summoned. The inconsistency of selling funeral requisites in the temple +of Libitina, seeing that she is identified with Venus, is explained by +him as indicating that one and the same goddess presides over birth and +death; or the association of such things with the goddess of love and +pleasure is intended to show that death is not a calamity, but rather a +consummation to be desired. Libitina may, however, have been originally +an earth goddess, connected with luxuriant nature and the enjoyments of +life (cf. _lub-et_, _lib-ido_); then, all such deities being connected +with the underworld, she also became the goddess of death, and that side +of her character predominated in the later conceptions. + + See Plutarch, _Numa_, 12; Dion. Halic. iv. 15; Festus xvi., s.v. + "Rustica Vinalia"; Juvenal xii. 121, with Mayor's note; G. Wissowa in + Roscher's _Lexicon der Mythologie_, s.v. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Mr T. C. Smith estimates that probably not one in ten of even + professed abolitionists supported Birney; only in Massachusetts did + he receive as much as 1% of the total vote cast. + + [2] Birney's vote was reduced by a disgraceful election trick by the + Whigs (the circulation of a forged letter on the eve of the + election); a trick to which he had exposed himself by an ingenuously + honest reception of Democratic advances in a matter of local + good-government in Michigan. + + [3] E.g. Horace Greeley made the Whig charge; but in later life he + repeatedly attributed Clay's defeat simply to Clay's own letters; and + for Millard Fillmore's important opinion see footnote to KNOW NOTHING + PARTY. + + + + +LIBMANAN, a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, Philippine +Islands, on the Libmanan river, 11 m. N.W. of Nueva Cáceres, the +capital. Pop. (1903) 17,416. It is about 4½ m. N.E. of the Bay of San +Miguel. Rice, coco-nuts, hemp, Indian corn, sugarcane, bejuco, arica +nuts and camotes, are grown in the vicinity, and the manufactures +include hemp goods, alcohol (from coco-nut-palm sap), copra, and +baskets, chairs, hammocks and hats of bejuco and bamboo. The Libmanan +river, a tributary of the Bicol, into which it empties 2 m. below the +town, is famous for its clear cold water and for its sulphur springs. +The language is Bicol. + + + + +LIBO, in ancient Rome, the name of a family belonging to the Scribonian +gens. It is chiefly interesting for its connexion with the Puteal +Scribonianum or Puteal Libonis in the forum at Rome,[1] dedicated or +restored by one of its members, perhaps the praetor of 204 B.C., or the +tribune of the people in 149. In its vicinity the praetor's tribunal, +removed from the comitium in the 2nd century B.C., held its sittings, +which led to the place becoming the haunt of litigants, money-lenders +and business people. According to ancient authorities, the Puteal +Libonis was between the temples of Castor and Vesta, near the Porticus +Julia and the Arcus Fabiorum, but no remains have been discovered. The +idea that an irregular circle of travertine blocks, found near the +temple of Castor, formed part of the puteal is now abandoned. + + See Horace, _Sat._ ii. 6. 35, _Epp._ i. 19. 8; Cicero, _Pro Sestio_, + 8; for the well-known coin of L. Scribonius Libo, representing the + puteal of Libo, which rather resembles a _cippus_ (sepulchral + monument) or an altar, with laurel wreaths, two lyres and a pair of + pincers or tongs below the wreaths (perhaps symbolical of Vulcanus as + forger of lightning), see C. Hülsen, _The Roman Forum_ (Eng. trans. by + J. B. Carter, 1906), p. 150, where a marble imitation found at Veii is + also given. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Puteal_ was the name given to an erection (or enclosure) on a + spot which had been struck by lightning; it was so called from its + resemblance to the stone kerb or low enclosure round a well + (_puteus_). + + + + +LIBON, a Greek architect, born at Elis, who was employed to build the +great temple of Zeus at Olympia (q.v.) about 460 B.C. (Pausanias v. 10. +3). + + + + +LIBOURNE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement +of the department of Gironde, situated at the confluence of the Isle +with the Dordogne, 22 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux on the railway to Angoulême. +Pop. (1906) town, 15,280; commune, 19,323. The sea is 56 m. distant, but +the tide affects the river so as to admit of vessels drawing 14 ft. +reaching the town at the highest tides. The Dordogne is here crossed by +a stone bridge 492 ft. long, and a suspension bridge across the Isle +connects Libourne with Fronsac, built on a hill on which in feudal times +stood a powerful fortress. Libourne is regularly built. The Gothic +church, restored in the 19th century, has a stone spire 232 ft. high. On +the quay there is a machicolated clock-tower which is a survival of the +ramparts of the 14th century; and the town-house, containing a small +museum and a library, is a quaint relic of the 16th century. There is a +statue of the Duc Decazes, who was born in the neighbourhood. The +sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and a +communal college are among the public institutions. The principal +articles of commerce are the wines and brandies of the district. +Printing and cooperage are among the industries. + +Like other sites at the confluence of important rivers, that of Libourne +was appropriated at an early period. Under the Romans _Condate_ stood +rather more than a mile to the south of the present Libourne; it was +destroyed during the troubles of the 5th century. Resuscitated by +Charlemagne, it was rebuilt in 1269, under its present name and on the +site and plan it still retains, by Roger de Leybourne (of Leybourne in +Kent), seneschal of Guienne, acting under the authority of King Edward +I. of England. It suffered considerably in the struggles of the French +and English for the possession of Guienne in the 14th century. + + See R. Guinodie, _Hist. de Libourne_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Libourne, + 1876-1877). + + + + +LIBRA ("THE BALANCE"), in astronomy, the 7th sign of the zodiac (q.v.), +denoted by the symbol [symbol], resembling a pair of scales, probably in +allusion to the fact that when the sun enters this part of the ecliptic, +at the autumnal equinox, the days and nights are equal. It is also a +constellation, not mentioned by Eudoxus or Aratus, but by Manetho (3rd +century B.C.) and Geminus (1st century B.C.), and included by Ptolemy in +his 48 asterisms; Ptolemy catalogued 17 stars, Tycho Brahe 10, and +Hevelius 20. [delta] _Librae_ is an Algol (q.v.) variable, the range of +magnitude being 5.0 to 6.2, and the period 2 days 7 hrs. 51 min.; and +the cluster _M. 5 Librae_ is a faint globular cluster of which only +about one star in eleven is variable. + + + + +LIBRARIES. A library (from Lat. _liber_, book), in the modern sense, is +a collection of printed or written literature. As such, it implies an +advanced and elaborate civilization. If the term be extended to any +considerable collection of written documents, it must be nearly as old +as civilization itself. The earliest use to which the invention of +inscribed or written signs was put was probably to record important +religious and political transactions. These records would naturally be +preserved in sacred places, and accordingly the earliest libraries of +the world were probably temples, and the earliest librarians priests. +And indeed before the extension of the arts of writing and reading the +priests were the only persons who could perform such work as, e.g. the +compilation of the _Annales Maximi_, which was the duty of the +pontifices in ancient Rome. The beginnings of literature proper in the +shape of ballads and songs may have continued to be conveyed orally only +from one generation to another, long after the record of important +religious or civil events was regularly committed to writing. The +earliest collections of which we know anything, therefore, were +collections of archives. Of this character appear to have been such +famous collections as that of the Medians at Ecbatana, the Persians at +Susa or the hieroglyphic archives of Knossos discovered by A. J. Evans +(_Scripta Minoa_, 1909) of a date synchronizing with the XIIth Egyptian +dynasty. It is not until the development of arts and sciences, and the +growth of a considerable written literature, and even of a distinct +literary class, that we find collections of books which can be called +libraries in our modern sense. It is of libraries in the modern sense, +and not, except incidentally, of archives that we are to speak. + + +ANCIENT LIBRARIES + + Assyria. + +The researches which have followed the discoveries of P. E. Botta and +Sir H. Layard have thrown unexpected light not only upon the history but +upon the arts, the sciences and the literatures of the ancient +civilizations of Babylonia and Assyria. In all these wondrous +revelations no facts are more interesting than those which show the +existence of extensive libraries so many ages ago, and none are more +eloquent of the elaborateness of these forgotten civilizations. In the +course of his excavations at Nineveh in 1850, Layard came upon some +chambers in the south-west palace, the floor of which, as well as the +adjoining rooms, was covered to the depth of a foot with tablets of +clay, covered with cuneiform characters, in many cases so small as to +require a magnifying glass. These varied in size from 1 to 12 in. +square. A great number of them were broken, as Layard supposed by the +falling in of the roof, but as George Smith thought by having fallen +from the upper storey, upon which he believed the collection to have +been placed. These tablets formed the library of the great monarch +Assur-bani-pal--the Sardanapalus of the Greeks--the greatest patron of +literature amongst the Assyrians. It is estimated that this library +consisted of some ten thousand distinct works and documents, some of the +works extending over several tablets. The tablets appear to have been +methodically arranged and catalogued, and the library seems to have been +thrown open for the general use of the king's subjects.[1] A great +portion of this library has already been brought to England and +deposited in the British museum, but it is calculated that there still +remain some 20,000 fragments to be gathered up. For further details as +to Assyrian libraries, and the still earlier Babylonian libraries at +Tello, the ancient Lagash, and at Niffer, the ancient Nippur, from which +the Assyrians drew their science and literature, see BABYLONIA and +NIPPUR. + + + Ancient Egyptian Libraries. + +Of the libraries of ancient Egypt our knowledge is scattered and +imperfect, but at a time extending to more than 6000 years ago we find +numerous scribes of many classes who recorded official events in the +life of their royal masters or details of their domestic affairs and +business transactions. Besides this official literature we possess +examples of many commentaries on the sacerdotal books, as well as +historical treatises, works on moral philosophy and proverbial wisdom, +science, collections of medical receipts as well as a great variety of +popular novels and humoristic pieces. At an early date Heliopolis was a +literary centre of great importance with culture akin to the Babylonian. +Attached to every temple were professional scribes whose function was +partly religious and partly scientific. The sacred books of Thoth +constituted as it were a complete encyclopaedia of religion and science, +and on these books was gradually accumulated an immense mass of +exposition and commentary. We possess a record relating to "the land of +the collected works [library] of Khufu," a monarch of the IVth dynasty, +and a similar inscription relating to the library of Khafra, the builder +of the second pyramid. At Edfu the library was a small chamber in the +temple, on the wall of which is a list of books, among them a manual of +Egyptian geography (Brugsch, _History of Egypt_, 1881, i. 240). The +exact position of Akhenaten's library (or archives) of clay tablets is +known and the name of the room has been read on the books of which it +has been built. A library of charred books has been found at Mendes +(Egypt Expl. Fund, _Two Hieroglyphic Papyri_), and we have references to +temple libraries in the Silsileh "Nile" stelae and perhaps in the great +Harris papyri. The most famous of the Egyptian libraries is that of King +Osymandyas, described by Diodorus Siculus, who relates that it bore an +inscription which he renders by the Greek words [Greek: PSUCHÊS +IATREION] "the Dispensary of the Soul." Osymandyas has been identified +with the great king Rameses II. (1300-1236 B.C.) and the seat of the +library is supposed to have been the Ramessaeum at Western Thebes. +Amen-em-hant was the name of one of the directors of the Theban +libraries. Papyri from the palace, of a later date, have been discovered +by Professor W. F. Flinders Petrie. At Thebes the scribes of the +"Foreign Office" are depicted at work in a room which was perhaps rather +an office than a library. The famous Tel-el-Amarna tablets (1383-1365 +B.C.) were stored in "the place of the records of the King." There were +record offices attached to the granary and treasury departments and we +know of a school or college for the reproduction of books, which were +kept in boxes and in jars. According to Eustathius there was a great +collection at Memphis. A heavy blow was dealt to the old Egyptian +literature by the Persian invasion, and many books were carried away by +the conquerors. The Egyptians were only delivered from the yoke of +Persia to succumb to that of Greece and Rome and henceforward their +civilization was dominated by foreign influences. Of the Greek libraries +under the Ptolemies we shall speak a little further on. + + + Greece. + + Alexandria. + +Of the libraries of ancient Greece we have very little knowledge, and +such knowledge as we possess comes to us for the most part from late +compilers. Amongst those who are known to have collected books are +Pisistratus, Polycrates of Samos, Euclid the Athenian, Nicocrates of +Cyprus, Euripides and Aristotle (Athenaeus i. 4). At Cnidus there is +said to have been a special collection of works upon medicine. +Pisistratus is reported to have been the first of the Greeks who +collected books on a large scale. Aulus Gellius, indeed, tells us, in +language perhaps "not well suited to the 6th century B.C.,"[2] that he +was the first to establish a public library. The authority of Aulus +Gellius is hardly sufficient to secure credit for the story that this +library was carried away into Persia by Xerxes and subsequently restored +to the Athenians by Seleucus Nicator. Plato is known to have been a +collector; and Xenophon tells us of the library of Euthydemus. The +library of Aristotle was bequeathed by him to his disciple Theophrastus, +and by Theophrastus to Neleus, who carried it to Scepsis, where it is +said to have been concealed underground to avoid the literary cupidity +of the kings of Pergamum. Its subsequent fate has given rise to much +controversy, but, according to Strabo (xiii. pp. 608, 609), it was sold +to Apellicon of Teos, who carried it to Athens, where after Apellicon's +death it fell a prey to the conqueror Sulla, and was transported by him +to Rome. The story told by Athenaeus (i. 4) is that the library of +Neleus was purchased by Ptolemy Philadelphus. The names of a few other +libraries in Greece are barely known to us from inscriptions; of their +character and contents we know nothing. If, indeed, we are to trust +Strabo entirely, we must believe that Aristotle was the first person who +collected a library, and that he communicated the taste for collecting +to the sovereigns of Egypt. It is at all events certain that the +libraries of Alexandria were the most important as they were the most +celebrated of the ancient world. Under the enlightened rule of the +Ptolemies a society of scholars and men of science was attracted to +their capital. It seems pretty certain that Ptolemy Soter had already +begun to collect books, but it was in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus +that the libraries were properly organized and established in separate +buildings. Ptolemy Philadelphus sent into every part of Greece and Asia +to secure the most valuable works, and no exertions or expense were +spared in enriching the collections. Ptolemy Euergetes, his successor, +is said to have caused all books brought into Egypt by foreigners to be +seized for the benefit of the library, while the owners had to be +content with receiving copies of them in exchange. Nor did the +Alexandrian scholars exhibit the usual Hellenic exclusiveness, and many +of the treasures of Egyptian and even of Hebrew literature were by their +means translated into Greek. There were two libraries at Alexandria; the +larger, in the Brucheum quarter, was in connexion with the Museum, a +sort of academy, while the smaller was placed in the Serapeum. The +number of volumes in these libraries was very large, although it is +difficult to attain any certainty as to the real numbers amongst the +widely varying accounts. According to a scholium of Tzetzes, who appears +to draw his information from the authority of Callimachus and +Eratosthenes, who had been librarians at Alexandria, there were 42,800 +vols. or rolls in the Serapeum and 490,000 in the Brucheum.[3] This +enumeration seems to refer to the librarianship of Callimachus himself +under Ptolemy Euergetes. In any case the figures agree tolerably well +with those given by Aulus Gellius[4] (700,000) and Seneca[5] (400,000). +It should be observed that, as the ancient roll or volume usually +contained a much smaller quantity of matter than a modern book--so that, +e.g. the history of Herodotus might form nine "books" or volumes, and +the _Iliad_ of Homer twenty-four--these numbers must be discounted for +the purposes of comparison with modern collections. The series of the +first five librarians at Alexandria appears to be pretty well +established as follows: Zenodotus, Callimachus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius +and Aristophanes; and their activity covers a period of about a century. +The first experiments in bibliography appear to have been made in +producing catalogues of the Alexandrian libraries. Amongst other lists, +two catalogues were prepared by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, one of +the tragedies, the other of the comedies contained in the collections. +The [Greek: Pinakes] of Callimachus formed a catalogue of all the +principal books arranged in 120 classes. When Caesar set fire to the +fleet in the harbour of Alexandria, the flames accidentally extended to +the larger library of the Brucheum, and it was destroyed.[6] Antony +endeavoured to repair the loss by presenting to Cleopatra the library +from Pergamum. This was very probably placed in the Brucheum, as this +continued to be the literary quarter of Alexandria until the time of +Aurelian. Thenceforward the Serapeum became the principal library. The +usual statement that from the date of the restoration of the Brucheum +under Cleopatra the libraries continued in a flourishing condition until +they were destroyed after the conquest of Alexandria by the Saracens in +A.D. 640 can hardly be supported. It is very possible that one of the +libraries perished when the Brucheum quarter was destroyed by Aurelian, +A.D. 273. In 389 or 391 an edict of Theodosius ordered the destruction +of the Serapeum, and its books were pillaged by the Christians. When we +take into account the disordered condition of the times, and the neglect +into which literature and science had fallen, there can be little +difficulty in believing that there were but few books left to be +destroyed by the soldiers of Amru. The familiar anecdote of the caliph's +message to his general rests mainly upon the evidence of Abulfaraj, so +that we may be tempted to agree with Gibbon that the report of a +stranger who wrote at the end of six hundred years is overbalanced by +the silence of earlier and native annalists. It is, however, so far from +easy to settle the question that a cloud of names could easily be cited +upon either side, while some of the most careful inquirers confess the +difficulty of a decision[7] (see ALEXANDRIA, III.). + + + Pergamum. + +The magnificence and renown of the libraries of the Ptolemies excited +the rivalry of the kings of Pergamum, who vied with the Egyptian rulers +in their encouragement of literature. The German researches in the +acropolis of Pergamum between 1878 and 1886 revealed four rooms which +had originally been appropriated to the library (Alex. Conze, _Die +pergamen. Bibliothek_, 1884). Despite the obstacles presented by the +embargo placed by the Ptolemies upon the export of papyrus, the library +of the Attali attained considerable importance, and, as we have seen, +when it was transported to Egypt numbered 200,000 vols. We learn from a +notice in Suidas that in 221 B.C. Antiochus the Great summoned the poet +and grammarian Euphorion of Chalcis to be his librarian. + + + Rome. + +The early Romans were far too warlike and practical a people to devote +much attention to literature, and it is not until the last century of +the republic that we hear of libraries in Rome. The collections of +Carthage, which fell into their hands when Scipio sacked that city (146 +B.C.), had no attractions for them; and with the exception of the +writings of Mago upon agriculture, which the senate reserved for +translation into Latin, they bestowed all the books upon the kinglets of +Africa (Pliny, _H.N._ xviii. 5). It is in accordance with the military +character of the Romans that the first considerable collections of which +we hear in Rome were brought there as the spoils of war. The first of +these was that brought by Aemilius Paulus from Macedonia after the +conquest of Perseus (167 B.C.). The library of the conquered monarch was +all that he reserved from the prizes of victory for himself and his +sons, who were fond of letters. Next came the library of Apellicon the +Teian, brought from Athens by Sulla (86 B.C.). This passed at his death +into the hands of his son, but of its later history nothing is known. +The rich stores of literature brought home by Lucullus from his eastern +conquests (about 67 B.C.) were freely thrown open to his friends and to +men of letters. Accordingly his library and the neighbouring walks were +much resorted to, especially by Greeks. It was now becoming fashionable +for rich men to furnish their libraries well, and the fashion prevailed +until it became the subject of Seneca's scorn and Lucian's wit. The zeal +of Cicero and Atticus in adding to their collections is well known to +every reader of the classics. Tyrannion is said to have had 30,000 vols. +of his own; and that M. Terentius Varro had large collections we may +infer from Cicero's writing to him: "Si hortum in bibliotheca habes, +nihil deerit." Not to prolong the list of private collectors, Serenus +Sammonicus is said to have left to his pupil the young Gordian no less +than 62,000 vols. Amongst the numerous projects entertained by Caesar +was that of presenting Rome with public libraries, though it is doubtful +whether any steps were actually taken towards its execution. The task of +collecting and arranging the books was entrusted to Varro. This +commission, as well as his own fondness for books, may have led Varro to +write the book upon libraries of which a few words only have come down +to us, preserved by a grammarian. The honour of being the first actually +to dedicate a library to the public is said by Pliny and Ovid to have +fallen to G. Asinius Pollio, who erected a library in the Atrium +Libertatis on Mount Aventine, defraying the cost from the spoils of his +Illyrian campaign. The library of Pollio was followed by the public +libraries established by Augustus. That emperor, who did so much for the +embellishment of the city, erected two libraries, the Octavian and the +Palatine. The former was founded (33 B.C.) in honour of his sister, and +was placed in the Porticus Octaviae, a magnificent structure, the lower +part of which served as a promenade, while the upper part contained the +library. The charge of the books was committed to C. Melissus. The other +library formed by Augustus was attached to the temple of Apollo on the +Palatine hill, and appears from inscriptions to have consisted of two +departments, a Greek and a Latin one, which seem to have been separately +administered. The charge of the Palatine collections was given to +Pompeius Macer, who was succeeded by Julius Hyginus, the grammarian and +friend of Ovid. The Octavian library perished in the fire which raged at +Rome for three days in the reign of Titus. The Palatine was, at all +events in great part, destroyed by fire in the reign of Commodus. The +story that its collections were destroyed by order of Pope Gregory the +Great in the 6th century is now generally rejected. The successors of +Augustus, though they did not equal him in their patronage of learning, +maintained the tradition of forming libraries. Tiberius, his immediate +successor, established one in his splendid house on the Palatine, to +which Gellius refers as the "Tiberian library," and Suetonius relates +that he caused the writings and images of his favourite Greek poets to +be placed in the public libraries. Vespasian established a library in +the Temple of Peace erected after the burning of the city under Nero. +Domitian restored the libraries which had been destroyed in the same +conflagration, procuring books from every quarter, and even sending to +Alexandria to have copies made. He is also said to have founded the +Capitoline library, though others give the credit to Hadrian. The most +famous and important of the imperial libraries, however, was that +created by Ulpius Trajanus, known as the Ulpian library, which was first +established in the Forum of Trajan, but was afterwards removed to the +baths of Diocletian. In this library were deposited by Trajan the "libri +lintei" and "libri elephantini," upon which the senatus consulta and +other transactions relating to the emperors were written. The library of +Domitian, which had been destroyed by fire in the reign of Commodus, was +restored by Gordian, who added to it the books bequeathed to him by +Serenus Sammonicus. Altogether in the 4th century there are said to have +been twenty-eight public libraries in Rome. + + + Roman provincial libraries. + +Nor were public libraries confined to Rome. We possess records of at +least 24 places in Italy, the Grecian provinces, Asia Minor, Cyprus and +Africa in which libraries had been established, most of them attached to +temples, usually through the liberality of generous individuals. The +library which the younger Pliny dedicated to his townsmen at Comum cost +a million sesterces and he contributed a large sum to the support of a +library at Milan. Hadrian established one at Athens, described by +Pausanias, and recently identified with a building called the Stoa of +Hadrian, which shows a striking similarity with the precinct of Athena +at Pergamum. Strabo mentions a library at Smyrna; Aulus Gellius one at +Patrae and another at Tibur from which books could be borrowed. Recent +discoveries at Ephesus in Asia Minor and Timegad in Algeria have +furnished precise information as to the structural plan of these +buildings. The library at Ephesus was founded by T. Julius Aquila +Polemaeanus in memory of his father, pro-consul of Asia in the time of +Trajan, about A.D. 106-107. The library at Timegad was established at a +cost of 400,000 sesterces by M. Julius Quintianus Flavius Rogatianus, +who probably lived in the 3rd century (R. Cagnat, "Les Bibliothèques +municipales dans l'Empire Romain," 1906, _Mém. de l'Acad. des Insc._, +tom. xxxviii. pt. 1). At Ephesus the light came through a circular +opening in the roof; the library at Timegad greatly resembles that +discovered at Pompeii and possesses a system of book stores. All these +buildings followed the same general plan, consisting of a reading-room +and more or less ample book stores; the former was either rectangular or +semi-circular in shape and was approached under a stately portico and +colonnade. In a niche facing the entrance a statue was always erected; +that formerly at Pergamum--a figure of Minerva--is now preserved at +Berlin. From a well-known line of Juvenal (_Sat._ iii. 219) we may +assume that a statue of the goddess was usually placed in libraries. The +reading-room was also ornamented with busts or life-sized images of +celebrated writers. The portraits or authors were also painted on +medallions on the presses (_armaria_) in which the books or rolls were +preserved as in the library of Isidore of Seville; sometimes these +medallions decorated the walls, as in a private library discovered by +Lanciani in 1883 at Rome (_Ancient Rome_, 1888, p. 193). Movable seats, +known to us by pictorial representations, were in use. The books were +classified, and the presses (framed of precious woods and highly +ornamented) were numbered to facilitate reference from the catalogues. A +private library discovered at Herculaneum contained 1756 MSS. placed on +shelves round the room to a height of about 6 ft. with a central press. +In the public rooms some of the books were arranged in the reading-room +and some in the adjacent book stores. The Christian libraries of later +foundation closely followed the classical prototypes not only in their +structure but also in smaller details. The general appearance of a Roman +library is preserved in the library of the Vatican fitted up by Sextus +V. in 1587 with painted presses, busts and antique vases. + +As the number of libraries in Rome increased, the librarian, who was +generally a slave or freedman, became a recognized public functionary. +The names of several librarians are preserved to us in inscriptions, +including that of C. Hymenaeus, who appears to have fulfilled the double +function of physician and librarian to Augustus. The general +superintendence of the public libraries was committed to a special +official. Thus from Nero to Trajan, Dionysius, an Alexandrian +rhetorician, discharged this function. Under Hadrian it was entrusted to +his former tutor C. Julius Vestinus, who afterwards became administrator +of the Museum at Alexandria. + + + Constantinople. + +When the seat of empire was removed by Constantine to his new capital +upon the Bosporus, the emperor established a collection there, in which +Christian literature was probably admitted for the first time into an +imperial library. Diligent search was made after the Christian books +which had been doomed to destruction by Diocletian. Even at the death of +Constantine, however, the number of books which had been brought +together amounted only to 6900. The smallness of the number, it has been +suggested, seems to show that Constantine's library was mainly intended +as a repository of Christian literature. However this may be, the +collection was greatly enlarged by some of Constantine's successors, +especially by Julian and Theodosius, at whose death it is said to have +increased to 100,000 vols. Julian, himself a close student and +voluminous writer, though he did his best to discourage learning among +the Christians, and to destroy their libraries, not only augmented the +library at Constantinople, but founded others, including one at Nisibis, +which was soon afterwards destroyed by fire. From the Theodosian code we +learn that in the time of that emperor a staff of seven copyists was +attached to the library at Constantinople under the direction of the +librarian. The library was burnt under the emperor Zeno in 477, but was +again restored. + +Meanwhile, as Christianity made its way and a distinctively Christian +literature grew up, the institution of libraries became part of the +ecclesiastical organization. Bishop Alexander (d. A.D. 250) established +a church library at Jerusalem, and it became the rule to attach to every +church a collection necessary for the inculcation of Christian doctrine. +There were libraries at Cirta, at Constantinople and at Rome. The +basilica of St Lawrence at Rome contained a library or _archivum_ +founded by Pope Damasus at the end of the 4th century. Most of these +collections were housed in the sacred edifices and consisted largely of +copies of the Holy Scriptures, liturgical volumes and works of devotion. +They also included the _Gesta Martyrum_ and _Matriculae Pauperum_ and +official correspondence. Many of the basilicas had the apse subdivided +into three smaller hemicycles, one of which contained the library +(Lanciani, op. cit. p. 187). The largest of these libraries, that +founded by Pamphilus (d. A.D. 309) at Caesarea, and said to have been +increased by Eusebius, the historian of the church, to 30,000 vols., is +frequently mentioned by St Jerome. St Augustine bequeathed his +collection to the library of the church at Hippo, which was fortunate +enough to escape destruction at the hands of the Vandals. The hermit +communities of the Egyptian deserts formed organizations which developed +into the later monastic orders of Western Europe and the accumulation of +books for the brethren was one of their cares. + +The removal of the capital to Byzantium was in its result a serious blow +to literature. Henceforward the science and learning of the East and +West were divorced. The libraries of Rome ceased to collect the writings +of the Greeks, while the Greek libraries had never cared much to collect +Latin literature. The influence of the church became increasingly +hostile to the study of pagan letters. The repeated irruptions of the +barbarians soon swept the old learning and libraries alike from the +soil of Italy. With the close of the Western empire in 476 the ancient +history of libraries may be said to cease. + + +MEDIEVAL PERIOD + + Gaul. + +During the first few centuries after the fall of the Western empire, +literary activity at Constantinople had fallen to its lowest ebb. In the +West, amidst the general neglect of learning and literature, the +collecting of books, though not wholly forgotten, was cared for by few. +Sidonius Apollinaris tells us of the libraries of several private +collectors in Gaul. Publius Consentius possessed a library at his villa +near Narbonne which was due to the labour of three generations. The most +notable of these appears to have been the prefect Tonantius Ferreolus, +who had formed in his villa of Prusiana, near Nîmes, a collection which +his friend playfully compares to that of Alexandria. The Goths, who had +been introduced to the Scriptures in their own language by Ulfilas in +the 4th century, began to pay some attention to Latin literature. +Cassiodorus, the favourite minister of Theodoric, was a collector as +well as an author, and on giving up the cares of government retired to a +monastery which he founded in Calabria, where he employed his monks in +the transcription of books. + +Henceforward the charge of books as well as of education fell more and +more exclusively into the hands of the church. While the old schools of +the rhetoricians died out new monasteries arose everywhere. Knowledge +was no longer pursued for its own sake, but became subsidiary to +religious and theological teaching. The proscription of the old +classical literature, which is symbolized in the fable of the +destruction of the Palatine library by Gregory the Great, was only too +effectual. The Gregorian tradition of opposition to pagan learning long +continued to dominate the literary pursuits of the monastic orders and +the labours of the scriptorium. + + + Alcuin. + + Charlemagne. + +During the 6th and 7th centuries the learning which had been driven from +the Continent took refuge in the British Islands, where it was removed +from the political disturbances of the mainland. In the Irish +monasteries during this period there appear to have been many books, and +the Venerable Bede was superior to any scholar of his age. Theodore of +Tarsus brought a considerable number of books to Canterbury from Rome in +the 7th century, including several Greek authors. The library of York, +which was founded by Archbishop Egbert, was almost more famous than that +of Canterbury. The verses are well known in which Alcuin describes the +extensive library under his charge, and the long list of authors whom he +enumerates is superior to that of any other library possessed by either +England or France in the 12th century, when it was unhappily burnt. The +inroads of the Northmen in the 9th and 10th centuries had been fatal to +the monastic libraries on both sides of the channel. It was from York +that Alcuin came to Charlemagne to superintend the school attached to +his palace; and it was doubtless inspired by Alcuin that Charles issued +the memorable document which enjoined that in the bishoprics and +monasteries within his realm care should be taken that there shall be +not only a regular manner of life, but also the study of letters. When +Alcuin finally retired from the court to the abbacy of Tours, there to +carry out his own theory of monastic discipline and instruction, he +wrote to Charles for leave to send to York for copies of the books of +which they had so much need at Tours. While Alcuin thus increased the +library at Tours, Charlemagne enlarged that at Fulda, which had been +founded in 774, and which all through the middle ages stood in great +respect. Lupus Servatus, a pupil of Hrabanus Maurus at Fulda, and +afterwards abbot of Ferrières, was a devoted student of the classics and +a great collector of books. His correspondence illustrates the +difficulties which then attended the study of literature through the +paucity and dearness of books, the declining care for learning, and the +increasing troubles of the time. Nor were private collections of books +altogether wanting during the period in which Charlemagne and his +successors laboured to restore the lost traditions of liberal education +and literature. Pepin le Bref had indeed met with scanty response to the +request for books which he addressed to the pontiff Paul I. Charlemagne, +however, collected a considerable number of choice books for his private +use in two places. Although these collections were dispersed at his +death, his son Louis formed a library which continued to exist under +Charles the Bald. About the same time Everard, count of Friuli, formed a +considerable collection which he bequeathed to a monastery. But the +greatest private collector of the middle ages was doubtless Gerbert, +Pope Sylvester II., who showed the utmost zeal and spent large sums in +collecting books, not only in Rome and Italy, but from Germany, Belgium +and even from Spain. + + + St. Benedict. + +The hopes of a revival of secular literature fell with the decline of +the schools established by Charles and his successors. The knowledge of +letters remained the prerogative of the church, and for the next four or +five centuries the collecting and multiplication of books were almost +entirely confined to the monasteries. Several of the greater orders made +these an express duty; this was especially the case with the +Benedictines. It was the first care of St Benedict, we are told, that in +each newly founded monastery there should be a library, "et velut curia +quaedam illustrium auctorum." Monte Cassino became the starting-point of +a long line of institutions which were destined to be the centres of +religion and of literature. It must indeed be remembered that literature +in the sense of St Benedict meant Biblical and theological works, the +lives of the saints and martyrs, and the lives and writings of the +fathers. Of the reformed Benedictine orders the Carthusians and the +Cistercians were those most devoted to literary pursuits. The abbeys of +Fleury, of Melk and of St Gall were remarkable for the splendour of +their libraries. In a later age the labours of the congregation of St +Maur form one of the most striking chapters in the history of learning. +The Augustinians and the Dominicans rank next to the Benedictines in +their care for literature. The libraries of St Geneviève and St Victor, +belonging to the former, were amongst the largest of the monastic +collections. Although their poverty might seem to put them at a +disadvantage as collectors, the mendicant orders cultivated literature +with much assiduity, and were closely connected with the intellectual +movement to which the universities owed their rise. In England Richard +of Bury praises them for their extraordinary diligence in collecting +books. Sir Richard Whittington built a large library for the Grey Friars +in London, and they possessed considerable libraries at Oxford. + +It would be impossible to attempt here an account of all the libraries +established by the monastic orders. We must be content to enumerate a +few of the most eminent. + + + Monastic libraries. + +In Italy Monte Cassino is a striking example of the dangers and +vicissitudes to which monastic collections were exposed. Ruined by the +Lombards in the 6th century, the monastery was rebuilt and a library +established, to fall a prey to Saracens and to fire in the 9th. The +collection then reformed survived many other chances and changes, and +still exists. Boccaccio gives a melancholy description of its condition +in his day. It affords a conspicuous example of monastic industry in the +transcription not only of theological but also of classical works. The +library of Bobbio, which owed its existence to Irish monks, was famous +for its palimpsests. The collection, of which a catalogue of the 10th +century is given by Muratori (_Antiq. Ital. Med. Aev._ iii. 817-824), +was mainly transferred to the Ambrosian library at Milan. Of the library +of Pomposia, near Ravenna, Montfaucon has printed a catalogue dating +from the 11th century (_Diarium Italicum_, chap. xxii.). + +Of the monastic libraries of France the principal were those of Fleury, +of Cluny, of St Riquier and of Corbie. At Fleury Abbot Macharius in 1146 +imposed a contribution for library purposes upon the officers of the +community and its dependencies, an example which was followed elsewhere. +After many vicissitudes, its MSS., numbering 238, were deposited in 1793 +in the town library of Orleans. The library of St Riquier in the time +of Louis the Pious contained 256 MSS., with over 500 works. Of the +collection at Corbie in Picardy we have also catalogues dating from the +12th and from the 17th centuries. Corbie was famous for the industry of +its transcribers, and appears to have stood in active literary +intercourse with other monasteries. In 1638, 400 of its choicest +manuscripts were removed to St Germain-des-Prés. The remainder were +removed after 1794, partly to the national library at Paris, partly to +the town library of Amiens. + +The chief monastic libraries of Germany were at Fulda, Corvey, Reichenau +and Sponheim. The library at Fulda owed much to Charlemagne and to its +abbot Hrabanus Maurus. Under Abbot Sturmius four hundred monks were +hired as copyists. In 1561 the collection numbered 774 volumes. The +library of Corvey on the Weser, after being despoiled of some of its +treasures in the Reformation age, was presented to the university of +Marburg in 1811. It then contained 109 vols., with 400 or 500 titles. +The library of Reichenau, of which several catalogues are extant, fell a +prey to fire and neglect, and its ruin was consummated by the Thirty +Years' War. The library of Sponheim owes its great renown to John +Tritheim, who was abbot at the close of the 15th century. He found it +reduced to 10 vols., and left it with upwards of 2000 at his retirement. +The library at St Gall, formed as early as 816 by Gozbert, its second +abbot, still exists. + + + England. + +In England the principal collections were those of Canterbury, York, +Wearmouth, Jarrow, Whitby, Glastonbury, Croyland, Peterborough and +Durham. Of the library of the monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, +originally founded by Augustine and Theodore, and restored by Lanfranc +and Anselm, a catalogue has been preserved dating from the 13th or 14th +century, and containing 698 volumes, with about 3000 works. Bennet +Biscop, the first abbot of Wearmouth, made five journeys to Rome, and on +each occasion returned with a store of books for the library. It was +destroyed by the Danes about 867. Of the library at Whitby there is a +catalogue dating from the 12th century. The catalogue of Glastonbury has +been printed by Hearne in his edition of John of Glastonbury. When the +library of Croyland perished by fire in 1091 it contained about 700 +vols. The library at Peterborough was also rich; from a catalogue of +about the end of the 14th century it had 344 vols., with nearly 1700 +titles. The catalogues of the library at the monastery of Durham have +been printed by the Surtees Society, and form an interesting series. +These catalogues with many others[8] afford abundant evidence of the +limited character of the monkish collections, whether we look at the +number of their volumes or at the nature of their contents. The +scriptoria were manufactories of books and not centres of learning. That +in spite of the labours of so many transcribers the costliness and +scarcity of books remained so great may have been partly, but cannot +have been wholly, due to the scarcity of writing materials. It may be +suspected that indolence and carelessness were the rule in most +monasteries, and that but few of the monks keenly realized the whole +force of the sentiment expressed by one of their number in the 12th +century--"Claustrum sine armario quasi castrum sine armamentario." +Nevertheless it must be admitted that to the labours of the monastic +transcribers we are indebted for the preservation of Latin literature. + + + The development of library arrangements. + +The subject of the evolution of the arrangement of library rooms and +fittings as gradually developed throughout medieval Europe should not be +passed over.[9] The real origin of library organization in the Christian +world, one may almost say the origin of modern library methods, began +with the rule of St Benedict early in the 6th century. In the 48th +chapter the monks were ordered to borrow a book apiece and to read it +straight through. There was no special apartment for the books in the +primitive Benedictine house. After the books became too numerous to be +kept in the church they were preserved in _armaria_, or chests, in the +cloister; hence the word _armarius_, the Benedictine librarian, who at +first joined with it the office of precentor. The Benedictine +regulations were developed in the stricter observances of the Cluniacs, +which provided for a kind of annual report and stocktaking. The +Carthusians were perhaps the first to lend books away from the convent; +and the Cistercians to possess a separate library official as well as a +room specially devoted to books. The observances of the Augustinians +contained rules for the binding, repairing, cataloguing and arranging +the books by the librarian, as well as a prescription of the exact kind +of chest to be used. Among the Premonstratensians or Reformed +Augustinians, it was one of the duties of the librarian to provide for +the borrowing of books elsewhere for the use of the monks. The Mendicant +Friars found books so necessary that at last Richard de Bury tells us +with some exaggeration that their libraries exceeded all others. Many +volumes still exist which belonged to the library at Assisi, the parent +house of the Franciscans, of which a catalogue was drawn up in 1381. No +authentic monastic bookcase can now be found; the doubtful example shown +at Bayeux probably contained ecclesiastical utensils. At the Augustinian +priory at Barnwell the presses were lined with wood to keep out the damp +and were partitioned off both vertically and horizontally. Sometimes +there were recesses in the walls of the cloisters fitted with shelves +and closed with a door. These recesses developed into a small windowless +room in the Cistercian houses. At Clairvaux, Kirkstall, Fountains, +Tintern, Netley and elsewhere this small chamber was placed between the +chapter-house and the transept of the church. At Meaux in Holderness the +books were lodged on shelves against the walls and even over the door of +such a chamber. In many houses the treasury or spendiment contained two +classes of books--one for the monks generally, others more closely +guarded. A press near the infirmary contained books used by the reader +in the refectory. By the end of the 15th century the larger monasteries +became possessed of many volumes and found themselves obliged to store +the books, hitherto placed in various parts of the building, in a +separate apartment. We now find libraries being specially built at +Canterbury, Durham, Citeaux, Clairvaux and elsewhere, and with this +specialization there grew up increased liberality in the use of books +and learned strangers were admitted. Even at an early date students were +permitted to borrow from the Benedictines at St Germain-des-Prés at +Paris, of which a later foundation owned in 1513 a noble library erected +over the south wall of the cloister, and enlarged and made very +accessible to the outer world in the 17th and 18th centuries. The +methods and fittings of college libraries of early foundation closely +resembled those of the monastic libraries. There was in both the annual +giving out and inspection of what we would now call the lending +department for students; while the books, fastened by chains--a kind of +reference department kept in the library chamber for the common use of +the fellows--followed a similar system in monastic institutions. By the +15th century collegiate and monastic libraries were on the same plan, +with the separate room containing books placed on their sides on desks +or lecterns, to which they were attached by chains to a horizontal bar. +As the books increased the accommodation was augmented by one or two +shelves erected above the desks. The library at Cesena in North Italy +may still be seen in its original condition. The Laurentian library at +Florence was designed by Michelangelo on the monastic model. Another +good example of the old form may be seen, in the library of Merton +College at Oxford, a long narrow room with bookcases standing between +the windows at right angles to the walls. In the chaining system one end +was attached to the wooden cover of the book while the other ran freely +on a bar fixed by a method of double locks to the front of the shelf or +desk on which the book rested. The fore edges of the volumes faced the +reader. The seat and shelf were sometimes combined. Low cases were +subsequently introduced between the higher cases, and the seat replaced +by a step. Shelf lists were placed at the end of each case. There were +no chains in the library of the Escorial, erected in 1584, which showed +for the first time bookcases placed against the walls. Although chains +were no longer part of the appliances in the newly erected libraries +they continued to be used and were ordered in bequests in England down +to the early part of the 18th century. Triple desks and revolving +lecterns, raised by a wooden screw, formed part of the library +furniture. The English cathedral libraries were fashioned after the same +principle. The old methods were fully reproduced in the fittings at +Westminster, erected at a late date. Here we may see books on shelves +against the walls as well as in cases at right angles to the walls; the +desk-like shelves for the chained volumes (no longer in existence) have +a slot in which the chains could be suspended, and are hinged to allow +access to shelves below. An ornamental wooden tablet at the end of each +case is a survival of the old shelf list. By the end of the 17th century +the type of the public library developed from collegiate and monastic +prototypes, became fixed as it were throughout Europe (H. R. Tedder, +"Evolution of the Public Library," in _Trans. of 2nd Int. Library +Conference_, 1897, 1898). + + + Arabians. + +The first conquests of the Arabians, as we have already seen, threatened +hostility to literature. But, as soon as their conquests were secured, +the caliphs became the patrons of learning and science. Greek +manuscripts were eagerly sought for and translated into Arabic, and +colleges and libraries everywhere arose. Baghdad in the east and Cordova +in the west became the seats of a rich development of letters and +science during the age when the civilization of Europe was most +obscured. Cairo and Tripoli were also distinguished for their libraries. +The royal library of the Fatimites in Africa is said to have numbered +100,000 manuscripts, while that collected by the Omayyads of Spain is +reported to have contained six times as many. It is said that there were +no less than seventy libraries opened in the cities of Andalusia. +Whether these figures be exaggerated or not--and they are much below +those given by some Arabian writers, which are undoubtedly so--it is +certain that the libraries of the Arabians and the Moors of Spain offer +a very remarkable contrast to those of the Christian nations during the +same period.[10] + + + Renaissance. + +The literary and scientific activity of the Arabians appears to have +been the cause of a revival of letters amongst the Greeks of the +Byzantine empire in the 9th century. Under Leo the Philosopher and +Constantine Porphyrogenitus the libraries of Constantinople awoke into +renewed life. The compilations of such writers as Stobaeus, Photius and +Suidas, as well as the labours of innumerable critics and commentators, +bear witness to the activity, if not to the lofty character of the +pursuits, of the Byzantine scholars. The labours of transcription were +industriously pursued in the libraries and in the monasteries of Mount +Athos and the Aegean, and it was from these quarters that the restorers +of learning brought into Italy so many Greek manuscripts. In this way +many of the treasures of ancient literature had been already conveyed +to the West before the fate which overtook the libraries of +Constantinople on the fall of the city in 1453. + +Meanwhile in the West, with the reviving interest in literature which +already marks the 14th century, we find arising outside the monasteries +a taste for collecting books. St Louis of France and his successors had +formed small collections, none of which survived its possessor. It was +reserved for Charles V. to form a considerable library which he intended +to be permanent. In 1373 he had amassed 910 volumes, and had a catalogue +of them prepared, from which we see that it included a good deal of the +new sort of literature. In England Guy, earl of Warwick, formed a +curious collection of French romances, which he bequeathed to Bordesley +Abbey on his death in 1315. Richard d'Aungervyle of Bury, the author of +the _Philobiblon_, amassed a noble collection of books, and had special +opportunities of doing so as Edward III.'s chancellor and ambassador. He +founded Durham College at Oxford, and equipped it with a library a +hundred years before Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, made his benefaction +of books to the university. The taste for secular literature, and the +enthusiasm for the ancient classics, gave a fresh direction to the +researches of collectors. A disposition to encourage literature began to +show itself amongst the great. This was most notable amongst the Italian +princes. Cosimo de' Medici formed a library at Venice while living there +in exile in 1433, and on his return to Florence laid the foundation of +the great Medicean library. The honour of establishing the first modern +public library in Italy had been already secured by Niccolo Niccoli, who +left his library of over 800 volumes for the use of the public on his +death in 1436. Frederick, duke of Urbino, collected all the writings in +Greek and Latin which he could procure, and we have an interesting +account of his collection written by his first librarian, Vespasiano. +The ardour for classical studies led to those active researches for the +Latin writers who were buried in the monastic libraries which are +especially identified with the name of Poggio. For some time before the +fall of Constantinople, the perilous state of the Eastern empire had +driven many Greek scholars from that capital into western Europe, where +they had directed the studies and formed the taste of the zealous +students of the Greek language and literature. The enthusiasm of the +Italian princes extended itself beyond the Alps. Matthias Corvinus, king +of Hungary, amassed a collection of splendidly executed and +magnificently bound manuscripts, which at his death are said to have +reached the almost incredible number of 50,000 vols. The library was not +destined long to survive its founder. There is reason to believe that it +had been very seriously despoiled even before it perished at the hands +of the Turks on the fall of Buda in 1527. A few of its treasures are +still preserved in some of the libraries of Europe. While these +munificent patrons of learning were thus taking pains to recover and +multiply the treasures of ancient literature by the patient labour of +transcribers and calligraphers, an art was being elaborated which was +destined to revolutionize the whole condition of literature and +libraries. With the invention of printing, so happily coinciding with +the revival of true learning and sound science, the modern history of +libraries may be said to begin. + + +MODERN LIBRARIES + +In most of the European countries and in the United States libraries of +all kinds have during the last twenty years been undergoing a process of +development and improvement which has greatly altered their policy and +methods. At one time libraries were regarded almost entirely as +repositories for the storage of books to be used by the learned alone, +but now they are coming to be regarded more and more as workshops or as +places for intellectual recreation adapted for every department of life. +This is particularly to be found as the ideal in the public libraries of +the Anglo-Saxon races throughout the world. + +The following details comprise the chief points in the history, +equipment and methods of the various libraries and systems noticed. + + +_The United Kingdom._ + + British Museum. + +_State Libraries._--The British Museum ranks in importance before all +the great libraries of the world, and excels in the arrangement and +accessibility of its contents. The library consists of over 2,000,000 +printed volumes and 56,000 manuscripts, but this large total does not +include pamphlets and other small publications which are usually counted +in other libraries. Adding these together it is probable that over +5,000,000 items are comprised in the collections. This extraordinary +opulence is principally due to the enlightened energy of Sir Anthony +Panizzi (q.v.). The number of volumes in the printed book department, +when he took the keepership in 1837, was only 240,000; and during the +nineteen years he held that office about 400,000 were added, mostly by +purchase, under his advice and direction. It was Panizzi likewise who +first seriously set to work to see that the national library reaped all +the benefits bestowed upon it by the Copyright Act. + +The foundation of the British Museum dates from 1753, when effect was +given to the bequest (in exchange for £20,000 to be paid to his +executors) by Sir Hans Sloane, of his books, manuscripts, curiosities, +&c., to be held by trustees for the use of the nation. A bill was passed +through parliament for the purchase of the Sloane collections and of the +Harleian MSS., costing £10,000. To these, with the Cottonian MSS., +acquired by the country in 1700, was added by George II., in 1757, the +royal library of the former kings of England, coupled with the +privilege, which that library had for many years enjoyed, of obtaining a +copy of every publication entered at Stationers' Hall. This addition was +of the highest importance, as it enriched the museum with the old +collections of Archbishop Cranmer, Henry prince of Wales, and other +patrons of literature, while the transfer of the privilege with regard +to the acquisition of new books, a right which has been maintained by +successive Copyright Acts, secured a large and continuous augmentation. +A lottery having been authorized to defray the expenses of purchases, as +well as for providing suitable accommodation, the museum and library +were established in Montague House, and opened to the public 15th +January 1759. In 1763 George III. presented the well-known Thomason +collection (in 2220 volumes) of books and pamphlets issued in England +between 1640 and 1662, embracing all the controversial literature which +appeared during that period. The Rev. C. M. Cracherode, one of the +trustees, bequeathed his collection of choice books in 1799; and in 1820 +Sir Joseph Banks left to the nation his important library of 16,000 +vols. Many other libraries have since then been incorporated in the +museum, the most valuable being George III.'s royal collection (15,000 +vols. of tracts, and 65,259 vols. of printed books, including many of +the utmost rarity, which had cost the king about £130,000), which was +presented (for a pecuniary consideration, it has been said) by George +IV. in 1823, and that of the Right Honourable Thomas Grenville (20,240 +vols. of rare books, all in fine condition and binding), which was +acquired under bequest in 1846. The Cracherode, Banksian, King's and +Grenville libraries are still preserved as separate collections. Other +libraries of minor note have also been absorbed in a similar way, while, +at least since the time of Panizzi, no opportunity has been neglected of +making useful purchases at all the British and Continental book +auctions. + +The collection of English books is far from approaching completeness, +but, apart from the enormous number of volumes, the library contains an +extraordinary quantity of rarities. Few libraries in the United States +equal either in number or value the American books in the museum. The +collection of Slavonic literature, due to the initiative of Thomas +Watts, is also a remarkable feature. Indeed, in cosmopolitan interest +the museum is without a rival in the world, possessing as it does the +best library in any European language out of the territory in which the +language is vernacular. The Hebrew, the Chinese, and printed books in +other Oriental languages are important and represented in large numbers. +Periodical literature has not been forgotten, and the series of +newspapers is of great extent and interest. Great pains are taken by the +authorities to obtain the copies of the newspapers published in the +United Kingdom to which they are entitled by the provisions of the +Copyright Act, and upwards of 3400 are annually collected, filed and +bound. + +The department of MSS. is almost equal In importance to that of the +printed books. The collection of MSS. in European languages ranges from +the 3rd century before Christ down to our own times, and includes the +_Codex Alexandrinus_ of the Bible. The old historical chronicles of +England, the charters of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the celebrated +series of Arthurian romances are well represented; and care has been +taken to acquire on every available opportunity the imprinted works of +English writers. The famous collections of MSS. made by Sir Robert +Cotton and Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, have already been mentioned, +and from these and other sources the museum has become rich in early +Anglo-Saxon and Latin codices, some of them being marvels of skill in +calligraphy and ornamentation, such as the charters of King Edgar and +Henry I. to Hyde Abbey, which are written in gold letters; or the +Lindisfarne gospels (A.D. 700) containing the earliest extant +Anglo-Saxon version of the Latin gospels. The Burney collection of +classical MSS. furnished important additions, so that from this source +and from the collection of Arundel MSS. (transferred from the Royal +Society in 1831), the museum can boast of an early copy of the _Iliad_, +and one of the earliest known codices of the _Odyssey_. Among the +unrivalled collection of Greek papyri are the unique MSS. of several +works of ancient literature. Irish, French and Italian MSS. are well +represented. Special reference may be made to the celebrated Bedford +Hours, illuminated for the duke of Bedford, regent of France, to the +Sforza Book of Hours and to Queen Mary's Psalter. The Oriental +collection is also extremely valuable, including the library formed by +Mr Rich (consul at Baghdad in the early part of the 19th century), and a +vast quantity of Arabic, Persian and Turkish MSS.; the Chambers +collection of Sanskrit MSS.; several other collections of Indian MSS.; +and a copious library of Hebrew MSS. (including that of the great +scholar Michaelis, and codices of great age, recently brought from +Yemen). The collection of Syriac MSS., embracing the relics of the +famous library of the convent of St Mary Deipara in the Nitrian desert, +formed by the abbot Moses of Nisibis, in the 10th century, is the most +important in existence; of the large store of Abyssinian volumes many +were amassed after the campaign against King Theodore. The number of +genealogical rolls and documents relating to the local and family +history of Great Britain is very large. Altogether there are now more +than 56,000 MSS. (of which over 9000 are Oriental), besides more than +75,000 charters and rolls. There is a very large and valuable collection +of printed and manuscript music of all kinds, and it is probable that of +separate pieces there are nearly 200,000. The catalogue of music is +partly in manuscript and partly printed, and a separate printed +catalogue of the MS. music has been published. The number of maps is +also very large, and a printed catalogue has been issued. + + The general catalogue of the printed books was at one time kept in MS. + in large volumes, but since 1880 the entries have gradually been + superseded by the printed titles forming part of the large + alphabetical catalogue which was completed in 1900. This important + work is arranged in the order of authors' names, with occasional + special entries at words like Bible, periodicals and biographical + names. It is being constantly supplemented and forms an invaluable + bibliographical work of reference. + + The other printed catalogues of books commence with one published in 2 + vols. folio (1787), followed by that of 1813-1819 in 7 vols. 8vo; the + next is that of the library of George III. (1820-1829, 5 vols. folio, + with 2 vols. 8vo, 1834), describing the geographical and topographical + collections; and then the _Bibliotheca Grenvilliana_ (1842-1872, 4 + vols. 8vo). The first vol. (letter A) of a general catalogue appeared + in 1841 in a folio volume which has never been added to. The octavo + catalogue of the Hebrew books came out in 1867; that of the Sanskrit + and Pali literature is in 4to (1876); and the Chinese catalogue is + also in 4to (1877). There is a printed list of the books of reference + (1910) in the reading-room. + + The printed catalogues of the MSS. are--that of the old Royal Library + (1734, 4to), which in 1910 was shortly to be superseded by a new one; + the Sloane and others hitherto undescribed (1782, 2 vols. 4to); the + Cottonian (1802, folio); the Harleian (1808, 4 vols. folio); the + Hargrave (1818, 4to); the Lansdowne (1819, folio); the Arundel (1840, + folio); the Burney (1840, folio); the Stowe (1895-1896, 4to); the + Additional, in periodical volumes since 1836; the Greek Papyri + (1893-1910); the Oriental (Arabic and Ethiopic), 5 pts., folio + (1838-1871); the Syriac (1870-1873, 3 pts., 4to); the Ethiopic (1877, + 4to); the Persian (1879-1896, 4 vols. 4to); and the Spanish + (1875-1893, 4 vols. 8vo); Turkish (1888); Hebrew and Samaritan + (1900-1909, 3 vols.); Sanskrit (1903); Hindi, &c. (1899); Sinhalese + (1900). There are also catalogues of the Greek and Egyptian papyri + (1839-1846, 5 pts., folio). Many other special catalogues have been + issued, including one of the Thomason Collection of Civil War + pamphlets, Incunabula (vol. i.), Romances (MSS.), Music, Seals and + Arabic, Hebrew and other Oriental books, maps, prints and drawings. + Perhaps the most useful catalogue of all is the _Subject-index to + Modern Works_ issued in 1881-1905 (4 vols.) and compiled by Mr G. K. + Fortescue. + + The _Rules for compiling catalogues in the department of printed + books_ were revised and published in 1906. + +The building in which the library is housed forms part of the fine group +situated in Great Russell Street in central London, and is distinguished +by a stately circular reading-room designed by Sydney Smirke from +suggestions and sketches supplied by Sir A. Panizzi. This was begun in +1855 and opened in 1857. The room is surrounded by book stores placed in +galleries with iron floors, in which, owing to congestion of stock, +various devices have been introduced, particularly a hanging and rolling +form of auxiliary bookcase. The presses inside the reading-room, +arranged in three tiers, contain upwards of 60,000 vols., those on the +ground floor (20,000) being books of reference to which readers have +unlimited access. The accommodation for readers is comfortable and +roomy, each person having a portion of table fitted with various +conveniences. Perhaps not the least convenient arrangement here is the +presence of the staff in the centre of the room, at the service of +readers who require aid. + + In order to enjoy the privilege of reading at the British Museum, the + applicant (who must be over twenty-one years of age) must obtain a + renewable ticket of admission through a recommendation from a + householder addressed to the principal librarian. + + The pressure upon the space at the command of the library has been so + great that additional land at the rear and sides of the existing + buildings was purchased by the government for the further extension of + the Museum. One very important wing facing Torrington Square was + nearly completed in 1910. The Natural History Museum, South + Kensington, a department of the British Museum under separate + management, has a library of books on the natural sciences numbering + nearly 100,000 vols. + + + Patent Office. + +Next in importance to the British Museum, and superior to it in +accessibility, is the Library of the Patent Office in Southampton +Buildings, London. This is a department of the Board of Trade, and +though primarily intended for office use and patentees, it is really a +public library freely open to anyone. The only formality required from +readers is a signature in a book kept in the entrance hall. After this +readers have complete access to the shelves. The library contains +considerably over 110,000 vols., and possesses complete sets of the +patents specifications of all countries, and a remarkable collection of +the technical and scientific periodicals of all countries. The library +was first opened in 1855, in somewhat unsuitable premises, and in 1897 +it was transferred to a handsome new building. + + The reading-room is provided with two galleries and the majority of + the books are open to public inspection without the need for + application forms. A printed catalogue in author-alphabetical form has + been published with supplement, and in addition, separate subject + catalogues are issued. This is one of the most complete libraries of + technology in existence, and its collection of scientific transactions + and periodicals is celebrated. + + + Other state libraries. + +Another excellent special library is the National Art Library, founded +in 1841 and transferred to South Kensington in 1856. It contains about +half a million books, prints, drawings and photographs, and is used +mostly by the students attending the art schools, though the general +public can obtain admission on payment of sixpence per week. + +A somewhat similar library on the science side is the Science Library +of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, which was founded +in 1857. It is a general science collection and incorporates most of the +books which at one time were in the Museum of Practical Geology. + +The only other state library which is open to the public is that of the +Board of Education in Whitehall, which was opened in a new building in +1908. It contains a large collection of works on educational subjects +for which a special classification has been devised and printed. + + The other state libraries in London may be briefly noted as follows: + Admiralty (1700), 40,000 vols.; College of Arms, or Heralds College, + 15,000 vols.; Colonial Office, c. 15,000 vols.; Foreign Office, c. + 80,000 vols.; Home Office (1800) c. 10,000 vols.; House of Commons + (1818), c. 50,000 vols.; House of Lords (1834), 50,000 vols.; India + Office (1800), c. 86,000 vols.; Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens (1853), + 22,000 vols.; and Royal Observatory (Greenwich), c. 20,000 vols. + + Outside London the most important state library is the National + Library of Ireland, Dublin, founded in 1877 and incorporating the + library of the Royal Dublin Society. It is housed in a handsome + building (1890) and contains about 200,000 vols., classified on the + Decimal system, and catalogued in various forms. The library of the + Museum of Science and Art at Edinburgh, containing over 20,000 vols., + was opened to the public in 1890. Practically every department of the + state has a reference library of some kind for the use of the staff, + and provision is also made for lending libraries and reading-rooms in + connexion with garrisons, naval depots and other services of the army + and navy. + +No professional qualifications are required for positions in British +state libraries, most of the assistants being merely second-division +clerks who have passed the Civil Service examinations. It would be an +advantage from an administrative point of view if the professional +certificates of the Library Association were adopted by the Civil +Service Commissioners as compulsory requirements in addition to their +own examination. The official recognition of a grade of properly trained +librarians would tend to improve the methods and efficiency of the state +libraries, which are generally behind the municipal libraries in +organization and administration. + + + Oxford. + +_University and Collegiate Libraries._--The Bodleian Library, Oxford, +though it had been preceded by various efforts towards a university +library, owed its origin to Sir Thomas Bodley (q.v.). Contributing +largely himself, and procuring contributions from others, he opened the +library with upwards of 2000 vols. in 1602. In 1610 he obtained a grant +from the Stationers' Company of a copy of every work printed in the +country, a privilege still enjoyed under the provisions of the various +copyright acts. The additions made to the library soon surpassed the +capacity of the room, and the founder proceeded to enlarge it. By his +will he left considerable property to the university for the maintenance +and increase of the library. The example set by Bodley found many noble +imitators. Amongst the chief benefactors have been Archbishop Laud, the +executors of Sir Kenelm Digby, John Selden, Sir Thomas (Lord) Fairfax, +Richard Gough, Francis Douce, Richard Rawlinson, and the Rev. Robert +Mason. The library now contains almost 800,000 printed vols., and about +41,000 manuscripts. But the number of volumes, as bound up, conveys a +very inadequate idea of the size or value of the collection. In the +department of Oriental manuscripts it is perhaps superior to any other +European library; and it is exceedingly rich in other manuscript +treasures. It possesses a splendid series of Greek and Latin _editiones +principes_ and of the earliest productions of English presses. Its +historical manuscripts contain most valuable materials for the general +and literary history of the country. + + The last general catalogue of the printed books was printed in 4 vols. + folio (1843-1851). In 1859 it was decided to prepare a new manuscript + catalogue on the plan of that then in use at the British Museum, and + this has been completed in duplicate. In 1910 it was being amended + with a view to printing. It is an alphabetical author-catalogue; and + the Bodleian, like the British Museum, has no complete subject-index. + A slip-catalogue on subjects was, however, in course of preparation in + 1910, and there are classified hand-lists of accessions since 1883. + There are also printed catalogues of the books belonging to several of + the separate collections. The MSS. are in general catalogued according + to the collections to which they belong, and they are all indexed. A + number of the catalogues of manuscripts have been printed. + + +In 1860 the beautiful Oxford building known as the "Radcliffe Library," +now called the "Radcliffe Camera," was offered to the curators of the +Bodleian by the Radcliffe trustees. The Radcliffe Library was founded by +the famous physician Dr John Radcliffe, who died in 1714, and +bequeathed, besides a permanent endowment of £350 a year, the sum of +£40,000 for a building. The library was opened in 1749. Many years ago +the trustees resolved to confine their purchases of books to works on +medicine and natural science. When the university museum and +laboratories were built in 1860, the trustees allowed the books to be +transferred to the museum. It is used as a storehouse for the more +modern books, and it also serves as a reading-room. It is the only room +open after the hour when the older building is closed owing to the rule +as to the exclusion of artificial light. In 1889 the gallery of the +Radcliffe Camera was opened as an addition to the reading-room. + + A _Staff Kalendar_ has been issued since 1902, which with a + _Supplement_ contains a complete list of cataloguing rules, routine + work of the libraries and staff, and useful information of many kinds + concerning the library methods. + +The Bodleian Library is open by right to all graduate members of the +university, and to others upon producing a satisfactory recommendation. +No books are allowed to be sent out of the library except by special +leave of the curators and convocation of the university. The +administration and control of the library are committed to a librarian +and board of thirteen curators. The permanent endowment is comparatively +small; the ordinary expenditure, chiefly defrayed from the university +chest, is about £10,000. Within recent years the use of wheeling metal +bookcases has been greatly extended, and a large repository has been +arranged for economical book storage underground. + + The Taylor Institution is due to the benefaction of Sir Robert Taylor, + an architect, who died in 1788, leaving his property to found an + establishment for the teaching of modern languages. The library was + established in 1848, and is devoted to the literature of the modern + European languages. It contains a fair collection of works on European + philology, with a special Dante collection, about 1000 Mazarinades and + 400 Luther pamphlets. The Finch collection, left to the university in + 1830, is also kept with the Taylor Library. Books are lent out to + members of the university and to others on a proper introduction. The + endowment affords an income of £800 to £1000 for library purposes. + + The libraries of the several colleges vary considerably in extent and + character, although, owing chiefly to limited funds, the changes and + growth of all are insignificant. That of All Souls was established in + 1443 by Archbishop Chichele, and enlarged in 1710 by the munificent + bequest of Christopher Codrington. It devotes special attention to + jurisprudence, of which it has a large collection. It possesses 40,000 + printed volumes and 300 MSS., and fills a splendid hall 200 ft. long. + The library of Brasenose College has a special endowment fund, so that + it has, for a college library, the unusually large income of £200. The + library of Christ Church is rich in divinity and topography. It + embraces the valuable library bequeathed by Charles Boyle, 4th earl of + Orrery, amounting to 10,000 volumes, the books and MSS. of Archbishop + Wake, and the Morris collection of Oriental books. The building was + finished in 1761, and closely resembles the basilica of Antoninus at + Rome, now the Dogana. Corpus possesses a fine collection of Aldines, + many of them presented by its founder, Bishop Fox, and a collection of + 17th-century tracts catalogued by Mr Edwards, with about 400 MSS. + Exeter College Library has 25,000 volumes, with special collections of + classical dissertations and English theological and political tracts. + The library of Jesus College has few books of later date than the + early part of the last century. Many of them are from the bequest of + Sir Leoline Jenkins, who built the existing library. There are also + some valuable Welsh MSS. The library of Keble College consists largely + of theology, including the MSS. of many of Keble's works. The library + of Magdalen College has about 22,500 volumes (including many volumes + of pamphlets) and 250 MSS. It has scientific and topographical + collections. The library of Merton College has of late devoted itself + to foreign modern history. New College Library has about 17,000 + printed volumes and about 350 MSS., several of which were presented by + its founder, William of Wykeham. Oriel College Library, besides its + other possessions, has a special collection of books on comparative + philology and mythology, with a printed catalogue. The fine library of + Queen's College is strong in theology, in English and modern European + history, and in English county histories. St John's College Library is + largely composed of the literature of theology and jurisprudence + before 1750, and possesses a collection of medical books of the 16th + and 17th centuries. The newer half of the library building was + erected by Inigo Jones at the expense of Laud, who also gave many + printed and manuscript books. The room used as a library at Trinity + College formed part of Durham College, the library of which was + established by Richard of Bury. Wadham College Library includes a + collection of botanical books bequeathed by Richard Warner in 1775 and + a collection of books, relating chiefly to the Spanish Reformers, + presented by the executors of Benjamin Wiffen. Worcester College + Library has of late specially devoted itself to classical archaeology. + It is also rich in old plays. + + The college libraries as a rule have not been used to the extent they + deserve, and a good deal must be done before they can be said to be as + useful and efficient as they might be. + + + Cambridge. + +The history of the University Library at Cambridge dates from the +earlier part of the 15th century. Two early lists of its contents are +preserved, the first embracing 52 vols. dating from about 1425, the +second a shelf-list, apparently of 330 vols., drawn up by the outgoing +proctors in 1473. Its first great benefactor was Thomas Scott of +Rotherham, archbishop of York, who erected in 1475 the building in which +the library continued until 1755. He also gave more than 200 books and +manuscripts to the library, some of which still remain. The library +received other benefactions, but nevertheless appeared "but mean" to +John Evelyn when he visited Cambridge in 1654. In 1666 Tobias Rustat +presented a sum of money to be invested to buy the choicest and most +useful books. In 1715 George I. presented the library of Bishop Moore, +which was very rich in early English printed books, forming over 30,000 +vols. of printed books and manuscripts. The funds bequeathed by William +Worts and John Manistre, together with that of Rustat, produce at +present about £1500 a year. The share of university dues appropriated to +library purposes amounts to £3000 a year. In addition the library is +entitled to new books under the Copyright Acts. The number of printed +volumes in the library cannot be exactly stated, as no recent +calculation on the subject exists. It has been estimated at half a +million. It includes a fine series of _editiones principes_ of the +classics and of the early productions of the English press. The MSS. +number over 6000, in which are included a considerable number of +adversaria or printed books with MS. notes, which form a leading feature +in the collection. The most famous of the MSS. is the celebrated copy of +the four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, which is known as _Codex +Bezae_, and which was presented to the university by that Reformer. + + A catalogue of the MSS. has been published in 4 vols. (1856-1861), and + this has been followed up by the publication of a number of separate + catalogues of Persian, Syriac, Hebrew, Chinese, &c., MSS. There is no + published catalogue of the books, although the catalogue is in print, + the accessions being printed and cut up and arranged in volumes. A + catalogue of English books before 1640 is in course of publication. + The regulations of the library with regard to the lending of books are + very liberal, as many as ten volumes being allowed out to one borrower + at the same time. The annual income is about £7000. + +There is a library attached to the Fitzwilliam Museum, bequeathed to the +university in 1816. It consists of the entire library of Lord +Fitzwilliam, with the addition of an archaeological library bought from +the executors of Colonel Leake, and a small number of works, chiefly on +the history of art, since added by purchase or bequest. It contains a +collection of engravings of old masters, a collection of music, printed +and MS., and a collection of illuminated MSS., chiefly French and +Flemish, of the 14th to 16th centuries. The books are not allowed to be +taken out. Catalogues and reprints of some of the music and other +collections have been published. + + The library of Trinity College, which is contained in a magnificent + hall built by Sir Christopher Wren, has about 90,000 printed and 1918 + MS. vols., and is especially strong in theology, classics and + bibliography. It owes to numerous gifts and bequests the possession of + a great number of rare books and manuscripts. Amongst these special + collections are the Capell collection of early dramatic and especially + Shakespearian literature, the collection of German theology and + philosophy bequeathed by Archdeacon Hare, and the Grylls bequest in + 1863 of 9600 vols., including many early printed books. There are + printed catalogues of the Sanskrit and other Oriental MSS. by Dr + Aufrecht and Professor Palmer, and of the incunabula by the late + librarian, Mr Sinker. The library is open to all members of the + college, and the privilege of using it is liberally extended to + properly accredited students. One of the most interesting libraries + is that of Trinity Hall, in which the original bookcases and benches + are preserved, and many books are seen chained to the cases, as used + formerly to be the practice. + + None of the other college libraries rivals Trinity in the number of + books. The library of Christ's College received its first books from + the foundress. Clare College Library includes a number of Italian and + Spanish plays of the end of the 16th century left by George Ruggle. + The library of Corpus Christi College first became notable through the + bequest of books and MSS. made by Archbishop Parker in 1575. The + printed books are less than 5000 in number, and the additions now made + are chiefly in such branches as throw light on the extremely valuable + collection of ancient MSS., which attracts scholars from all parts of + Europe. There is a printed catalogue of these MSS. Gonville and Caius + College Library is of early foundation. A catalogue of the MSS. was + printed in 1849, with pictorial illustrations, and a list of the + incunabula in 1850. The printed books of King's College includes the + fine collection bequeathed by Jacob Bryant in 1804. The MSS. are + almost wholly Oriental, chiefly Persian and Arabic, and a catalogue of + them has been printed. Magdalene College possesses the curious library + formed by Pepys and bequeathed by him to the college, together with + his collections of prints and drawings and of rare British portraits. + It is remarkable for its treasures of popular literature and English + ballads, as well as for the Scottish manuscript poetry collected by + Sir Richard Maitland. The books are kept in Pepys's own cases, and + remain just as he arranged them himself. The library Of Peterhouse is + the oldest library in Cambridge, and possesses a catalogue of some 600 + or 700 books dating from 1418, in which year it was completed. It is + chiefly theological, though it possesses a valuable collection of + modern works on geology and natural science, and a unique collection + of MS. music. Queen's College Library contains about 30,000 vols. + mainly in theology, classics and Semitic literature, and has a printed + class-catalogue. The library of St John's College is rich in early + printed books, and possesses a large collection of English historical + tracts. Of the MSS. and rare books there is a printed catalogue. + + + London. + +The library of the university of London, founded in 1837, has over +60,000 vols, and includes the Goldsmith Library of economic literature, +numbering 30,000 vols. Other collections are De Morgan's collection of +mathematical books, Grote's classical library, &c. There is a printed +catalogue of 1897, with supplements. Since its removal to South +Kensington, this library has been greatly improved and extended. +University College Library, Gower Street, established in 1829, has close +upon 120,000 vols. made up chiefly of separate collections which have +been acquired from time to time. Many of these collections overlap, and +much duplicating results, leading to congestion. These collections +include Jeremy Bentham's library, Morrison's Chinese library, Barlow's +Dante library, collections of law, mathematical, Icelandic, theological, +art, oriental and other books, some of them of great value. + +King's College Library, founded in 1828, has over 30,000 vols. chiefly +of a scientific character. In close association with the university of +London is the London School of Economics and Political Science in Clare +Market, in which is housed the British Library of Political Science with +50,000 vols. and a large number of official reports and pamphlets. + +The collegiate library at Dulwich dates from 1619, and a list of its +earliest accessions, in the handwriting of the founder, may still be +seen. There are now about 17,000 vols. of miscellaneous works of the +17th and 18th centuries, with a few rare books. A catalogue of them was +printed in 1880; and one describing the MSS. (567) and the muniments +(606) was issued during the succeeding year. The last two classes are +very important, and include the well-known "Alleyn Papers" and the +theatrical diary of Philip Henslow. Sion College is a gild of the +parochial clergy of the city and suburbs of London, and the library was +founded in 1629 for their use; laymen may also read (but not borrow) the +books when recommended by some beneficed metropolitan clergyman. The +library is especially rich in liturgies, Port-Royal authors, pamphlets, +&c., and contains about 100,000 vols. classified on a modification of +the Decimal system. The copyright privilege was commuted in 1835 for an +annual sum of £363, 15s. 2d. The present building was opened in 1886 and +is one of the striking buildings of the Victoria Embankment. + + Most of the London collegiate or teaching institutions have libraries + attached to them, and it will only be necessary to mention a few of + the more important to get an idea of their variety: Baptist College + (1810), 13,000 vols.; Bedford College (for women), 17,000 vols.; + Birkbeck College (1823), 12,000 vols.; Congregational Library + (1832-1893), 14,000 vols.; the Royal College of Music, containing the + library of the defunct Sacred Harmonic Society; Royal Naval College + (Greenwich, 1873), 7000 vols.; St Bartholomew's Hospital (1422), + 15,000 vols.; St Paul's School (1509), 10,000 vols.; the Working Men's + College (1854), 5000 vols.; and all the Polytechnic schools in the + Metropolitan area. + + + English provinces. + +The university library of Durham (1832) contains about 35,000 vols., and +all the modern English universities--Birmingham, Mason University +College (1880), 27,000 vols.; Leeds, Liverpool (1882), 56,000 vols.; +Manchester, Victoria University, which absorbed Owens College (1851), +115,000 vols.; Newcastle-upon-Tyne; Sheffield (1907), &c.--have +collections of books. The libraries in connexion with theological +colleges and public schools throughout England are often quite +extensive, and reference may be made to Eton College (1441), 25,000 +vols.; Haileybury (1862), 12,000 vols.; Harrow (Vaughan Library), 12,000 +vols.; Mill Hill; Oscott College, Erdington (1838), 36,000 vols.; Rugby +(1878), 8000 vols.; Stonyhurst College (1794), c. 40,000 vols., &c. The +new building for the university of Wales at Bangor has ample +accommodation for an adequate library, and the University College at +Aberystwith is also equipped with a library. + + + Scotland. + +The origin of the University Library of Edinburgh is to be found in a +bequest of his books of theology and law made to the town in 1580 by +Clement Little, advocate. This was two years before the foundation of +the university, and in 1584 the town council caused the collection to be +removed to the college, of which they were the patrons. As it was the +only library in the town, it continued to grow and received many +benefactions, so that in 1615 it became necessary to erect a library +building. Stimulated perhaps by the example of Bodley at Oxford, +Drummond of Hawthornden made a large donation of books, of which he +printed a catalogue in 1627, and circulated an appeal for assistance +from others. In 1678 the library received a bequest of 2000 vols. from +the Rev. James Nairne. In 1709 the library became entitled to the copy +privilege, which has since been commuted for a payment of £575 per +annum. In 1831 the books were removed to the present library buildings, +for which a parliamentary grant had been obtained. The main library hall +(190 ft. in length) is one of the most splendid apartments in Scotland. +One of the rooms is set apart as a memorial to General Reid, by whose +benefaction the library has greatly benefited. Amongst the more recent +accessions have been the Halliwell-Phillips Shakespeare collection, the +Laing collection of Scottish MSS., the Baillie collection of Oriental +MSS. (some of which are of great value), and the Hodgson collection of +works on political economy. The library now consists of about 210,000 +vols. of printed books with over 2000 MSS. Recently it has been found +necessary to make considerable additions to the shelving. The library of +the university of Glasgow dates from the 15th century, and numbers +George Buchanan and many other distinguished men amongst its early +benefactors. A classified subject-catalogue has been printed, and there +is also a printed dictionary catalogue. The annual accessions are about +1500, and the commutation-grant £707. Connected with the university, +which is trustee for the public, is the library of the Hunterian Museum, +formed by the eminent anatomist Dr William Hunter. It is a collection of +great bibliographical interest, as it is rich in MSS. and in fine +specimens of early printing, especially in Greek and Latin classics. +There are about 200,000 vols. in the library. + + The first mention of a library at St Andrews is as early as 1456. The + three colleges were provided with libraries of their own about the + time of their foundation--St Salvator's 1455, St Leonard's 1512, St + Mary's 1537. The University Library was established about 1610 by King + James VI., and in the course of the 18th century the college libraries + were merged in it. The copyright privilege was commuted in 1837. The + collection numbers 120,000 vols. exclusive of pamphlets, with about + 200 MSS., chiefly of local interest. A library is supposed to have + existed at Aberdeen since the foundation of King's College by Bishop + Elphinstone in 1494. The present collection combines the libraries of + King's College and Marischal College, now incorporated in the + university. The latter had its origin in a collection of books formed + by the town authorities at the time of the Reformation, and for some + time kept in one of the churches. The library has benefited by the + Melvin bequest, chiefly of classical books, and those of Henderson and + Wilson, and contains some very valuable books. The general library is + located in Old Aberdeen in a room of imposing design, while the + medical and law books are in the New Town in Marischal College. The + library has a grant, in lieu of the copyright privilege, of £320. The + annual income of the library is £2500, and it contains over 180,000 + vols. The books are classified on a modification of the decimal + system, and there are printed author and MS. subject-catalogues. By + arrangement with the municipal library authority, books are lent to + non-students. All the technical schools, public schools, and + theological and other colleges in Scotland are well equipped with + libraries as the following list will show:--Aberdeen: Free Church + College, 17,000 vols. Edinburgh: Fettes College, c. 5000 vols.; + Heriot's Hospital (1762), c. 5000 vols.; New College (1843), 50,000 + vols. Glasgow: Anderson's College (containing the valuable Euing music + library), 16,000 vols.; United Free Church Theological College, 33,000 + vols. Trinity College, Glenalmond, 5000 vols. + + + Ireland. + +The establishment of the library of Trinity College, Dublin, is +contemporaneous with that of the Bodleian at Oxford, and it is an +interesting circumstance that, when Challoner and Ussher (afterwards the +archbishop) were in London purchasing books to form the library, they +met Bodley there, and entered into friendly intercourse and co-operation +with him to procure the choicest and best books. The commission was +given to Ussher and Challoner as trustees of the singular donation which +laid the foundation of the library. In the year 1601 the English army +determined to commemorate their victory over the Spanish troops at +Kinsale by some permanent monument. Accordingly they subscribed the sum +of £1800 to establish a library in the university of Dublin. For +Ussher's own collection, consisting of 10,000 vols. and many valuable +MSS., the college was also indebted to military generosity. On his death +in 1655 the officers and soldiers of the English army then in Ireland +purchased the whole collection for £22,000 with the design of presenting +it to the college. Cromwell, however, interfered, alleging that he +proposed to found a new college, where the books might more conveniently +be preserved. They were deposited therefore in Dublin Castle, and the +college only obtained them after the Restoration. In 1674 Sir Jerome +Alexander left his law books with some valuable MSS. to the college. In +1726 Dr Palliser, archbishop of Cashel, bequeathed over 4000 vols. to +the library; and ten years later Dr Gilbert gave the library nearly +13,000 vols. which he had himself collected and arranged. In 1745 the +library received a valuable collection of MSS. as a bequest from Dr +Stearne. In 1802 the collection formed by the pensionary Fagel, which +had been removed to England on the French invasion of Holland, was +acquired for £10,000. It consisted of over 20,000 vols. In 1805 Mr Quin +bequeathed a choice collection of classical and Italian books. There +have been many other smaller donations, in addition to which the library +is continually increased by the books received under the Copyright Act. +The library now contains 300,000 vols. and over 2000 MSS. There is no +permanent endowment, and purchases are made by grants from the board. +The whole collections are contained in one building, erected in 1732, +consisting of eight rooms. The great library hall is a magnificent +apartment over 200 ft. long. A new reading-room was opened in 1848. A +catalogue of the books acquired before 1872 has been printed (1887). +There is a printed catalogue of the MSS. and Incunabula (1890). +Graduates of Dublin, Oxford, and Cambridge are admitted to read +permanently, and temporary admission is granted by the board to any fit +person who makes application. + + The library of Queen's College, Belfast (1849), contains about 60,000 + vols., while Queen's College, Cork (1849), has over 32,000 vols. St + Patrick's College, Maynooth (1795), has about 60,000, and other + collegiate libraries are well supplied with books. + + + Cathedral and church libraries. + +With one or two exceptions, libraries are attached to the cathedrals of +England and Wales. Though they are of course intended for the use of the +cathedral or diocesan clergy, they are in most cases open to any +respectable person who may be properly introduced. They seldom contain +very much modern literature, chiefly consisting of older theology, with +more or less addition of classical and historical literature. They vary +in extent from a few volumes, as at Llandaff or St David's, to 20,000 +vols., as at Durham. Together they possess nearly 150,000 printed and +manuscript vols. As a rule, very little is spent upon them, and they are +very little used. The chamber in the old cloisters, in which the library +of the dean and chapter of Westminster is preserved, is well known from +the charming description by Washington Irving in his _Sketch Book_. +There are about 14,000 vols., mostly of old theology and history, +including many rare Bibles and other valuable books. The library of the +dean and chapter of St Paul's Cathedral was founded in very early times, +and now numbers some 22,000 vols. and pamphlets, mainly theological, +with a good collection of early Bibles and Testaments, Paul's Cross +Sermons, and works connected with the cathedral. + +Perhaps the best library of Catholic theology in London is that of the +Oratory at South Kensington, established in 1849, and now containing +nearly 35,000 vols. The Catholic Cathedral of Westminster, of recent +foundation, contains about 22,000 vols. The archiepiscopal library at +Lambeth was founded in 1610 by Archbishop Bancroft, and has been +enriched by the gifts of Laud, Tenison, Manners Sutton, and others of +his successors; it is now lodged in the noble hall built by Juxon. The +treasures consist of the illuminated MSS., and a rich store of early +printed books; of the latter two catalogues have been issued by Samuel +Roffey Maitland (1792-1866). The MSS. are described in H. J. Todd's +catalogue, 1812. The total number of printed books and manuscripts is +nearly 45,000. + + The library of Christ Church, Oxford, belongs alike to the college and + the cathedral, but will be more properly described as a college + library. The cathedral library of Durham dates from monastic times, + and possesses many of the books which belonged to the monastery. These + were added to by Dean Sudbury, the second founder of the library, and + Bishop Cosin. The collection has been considerably increased in more + modern times, and now contains 15,000 vols. It is especially rich in + MSS., some of which are of great beauty and value; a catalogue of them + was printed in 1825. The library has good topographical and + entomological collections. The chapter spend £370 per annum in + salaries and in books. The library at York numbers about 11,000 vols., + and has been very liberally thrown open to the public. It is kept in + the former chapel of the archbishop's palace, and has many valuable + MSS. and early printed books. The foundation of the library at + Canterbury dates probably from the Roman mission to England, A.D. 596, + although the library does not retain any of the books then brought + over, or even of the books said to have been sent by Pope Gregory to + the first archbishop in 601. It is recorded that among Lanfranc's + buildings was a new library, and Becket is said to have collected + books abroad to present to the library. The collection now numbers + about 9900 printed books, with about 110 MS. vols., and between 6000 + and 7000 documents. A catalogue was printed in 1802. The present + building was erected in 1867 on part of the site of the monastic + dormitory. The library at Lincoln contains 7400 vols., of which a + catalogue was printed in 1859. It possesses a fine collection of + political tracts of the age of Elizabeth, James and Charles I. The + present collection at Chichester dates from the Restoration only; that + at Ely is rich in books and tracts relating to the non-jurors. The + library at Exeter possesses many Saxon MSS. of extreme interest, one + of them being the gift of Leofric, the first bishop. The treasures of + Lichfield were destroyed by the Puritans during the civil war, and the + existing library is of later formation. Frances, duchess of Somerset, + bequeathed to it nearly 1000 vols., including the famous Evangeliary + of St Chad. The collection at Norwich is chiefly modern, and was + presented by Dr Sayers. The earlier library at Peterborough having + almost wholly perished in the civil war, Bishop White Kennett became + the virtual founder of the present collection. Salisbury is rich in + incunabula, and a catalogue has recently been printed. Winchester + Cathedral Library is mainly the bequest of Bishop Morley in the 17th + century. The library at Bristol, then numbering 6000 or 7000 vols., + was burnt and pillaged by the mob in the riots of 1831. Only about + 1000 vols. were saved, many of which were recovered, but few additions + have been made to them. At Chester in 1691 Dean Arderne bequeathed his + books and part of his estate "as the beginning of a public library for + the clergy and city." The library of Hereford is a good specimen of an + old monastic library; the books are placed in the Lady Chapel, and + about 230 choice MSS. are chained to oaken desks. The books are ranged + with the edges outwards upon open shelves, to which they are attached + by chains and bars. Another most interesting "chained" library is that + at Wimborne Minster, Dorset, which contains about 280 books in their + original condition. The four Welsh cathedrals were supplied with + libraries by a deed of settlement in 1709. The largest of them, that + of St Asaph, has about 1750 vols. The Bibliotheca Leightoniana, or + Leightonian Library, founded by Archbishop Leighton in 1684 in + Dunblane Cathedral, Scotland, contains about 2000 vols., and is the + only cathedral library in Scotland of any historic interest. The + library of St Benedict's Abbey, Fort Augustus (1878) with 20,000 vols. + is an example of a recent foundation. The public library in St + Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, sometimes called Marsh's Library after + its founder, was established about 1694 by Archbishop Marsh, was + incorporated by act of parliament in 1707, and endowed by its founder + at his death in 1713. The building was erected by the founder, and the + original oak fittings still remain. There is no room for additions, + and a large collection of modern books was refused a few years ago on + that account. The endowment is too small to allow of purchases from + the funds of the library, so that it still retains the character of a + 17th-century library. The books are chiefly theological, and in the + learned languages; they include the libraries of Bishop Stillingfleet + and of Elias Bouhereau, a French refugee, who was the first librarian. + + + Endowed libraries. + +Endowed libraries may be defined as those which have been directly +established by the bequests of individuals or corporate bodies, +excluding those which have been assisted by donors or are merely named +after them. As compared with the United States, the endowed libraries of +Britain are few in number, although several are of great importance. +London possesses very few libraries which have been endowed by +individual donors. The principal are the Bishopsgate Institute (1891), +which was founded out of sundry City of London charities, and now +contains about 44,000 vols., and is celebrated for a fine collection of +local prints, drawings and maps. It is open free to persons in the east +part of the City. The Cripplegate Institute (1896) in Golden Lane, also +founded out of charity moneys, has three branches--St Bride's Foundation +Institute (18,000 vols.), jointly; Queen Street, Cheapside, Branch (8000 +vols.); and St Luke's Institute (5000 vols.)--and contains 28,000 vols. +Lectures and other entertainments are features of both these libraries. +Dr Williams' library was founded by the will of an eminent Presbyterian +divine of that name; it was opened in 1729. The books (50,000) are +housed in a new building in Gordon Square, completed in 1873. Theology +of all schools of opinion is represented, and there are special +collections of theosophical books and MSS., the works of Boehme, Law, +and other mystical writers. The MSS. include the original minutes of the +Westminster Assembly, letters and treatises of Richard Baxter, &c. The +St Bride Foundation Technical Reference Library (1895) is a very +complete collection of books and specimens of printing and the allied +arts, including the libraries of William Blades and Talbot Baines Reed, +and a number of more modern books presented by Mr Passmore Edwards. It +contains about 18,000 vols., and is open to all persons interested in +printing, lithography, &c., and also to the general public. + + The most notable of the English provincial endowed libraries are those + established in Manchester. The fine old library established by + Humphrey Chetham in 1653 is still housed in the old collegiate + buildings where Sir Walter Raleigh was once entertained by Dr Dee. The + collection consists largely of older literature, and numbers about + 60,000 volumes and MSS. It is freely open to the public, and may be + said to have been the first free library in England. Catalogues in + broad classified form were issued in 1791-1863, and there have been + supplements since. A remarkable instance of a great library + established by private munificence is that of the John Rylands Library + at Manchester, which was founded, erected and endowed by Mrs E. A. + Rylands in memory of her husband, and is contained in a magnificent + building designed by Basil Champneys and opened in 1899. The + collection was formed largely on the famous Althorp Library, made by + Earl Spencer (40,000 vols.), one of the most remarkable collections of + early printed books and rare Bibles ever brought together. The present + number of volumes is about 115,000, of which over 2500 are incunabula. + A short-title catalogue, 3 vols. 4to., and one of English books, have + been published, and a manuscript dictionary catalogue has been + provided. Several valuable special catalogues and descriptive lists + have been issued, one of the latest being a special catalogue of the + architectural works contained in all the Manchester libraries. + + The William Salt Library, a special Staffordshire library with + numerous MSS. and other collections, formed to bring together + materials for a history of Staffordshire, was opened to the public in + 1874 in the town of Stafford. It contains nearly 20,000 books, prints + and other items. + + Other endowed libraries in the English provinces which deserve mention + are the Bingham Public Library (1905) at Cirencester; the Guille-Allès + Library (1856), Guernsey; St Deiniol's Library (1894), Hawarden, + founded by William Ewart Gladstone, the great statesman; and the + Shakespeare Memorial Library and theatre (1879) at + Stratford-upon-Avon. + + The most important endowed library in Scotland is the Mitchell Library + in Glasgow, founded by Stephen Mitchell, tobacco-manufacturer (1874), + who left £70,000 for the purpose. It was opened in 1877 in temporary + premises, and after various changes will soon be transferred to a very + fine new building specially erected. It contains some very valuable + special collections, among which may be mentioned Scottish poetry, + Burns' works, Glasgow books and printing, and a choice collection of + fine books on art and other subjects given by Robert Jeffrey. It + contains nearly 200,000 vols. and is the reference library for the + Glasgow public library system. Another older Glasgow public library, + also founded by a tobacco merchant, is Stirling's and Glasgow Public + Library (1791), which was endowed by Walter Stirling, and amalgamated + with an existing subscription library. It contains 60,000 vols. and is + free to reference readers, but a subscription is charged for borrowing + privileges. Still another Glasgow institution is Baillie's Institution + Free Reference Library, established under the bequest of George + Baillie (1863), but not opened till 1887. It contains over 24,000 + vols. Other Scottish endowed libraries are the Anderson Library, + Woodside, Aberdeen (1883); the Taylor Free Library, Crieff (1890); the + Elder Free Library, Govan (1900); and the Chambers Institution, + Peebles (1859), founded by William Chambers, the well-known publisher. + The public library of Armagh, Ireland, was founded by Lord Primate + Robinson in 1770, who gave a considerable number of books and an + endowment. The books are freely available, either on the spot, or by + loan on deposit of double the value of the work applied for. + + + Libraries of societies and learned bodies. + +There are many libraries belonging to societies devoted to the study of +every kind of subject, and it is only necessary to mention a few of the +principal. Full particulars of most of them will be found in Reginald A. +Rye's _Libraries of London: a Guide for Students_ (1910), a work of +accuracy and value. + + Of the law libraries, that at Lincoln's Inn, London, is the oldest and + the largest. It dates from 1497, when John Nethersale, a member of the + society, made a bequest of forty marks, part of which was to be + devoted to the building of a library for the benefit of the students + of the laws of England. A catalogue of the printed books was published + in 1859 and since supplemented, and the MSS. were catalogued by the + Rev. Joseph Hunter in 1837. There are about 72,000 vols. The library + of the Inner Temple is known to have existed in 1540. In the middle of + the 17th century it received a considerable benefaction from William + Petyt, the well-known keeper of the Tower records. There are now about + 60,000 vols., including the pamphlets collected by John Adolphus for + his _History of England_, books on crime and prisons brought together + by Mr Crawford, and a selection of works on jurisprudence made by John + Austin. A library in connexion with the Middle Temple was in existence + during the reign of Henry VIII., but the date usually assigned to its + foundation is 1641, when Robert Ashley left his books to the inn of + which he had been a member. There are now about 50,000 vols. Gray's + Inn Library (21,000 vols.) was perhaps established before 1555. In + 1669 was made the first catalogue of the books, and the next, still + extant, in 1689. The Law Society (1828) has a good law and general + library (50,000 vols.), including the best collection of private acts + of parliament in England. The library of the Royal Society (1667), now + housed in Burlington House, contains over 80,000 vols., of which many + are the transactions and other publications of scientific bodies. The + Royal Institution of Great Britain (1803) possesses a reference + library of 60,000 vols. Some of its early catalogues were in + classified form. The London Institution (1805), in the City, is a + general library of reference and lending books open to members only. + There are about 150,000 vols., and lectures are given in connexion + with the institution. The Royal Society of Arts has a library + numbering about 11,000 vols., chiefly the publications of other + learned bodies. + + The best library of archaeology and kindred subjects is that of the + Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House, consisting of nearly 40,000 + printed vols. and many MSS. It is rich in early printed books, + topography, heraldry and numismatics, and includes a curious + collection of books on pageants presented by Mr Fairholt, and the + remarkable assemblage of lexicographical works formerly belonging to + Albert Way. + + Of libraries devoted to the natural sciences may be mentioned those of + the Geological Society of London (1807), with over 30,000 vols. and + maps; the Linnean Society (1788), 35,000 vols.; the Zoological Society + (1829), about 31,000 vols. Of libraries associated with medicine there + are those of the Royal Society of Medicine (1907), incorporating a + number of medical societies, over 95,000 vols., about to be housed in + a new building; the Royal College of Physicians (1525), 26,000 vols.; + the British Medical Association, 20,000 vols.; the Royal College of + Surgeons of England (1800), 60,000 vols., with a MS. catalogue on + cards; the Chemical Society (1841), over 25,000 vols.; and the + Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (1841), about 15,000 vols. + Other important London society libraries are--the Royal Geographical + Society (1830), 50,000 vols., and numerous maps in a special room, + open to the public for reference; the Royal Colonial Institute (1868), + 70,000 vols. of British colonial literature; the Royal United Service + Institution, Whitehall (1831), has 32,000 works on military and naval + subjects and a museum. Large and interesting collections of books are + owned by the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Institution of + Civil Engineers, the Institution of Electrical Engineers (containing + the Ronalds Library), the Royal Academy, the Royal Institute of + British Architects, and practically every other working society in + London. + + The English provincial libraries connected with societies or learned + bodies are mostly attached to those concerned with law, medicine, and + various antiquarian, literary and scientific subjects. The + headquarters of most national societies being in London to some extent + accounts for the comparatively small number of these special libraries + in the provinces. + + The most important libraries of this description outside London are + situated in Scotland and Ireland, and one at least is practically a + national collection. + + The principal library in Scotland is that of the Faculty of Advocates + at Edinburgh, who in 1680 appointed a committee of their number, which + reported that "it was fitt that, seeing if the recusants could be made + pay their entire money, there wold be betwixt three thousand and four + thousand pounds in cash; that the same be imployed on the best and + fynest lawers and other law bookes, conforme to a catalogue to be + condescended upon by the Facultie, that the samen may be a fonde for + ane Bibliothecque whereto many lawers and others may leave their + books." In 1682 the active carrying out of the scheme was committed to + the Dean of Faculty, Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, who may be + regarded as the founder of the library. In 1684 the first librarian + was appointed, and the library appears to have made rapid progress, + since it appears from the treasurer's accounts that in 1686 the books + and furniture were valued at upwards of £11,000 Scots, exclusive of + donations. In the year 1700, the rooms in the Exchange Stairs, + Parliament Close, in which the library was kept, being nearly + destroyed by fire the collection was removed to the ground floor of + the Parliament House, where it has ever since remained. The library + retains the copyright privilege conferred upon it in 1709. Of the + special collections the most important are the Astorga collection of + old Spanish books, purchased by the faculty in 1824 for £4000; the + Thorkelin collection, consisting of about 1200 vols., relating chiefly + to the history and antiquities of the northern nations, and including + some rare books on old Scottish poetry; the Dietrich collection of + over 100,000 German pamphlets and dissertations, including many of the + writings of Luther and Melanchthon, purchased for the small sum of + £80; and the Combe collection. + + The faculty appear early to have turned their attention to the + collection of MSS., and this department of the library now numbers + about 3000 vols. Many of them are of great interest and value, + especially for the civil and ecclesiastical history of Scotland before + and after the Reformation. There are thirteen monastic chartularies + which escaped the destruction of the religious houses to which they + belonged. The MSS. relating to Scottish church history include the + collections of Spottiswoode, Wodrow and Calderwood. The Wodrow + collection consists of 154 vols., and includes his correspondence, + extending from 1694 to 1726. Sir James Balfour's collection and the + Balcarres papers consist largely of original state papers, and include + many interesting royal letters of the times of James V., Queen Mary + and James VI. The Sibbald papers, numbering over 30 vols., are largely + topographical. The Riddel notebooks, numbering 156 vols., contain + collections to illustrate the genealogy of Scottish families. There + are about one hundred volumes of Icelandic MSS., purchased in 1825 + from Professor Finn Magnusson, and some Persian and Sanskrit, with a + few classical, manuscripts. The department has some interesting + treasures of old poetry, extending to 73 vols. The most important are + the Bannatyne MS., in 2 vols. folio, written by George Bannatyne in + 1568, and the Auchinleck MS., a collection of ancient English poetry, + named after Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck, who presented it in 1774. + + The first catalogue of the printed books was compiled in 1692, and + contains a preface by Sir George Mackenzie. Another was prepared under + the care of Ruddiman in 1742. In 1853 the late Mr Halkett commenced a + catalogue, which has been printed in 6 vols. 4to, with a supplement, + and includes all the printed books in the library at the end of 1871, + containing about 260,000 entries. The library, managed by a keeper and + staff, under a board of six curators, is easily accessible to all + persons engaged in literary work, and now contains about 500,000 vols. + + The library of the Writers to the Signet was established by the + Society at Edinburgh in 1755. At first it consisted of law books + exclusively, but in 1788 they began to collect the best editions of + works in other departments of literature. During the librarianship of + Macvey Napier (1805-1837) the number of volumes was more than + sextupled, and in 1812 the library was removed to the new hall + adjoining the Parliament House. In 1834 the upper hall was devoted to + the collection. This is a magnificent apartment 142 ft. long, with a + beautiful cupola painted by Stothard. The library now contains over + 110,000 vols. and includes some fine specimens of early printing, as + well as many other rare and costly works. It is especially rich in + county histories and British topography and antiquities. A catalogue + of the law books was printed in 1856. The late David Laing, who became + librarian in 1837, published the first volume of a new catalogue in + 1871, and in 1891 this was completed with a subject index. The books + are lent out to the writers and even to strangers recommended by them. + + The library of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin was established on + the formation of the Academy in 1785 for the purpose of promoting the + study of science, literature and antiquities in Ireland. The library + possesses about 80,000 printed vols. and MSS. There is a large + collection of MSS. and books relating to the history, ancient + language, and antiquities of Ireland. They include the Betham + collection, acquired partly by public subscription in 1851. The + library is partly supported by a government grant and is freely open + on a proper introduction. The publication of Irish MSS. in the library + was begun in 1870, and has since continued; the general catalogue is + in manuscript form. + + The library of King's Inns was founded, pursuant to a bequest of books + and legal MSS. under the will of Mr Justice Robinson in 1787, to form + the nucleus of a library for law students. It is partly supported from + the funds of the benchers, but partly also by a treasury grant in lieu + of the copyright privilege. + + It is needless to describe the other society libraries, as most of + them are described in annuals like the _Literary Year-book_ and + similar publications, with statistics of stock, issues, &c., brought + up to date. + + + Proprietary and subscription libraries. + +Proprietary and subscription libraries were at one time more common than +now, as, owing to the steady advance of the municipal library, the minor +subscription libraries have been gradually extinguished. A striking +example of this is furnished by the mechanics' institutes which used to +flourish all over the country. In most cases these have been handed over +to the local authorities by the owners to form the nucleus of the public +rate-supported library, and in this way the older libraries have been +preserved and valuable aid has been given to the popular library +movement. Somewhat akin to the mechanics' institutes are the libraries +established in connexion with various co-operative societies in the +north of England. Together with working men's club libraries, there must +be nearly 100 libraries of the class just mentioned, ranging in size +from a few hundred vols. to 30,000 or 40,000 vols. The affiliated clubs +of the Working Men's Club and Institute Union possess among them over +100,000 vols. + +Among subscription libraries, the London Library stands first in order +of importance. It was founded in 1841 as a lending library for the use +of scholars, and Dean Milman, Sir G. C. Lewis, W. E. Gladstone, Thomas +Carlyle, Henry Hallam and other eminent men took part in its formation. +By means of a moderate subscription, funds were raised for the purchase +of books on general subjects, which now amount to about 250,000 vols. Of +these elaborate and excellent author and subject catalogues have been +printed. The last is valuable as a classified guide to the contents of +the library. + + Some mention should be made also of the more important subscription or + proprietary libraries, which were formed for the most part in the + latter half of the 18th century. The earliest circulating library in + the metropolis was established about the middle of the 18th century. + The first in Birmingham was opened by Hutton in 1757. The idea of a + proprietary library appears to have been first carried out at + Liverpool in 1758. The library then formed still flourishes at the + Lyceum, and possesses a collection of 55,000 vols. and an income of + £1000 a year. In 1760 a library was formed at Warrington which has + been merged in the Warrington Museum. The Leeds library was + established in 1768, and now has 64,000 vols. In 1772 the Bristol + museum and library was formed, and numbered Coleridge, Southey and + Landor among its earlier members. It has now been merged in the + reference collection of the Bristol public libraries. The Birmingham + (old) library was formed in 1779, and its rules were drawn up by Dr + Priestley. The library has now about 80,000 vols. + + Other English proprietary libraries have been established at + Leicester, Liverpool (Athenaeum, 1798), Manchester, Nottingham and + elsewhere. In Scotland the first subscription library was started by + Allan Ramsay, the poet, at Edinburgh in 1725, and since that time + commercial subscription libraries have increased greatly in number and + size, Mudie's and _The Times_ Book Club being typical modern examples. + + + Club libraries. + +Many of the principal clubs possess libraries; that of the Athenaeum +(London) is by far the most important. It now numbers about 75,000 vols. +of books in all departments of literature, and is especially rich in +well-bound and fine copies of works on the fine arts, archaeology, +topography and history. The pamphlets, of which there is a complete +printed catalogue, as well as of the books, form a remarkable series, +including those collected by Gibbon and Mackintosh. Next comes the +Reform Club, with about 60,000 vols., chiefly in belles-lettres, with a +fair proportion of parliamentary and historical works. The National +Liberal Club, containing the Gladstone Library, has about 45,000 vols., +and may be used occasionally by non-members. The Oxford and Cambridge +Club has 30,000 vols. in general and classical literature. At the +Garrick there is a small dramatic collection; and the (Senior) United +Service Club, besides a number of books on professional subjects, +possesses the fine library which formerly belonged to Dugald Stewart. + + Other London clubs which possess libraries are the Carlton with 25,000 + vols.; the Constitutional with 12,000 vols.; Grand Lodge of + Freemasons, 10,000 vols.; Alpine, 5000 vols.; Travellers, 8000 vols.; + and Junior Carlton, 6000 vols. In the provinces and in Scotland and + Ireland every club of a social character has a reading-room, and in + most cases a library is attached. + + + Municipal libraries. + +The first act of parliament authorizing the establishment of public +libraries in England was obtained by William Ewart, M.P. for the +Dumfries Burghs, in 1850. This arose out of the report of a special +parliamentary committee appointed to enquire into the management of the +British Museum in 1835, and a more general report on libraries in 1849, +at which much evidence was submitted to prove the necessity for +providing public libraries. Ewart obtained both committees and also, in +1845, procured an act for "encouraging the establishment of museums in +large towns." Neither the 1845 nor 1850 acts proved effective, owing +chiefly to the limitation of the library rate to ½d. in the £ of rental, +which produced in most cases an insufficient revenue. In 1853 the +Library Act of 1850 was extended to Ireland and Scotland, and in 1854 +Scotland obtained an act increasing the rate limit from ½d. to 1d. in +the £. In 1855 Ireland also obtained a penny rate, and later in the same +year England obtained the same power by an act which remained the +principal library act, with some intermediate amendments, till 1892, +when a Public Library Consolidation Act was passed. In the following +year, 1893, the power of adopting the acts, or putting them in +operation, was transferred from the ratepayers to the local authority, +save in the case of rural parishes and the metropolitan vestries. By the +London Government Act of 1899, however, the metropolitan boroughs were +given the power of adopting the acts of 1892-1893 without consulting the +ratepayers, so that as the law at present stands, any urban district can +put the public libraries acts in force without reference to the voters. +Rural parishes are still required by the provisions of the Local +Government Act 1894 to adopt the 1892 Libraries Act by means of a parish +meeting, or if a poll is demanded, by means of a poll of the voters. + + The main points in British library legislation are as follows:-- + + (a) The acts are permissive in character and not compulsory, and can + only be put in force by a vote of a majority of members in an urban + district or city, or of a majority of voters in rural districts. + + (b) The amount of rate which can be collected is limited to one penny + in the pound of the rateable value of the district, though in some + towns power has been obtained by special legislation for local + purposes to increase the amount to 2d. In a few cases, as at + Birmingham, no limit is fixed. The incomes produced by the penny in + the pound range from less than £10 in a rural district to over £25,000 + in a large city. + + (c) Municipal libraries are managed by committees appointed by the + local authorities, who may, if so disposed, delegate to them all their + powers and duties under section 15 of the act of 1892. The local + authorities in England have also power to appoint persons on such + committees who are not members of the council. By the Scottish + principal act of 1887 committees are to consist of one-half + councillors and one-half non-councillors, not to exceed a total of 20, + and these committees become independent bodies not subject to the + councils. Glasgow has contracted out of this arrangement by means of a + special act. In Ireland, committees are appointed much on the same + system as in England. + + (d) Power is given to provide libraries, museums, schools for science, + art galleries, and schools for art. Needless to say it is impossible + to carry on so many departments with the strictly limited means + provided by the acts, although some towns have attempted to do so. The + Museums and Gymnasiums Act of 1891 enables an additional rate of ½d. + to be raised for either purpose, and many places which have + established museums or art galleries under the provisions of the + Libraries Acts have also adopted the Museums Act in order to increase + their revenues. + + (e) The regulation and management of public libraries are entrusted to + the library authority, which may either be the local authority, or a + committee with a full or partial delegation of powers. The library + authority can buy books, periodicals, specimens of art and science, + and make all necessary rules for the proper working of the libraries. + A staff can be appointed, and arrangements may be made with adjoining + local authorities for the joint use of one or more libraries. + Buildings may also be erected, and money borrowed for the purpose on + the security of the local rates. These are the main provisions of the + library legislation of the United Kingdom as at present existing. + Revision and amendment are wanted as regards the abolition or raising + of the rate limitation, and some clearer definitions as to powers + which can be exercised, as, for example, the right to spend money on + lectures. The rate limitation is the most serious obstacle to + progress, and it affects the smaller towns to a much greater degree + than large cities or areas. + +Between 1850 and 1910 about 630 local government areas of all kinds +adopted the Public Libraries Acts. Of these a considerable number had in +1910 not yet put the acts in operation, whilst the London Government Act +1899, by joining various previously independent vestries or boards, +extinguished about 23 library areas. The Metropolitan County of London +in 1910 comprised 25 library areas, or counting also the City, 26, and +only Marylebone, Bethnal Green and parts of Finsbury and Paddington +remained unprovided. Practically every large city or district council +has adopted the Public Libraries Acts or obtained special legislation, +and the only important places, in addition to Marylebone and Bethnal +Green, unprovided in 1910 were Bacup, Crewe, Dover, Jarrow, Scarborough, +Swindon, Weymouth, Llandudno, Govan, Leith, Pollokshaws and Wishaw. In +all, 556 places had library systems in operation, and among them they +possessed about 925 buildings. + + The progress of the public library movement was very slow up to 1887, + the year of Queen Victoria's jubilee. From 1887, however, when many + districts established libraries as memorials to Queen Victoria, the + progress has been much more rapid. An immense stimulus to the movement + was given from about 1900, when Mr Andrew Carnegie (q.v.) began to + present library buildings to towns in England as well as to Scotland + and the United States. The result of this action was to increase the + number of municipal libraries from 146 in 1886 to 556 in 1910; and in + the 10 years up to 1910 during which Mr Carnegie's gifts had been + offered, no fewer than 163 places had put the acts in operation, a + yearly average of over 16 adoptions. + +There is one municipal library whose importance demands special mention, +although it is not rate-supported under the provisions of the Public +Libraries Acts. This is the Guildhall library of the Corporation of the +City of London, which is a free public reference library with a +periodicals reading-room, and a lending department for officials and +members of the corporation. A library was established for London by Sir +Richard Whittington between 1421-1426, and several notices in the civic +records show how well in those times the citizens cared for their books. +But it did not remain without accident; in 1522 the Lord Protector +Somerset carried off three cart-loads of books, and during the great +fire of 1666 the remainder was destroyed together with the library +buildings. Nothing was done to repair the loss until 1824, when a +committee was appointed, and rooms set apart for library purposes. In +1840 a catalogue of 10,000 vols. was printed, and in 1859 a second was +prepared of 40,000 vols. In consequence of the large and increasing +number of the readers, the present fine building was commenced about ten +years later, and, after having cost £90,000, was opened in 1873 as a +free public library. + + There are now upwards of 136,000 printed vols. and 5900 MSS. in the + Guildhall library. The contents are of a general character, and + include a special collection of books about London, the Solomons + Hebrew and rabbinical library, and the libraries of the Clockmakers + Company and the old Dutch church in Austin Friars. Recently the fine + collection of books by and about Charles Dickens, called the National + Dickens Library, was added, and other special libraries of a valuable + nature, as well as an extensive and well-cared-for collection of + London prints, and drawings. + + + British library administration. + +There is such a variety of library buildings in the United Kingdom that +it is not possible to single out examples for special description, but a +brief statement of their work and methods will help to give some idea of +the extent of their activities. + +The total number of borrowers enrolled in 1910 was[11] about 2,200,000, +59% males and 41% females, 48% under 20 years of age and 52% over 20. +Industrial and commercial occupations were followed by 49% of the +borrowers, the balance of 51% being domestic, professional, unstated, +and including 20% of students and scholars. To these borrowers +60,000,000 vols. are circulated every year for home-reading, and of this +large number 54% represented fiction, including juvenile literature. The +Reference libraries issued over 11,000,000 vols., exclusive of books +consulted at open shelves, and to the Reading-rooms, Magazines, +Newspapers, Directories, Time-tables, &c., allowing only one +consultation for each visit, 85,000,000 visits are made per annum. +Allowing 5% for the reading of fiction in current magazines, it appears +that the percentage of fiction read in British municipal libraries, +taking into account the work of every issuing or consulting department, +is only about 24%. This fact should be carefully recorded, as in the +past municipal libraries have suffered in the esteem of all sections of +the public, by being erroneously described as mere centres for the +distribution of common novels. The quality of the fiction selected is +the best obtainable, and, as shown above, it is not read to an +unreasonable or unnecessary extent. + +The changes in character, policy and methods which have marked library +administration in the United Kingdom, have affected libraries of all +kinds, but on the whole the municipal libraries have been most active in +the promotion of improvements. It is evident, moreover, even to the most +casual observer, that a complete revolution in library practice has been +effected since 1882, not only in the details of administration, but in +the initiation of ideas and experiments. One of the most notable changes +has been the gradual disappearance of the unclassified library. Previous +to 1882 very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific +classification schemes equipped with suitable notations, although the +Decimal method of Mr Melvil Dewey had been applied in the United States. +After that date this system began to be adopted for reference +departments in British municipal libraries, till in 1910 at least 120 +places had been classified by means of the scheme. An English scheme, +called the "Adjustable," with a notation, but not fully expanded, has +been adopted in 53 places, and a very complete and minute scheme called +the "Subject," also English, has been used in nearly 40 libraries, +although it only dates from 1906. That much remains to be accomplished +in this direction is indicated by the fact that over 340 municipal +libraries were in 1910 not closely classified, but only arranged in +broad numerical or alphabetical divisions. The adoption of exact schemes +of classification for books in libraries may be said to double their +utility almost mechanically, and in course of time an unclassified +municipal library will be unknown. The other kinds of library--state, +subscription, university, &c.--are very often not classified, but some +use the Decimal system, while others, like the Patent Office, have +systems peculiar to themselves. + +The catalogue, as a means of making known the contents of books, has +also undergone a succession of changes, both in policy and mechanical +construction. At one period, before access to the shelves and other +methods of making known the contents of libraries had become general, +the printed catalogue was relied upon as practically the sole guide to +the books. Many excellent examples of such catalogues exist, in author, +subject and classified form, and some of them are admirable +contributions to bibliography. Within recent years, however, doubts have +arisen in many quarters, both in Europe and America, as to the wisdom of +printing the catalogues of general popular libraries which possess +comparatively few rare or extraordinary books. A complete catalogue of +such a library is out of date the moment it is printed, and in many +cases the cost is very great, while only a small number is sold. For +these and other reasons, modern libraries have begun to compile complete +catalogues only in MS. form, and to issue comparatively cheap +class-lists at intervals, supplemented by monthly or quarterly bulletins +or lists of recent accessions, which in combination will answer most of +the questions likely to be put to a catalogue. Various improvements in +the mechanical construction of manuscript catalogues have contributed to +popularize them, and many libraries use the card, sheaf and other +systems which allow constant and infinite intercalation coupled with +economy and ease in making additions. + +The idea of using separate slips or cards for cataloguing books, in +order to obtain complete powers of arrangement and revision is not new, +having been applied during the French revolutionary period to the +cataloguing of libraries. More recently the system has been applied to +various commercial purposes, such as book-keeping by what is known as +the "loose-leaf ledger," and in this way greater public attention has +been directed to the possibilities of adjustable methods both in +libraries and for business. The card system is perhaps the most +generally used at present, but many improvements in the adjustable +binders, called by librarians the "sheaf system," will probably result +in this latter form becoming a serious rival. The card method consists +of a series of cards in alphabetical or other order kept on edge in +trays or drawers, to which projecting guides are added in order to +facilitate reference. Entries are usually made on one side of the card, +and one card serves for a single entry. The sheaf method provides for +slips of an uniform size being kept in book form in volumes capable of +being opened by means of a screw or other fastening, for the purpose of +adding or withdrawing slips. In addition to the advantage of being in +book-form the sheaf system allows both sides of a slip to be used, while +in many cases from two to twelve entries may be made on one slip. This +is a great economy and leads to considerable saving of space. A great +advantage resulting from the use of an adjustable manuscript catalogue, +in whatever form adopted, is the simplicity with which it can be kept +up-to-date. This is an advantage which in the view of many librarians +outweighs the undoubted valuable qualities of comparative safety and +multiplication of copies possessed by the printed form. There are many +different forms of both card and sheaf systems, and practically every +library now uses one or other of them for cataloguing or indexing +purposes. + +One other modification in connexion with the complete printed catalogue +has been tried with success, and seems worthy of brief mention. After a +complete manuscript catalogue has been provided in sheaf form, a select +or eclectic catalogue is printed, comprising all the most important +books in the library and those that represent special subjects. This, +when supplemented by a printed list or bulletin of additions, seems to +supply every need. + +The most striking tendency of the modern library movement is the great +increase in the freedom allowed to readers both in reference and lending +departments. Although access to the shelves was quite a common feature +in the older subscription libraries, and in state libraries like the +British Museum and Patent Office, it is only within comparatively recent +years that lending library borrowers were granted a similar privilege. +Most municipal reference libraries grant access to a large or small +collection of books, and at Cambridge, Birmingham and elsewhere in the +United Kingdom, the practice is of long standing. So also in the United +States, practically every library has its open shelf collection. On the +continent of Europe, however, this method is not at all general, and +books are guarded with a jealousy which in many cases must militate +against their utility. The first "safe-guarded" open access municipal +lending library was opened at Clerkenwell (now Finsbury), London, in +1893, and since then over one hundred cities and districts of all sizes +in Britain have adopted the system. The British municipal libraries +differ considerably from those of the United States in the safeguards +against abuse which are employed, and the result is that their losses +are insignificant, whilst in America they are sometimes enormous. +Pawtucket and Cleveland in America were pioneers to some extent of the +open shelf system for lending libraries, but the methods employed had +little resemblance to the safe-guarded system of British libraries. The +main features of the British plan are: exact classification; class, +shelf and book guiding; the provision of automatic locking wickets to +regulate the entrance and exit of borrowers, and the rule that borrowers +must be registered before they can obtain admission. This last rule is +not always current in America, and in consequence abuses are liable to +take place. The great majority of British and American libraries, +whether allowing open access or not, use cards for charging or +registering books loaned to borrowers. In the United Kingdom a +considerable number of places still use indicators for this purpose, +although this mechanical method is gradually being restricted to +fiction, save in very small places. + + Other activities of modern libraries which are common to both Britain + and America are courses of lectures, book exhibitions, work with + children, provision of books for the blind and for foreign residents, + travelling libraries and the education of library assistants. In many + of the recent buildings, especially in those erected from the gifts of + Mr Andrew Carnegie, special rooms for lectures and exhibitions and + children are provided. Courses of lectures in connexion with the + Liverpool and Manchester public libraries date from 1860, but during + the years 1900-1910 there was a very great extension of this work. As + a rule these courses are intended to direct attention to the + literature of the subjects treated, as represented in the libraries, + and in this way a certain amount of mutual advantage is secured. In + some districts the libraries work in association with the education + authorities, and thus it is rendered possible to keep schools supplied + with books, over which the teachers are able to exercise supervision. + This connexion between libraries and schools is much less common in + the United Kingdom than in the British colonies and the United States, + where the libraries are regarded as part of the national system of + education. Excellent work has been accomplished within recent years by + the Library Association in the training of librarians, and it is usual + for about 300 candidates to come forward annually for examination in + literary history, bibliography, classification, cataloguing, library + history and library routine for which subjects certificates and + diplomas are awarded. The profession of municipal librarian is not by + any means remunerative as compared with employment in teaching or in + the Civil Service, and until the library rate is increased there is + little hope of improvement. + + The usefulness of public libraries has been greatly increased by the + work of the Library Association, founded in 1877, during the first + International Library Conference held in London in October 1877. A + charter of incorporation was granted to the association in 1898. It + holds monthly and annual meetings, publishes a journal, conducts + examinations, issues certificates, holds classes for instruction, and + has greatly helped to improve the public library law. The Library + Assistants Association (1895) publishes a journal. A second + International Library Conference was held at London in 1897, and a + third at Brussels in 1910. Library associations have been started in + most of the countries of Europe, and the American Library Association, + the largest and most important in existence, was established in 1876. + These associations are giving substantial aid in the development and + improvement of library methods and the status of librarians, and it is + certain that their influence will in time produce a more scientific + and valuable type of library than at present generally exists. + + +_British Colonies and India._ + +The majority of the British Colonies and Dependencies have permissive +library laws on lines very similar to those in force in the mother +country. There are, however, several points of difference which are +worth mention. The rate limit is not so strict in every case, and an +effort is made to bring the libraries into closer relations with the +educational machinery of each colony. There is, for example, no rate +limit in Tasmania; and South Australia may raise a library rate +equivalent to 3d. in the £, although, in both cases, owing to the +absence of large towns, the legislation existing has not been adopted. +In Africa, Australia and Canada the governments make grants to public +libraries up to a certain amount, on condition that the reading-rooms +are open to the public, and some of the legislatures are even in closer +touch with the libraries. The Canadian and Australian libraries are +administered more or less on American lines, whilst those of South +Africa, India, &c., are managed on the plan followed in England. + + +_Africa._ + +There are several important libraries in South Africa, and many small +town libraries which used to receive a government grant equal to the +subscriptions of the members, but in no case did such grants exceed £150 +for any one library in one year. These grants fluctuate considerably +owing to the changes and temper of successive governments, and since the +last war they have been considerably reduced everywhere. One of the +oldest libraries is the South African Public Library at Cape Town +established in 1818, which enjoys the copyright-privilege of receiving +a free copy of every publication issued in Cape Colony. This library +contains the great collection of colonial books bequeathed by Sir George +Grey. The libraries of the various legislatures are perhaps the best +supported and most important, but mention should be made of the public +libraries of Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony, which published an excellent +catalogue, and the public libraries at Kimberley; Durban, Natal; +Bloemfontein, Orange River Colony; Bulawayo, Rhodesia; Johannesburg, +Transvaal; and the public and university libraries at Pretoria. None of +the libraries of North Africa are specially notable, although there are +considerable collections at Cairo and Algiers. + + +_Australasia._ + +All the public libraries, mechanics' institutes, schools of arts and +similar institutes receive aid from the government, either in the form +of grants of money or boxes of books sent from some centre. The public +library of New South Wales, Sydney (1869), which includes the Mitchell +Library of over 50,000 vols., now possesses a total of nearly 250,000 +vols., and circulates books to country libraries, lighthouses and +teachers' associations to the number of about 20,000 vols. per annum. +The public library of Victoria, Melbourne (1853), with about 220,000 +vols., also sends books to 443 country libraries of various kinds, which +among them possess 750,000 vols., and circulate annually considerably +over 2½ million vols. The university library at Melbourne (1855) has +over 20,000 vols., and the libraries connected with the parliament and +various learned societies are important. The public library of South +Australia, Adelaide, has about 75,000 vols., and is the centre for the +distribution of books to the institutes throughout the colony. These +institutes possess over 325,000 vols. There is a good public library at +Brisbane, Queensland, and there are a number of state-aided schools of +arts with libraries attached. The Library of Parliament in Brisbane +possesses over 40,000, and the Rockhampton School of Arts has 10,000 +vols. Western Australia has a public library at Perth, which was +established in 1887, and the small town institutes are assisted as in +the other colonies. + +Tasmania has several good libraries in the larger towns, but none of +them had in 1910 taken advantage of the act passed in 1867 which gives +municipalities practically unlimited powers and means as far as the +establishment and maintenance of public libraries are concerned. At +Hobart the Tasmanian Public Library (1849) is one of the most important, +with 25,000 vols. + +New Zealand is well equipped with public libraries established under +acts dating from 1869 to 1877, as well as subscription, college and +government libraries. At Auckland the Free Public Library (1880) has +50,000 vols., including Sir George Grey's Australasian collection; the +Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch (1874), has 40,000 vols.; the +University of Otago Library, Dunedin (1872), 10,000 vols.; and the +public library at Wellington (1893) contains 20,000 vols. + + +_India and the East._ + +Apart from government and royal libraries, there are many college, +society, subscription and others, both English and oriental. It is +impossible to do more than name a few of the most notable. Lists of many +of the libraries in private hands including descriptions of their MS. +contents have been issued by the Indian government. At Calcutta the +Sanskrit college has 1652 printed Sanskrit volumes and 2769 Sanskrit +MSS., some as old as the 14th century; there is also a large collection +of Jain MSS. The Arabic library attached to the Arabic department of the +Madrasa was founded about 1781, and now includes 731 printed volumes, +143 original MSS. and 151 copies; the English library of the +Anglo-Persian department dates from 1854, and extends to 3254 vols. The +library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded in 1784, and now +contains 15,000 printed vols., chiefly on eastern and philological +subjects, with a valuable collection of 9500 Arabic and Persian MSS. + +At Bombay the library of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, +established in 1804 as the Literary Society of Bengal, is now an +excellent general and oriental collection of 75,000 printed vols. and +MSS., described in printed catalogues. The Moolla Feroze Library was +bequeathed for public use by Moolla Feroze, head priest of the Parsis of +the Kudmi sect in 1831, and consisted chiefly of MSS., in Arabic and +Persian on history, philosophy and astronomy; some additions of English +and Gujarati works have been made, as well as of European books on +Zoroastrianism. The Native General Library (1845) has 11,000 vols., and +there are libraries attached to Elphinstone College and the university +of Bombay. + +The library of Tippoo Sahib, consisting of 2000 MSS., fell into the +hands of the British, and a descriptive catalogue of them by Charles +Stewart was published at Cambridge in 1809, 4to. A few were presented to +public libraries in England, but the majority were placed in the college +of Fort William, then recently established. The first volume, containing +Persian and Hindustani poetry, of the _Catalogue of the Libraries of the +King of Oudh_, by A. Sprenger, was published at Calcutta in 1854. The +compiler shortly afterwards left the Indian service, and no measures +were taken to complete the work. On the annexation of the kingdom in +1856 the ex-king is believed to have taken some of the most valuable +MSS. to Calcutta, but the largest portion was left behind at Lucknow. +During the siege the books were used to block up windows, &c., and those +which were not destroyed were abandoned and plundered by the soldiers. +Many were burnt for fuel; a few, however, were rescued and sold by +auction, and of these some were purchased for the Asiatic Society of +Bengal. + +Perhaps the most remarkable library in India is that of the raja of +Tanjore, which dates from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th +century, when Tanjore was under the rule of the Telugu Naiks, who +collected Sanskrit MSS. written in the Telugu character. In the 18th +century the Mahrattas conquered the country, and since that date the +library increased but slowly. By far the greater portion of the store +was acquired by Sharabhoji Raja during a visit to Benares in 1820-1830; +his successor Sivaji added a few, but of inferior value. There are now +about 18,000 MSS. written in Devanagari, Nandinagari, Telugu, Kannada, +Granthi, Malayalam, Bengali, Panjabi or Kashmiri, and Uriya; 8000 are on +palm leaves. Dr Burnell's printed catalogue describes 12,375 articles. + +The Royal Asiatic Society has branches with libraries attached in many +of the large cities of India, the Straits Settlements, Ceylon, China, +Japan, &c. At Rangoon in Burma there are several good libraries. The +Raffles Library at Singapore was established as a proprietary +institution in 1844, taken over by the government in 1874, and given +legal status by an ordinance passed in 1878. It now contains about +35,000 vols. in general literature, but books relating to the Malayan +peninsula and archipelago have been made a special feature, and since +the acquisition of the collection of J. R. Logan in 1879 the library has +become remarkably rich in this department. In Ceylon there is the Museum +Library at Colombo (1877), which is maintained by the government, and +there are many subscription and a few oriental libraries. + + +_Canada._ + +The public libraries of the various provinces of Canada have grown +rapidly in importance and activity, and, assisted as they are by +government and municipal grants, they promise to rival those of the +United States in generous equipment. Most of the library work in Canada +is on the same lines as that of the United States, and there are no +special points of difference worth mention. The library laws of the +Dominion are embodied in a series of acts dating from 1854, by which +much the same powers are conferred on local authorities as by the +legislation of Britain and the United States. An important feature of +the Canadian library law is the close association maintained between +schools and libraries, and in some provinces the school libraries are +established by the school and not the library laws. There is also an +important extension of libraries to the rural districts, so that in +every direction full provision is being made for the after-school +education and recreation of the people. + + The province of Ontario has a very large and widespread library system + of which full particulars are given in the annual reports of the + minister of education. The library portion has been printed + separately, and with its illustrations and special articles forms + quite a handbook of Canadian library practice. There are now 413 + public libraries described as free and not free, and of these 131 free + and 234 not free reported in 1909. The free libraries possessed + 775,976 vols. and issued 2,421,049 vols. The not free libraries, most + of which receive legislative or municipal grants, possessed 502,879 + vols. and issued 650,826 vols. This makes a grand total of 1,278,855 + vols. in municipal and assisted subscription libraries without + counting the university and other libraries in the province. The most + important other libraries in Ontario are--Queen's University, Kingston + (1841), 40,000 vols.; Library of Parliament, Ottawa, about 250,000 + vols.; university of Ottawa, 35,000 vols.; Legislative Library of + Ontario, Toronto, about 100,000 vols.; university of Toronto (1856), + 50,000 vols. The Public (municipal) Library of Toronto has now over + 152,000 vols. + + In the province of Quebec, in addition to the state-aided libraries + there are several large and important libraries, among which may be + mentioned the Fraser Institute, Montreal, 40,000 vols.; McGill + University, Montreal (1855), 125,000 vols., comprising many important + collections; the Seminary of St Sulpice, Montreal, about 80,000 vols.; + Laval University, Quebec, 125,000 vols.; and the library of the + Legislature (1792), about 100,000 vols. In the western provinces + several large public, government and college libraries have been + formed, but none of them are as old and important as those in the + eastern provinces. + + In Nova Scotia there are now 279 cases of books circulating among the + school libraries, containing about 40,000 vols., and in addition 2800 + vols. were stocked for the use of rural school libraries. The rural + school libraries of Nova Scotia are regulated by a special law, and a + little handbook has been printed, somewhat similar to that published + by the French educational authorities for the communale libraries. The + Legislative Library at Halifax contains nearly 35,000 vols., and the + Dalhousie University (1868), in the same town, contains about 20,000 + vols. The Legislative Library of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, + containing the Dodd Library, issues books for home use. The school law + of New Brunswick provides for grants being made in aid of school + libraries by the Board of Education equal to one half the amount + raised by a district, and a series of rules has been published. The + only other British libraries in America of much consequence are those + in the West Indian Islands. The Institute of Jamaica, Kingston (1879) + has about 15,000 vols.; the Trinidad Public Library (1841), recently + revised and catalogued, 23,000 vols.; and there are a few small + legislative and college libraries in addition. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the history of British libraries see H. B. Adams, + _Public Libraries and Popular Education_ (Albany, N.Y., 1900); J. D. + Brown, _Guide to Librarianship_ (1909); G. F. Chambers and H. W. + Fovargue, _The Law relating to Public Libraries_ (4th ed., 1899); J. + W. Clark, _The Care of Books_ (1909); E. Edwards, _Memoirs of + Libraries_ (1859); T. Greenwood, _Edward Edwards_ (1901) and _Public + Libraries_ (4th ed., revised, 1891); J. J. Ogle, _The Free Library_ + (1897); Maurice Pellisson, _Les Bibliothèques populaires à l'etranger + et en France_ (Paris, 1906); R. A. Rye, _The Libraries of London_ + (1910); E. A. Savage, _The Story of Libraries and Book-Collectors_ + (1909). + + For library economy consult J. D. Brown, _Manual of Library Economy_ + (1907); F. J. Burgoyne, _Library Construction, &c._ (1897); A. L. + Champneys, _Public Libraries: a Treatise on their Design_ (1907); J. + C. Dana, _A Library Primer_ (Chicago, 1910); Arnim Graesel, _Handbuch + der Bibliothekslehre_ (Leipzig, 1902); Albert Maire, _Manuel pratique + du bibliothécaire_ (Paris, 1896). On the subject of classification + consult J. D. Brown, _Manual of Library Classification_ (1898) and + _Subject Classification_ (1906); C. A. Cutter, _Expansive + Classification_ (1891-1893) (not yet completed); M. Dewey, _Decimal + Classification_ (6th ed., 1899), and _Institut International de + Bibliographie: Classification bibliographique décimale_ (Brussels, + 1905); E. C. Richardson, _Classification: Theoretical and Practical_ + (1901). + + Various methods of cataloguing books are treated in _Cataloguing + Rules, author and title entries, compiled by the Committees of the + American Library Association and the Library Association_ (1908); C. + A. Cutter, _Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalogue_ (Washington, + 1904); M. Dewey, _Rules for Author and Classed Catalogues_ (1892); T. + Hitchler, _Cataloguing for Small Libraries_ (Boston, 1905); K. A. + Linderfelt, _Eclectic Card Catalog Rules_ (Boston, 1890); J. H. Quinn, + _Manual of Library Cataloguing_ (1899); E. A. Savage, _Manual of + Descriptive Annotation_ (1906); J. D. Stewart, _The Sheaf Catalogue_ + (1909); H. B. Wheatley, _How to Catalogue a Library_ (1889). + + +_United States of America._ + +The libraries of the United States are remarkable for their number, +size, variety, liberal endowment and good administration. The total +number of libraries with over 1000 vols. was 5383 in 1900, including +those attached to schools and institutions, and in 1910 there were +probably at least 10,000 libraries having 1000 vols. and over. It is +impossible to do more than glance at the principal libraries and +activities, where the field is so immense, and a brief sketch of some +of the chief federal, state, university, endowed and municipal libraries +will therefore be presented. + + + Federal libraries. + +The Library of Congress was first established in 1800 at Washington, and +was burned together with the Capitol by the British army in 1814. +President Jefferson's books were purchased to form the foundation of a +new library, which continued to increase slowly until 1851, when all but +20,000 vols. were destroyed by fire. From this time the collection has +grown rapidly, and now consists of about 1,800,000 vols. In 1866 the +library of the Smithsonian Institution, consisting of 40,000 vols., +chiefly in natural science, was transferred to the Library of Congress. +The library is specially well provided in history, jurisprudence, the +political sciences and Americana. Since 1832 the law collections have +been constituted into a special department. This is the national +library. In 1870 the registry of copyrights was transferred to it under +the charge of the librarian of Congress, and two copies of every +publication which claims copyright are required to be deposited. Cards +for these are now printed and copies are sold to other libraries for an +annual subscription fixed according to the number taken. The building in +which the library is now housed was opened in 1897. It covers 3½ acres +of ground, contains 10,000,000 cub. ft. of space, and has possible +accommodation for over 4 million vols. Its cost was $6,500,000, or +including the land, $7,000,000. It is the largest, most ornate and most +costly building in the world yet erected for library purposes. Within +recent years the appropriation has been largely increased, and the +bibliographical department has been able to publish many valuable books +on special subjects. The _A.L.A. Catalog_ (1904) and _A.L.A. Portrait +Index_ (1906), may be mentioned as of especial value. The classification +of the library is being gradually completed, and in every respect this +is the most active government library in existence. + +Other important federal libraries are those attached to the following +departments at Washington: Bureau of Education (1868); Geological Survey +(1882); House of Representatives; Patent Office (1836); Senate (1868); +Surgeon General's Office (1870), with an elaborate analytical printed +catalogue of world-wide fame. + + + State libraries. + +Although the state libraries of Pennsylvania and New Hampshire are known +to have been established as early as 1777, it was not until some time +after the revolution that any general tendency was shown to form +official libraries in connexion with the state system. It is especially +within the last thirty years that the number of these libraries has so +increased that now every state and territory possesses a collection of +books and documents for official and public purposes. These collections +depend for their increase upon annual appropriations by the several +states, and upon a systematic exchange of the official publications of +the general government and of the several states and territories. The +largest is that of the state of New York at Albany, which contains +nearly 500,000 vols., and is composed of a general and a law library. +Printed and MS. card catalogues have been issued. The state libraries +are libraries of reference, and only members of the official classes are +allowed to borrow books, although any well-behaved person is admitted to +read in the libraries. + + + University libraries. + +The earliest libraries formed were in connexion with educational +institutions, and the oldest is that of Harvard (1638). It was destroyed +by fire in 1764, but active steps were at once taken for its +restoration. From that time to the present, private donations have been +the great resource of the library. In 1840 the collection was removed to +Gore Hall, erected for the purpose with a noble bequest from Christopher +Gore (1758-1829), formerly governor of Massachusetts. There are also ten +special libraries connected with the different departments of the +university. The total numbers of vols. in all these collections is over +800,000. There is a MS. card-catalogue in two parts, by authors and +subjects, which is accessible to the readers. The only condition of +admission to use the books in Gore Hall is respectability; but only +members of the university and privileged persons may borrow books. The +library of Yale College, New Haven, was founded in 1701, but grew so +slowly that, even with the 1000 vols. received from Bishop Berkeley in +1733, it had only increased to 4000 vols. in 1766, and some of these +were lost in the revolutionary war. During the 19th century the +collection grew more speedily, and now the library numbers over 550,000 +vols. + + Other important university and college libraries are Amherst College, + Mass. (1821), 93,000 vols.; Brown University, R.I. (1767), 156,000 + vols.; Columbia University, N.Y. (1763), 430,000 vols.; Cornell + University, N.Y. (1868), 355,000 vols.; Dartmouth College, N.H. + (1769), 106,000 vols.; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (1876), + 220,000 vols.; Lehigh University, Pa. (1877), 150,000 vols.; Leland + Stanford University, Cal. (1891), 113,000 vols.; Princeton University, + N.J. (1746), 260,000 vols.; University of California (1868), 240,000 + vols.; University of Chicago, Ill. (1892), 480,000 vols.; University + of Michigan (1837), 252,000 vols.; University of Pennsylvania (1749), + 285,000 vols. There are numerous other college libraries, several of + them even larger than some of those named above. + + + Subscription and Endowed Libraries. + +The establishment of proprietary or subscription libraries runs back +into the first half of the 18th century, and is connected with the name +of Benjamin Franklin. It was at Philadelphia, in the year 1731, that he +set on foot what he called "his first project of a public nature, that +for a subscription library.... The institution soon manifested its +ability, was imitated by other towns and in other provinces." The +Library Company of Philadelphia was soon regularly incorporated, and +gradually drew to itself other collections of books, including the +Loganian Library, which was vested in the company by the state +legislature in 1792 in trust for public use. Hence the collection +combines the character of a public and of a proprietary library, being +freely open for reference purposes, while the books circulate only among +the subscribing members. It numbers at present 226,000 vols., of which +11,000 belong to the Loganian Library, and may be freely lent. In 1869 +Dr James Rush left a bequest of over one million dollars for the purpose +of erecting a building to be called the Ridgeway branch of the library. +The building is very handsome, and has been very highly spoken of as a +library structure. Philadelphia has another large proprietary +library--that of the Mercantile Library Company, which was established +in 1821. It possesses 200,000 vols., and its members have always enjoyed +direct access to the shelves. The library of the Boston Athenaeum was +established in 1807, and numbers 235,000 vols. It has published an +admirable dictionary-catalogue. The collection is especially rich in art +and in history, and possesses a part of the library of George +Washington. The Mercantile Library Association of New York, which was +founded in 1820, has over 240,000 vols. New York possesses two other +large proprietary libraries, one of which claims to have been formed as +early as 1700 as the "public" library of New York. It was organized as +the New York Society Library in 1754, and has been especially the +library of the old Knickerbocker families and their descendants, its +contents bearing witness to its history. It contains about 100,000 vols. +The Apprentices' Library (1820) has about 100,000 vols., and makes a +special feature of works on trades and useful arts. + +The Astor Library in New York was founded by a bequest of John Jacob +Astor, whose example was followed successively by his son and grandson. +The library was opened to the public in 1854, and consists of a careful +selection of the most valuable books upon all subjects. It is a library +of reference, for which purpose it is freely open, and books are not +lent out. It is "a working library for studious persons." The Lenox +Library was established by James Lenox in 1870, when a body of trustees +was incorporated by an act of the legislature. In addition to the funds +intended for the library building and endowment, amounting to +$1,247,000, the private collection of books which Mr Lenox had long been +accumulating is extremely valuable. Though it does not rank high in +point of mere numbers, it is exceedingly rich in early books on America, +in Bibles, in Shakesperiana and in Elizabethan poetry. Both those +libraries are now merged in the New York Public Library. The Peabody +Institute at Baltimore was established by George Peabody in 1857, and +contains a reference library open to all comers. The institute has an +endowment of $1,000,000, which, however, has to support, besides the +library, a conservatoire of music, an art gallery, and courses of +popular lectures. It has a very fine printed dictionary catalogue and +now contains nearly 200,000 vols. In the same city is the Enoch Pratt +Free Library (1882) with 257,000 vols. In the city of Chicago are two +very important endowed libraries, the Newberry Library (1887) with over +200,000 vols., and the John Crerar Library (1894), with 235,000 vols. +Both of these are reference libraries of great value, and the John +Crerar Library specializes in science, for which purpose its founder +left $3,000,000. + + It will be sufficient to name a few of the other endowed libraries to + give an idea of the large number of donors who have given money to + libraries. Silas Bronson (Waterbury), Annie T. Howard (New Orleans), + Joshua Bates (Boston), Charles E. Forbes (Northampton, Mass.), + Mortimer F. Reynolds (Rochester, N.Y.), Leonard Case (Cleveland), I. + Osterhout (Wilkes-Barré, Pa.), and above all Andrew Carnegie, whose + library benefactions exceed $53,000,000. + + It remains to mention another group of proprietary and society + libraries. + + Since the organization of the government in 1789, no less than one + hundred and sixty historical societies have been formed in the United + States, most of which still continue to exist. Many of them have + formed considerable libraries, and possess extensive and valuable + manuscript collections. The oldest of them is the Massachusetts + Historical Society, which dates from 1791. + + The earliest of the scientific societies, the American Philosophical + Society (1743), has 73,000 vols. The most extensive collection is that + of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, which consists of + 80,000 vols. and pamphlets. For information as to the numerous + professional libraries of the United States--theological, legal and + medical--the reader may be referred to the authorities quoted below. + + + Municipal Libraries. + +In no country has the movement for the development of municipal +libraries made such progress as in the United States; these institutions +called free or public as the case may be are distinguished for their +work, enterprise and the liberality with which they are supported. They +are established under laws passed by the different states, the first to +pass such an enactment being Massachusetts, which in 1848 empowered the +city of Boston to establish a free public library. This was subsequently +extended to the whole state in 1851. Other states followed, all with +more or less variation in the provisions, till practically every state +in the Union now has a body of library laws. In general the American +library law is much on the same lines as the English. In most states the +acts are permissive. In New Hampshire aid is granted by the state to any +library for which a township contracts to make a definite annual +appropriation. A limit is imposed in most states on the library tax +which may be levied, although there are some, like Massachusetts and New +Hampshire, which fix no limit. In every American town the amount derived +from the library tax usually exceeds by double or more the same rate +raised in Britain in towns of similar size. For example, East Orange, +N.J., with a population of 35,000, expends £2400, while Dumfries in +Scotland, with 23,000 pop. expends £500. Cincinnati, 345,000 pop., +expenditure £26,000; Islington (London), 350,000 pop., expenditure +£8200, is another example. In the smaller towns the difference is not so +marked, but generally the average American municipal library income is +considerably in excess of the British one. Many American municipal +libraries have also endowments which add to their incomes. + + + American Library Administration. + +In one respect the American libraries differ from those of the United +Kingdom. They are usually managed by a small committee or body of +trustees, about five or more in number, who administer the library +independent of the city council. This is akin to the practice in +Scotland, although there, the committees are larger. In addition to the +legislation authorizing town libraries to be established, thirty-two +states have formed state library commissions. These are small bodies of +three or five trained persons appointed by the different states which, +acting on behalf of the state, encourage the formation of local +libraries, particularly in towns and villages, and in many cases have +authority to aid their establishment by the grant out of the state +funds of a certain sum (usually $100) towards the purchase of books, +upon the appropriation of a similar sum by the local authorities. These +commissions are prepared to aid further with select lists of desirable +books, and with suggestions or advice in the problems of construction +and maintenance. Such commissions are in existence in Alabama, +California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, +Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, +Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, +North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, +Texas, Utah, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin. + +The reports and other documents issued by some of these commissioners +are very interesting and valuable, especially as regards the light they +throw on the working of the travelling libraries in country districts. +These to some extent are a revival of the "itinerating" library idea of +Samuel Brown of Haddington in Scotland, who from 1817 to 1836 carried on +a system of travelling subscription libraries in that country. At the +time of his death there were 3850 vols. in 47 libraries. The American +travelling libraries, often under state supervision, are well organized +and numerous, and the books are circulated free. New York was the +pioneer in this movement which now extends to most of the states which +have established library commissions. There are also town travelling +libraries and deposit stations in addition to branches, so that every +effort is made to bring people in outlying districts into touch with +books. + +The municipal libraries of the United States work in conjunction with +the schools, and it is generally considered that they are part of the +educational machinery of the country. In the case of New York the state +libraries have been put under the control of the university of the state +of New York, which also inaugurated the travelling libraries. Work with +the schools and children generally is more cultivated in the libraries +of the United States than elsewhere. In some cases the libraries send +collections of books to the schools; in others provision is made for +children's reading-rooms and lending departments at the library +buildings. At Cleveland (Ohio), Pittsburg (Pa.), New York and many other +places, elaborate arrangements are in force for the convenience and +amusement of children. There is a special school, the Carnegie Library +training school for children's librarians, at Pittsburg, and within +recent years the instruction has included the art of telling stories to +children at the libraries. This "story-hour" idea has been the cause of +considerable discussion in the United States, librarians and teachers +being divided in opinion as to the value of the service. The chief +factors in children's work in American libraries, often overlooked by +critics, are the number of non-English reading adults and the large +number of children of foreign origin. The adults do not use the +libraries to any large extent, but the children, who learn English at +the schools, are brought into close touch with the juvenile departments +of the libraries. In this way many libraries are obliged to undertake +special work for children, and as a rule it is performed in a sane, +practical and economical manner. The preponderance of women librarians +and their natural sentimental regard for children has tended to make +this work loom rather largely in some quarters, but with these +exceptions the activity on behalf of children is justified on many +grounds. But above all, it is manifest that a rapidly growing nation, +finding homes for thousands of foreigners and their children annually, +must use every means of rapidly educating their new citizens, and the +public library is one of the most efficient and ready ways of +accomplishing this great national object. + +With regard to methods, the American libraries are working on much the +same plan as those of the United Kingdom. They allow access to the +shelves more universally, and there is much more standardization in +classification and other internal matters. The provision of books is +more profuse, although there is, on the whole, more reading done in the +United Kingdom. The largest municipal library system in America, and +also in the world, is that of New York City, which, after struggling +with a series of Free Circulating Libraries, blossomed out in 1895 into +the series of combinations which resulted in the present great +establishment. In that year, the Astor and Lenox libraries (see above) +were taken over by the city, and in addition, $2,000,000 was given by +one of the heirs of Mr S. J. Tilden, who had bequeathed about $4,000,000 +for library purposes in New York but whose will had been upset in the +law courts. In 1901 Mr Andrew Carnegie gave about £1,500,000 for the +purpose of providing 65 branches, and these are now nearly all erected. +A very fine central library building has been erected, and when the +organization is completed there will be no system of municipal libraries +to equal that of New York. It possesses about 1,400,000 vols. in the +consolidated libraries. Brooklyn, although forming part of Greater New +York, has an independent library system, and possesses about 560,000, +vols. distributed among 26 branches and including the old Brooklyn +Library which has been absorbed in the municipal library system. At +Boston (Mass.) is one of the most renowned public libraries in the +United States, and also the oldest established by act of legislature. It +was first opened to the public in 1854, and is now housed in a very +magnificently decorated building which was completed in 1895. The +central library contains many fine special collections, and there are 28 +branch and numerous school libraries in connexion. It possesses about +1,000,000 vols. altogether, its annual circulation is about 1,500,000 +vols., and its annual expenditure is nearly £70,000. + + Other notable municipal libraries are those of Philadelphia (1891), + Chicago (1872), Los Angeles (Cal.), 1872, Indianapolis (1868), Detroit + (1865), Minneapolis (1885), St Louis (1865), Newark, N.J. (1889), + Cincinnati (1856), Cleveland (1869), Allegheny (1890), Pittsburg + (1895), Providence, R.I. (1878), Milwaukee (1875), Washington, D.C. + (1898), Worcester, Mass. (1859), Buffalo (1837). + + AUTHORITIES.--_The Annual Library Index_ (New York, 1908)--contains a + select list of libraries in the United States; Arthur E. Bostwick, + _The American Public Library_, illust. (New York, 1910)--the most + comprehensive general book; Bureau of Education, _Statistics of Public + Libraries in the United States and Canada_ (1893)--this has been + succeeded by a list of "Public, Society and School Libraries," + reprinted at irregular intervals from the Report of the Commissioner + of Education and giving a list of libraries containing over 5000 vols. + with various other particulars; Clegg, _International Directory of + Booksellers_ (1910) and earlier issues--contains a list of American + libraries with brief particulars; John C. Dana, _A Library Primer_ + (Chicago, 1910)--the standard manual of American library practice; + _Directory of Libraries in the United States and Canada_ (6th ed.; + Minneapolis, 1908)--a brief list of 4500 libraries, with indication of + the annual income of each; Wm. I. Fletcher, _Public Libraries in + America_ (2nd ed., Boston, 1899), illust.; T. W. Koch, _Portfolio of + Carnegie Libraries_ (1908); Cornelia Marvin, _Small Library Buildings_ + (Boston, 1908); A. R. Spofford, _A Book for all Readers ... the + Formation of Public and Private Libraries_ (1905). + + +_France._ + +French libraries (other than those in private hands) belong either to +the state, to the departments, to the communes, or to learned societies, +educational establishments and other public institutions; the libraries +of judicial or administrative bodies are not considered to be owned by +them, but to be state property. Besides the unrivalled library +accommodation of the capital, France possesses a remarkable assemblage +of provincial libraries. The communal and school libraries also form +striking features of the French free library system. Taking as a basis +for comparison the _Tableau statistique des bibliothèques publiques_ +(1857), there were at that date 340 departmental libraries with a total +of 3,734,260 vols., and 44,436 MSS. In 1908 the number of volumes in all +the public libraries; communal, university, learned societies, +educational and departmental, was more than 20,060,148 vols., 93,986 +MSS. and 15,530 incunabula. Paris alone now possesses over 10,570,000 +printed vols., 147,543 MSS., 5000 incunabula, 609,439 maps and plans, +2,000,000 prints (designs and reproductions). + + + Paris. + +The Bibliothèque Nationale (one of the most extensive libraries in the +world) has had an advantage over others in the length of time during +which its contents have been accumulating, and in the great zeal shown +for it by several kings and other eminent men. Enthusiastic writers find +the original of this library in the MS. collections of Charlemagne and +Charles the Bald, but these were dispersed in course of time, and the +few precious relics of them which the national library now possesses +have been acquired at a much later date. Of the library which St Louis +formed in the 13th century (in imitation of what he had seen in the +East) nothing has fallen into the possession of the Bibliothèque +Nationale, but much has remained of the royal collections made by kings +of the later dynasties. The real foundation of the institution (formerly +known as the Bibliothèque du Roi) may be said to date from the reign of +King John, the Black Prince's captive, who had a considerable taste for +books, and bequeathed his "royal library" of MSS. to his successor +Charles V. Charles V. organized his library in a very effective manner, +removing it from the Palais de la Cité to the Louvre, where it was +arranged on desks in a large hall of three storeys, and placed under the +management of the first librarian and cataloguer, Claude Mallet, the +king's valet-de-chambre. His catalogue was a mere shelf-list, entitled +_Inventaire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au chastel du +Louvre_; it is still extant, as well as the further inventories made by +Jean Blanchet in 1380, and by Jean le Bègue in 1411 and 1424. Charles V. +was very liberal in his patronage of literature, and many of the early +monuments of the French language are due to his having employed Nicholas +Oresme, Ràoul de Presle and other scholars to make translations from +ancient texts. Charles VI. added some hundreds of MSS. to the royal +library, which, however, was sold to the regent, duke of Bedford, after +a valuation had been established by the inventory of 1424. The regent +transferred it to England, and it was finally dispersed at his death in +1435. Charles VII. and Louis XI. did little to repair the loss of the +precious Louvre library, but the news of the invention of printing +served as a stimulus to the creation of another one, of which the first +librarian was Laurent Paulmier. The famous miniaturist, Jean Foucquet of +Tours, was named the king's _enlumineur_, and although Louis XI. +neglected to avail himself of many precious opportunities that occurred +in his reign, still the new library developed gradually with the help of +confiscation. Charles VIII. enriched it with many fine MSS. executed by +his order, and also with most of the books that had formed the library +of the kings of Aragon, seized by him at Naples. Louis XII., on coming +to the throne, incorporated the Bibliothèque du Roi with the fine +Orleans library at Blois, which he had inherited. The Blois library, +thus augmented, and further enriched by plunder from the palaces of +Pavia, and by the purchase of the famous Gruthuyse collection, was +described at the time as one of the four marvels of France. Francis I. +removed it to Fontainebleau in 1534, enlarged by the addition of his +private library. He was the first to set the fashion of fine artistic +bindings, which was still more cultivated by Henry II., and which has +never died out in France. During the librarianship of Amyot (the +translator of Plutarch) the library was transferred from Fontainebleau +to Paris, not without the loss of several books coveted by powerful +thieves. Henry IV. removed it to the Collége de Clermont, but in 1604 +another change was made, and in 1622 it was installed in the Rue de la +Harpe. Under the librarianship of J. A. de Thou it acquired the library +of Catherine de' Medici, and the glorious Bible of Charles the Bald. In +1617 a decree was passed that two copies of every new publication should +be deposited in the library, but this was not rigidly enforced till +Louis XIV.'s time. The first catalogue worthy of the name was finished +in 1622, and contains a description of some 6000 vols., chiefly MSS. +Many additions were made during Louis XIII.'s reign, notably that of the +Dupuy collection, but a new era dawned for the Bibliothèque du Roi under +the patronage of Louis XIV. The enlightened activity of Colbert, one of +the greatest of collectors, so enriched the library that it became +necessary for want of space to make another removal. It was therefore in +1666 installed in the Rue Vivien (now Vivienne) not far from its present +habitat. The departments of engravings and medals were now created, and +before long rose to nearly equal importance with that of books. +Marolles's prints, Foucquet's books, and many from the Mazarin library +were added to the collection, and, in short, the Bibliothèque du Roi +had its future pre-eminence undoubtedly secured. Nic. Clément made a +catalogue in 1684 according to an arrangement which has been followed +ever since (that is, in twenty-three classes, each one designated by a +letter of the alphabet), with an alphabetical index to it. After +Colbert's death Louvois emulated his predecessor's labours, and employed +Mabillon, Thevenot and others to procure fresh accessions from all parts +of the world. A new catalogue was compiled in 1688 in 8 vols, by several +distinguished scholars. The Abbé Louvois, the minister's son, became +head of the library in 1691, and opened it to all students--a privilege +which although soon withdrawn was afterwards restored. Towards the end +of Louis XIV.'s reign it contained over 70,000 vols. Under the +management of the Abbé Bignon numerous additions were made in all +departments, and the library was removed to its present home in the Rue +Richelieu. Among the more important acquisitions were 6000 MSS. from the +private library of the Colbert family, Bishop Huet's forfeited +collection, and a large number of Oriental books imported by +missionaries from the farther East, and by special agents from the +Levant. Between 1739 and 1753 a catalogue in 11 vols, was printed, which +enabled the administration to discover and to sell its duplicates. In +Louis XVI.'s reign the sale of the La Vallière library furnished a +valuable increase both in MSS. and printed books. A few years before the +Revolution broke out the latter department contained over 300,000 vols, +and opuscules. The Revolution was serviceable to the library, now called +the Bibliothèque Nationale, by increasing it with the forfeited +collections of the _émigrés_, as well as of the suppressed religious +communities. In the midst of the difficulties of placing and cataloguing +these numerous acquisitions, the name of Van Praet appears as an +administrator of the first order. Napoleon increased the amount of the +government grant; and by the strict enforcement of the law concerning +new publications, as well as by the acquisition of several special +collections, the Bibliothèque made considerable progress during his +reign towards realizing his idea that it should be universal in +character. At the beginning of last century the recorded numbers were +250,000 printed vols., 83,000 MSS., and 1,500,000 engravings. After +Napoleon's downfall the MSS. which he had transferred from Berlin, +Hanover, Florence, Venice, Rome, the Hague and other places had to be +returned to their proper owners. The MacCarthy sale in 1817 brought a +rich store of MSS. and incunabula. From that time onwards to the +present, under the enlightened administration of MM. Taschereau and +Delisle and Marcel, the accessions have been very extensive. + + According to the statistics for 1908 the riches of the Bibliothèque + Nationale may be enumerated as follows: (1) Département des Imprimés: + more than 3,000,000 vols.; Maps and plans, 500,000 in 28,000 vols. (2) + Département des Manuscrits: 110,000 MSS. thus divided: Greek 4960, + Latin 21,544, French 44,913, Oriental and miscellaneous 38,583. (3) + Département des Estampes: 1,000,000 pieces. (4) Département des + Médailles: 207,096 pieces. + + Admittance to the "salle de travail" is obtained through a card + procured from the secretarial office; the "salle publique" contains + 344 places for readers, who are able to consult more than 50,000 vols. + of books of reference. Great improvements have lately been introduced + into the service. A "salle de lecture publique" is free to all readers + and is much used. New buildings are in process of construction. The + slip catalogue bound in volumes dates from 1882 and gives a list of + all accessions since that date; it is divided into two parts, one for + the names of authors and the other for subjects. There is not yet, as + at the British Museum, an alphabetical catalogue of all the printed + works and kept up by periodical supplements, but since 1897 a + _Catalogue général des livres imprimés_ has been begun. In 1909 the + 38th vol. containing letters A to Delp had appeared. Some volumes are + published each year, but the earlier volumes only contain a selection + of the books; this inconvenience has now been remedied. Among the + other catalogues published by the Printed Book Department, the + following may be mentioned: _Répertoire alphabétique des livres mis à + la disposition des lecteurs dans la salle de travail_ (1896, 8vo), + _Liste des périodiques français et étrangers mis à la disposition des + lecteurs_ (1907, 4to, autogr.), _Liste des périodiques étrangers_ (new + ed., 1896, 8vo) and _Supplement_ (1902, 8vo), _Bulletin des récentes + publications françaises_ (from 1882, 8vo), _Catalogue des + dissertations et écrits académiques provenant des échanges avec les + universités étrangères_ (from 1882, 8vo). The other extensive + catalogues apart from those of the 18th century are: _Catalogue de + l'histoire de France_ (1885-1889, 4to, 11 vols.); _Table des auteurs,_ + par P. Marchal (1895, 4to), with the following autographed + supplements: _Histoire locale_ (1880); _Histoire généalogique et + biographies_ (1884); _Moeurs et coutumes, archéologie_ (1885); + _Histoire maritime et militaire_ (1894); _Histoire constitutionnelle_ + (1895); _Sciences médicales_ (1857-1889, 3 vols., 4to); _Histoire de + la Grande-Bretagne_ (1875-1878, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Espagne et du + Portugal_ (1883, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Asie_ (1894); _Histoire de + l'Afrique_ (1895, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Amérique_, par G. Barringer + (1903-1908, autogr.); _Factums et autres documents judiciaires + antérieurs à 1790_, par Corda et A. Trudon des Ormes (1890-1907, 8 + vols., 8vo); _Catalogue général des incunables des bibliothèques + publiques de France_, par M. Pellechet et L. Polain, t. i.-iii. + (1897-1909, 8vo); _Livres d'heures imprimés au XV^e siècle conservés + dans les bibliothèques publiques de Paris_, par P. Lacombe (1907, + 8vo), &c. In the Geographical section there is L. Vallée's _Catalogue + des cartes et plans relatifs à Paris et aux environs de Paris_ (1908, + 8vo). The following should be mentioned: _Bibliographie générale des + travaux historiques et archéologiques publiés par les sociétés + savantes de la France_, par R. de Lasteyrie avec la collaboration d'E. + Lefèvre-Pontalis, S. Bougenot, A. Vidier, t. i.-vi. (1885-1908, 4to). + The scientific division of this work (in two parts) is by Deniker. The + printed catalogues and the autographed and manuscript lists of the + Département des Manuscrits are very numerous and greatly facilitate + research. For the French there are: H. Omont, _Catalogue général des + manuscrits français_ (1895-1897, 9 vols. 8vo); H. Omont, _Nouvelles + acquisitions_ (continuation of the same catalogue, 1899-1900, 3 vols. + 8vo); H. Omont, _Anciens Inventaires de la Bibliothèque Nationale_ + (1908-1909, 2 vols. 8vo); E. Coyecque, _Inventaire de la Collection + Anisson sur l'histoire de l'imprimerie et de la librairie_ (1900, 2 + vols. 8vo). Without repeating the catalogues mentioned in the tenth + edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, it is yet necessary to + mention the following: _Catalogue de la collection Baluze_; + _Inventaire des sceaux de la collection Clairambault_; _Catalogue de + la collection des cinq-cents et des mélanges Colbert_; _Catalogue des + collections Duchesne et de Bréquigny_; those of the Dupuy, Joly de + Fleury, and Moreau collections, and that of provincial history, &c. + For the Greek collection the most important catalogues have been made + by H. Omont, the present Keeper of the Manuscripts, and these are: + _Inventaire sommaire des MSS. grecs_ (1886-1898, 4 vols. 8vo); + _Catalogus codicum hagiographicorum graecorum_ (1896, 8vo); + _Facsimilés des plus anciens MSS. grecs en onciale et en minuscule du + IX^e au XIV^e siècle_ (1891, fol.); as well as _Description des + peintures et autres ornements contenus dans les MSS. latins_, par H. + Bordier (1883, 4to). The lists of the Latin MSS. are: _Inventaire des + manuscrits latins et nouvelles acquisitions jusqu'en 1874_ (1863-1874, + 7 pts. 8vo) and _Manuscrits latins et français ajoutés aux fonds des + nouvelles acquisitions 1875-1881_ (1891, 2 vols. 8vo), by M. Delisle; + M. Omont published _Nouvelles Acquisitions du département des + manuscrits_ (1892-1907, 8 pts. 8vo), and B. Haureau, _Notices et + extraits de quelques manuscrits latins_ (1890-1893, 6 vols. 8vo). The + principal modern catalogues of the oriental collection are: B. de + Slane, _Catalogue des MSS. arabes, avec supplément_ (1883-1895, 4to); + E. Blochet, _Catalogue des MSS. arabes, persans, et turcs de la + collection Schefer_ (1900); E. Blochet, _Inventaire des MSS. arabes de + la collection Decourtemanche_ (1906); F. Macler, _Catalogue des MSS. + arméniens et géorgiens_ (1908). For other oriental languages the + following catalogues have been compiled: _MSS. birmans et cambodgiens_ + (1879); _MSS. chinois, coréens et japonais_ (1900-1907); _MSS. coptes_ + (1906); _MSS. éthiopiens_ (1859-1877); _MSS. hébreux et samaritains_ + (1867-1903); MSS. _indo-chinois_ (in the press); _MSS. + malayo-polynésiens_ (in the press); _MSS. mazdéens_ (1900); _MSS. + mexicains_ (1899); _MSS. persans_, t. i. (1905); _MSS. sanscrits et + pâlis_ (1899, 1907-1908); _MSS. siamois_ (1887); _MSS. syriaques et + sabéens_ (1874-1896); _MSS. thibétains_ (in the press), &c. The + catalogues of manuscripts in modern languages are nearly all + completed. The Départements des Médailles et des Estampes possess + excellent catalogues, and the following should be mentioned: E. + Babelon, _Catalogue des monnaies grecques_ (1890-1893); E. Babelon, + _Inventaire sommaire de la collection Waddington_ (1898); _Médailles + fausses recueillies_, par Hoffmann (1902); Muret et Chabouillet, + _Catalogue des monnaies gauloises_ (1889-1892); Prou, _Catalogue des + monnaies françaises_ (1892-1896); H. de la Tour, _Catalogue de la + collection Rouyer, 1^(re) partie_ (1899); _Catalogues des monnaies et + médailles d'Alsace_ (1902); _Cat. des monnaies de l'Amérique du Nord_ + (1861); _Cat. des monnaies musulmanes_ (1887-1891); _Cat. des plombs_ + (1900); _Cat. des bronzes antiques_ (1889); _Cat. des camées antiques + et modernes_ (1897-1899); _Cat. des vases peints_ (1902-1904, 2 + vols.). In the Département des Estampes the following should be + mentioned: F. Courboin, _Catalogue sommaire des gravures et + lithographies de la Réserve_ (1900-1901); Duplessis, _Cat. des + portraits français et étrangers_ (1896-1907, 6 vols.); H. Bouchot, + _Les Portraits au crayon des XVI^e et XVII^e siècles_ (1884); _Cat. + des dessins relatifs à l'histoire du théâtre_ (1896); F. Courboin, + _Inventaire des dessins, photographies et gravures relatives à + l'histoire générale de l'art_ (1895, 2 vols.), &c. + +The Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal was founded by the marquis de Paulmy +(Antoine-René d'Argenson) in the 18th century; it received in 1786 +80,000 vols. from the duc de La Vallière. Before its confiscation as +national property it had belonged to the comte d'Artois, who had bought +it from the marquis de Paulmy in his lifetime. It contains at the +present time about 600,000 vols., 10,000 manuscripts, 120,000 prints and +the Bastille collection (2500 portfolios) of which the inventory is +complete; it is the richest library for the literary history of France +and has more than 30,000 theatrical pieces. + + _L'Inventaire des manuscrits_ was made by H. Martin (1885-1899, t. + i.-viii.); the other catalogues and lists are: _Extrait du catalogue + des journaux conservés à la Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal_ ("Bulletin des + biblioth. et des archives" t. i.); _Archives de la Bastille_, par F. + Funck-Brentano (1892-1894, 3 vols. 8vo); _Notice sur les dépôts + littéraires_ par J. B. Labiche (1880, 8vo); _Catalogue des estampes, + dessins et cartes composant le cabinet des estampes de la bibliothèque + de l'Arsenal_, par G. Schefer (1894-1905, 8 pts. 8vo). + +The Bibliothèque Mazarine owes its origin to the great cardinal, who +confided the direction to Gabriel Naudé; it was open to the public in +1642, and was transferred to Rue de Richelieu in 1648. Dispersed during +the Fronde in the lifetime of Mazarin, it was reconstituted after the +death of the cardinal in 1661, when it contained 40,000 vols. which were +left to the Collège des Quatre-Nations, which in 1691 made it again +public. It now has 250,000 vols.; with excellent manuscript catalogues. + + The catalogues of incunabula and manuscripts are printed: P. Marais et + A. Dufresne de Saint-Léon, _Catalogue des incunables de la + bibliothèque Mazarine_ (1893, 8vo); _Supplément, additions et + corrections_ (1898, 4 vols. 8vo); _Catalogue des MSS._, par A. + Molinier (1885-1892, 4 vols. 8vo); _Inventaire sommaire des MSS. + grecs_, par H. Omont. + +The first library of the Genovéfains had nearly disappeared owing to bad +administration when Cardinal François de la Rochefoucauld, who had +charge of the reformation of that religious order, constituted in 1642 a +new library with his own books. The Bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève in 1716 +possessed 45,000 vols.; important gifts were made by Letellier in 1791, +and the duc d'Orléans increased it still more. It became national +property in 1791, and was called the Bibliothèque du Panthéon and added +to the Lycée Henri IV. under the empire. In 1908 the library contained +350,000 printed vols., 1225 incunabula, 3510 manuscripts, 10,000 prints +(including 7357 portraits and 3000 maps and plans). + + The printed catalogues at present comprise: Poirée et Lamoureux, + _Catalogue abrégé de la bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève_ (1891, 8vo); 3 + supplements (1890-1896, 1897-1899, 1900-1902); _Catalogue des + incunables de la bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève, rédigé par Daunou_, + publié par M. Pellechet (1892, 8vo); _Catalogue général des MSS._, par + Ch. Kohler (1894-1896, 2 vols. 8vo); _Inventaire sommaire des MSS. + grecs_, par H. Omont; _Notices sur quelques MSS. normands_, par E. + Deville (1904-1906, 10 pts. 8vo), &c. + +The Bibliothèque des Archives nationales, founded in 1808 by Daunou, +contains 30,000 vols. on sciences auxiliary to history. It is only +accessible to the officials. + + It would be impossible to describe all the official, municipal and + academic libraries of Paris more or less open to the public, which are + about 200 in number, and in the following survey we deal only with + those having 10,000 vols. and over. + + The Bibliothèque du Ministère des affaires étrangères was founded by + the marquis de Torcy, minister for foreign affairs under Louis XIV.; + it contains 80,000 vols. and is for official use only. The + Bibliothèque du Ministère de l'Agriculture dates from 1882 and has + only 4000 vols. At the Ministry for the Colonies the library (of + 10,000 vols.) dates from 1897; the catalogue was published in 1905; + the library of the Colonial office is attached to this ministry; + suppressed in 1896, it was re-established in 1899, and now contains + 6000 vols., 7400 periodicals and 5000 photographs; it is open to the + public. There are 30,000 vols. in the Bibliothèque du Ministère du + commerce et de l'industrie; the Bibliothèque du Ministère des finances + was burnt at the Commune, but has been reconstituted and now contains + 35,000 vols.; connected with it are the libraries of the following + offices: Contributions directes, Contributions indirectes, + Enregistrement et inspection des finances; the contents of these four + libraries make a total of 13,500 vols. The Bibliothèque du Ministère + de la Guerre was formed by Louvois and possesses 130,000 vols. and 800 + MSS. and an income of 20,000 francs; the catalogues are _Bibliothèque + du dépôt de la guerre: Catalogue_ (1883-1890); _Suppléments_ + (1893-1896); _Catalogue des MSS._, par J. Lemoine (1910). The + following libraries are connected with this department: Comité de + santé (10,000 vols.), École supérieure de guerre (70,000 vols.), + Comité technique de l'artillerie (24,000 vols.). The Bibliothèque du + Ministère de l'Intérieur was founded in 1793 and has 80,000 vols. The + Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Justice possesses 10,000 vols., and + L'Imprimerie Nationale which is connected with it has a further 19,000 + vols. There are also the following law libraries: Cour d'appel + (12,000 vols.); Ordre des avocats, dating from 1871 (56,000 vols., + with a catalogue printed in 1880-1882); the Bibliothèque des avocats + de la cour de Cassation (20,000 vols.); that of the Cour de Cassation + (40,000 vols.). The Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Marine is of old + formation (catalogue 1838-1843); it contains 100,000 vols, and 356 + MSS.; the catalogue of manuscripts was compiled in 1907. The + Bibliothèque du service hydrographique de la Marine has 65,000 vols, + and 250 MSS. The Ministère des Travaux publics possesses 12,000 vols., + and the Sous-Secrétariat des postes et télégraphes a further 30,000 + vols. The Bibliothèque de la Chambre des députés (1796) possesses + 250,000 printed books and 1546 MSS. (_Catalogue des manuscrits_, by E. + Coyecque et H. Debray, 1907; _Catalogue des livres de jurisprudence, + d'économie politique, de finances, et d'administration_, 1883). The + Bibliothèque du Sénat (1818) contains 150,000 vols, and 1343 MSS. The + Bibliothèque du Conseil d'État has 30,000 vols. All these libraries + are only accessible to officials except by special permission. + + The Bibliothèque Historique de la ville de Paris was destroyed in + 1871, but Jules Cousin reconstituted it in 1872; it possesses 400,000 + vols., 3500 MSS. and 14,000 prints; the principal printed catalogues + are _Catalogue des imprimés de la Réserve_ by M. Poète (1910), + _Catalogue des manuscrits_, by F. Bournon (1893); a _Bulletin_ has + been issued periodically since 1906. The Bibliothèque administrative + de la préfecture de la Seine is divided into two sections: French + (40,000 vols.) and foreign (22,000 vols.); it is only accessible to + officials and to persons having a card of introduction; the catalogues + are printed. + + The other libraries connected with the city of Paris are that of the + Conseil municipal (20,000 vols.), the Bibliothèques Municipales + Populaires, 82 in number with a total of 590,000 books; those of the + 22 Hospitals (92,887 vols.), the Préfecture de police (10,000 vols.), + the Bibliothèque Forney (10,000 vols. and 80,000 prints), the five + Écoles municipales supérieures (19,700 vols.), the six professional + schools (14,200 vols.). + + The libraries of the university and the institutions dealing with + higher education in Paris are well organized and their catalogues + generally printed. + + The Bibliothèque de l'Université, although at present grouped as a + system in four sections in different places, historically considered + is the library of the Sorbonne. This was founded in 1762 by Montempuis + and only included the faculties of Arts and Theology. It changed its + name several times; in 1800 it was the Bibliothèque du Prytanée, in + 1808 Bibliothèque des Quatre Lycées and in 1812 Bibliothèque de + l'Université de France. The sections into which the Bibliothèque de + l'Université is now divided are: (1) Facultés de Sciences et des + Lettres à la Sorbonne, (2) Faculté de Médecine, (3) Faculté de droit, + (4) École supérieure de pharmacie. Before the separation of Church and + State there was a fifth section, that of Protestant theology. After + the Bibliothèque nationale it is the richest in special collections, + and above all as regards classical philology, archaeology, French and + foreign literature and literary criticism, just as the library of the + Faculté des Sciences et des Lettres is notable for philosophy, + mathematics and chemico-physical sciences. The great development which + has taken place during the last thirty years, especially under the + administration of M. J. de Chantepie du Dézert, its installation since + 1897 in the buildings of the New Sorbonne, have made it a library of + the very first rank. The reading-room only seats about 300 persons. + The average attendance per day is 1200, the number of books consulted + varies from 1500 to 3000 vols. a day, and the loans amount to 14,000 + vols. per year. The store-rooms, although they contain more than 1200 + mètres of shelves and comprise two buildings of five storeys each, are + insufficient for the annual accessions, which reach nearly 10,000 + vols. by purchase and presentation. Amongst the latter the most + important are the bequests of Leclerc, Peccot, Lavisse, Derenbourg and + Beljame; the last-named bequeathed more than 3000 vols., including an + important Shakespearean library. The first section contains more than + 550,000 vols., 2800 periodicals which include over 70,000 vols., 320 + incunabula, 2106 MSS., more than 2000 maps and plans and some prints. + The alphabetical catalogues are kept up day by day on slips. The + classified catalogues were in 1910 almost ready for printing, and some + had already been published: Périodiques (1905); Cartulaires (1907); + _Mélanges jubilaires et publications commémoratives_ (1908); + _Inventaires des MSS._, by E. Chatelain (1892); _Incunables_, by E. + Chatelain (1902); and _Supplément, Réserve de la bibliothèque_ + 1401-1540, by Ch. Beaulieux (1909); _Nouvelles acquisitions_ + (1905-1908); _Catalogue des livres de G. Duplessis donnés à + l'Université de Paris_ (1907), _Catalogue collectif des bibliothèques + universitaires_ by Fécamp (1898-1901). For French thèses, of which the + library possesses a rich collection, the catalogues are as follows: + Mourier et Deltour, _Catalogue des thèses de lettres_ (1809, &c.); A. + Maire, _Répertoire des thèses de lettres_ (1809-1900); A. Maire, + _Catalogue des thèses de sciences_ (1809-1890) with _Supplément_ to + 1900 by Estanave; _Catalogue des thèses publié par le Ministère de + l'Instruction publique_ (1882, &c.). + + At the Sorbonne are also to be found the libraries of A. Dumont and V. + Cousin (15,000 vols.), and those of the laboratories, of which the + richest is the geological (30,000 specimens and books). The section + relating to medicine, housed since 1891 in the new buildings of the + Faculté de Médecine, includes 180,000 vols, and 88 MSS. (catalogue + 1910). The Bibliothèque de la faculté de droit dates from 1772 and + contains 80,000 vols., 239 MSS. The fourth section, l'École supérieure + de pharmacie, greatly developed since 1882, now contains 50,000 vols. + + The other libraries connected with higher education include that of + the École des Beaux-Arts (40,000 vols., 100,000 reproductions, 14,000 + drawings). The library of the École normale supérieure (1794), + established in the Rue d'Ulm in 1846, has received legacies from + Verdet (1867), Caboche (1887), Lerambert-Whitcomb (1890), and a + portion of Cuvier's library; the system of classification in use is + practically the same as that of the Sorbonne, being devised by + Philippe Lebas (librarian of the Sorbonne) about 1845; there are + 200,000 vols. The library of the Muséum d'histoire naturelle dates + from the 18th century, and contains 220,000 vols., 2000 MSS., 8000 + original drawings on vellum beginning in 1631. The Bibliothèque de + l'Office et Musée de l'Instruction publique (formerly Musée + pédagogique), founded only in 1880, has 75,000 vols. In 1760 was + founded the Bibliothèque de l'Institut de France, which is very rich; + its acquisitions come particularly from gifts and exchanges (400,000 + vols., numerous and scarce; valuable MSS., especially modern ones). + + The following may be briefly mentioned: Conservatoire national de + musique (1775), which receives everything published in France relating + to music (200,000 vols.); the Bibliothèque du théâtre de l'Opéra + (25,000 vols., 5000 songs, 20,000 romances, and a dramatic library of + 12,000 vols. and 20,000 prints); the Théâtre français (40,000 vols.); + the Académie de médecine (15,000 vols., 10,000 vols. of periodicals, + 5000 portraits), l'Observatoire (18,400 vols.); the Bureau des + Longitudes (15,000 vols. and 850 MSS.). The scholastic libraries are: + L'École centrale des arts et manufactures (16,000 vols.); l'École + coloniale (11,000 vols.); 1,'Êcole d'application du service de santé + militaire (23,000 vols.); l'École d'application du génie maritime + (14,000 vols.); l'École libre des sciences politiques (25,000 vols., + 250 periodicals); l'École normale d'instituteurs de la Seine (10,000 + vols.); l'École normale israélite (30,000 vols., 250 MSS.); l'École + nationale des ponts-et-chausées (9000 vols., 5000 MSS., 5000 + photographs); Bibliothèque de l'Institut catholique (160,000 vols.); + l'Institut national agronomique (25,000 vols.); Faculté libre de + théologie protestante (36,000 vols.); Conservatoire des arts et + métiers (46,000 vols., 2500 maps and plans); Bibliothèque polonaise, + administered by the Académie des Sciences de Cracovie (80,000 vols., + 30,000 prints); Séminaire des Missions étrangères (25,000 vols.); + l'Association Valentin Haüy, established 1885 (2000 vols. printed in + relief) which lends out 40,000 books per annum; l'Association générale + des Étudiants (22,000 vols.), which lends and allows reference on the + premises to books by students; Bibliothèque de la Chambre de Commerce + (40,000 vols.), the catalogues of which were printed in 1879, 1889 and + 1902; the Société nationale d'agriculture (20,000 vols.); the Société + d'anthropologie (23,000 vols.); the Société asiatique (12,000 vols., + 200 MSS.); the Société chimique de France (10,000 vols.), the + catalogue of which was published in 1907; the Société de chirurgie, + dating from 1843 (20,000 vols.); the Société entomologique (30,000 + vols.); the Société de géographie founded 1821 (60,000 vols., 6000 + maps, 22,000 photographs, 2200 portraits, 80 MSS. of which the + catalogue was printed in 1901); the Société géologique de France + (15,000 vols., 30,000 specimens, 800 periodicals); the Société de + l'histoire du protestantisme français, founded in 1852 (50,000 vols., + 1000 MSS.; income 25,000 frs.); the Société d'encouragement pour + l'industrie nationale (50,000 vols., income 8000 frs.); the Société + des Ingénieurs civils (47,000 vols.; catalogue made in 1894); the + Société de legislation comparée (15,000 vols., 4500 pamphlets); and + lastly the Bibliothèque de la Société de Statistique de Paris, founded + in 1860 (60,000 vols., with a printed catalogue). + +Before the Revolution there were in Paris alone 1100 libraries +containing altogether 2,000,000 vols. After the suppression of the +religious orders the libraries were confiscated, and in 1791 more than +800,000 vols, were seized in 162 religious houses and transferred to +eight literary foundations in accordance with a decree of November 14, +1789. In the provinces 6,000,000 vols. were seized and transferred to +local depositories. The organization of the central libraries under the +decree of 3 Brumaire An IV. (October 25, 1795) came to nothing, but the +consular edict of January 28, 1803 gave definitive organization to the +books in the local depositories. From that time the library system was +reconstituted, alike in Paris and the provinces. Unfortunately many +precious books and MSS. were burnt, since by the decree of 4 Brumaire An +II. (October 25, 1793) the Committee of Instruction ordered, on the +proposition of its president the deputy Romme, the destruction or +modification of books and objects of art, under the pretext that they +recalled the outward signs of feudalism. + + + Libraries of the Departments. + +The books in the provincial libraries, not including those in private +hands or belonging to societies, number over 9,200,000 vols., 15,540 +incunabula and 93,986 MSS. The number in the colonies and protected +states outside France is uncertain, but it extends to more than 200,000 +vols.; to this number must be added the 2,428,954 vols. contained in +the university libraries. There are over 300 departmental libraries, and +as many belong to learned societies. The increase in the provincial +libraries is slower than that of the Parisian collections. With the +exception of 26 libraries connected specially with the state, the others +are municipal and are administered under state control by municipal +librarians. The original foundation of most of the libraries dates but a +short time before the Revolution, but there are a few exceptions. Thus +the Bibliothèque d'Angers owes its first collection to Alain de la Rue +about 1376; it now contains 72,485 vols., 134 incunabula and 2039 MSS. +That of Bourges dates from 1466 (36,856 vols., 325 incunabula, 741 +MSS.). The library of Carpentras was established by Michel Anglici +between 1452 and 1474 (50,000 vols., 2154 MSS.). Mathieu de la Porte is +said to be the founder of the library at Clermont-Ferrand at the end of +the 15th century; it contained rather more than 49,000 vols. at the time +of its union with the Bibliothèque Universitaire. + + Amongst the libraries which date from the 16th century must be + mentioned that at Lyons founded by François I. in 1527; it possesses + 113,168 vols., 870 incunabula and 5243 MSS. That of the Palais des + Arts has 82,079 vols., 64 incunabula and 311 MSS. + + In the 17th century were established the following libraries: + Abbeville, by Charles Sanson in 1685 (46,929 vols., 42 incunabula, 342 + MSS.); Besançon by Abbé Boisot in 1696 (93,580 vols., 1000 incunabula, + 2247 MSS.). In 1604 the Consistoire réformé de la Rochelle established + a library which possesses to-day 58,900 vols., 14 incunabula, 1715 + MSS. St Étienne, founded by Cardinal de Villeroi, has 50,000 vols., 8 + incunabula, 343 MSS. + + The principal libraries founded during the 18th century are the + following: Aix-en-Provence, established by Tournon and Méjane in 1705 + (160,000 vols., 300 incunabula, 1351 MSS.); Bordeaux, 1738 (200,000 + vols., 3491 MSS.); Chambéry, 1736 (64,200 vols., 47 incunabula, 155 + MSS.); Dijon, 1701, founded by P. Fevret (125,000 vols., 211 + incunabula, 1669 MSS.); Grenoble, 1772 (260,772 vols., 635 incunabula, + 2485 MSS.); Marseilles, 1799 (111,672 vols., 143 incunabula, 1691 + MSS.); Nancy, founded in 1750 by Stanislas (126,149 vols., 205 + incunabula, 1695 MSS.); Nantes, 1753 (103,328 vols., 140 incunabula, + 2750 MSS.); Nice, founded in 1786 by Abbé Massa (55,000 vols., 300 + incunabula, 150 MSS.); Nîmes, founded by J. T. de Séguier in 1778 + (80,000 vols., 61 incunabula, 675 MSS.); Niort, by Jean de Dieu and R. + Bion in 1771 (49,413 vols., 67 incunabula, 189 MSS.); Perpignan, by + Maréchal de Mailly in 1759 (27,200 vols., 80 incunabula, 127 MSS.); + Rennes, 1733 (110,000 vols., 116 incunabula, 602 MSS., income 8950 + frs.); Toulouse, by archbishop of Brienne in 1782 (213,000 vols., 859 + incunabula, 1020 MSS.). + + Nearly all the other municipal libraries date from the Revolution, or + rather from the period of the redistribution of the books in 1803. The + following municipal libraries possess more than 100,000 vols.: Avignon + (135,000 vols., 698 incunabula, 4152 MSS.), of which the first + collection was the legacy of Calvet in 1810; Caen (122,000 vols., 109 + incunabula, 665 MSS.); Montpellier (130,300 vols., 40 incunabula, 251 + MSS.); Rouen (140,000 vols., 400 incunabula, 4000 MSS.); Tours + (123,000 vols., 451 incunabula, 1999 MSS.); Versailles (161,000 vols., + 436 incunabula, 1213 MSS.). + + The following towns have libraries with more than 50,000 volumes: + Amiens, Auxerre, Beaune, Brest, Douai, le Hâvre, Lille, le Mans, + Orléans, Pau, Poitiers, Toulon and Verdun. + + The catalogues of the greater part of the municipal libraries are + printed. Especially valuable is the _Catalogues des MSS. des + bibliothèques de Paris et des Départements_, which began to appear in + 1885; the MSS. of Paris fill 18 octavo volumes, and those of the + provinces 50. + + The libraries of the provincial universities, thanks to their + reorganization in 1882 and to the care exhibited by the general + inspectors, are greatly augmented. Aix has 74,658 vols.; Alger + 160,489; Besançon 24,275; Bordeaux 216,278; Caen 127,542; Clermont + 173,000; Dijon 117,524; Grenoble 127,400; Lille 215,427; Lyons + 425,624; Marseilles 53,763; Montpellier 210,938; Nancy 139,036; + Poitiers 180,000; Rennes 166,427; Toulouse 232,000. + + Since 1882 the educational libraries have largely developed; in 1877 + they were 17,764 in number; in 1907 they were 44,021, containing + 7,757,917 vols. The purely scholastic libraries have decreased; in + 1902 there were 2674 libraries with 1,034,132 vols., whilst after the + reorganization (Circulaire of March 14, 1904) there were only 1131 + with 573,279 vols. The Société Franklin pour la propagation des + bibliothèques populaires et militaires distributed among the libraries + which it controls 55,185 vols., between the years 1900 and 1909. + + AUTHORITIES.--Information has been given for this account by M. Albert + Maire, librarian at the Sorbonne. See also the following + works:--_Bibliothèque Nationale:_ I. _Bâtiments, collections, + organisation, département des estampes, département des médailles et + antiques_, par Henri Marcel, Henri Bouchot et Ernest Babelon. II. _Le + Département des imprimés et la section de géographie. Le Département + des manuscrits_, par Paul Marchal et Camille Couderc (Paris, 1907, 2 + vols); Félix Chambon, _Notes sur la bibliothèque de l'Université de + Paris de 1763 à 1905_ (Ganat, 1905); Fosseyeux, _La Bibliothèque des + hôpitaux de Paris_ (Revue des bibliothèques, t. 18, 1908); Alfred + Franklin, _Guide des savants, des littérateurs et des artistes dans + les bibliothèques de Paris_ (Paris, 1908); _Instruction du 7 Mars 1899 + sur l'organisation des bibliothèques militaires_ (Paris, 1899); Henri + Jadart, _Les Anciennes bibliothèques de Reims, leur sort en 1790-1791 + et la formation de la bibliothèque publique_ (Reims, 1891); Henry + Marcel, _Rapport adressé au Ministre de l'Instruction Publique, sur + l'ensemble des services de la bibliothèque nationale en 1905_ (Journal + Officiel, 1906); Henry Martin, _Histoire de la bibliothèque de + l'Arsenal_ (Paris, 1899); E. Morel, _Le Développement des + bibliothèques publiques_ (Paris, 1909); Théod. Mortreuil, _La + Bibliothèque nationale, son origine et ses accroissements; notice + historique_ (Paris, 1878); Abbé L. V. Pécheur, _Histoire des + bibliothèques publiques du département de l'Aisne existant à Soissons, + Laon et Saint-Quentin_ (Soissons, 1884); M. Poète, E. Beaurepaire and + E. Clouzot, _Une visite à la bibliothèque de la ville de Paris_ + (Paris, 1907); E. de Saint-Albin, _Les Bibliothèques municipales de la + ville de Paris_ (Paris, 1896); B. Subercaze, _Les Bibliothèques + populaires, scolaires et pédagogiques_ (Paris, 1892). + + +_Germany_ (_with Austria-Hungary and Switzerland_). + + Germany. + +Germany is emphatically the home of large libraries; her former want of +political unity and consequent multiplicity of capitals have had the +effect of giving her many large state libraries, and the number of her +universities has tended to multiply considerable collections; 1617 +libraries were registered by P. Schwenke in 1891. As to the conditions, +hours of opening, &c., of 200 of the most important of them, there is a +yearly statement in the _Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_, published +by the Verein deutscher Bibliothekare. + +The public libraries of the German empire are of four distinct types: +state libraries, university libraries, town libraries and popular +libraries. The administration and financial affairs of the state and +university libraries are under state control. The earlier distinction +between these two classes has become less and less marked. Thus the +university libraries are no longer restricted to professors and +students, but they are widely used by scientific workers, and books are +borrowed extensively, especially in Prussia. In Prussia, as a link +between the state and the libraries, there has been since 1907 a special +office which deals with library matters at the Ministry of Public +Instruction. Generally the state does not concern itself with the town +libraries and the popular libraries, but there is much in common between +these two classes. Sometimes popular libraries are under the supervision +of a scientifically administered town library as in Berlin, Dantzig, +&c.; elsewhere, as at Magdeburg, we see an ancient foundation take up +the obligations of a public library. Only in Prussia and Bavaria are +regulations in force as to the professional education of librarians. +Since 1904 the librarians of the Prussian state libraries have been +obliged to complete their university courses and take up their +doctorate, after which they have to work two years in a library as +volunteers and then undergo a technical examination. The secretarial +officials since 1909 have to reach a certain educational standard and +must pass an examination. This regulation has been in force as regards +librarians in Bavaria from 1905. + + + Berlin. + + Berlin is well supplied with libraries, 268 being registered by P. + Schwenke and A. Hortzschansky in 1906, with about 5,000,000 printed + vols. The largest of them is the Royal Library, which was founded by + the "Great Elector" Frederick William, and opened as a public library + in a wing of the electoral palace in 1661. From 1699 the library + became entitled to a copy of every book published within the royal + territories, and it has received many valuable accessions by purchase + and otherwise. It now includes 1,230,000 printed vols. and over 30,000 + MSS. The amount yearly expended upon binding and the acquisition of + books, &c., is £11,326. The catalogues are in manuscript, and include + two general alphabetical catalogues, the one in volumes, the other on + slips, as well as a systematic catalogue in volumes. The following + annual printed catalogues are issued: _Verzeichnis der aus der neu + erschienenen Literatur von der K. Bibliothek und den Preussischen + Universitats-Bibliotheken erworbenen Druckschriften_ (since 1892); + _Jahresverzeichnis der an den Deutschen Universitaten erschienenen + Schriften_ (since 1887); _Jahresverzeichnis der an den Deutschen + Schulanstalten erschienenen Abhandlungen_ (since 1889). There is + besides a printed _Verzeichnis der im grossen Lesesaal aufgestellten + Handbibliothek_ (4th ed. 1909), the alphabetical _Verzeichnis der + laufenden Zeitschriften_ (last ed., 1908), and the classified + _Verzeichnis der laufenden Zeitschriften_ (1908). The catalogue of + MSS. are mostly in print, vols. 1-13, 16-23 (1853-1905). The library + is specially rich in oriental MSS., chiefly due to purchases of + private collections. The musical MSS. are very remarkable and form the + richest collection in the world as regards autographs. The building, + erected about 1780 by Frederick the Great, has long been too small, + and a new one was completed in 1909. The building occupies the whole + space between the four streets: Unter den Linden, Dorotheenstrasse, + Universitätsstrasse and Charlottenstrasse, and besides the Royal + Library, houses the University Library and the Academy of Sciences. + The conditions as to the use of the collections are, as in most German + libraries, very liberal. Any adult person is allowed to have books in + the reading-room. Books are lent out to all higher officials, + including those holding educational offices in the university, &c., + and by guarantee to almost any one recommended by persons of standing; + borrowing under pecuniary security is also permitted. By special leave + of the librarian, books and MSS. may be sent to a scholar at a + distance, or, if especially valuable, may be deposited in some public + library where he can conveniently use them. In 1908-1909 264,000 vols. + were used in the reading-rooms, 312,000 were lent inside Berlin, and + 32,000 outside. There is a regular system of exchange between the + Royal Library and a great number of Prussian libraries. It is the same + in Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden; the oldest system is that between + Darmstadt and Giessen (dating from 1837). There is either no charge + for carriage to the borrower or the cost is very small. The + reading-room and magazine hall are, with the exception of Sundays and + holidays, open daily from 9 to 9, the borrowing counter from 9 to 6. + + Associated with the Royal Library are the following undertakings: the + _Gesamtkatalog der Preussischen wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken_ + (describing the printed books in the Royal Library and the Prussian + University Libraries in one general catalogue upon slips), the + Auskunftsbureau der Deutschen Bibliotheken (bureau to give information + where any particular book may be consulted), and the Kommission für + den Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (to draw up a complete catalogue of + books printed before 1500). + + The University Library (1831) numbers 220,000 vols. together with + 250,000 academical and school dissertations. The number of volumes + lent out in 1908-1909 was 104,000. The library possesses the right to + receive a copy of every work published in the province of Brandenburg. + + Some of the governmental libraries are important, especially those of + the Statistisches Landesamt (184,000 vols.); Reichstag (181,000 + vols.); Patent-Amt (118,000 vols.); Haus der Abgeordneten (100,000 + vols.); Auswärtiges-Amt (118,000 vols.). + + The public library of Berlin contains 102,000 vols.; connected + therewith 28 municipal Volksbibliotheken and 14 municipal + reading-rooms. The 28 Volksbibliotheken contain (1908) 194,000 vols. + + The Prussian university libraries outside Berlin include Bonn (332,000 + printed vols., 1500 MSS.); Breslau (330,000 printed vols., 3700 MSS.); + Göttingen, from its foundation in 1736/7 the best administered library + of the 18th century (552,000 printed vols., 6800 MSS.); Greifswald + (200,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.); Halle (261,000 printed vols., 2000 + MSS.); Kiel (278,000 printed vols., 2400 MSS.); Königsberg (287,000 + printed vols., 1500 MSS.); Marburg (231,000 printed vols, and about + 800 MSS.); Münster (191,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.). Under provincial + administration are the Königliche and Provinzialbibliothek at Hanover + (203,000 printed vols., 4000 MSS.); the Landesbibliothek at Cassel + (230,000 printed vols., 4400 MSS.); and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Bibliothek + at Posen (163,000 printed vols.). A number of the larger towns possess + excellent municipal libraries; Aix-la-Chapelle (112,000 vols.); + Breslau (164,000 vols., 4000 MSS.); Dantzig (145,600 vols., 2900 + MSS.); Frankfort a/M (342,000 vols, besides MSS.); Cassel Murhardsche + Bibliothek (141,000 vols., 6300 MSS.); Cologne (235,000 vols.); Treves + (100,000 vols., 2260 MSS.); Wiesbaden (158,000 vols.). + + + Munich. + + The libraries of Munich, though not so numerous as those of Berlin, + include two of great importance. The Royal Library, for a long time + the largest collection of books in Germany, was founded by Duke + Albrecht V. of Bavaria (1550-1579), who made numerous purchases from + Italy, and incorporated the libraries of the Nuremberg physician and + historian Schedel, of Widmannstadt, and of J. J. Fugger. The number of + printed vols, is estimated at about 1,100,000 and about 50,000 MSS. + The library is especially rich in incunabula, many of them being + derived from the libraries of over 150 monasteries closed in 1803. The + oriental MSS. are numerous and valuable, and include the library of + Martin Haug. The amount annually spent upon books and binding is + £5000. The catalogues of the printed books are in manuscript, and + include (1) a general alphabetical catalogue, (2) an alphabetical + repertorium of each of the 195 subdivisions of the library, (3) + biographical and other subject catalogues. A printed catalogue of MSS. + in 8 vols, was in 1910 nearly complete; the first was published in + 1858. The library is open on weekdays from 8 to 1 (November to March + 8.30 to 1), and on Monday to Friday (except from August 1 to September + 15) also from 3 to 8. The regulations for the use of the library are + very similar to those of the Royal Library at Berlin. The building was + erected for this collection under King Louis I. in 1832-1843. The + archives are bestowed on the ground floor, and the two upper floors + are devoted to the library, which occupies seventy-seven apartments. + The University Library was originally founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, + and removed with the university to Munich in 1826. At present the + number of vols. amounts to 550,000; the MSS. number 2000. Forty-six + Munich libraries are described in Schwenke's _Adressbuch_, 15 of which + possessed in 1909 about 2,000,000 printed vols. and about 60,000 MSS. + After the two mentioned above the most noteworthy is the Königlich + Bayrische Armee-Bibliothek (100,000 printed vols., 1000 MSS.). + + The chief Bavarian libraries outside Munich are the Royal Library at + Bamberg (350,000 vols., 4300 MSS.) and the University Library at + Würzburg (390,000 vols., 1500 MSS.); both include rich monastic + libraries. The University Library at Erlangen has 237,000 vols. The + Staats-Kreis and Stadtbibliothek at Augsburg owns 200,000 vols., and + 2000 MSS.; Nuremberg has two great collections, the Bibliothek des + Germanischen National-museums (250,000 vols., 3550 MSS.) and the + Stadtbibliothek (104,000 vols., 2500 MSS.). + + + Dresden. + + In 1906 there were in Dresden 78 public libraries with about 1,495,000 + vols. The Royal Public Library in the Japanese Palace was founded in + the 16th century. Among its numerous acquisitions have been the + library of Count Bünau in 1764, and the MSS. of Ebert. Special + attention is devoted to history and literature. The library possesses + more than 520,000 vols. (1909); the MSS. number 6000. Admission to the + reading-room is granted to any respectable adult on giving his name, + and books are lent out to persons qualified by their position or by a + suitable guarantee. Here, as at other large libraries in Germany, + works of belles-lettres are only supplied for a literary purpose. The + number of persons using the reading-room in a year is about 14,000, + and about 23,000 vols. are lent. The second largest library in + Dresden, the Bibliothek des Statistischen Landes-Amtes, has 120,000 + vols. + + Leipzig is well equipped with libraries; that of the University has + 550,000 vols. and 6500 MSS. The Bibliothek des Reichsgerichts has + 151,000 vols., the Pädagogische Central-Bibliothek der + Comenius-Stiftung 150,000 vols., and the Stadtbibliothek 125,000 + vols., with 1500 MSS. + + + Stuttgart. + + The Royal Public Library of Stuttgart, although only established in + 1765, has grown so rapidly that it now possesses about 374,000 vols. + of printed works and 5300 MSS. There is a famous collection of Bibles, + containing over 7200 vols. The annual expenditure devoted to books and + binding is £2475. The library also enjoys the copy-privilege in + Württemberg. The annual number of borrowers is over 2600, who use + nearly 29,000 vols. The number issued in the reading-room is 41,000. + The number of parcels despatched from Stuttgart is nearly 23,000. + Admission is also gladly granted to the Royal Private Library, founded + in 1810, which contains about 137,000 vols. + + Of the other libraries of Württemberg the University Library of + Tübingen (500,000 vols. and 4100 MSS.) need only be noted. + + + Darmstadt. + + The Grand-ducal Library of Darmstadt was established by the grand-duke + Louis I. in 1819, on the basis of the still older library formed in + the 17th century, and includes 510,000 vols. and about 3600 MSS. + (1909). The number of vols. used in the course of the year is about + 90,000, of which 14,000 are lent out. + + Among the other libraries of the Grand Duchy of Hesse the most + remarkable are the University Library at Giessen (230,000 vols., 1500 + MSS.), and the Stadtbibliothek at Mainz (220,000 vols., 1200 MSS.) to + which is attached the Gutenberg Museum. + + In the Grand Duchy of Baden are the Hof- und Landesbibliothek at + Carlsruhe (202,000 vols., 3800 MSS.), the University Library at + Freiburg i/B (300,000 vols., 700 MSS.), and the University Library at + Heidelberg. This, the oldest of the German University libraries, was + founded in 1386. In 1623 the whole collection, described by Joseph + Scaliger in 1608 as "locupletior et meliorum librorum quam Vaticana," + was carried as a gift to the pope and only the German MSS. were + afterwards returned. The library was re-established in 1703, and after + 1800 enriched with monastic spoils; it now contains about 400,000 + vols. and 3500 MSS. for the most part of great value. + + Among the State or University libraries of other German states should + be mentioned Detmold (110,000 vols.); Jena (264,000 vols.); + Neustrelitz (130,000 vols.); Oldenburg (126,000 vols.); Rostock + (275,000 vols.); Schwerin (225,000 vols.); and Weimar (270,000), all + possessing rich collections of MSS. + + + Gotha. + + The Ducal Library of Gotha was established by Duke Ernest the Pious in + the 17th century, and contains many valuable books and MSS. from + monastic collections. It numbers about 192,000 vols., with 7400 MSS. + The catalogue of the oriental MSS., chiefly collected by Seetzen, and + forming one-half of the collection, is one of the best in existence. + + The Ducal Library at Wolfenbüttel, founded in the second half of the + 16th century by Duke Julius, was made over to the university of + Helmstedt in 1614, whence the most important treasures were returned + to Wolfenbüttel in the 19th century; it now numbers 300,000 vols., + 7400 MSS. + + The chief libraries of the Hanse towns are: Bremen (Stadtbibliothek, + 141,000 vols.), and Lübeck (Stadtbibliothek, 121,000 vols.); the most + important being the Stadtbibliothek at Hamburg, made public since 1648 + (383,000 vols., 7300 MSS., among them many Mexican). Hamburg has also + in the Kommerzbibliothek (120,000 vols.) a valuable trade collection, + and the largest Volksbibliothek (about 100,000 vols.) after that at + Berlin. Alsace-Lorraine has the most recently formed of the great + German collections--the Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek at + Strassburg, which, though founded only in 1871 to replace that which + had been destroyed in the siege, already ranks amongst the largest + libraries of the empire. Its books amount to 922,000 vols., the number + of MSS. is 5900. + + + Austria. + +The _Adressbuch der Bibliotheken der Oesterreich-ungarischen Monarchie_ +by Bohatta and Holzmann (1900) describes 1014 libraries in Austria, 656 +in Hungary, and 23 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Included in this list, +however, are private lending libraries. + +The largest library in Austria, and one of the most important +collections in Europe, is the Imperial Public Library at Vienna, +apparently founded by the emperor Frederick III. in 1440, although its +illustrious librarian Lambecius, in the well-known inscription over the +entrance to the library which summarizes its history attributes this +honour to Frederick's son Maximilian. However this may be, the +munificence of succeeding emperors greatly added to the wealth of the +collection, including a not inconsiderable portion of the dispersed +library of Corvinus. Since 1808 the library has also been entitled to +the copy-privilege in respect of all books published in the empire. The +sum devoted to the purchase and binding of books is £6068 annually. The +number of printed vols. is 1,000,000; 8000 incunabula. The MSS. amount +to 27,000, with 100,000 papyri of the collection of Archduke Rainer. The +main library apartment is one of the most splendid halls in Europe. +Admission to the reading-room is free to everybody, and books are also +lent out under stricter limitations. The University Library of Vienna +was established by Maria Theresa. The reading-room is open to all +comers, and the library is open from 1st Oct. to 30th June from 9 a.m. +to 8 p.m.; in the other months for shorter hours. In 1909 447,391 vols. +were used in the library, 45,000 vols. lent out in Vienna, and 6519 +vols. sent carriage free to borrowers outside Vienna. The number of +printed vols. is 757,000. For the purchase of books and binding the +Vienna University Library has annually 60,000 crowns from the state as +well as 44,000 crowns from matriculation fees and contributions from the +students. + + The total number of libraries in Vienna enumerated by Bohatta and + Holzmann is 165, and many of them are of considerable extent. One of + the oldest and most important libraries of the monarchy is the + University Library at Cracow, with 380,000 vols. and 8169 MSS. + + The number of monastic libraries in Austria is very considerable. They + possess altogether more than 2,500,000 printed vols., 25,000 + incunabula and 25,000 MSS. The oldest of them, and the oldest in + Austria, is that of the monastery of St Peter at Salzburg, which was + established by Archbishop Arno (785-821). It includes 70,000 vols., + nearly 1500 incunabula. The three next in point of antiquity are + Kremsmünster (100,000), Admont (86,000) and Melk (70,000), all of them + dating from the 11th century. Many of the librarians of these monastic + libraries are trained in the great Vienna libraries. There is no + official training as in Prussia and Bavaria. + + + Hungary. + +Information about income, administration, accessions, &c., of the chief +libraries in the Hungarian kingdom, are given in the Hungarian +_Statistical Year Book_ annually. The largest library in Hungary is the +Széchenyi-Nationalbibliothek at Budapest, founded in 1802 by the gift of +the library of Count Franz Széchenyi. It contains 400,000 printed vols., +16,000 MSS., and has a remarkable collection of Hungarica. The +University Library of Budapest includes 273,000 printed books and more +than 2000 MSS. Since 1897 there has been in Hungary a Chief Inspector of +Museums and Libraries whose duty is to watch all public museums and +libraries which are administered by committees, municipalities, +religious bodies and societies. He also has undertaken the task of +organizing a general catalogue of all the MSS. and early printed books +in Hungary. + + The libraries of the monasteries and other institutions of the + Catholic Church are many in number but not so numerous as in Austria. + The chief among them, the library of the Benedictines at St + Martinsberg, is the central library of the order in Hungary and + contains nearly 170,000 vols. It was reconstituted in 1802 after the + re-establishment of the order. The principal treasures of this abbey + (11th century) were, on the secularization of the monasteries under + Joseph II., distributed among the state libraries in Budapest. + + + Switzerland. + +Among the Swiss libraries, which numbered 2096 in 1868, there is none of +the first rank. Only three possess over 200,000 vols.--the University +Library at Basle founded in 1460, the Cantonal Library at Lausanne, and +the Stadtbibliothek at Berne, which since 1905 is united to the +University Library of that city. One great advantage of the Swiss +libraries is that they nearly all possess printed catalogues, which +greatly further the plan of compiling a great general catalogue of all +the libraries of the republic. A valuable co-operative work is their +treatment of Helvetiana. All the literature since 1848 is collected by +the Landes-Bibliothek at Berne, established in 1895 for this special +object. The older literature is brought together in the Bürgerbibliothek +at Lucerne, for which it has a government grant. The monastic libraries +of St Gall and Einsiedeln date respectively from the years 830 and 946, +and are of great historical and literary interest. + + AUTHORITIES.--Information has been supplied for this account by + Professor Dr A. Hortzschansky, librarian of the Royal Library, Berlin. + See also _Adressbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_ by Paul Schwenke + (Leipzig, 1893); _Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_ (Leipzig, + 1902-1910); _Berliner Bibliothekenführer_, by P. Schwenke and A. + Hortzschansky (Berlin, 1906); A. Hortzschansky, _Die K. Bibliothek zu + Berlin_ (Berlin, 1908); Ed. Zarncke, _Leipziger Bibliothekenführer_ + (Leipzig, 1909); J. Bohatta and M. Holzmann, _Adressbuch der + Bibliotheken der österreich-ungarischen Monarchie_ (Vienna, 1900); Ri. + Kukula, _Die österreichischen Studienbibliotheken_ (1905); A. Hübl, + _Die österreichischen Klosterbibliotheken in den Jahren 1848-1908_ + (1908); P. Gulyas, _Das ungarische Oberinspektorat der Museen und + Bibliotheken_ (1909); _Die über 10,000 Bände zählenden + öffentlichen-Bibliotheken Ungarns, im Jahre 1908_ (Budapest, 1910); H. + Escher, "Bibliothekswesen" in _Handbuch der Schweizer + Volkswirtschaft_, vol. i. (1903). + + +_Italy._ + +As the former centre of civilization, Italy is, of course, the country +in which the oldest existing libraries must be looked for, and in which +the rarest and most valuable MSS. are preserved. The Vatican at Rome and +the Laurentian Library at Florence are sufficient in themselves to +entitle Italy to rank before most other states in that respect, and the +venerable relics at Vercelli, Monte Cassino and La Cava bear witness to +the enlightenment of the peninsula while other nations were slowly +taking their places in the circle of Christian polity. The local rights +and interests which so long helped to impede the unification of Italy +were useful in creating and preserving at numerous minor centres many +libraries which otherwise would probably have been lost during the +progress of absorption that results from such centralization as exists +in England. In spite of long centuries of suffering and of the +aggression of foreign swords and foreign gold, Italy is still rich in +books and MSS. The latest official statistics (1896) give particulars of +1831 libraries, of which 419 are provincial and communal. In 1893 there +were 542 libraries of a popular character and including circulating +libraries. + + + Governmental libraries. + +The governmental libraries (_biblioteche governative_) number 36 and are +under the authority of the minister of public instruction. The +_Regolamento_ controlling them was issued in the _Bolletino Ufficiale_, +5 Dec. 1907. They consist of the national central libraries of Rome +(Vittorio Emanuele) and Florence, of the national libraries of Milan +(Braidense), Naples, Palermo, Turin and Venice (Marciana); the +Biblioteca governativa at Cremona; the Marucelliana, the +Mediceo-Laurenziana and the Riccardiana at Florence; the governativa at +Lucca; the Estense at Modena; the Brancacciana and that of San Giacomo +at Naples; the Palatina at Parma; the Angelica, the Casanatense, and the +Lancisiana at Rome; the university libraries of Bologna, Cagliari, +Catania, Genoa, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Pavia, Pisa, Rome and +Sassari; the Ventimiliana at Catania (joined to the university library +for administrative purposes); the Vallicelliana and the musical library +of the R. Accad. of St Cecilia at Rome; the musical section of the +Palatine at Parma; and the Lucchesi-Palli (added to the national library +at Naples). There are provisions whereby small collections can be united +to larger libraries in the same place and where there are several +government libraries in one city a kind of corporate administration can +be arranged. The libraries belonging to bodies concerned with higher +education, to the royal scientific and literary academies, fine art +galleries, museums and scholastic institutions are ruled by special +regulations. The minister of public instruction is assisted by a +technical board. + +The librarians and subordinates are divided into (1) librarians, or +keepers of MSS.; (2) sub-librarians, or sub-keepers of MSS.; (3) +attendants, or book distributors; (4) ushers, &c. Those of class 1 +constitute the "board of direction," which is presided over by the +librarian, and meets from time to time to consider important measures +connected with the administration of the library. Each library is to +possess, alike for books and MSS., a general inventory, an accessions +register, an alphabetical author-catalogue and a subject-catalogue. When +they are ready, catalogues of the special collections are to be +compiled, and these the government intends to print. A general catalogue +of the MSS. was in 1910 being issued together with catalogues of +oriental codices and incunabula. Various other small registers are +provided for. The sums granted by the state for library purposes must be +applied to (1) salaries and the catalogues of the MSS.; (2) maintenance +and other expenses; (3) purchase of books, binding and repairs, &c. +Books are chosen by the librarians. In the university libraries part of +the expenditure is decided by the librarians, and part by a council +formed by the professors of the different faculties. The rules (_Boll. +Ufficiale_, Sept. 17, 1908) for lending books and MSS. allow them to be +sent to other countries under special circumstances. + +The 36 _biblioteche governative_ annually spend about 300,000 lire in +books. From the three sources of gifts, copyright and purchases, their +accessions in 1908 were 142,930, being 21,122 more than the previous +year. The number of readers is increasing. In 1908 there were 1,176,934, +who made use of 1,650,542 vols., showing an increase of 30,456 readers +and 67,579 books as contrasted with the statistics of the previous year. +Two monthly publications catalogue the accessions of these libraries, +one dealing with copyright additions of Italian literature, the other +with all foreign books. + +The minister of public instruction has kept a watchful eye upon the +literary treasures of the suppressed monastic bodies. In 1875 there were +1700 of these confiscated libraries, containing two millions and a half +of volumes. About 650 of the collections were added to the contents of +the public libraries already in existence; the remaining 1050 were +handed over to the different local authorities, and served to form 371 +new communal libraries, and in 1876 the number of new libraries so +composed was 415. + + + Vatican. + +The Biblioteca Vaticana stands in the very first rank among European +libraries as regards antiquity and wealth of MSS. We can trace back the +history of the Biblioteca Vaticana to the earliest records of the +_Scrinium Sedis Apostolicae_, which was enshrined in safe custody at the +Lateran, and later on partly in the Turris Chartularia; but of all the +things that used to be stored there, the only survival, and that is a +dubious example, is the celebrated Codex Amiatinus now in the Laurentian +Library at Florence. Of the new period inaugurated by Innocent III. +there but remains to us the inventory made under Boniface VIII. The +library shared in the removal of the Papal court to Avignon, where the +collection was renewed and increased, but the Pontifical Library at +Avignon has only in part, and in later times, been taken into the +Library of the Vatican. This latter is a new creation of the great +humanist popes of the 15th century. Eugenius IV. planted the first seed, +but Nicholas V. must be looked upon as the real founder of the library, +to which Sixtus IV. consecrated a definite abode, ornate and splendid, +in the Court of the Pappagallo. Sixtus V. erected the present +magnificent building in 1588, and greatly augmented the collection. The +library increased under various popes and librarians, among the most +noteworthy of whom were Marcello Cervini, the first _Cardinale +Bibliotecario_, later Pone Marcel II., Sirleto and A. Carafa. In 1600 it +was further enriched by the acquisition of the valuable library of +Fulvio Orsini, which contained the pick of the most precious libraries. +Pope Paul V. (1605-1621) separated the library from the archives, fixed +the progressive numeration of the Greek and Latin MSS., and added two +great halls, called the Pauline, for the new codices. Under him and +under Urban VIII. a number of MSS. were purchased from the Convento of +Assisi, of the Minerva at Rome, of the Capranica College, &c. Especially +noteworthy are the ancient and beautiful MSS. of the monastery of +Bobbio, and those which were acquired in various ways from the monastery +of Rossano. Gregory XV. (1622) received from Maximilian I., duke of +Bavaria, by way of compensation for the money supplied by him for the +war, the valuable library of the Elector Palatine, which was seized by +Count Tilly at the capture of Heidelberg. Alexander VII. (1658), having +purchased the large and beautiful collection formerly belonging to the +dukes of Urbino, added the MSS. of it to the Vatican library. The +_Libreria della Regina_, i.e. of Christina, queen of Sweden, composed of +very precious manuscripts from ancient French monasteries, from St Gall +in Switzerland, and others--also of the MSS. of Alexandre Petau, of +great importance for their history and French literature, was purchased +and in great part presented to the Vatican library by Pope Alexander +VIII. (Ottoboni) in 1689, while other MSS. came in later with the +Ottoboni library. Under Clement XI. there was the noteworthy purchase of +the 54 Greek MSS. which had belonged to Pius II., and also the increase +of the collection of Oriental MSS. Under Benedict XIV. there came into +the Vatican library, as a legacy, the library of the Marchese Capponi, +very rich in rare and valuable Italian editions, besides 285 MSS.; and +by a purchase, the Biblioteca Ottoboniana, which, from its wealth in +Greek, Latin, and even Hebrew MSS., was, after that of the Vatican, the +richest in all Rome. Clement XIII. in 1758, Clement XIV. in 1769, and +Pius VI. in 1775 were also benefactors. During three centuries the vast +and monumental library grew with uninterrupted prosperity, but it was to +undergo a severe blow at the end of the 18th century. In 1798, as a +sequel to the Treaty of Tolentino, 500 MSS. picked from the most +valuable of the different collections were sent to Paris by the +victorious French to enrich the Bibliothèque Nationale and other +libraries. These, however, were chiefly restored in 1815. Most of the +Palatine MSS., which formed part of the plunder, found their way back to +the university of Heidelberg. Pius VII. acquired for the Vatican the +library of Cardinal Zelada in 1800, and among other purchases of the +19th century must be especially noted the splendid Cicognara collection +of archaeology and art (1823); as well as the library in 40,000 vols. of +Cardinal Angelo Mai (1856). Recent more important purchases, during the +Pontificate of Leo XIII., have been the Borghese MSS., about 300 in +number, representing part of the ancient library of the popes at +Avignon; the entire precious library of the Barberini; the Borgia +collection _De Propaganda Fide_, containing Latin and Oriental MSS., and +500 incunabula. + +Few libraries are so magnificently housed as the Biblioteca Vaticana. +The famous _Codici Vaticani_ are placed in the _salone_ or great double +hall, which is decorated with frescoes depicting ancient libraries and +councils of the church. At the end of the great hall an immense gallery, +also richly decorated, and extending to 1200 ft., opens out from right +to left. Here are preserved in different rooms the codici Palatini, +Regin., Ottoboniani, Capponiani, &c. The printed books only are on open +shelves, the MSS. being preserved in closed cases. The printed books +that were at first stored in the Borgia Apartment, now with the library +of Cardinal Mai, constitute in great part the _Nuova Sala di +Consultazione_, which was opened to students under the Pontificate of +Leo XIII. Other books, on the other hand, are still divided into 1^a and +2^(da) raccolta, according to the ancient denomination, and are stored +in adjacent halls. + +Well-reasoned calculations place the total number of printed books at +400,000 vols.; of incunabula about 4000, with many vellum copies; 500 +Aldines and a great number of bibliographical rarities. The Latin +manuscripts number 31,373; the Greek amount to 4148; the Oriental MSS., +of which the computation is not complete, amount to about 4000. Among +the Greek and Latin MSS. are some of the most valuable in the world, +alike for antiquity and intrinsic importance. It is sufficient to +mention the famous biblical _Codex Vaticanus_ of the 4th century, the +two Virgils of the 4th and 5th centuries, the Bembo Terence, the +palimpsest _De Republica_ of Cicero, conjectured to be of the 4th +century, discovered by Cardinal Mai, and an extraordinary number of +richly ornamented codices of great beauty and costliness. The archives +are apart from the library, and are accessible in part to the public +under conditions. Leo XIII. appointed a committee to consider what +documents of general interest might expediently be published. + +The Biblioteca Vaticana is now open from October 1st to Easter every +morning between 9 and 1 o'clock, and from Easter to June 29 from 8 +o'clock to 12, with the exception of Sundays, Thursdays and the +principal feast days. + +Catalogues of special classes of MSS. have been published. The Oriental +MSS. have been described by J. S. Assemani, _Bibliotheca orientalis +Clementino-Vaticana_ (Rome, 1719-1728, 4 vols. folio), and _Bibl. Vat. +codd. MSS. catalogus ab S. E. et J. S. Assentano redactus_ (ib., +1756-1759, 3 vols. folio), and by Cardinal Mai in _Script. Vet. nova +collectio_. The Coptic MSS. have been specially treated by G. Zoega +(Rome, 1810, folio) and by F. G. Bonjour (Rome, 1699, 4to). There are +printed catalogues of the Capponi (1747) and the Cicognara (1820) +libraries. The following catalogues have lately been printed: E. +Stevenson, _Codd. Palatini Graeci_ (1885), _Codd. Gr. Reg. Sueciae et +Pii II._ (1888); Feron-Battaglini, _Codd. Ottobon. Graeci_ (1893); C. +Stornaiolo, _Codd. Urbinates Gr._ (1895); E. Stevenson, _Codd. Palatini +Lat._ tom. 1 (1886); G. Salvo-Cozzo, _Codici Capponiani_ (1897); M. +Vattasso and P. Franchi de' Cavalieri, _Codd. Lat. Vaticani_, tom. 1 +(1902); C. Stornaiolo, _Codices Urbinates Latini_, tom. 1 (1902); E. +Stevenson, _Inventario dei libri stampali Palatino-Vaticani_ +(1886-1891); and several volumes relating to Egyptian papyri by O. +Marucchi. Some of the greatest treasures have been reproduced in +facsimile. + + + Other Roman libraries. + + The most important library in Italy for modern requirements is the + Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele. From its foundation in 1875, + incorporating the _biblioteca maior o secreta_ of the Jesuits in the + Collegio Romano, and all the cloister libraries of the Provincia + Romana which had devolved to the state through the suppression of the + Religious Orders, it has now, by purchases, by donations, through the + operation of the law of the press increased to about 850,000 printed + vols., and is continually being ameliorated. It possesses about 1600 + incunabula and 6200 MSS. Noteworthy among these are the Farfensi and + the Sessoriani MSS. of Santa Croce in Jerusalem, and some of these + last of the 6th to the 8th centuries are real treasures. The library + has been recently reorganized. It is rich in the history of the + renaissance, Italian and foreign reviews, and Roman topography. A + monthly _Bollettino_ is issued of modern foreign literature received + by the libraries of Italy. + + The Biblioteca Casanatense, founded by Cardinal Casanate in 1698, + contains about 200,000 printed vols., over 2000 incunabula, with many + Roman and Venetian editions, and more than 5000 MSS., among which are + examples of the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries. They are arranged in + eleven large rooms, the large central hall being one of the finest in + Rome. It is rich in theology, the history of the middle ages, + jurisprudence and the economic, social and political sciences. An + incomplete catalogue of the printed books by A. Audiffredi still + remains a model of its kind (Roma, 1761-1788, 4 vols. folio, and part + of vol. v.). + + The Biblioteca Angelica was founded in 1605 by Monsignor Angelo Rocca, + an Augustinian, and was the first library in Rome to throw open its + doors to the public. It contains about 90,000 vols., of which about + 1000 are incunabula; 2570 MSS., of which 120 are Greek, and 91 + Oriental. It includes all the authentic acts of the Congregatio de + Auxiliis and the collections of Cardinal Passionei and Lucas + Holstenius. + + The Biblioteca Universitaria Alessandrina was founded by Pope + Alexander VII., with the greater part of the printed books belonging + to the dukes of Urbino, and was opened in 1676. In 1815 Pius VII. + granted to it the right to receive a copy of every printed book in the + States of the Church, which grant at the present time, by virtue of + the laws of Italy, is continued, but limited to the province of Rome. + The library possesses 130,000 printed books, 600 incunabula, 376 MSS. + + The library of the Senate was established at Turin in 1848. It + contains nearly 87,000 vols. and is rich in municipal history and the + statutes of Italian cities, the last collection extending to 2639 + statutes or vols. for 679 municipalities. The library of the Chamber + of Deputies contains 120,000 vols. and pamphlets. It is rich in modern + works, and especially in jurisprudence, native and foreign history, + economics and administration. + + The Biblioteca Vallicelliana was founded by Achille Stazio (1581), and + contains some valuable manuscripts, including a Latin Bible of the 8th + century attributed to Alcuin, and some inedited writings of Baronius. + It now contains 28,000 vols. and 2315 MSS. Since 1884 it has been in + the custody of the R. Società Romana di Storia Patria. The Biblioteca + Lancisiana, founded in 1711 by G. M. Lancisi, is valuable for its + medical collections. + + In 1877 Professor A. Sarti presented to the city of Rome his + collection of fine-art books, 10,000 vols., which was placed in charge + of the Accademia di San Luca, which already possessed a good artistic + library. The Biblioteca Centrale Militare (1893) includes 66,000 + printed vols. and 72,000 maps and plans relating to military affairs; + and the Biblioteca della R. Accad. di S. Cecilia (1875), a valuable + musical collection of 40,000 volumes and 2300 MSS. + + + Subiaco. + + Among the private libraries accessible by permission, the Chigiana + (1660) contains 25,000 vols. and 2877 MSS. The Corsiniana, founded by + Clement XII. (Lorenzo Corsini) is rich in incunabula, and includes one + of the most remarkable collections of prints, the series of + Marc-Antonios being especially complete. It was added to the Accademia + dei Lincei in 1884 and now extends to 43,000 vols. The library of the + Collegium de Propaganda Fide was established by Urban VIII. in 1626. + It owes its present richness almost entirely to testamentary gifts, + among which may be mentioned those of Cardinals Borgia, Caleppi and Di + Pietro. It is a private collection for the use of the congregation and + of those who belong to it, but permission may be obtained from the + superiors. There are at least thirty libraries in Rome which are more + or less accessible to the public. At Subiaco, about 40 m. from Rome, + the library of the Benedictine monastery of Santa Scolastica is not a + very large one, comprising only 6000 printed vols. and 400 MSS., but + the place is remarkable as having been the first seat of typography in + Italy. It was in this celebrated Protocoenobium that Schweynheim and + Pannartz, fresh from the dispersion of Fust and Schoeffer's workmen in + 1462, established their press and produced a series of very rare and + important works which are highly prized throughout Europe. The Subiaco + library, although open daily to readers, is only visited by students + who are curious to behold the cradle of the press in Italy, and to + inspect the series of original editions preserved in their first home. + + + Florence. + + The Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale of Florence, formed from the union + of Magliabechi's library with the Palatina, is the largest after the + Vittorio Emanuele at Rome. The Magliabechi collection became public + property in 1714, and with accessions from time to time, held an + independent place until 1862, when the Palatina (formed by Ferdinand + III., Grand Duke of Tuscany), was incorporated with it. An old statute + by which a copy of every work printed in Tuscany was to be presented + to the Magliabechi library was formerly much neglected, but has been + maintained more rigorously in force since 1860. Since 1870 it receives + by law a copy of every book published in the kingdom. A _Bollettino_ + is issued describing these accessions. There are many valuable + autograph originals of famous works in this library, and the MSS. + include the most important extant _codici_ of Dante and later poets, + as well as of the historians from Villani to Machiavelli and + Guicciardini. Amongst the printed books is a very large assemblage of + rare early impressions, a great number of the _Rappresentazioni_ of + the 16th century, at least 200 books printed on vellum, and a copious + collection of municipal histories and statutes, of _testi di lingua_ + and of maps. The Galileo collection numbers 308 MSS. The MS. + portolani, 25 in number, are for the most part of great importance; + the oldest is dated 1417, and several seem to be the original charts + executed for Sir Robert Dudley (duke of Northumberland) in the + preparation of his _Arcano del Mare_. The library contains (1909) + 571,698 printed vols., 20,222 MSS., 9037 engravings, 21,000 portraits, + 3847 maps, and 3575 incunabula. In 1902 the Italian parliament voted + the funds for a new building which is being erected on the Corso dei + Tintori close to the Santa Croce Church. + + + Milan. + + The Biblioteca Nazionale of Milan, better known as the Braidense, + founded in 1770 by Maria Theresa, consists of 243,000 printed vols. + 1787 MSS. and over 3000 autographs. It comprises nearly 2300 books + printed in the 15th century (including the rare _Monte Santo di Dio_ + of Bettini, 1477), 913 Aldine impressions, and a xylographic _Biblia + Pauperum_. Amongst the MSS. are an early Dante and autograph letters + of Galileo, some poems in Tasso's autograph, and a fine series of + illustrated service-books, with miniatures representing the advance of + Italian art from the 12th to the 16th century. One room is devoted to + the works of Manzoni. + + + Naples. + + The Biblioteca Nazionale at Naples, though only opened to the public + in 1804, is the largest library of that city. The nucleus from which + it developed was the collection of Cardinal Seripando, which comprised + many MSS. and printed books of great value. Acquisitions came in from + other sources, especially when in the year 1848 many private and + conventual libraries were thrown on the Neapolitan market, and still + more so in 1860. The Biblical section is rich in rarities, commencing + with the Mainz Bible of 1462, printed on vellum. Other special + features are the collection of _testi di lingua_, that of books on + volcanoes, the best collection in existence of the publications of + Italian literary and scientific societies and a nearly complete set of + the works issued by the Bodoni press. The MSS. include a palimpsest + containing writings of the 3rd, 5th and 6th centuries under a + grammatical treatise of the 8th, 2 Latin papyri of the 6th century, + over 50 Latin Bibles, many illuminated books with miniatures, and the + autographs of G. Leopardi. There are more than 40 books printed on + vellum in the 15th and 16th centuries, including a fine first Homer; + and several MS. maps and portolani, one dating from the end of the + 14th century. The library contains about 389,100 printed vols., 7990 + MSS. and 4217 incunabula. + + + Palermo. + + The Biblioteca Nazionale of Palermo, founded from the Collegio Massimo + of the Jesuits, with additions from other libraries of that suppressed + order, is rich in 15th-century books, which have been elaborately + described in a catalogue printed in 1875, and in Aldines and + bibliographical curiosities of the 16th and following centuries, and a + very complete series of the Sicilian publications of the 16th century, + many being unique. The library contains 167,898 printed vols., 2550 + incunabula, 1537 MSS. + + + Turin. + + Venice. + + The Biblioteca Nazionale Universitatia of Turin took its origin in the + donation of the private library of the House of Savoy, which in 1720 + was made to the University by Vittorio Amedeo II. The disastrous fire + of January 1904 destroyed about 24,000 out of the 300,000 vols. which + the library possessed, and of the MSS., the number of which was 4138, + there survive now but 1500 in a more or less deteriorated condition. + Among those that perished were the palimpsests of Cicero, Cassidorus, + the Codex Theodosianus and the famous _Livre d'Heures_. What escaped + the fire entirely was the valuable collection of 1095 incunabula, the + most ancient of which is the _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ of 1459. + Since the fire the library has been enriched by new gifts, the most + conspicuous of which is the collection of 30,000 vols. presented by + Baron Alberto Lumbroso, principally relating to the French Revolution + and empire. The library was in 1910 about to be transferred to the + premises of the Palazzo of the Debito Publico. The Biblioteca + Marciana, or library of St Mark at Venice, was traditionally founded + in 1362 by a donation of MSS. from the famous Petrarch (all of them + now lost) and instituted as a library by Cardinal Bessarione in 1468. + The printed vols. number 417,314. The precious contents include 12,106 + MSS. of great value, of which more than 1000 Greek codices were given + by Cardinal Bessarione, important MS. collections of works on Venetian + history, music and theatre, rare incunabula, and a great number of + volumes, unique or exceedingly rare, on the subject of early + geographical research. Amongst the MSS. is a Latin Homer, an + invaluable codex of the laws of the Lombards, and the autograph MS. of + Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_. Since the fall of the + republic and the suppression of the monasteries a great many private + and conventual libraries have been incorporated with the Marciana, + which had its first abode in the Libreria del Sansovino, from which in + turn it was transferred in 1812 to the Palazzo Ducale, and from this + again in 1904 to the Palazzo della Zecca (The Mint). + + + University libraries. + + Among the university libraries under government control some deserve + special notice. First in historical importance comes the Biblioteca + della Università at Bologna, founded by the naturalist U. Aldrovandi, + who bequeathed by his will in 1605 to the senate of Bologna his + collection of 3800 printed books and 360 MSS. Count Luigi F. Marsili + increased the library by a splendid gift in 1712 and established an + Istituto delle Scienze, reconstituted as a public library by Benedict + XIV. in 1756. The printed books number 255,000 vols., and the MSS. + 5000. The last comprise a rich Oriental collection of 547 MSS. in + Arabic, 173 in Turkish, and several in Persian, Armenian and Hebrew. + Amongst the Latin codices is a Lactantius of the 6th or 7th century. + The other noteworthy articles include a copy of the Armenian gospels + (12th century), the Avicenna, with miniatures dated 1194, described in + Montfaucon's _Diarium Italicum_, and some unpublished Greek texts. + Amongst the Italian MSS. is a rich assemblage of municipal histories. + Mezzofanti was for a long time the custodian here, and his own + collection of books has been incorporated in the library, which is + remarkable likewise for the number of early editions and Aldines which + it contains. A collection of drawings by Agostino Caracci is another + special feature of worth. The grand hall with its fine furniture in + walnut wood merits particular attention. The Biblioteca della + Università at Naples was established by Joachim Murat in 1812 in the + buildings of Monte Oliveto, and has thence been sometimes called the + "Biblioteca Gioacchino." Later it was transferred to the Royal + University of studies, and was opened to the public in 1827. It was + increased by the libraries of several monastic bodies. The most + copious collections relate to the study of medicine and natural + science. It possesses about 300,000 printed books, 404 incunabula, 203 + Aldines, and 196 Bodoni editions, but the more important incunabula + and MSS. about the middle of the 19th century went to enrich the + Biblioteca Nazionale. Other important university libraries are those + of Catania (1755), 130,000 vols.; Genoa (1773), 132,000 vols., 1588 + MSS.; Pavia (1763), 250,000 vols., 1100 MSS.; Padua (200,000 vols., + 2356 MSS.), which in 1910 was housed in a new building; Cagliari + (90,000 vols.); Sassari (74,000 vols.). Messina, destroyed in the + earthquake of 1908, preserved, however, beneath its ruins the more + important part of its furniture and fittings, and in 1910 was already + restored to active work, as regards the portion serving for the + reawakened Faculty of Law in the University. + + + Mediceo-Laurenziana. + + Modena. + + Chief among the remaining government libraries comes the world-famed + Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana at Florence, formed from the + collections of Cosimo the Elder, Pietro de' Medici, and Lorenzo the + Magnificent (which, however, passed away from the family after the + expulsion of the Medici from Florence, and were repurchased in 1508 by + Cardinal Giovanni, afterwards Leo X.). It was first constituted as a + public library in Florence by Clement VII., who charged Michelangelo + to construct a suitable edifice for its reception. It was opened to + the public by Cosimo I. in 1571, and has ever since gone on increasing + in value, the accessions in the 18th century alone being enough to + double its former importance. The printed books it contains are + probably no more than 11,000 in number, but are almost all of the + highest rarity and interest, including 242 incunabula of which 151 + _editiones principes_. It is, however, the precious collection of + MSS., amounting to 9693 articles, which gives its chief importance to + this library. They comprise more than 700 of dates earlier than the + 11th century. Some of them are the most valuable codices in the + world--the famous Virgil of the 4th or 5th century, Justinian's + _Pandects_ of the 6th, a Homer of the 10th, and several other very + early Greek and Latin classical and Biblical texts, as well as copies + in the handwriting of Petrarch, about 100 codices of Dante, a + _Decameron_ copied by a contemporary from Boccaccio's own MS., and + Cellini's MS. of his autobiography. Bandini's catalogue of the MSS. + occupies 13 vols. folio, printed in 1764-1778. Administratively united + to the Laurentian is the Riccardiana rich in MSS. of Italian + literature, especially the Florentine (33,000 vols., 3905 MSS.). At + Florence the Biblioteca Marucelliana, founded in 1703, remarkable for + its artistic wealth of early woodcuts and metal engravings, was opened + to the public in 1753. The number of these and of original drawings by + the old masters amounts to 80,000 pieces; the printed volumes number + 200,000, the incunabula 620, and the MSS. 1500. At Modena is the + famous Biblioteca Estense, so called from having been founded by the + Este family at Ferrara in 1393; it was transferred to Modena by Cesare + D'Este in 1598. Muratori, Zaccaria and Tiraboschi were librarians + here, and made good use of the treasures of the library. It is + particularly rich in early printed literature and valuable codices. + Between 1859 and 1867 it was known as the Biblioteca Palatina. The + printed vols. number 150,570, the incunabula 1600, the MSS. 3336, + besides the 4958 MSS. and the 100,000 autographs of the Campori + collection. + + + Parma. + + The oldest library at Naples is the Biblioteca Brancacciana, with many + valuable MSS. relating to the history of Naples. Two planispheres by + Coronelli are preserved here. It was founded in 1673 by Cardinal F. M. + Brancaccio, and opened by his heirs in 1675; 150,000 vols. and 3000 + MSS. The Regia Biblioteca di Parma, founded definitively in 1779, owes + its origin to the grand-duke Philip, who employed the famous scholar + Paciaudi to organize it. It is now a public library containing 308,770 + vols. and 4890 MSS. Amongst its treasures is De Rossi's magnificent + collection of Biblical and rabbinical MSS. Also worthy of note are the + Bibl. Pubblica or governation of Lucca (1600) with 214,000 vols., 725 + incunabula and 3091 MSS. and that of Cremona (1774), united to that of + the Museo Civico. + + + Ambrosiana. + + Among the great libraries not under government control, the most + important is the famous Biblioteca Ambrosiana at Milan, founded in + 1609 by Cardinal Fed. Borromeo. It contains 230,000 printed vols. and + 8400 MSS. Amongst the MSS. are a Greek Pentateuch of the 5th century, + the famous Peshito and Syro-Hexaplar from the Nitrian convent of St + Maria Deipara, a Josephus written on papyrus, supposed to be of the + 5th century, several palimpsest texts, including an early Plautus, and + St Jerome's commentary on the Psalms in a volume of 7th-century + execution, full of contemporary glosses in Irish, Gothic fragments of + Ulfilas, and a Virgil with notes in Petrarch's handwriting. Cardinal + Mai Was formerly custodian here. In 1879 Professor C. Mensinger + presented his "Biblioteca Europea," consisting of 2500 vols., 300 maps + and 5000 pieces, all relating to the literature and linguistics of + European countries. The Melzi and Trivulzio libraries should not pass + without mention here, although they are private and inaccessible + without special permission. The former is remarkable for its + collection of early editions with engravings, including the Dante of + 1481, with twenty designs by Baccio Bandinelli. The latter is rich in + MSS. with miniatures of the finest and rarest kind, and in printed + books of which many are unique or nearly so. It consists of 70,000 + printed vols. At Genoa the Biblioteca Franzoniana, founded about 1770 + for the instruction of the poorer classes, is noteworthy as being the + first European library lighted up at night for the use of readers. + + + Monte Cassino. + + Vercelli. + + The foundation of the monastery of Monte Cassino is due to St + Benedict, who arrived there in the year 529, and established the + prototype of all similar institutions in western Europe. The library + of printed books now extends to about 20,000 vols., chiefly relating + to the theological sciences, but including some rare editions. A + collection of the books belonging to the monks contains about the same + number of volumes. But the chief glory of Monte Cassino consists of + the _archivio_, which is quite apart; and this includes more than + 30,000 bulls, diplomas, charters and other documents, besides 1000 + MSS. dating from the 6th century downwards. The latter comprehend some + very early Bibles and important codices of patristic and other + medieval writings. There are good written catalogues, and descriptions + with extracts are published in the _Bibliotheca Casinensis_. The + monastery was declared a national monument in 1866. At Ravenna the + Biblioteca Classense has a 10th-century codex of Aristophanes and two + 14th-century codices of Dante. At Vercelli the Biblioteca dell' + Archivio Capitolare, the foundation of which can be assigned to no + certain date, but must be referred to the early days when the + barbarous conquerors of Italy had become christianized, comprises + nothing but MSS., all of great antiquity and value. Amongst them is an + Evangeliarium S. Eusebii in Latin, supposed to be of the 4th century; + also the famous codex containing the Anglo-Saxon homilies which have + been published by the Ælfric Society. + + + La Cava. + + The Biblioteca del Monastero della S. Trinità, at La Cava dei Tirreni + in the province of Salerno, is said to date from the foundation of the + abbey itself (beginning of the 11th century). It contains only some + 10,000 vols., but these include a number of MSS. of very great rarity + and value, ranging from the 8th to the 14th century. Amongst these is + the celebrated Codex Legum Longobardorum, dated 1004, besides a + well-known geographical chart of the 12th century, over 100 Greek + MSS., and about 1000 charters beginning with the year 840, more than + 200 of which belong to the Lombard and Norman periods. The library is + now national property, the abbot holding the office of Keeper of the + Archives. + + Not a few of the communal and municipal libraries are of great extent + and interest: Bologna (1801), 191,000 vols., 5060 MSS.; Brescia, + Civica Quiriniana, 125,000 vols., 1500 MSS.; Ferrara (1753), 91,000 + vols., 1698 MSS., many Ferrarese rarities; Macerata, the + Mozzi-Borgetti (1783-1835, united 1855), 50,000 vols.; Mantua, 70,000 + vols., 1300 MSS.; Novara, Negroni e Civica (1847 and 1890), 75,000 + vols.; Padua, 90,000 vols., 1600 MSS.; Palermo (1760), 216,000 vols., + 3263 MSS., coins and Sicilian collection; Perugia (1852), founded by + P. Podiani, 70,000 vols., 915 MSS.; Siena (1758), founded by S. + Bandini, fine art collection, 83,250 vols., 5070 MSS.; Venice, Museo + Civico Correr, 50,000 vols., 11,000 MSS.; Verona (1792, public since + 1802), 180,000 vols., 2650 MSS.; Vicenza, Bertoliana (1708), local + literature, archives of religious corporations, 175,000 vols., 6000 + MSS. + + Popular libraries have now been largely developed in Italy, chiefly + through private or municipal enterprise; they enjoy a small state + subvention of £1000. The government report for 1908 stated that 319 + communes possessed _biblioteche popolari_ numbering altogether 415. Of + these, 313 were established by municipalities, 113 by individuals, 8 + by business houses, 80 by working men's societies and 15 by ministers + of religion; 225 are open to the public, 358 lend books, 221 + gratuitously, and 127 on payment of a small fee. In order to establish + these institutions throughout the kingdom, a _Bollettino_ has been + published at Milan since 1907, and a National Congress was held at + Rome in December 1908. + + Information has been given for this account by Dr G. Staderini of the + Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome. See also F. Bluhme, _Iter Italicum_ + (Berlin, 1824-1836); _Notizie sulle biblioteche governative del regno + d' Italia_ (Roma, 1893); _Le biblioteche governative Italiane nel + 1898_ (Roma, 1900); _Statistica delle biblioteche_ (Roma, 1893-1896, 2 + pts.); _Le biblioteche popolari in Italia, relazione al Ministro della + Pubb. Istruzione_ (Roma, 1898); _Bollettino delle biblioteche + popolari_ (Milano, 1907, in progress); E. Fabietti, _Manuale per le + biblioteche popolari_ (2^(da) ediz., Milano); _Le biblioteche pop. al + 1^o Congresso Naz. 1908_ (Milano, 1910). + + +_Latin America._ + +Much interest in libraries has not been shown in south, central and +other parts of Latin America. Most of the libraries which exist are +national or legislative libraries. + + + Cuba. + + As the libraries of the republic of Cuba are more Spanish than + American in character, it will be convenient to consider them here. + The chief libraries are in Havana, and the best are the Biblioteca + Publica and the University Library. The Biblioteca Publica has within + recent years been completely overhauled, and is now one of the most + actively-managed libraries in Latin America. + + + Mexico. + + Out of the twenty-nine states and territories of the Mexican republic + about half have public libraries, and only a small proportion of the + contents consists of modern literature. Many possess rare and valuable + books, of interest to the bibliographer and historian, which have come + from the libraries of the suppressed religious bodies. There is a + large number of scientific and literary associations in the republic, + each possessing books. The Society of Geography and Statistics, + founded in 1851 in Mexico City, is the most important of them, and + owns a fine museum and excellent library. After the triumph of the + Liberal party the cathedral, university and conventual libraries of + the city of Mexico came into the possession of the government, and + steps were taken to form them into one national collection. No + definite system was organized, however, until 1867, when the church of + San Augustin was taken and fitted up for the purpose. In 1884 it was + opened as the Biblioteca Nacional, and now possesses over 200,000 + vols. Two copies of every book printed in Mexico must be presented to + this library. Most of the libraries of Mexico, city or provincial, are + subscription, and belong to societies and schools of various kinds. + + + Argentina. + + The importance of public libraries has been fully recognized in + Argentina, and more than two hundred of them are in the country. They + are due to benefactions, but the government in every case adds an + equal sum to any endowment. A central commission exists for the + purpose of facilitating the acquisition of books and to promote a + uniform excellence of administration. The most considerable is the + Biblioteca Nacional at Buenos Aires, which is passably rich in MSS., + some of great interest, concerning the early history of the Spanish + colonies. There is also the Biblioteca Municipal with about 25,000 + vols. There are libraries attached to colleges, churches and clubs, + and most of the larger towns possess public libraries. + + + Brazil. + + The chief library in Brazil is the Bibliotheca Publica Nacional at Rio + de Janeiro (1807) now comprising over 250,000 printed vols. with many + MSS. National literature and works connected with South America are + special features of this collection. A handsome new building has been + erected which has been fitted up in the most modern manner. Among + other libraries of the capital may be mentioned those of the Faculty + of Medicine, Marine Library, National Museum, Portuguese Literary + Club, Bibliotheca Fluminense, Benedictine Monastery, and the + Bibliotheca Municipal. There are various provincial and public + libraries throughout Brazil, doing good work, and a typical example is + the public library of Maranhao. + + + Chile. + + The Biblioteca Nacional at Santiago is the chief library in Chile. The + catalogue is printed, and is kept up by annual supplements. It + possesses about 100,000 vols. There is also a University Library at + Santiago, and a fairly good Biblioteca Publica at Valparaiso. + + + Peru. + + The Biblioteca Nacional at Lima was founded by a decree of the + liberator San Martin on the 28th of August 1821, and placed in the + house of the old convent of San Pedro. The nucleus of the library + consisted of those of the university of San Marcos and of several + monasteries, and a large present of books was also made by San Martin. + The library is chiefly interesting from containing so many MSS. and + rare books relating to the history of Peru in viceregal times. + + +_Spain and Portugal._ + +Most of the royal, state and university libraries of Spain and Portugal +have government control and support. In Portugal the work of the +universities is to a certain extent connected up, and an official +bulletin is published in which the laws and accessions of the libraries +are contained. + + The chief library in Spain is the Biblioteca Nacional (formerly the + Biblioteca Real) at Madrid. The printed volumes number 600,000 with + 200,000 pamphlets. Spanish literature is of course well represented, + and, in consequence of the numerous accessions from the libraries of + the suppressed convents, the classes of theology, canon law, history, + &c., are particularly complete. There are 30,000 MSS., including some + finely illuminated codices, historical documents, and many valuable + autographs. The collection of prints extends to 120,000 pieces, and + was principally formed from the important series bought from Don + Valentin Carderera in 1865. The printed books have one catalogue + arranged under authors' names, and one under titles; the departments + of music, maps and charts, and prints have subject-catalogues as well. + There is a general index of the MSS., with special catalogues of the + Greek and Latin codices and genealogical documents. The cabinet of + medals is most valuable and well arranged. Of the other Madrid + libraries it is enough to mention the Biblioteca de la Real Academia + de la Historia, 1758 (20,000 vols. and 1500 MSS.), which contains some + printed and MS. Spanish books of great value, including the well-known + Salazar collection. The history of the library of the Escorial (q.v.) + has been given elsewhere. In 1808, before the invasion, the Escorial + is estimated to have contained 30,000 printed vols. and 3400 MSS.; + Joseph removed the collection to Madrid, but when it was returned by + Ferdinand 10,000 vols. were missing. There are now about 40,000 + printed vols. The Arabic MSS. have been described by M. Casiri, + 1760-1770; and a catalogue of the Greek codices by Müller was issued + at the expense of the French government in 1848. There is a MS. + catalogue of the printed books. Permission to study at the Escorial, + which is one of the royal private libraries, must be obtained by + special application. The Biblioteca Provincial y Universitaria of + Barcelona (1841) contains about 155,000 vols., and that of Seville + (1767) has 82,000 vols. Other cities in Spain possess provincial or + university libraries open to students under various restrictions, + among them may be mentioned the Biblioteca Universitaria of Salamanca + (1254) with over 80,000 vols. + + + Portugal. + + Among the libraries of Portugal the Bibliotheca Nacional at Lisbon + (1796) naturally takes the first place. In 1841 it was largely + increased from the monastic collections, which, however, seem to have + been little cared for according to a report prepared by the principal + librarian three years later. There are now said to be 400,000 vols. of + printed books, among which theology, canon law, history and Portuguese + and Spanish literature largely predominate. The MSS. number 16,000 + including many of great value. There is also a cabinet of 40,000 coins + and medals. The Bibliotheca da Academia, founded in 1780, is preserved + in the suppressed convent of the Ordem Terceira da Penitencia. In + 1836 the Academy acquired the library of that convent, numbering + 30,000 vols., which have since been kept apart. The Archivo Nacional, + in the same building, contains the archives of the kingdom, brought + here after the destruction of the Torre do Castello during the great + earthquake. + + The Biblioteca Publica Municipal at Oporto is the second largest in + Portugal, although only dating from the 9th of July 1833, the + anniversary of the debarcation of D. Pedro, and when the memorable + siege was still in progress; from that date to 1874 it was styled the + Real Biblioteca do Porto. The regent (ex-emperor of Brazil) gave to + the town the libraries of the suppressed convents in the northern + provinces, the municipality undertaking to defray the expense of + keeping up the collection. Recent accessions consist mainly of + Portuguese and French books. The important Camoens collection is + described in a printed catalogue (Oporto, 1880). A notice of the MSS. + may be found in _Catalogo dos MSS. da B. Publica Eborense_, by H. da + Cunha Rivara (Lisbon, 1850-1870), 3 vols. folio, and the first part of + an _Indice preparatorio do Catalogo dos Manuscriptos_ was produced in + 1880. The University Library of Coimbra (1591) contains about 100,000 + vols., and other colleges possess libraries. + + +_Netherlands._ + +Since 1900 there has been considerable progress made in both Belgium and +Holland in the development of public libraries, and several towns in the +latter country have established popular libraries after the fashion of +the municipal libraries of the United Kingdom and America. + + + Belgium. + + The national library of Belgium is the Bibliothèque Royale at + Brussels, of which the basis may be said to consist of the famous + Bibliothèque des ducs de Bourgogne, the library of the Austrian + sovereigns of the Low Countries, which had gradually accumulated + during three centuries. After suffering many losses from thieves and + fire, in 1772 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne received considerable + augmentations from the libraries of the suppressed order of Jesuits, + and was thrown open to the public. On the occupation of Brussels by + the French in 1794 a number of books and MSS. were confiscated and + transferred to Paris (whence the majority were returned in 1815); in + 1795 the remainder were formed into a public library under the care of + La Serna Santander, who was also town librarian, and who was followed + by van Hulthem. At the end of the administration of van Hulthem a + large part of the precious collections of the Bollandists was + acquired. In 1830 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne was added to the state + archives, and the whole made available for students. Van Hulthem died + in 1832, leaving one of the most important private libraries in + Europe, described by Voisin in _Bibliotheca Hulthemiana_ (Brussels, + 1836), 5 vols., and extending to 60,000 printed vols, and 1016 MSS., + mostly relating to Belgian history. The collection was purchased by + the government in 1837, and, having been added to the Bibliothèque de + Bourgogne (open since 1772) and the Bibliothèque de la Ville (open + since 1794), formed what has since been known as the Bibliothèque + Royale de Belgique. The printed volumes now number over 600,000 with + 30,000 MSS., 105,000 prints and 80,000 coins and medals. The special + collections, each with a printed catalogue, consist of the Fonds van + Hulthem, for national history; the Fonds Fétis, for music; the Fonds + Goethals, for genealogy; and the Fonds Müller, for physiology. The + catalogue of the MSS. has been partly printed, and catalogues of + accessions and other departments are also in course of publication. + There are libraries attached to most of the departments of the + government, the ministry of war having 120,000 vols. and the ministry + of the interior, 15,000 vols. An interesting library is the + Bibliothèque Collective des Sociétés Savantes founded in 1906 to + assemble in one place the libraries of all the learned societies of + Brussels. It contains about 40,000 vols. which have been catalogued on + cards. The Bibliothèque du Conservatoire royal de Musique (1832) + contains 12,000 vols, and 6000 dramatic works. The popular or communal + libraries of Brussels contain about 30,000 vols. and those of the + adjoining suburbs about 50,000 vols., most of which are distributed + through the primary and secondary schools. At Antwerp the Stadt + Bibliothek (1805) has now 70,000 vols., and is partly supported by + subscriptions and endowments. The valuable collection of books in the + Musée Plantin-Moretus (1640) should also be mentioned. It contains + 11,000 MSS. and 15,000 printed books, comprising the works issued by + the Plantin family and many 15th-century books. + + The University Library of Ghent, known successively as the + Bibliothèque de l'École Centrale and Bibliothèque Publique de la + Ville, was founded upon the old libraries of the Conseil de Flandres, + of the College des Échevins, and of many suppressed religious + communities. It was declared public in 1797, and formally opened in + 1798. On the foundation of the university in 1817 the town placed the + collection at its disposal, and the library has since remained under + state control. The printed volumes now amount to 353,000. There are + important special collections on archaeology, Netherlands literature, + national history, books printed in Flanders, and 23,000 historical + pamphlets of the 16th and 17th centuries. The main catalogue is in MS. + on cards. There are printed catalogues of the works on jurisprudence + (1839), and of the MSS. (1852). The Bibliothèque de l'Université + Catholique of Louvain is based upon the collection of Beyerlinck, who + bequeathed it to his alma mater in 1627; this example was followed by + Jacques Romain, professor of medicine, but the proper organization of + the library began in 1636. There are now said to be 211,000 vols. The + Bibliothèque de l'Université of Liége dates from 1817, when on the + foundation of the university the old Bibliothèque de la Ville was + added to it. There are now 350,000 printed vols., pamphlets, MSS., &c. + The Liége collection (of which a printed catalogue appeared in 3 vols. + 8vo., 1872), bequeathed by M. Ulysse Capitaine, extends to 12,061 + vols. and pamphlets. There are various printed catalogues. The + Bibliothèques Populaires of Liége established in 1862, now number + five, and contain among them 50,000 vols. which are circulated to the + extent of 130,000 per annum among the school children. The + Bibliothèque publique of Bruges (1798) contains 145,600 printed books + and MSS., housed in a very artistic building, once the Tonlieu or + douane, 1477. There are communal libraries at Alost, Arlon (1842), Ath + (1842), Courtrai, Malines (1864), Mons (1797), Namur (1800), Ostend + (1861), Tournai (1794, housed in the Hôtel des Anciens Prêtres, 1755), + Ypres (1839) and elsewhere, all conducted on the same system as the + French communal libraries. Most of them range in size from 5000 to + 40,000 vols, and they are open as a rule only part of the day. Every + small town has a similar library, and a complete list of them, + together with much other information, will be found in the _Annuaire + de la Belgique, scientifique, artistique et littéraire_ (Brussels 1908 + and later issues). + + + Holland. + + The national library of Holland is the Koninklijke Bibliotheek at + Hague, which was established in 1798, when it was decided to join the + library of the princes of Orange with those of the defunct government + bodies in order to form a library for the States-General, to be called + the Nationale Bibliotheek. In 1805 the present name was adopted; and + since 1815 it has become the national library. In 1848 the Baron W. Y. + H. van Westreenen van Tiellandt bequeathed his valuable books, MSS., + coins and antiquities to the country, and directed that they should be + preserved in his former residence as a branch of the royal library. + There are now upwards of 500,000 vols. of printed books, and the MSS. + number 6000, chiefly historical, but including many fine books of + hours with miniatures. Books are lent all over the country. The + library boasts of the richest collection in the world of books on + chess, Dutch incunabula, Elzevirs and Spinozana. There is one general + written catalogue arranged in classes, with alphabetical indexes. In + 1800 a printed catalogue was issued, with four supplements down to + 1811; and since 1866 a yearly list of additions has been published. + Special mention should be made of the excellent catalogue of the + incunabula published in 1856. + + The next library in numerical importance is the famous Bibliotheca + Academiae Lugduno-Batavae, which dates from the foundation of the + university of Leiden by William I., prince of Orange, on the 8th of + February 1575. It has acquired many valuable additions from the books + and MSS. of the distinguished scholars, Golius, Joseph Scaliger, Isaac + Voss, Ruhnken and Hemsterhuis. The MSS. comprehend many of great + intrinsic importance. The library of the Society of Netherland + Literature has been placed here since 1877; this is rich in the + national history and literature. The Arabic and Oriental MSS. known as + the Legatum Warnerianum are of great value and interest; and the + collection of maps bequeathed in 1870 by J. J. Bodel Nyenhuis is also + noteworthy. The library is contained in a building which was formerly + a church of the Béguines, adapted in 1860 somewhat after the style of + the British Museum. The catalogues (one alphabetical and one + classified) are on slips, the titles being printed. A catalogue of + books and MSS. was printed in 1716, one of books added between 1814 + and 1847 and a supplementary part of MSS. only in 1850. A catalogue of + the Oriental MSS. was published in 6 vols. (1851-1877). The + Bibliotheek der Rijks Universiteit (1575) at Leiden contains over + 190,000 vols. + + The University Library at Utrecht dates from 1582, when certain + conventual collections were brought together in order to form a public + library, which was shortly afterwards enriched by the books bequeathed + by Hub. Buchelius and Ev. Pollio. Upon the foundation of the + university in 1636, the town library passed into its charge. Among the + MSS. are some interesting cloister MSS. and the famous "Utrecht + Psalter," which contains the oldest text of the Athanasian creed. The + last edition of the catalogue was in 2 vols. folio, 1834, with + supplement in 1845, index from 1845-1855 in 8vo., and additions + 1856-1870, 2 vols. 8vo. A catalogue of the MSS. was issued in 1887. + The titles of accessions are now printed in sheets and pasted down for + insertion. There are now about 250,000 vols. in the library. + + The basis of the University Library at Amsterdam consists of a + collection of books brought together in the 15th century and preserved + in the Nieuwe Kerk. At the time of the Reformation in 1578 they became + the property of the city, but remained in the Nieuwe Kerk for the use + of the public till 1632, when they were transferred to the Athenaeum. + Since 1877 the collection has been known as the University Library, + and in 1881 it was removed to a building designed upon the plan of the + new library and reading-room of the British Museum. The library + includes the best collection of medical works in Holland, and the + Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana of Hebrew and Talmudic literature is of + great fame and value; a catalogue of the last was printed in 1875. The + libraries of the Dutch Geographical and other societies are preserved + here. A general printed catalogue was issued in 6 vols. 8vo., + Amsterdam (1856-1877); one describing the bequests of J. de Bosch + Kemper, E. J. Potgieter and F. W. Rive, in 3 vols., 8vo. (1878-1879); + a catalogue of the MSS. of Professor Moll was published in 1880, and + one of those of P. Camper in 1881. Other catalogues have been + published up to 1902, including one of the MSS. The library contains + about half a million volumes. There are popular subscription libraries + with reading-rooms in all parts of Holland, and in Rotterdam there is + a society for the encouragement of social culture which has a large + library as part of its equipment. At Hague, Leiden, Haarlem, Dordrecht + and other towns popular libraries have been established, and there is + a movement of recent growth, in favour of training librarians on + advanced English lines. + + The library of the Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen at Batavia + contains books printed in Netherlandish India, works relating to the + Indian Archipelago and adjacent countries, and the history of the + Dutch in the East. There are 20,000 printed vols. and 1630 MSS., of + which 243 are Arabic, 445 Malay, 303 Javanese, 60 Batak and 517 on + lontar leaves, in the ancient Kawi, Javanese and Bali languages, &c. + Printed catalogues of the Arabic, Malay, Javanese and Kawi MSS. have + been issued. + + +_Scandinavia._ + +Owing largely to so many Scandinavian librarians having been trained and +employed in American libraries, a greater approach has been made to +Anglo-American library ideals in Norway, Sweden and Denmark than +anywhere else on the continent of Europe. + + + Denmark. + + The beginning of the admirably managed national library of Denmark, + the great Royal Library at Copenhagen (Det Store Kongelige Bibliothek) + may be said to have taken place during the reign of Christian III. + (1533-1559), who took pride in importing foreign books and choice + MSS.; but the true founder was Frederick III. (1648-1670); to him is + mainly due the famous collection of Icelandic literature and the + acquisition of Tycho Brahe's MSS. The present building (in the + Christiansborg castle) was begun in 1667. Among notable accessions may + be mentioned the collections of C. Reitzer, the count of Danneskjöld + (8000 vols. and 500 MSS.) and Count de Thott; the last bequeathed 6039 + vols. printed before 1531, and the remainder of his books, over + 100,000 vols., was eventually purchased. In 1793 the library was + opened to the public, and it has since remained under state control. + Two copies of every book published within the kingdom must be + deposited here. The incunabula and block books form an important + series. There is a general classified catalogue in writing for the use + of readers; and an alphabetical one on slips arranged in boxes for the + officials. A good catalogue of the de Thott collection was printed in + 12 vols. 8vo. (1789-1795); a catalogue of the French MSS. appeared in + 1844; of Oriental MSS., 1846; of the Danish collection, 1875, 8vo. + Annual reports and accounts of notable MSS. have been published since + 1864. The library now contains over 750,000 vols. + + The University Library, founded in 1482, was destroyed by fire in + 1728, and re-established shortly afterwards. A copy of every Danish + publication must be deposited here. The MSS. include the famous + Arne-Magnean collection. There are now about 400,000 vols. in this + library. The Statsbiblioteket of Aarhus (1902) possesses about 200,000 + vols. and the Landsbókasafn Islands (National Library) of Reykjavik, + Iceland, has about 50,000 printed books and 5500 MSS. In Copenhagen + there are 11 popular libraries supported in part by the city, and + there are at least 50 towns in the provinces with public libraries and + in some cases reading-rooms. An association for promoting public + libraries was formed in 1905, and in 1909 the minister of public + instruction appointed a special adviser in library matters. About 800 + towns and villages are aided by the above named association, the state + and local authorities, and it is estimated that they possess among + them 500,000 vols., and circulate over 1,000,000 vols. annually. + + + Norway. + + The chief library in Norway is the University Library at Christiania, + established at the same time as the university, September 2nd, 1811, + by Frederick II., with a donation from the king of many thousands of + duplicates from the Royal Library at Copenhagen, and since augmented + by important bequests. Annual catalogues are issued and there are now + over 420,000 vols. in the collection. The Deichmanske Bibliothek in + Christiania was founded by Carl Deichmann in 1780 as a free library. + In 1898 it was reorganized, and in 1903 the open shelf method was + installed by Haakon Nyhuus, the librarian, who had been trained in the + United States. The library is partly supported by endowment, partly by + grants from the municipality. It now contains about 85,000 vols., and + is a typical example of a progressive library. The Free Library at + Bergen (1872) has about 90,000 vols. and has recently been re-housed + in a new building. A free library, with open shelves, has also been + opened at Trondhjem. The library connected with the Kongellige + Videnskabers Selskab at Trondhjem now contains about 120,000 vols. + Owing to the absence of small towns and villages in Norway, most of + the library work is concentrated in the coast towns. + + + Sweden. + + The Royal Library at Stockholm was first established in 1585. The + original collection was given to the university of Upsala by Gustavus + II., that formed by Christina is at the Vatican, and the library + brought together by Charles X. was destroyed by fire in 1697. The + present library was organized shortly afterwards. The + Benzelstjerna-Engeström Library (14,500 printed vols. and 1200 MSS.) + rich in materials for Swedish history, is now annexed to it. Natural + history, medicine and mathematics are left to other libraries. Among + the MSS. the _Codex Aureus_ of the 6th or 7th century, with its + interesting Anglo-Saxon inscription, is particularly noteworthy. The + catalogues are in writing, and are both alphabetical and classified; + printed catalogues have been issued of portions of the MSS. The + present building was opened in 1882. The library now contains about + 320,000 printed books and over 11,000 MSS. The Karolinska Institutet + in Stockholm, contains a library of medical books numbering over + 40,000. + + The University Library at Upsala was founded by Gustavus Adolphus in + 1620, from the remains of several convent libraries; he also provided + an endowment. The MSS. chiefly relate to the history of the country, + but include the _Codex Argenteus_, containing the Gothic gospels of + Ulfilas. The general catalogue is in writing. A catalogue was printed + in 1814; special lists of the foreign accessions have been published + each year from 1850; the Arabic, Persian and Turkish MSS. are + described by C. J. Tornberg, 1846. It now contains about 340,000 + printed books and MSS. The library at Lund dates from the foundation + of the university in 1668, and was based upon the old cathedral + library. The MSS. include the de la Gardie archives, acquired in 1848. + There are about 200,000 vols. in the library. The Stadsbibliotek of + Gothenburg contains about 100,000 vols., and has a printed catalogue. + + +_Russia._ + +The imperial Public Library at St Petersburg is one of the largest +libraries in the world, and now possesses about 1,800,000 printed vols. +and 34,000 MSS., as well as large collections of maps, autographs, +photographs, &c. The beginning of this magnificent collection may be +said to have been the books seized by the Czar Peter during his invasion +of Courland in 1714; the library did not receive any notable +augmentation, however, till the year 1795, when, by the acquisition of +the famous Zaluski collection, the Imperial Library suddenly attained a +place in the first rank among great European libraries. The Zaluski +Library was formed by the Polish count Joseph Zaluski, who collected at +his own expense during forty-three years no less than 200,000 vols., +which were added to by his brother Andrew, bishop of Cracow, by whom in +1747 the library was thrown open to the public. At his death it was left +under the control of the Jesuit College at Warsaw; on the suppression of +the order it was taken care of by the Commission of Education; and +finally in 1795 it was transferred by Suwaroff to St Petersburg as a +trophy of war. It then extended to 260,000 printed vols. and 10,000 +MSS., but in consequence of the withdrawal of many medical and +illustrated works to enrich other institutions, hardly 238,000 vols. +remained in 1810. Literature, history and theology formed the main +features of the Zaluski Library; the last class alone amounted to +one-fourth of the whole number. Since the beginning of the 19th century, +through the liberality of the sovereigns, the gifts of individuals, +careful purchases, and the application of the law of 1810, whereby two +copies of every Russian publication must be deposited here, the Imperial +Library has attained its present extensive dimensions. Nearly one +hundred different collections, some of them very valuable and extensive, +have been added from time to time. They include, for example, the +Tolstoi Sclavonic collection (1830), Tischendorf's MSS. (1858), the +Dolgorousky Oriental MSS. (1859), and the Firkowitsch Hebrew (Karaite) +collection (1862-1863), the libraries of Adelung (1858) and Tobler +(1877), that of the Slavonic scholar Jungmann (1856), and the national +MSS. of Karamzin (1867). This system of acquiring books, while it has +made some departments exceedingly rich, has left others comparatively +meagre. The library was not regularly opened to the public until 1814; +it is under the control of the minister of public instruction. There are +fine collections of Aldines and Elzevirs, and the numerous incunabula +are instructively arranged. + +The manuscripts include 26,000 codices, 41,340 autographs, 4689 charters +and 576 maps. The glory of this department is the celebrated _Codex +Sinaiticus_ of the Greek Bible, brought from the convent of St Catherine +on Mount Sinai by Tischendorf in 1859. Other important Biblical and +patristic codices are to be found among the Greek, and Latin MSS.; the +Hebrew MSS. include some of the most ancient that exist, and the +Samaritan collection is one of the largest in Europe; the Oriental MSS. +comprehend many valuable texts, and among the French are some of great +historical value. The general catalogues are in writing, but many +special catalogues of the MSS. and printed books have been published. + + The nucleus of the library at the Hermitage Palace was formed by the + empress Catherine II., who purchased the books and MSS. of Voltaire + and Diderot. In the year 1861 the collection amounted to 150,000 + vols., of which nearly all not relating to the history of art were + then transferred to the Imperial Library. There are many large and + valuable libraries attached to the government departments in St + Petersburg, and most of the academies and colleges and learned + societies are provided with libraries. + + The second largest library in Russia is contained in the Public Museum + at Moscow. The class of history is particularly rich, and Russian + early printed books are well represented. The MSS. number 5000, + including many ancient Sclavonic codices and historical documents of + value. One room is devoted to a collection of Masonic MSS., which + comprehend the archives of the lodges in Russia between 1816 and 1821. + There is a general alphabetical catalogue in writing; the catalogue of + the MSS. has been printed, as well as those of some of the special + collections. This large and valuable library now contains close upon + 1,000,000 printed books and MSS. The Imperial University at Moscow + (1755) has a library of over 310,000 vols., and the Duchovnaja Academy + has 120,000 vols. The Imperial Russian Historical Museum (1875-1883) + in Moscow contains nearly 200,000 vols. and most of the state + institutions and schools are supplied with libraries. All the Russian + universities have libraries, some of them being both large and + valuable--Dorpat (1802) 400,000 vols.; Charkov (1804) 180,000 vols.; + Helsingfors (1640-1827) 193,000 vols.; Kasan (1804) 242,000 vols.; + Kiev (1832) 125,000 vols.; Odessa (1865) 250,000 vols.; and Warsaw + (1817) 550,000 vols. There are also communal or public libraries at + Charkov (1886) 110,000 vols.; Odessa (1830) 130,000 vols.; Reval + (1825) 40,000 vols.; Riga, 90,000 vols.; Vilna (1856) 210,000 vols. + and many other towns. A text-book on library economy, based on Graesel + and Brown, was issued at St Petersburg in 1904. + + +_Eastern Europe._ + +At Athens the National Library (1842) possesses about 260,000 vols., and +there is also a considerable library at the university. The Public +Library at Corfu has about 40,000 vols. Belgrade University Library has +60,000 vols. and the University Library of Sofia has 30,000 vols. +Constantinople University in 1910 had a library in process of formation, +and there are libraries at the Greek Literary Society (20,000 vols.) and +Theological School (11,000 vols.). + + +_China._ + +Chinese books were first written on thin slips of bamboo, which were +replaced by silk or cloth scrolls in the 3rd century B.C., paper coming +into use in the beginning of the 2nd century. These methods were +customary down to the 10th or 11th century. There were no public +libraries in the western sense. + + The practice of forming national collections of the native literature + originated in the attempts to recover the works destroyed in the + "burning of the books" by the "First Emperor" (220 B.C.). In 190 B.C. + the law for the suppression of literary works was repealed, but + towards the close of the 1st century B.C. many works were still + missing. Hsiao Wu (139-86 B.C.) formed the plan of Repositories, in + which books might be stored, with officers to transcribe them. Liu + Hsiang (80-9 B.C.) was specially appointed to classify the literature + and form a library. His task was completed by his son, and the + _resumé_ of their labours is a detailed catalogue with valuable notes + describing 11,332 "sections" (volumes) by 625 authors. Similar + national collections were formed by nearly every succeeding dynasty. + The high estimation in which literature has always been held has led + to the formation of very large imperial, official and private + collections of books. Large numbers of works, chiefly relating to + Buddhism and Taoism, are also stored in many of the temples. Chinese + books are usually in several, and frequently in many volumes. The + histories and encyclopaedias are mostly of vast dimensions. + Collections of books are kept in wooden cupboards or on open shelves, + placed on their sides, each set (_t'ao_) of volumes (_pên_) being + protected and held together by two thin wooden or card boards, one + forming the front cover (in a European book) and the other the back + cover, joined by two cords or tapes running round the whole. By + untying and tying these tapes the _t'ao_ is opened and closed. The + titles of the whole work and of each section are written on the edge + (either the top or bottom in a European book) and so face outwards as + it lies on the shelf. Catalogues are simple lists with comments on the + books, not the systematic and scientific productions used in Western + countries. There are circulating libraries in large numbers in Peking, + Canton and other cities. + + See E. T. C. Werner, "Chinese Civilisation" (in H. Spencer's + _Descriptive Sociology_, pt. ix.). + + +_Japan._ + +The ancient history of libraries in Japan is analogous to that of China, +with whose civilization and literature it had close relations. Since +about 1870, however, the great cities and institutions have established +libraries on the European model. + + Perhaps the most extensive library of the empire is that of the + Imperial Cabinet (1885) at Tokio with over 500,000 vols., consisting + of the collections of the various government departments, and is for + official use alone. The University Library (1872) is the largest open + to students and the public; it contains over 400,000 vols. of which + 230,000 are Chinese and Japanese. The Public Library and reading-room + (Tosho-Kwan) at Ueno Park (1872) was formed in 1872 and contains over + 250,000 vols., of which about one-fifth are European books. At Tokio + are also to be found the Ohashi Library (1902) with 60,000 vols. and + the Hibaya Library (1908) with 130,000 vols. and the Nanki Library + (1899) with 86,000 vols. The library of the Imperial University of + Kyoto contains nearly 200,000 vols., of which over 90,000 are in + European languages. To this is attached the library of the Fukuoka + Medical College with 113,000 vols. The Municipal Library of Kyoto + (1898) contains 46,000 vols. Other important municipal libraries in + Japan are those at Akita in the province Of Ugo (1899), 47,000 vols., + at Mito, province of Hitachi (1908), 25,000 vols., Narita, province of + Shimosa (1901), 36,000 vols., chiefly Buddhistic, Yamaguchi, province + of Suó (1907), 23,000 vols. The libraries of the large temples often + contain books of value to the philologist. Lending libraries of native + and Chinese literature have existed in Japan from very early times. + + +LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND TRAINING + +The first and largest association established for the study of +librarianship was the American Library Association (1876). The Library +Association of the United Kingdom was formed in 1877 as an outcome of +the first International Library Conference, held at London, and in 1898 +it received a royal charter. It publishes a _Year Book_, the monthly +_Library Association Record_, and a number of professional handbooks. It +also holds examinations in Literary History, Bibliography and Library +Economy, and issues certificates and diplomas. There are also English +and Scottish district library associations. The Library Assistants +Association was formed in 1895 and has branches in different parts of +England, Wales and Ireland. It issues a monthly magazine entitled _The +Library Assistant_. There is an important Library Association in Germany +which issues a year-book giving information concerning the libraries of +the country, and a similar organization in Austria-Hungary which issues +a magazine at irregular intervals. An Association of Archivists and +Librarians was formed at Brussels in 1907, and there are similar +societies in France, Italy, Holland and elsewhere. In every country +there is now some kind of association for the study of librarianship, +archives or bibliography. International conferences have been held at +London, 1877; London, 1897; Paris (at Exhibition), 1903; St Louis, 1904; +Brussels (preliminary), 1908; and Brussels, 1910. + + LIBRARY PERIODICALS.--The following is a list of the current + periodicals which deal with library matters, with the dates of their + establishment and place of publication: _The Library Journal_ (New + York, 1876); _The Library_ (London, 1889); _Public Libraries_ + (Chicago, 1896); _The Library World_ (London, 1898); _The Library + Assistant_ (1898); _The Library Association Record_ (1899); _Library + Work_ (Minneapolis, U.S., 1906); _Bulletin of the American Library + Association_ (Boston, 1907); _Revue des bibliothèques_ (Paris, 1891); + _Bulletin des bibliothèques populaires_ (Paris, 1906); _Courrier des + Bibliothèques_ (Paris); _Bulletin de l'institut international de + bibliographie_ (Brussels, 1895); _Revue des bibliothèques et archives + de Belgique_ (Brussels, 1903); _Tijdschrift voor boek- en + bibliotheekwezen_ (Hague, 1903); _De Boekzaal_ (Hague, 1907); + _Bogsamlingsbladet_ (Copenhagen, 1906); _For Folke-og + Barnboksamlinger_ (Christiania, 1906); _Folkebibliotheksbladet_ + (Stockholm, 1903); _Zentralblatt für Bibliothekswesen_ (Leipzig, + 1884); _Blätter für Volksbibliotheken und Lesehallen_ (1899; + occasional supplement to the above); _Bibliographie des Bibliotheks- + und Buchwesens_ (ed. by Adalbert Hortzschansky, 1904; issued in the + _Zentralblatt_); _Jahrbuch der Deutschen Bibliotheken_ (Leipzig, + 1902); _Minerva. Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt_ (Strassburg, 1890); + _Mitteilungen des österreichischen Vereins für Bibliothekswesen_ + (Vienna, 1896); _Ceská Osvéta_ (Novy Bydzov, Bohemia, 1905); _Revista + delle biblioteche e degli archivi_ (Florence, 1890); _Bollettino delle + biblioteche popolari_ (Milan, 1907); _Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas + y Museos Madrid_ (1907); _The Gakuto_ (Tokio, Japan, 1897). + (H. R. T.; J. D. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Menant, _Bibliothèque du palais de Ninive_ (Paris, 1880). + + [2] Grote, _History of Greece_, iv. 37, following Becker. + + [3] Ritschl, _Die alexandrinischen Bibliotheken_, p. 22; _Opusc. + phil._ i. § 123. + + [4] _N.A._ vi. 17. + + [5] _De tranq. an._ 9. + + [6] Parthey (_Alexandrinisches Museum_) assigns topographical reasons + for doubting this story. + + [7] Some of the authorities have been collected by Parthey, _op. + cit._ + + [8] The oldest catalogue of a western library is that of the + monastery of Fontanelle in Normandy compiled in the 8th century. Many + catalogues may be found in the collections of D'Achery, Martene and + Durand, and Pez, in the bibliographical periodicals of Naumann and + Petzholdt and the _Centralblatt f. Bibliothekswissenschaft_. The Rev. + Joseph Hunter has collected some particulars as to the contents of + the English monastic libraries, and Ed. Edwards has printed a list of + the catalogues (_Libraries and Founders of Libraries_, 1865, pp. + 448-454). See also G. Becker, _Catalogi Bibliothecarum Antiqui_ + (1885). There are said to be over six hundred such catalogues in the + Royal Library at Munich. In the 14th century the Franciscans compiled + a general catalogue of the MSS. in 160 English libraries and about + the year 1400 John Boston, a Benedictine monk of Bury, travelled over + England and a part of Scotland and examined the libraries of 195 + religious houses (Tanner, _Bibliotheca Brit. Hibern._ 1748). Leland's + list of the books he found during his visitation of the houses in + 1539-1545 is printed in his _Collectanea_ (ed. Hearne, 1715, 6 + vols.). T. W. Williams has treated Gloucestershire and Bristol + medieval libraries and their catalogues in a paper in the Bristol and + Gloucestershire _Arch. Soc._ vol. xxxi. + + [9] This subject has been specially treated by J. Willis Clark in + several works, of which the chief is a masterly volume, _The Care of + Books_ (1901). See also Dom Gasquet, "On Medieval Monastic + Libraries," in his _Old English Bible_ (1897). + + [10] Among the Arabs, however, as among the Christians, theological + bigotry did not always approve of non-theological literature, and the + great library of Cordova was sacrificed by Almanzor to his reputation + for orthodoxy, 978 A.D. + + [11] _Guide to Librarianship_ by J. D. Brown (1909). + + + + +LIBRATION (Lat. _libra_, a balance), a slow oscillation, as of a +balance; in astronomy especially the seeming oscillation of the moon +around her axis, by which portions of her surface near the edge of the +disk are alternately brought into sight and swung out of sight. + + + + +LIBYA, the Greek name for the northern part of Africa, with which alone +Greek and Roman history are concerned. It is mentioned as a land of +great fertility in Homer (_Odyssey_, iv. 85), but no indication of its +extent is given. It did not originally include Egypt, which was +considered part of Asia, and first assigned to Africa by Ptolemy, who +made the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between the two +continents. The name Africa came into general use through the Romans. In +the early empire, North Africa (excluding Egypt) was divided into +Mauretania, Numidia, Africa Propria and Cyrenaica. The old name was +reintroduced by Diocletian, by whom Cyrenaica (detached from Crete) was +divided into Marmarica (Libya inferior) in the east, and Cyrenaica +(Libya superior) in the west. A further distinction into Libya interior +and exterior is also known. The former ([Greek: hê entós]) included the +interior (known and unknown) of the continent, as contrasted with the N. +and N.E. portion; the latter ([Greek: hê exô], called also simply Libya, +or _Libyae nomos_), between Egypt and Marmarica, was so called as having +once formed an Egyptian "nome." See AFRICA, ROMAN. + + + + +LICATA, a seaport of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 24 m. S.E. of +Girgenti direct and 54 m. by rail. Pop. (1901) 22,931. It occupies the +site of the town which Phintias of Acragas (Agrigentum) erected after +the destruction of Gela, about 281 B.C., by the Mamertines, and named +after himself. The river Salso, which flows into the sea on the east of +the town, is the ancient _Himera Meridionalis_. The promontory at the +foot of which the town is situated, the _Poggio di Sant' Angelo_, is the +Ecnomus (_Eknomon_) of the Greeks, and upon its slopes are scanty traces +of ancient structures and rock tombs. It was off this promontory that +the Romans gained the famous naval victory over the Carthaginians in the +spring of 256 B.C., while the plain to the north was the scene of the +defeat of Agathocles by Hamilcar in 310 B.C. The modern town is mainly +important as a shipping port for sulphur. + + + + +LICENCE (through the French from Lat. _licentia_, _licere_, to be +lawful), permission, leave, liberty, hence an abuse of liberty, +licentiousness; in particular, a formal authority to do some lawful act. +Such authority may be either verbal or written; when written, the +document containing the authority is called a "licence." Many acts, +lawful in themselves, are regulated by statutory authority, and licences +must be obtained. For the sale of alcoholic liquor see LIQUOR LAWS. + + + + +LICHEN (_lichen ruber_), in medical terminology, a papular disease of +the skin, consisting of an eruption in small thickly set, slightly +elevated red points, more or less widely distributed over the body, and +accompanied by slight febrile symptoms. + + + + +LICHENS, in botany, compound or dual organisms each consisting of an +association of a higher fungus, with a usually unicellular, sometimes +filamentous, alga. The fungal part of the organism nearly always +consists of a number of the _Discomycetes_ or _Pyrenomycetes_, while the +algal portion is a member of the Schizophyceae (Cyanophyceae or +Blue-green Algae) or of the Green Algae; only in a very few cases is the +fungus a member of the Basidiomycetes. The special fungi which take part +in the association are, with rare exceptions, not found growing +separately, while the algal forms are constantly found free. The +reproductive organs of the lichen are of a typically fungal character, +i.e. are apothecia or perithecia (see FUNGI) and spermogonia. The algal +cells are never known to form spores while part of the lichen-thallus, +but they may do so when separated from it and growing free. The fungus +thus clearly takes the upper hand in the association. + +Owing to their peculiar dual nature, lichens are able to live in +situations where neither the alga nor fungus could exist alone. The +enclosed alga is protected by the threads (hyphae) of the fungus, and +supplied with water and salts and, possibly, organic nitrogenous +substances; in its turn the alga by means of its green or blue-green +colouring matter and the sun's energy manufactures carbohydrates which +are used in part by the fungus. An association of two organisms to their +mutual advantage is known as _symbiosis_, and the lichen in botanical +language is described as a symbiotic union of an alga and a fungus. This +form of relationship is now known in other groups of plants (see +BACTERIOLOGY and FUNGI), but it was first discovered in the lichens. The +lichens are characterized by their excessively slow growth and their +great length of life. + +Until comparatively recent times the lichens were considered as a group +of simple organisms on a level with algae and fungi. The green (or +blue-green) cells were termed gonidia by Wallroth, who looked upon them +as asexual reproductive cells, but when it was later realized that they +were not reproductive elements they were considered as mere outgrowths +of the hyphae of the thallus which had developed chlorophyll. In 1865 De +Bary suggested the possibility that such lichens as _Collema_, _Ephebe_, +&c., arose as a result of the attack of parasitic Ascomycetes upon the +algae, Nostoc, Chroococcus, &c. In 1867 the observations of Famintzin +and Baranetzky showed that the gonidia, in certain cases, were able to +live outside the lichen-thallus, and in the case of Physcia, Evernia and +Cladonia were able to form zoospores. Baranetzky therefore concluded +that a certain number, if not all of the so-called algae were nothing +more than free living lichen-gonidia. In 1869 Schwendener put forward +the really illuminating view--exactly opposite to that of +Baranetzky--that the gonidia in all cases were algae which had been +attacked by parasitic fungi. Although Schwendener supported this view of +the "dual" nature of lichens by very strong evidence and identified the +more common lichen-gonidia with known free-living algae, yet the theory +was received with a storm of opposition by nearly all lichenologists. +These workers were unable to consider with equanimity the loss of the +autonomy of their group and its reduction to the level of a special +division of the fungi. The observations of Schwendener, however, +received ample support from Bornet's (1873) examination of 60 genera. He +investigated the exact relation of fungus and alga and showed that the +same alga is able to combine with a number of different fungi to form +lichens; thus _Chroolepus umbrinus_ is found as the gonidia of 13 +different lichen genera. + +The view of the dual nature of lichens had hitherto been based on +analysis; the final proof of this view was now supplied by the actual +_synthesis_ of a lichen from fungal and algal constituents. Rees in 1871 +produced the sterile thallus of a _Collema_ from its constituents; later +Stahl did the same for three species. Later Bonnier (1886) succeeded in +producing fertile thalli by sowing lichen spores and the appropriate +algae upon sterile glass plates or portions of bark, and growing them in +sterilized air (fig. 1). Möller also in 1887 succeeded in growing small +lichen-thalli without their algal constituent (gonidia) on nutritive +solutions; in the case of _Calicium_ pycnidia were actually produced +under these conditions. + +The thallus or body of the lichen is of very different form in different +genera. In the simplest filamentous lichens (e.g. _Ephebe pubescens_) +the form of thallus is the form of the filamentous alga which is merely +surrounded by the fungal hyphae (fig. 2). The next simplest forms are +gelatinous lichens (e.g. _Collemaceae_); in these the algae are +Chroococcaceae and Nostocaceae, and the fungus makes its way into the +gelatinous membranes of the algal cells and ramifies there (fig. 3). We +can distinguish this class of forms as lichens with a _homoiomerous_ +thallus, i.e. one in which the alga and fungus are equally distributed. +The majority of the lichens, however, possess a stratified thallus in +which the gonidia are found as a definite layer or layers embedded in a +pseudo-parenchymatous mass of fungal hyphae, i.e. they are +_heteromerous_ (figs. 8 and 9). Obviously these two conditions may merge +into one another, and the distinction is not of classificatory value. + +[Illustration: After Bonnier, from v. Tavel. + + From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav + Fischer. + + FIG. 1.--_Xanthoria parietina._ By the fusion of the hyphae in the + middle of the mycelium a pseudo-parenchymatous cortical layer has + begun to form. + + 1, Germinating ascospore (sp) with branching germ-tube applied to the + _Cystococcus_ cells (a). + 2, Thallus in process of formation. + sp, Two ascospores. + p, _Cystococcus_ cells.] + + In external form the heteromerous thallus presents the following + modifications. (a) The _foliaceous_ (leaf-like) thallus, which may be + either peltate, i.e. rounded and entire, as in _Umbilicaria_, &c., or + variously lobed and laciniated, as in _Sticta_, _Parmelia_, _Cetraria_ + (fig. 4), &c. This is the highest type of its development, and is + sometimes very considerably expanded. (b) The _fruticose_ thallus may + be either erect, becoming pendulous, as in _Usnea_ (fig. 5), + _Ramalina_, &c., or prostrate, as in _Alectoria jubata_, var. + _chalybeiformis_. It is usually divided into branches and branchlets, + bearing some resemblance to a miniature shrub. An erect cylindrical + thallus terminated by the fruit is termed a _podetium_, as in + _Cladonia_ (fig. 7). (c) The _crustaceous_ thallus, which is the most + common of all, forms a mere crust on the substratum, varying in + thickness, and may be squamose (in _Squamaria_), radiate (in + _Placodium_), areolate, granulose or pulverulent (in various + _Lecanorae_ and _Lecideae_). (d) The _hypophloeodal_ thallus is often + concealed beneath the bark of trees (as in some _Verrucariae_ and + _Arthoniae_), or enters into the fibres of wood (as in _Xylographa_ + and _Agyrium_), being indicated externally only by a very thin film + (figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). In colour also the thallus externally is + very variable. In the dry and more typical state it is most frequently + white or whitish, and almost as often greyish or greyish glaucous. + Less commonly it is of different shades of brown, red, yellow and + black. In the moist state of the thallus these colours are much less + apparent, as the textures then become more or less translucent, and + the thallus usually prevents the greenish colour of the gonidia (e.g. + _Parmelia Borreri_, _Peltidea aphthosa_, _Umbilicaria pustulata_ and + pulverulent _Lecideae_). + + The thallus may be free upon the surface of the substratum (e.g. + _Collema_) or may be fixed more or less closely to it by special + hyphae or rhizoids. These may penetrate but slightly into the + substratum, but the connexion established may be so close that it is + impossible to remove the thallus from the substratum without injury + (e.g. _Physcia_, _Placodium_). In some cases the rhizoids are united + together into larger strands, the _rhizines_. + + The typical heteromerous thallus shows on section a peripheral, thin + and therefore transparent, layer, the _cortical layer_, and centrally + a mass of denser tissue the so-called _medullary layer_, between these + two layers is the algal zone or gonidial layer (figs. 8 and 9). + + The term _epithallus_ is sometimes applied to the superficial dense + portion of the cortical layer and the term _hypothallus_ to the layer, + when specially modified, in immediate contact with the substratum; the + hypothallus is usually dark or blackish. The cylindrical branches of + the fruticose forms are usually radially symmetrical, but the + flattened branches of these forms and also the thalli of the + foliaceous form show a difference in the cortex of the upper and lower + side. The cortical layer is usually more developed on the side towards + the light, while in many lichens this is the only side provided with a + cortical layer. The podetia of some species of Cladonia possess no + cortical layer at all. The surface of the thallus often exhibits + outgrowths in the form of warts, hairs, &c. The medullary layer, which + usually forms the main part of the thallus, is distinguished from the + cortical layer by its looser consistence and the presence in it of + numerous, large, air-containing spaces. + + +[Illustration: After Sachs, from De Bary's _Vergleichende Morphologie +und Biologie der Pilze, Mycetozoen und Bacterien_, by permission of +Wilhelm Engelmann. + + FIG. 2.--_Ephebe pubescens_, Fr. A branched filiform thallus of + _Stigonema_ with the hyphae of the fungus growing through its + gelatinous membranes. Extremity of a branch of the thallus with a + young lateral branch a; h, hyphae; g, cells of the alga; gs, the apex + of the thallus.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Homoiomerous Thallus of _Collema +conglomeratum_, with _Nostoc_ threads scattered among the hyphae.] + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + + FIG. 4.--_Cetraria islandica._ (Nat. size.) ap, Apothecium.] + +_Gonidia._--It has been made clear above that the gonidia are nothing +more than algal cells, which have been ensnared by fungal hyphae and +made to develop in captivity (fig. 1). Funfstuck gives ten free living +algae which have been identified as the gonidia of lichens. +_Pleurococcus_ (_Cystococcus_) _humicola_ in the majority of lichens, +e.g. _Usnea_, _Cladonia_, _Physcia_, _Parmelia_, _Calicium_, many +species of _Lecidea_, &c., _Trentepohlia_ (_Chroolepus_) _umbrina_ in +many species of _Verrucaria_, _Graphidieae_ and _Lecidea_; _Palmella +botryoides_ in _Epigloea_; _Pleurococcus vulgaris_ in Acarospora, +Dermatocarpon, Catillaria; _Dactylococcus infusionum_ in _Solorina_, +_Nephromia_; _Nostoc lichenoides_ in most of the Collemaceae; _Rivularia +rutida_ in _Omphalaria_; _Lichina_, &c., _Polycoccus punctiformis_ in +_Peltigera_, _Pannaria_ and _Stictina_; _Gloeocapsa polydermatica_ in +_Baeomyces_ and _Omphalaria_; _Sirosiphon pulvinatus_ in _Ephebe +pubescens_. The majority of lichens are confined to one particular kind +of gonidium (i.e. species of alga) but a few forms are known (_Lecanora +granatina_, _Solorina crocea_) which make use of more than one kind in +their development. In the case of _Solorina_, for example, the principal +alga is a green alga, one of the Palmellaceae, but _Nostoc_ (a +blue-green alga) is also found playing a subsidiary part as gonidia. In +L. _granatina_ the primary alga is _Pleurococcus_, the secondary, +_Gleococapsa_. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + + FIG. 5.--_Usnea barbata_. (Nat. size.) _ap_, Apothecium.] + + _Cephalodia._--In about 100 species of lichens peculiar growths are + developed in the interior of the thallus which cause a slight + projection of the upper or lower surface. These structures are known + as _cephalodia_ and they usually occupy a definite position in the + thallus. They are distinguished by possessing as gonidia algae foreign + to the ordinary part of the thallus. The foreign algae are always + members of the Cyanophyceae and on the same individual and even in the + same cephalodium more than one type of gonidium may be found. The + function of these peculiar structures is unknown. Zukal has suggested + that they may play the part of water-absorbing organs. + +The exact relation of gonidia and hyphae has been investigated +especially by Bornet and also by Hedlund, and very considerable +differences have been shown to exist in different genera. In _Physma_, +_Arnoldia_, _Phylliscum_ and other genera the gonidia are killed sooner +or later by special hyphal branches, _haustoria_, which pierce the +membrane of the algal cell, penetrate the protoplasm and absorb the +contents (fig. 11, C). In other cases, e.g. _Synalissa_, _Micarea_, the +haustoria pierce the membrane, but do not penetrate the protoplasm (fig. +11, D). In many other cases, especially those algae possessing +_Pleurococcus_ as their gonidia, there are no penetrating hyphae, but +merely special short hyphal branches which are in close contact with the +membrane of the algal cell (fig. 3). + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 6.--_Cladonia rangiferina_. (Nat. size.) + + A, Sterile. + B, With ascus-fruit at the ends of the branches.] + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + + FIG. 7.--_Cladonia coccifera_. Podetia bearing apothecia. (Nat. size.) + + _t_, Scales of primary thallus.] + + +_Reproduction_. + +There are three methods of reproduction of the lichen: by fragmentation, +by soredia, by the formation of fungal spores. In the first process, +portions of thallus containing gonidia may be accidentally separated and +so may start new plants. The second method is only a special process of +fragmentation. The soredia are found in a large number of lichens, and +consist of a single gonidium or groups of gonidia, surrounded by a +sheath and hyphae. They arise usually in the gonidial layer of the +thallus by division of the gonidia and the development around them of +the hyphal investment; their increase in number leads to the rupture of +the enclosing cortical layer and the soredia escape from the thallus as +a powdery mass (fig. 12). Since they are provided with both fungal and +algal elements, they are able to develop directly, under suitable +conditions, into a new thallus. The soredia are the most successful +method of reproduction in lichens, for not only are some forms nearly +always without spore-formation and in others the spores largely +abortive, but in all cases the spore represents only the fungal +component of the thallus, and its success in the development of a new +lichen-thallus depends on the chance meeting, at the time of +germination, with the appropriate algal component. + + _Conidia._--Contrary to the behaviour of the non-lichen forming + Ascomycetes the lichen-fungi show very few cases of ordinary conidial + formation. Bornet describes free conidia in _Arnoldia minitula_, and + _Placodium decipiens_ and _Conidia_-formation has been described by + Neubner in the Caliciae. + + [Illustration: After Sachs, from De Bary's _Vergleichende Morphologie + und Biologie der Pilze_, _Mycetozoen und Bacterien_, by permission of + Wilhelm Engelmann. + + FIG. 8.--Usnea barbata. (Mag. nearly 100 times.) + + A, Optical longitudinal section of the extremity of a thin branch of + the thallus which has become transparent in solution of potash. + B, Transverse section through a stronger branch with the point of + origin of an adventitious branch (sa). + r, Cortical layer. + m, Medullary layer. + x, Stout axile strand. + g, The algal zone (_Cystococcus_). + s, Apex of the branch.] + + _Spermatia._--In the majority of genera of lichens small flask-shaped + structures are found embedded in the thallus (fig. 13). These were + investigated by Tulasne in 1853, who gave them the name _spermogonia_ + The lower, ventral portion of the spermogonium is lined by delicate + hyphae, the _sterigmata_, which give origin to minute colourless + cells, the _spermatia_. The sterigmata are either simple (fig. 13, C) + or septate--the so-called arthrosterigmata (fig. 13, B). The + spermogonia open by a small pore at the apex, towards which the + sterigmata converge and through which the spermatia escape (fig. 13). + There are two views as to the nature of the spermatia. In one view + they are mere asexual conidia, and the term _pycnoconidia_ is + accordingly applied since they are borne in structures like the + non-sexual _pycnidia_ of other fungi. In the other view the spermatia + are the male sexual cells and thus are rightly named; it should, + however, be pointed out that this was not the view of Tulasne, though + we owe to him the designation which carries with it the sexual + significance. The question is one very difficult to settle owing to + the fact that the majority of spermatia appear to be functionless. In + favour of the conidial view is the fact that in the case of _Collema_ + and a few other forms the spermatia have been made to germinate in + artificial cultures, and in the case of _Calicium parietinum_ Möfler + succeeded in producing a spermogonia bearing thallus from a + spermatium. For the germination of the spermatia in nature there is + only the observation of Hedlund, that in _Catillaria denigrata_ and + _C. prasena_ a thallus may be derived from the spermatia under natural + conditions. In relation to the view that the spermatia are sexual + cells, or at least were primitively so, it must be pointed out that + although the actual fusion of the spermatial nucleus with a female + nucleus has not been observed, yet in a few cases the spermatia have + been seen to fuse with a projecting portion (trichogyne) of the + ascogonium, as in _Collema_ and _Physcia_, and there is very strong + circumstantial evidence that fertilization takes place (see later in + section on development of ascocarp). The resemblance of the spermatia + and spermogonia to those of Uredineae should be pointed out, where + also there is considerable evidence for their original sexual nature, + though they appear in that group to be functionless in all cases. The + observations of Möller, &c., on the germination cannot be assumed to + negative the sexual hypothesis for the sexual cells of _Ulothrix_ and + _Ectocarpus_, for example are able to develop with or without fusion. + The most satisfactory view in the present state of our knowledge seems + to be that the spermatia are male cells which, while retaining their + fertilizing action in a few cases are now mainly functionless. The + female sexual organs, the ascogonia, would thus in the majority of + cases develop by the aid of some reduced sexual process or the + ascocarps be developed without relation to sexual organs. A further + argument in support of this view is that it is in complete agreement + with what we know of the sexuality of the ordinary, free-living + ascomycetes, where we find both normal and reduced forms (see FUNGI). + +[Illustration: From _Beiträge zur Wissenschaftlichen Botanik_. + + FIG. 9.--Section of Heteromerous Lichen Thallus. + + a, Upper cortical layer. + d, Lower cortical layer. + c, Medullary layer. + b, Gonidial layer.] + +[Illustration: After Bornet, from De Bary's _Vergleichende Morphologie +und Biologie der Pilze, Myceiozoen und Bacterien_, by permission of +Wilhelm Engelmann. + + FIG. 11.--Lichen-forming Algae. (A, C, D, E mag. 950, B 650 times.) + The alga is in all cases indicated by the letter _g_, the assailing + hyphae by _h_. + + A, _Pleurococcus_, Ag. (_Cystococcus_, Näg.) attacked by the germ-tube + from a spore of _Physica parietina_. + B, _Scytonema_ from the thallus of _Stereocaulon famulosum_. + C, _Nostoc_ from the thallus of _Physma chalazanum_. + D, _Gloeocapsa_ from the thallus of _Synalissa Symphorea_. + E, _Pleurococcus_ Sp. (_Cystococcus_) from the thallus of _Cladonia + furcata_.] + +_Fruit Bodies._--We find two chief types of fruit bodies in the lichens, +the _perithecium_ and _apothecium_; the first when the fungal element is +a member of the Pyrenomycetes division of the Ascomycetes, the second +when the fungus belongs to the Discomycetes division. In the two genera +of lichens--the _Basidiolichens_--in which the fungus is a member of the +Basidiomycetes, we have the fructification characteristic of that class +of fungi: these are dealt with separately. The perithecium is very +constant in form and since the gonidia take no part in the formation of +this organ or that of the apothecium it has the general structure +characteristic of that division of fungi. The apothecia, though of the +normal fungal type and usually disk-shaped, are somewhat more variable, +and since the variations are of value in classification some more +details may be added. + +[Illustration: After Schwendener, from De Bary's _Vergleichende +Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze Mycetozoen und Bacterien,_ by +permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. + +FIG. 12.--_Usnea barbata._ (Mag. more than 500 times.) + + c, An isolated mature soredium, with an algal cell (_Pleurococcus_) in + the envelope or hyphae. + d, Another with several algal cells in optical longitudinal section. + e, f, Two soredia in the act of germinating; the hyphal envelope has + grown out below into rhizoid branches, and above shows already the + structure of the apex of the thallus (see fig 9).] + + They present various shapes, of which the following are the principal: + (a) _peltate_, which are large, rounded, without any distinct thalline + margin[1] (e.g. _Usnea_, _Peltigera_); (b) _lecanorine_, or + scutelliform, which are orbicular and surrounded by a distinct, more + or less prominent thalline margin (e.g. _Parmelia_, _Lecanora_), + having sometimes also in addition a proper one¹ (e.g. _Thelotrema_, + _Urceolaria_); (c) _lecideine_, or patelliform, which are typically + orbicular, with only a proper margin (e.g. _Lecidea_), sometimes + obsolete, and which are occasionally irregular in shape, angular or + flexuose (e.g. _Lecidea jurana_, _L. myrmecina_), or complicated and + gyrose (e.g. _Gyrophora_), and even stipitate (e.g. _Baeomyces_); (d) + _lirelliform_, which are of very irregular figure, elongated, branched + or flexuose, with only a proper margin (e.g. _Xylographa_, _Graphis_, + &c.) or none (e.g. some _Arthoniae_), and often very variable even in + the same species. In colour the apothecia are extremely variable, and + it is but rarely that they are the same colour as the thallus (e.g. + _Usnea_, _Ramalina_). Usually they are of a different colour, and may + be black, brown, yellowish, or also less frequently rose-coloured, + rusty-red, orange-reddish, saffron, or of various intermediate shades. + Occasionally in the same species their colour is very variable (e.g. + _Lecanora metaboloides_, _Lecidea decolorans_), while sometimes they + are white or glaucous, rarely greenish, pruinose. Lecideine apothecia, + which are not black, but otherwise variously coloured, are termed + _biatorine_. + + [Illustration: After Tulasne, from De Bary's _Vergleichende + Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze, Mycetozoen und Bacterien_, by + permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. + + FIG. 13.--A, B, _Gyrophora cylindrica._ (A mag. 90, B 390 times, C + highly magnified.) + + A, A vertical median section through a spermogonium imbedded in the + thallus. + o, Upper rind. + u, Under rind. + m, Medullary layer of the thallus. + B, Portion of a very thin section from the base of the spermogonium. + w, Its wall from which proceed sterigmata with rod-like spermatia + (s). + m, Medullary hyphae of the thallus. + C, _Cladonia novae Angliae_, Delise; sterigmata with spermatia from + the spermogonium.] + + The two principal parts of which an apothecium consists are the + _hypothecium_ and the hymenium, or thecium. The _hypothecium_ is the + basal part of the apothecium on which the _hymenium_ is borne; the + latter consists of asci (thecae) with ascospores, and paraphyses. The + paraphyses (which may be absent entirely in the Pyrenolichens) are + erect, colourless filaments which are usually dilated and coloured at + the apex; the apices are usually cemented together into a definite + layer, the _epithecium_ (fig. 14). The spores themselves may be + unicellular without a septum or multicellular with one or more septa. + Sometimes the two cavities are restricted to the two ends of the + spore, the _polari-bilocular_ type and the two loculi may be united + by a narrow channel (fig. 15). At other times the spores are divided + by both transverse and longitudinal septa producing the muriform + (murali-divided) spore so called from the resemblance of the + individual chambers to the stones in a wall. The very large single + spores of _Pertusaria_ have been shown to contain numerous nuclei and + when they germinate develop a large number of germ tubes. + + [Illustration: After Darbishire, from _Berichte der deutschen + botanischen Gesellschaft_, by permission of Borntraeger & Co. + + FIG. 14.--Diagram showing Apothecium in Section and surrounding + Portion of Thallus, and special terms used to designate these + parts.] + + _Development of the Ascocarps._--As the remarks on the nature of the + spermatia show, the question of the sexuality of the lichens has been + hotly disputed in common with that of the rest of the Ascomycetes. As + indicated above, the weight of evidence seems to favour what has been + put forward in the case of the non-lichen-forming fungi (see FUNGI), + that in some cases the ascogonia develop as a result of a previous + fertilization by spermatia, in other cases the ascogonia develop + without such a union, while in still other cases the reduction goes + still farther and the ascogenous hyphae instead of developing from the + ascogonia are derived directly from the vegetative hyphae. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Vertical Section of Apothecium of _Xanthoria + parietina_. + + a, Paraphyses. + b, Asci (thecae) with bilocular spores. + c, Hypothecium.] + + The first exact knowledge as to the origin of the ascocarp was the + work of Stahl on _Collema_ in 1877. He showed that the archicarp + consisted of two parts, a lower coiled portion, the ascogonium, and an + upper portion, the trichogyne, which projected from the thallus. Only + when a spermatium was found attached to the trichogyne did the further + development of the ascogonium take place. From these observations he + drew the natural conclusion that the spermatium was a male, sexual + cell. This view was hotly contested by many workers and it was sought + to explain the trichogyne--without much success--as a respiratory + organ, or as a boring organ which made a way for the developing + apothecium. It was not till 1898, however, that Stahl's work received + confirmation and addition at the hands of Baur (fig. 16). The latter + showed that in _Collema crispum_ there are two kinds of thalli, one + with numerous apothecia, the other quite sterile or bearing only a + few. The sterile thalli possessed no spermogonia, but were found to + show sometimes as many as 1000 archicarps with trichogynes; yet none + or very few came to maturity. The fertile thalli were shown to bear + either spermogonia or to be in immediate connexion with + spermogonia-bearing thalli. Furthermore Baur showed that after the + fusion of the spermatium with the trichogyne the transverse walls of + that organ became perforated. There was thus very strong + circumstantial evidence in favour of fertilization, although the male + nucleus was not traced. The further work of Baur, and that of + Darbishire, Funfstuck and Lindau, have shown that in a number of other + cases trichogynes are present. Thus ascogonia with trichogynes have + been observed in _Endocarpon_, _Collema_, _Pertusaria_, _Lecanora_, + _Gyrophora_, _Parmelia_, _Ramalina_, _Physcia_, _Anaptychia_ and + _Cladonia_. In _Nephroma_, _Peltigera_, _Peltidea_ and _Solorina_ a + cogonia without trichogynes have been observed. In _Collema_ and a + form like _Xanthoria parietina_ it is probable that actual + fertilization takes place, and possibly also in some of the other + forms. It is probable, however, that in the majority of cases the + ascogonia develop without normal fertilization, as is necessarily the + case where the ascogonia have no trichogynes or the spermatia are + absent. In these cases we should expect to find some reduced process + of fertilization similar to that of _Humaria granulata_ among the + ordinary Ascomycetes, where in the absence of the antheridia the + female nuclei fuse in pairs. In other lichens we should expect to find + the ascogenous hyphae arising directly from the vegetative hyphae as + in _Humaria rutilans_ among the ordinary fungi, where the process is + associated with the fusion of vegetative nuclei. It is possible that + _Solorina saccata_ belongs to this class. Cytological details of + nuclear behaviour among the lichens are, however, difficult to obtain + owing to the slow growth of these forms and the often refractory + nature of the material in the matter of preparation for microscopical + examination. + + [Illustration: After E. Baur, from Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der + Botanik_, by permission of Gustav Fischer. + + FIG. 16.--_Collema crispum._ + + A, Carpogonium, c, with its trichogyne t. + B, Apex of the trichogyne with the spermatium, s, attached.] + + _Ejection of Spores._--The spores are ejected from the apothecia and + perithecia as in the fungi by forcible ejaculation from the asci. In + the majority of forms it is clear that the soredia rather than the + ascospore must play the more important part in lichen distribution as + the development of the ordinary spores is dependent on their finding + the proper alga on the substratum on which they happen to fall. In a + number of forms (_Endocarpon pusillum_, _Stigmaatonima cataleptum_, + various species of _Staurothele_), however, there is a special + arrangement by which the spores are, on ejection, associated with + gonidia. In these forms gonidia are found in connexion with the young + fruit; such algal cells undergo numerous divisions becoming very small + in size and penetrating into the hymenium among the asci and + paraphyses. When the spores are thrown out some of these hymenial + gonidia, as they are called, are carried with them. When the spores + germinate the germ-tubes surround the algal cells, which now increase + in size and become the normal gonidia of the thallus. + + +_Basidiolichens._ + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + + FIG. 17.--_Cora pavonia._ A, Viewed from above; B, From below; _hym_, + hymenium. (Nat. size.)] + +As is clear from the above, nearly all the lichens are produced by the +association of an ascomycetous fungus with algae. For some obscure +reason the Basidiomycetes do not readily form lichens, so that only a +few forms are known in which the fungal element is a member of this +family. The two best-known genera are _Cora_ and _Dictyonema_; +_Corella_, whose hymenium is unknown, is also placed here by Wainio. The +so-called Gasterolichens, _Trichocoma_ and _Emericella_, have been shown +to be merely ascomycetous fungi. _Clavaria mucida_, however, has +apparently some claims to be considered as a Basidiolichen, since the +base of the fruit body and the thallus from which it arises, according +to Coker, always shows a mixture of hyphae and algae. + +The best-known species is _Cora pavonia_, which is found in tropical +regions growing on the bare earth and on trees; the gonidia belong to +the genus _Chroococcus_ while the fungus belongs, apparently, to the +Thelephoreae (see FUNGI). This lichen seems unique in the fact that the +fungal element is also found growing and fruiting entirely devoid of +algae, while in the ascolichens the fungus portion seems to have become +so specialized to its symbiotic mode of life that it is never found +growing independently. + +The genus _Dictyonema_ has gonidia belonging to the blue-green alga, +_Scytonema_. When the fungus predominates in the thallus it has a +bracket-like mode of growth and is found projecting from the branches of +trees with the hymenium on the under side. When the alga is predominant +it forms felted patches on the bark of trees, the _Laudatea_ form. It is +said that the fungus of _Cora pavonia_ and of _Dictyonema_ is identical, +the difference being in the nature of the alga. + + +_Mode of Life._ + +Lichens are found growing in various situations such as bare earth, the +bark of trees, dead wood, the surface of stones and rocks, where they +have little competition to fear from ordinary plants. As is well known, +the lichens are often found in the most exposed and arid situations; in +the extreme polar regions these plants are practically the only +vegetable forms of life. They owe their capacity to live under the most +inhospitable conditions to the dual nature of the organism, and to their +capacity to withstand extremes of heat, cold and drought without +destruction. On a bare rocky surface a fungus would die from want of +organic substance and an alga from drought and want of mineral +substances. The lichen, however, is able to grow as the alga supplies +organic food material and the fungus has developed a battery of acids +(see below) which enable it actually to dissolve the most resistant +rocks. It is owing to the power of disintegrating by both mechanical and +chemical means the rocks on which they are growing that lichens play +such an important part in soil-production. The resistance of lichens is +extraordinary; they may be cooled to very low temperatures and heated to +high temperatures without being killed. They may be dried so thoroughly +that they can easily be reduced to powder yet their vitality is not +destroyed but only suspended; on being supplied with water they absorb +it rapidly by their general surface and renew their activity. The life +of many lichens thus consists of alternating periods of activity when +moisture is plentiful, and completely suspended animation under +conditions of dryness. Though so little sensitive to drought and +extremes of temperature lichens appear to be very easily affected by the +presence in the air of noxious substances such as are found in large +cities or manufacturing towns. In such districts lichen vegetation is +entirely or almost entirely absent. The growth of lichens is extremely +slow and many of them take years before they arrive at a spore-bearing +stage. _Xanthoria parietina_ has been known to grow for forty-five years +before bearing apothecia. This slowness of growth is associated with +great length of life and it is probable that individuals found growing +on hard mountain rocks or on the trunks of aged trees are many hundreds +of years old. It is possible that specimens of such long-lived species +as _Lecidea geographica_ actually outrival in longevity the oldest +trees. + + +_Relation of Fungus and Alga._ + +The relation of the two constituents of the lichen have been briefly +stated in the beginning of this article. The relation of the fungus to +the alga, though it may be described in general terms as one of +symbiosis, partakes also somewhat of the nature of parasitism. The algal +cells are usually controlled in their growth by the hyphae and are +prevented from forming zoospores, and in some cases, as already +described, the algal cells are killed sooner or later by the fungus. The +fungus seems, on the other hand, to stimulate the algal cells to special +development, for those in the lichen are larger than those in the free +state, but this is not necessarily adverse to the idea of parasitism, +for it is well known that an increase in the size of the cells of the +host is often the result of the attacks of parasitic fungi. It must be +borne in mind that the exact nutritive relations of the two constituents +of the lichen have not been completely elucidated, and that it is very +difficult to draw the line between symbiosis and parasitism. The lichen +algae are not alone in their specialization to the symbiotic (or +parasitic) mode of life, for, as stated earlier, the fungus appear in +the majority of cases to have completely lost the power of independent +development since with very rare exceptions they are not found alone. +They also differ very markedly from free living fungi in their chemical +reactions. + + +_Chemistry of Lichens._ + + The chemistry of lichens is very complex, not yet fully investigated + and can only be very briefly dealt with here. The wall of the hyphae + of the fungus give in the young state the ordinary reactions of + cellulose but older material shows somewhat different reactions, + similar to those of the so-called fungus-cellulose. In many + lichen-fungi the wall shows various chemical modifications. In + numerous lichens, e.g. _Cetraria islandica_, the wall contains + Lichenin (C6H10O5), a gummy substance which swells in cold water and + dissolves in hot. Besides this substance, a very similar one, + Isolichenin, is also found which is distinguished from lichenin by the + fact that it dissolves in cold water and turns blue under the reaction + of Iodine. Calcium oxalate is a very common substance, especially in + crustaceous lichens; fatty oil in the form of drops or as an + infiltration in the membrane is also common; it sometimes occurs in + special cells and in extreme cases may represent 90% of the dry + substance as in _Verrucaria calciseda_, _Biatora immersa_. + + _Colouring Matters._--Many lichens, as is well known, exhibit a vivid + colouring which is usually due to the incrustation of the hyphae with + crystalline excretory products. These excretory products have usually + an acid nature and hence are generally known as lichen-acids. A large + number of these acids, which are mostly benzene derivatives, have been + isolated and more or less closely investigated. They are characterized + by their insolubility or very slight solubility in water; as examples + may be mentioned erythrinic acid in _Roccella_ and _Lecanora_; evernic + acid in species of _Evernia_, _Ramalina_ and _Cladonia_; lecanoric + acid in _Lecanora_, _Gyrophora_. The so-called chrysophanic acid found + in _Xanthoria_ (Physcia) _parietina_ is not an acid but a quinone and + is better termed physcion. + + _Colour Reactions of Lichens._--The classification of lichens is + unique in the fact that chemical colour reactions are used by many + lichenologists in the discrimination of species, and these reactions + are included in the specific diagnoses. The substances used as tests + in these reactions are caustic potash and calcium hypochlorite; the + former being the substance dissolved in an equal weight of water and + the latter a saturated extract of bleaching powder in water. These + substances are represented by lichenologists by the signs K and CaCl + respectively, and the presence or absence of the colour reactions are + represented thus, K+, CaCl+, or K-, CaCl-. If the cortical layer + should exhibit positive reaction and the medulla of the same species a + negative reaction with both reagents, the result is represented thus, + K±CaCl±. If a reaction is only produced after the consecutive addition + of the two reagents, this is symbolized by K(CaCl)+. A solution of + iodine is also used as a test owing to the blue or wine-red colour + which the thallus, hymenium or spores may give with this reagent. The + objection to the case of these colour reactions is due to the + indefinite nature of the reaction and the doubt as to the constant + presence of a definite chemical compound in a given species. A yellow + colour with caustic potash solution is produced not only by atranoric + acid but also by evernic acid, thamnolic acid, &c. Again in the case + of _Xanthoria parietina_ vulpinic acid is only to be found in young + thalli growing on sandstone; in older forms or in those growing on + another substratum it is not to be detected. A similar relation + between oil formation and the nature of the substratum has been + observed in many lichens. Considerations such as these should make one + very wary in placing reliance on these colour reactions for the + purposes of classification. + + +_Economic Uses of Lichens._ + +In the arts, as food and as medicine, many lichens have been highly +esteemed, though others are not now employed for the same purposes as +formerly. + +1. _Lichens Used in the Arts._--Of these the most important are such as +yield, by maceration in ammonia, the dyes known in commerce as archil, +cudbear and litmus. These, however, may with propriety be regarded as +but different names for the same pigmentary substance, the variations in +the character of which are attributable to the different modes in which +the pigments are manufactured. Archil proper is derived from several +species of _Roccella_ (e.g. _R. Montaguei_, _R. tinctoria_), which yield +a rich purple dye; it once fetched a high price in the market. Of +considerable value is the "perelle" prepared from _Lecanora parella_, +and used in the preparation of a red or crimson dye. Inferior to this is +"cudbear," derived from _Lecanora tartarea_, which was formerly very +extensively employed by the peasantry of north Europe for giving a +scarlet or purple colour to woollen cloths. By adding certain alkalies +to the other ingredients used in the preparation of these pigments, the +colour becomes indigo-blue, in which case it is the litmus of the Dutch +manufacturers. Amongst other lichens affording red, purple or brown dyes +may be mentioned _Ramalina scopulorum_, _Parmelia_, _saxatilis_ and _P. +amphalodes_, _Umbilicaria pustulata_ and several species of _Gyrophora_, +_Urceolaria scruposa_, all of which are more or less employed as +domestic dyes. Yellow dyes, again, are derived from _Chlorea vulpina_, +_Platysma juniperinum_, _Parmelia caperata_ and _P. conspersa_, _Physcia +flavicans_, _Ph. parietina_ and _Ph. lychnea_, though like the preceding +they do not form articles of commerce, being merely used locally by the +natives of the regions in which they occur most plentifully. In addition +to these, many exotic lichens, belonging especially to _Parmelia_ and +_Sticta_ (e.g. _Parmelia tinctorum_, _Sticta argyracea_), are rich in +colouring matter, and, if obtained in sufficient quantity, would yield a +dye in every way equal to archil. These pigments primarily depend upon +special acids contained in the thalli of lichens, and their presence may +readily be detected by means of the reagents already noticed. In the +process of manufacture, however, they undergo various changes, of which +the chemistry is still but little understood. At one time also some +species were used in the arts for supplying a gum as a substitute for +gum-arabic. These were chiefly _Ramalina fraxinea_, _Evernia prunastri_ +and _Parmelia physodes_, all of which contain a considerable proportion +of gummy matter (of a much inferior quality, however, to gum-arabic), +and were employed in the process of calico-printing and in the making of +parchment and cardboard. In the 17th century some filamentose and +fruticulose lichens, viz. species of _Usnea_ and _Ramalina_, also +_Evernia furfuracea_ and _Cladonia rangiferina_, were used in the art of +perfumery. From their supposed aptitude to imbibe and retain odours, +their powder was the basis of various perfumes, such as the celebrated +"Poudre de Cypre" of the hairdressers, but their employment in this +respect has long since been abandoned. + +2. _Nutritive Lichens._--Of still greater importance is the capacity of +many species for supplying food for man and beast. This results from +their containing starchy substances, and in some cases a small quantity +of saccharine matter of the nature of mannite. One of the most useful +nutritious species is _Cetraria islandica_, "Iceland moss," which, after +being deprived of its bitterness by boiling in water, is reduced to a +powder and made into cakes, or is boiled and eaten with milk by the poor +Icelander, whose sole food it often constitutes. Similarly _Cladonia +rangiferina_ and _Cl. sylvatica_, the familiar "reindeer moss," are +frequently eaten by man in times of scarcity, after being powdered and +mixed with flour. Their chief importance, however, is that in Lapland +and other northern countries they supply the winter food of the reindeer +and other animals, who scrape away the snow and eagerly feed upon them. +Another nutritious lichen is the "Tripe de Roche" of the arctic regions, +consisting of several species of the _Gyrophorei_, which when boiled is +often eaten by the Canadian hunters and Red Indians when pressed by +hunger. But the most singular esculent lichen of all is the "manna +lichen," which in times of drought and famine has served as food for +large numbers of men and cattle in the arid steppes of various countries +stretching from Algiers to Tartary. This is derived chiefly from +_Lecanora esculenta_, which grows unattached on the ground in layers +from 3 to 6 in. thick over large tracts of country in the form of small +irregular lumps of a greyish or white colour. In connexion with their +use as food we may observe that of recent years in Scandinavia and +Russia an alcoholic spirit has been distilled from _Cladonia +rangiferina_ and extensively consumed, especially in seasons when +potatoes were scarce and dear. Formerly also _Sticta pulmonaria_ was +much employed in brewing instead of hops, and it is said that a Siberian +monastery was much celebrated for its beer which was flavoured with the +bitter principle of this species. + +3. _Medicinal Lichens._--During the middle ages, and even in some +quarters to a much later period, lichens were extensively used in +medicine in various European countries. Many species had a great repute +as demulcents, febrifuges, astringents, tonics, purgatives and +anthelmintics. The chief of those employed for one or other, and in +some cases for several, of these purposes were _Cladonia pyxidata_, +_Usnea barbata_, _Ramalina farinacea_, _Evernia prunastri_, _Cetraria +ìslandica_, _Sticla pulmonaria_, _Parmelia saxatilis_, _Xanthoria +parietina_ and _Pertusaria amara_. Others again were believed to be +endowed with specific virtues, e.g. _Peltigera canina_, which formed the +basis of the celebrated "pulvis antilyssus" of Dr Mead, long regarded as +a sovereign cure for hydrophobia; _Platysma juniperinum_, lauded as a +specific in jaundice, no doubt on the _similia similibus_ principle from +a resemblance between its yellow colour and that of the jaundiced skin; +_Peltidea aphthosa_, which on the same principle was regarded by the +Swedes, when boiled in milk, as an effectual remedy for the _aphthae_ or +rash on their children. Almost all of these virtues, general or +specific, were imaginary; and at the present day, except perhaps in some +remoter districts of northern Europe, only one of them is employed as a +remedial agent. This is the "Iceland moss" of the druggists' shops, +which is undoubtedly an excellent demulcent in various dyspeptic and +chest complaints. No lichen is known to be possessed of any poisonous +properties to man, although _Chlorea vulpina_ is believed by the Swedes +to be so. Zukal has considered that the lichen acids protect the lichen +from the attacks of animals; the experiments of Zopf, however, have cast +doubt on this; certainly lichens containing very bitter acids are eaten +by mites though some of the acids appear to be poisonous to frogs. + + +_Classification._ + +The dual nature of the lichen thallus introduces at the outset a +classificatory difficulty. Theoretically the lichens may be classified +on the basis of their algal constituent, on the basis of their fungal +constituent, or they may be classified as if they were homogeneous +organisms. The first of these systems is impracticable owing to the +absence of algal reproductive organs and the similarity of the algal +cells (gonidia) in a large number of different forms. The second system +is the most obvious one, since the fungus is the dominant partner and +produces reproductive organs. The third system was that of Nylander and +his followers, who did not accept the Schwenderian doctrine of duality. +In actual practice the difference between the second and third methods +is not very great since the fungus is the producer of the reproductive +organs and generally the main constituent. Most systems agree in +deriving the major divisions from the characters of the reproductive +organs (perithecia, apothecia, or basidiospore bearing fructification), +while the characters of the algal cells and those of the thallus +generally are used for the minor divisions. The difference between the +various systems lies in the relative importance given to the +reproductive characters on the one hand and the vegetative characters on +the other. In the system (1854-1855) of Nylander the greater weight is +given to the latter, while in more modern systems the former characters +receive the more attention. + +A brief outline of a system of classification, mainly that of +Zahlbruckner as given in Engler and Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_, is +outlined below. + +There are two main divisions of lichens, _Ascolichenes_ and +_Basidiolichenes_, according to the nature of the fungal element, +whether an ascomycete or basidiomycete. The Ascolichenes are again +divided into _Pyrenocarpeae_ or _Pyrenolichenes_ and _Gymnocarpeae_ or +_Discolichenes_; the first having an ascocarp of the nature of a +perithecium, the second bearing their ascospores in an open apothecium. + + +PYRENOLICHENES + +Series I. Perithecium simple not divided. + + a. With _Pleurococcus_ or _Palmella_ gonidia. Moriolaceae, + Verrucariaceae, Pyrenothamnaceae. + + b. With _Chroolepus_ gonidia. Pyrenulaceae, Paratheliaceae. + + c. With _Phyllactidium_ or _Cephaleurus_ gonidia. Strigulaceae. + + d. With _Nostoc_ or _Scytonema_ gonidia. Pyrenidiaceae. + +Series II. Perithecia divided or imperfectly divided by cross-walls. +Mycoporaceae with _Palmella_ or _Chroolepus_ gonidia. + + + DISCOLICHENES + +Series I. Coniocarpineae. The paraphyses branch and form a network +(capillitium) over the asci, the capillitium and ejected spores forming +a long persistent powdery mass (mazaedium). + +Caliciaceae, Cypheliaceae, Sphaerophoraceae. + +Series II. Graphidineae. Apothecia seldom round, usually +elongated-ellipsoidal, no capillitium. Arthoniaceae, Graphidiaceae, +Roccellaceae. + +Series III. Cyclocarpineae, Apothecium usually circular, no capillitium. + + A. Spores usually two-celled, either with a strongly thickened + cross-wall often perforated by a narrow canal or with cross-wall only + slightly thickened. In the first case the spores are usually + colourless, the second case always brown. Buelliaceae, Physciaceae. + + B. Spores unicellular, parallel-multicellular or muriform, usually + colourless, cross-walls usually thin. + + [alpha] Thallus in moist state more or less gelatinous. Gonidia + always belonging to the Cyanophyceae, Lichinaceae, Ephebaceae, + Collemaceae, Pyrenopsidaceae. + + ß Thallus not gelatinous. Coenogoniaceae, Lecideaceae, Cladoniaceae, + Lecanoraceae, Pertusariaceae, Peltigeraceae, Stictaceae, + Pannariaceae, Gyrophoraceae, Parmeliaceae, Cladoniaceae, Usneaceae. + + + BASIDIOLICHENES (Hymenolichenes) + +_Cora_, _Dictyonema_ (incl. Laudatea), _Corella_ (doubtfully placed here +as the hymenium is unknown). + + +_Habitats and Distribution of Lichens._ + +1. _Habitats._--These are extremely varied, and comprise a great number +of very different substrata. Chiefly, however, they are the bark of +trees, rocks, the ground, mosses and, rarely, perennial leaves. (a) With +respect to _corticolous_ lichens, some prefer the rugged bark of old +trees (e.g. _Ramalina_, _Parmelia_, _Stictei_) and others the smooth +bark of young trees and shrubs (e.g. _Graphidei_ and some _Lecideae_). +Many are found principally in large forests (e.g. _Usnea_, _Alectoria +jubata_); while a few occur more especially on trees by roadsides (e.g. +_Physcia parietina_ and _Ph. pulverulenta_). In connexion with +corticolous lichens may be mentioned those _lignicole_ species which +grow on decayed, or decaying wood of trees and on old pales (e.g. +_Caliciei_, various _Lecideae_, _Xylographa_), (b) As to _saxicolous_ +lichens, which occur on rocks and stones, they may be divided into two +sections, viz. _calcicolous_ and _calcifugous_. To the former belong +such as are found on calcareous and cretaceous rocks, and the mortar of +walls (e.g. _Lecanora calcarea_, _Lecidea calcivora_ and several +_Verrucariae_), while all other saxicolous lichens may be regarded as +belonging to the latter, whatever may be the mineralogical character of +the substratum. It is here worthy of notice that the apothecia of +several calcicolous lichens (e.g. _Lecanora Prevostii_, _Lecidea +calcivora_) have the power of forming minute cavities in the rock, in +which they are partially buried. (c) With respect to terrestrial +species, some prefer peaty soil (e.g. _Cladonia_, _Lecidea decolorans_), +others calcareous soil (e.g. _Lecanora crassa_, _Lecidea decipiens_), +others sandy soil or hardened mud (e.g. _Collema limosum_, _Peltidea +venosa_); while many may be found growing on all kinds of soil, from the +sands of the sea-shore to the granitic detritus of lofty mountains, with +the exception of course of cultivated ground, there being no agrarian +lichens. (d) _Muscicolous_ lichens again are such as are most frequently +met with on decayed mosses and _Jungermannia_, whether on the ground, +trees or rocks (e.g. _Leptogium muscicola_, _Gomphillus calicioides_). +(e) The _epiphyllous_ species are very peculiar as occurring upon +perennial leaves of certain trees and shrubs, whose vitality is not at +all affected by their presence as it is by that of fungi. In so far, +however, as is known, they are very limited in number (e.g. _Lecidea_, +_Bouteillei_, _Strigula_). + +Sometimes various lichens occur abnormally in such unexpected habitats +as dried dung of sheep, bleached bones of reindeer and whales, old +leather, iron and glass, in districts where the species are abundant. It +is apparent that in many cases lichens are quite indifferent to the +substrata on which they occur, whence we infer that the preference of +several for certain substrata depends upon the temperature of the +locality or that of the special habitat. Thus in the case of saxicolous +lichens the mineralogical character of the rock has of itself little or +no influence upon lichen growth, which is influenced more especially and +directly by their physical properties, such as their capacity for +retaining heat and moisture. As a rule lichens grow commonly in open +exposed habitats, though some are found only or chiefly in shady +situations; while, as already observed, scarcely any occur where the +atmosphere is impregnated with smoke. Many species also prefer growing +in moist places by streams, lakes and the sea, though very few are +normally and probably none entirely, _aquatic_, being always at certain +seasons exposed for a longer or shorter period to the atmosphere (e.g. +_Lichina_, _Leptogium rivulare_, _Endocarpon fluviatile_, _Verrucaria +maura_). Some species are entirely parasitical on other lichens (e.g. +various _Lecideae_ and _Pyrenocarpei_), and may be peculiar to one (e.g. +_Lecidea vitellinaria_) or common to several species (e.g. _Habrothallus +parmeliarum_). A few, generally known as _erratic_ species, have been +met with growing unattached to any substratum (e.g. _Parmella revoluta_, +var. _concentrica_, _Lecanora esculenta_); but it can hardly be that +these are really free _ab initio_ (_vide_ Crombie in _Journ. Bot._, +1872, p. 306). It is to the different characters of the stations they +occupy with respect to exposure, moisture, &c., that the variability +observed in many types of lichens is to be attributed. + +2. _Distribution._--From what has now been said it will readily be +inferred that the distribution of lichens over the surface of the globe +is regulated, not only by the presence of suitable substrata, but more +especially by climatic conditions. At the same time it may safely be +affirmed that their geographical range is more extended than that of any +other class of plants, occurring as they do in the coldest and warmest +regions--on the dreary shores of arctic and antarctic seas and in the +torrid valleys of tropical climes, as well as on the greatest mountain +elevations yet attained by man, on projecting rocks even far above the +snowline (e.g. _Lecidea geographica_). In arctic regions lichens form by +far the largest portion of the vegetation, occurring everywhere on the +ground and on rocks, and fruiting freely; while terrestrial species of +_Cladonia_ and _Stereocaulon_ are seen in the greatest luxuriance and +abundance spreading over extensive tracts almost to the entire exclusion +of other vegetation. The lichen flora of temperate regions again is +essentially distinguished from the preceding by the frequency of +corticolous species belonging to _Lecanora_, _Lecidea_ and _Graphidei_. +In intertropical regions lichens attain their maximum development (and +beauty) in the foliaceous _Stictei_ and _Parmeliei_, while they are +especially characterized by epiphyllous species, as _Strigula_, and by +many peculiar corticole _Thelotremei_, _Graphidei_ and _Pyrenocarpei_. +Some lichens, especially saxicolous ones, seem to be cosmopolitan (e.g. +_Lecanora subfusca_, _Cladonia pyxidata_); and others, not strictly +cosmopolitan, have been observed in regions widely apart. A considerable +number of species, European and exotic, seem to be _endemic_, but +further research will no doubt show that most of them occur in other +climatic regions similar to those in which they have hitherto alone been +detected. To give any detailed account, however, of the distribution of +the different genera (not to speak of that of individual species) of +lichens would necessarily far exceed available limits. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General: Engler and Prantl, _Die natürlichen + Pflanzenfamilien_, Teil I, Abt. 1 * where full literature will be + found up to 1898. M. Funfstuck, "Der gegenwärtige Stand der + Flechtenkunde," _Refer. Generalvers. d. deut. bot. Ges._ (1902). Dual + Nature: J. Baranetzky, "Beiträge zur Kenntnis des selbstständigen + Lebens der Flechtengonidien," _Prings. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot._ vii. + (1869); E. Bornet, "Recherches sur les gonidies des lichens," _Ann. de + sci. nat. bot._, 5 sér. n. 17 (1873); G. Bonnier, "Recherches sur la + synthèse des lichens," _Ann. de sci. nat. bot._, 7 sér. n. 9 (1889); + A. Famintzin and J. Baranetzky, "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der + Gonidien u. Zoosporenbildung der Lichenen," _Bot. Zeit._ (1867, p. + 189, 1868, p. 169); S. Schwendener, _Die Algentypen der + Flechtengonidien_ (Basel, 1869); A. Möller, _Über die Kultur + flechtenbildender Ascomyceten ohne Algen_. (Münster, 1887). Sexuality: + E. Stahl, _Beiträge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Flechten_ + (Leipzig, 1877); G. Lindau, _Über Anlage und Entwickelung einiger + Flechtenapothecien_ (Flora, 1888); E. Baur, "Zur Frage nach der + Sexualität der Collemaceae," _Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges._ (1898); "Über + Anlage und Entwicklung einiger Flechtenapothecien" (_Flora_, Bd. 88, + 1901); "Untersuchungen über die Entwicklungsgeschichte der + Flechtenapothecien," _Bot. Zeit._ (1904); O. V. Darbishire, "Über die + Apothecium-entwickelung der Flechte, Physcia pulverulenta," _Nyl. + Prings. Jahrb._ (Bd. 34, 1900). Chemistry.--W. Zopf, "Vergleichende + Produkte," _Beitr. z. bot. Centralbl._ (Bd. 14, 1903); _Die + Flechtenstoffe_ (Jena, 1907). (J. M. C; V. H. B.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The _thalline margin_ (margo thallinus) is the projecting edge of + a special layer of thallus, the amphithecium, round the actual + apothecium; the _proper margin_ (margo proprius) is the projecting + edge of the apothecium itself. + + + + +LICHFIELD, a city, county of a city, and municipal borough in the +Lichfield parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, 118 m. N.W. +from London. Pop. (1901) 7902. The London and North-Western railway has +stations at Trent Valley Junction on the main line, and in the city on a +branch westward. The town lies in a pleasant country, on a small stream +draining eastward to the Trent, with low hills to the E. and S. The +cathedral is small (the full internal length is only 370 ft., and the +breadth of the nave 68 ft.), but beautiful in both situation and style. +It stands near a picturesque sheet of water named Minster Pool. The +present building dates from various periods in the 13th and early 14th +centuries, but the various portions cannot be allocated to fixed years, +as the old archives were destroyed during the Civil Wars of the 17th +century. The earlier records of the church are equally doubtful. A Saxon +church founded by St Chad, who was subsequently enshrined here, occupied +the site from the close of the 7th century; of its Norman successor +portions of the foundations have been excavated, but no record exists +either of its date or of its builders. The fine exterior of the +cathedral exhibits the feature, unique in England, of a lofty central +and two lesser western spires, of which the central, 252 ft. high, is a +restoration attributed to Sir Christopher Wren after its destruction +during the Civil Wars. The west front is composed of three stages of +ornate arcading, with niches containing statues, of which most are +modern. Within, the south transept shows simple Early English work, the +north transept and chapter house more ornate work of a later period in +that style, the nave, with its geometrical ornament, marks the +transition to the Decorated style, while the Lady chapel is a beautiful +specimen of fully developed Decorated work with an apsidal east end. The +west front probably falls in date between the nave and the Lady chapel. +Among numerous monuments are--memorials to Samuel Johnson, a native of +Lichfield, and to David Garrick, who spent his early life and was +educated here; a monument to Major Hodson, who fell in the Indian +mutiny, and whose father was canon of Lichfield; the tomb of Bishop +Hacket, who restored the cathedral after the Civil Wars; and a +remarkable effigy of Perpendicular date displaying Sir John Stanley +stripped to the waist and awaiting chastisement. Here is also the +"Sleeping Children," a masterpiece by Chantrey (1817). + +A picturesque bishop's palace (1687) and a theological college (1857) +are adjacent to the cathedral. The diocese covers the greater part of +Staffordshire and about half the parishes in Shropshire, with small +portions of Cheshire and Derbyshire. The church of St Chad is ancient +though extensively restored; on its site St Chad is said to have +occupied a hermit's cell. The principal schools are those of King Edward +and St Chad. There are many picturesque half-timbered and other old +houses, among which is that in which Johnson was born, which stands in +the market-place, and is the property of the corporation and opened to +the public. There is also in the market place a statue to Johnson. A +fair is held annually on Whit-Monday, accompanied by a pageant of +ancient origin. Brewing is the principal industry, and in the +neighbourhood are large market gardens. The city is governed by a mayor, +6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3475 acres. + +There is a tradition that "Christianfield" near Lichfield was the site +of the martyrdom of a thousand Christians during the persecutions of +Maximian about 286, but there is no evidence in support of the +tradition. At Wall, 3 m. from the present city, there was a +Romano-British village called Letocetum ("grey wood"), from which the +first half of the name Lichfield is derived. The first authentic notice +of Lichfield (_Lyecidfelth_, _Lychfeld_, _Litchfield_) occurs in Bede's +history where it is mentioned as the place where St Chad fixed the +episcopal see of the Mercians. After the foundation of the see by St +Chad in 669, it was raised in 786 by Pope Adrian through the influence +of Offa, King of Mercia, to the dignity of an archbishopric, but in 803 +the primacy was restored to Canterbury. In 1075 the see of Lichfield was +removed to Chester, and thence a few years later to Coventry, but it was +restored in 1148. At the time of the Domesday Survey Lichfield was held +by the bishop of Chester: it is not called a borough, and it was a small +village, whence, on account of its insignificance, the see had been +moved. The lordship and manor of the town were held by the bishop until +the reign of Edward VI., when they were leased to the corporation. There +is evidence that a castle existed here in the time of Bishop Roger +Clinton (_temp._ Henry I.), and a footpath near the grammar-school +retains the name of Castle-ditch. Richard II. gave a charter (1387) for +the foundation of the gild of St Mary and St John the Baptist; this gild +obtained the whole local government, which it exercised until its +dissolution by Edward VI., who incorporated the town (1548), vesting the +government in two bailiffs and twenty-four burgesses; further charters +were given by Mary, James I. and Charles II. (1664), the last, +incorporating it under the title of the "bailiffs and citizens of the +city of Lichfield," was the governing charter until 1835; under this +charter the governing body consisted of two bailiffs and twenty-four +brethren. Lichfield sent two members to the parliament of 1304 and to a +few succeeding parliaments, but the representation did not become +regular until 1552; in 1867 it lost one member, and in 1885 its +representation was merged in that of the county. By the charter of James +I. the market day was changed from Wednesday to Tuesday and Friday; the +Tuesday market disappeared during the 19th century; the only existing +fair is a small pleasure fair of ancient origin held on Ash-Wednesday; +the annual fête on Whit-Monday claims to date from the time of Alfred. +In the Civil Wars Lichfield was divided. The cathedral authorities with +a certain following were for the king, but the townsfolk generally sided +with the parliament, and this led to the fortification of the close in +1643. Lord Brooke, notorious for his hostility to the church, came +against it, but was killed by a deflected bullet on St Chad's day, an +accident welcomed as a miracle by the Royalists. The close yielded and +was retaken by Prince Rupert in this year; but on the breakdown of the +king's cause in 1646 it again surrendered. The cathedral suffered +terrible damage in these years. + + See Rev. T. Harwood, _Hist. and Antiquities of Church and City of + Lichfield_ (1806), _Victoria County History, Stafford_. + + + + +LICH-GATE, or LYCH-GATE (from O. Eng. _lic_ "a body, a corpse"; cf. Ger. +_Leiche_), the roofed-in gateway or porch-entrance to churchyards. +Lich-gates existed in England certainly thirteen centuries ago, but +comparatively few early ones survive, as they were almost always of +wood. One at Bray, Berkshire, is dated 1448. Here the clergy meet the +corpse and some portion of the service is read. The gateway was really +part of the church; it also served to shelter the pall-bearers while the +bier was brought from the church. In some lich-gates there stood large +flat stones called lich-stones upon which the corpse, usually +uncoffined, was laid. The most common form of lich-gate is a simple shed +composed of a roof with two gabled ends, covered with tiles or thatch. +At Berrynarbor, Devon, there is a lich-gate in the form of a cross, +while at Troutbeck, Westmorland, there are three lich-gates to one +churchyard. Some elaborate gates have chambers over them. The word +_lich_ entered into composition constantly in old English, thus, +lich-bell, the hand-bell rung before a corpse; lich-way, the path along +which a corpse was carried to burial (this in some districts was +supposed to establish a right-of-way); lich-owl, the screech-owl, +because its cry was a portent of death; and lyke-wake, a night watch +over a corpse. + + + + +LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH (1742-1799), German physicist and satirical +writer, was born at Oberramstadt, near Darmstadt, on the 1st of July +1742. In 1763 he entered Göttingen university, where in 1769 he became +extraordinary professor of physics, and six years later ordinary +professor. This post he held till his death on the 24th of February +1799. As a physicist he is best known for his investigations in +electricity, more especially as to the so-called Lichtenberg figures, +which are fully described in two memoirs _Super nova methodo motum ac +naturam fluidi electrici investigandi_ (Göttingen, 1777-1778). These +figures, originally studied on account of the light they were supposed +to throw on the nature of the electric fluid or fluids, have reference +to the distribution of electricity over the surface of non-conductors. +They are produced as follows: A sharp-pointed needle is placed +perpendicular to a non-conducting plate, such as of resin, ebonite or +glass, with its point very near to or in contact with the plate, and a +Leyden jar is discharged into the needle. The electrification of the +plate is now tested by sifting over it a mixture of flowers of sulphur +and red lead. The negatively electrified sulphur is seen to attach +itself to the positively electrified parts of the plate, and the +positively electrified red lead to the negatively electrified parts. In +addition to the distribution of colour thereby produced, there is a +marked difference in the _form_ of the figure, according to the nature +of the electricity originally communicated to the plate. If it be +positive, a widely extending patch is seen on the plate, consisting of a +dense nucleus, from which branches radiate in all directions; if +negative the patch is much smaller and has a sharp circular boundary +entirely devoid of branches. If the plate receives a mixed charge, as, +for example, from an induction coil, a "mixed" figure results, +consisting of a large red central nucleus, corresponding to the negative +charge, surrounded by yellow rays, corresponding to the positive charge. +The difference between the positive and negative figures seems to depend +on the presence of the air; for the difference tends to disappear when +the experiment is conducted in vacuo. Riess explains it by the negative +electrification of the plate caused by the friction of the water vapour, +&c., driven along the surface by the explosion which accompanies the +disruptive discharge at the point. This electrification would favour the +spread of a positive, but hinder that of a negative discharge. There is, +in all probability, a connexion between this phenomenon and the +peculiarities of positive and negative brush and other discharge in air. + +As a satirist and humorist Lichtenberg takes high rank among the German +writers of the 18th century. His biting wit involved him in many +controversies with well-known contemporaries, such as Lavater, whose +science of physiognomy he ridiculed, and Voss, whose views on Greek +pronunciation called forth a powerful satire, _Über die Pronunciation +der Schöpse des alten Griechenlandes_ (1782). In 1769 and again in 1774 +he resided for some time in England and his _Briefe aus England_ +(1776-1778), with admirable descriptions of Garrick's acting, are the +most attractive of his writings. He contributed to the _Göttinger +Taschenkalender_ from 1778 onwards, and to the _Göttingisches Magazin +der Literatur und Wissenschaft_, which he edited for three years +(1780-1782) with J. G. A. Forster. He also published in 1794-1799 an +_Ausführliche Erklärung der Hogarthschen Kupferstiche_. + + Lichtenberg's _Vermischte Schriften_ were published by F. Kries in 9 + vols. (1800-1805); new editions in 8 vols. (1844-1846 and 1867). + Selections by E. Grisebach, _Lichtenbergs Gedanken und Maximen_ + (1871); by F. Robertag (in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ + (vol. 141, 1886); and by A. Wilbrandt (1893). Lichtenberg's _Briefe_ + have been published in 3 vols, by C. Schüddekopf and A. Leitzmann + (1900-1902); his _Aphorismen_ by A. Leitzmann (3 vols., 1902-1906). + See also R. M. Meyer, _Swift und Lichtenberg_ (1886); F. Lauchert, + _Lichtenbergs schriftstellerische Tätigkeit_ (1893); and A. Leitzmann, + _Aus Lichtenbergs Nachlass_ (1899). + + + + +LICHTENBERG, formerly a small German principality on the west bank of +the Rhine, enclosed by the Nahe, the Blies and the Glan, now belonging +to the government district of Trier, Prussian Rhine province. The +principality was constructed of parts of the electorate of Trier, of +Nassau-Saarbrücken and other districts, and lay between Rhenish Bavaria +and the old Prussian province of the Rhine. Originally called the +lordship of Baumholder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its +elevation in 1819 to a principality to Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, to +whom it was ceded by Prussia, in 1816, in accordance with terms agreed +upon at the congress of Vienna. The duke, however, restored it to +Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension of £12,000 sterling. +The area is about 210 sq. m. + + + + +LICINIANUS, GRANIUS, Roman annalist, probably lived in the age of the +Antonines (2nd century A.D.). He was the author of a brief epitome of +Roman history based upon Livy, which he utilized as a means of +displaying his antiquarian lore. Accounts of omens, portents, prodigies +and other remarkable things apparently took up a considerable portion of +the work. Some fragments of the books relating to the years 163-178 B.C. +are preserved in a British Museum MS. + + EDITIONS.--C. A. Pertz (1857); seven Bonn students (1858); M. Flemisch + (1904); see also J. N. Madvig, _Kleine philologische Schriften_ + (1875), and the list of articles in periodicals in Flemisch's edition + (p. iv.). + + + + +LICINIUS [FLAVIUS GALERIUS VALERIUS LICINIANUS], Roman emperor, A.D. +307-324, of Illyrian peasant origin, was born probably about 250. After +the death of Flavius Valerius Severus he was elevated to the rank of +Augustus by Galerius, his former friend and companion in arms, on the +11th of November 307, receiving as his immediate command the provinces +of Illyricum. On the death of Galerius, in May 311, he shared the entire +empire with Maximinus, the Hellespont and the Thracian Bosporus being +the dividing line. In March 313 he married Constantia, half-sister of +Constantine, at Mediolanum (Milan), in the following month inflicted a +decisive defeat on Maximinus at Heraclea Pontica, and established +himself master of the East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, was +supreme in the West. In 314 his jealousy led him to encourage a +treasonable enterprise on the part of Bassianus against Constantine. +When his perfidy became known a civil war ensued, in which he was twice +severely defeated--first near Cibalae in Pannonia (October 8th, 314), +and next in the plain of Mardia in Thrace; the outward reconciliation, +which was effected in the following December, left Licinius in +possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, but added numerous +provinces to the Western empire. In 323 Constantine, tempted by the +"advanced age and unpopular vices" of his colleague, again declared war +against him, and, having defeated his army at Adrianople (3rd of July +323), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium. The +defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius by Flavius Julius Crispus, +Constantine's eldest son, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a +last stand was made; the battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18th of +September), finally resulted in his submission. He was interned at +Thessalonica and executed in the following year on a charge of +treasonable correspondence with the barbarians. + + See Zosimus ii. 7-28; Zonaras xiii. 1; Victor, _Caes._ 40, 41; + Eutropius x. 3; Orosius vii. 28. + + + + +LICINIUS CALVUS STOLO, GAIUS, Roman statesman, the chief representative +of the plebeian Licinian gens, was tribune in 377 B.c., consul in 361. +His name is associated with the Licinian or Licinio-Sextian laws +(proposed 377, passed 367), which practically ended the struggle between +patricians and plebeians. He was himself fined for possessing a larger +share of the public land than his own law allowed. + + See ROME: _History_, II. "The Republic." + + + + +LICINIUS MACER CALVUS, GAIUS (82-47 B.C.), Roman poet and orator, was +the son of the annalist Licinius Macer. As a poet he is associated with +his friend Catullus, whom he followed in style and choice of subjects. +As an orator he was the leader of the opponents of the florid Asiatic +school, who took the simplest Attic orators as their model and attacked +even Cicero as wordy and artificial. Calvus held a correspondence on +questions connected with rhetoric, perhaps (if the reading be correct) +the _commentarii_ alluded to by Tacitus (_Dialogus_, 23; compare also +Cicero, _Ad Fam._ xv. 21). Twenty-one speeches by him are mentioned, +amongst which the most famous were those delivered against Publius +Vatinius. Calvus was very short of stature, and is alluded to by +Catullus (Ode 53) as _Salaputium disertum_ (eloquent Lilliputian). + + For Cicero's opinion see _Brutus_, 82; Quintilian x. I. 115; Tacitus, + _Dialogus_, 18. 21; the monograph by F. Plessis (Paris, 1896) contains + a collection of the fragments (verse and prose). + + + + +LICODIA EUBEA, a town of Sicily in the province of Catania, 4 m. W. of +Vizzini, which is 39 m. S.W. of Catania by rail. Pop. (1901) 7033. The +name Eubea was given to the place in 1872 owing to a false +identification with the Greek city of Euboea, a colony of Leontini, +founded probably early in the 6th century B.C. and taken by Gelon. The +town occupies the site of an unknown Sicel city, the cemeteries of which +have been explored. A few vases of the first period were found, but +practically all the tombs explored in 1898 belonged to the fourth period +(700-500 B.C.) and show the gradual process of Hellenization among the +Sicels. + + See _Römische Mitteilungen_, 1898, 305 seq.; _Notizie degli scavi_, + 1902, 219. (T. As.) + + + + +LICTORS (_lictores_), in Roman antiquities, a class of the attendants +(_apparitores_) upon certain Roman and provincial magistrates.[1] As an +institution (supposed by some to have been borrowed from Etruria) they +went back to the regal period and continued to exist till imperial +times. The majority of the city lictors were freedmen; they formed a +corporation divided into decuries, from which the lictors of the +magistrates in office were drawn; provincial officials had the +nomination of their own. In Rome they wore the toga, perhaps girded up; +on a campaign and at the celebration of a triumph, the red military +cloak (_sagulum_); at funerals, black. As representatives of magistrates +who possessed the _imperium_, they carried the fasces and axes in front +of them (see FASCES). They were exempt from military service; received a +fixed salary; theoretically they were nominated for a year, but really +for life. They were the constant attendants, both in and out of the +house, of the magistrate to whom they were attached. They walked before +him in Indian file, cleared a passage for him (_summovere_) through the +crowd, and saw that he was received with the marks of respect due to his +rank. They stood by him when he took his seat on the tribunal; mounted +guard before his house, against the wall of which they stood the fasces; +summoned offenders before him, seized, bound and scourged them, and (in +earlier times) carried out the death sentence. It should be noted that +directly a magistrate entered an allied, independent state, he was +obliged to dispense with his lictors. The king had twelve lictors; each +of the consuls (immediately after their institution) twelve, +subsequently limited to the monthly officiating consul, although Caesar +appears to have restored the original arrangement; the dictator, as +representing both consuls, twenty-four; the emperors twelve, until the +time of Domitian, who had twenty-four. The Flamen Dialis, each of the +Vestals, the _magister-vicorum_ (overseer of the sections into which the +city was divided) were also accompanied by lictors. These lictors were +probably supplied from the _lictores curiatii_, thirty in number, whose +functions were specially religious, one of them being in attendance on +the pontifex maximus. They originally summoned the comitia curiata, and +when its meetings became merely a formality, acted as the +representatives of that assembly. Lictors were also assigned to private +individuals at the celebration of funeral games, and to the aediles at +the games provided by them and the theatrical representations under +their supervision. + + For the fullest account of the lictors, see Mommsen, _Römisches + Staatsrecht_, i. 355, 374 (3rd ed., 1887). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Greek equivalents of _lictor_ are [Greek: rabdouchos, + rabdophoros, rabdonomos] (rod-bearer); the Latin word is variously + derived from: (a) _ligare_, to bind or arrest a criminal; (b) + _licere_, to summon, as convoking assemblies or haling offenders + before the magistrate; (c) _licium_, the girdle with which (according + to some) their toga was held up; (d) Plutarch (_Quaestiones Romanae_, + 67), assuming an older form [Greek: litôr], suggests an + identification with [Greek: leitourgos], one who performs a public + office. + + + + +LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE (1811-1898), English scholar and divine, eldest +son of the Rev. Henry George Liddell, younger brother of the first Baron +Ravensworth, was born at Binchester, near Bishop Auckland, on the 6th of +February 1811. He was educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, +Oxford. Gaining a double first in 1833, Liddell became a college tutor, +and was ordained in 1838. In the same year Dean Gaisford appointed him +Greek reader in Christ Church, and in 1846 he was appointed to the +headmastership of Westminster School. Meanwhile his life work, the great +_Lexicon_ (based on the German work of F. Passow), which he and Robert +Scott began as early as 1834, had made good progress, and the first +edition appeared in 1843. It immediately became the standard +Greek-English dictionary and still maintains this rank, although, +notwithstanding the great additions made of late to our Greek vocabulary +from inscriptions, papyri and other sources, scarcely any enlargement +has been made since about 1880. The 8th edition was published in 1897. +As headmaster of Westminster Liddell enjoyed a period of great success, +followed by trouble due to the outbreak of fever and cholera in the +school. In 1855 he accepted the deanery of Christ Church, then vacant by +the death of Gaisford. In the same year he brought out a _History of +Ancient Rome_ (much used in an abridged form as the _Student's History +of Rome_) and took a very active part in the first Oxford University +Commission. His tall figure, fine presence and aristocratic mien were +for many years associated with all that was characteristic of Oxford +life. Coming just at the transition period when the "old Christ Church," +which Pusey strove so hard to preserve, was inevitably becoming broader +and more liberal, it was chiefly due to Liddell that necessary changes +were effected with the minimum of friction. In 1859 Liddell welcomed the +then prince of Wales when he matriculated at Christ Church, being the +first holder of that title who had matriculated since Henry V. In +conjunction with Sir Henry Acland, Liddell did much to encourage the +study of art at Oxford, and his taste and judgment gained him the +admiration and friendship of Ruskin. In 1891, owing to advancing years, +he resigned the deanery. The last years of his life were spent at Ascot, +where he died on the 18th of January 1898. Dean Liddell married in July +1846 Miss Lorina Reeve (d. 1910), by whom he had a numerous family. + + See memoir by H. L. Thompson, _Henry George Liddell_ (1899). + + + + +LIDDESDALE, the valley of Liddel Water, Roxburghshire, Scotland, +extending in a south-westerly direction from the vicinity of Peel Fell +to the Esk, a distance of 21 m. The Waverley route of the North British +railway runs down the dale, and the Catrail, or Picts' Dyke, crosses its +head. At one period the points of vantage on the river and its affluents +were occupied with freebooters' peel-towers, but many of them have +disappeared and the remainder are in decay. Larriston Tower belonged to +the Elliots, Mangerton to the Armstrongs and Park to "little Jock +Elliot," the outlaw who nearly killed Bothwell in an encounter in 1566. +The chief point of interest in the valley, however, is Hermitage Castle, +a vast, massive H-shaped fortress of enormous strength, one of the +oldest baronial buildings in Scotland. It stands on a hill overlooking +Hermitage Water, a tributary of the Liddel. It was built in 1244 by +Nicholas de Soulis and was captured by the English in David II.'s reign. +It was retaken by Sir William Douglas, who received a grant of it from +the king. In 1492 Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of Angus, exchanged it for +Bothwell Castle on the Clyde with Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell. +It finally passed to the duke of Buccleuch, under whose care further +ruin has been arrested. It was here that Sir Alexander Ramsay of +Dalhousie was starved to death by Sir William Douglas in 1342, and that +James Hepburn, 4th earl of Bothwell, was visited by Mary, queen of +Scots, after the assault referred to. + + To the east of the castle is Ninestane Rig, a hill 943 ft. high, 4 m. + long and 1 m. broad, where it is said that William de Soulis, hated + for oppression and cruelty, was (in 1320) boiled by his own vassals in + a copper cauldron, which was supported on two of the nine stones which + composed the "Druidical" circle that gave the ridge its name. Only + five of the stones remain. James Telfer (1802-1862), the writer of + ballads, who was born in the parish of Southdean (pronounced Soudan), + was for several years schoolmaster of Saughtree, near the head of the + valley. The castle of the lairds of Liddesdale stood near the junction + of Hermitage Water and the Liddel and around it grew up the village of + Castleton. + + + + +LIDDON, HENRY PARRY (1829-1890), English divine, was the son of a naval +captain and was born at North Stoneham, Hampshire, on the 20th of August +1829. He was educated at King's College School, London, and at Christ +Church, Oxford, where he graduated, taking a second class, in 1850. As +vice-principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon (1854-1859) he +wielded considerable influence, and, on returning to Oxford as +vice-principal of St Edmund's Hall, became a growing force among the +undergraduates, exercising his influence in strong opposition to the +liberal reaction against Tractarianism, which had set in after Newman's +secession in 1845. In 1864 the bishop of Salisbury (W. K. Hamilton), +whose examining chaplain he had been, appointed him prebendary of +Salisbury cathedral. In 1866 he delivered his Bampton Lectures on the +doctrine of the divinity of Christ. From that time his fame as a +preacher, which had been steadily growing, may be considered +established. In 1870 he was made canon of St Paul's Cathedral, London. +He had before this published _Some Words for God_, in which, with great +power and eloquence, he combated the scepticism of the day. His +preaching at St Paul's soon attracted vast crowds. The afternoon sermon, +which fell to the lot of the canon in residence, had usually been +delivered in the choir, but soon after Liddon's appointment it became +necessary to preach the sermon under the dome, where from 3000 to 4000 +persons used to gather to hear the preacher. Few orators belonging to +the Church of England have acquired so great a reputation as Liddon. +Others may have surpassed him in originality, learning or reasoning +power, but for grasp of his subject, clearness of language, lucidity of +arrangement, felicity of illustration, vividness of imagination, +elegance of diction, and above all, for sympathy with the intellectual +position of those whom he addressed, he has hardly been rivalled. In the +elaborate arrangement of his matter he is thought to have imitated the +great French preachers of the age of Louis XIV. In 1870 he had also been +made Ireland professor of exegesis at Oxford. The combination of the two +appointments gave him extensive influence over the Church of England. +With Dean Church he may be said to have restored the waning influence of +the Tractarian school, and he succeeded in popularizing the opinions +which, in the hands of Pusey and Keble, had appealed to thinkers and +scholars. His forceful spirit was equally conspicuous in his opposition +to the Church Discipline Act of 1874, and in his denunciation of the +Bulgarian atrocities of 1876. In 1882 he resigned his professorship and +utilized his thus increased leisure by travelling in Palestine and +Egypt, and showed his interest in the Old Catholic movement by visiting +Döllinger at Munich. In 1886 he became chancellor of St Paul's, and it +is said that he declined more than one offer of a bishopric. He died on +the 9th of September 1890, in the full vigour of his intellect and at +the zenith of his reputation. He had undertaken and nearly completed an +elaborate life of Dr Pusey, for whom his admiration was unbounded; and +this work was completed after his death by Messrs Johnston and Wilson. +Liddon's great influence during his life was due to his personal +fascination and the beauty of his pulpit oratory rather than to any high +qualities of intellect. As a theologian his outlook was that of the 16th +rather than the 19th century; and, reading his Bampton Lectures now, it +is difficult to realize how they can ever have been hailed as a great +contribution to Christian apologetics. To the last he maintained the +narrow standpoint of Pusey and Keble, in defiance of all the +developments of modern thought and modern scholarship; and his latter +years were embittered by the consciousness that the younger generation +of the disciples of his school were beginning to make friends of the +Mammon of scientific unrighteousness. The publication in 1889 of _Lux +Mundi_, a series of essays attempting to harmonize Anglican Catholic +doctrine with modern thought, was a severe blow to him, for it showed +that even at the Pusey House, established as the citadel of Puseyism at +Oxford, the principles of Pusey were being departed from. Liddon's +importance is now mainly historical. He was the last of the classical +pulpit orators of the English Church, the last great popular exponent of +the traditional Anglican orthodoxy. Besides the works mentioned, Liddon +published several volumes of _Sermons_, a volume of Lent lectures +entitled _Some Elements of Religion_ (1870), and a collection of _Essays +and Addresses_ on such themes as Buddhism, Dante, &c. + + See _Life and Letters_, by J. O. Johnston (1904); G. W. E. Russell, + _H. P. Liddon_ (1903); A. B. Donaldson, _Five Great Oxford Leaders_ + (1900), from which the life of Liddon was reprinted separately in + 1905. + + + + +LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833-1908), Norwegian novelist, was born on +the 6th of November 1833 close to Hougsund (Eker), near Drammen. In +1838, his father being appointed sheriff of Tromsö, the family removed +to that Arctic town. Here the future novelist enjoyed an untrammelled +childhood among the shipping of the little Nordland capital, and gained +acquaintance with the wild seafaring life which he was afterwards to +describe. In 1846 he was sent to the naval school at Frederiksvaern, but +his extreme near-sight unfitted him for the service, and he was +transferred to the Latin school at Bergen. In 1851 he went to the +university of Christiania, where Ibsen and Björnson were among his +fellow-students. Jonas Lie, however, showed at this time no inclination +to literature. He pursued his studies as a lawyer, took his degrees in +law in 1858, and settled down to practice as a solicitor in the little +town of Kongsvinger. In 1860 he married his cousin, Thomasine Lie, whose +collaboration in his work he acknowledged in 1893 in a graceful article +in the _Samtiden_ entitled "Min hustru." In 1866 he published his first +book, a volume of poems. He made unlucky speculations in wood, and the +consequent financial embarrassment induced him to return to Christiania +to try his luck as a man of letters. As a journalist he had no success, +but in 1870 he published a melancholy little romance, _Den Fremsynte_ +(Eng. trans., _The Visionary_, 1894), which made him famous. Lie +proceeded to Rome, and published Tales in 1871 and _Tremasteren +"Fremtiden"_ (Eng. trans., _The Barque "Future,"_ Chicago, 1879), a +novel, in 1872. His first great book, however, was _Lodsen og hans +Hustru_ (_The Pilot and his Wife_, 1874), which placed him at the head +of Norwegian novelists; it was written in the little town of Rocca di +Papa in the Albano mountains. From that time Lie enjoyed, with Björnson +and Ibsen, a stipend as poet from the Norwegian government. Lie spent +the next few years partly in Dresden, partly in Stuttgart, with frequent +summer excursions to Berchtesgaden in the Bavarian highlands. During his +exile he produced the drama in verse called _Faustina Strozzi_ (1876). +Returning to Norway, Lie began a series of romances of modern life in +Christiania, of which _Thomas Ross_ (1878) and _Adam Schrader_ (1879) +were the earliest. He returned to Germany, and settled first in Dresden +again, then in Hamburg, until 1882, when he took up his abode in Paris, +where he lived in close retirement in the society of Scandinavian +friends. His summers were spent at Berchtesgaden in Tirol. The novels of +his German period are _Rutland_ (1881) and _Gaa paa_ ("_Go Ahead!_" +1882), tales of life in the Norwegian merchant navy. His subsequent +works, produced with great regularity, enjoyed an immense reputation in +Norway. Among the best of them are: _Livsslaven_ (1883, Eng. trans., +"_One of Life's Slaves_," 1895); _Familjen paa Gilje_ ("_The Family of +Gilje_," 1883); _Malstroem_ (1885), describing the gradual ruin of a +Norwegian family; _Et Samliv_ ("_Life in Common_," 1887), describing a +marriage of convenience. Two of the most successful of his novels were +_The Commodore's Daughters_ (1886) and Niobe (1894), both of which were +presented to English readers in the International library, edited by Mr +Gosse. In 1891-1892 he wrote, under the influence of the new romantic +impulse, twenty-four folk-tales, printed in two volumes entitled +_Trold_. Some of these were translated by R. N. Bain in _Weird Tales_ +(1893), illustrated by L. Housman. Among his later works were the +romance _Naar Sol gaar ned_ ("_When the Sun goes down_," 1895), the +powerful novel of _Dyre Rein_ (1896), the fairy drama of _Lindelin_ +(1897), _Faste Forland_ (1899), a romance which contains much which is +autobiographical, _When the Iron Curtain falls_ (1901), and _The Consul_ +(1904). _His Samlede Vaerker_ were published at Copenhagen in 14 vols. +(1902-1904). Jonas Lie left Paris in 1891, and, after spending a year in +Rome, returned to Norway, establishing himself at Holskogen, near +Christiansand. He died at Christiania on the 5th of July 1908. As a +novelist he stands with those minute and unobtrusive painters of +contemporary manners who defy arrangement in this or that school. He is +with Mrs Gaskell or Ferdinand Fabre; he is not entirely without relation +with that old-fashioned favourite of the public, Fredrika Bremer. + + His son, Erik Lie (b. 1868), published a successful volume of stories, + _Med Blyanten_, in 1890; and is also the author of various works on + literary history. An elder son, Mons Lie (b. 1864), studied the violin + in Paris, but turned to literature in 1894. Among his works are the + plays _Tragedier om Kjaerlighed_ (1897); _Lombardo and Agrippina_ + (1898); _Don Juan_ (1900); and the novels, _Sjöfareren_ (1901); _Adam + Ravn_ (1903) and _I. Kvindensnet_ (1904). (E. G.) + + + + +LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842-1899), Norwegian mathematician, was born at +Nordfjordeif, near Bergen, on the 17th of December 1842, and was educated +at the university of Christiania, where he took his doctor's degree in +1868 and became extraordinary professor of mathematics (a chair created +specially for him) four years later. In 1886 he was chosen to succeed +Felix Klein in the chair of geometry at Leipzig, but as his fame grew a +special post was arranged for him in Christiania. But his health was +broken down by too assiduous study, and he died at Christiania on the +18th of February 1899, six months after his return. Lie's work exercised +a great influence on the progress of mathematical science during the +later decades of the 19th century. His primary aim has been declared to +be the advancement and elaboration of the theory of differential +equations, and it was with this end in view that he developed his theory +of transformation groups, set forth in his _Theorie der +Transformationsgruppen_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1893), a work of wide +range and great originality, by which probably his name is best known. A +special application of his theory of continuous groups was to the general +problem of non-Euclidean geometry. The latter part of the book above +mentioned was devoted to a study of the foundations of geometry, +considered from the standpoint of B. Riemann and H. von Helmholtz; and he +intended to publish a systematic exposition of his geometrical +investigations, in conjunction with Dr G. Scheffers, but only one volume +made its appearance (_Geometrie der Berührungstransformationen_, Leipzig, +1896). Lie was a foreign member of the Royal Society, as well as an +honorary member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and the London +Mathematical Society, and his geometrical inquiries gained him the +much-coveted honour of the Lobatchewsky prize. + + An analysis of Lie's works is given in the _Bibliotheca Mathematica_ + (Leipzig, 1900). + + + + +LIEBER, FRANCIS (1800-1872), German-American publicist, was born at +Berlin on the 18th of March 1800. He served with his two brothers under +Blücher in the campaign of 1815, fighting at Ligny, Waterloo and Namur, +where he was twice dangerously wounded. Shortly afterwards he was +arrested for his political sentiments, the chief evidence against him +being several songs of liberty which he had written. After several +months he was discharged without a trial, but was forbidden to pursue +his studies at the Prussian universities. He accordingly went to Jena, +where he took his degrees in 1820, continuing his studies at Halle and +Dresden. He subsequently took part in the Greek War of Independence, +publishing his experiences in his _Journal in Greece_ (Leipzig, 1823, +and under the title _The German Anacharsis_, Amsterdam, 1823). For a +year he was in Rome as tutor to the son of the historian Niebuhr, then +Prussian ambassador. Returning to Berlin in 1823, he was imprisoned at +Koepenik, but was released after some months through the influence of +Niebuhr. In 1827 he went to the United States and as soon as possible +was naturalized as a citizen. He settled at Boston, and for five years +edited _The Encyclopaedia Americana_ (13 vols.). From 1835 to 1856 he +was professor of history and political economy in South Carolina College +at Columbia, S.C., and during this period wrote his three chief works, +_Manual of Political Ethics_ (1838), _Legal and Political Hermeneutics_ +(1839), and _Civil Liberty and Self Government_ (1853). In 1856 he +resigned and next year was elected to a similar post in Columbia +College, New York, and in 1865 became professor of constitutional +history and public law in the same institution. During the Civil War +Lieber rendered services of great value to the government. He was one +of the first to point out the madness of secession, and was active in +upholding the Union. He prepared, upon the requisition of the president, +the important _Code of War for the Government of the Armies of the +United States in the Field_, which was promulgated by the Government in +General Orders No. 100 of the war department. This code suggested to +Bluntschli his codification of the law of nations, as may be seen in the +preface to his _Droit International Codifié_. During this period also +Lieber wrote his _Guerilla Parties with Reference to the Laws and Usages +of War_. At the time of his death he was the umpire of the commission +for the adjudication of Mexican claims. He died on the 2nd of October +1872. His books were acquired by the University of California, and his +papers were placed in the Johns Hopkins University. + + His _Miscellaneous Writings_ were published by D. C. Gilman + (Philadelphia, 1881). See T. S. Perry, _Life and Letters_ (1882), and + biography by Harby (1899). + + + + +LIEBERMANN, MAX (1849- ), German painter and etcher, was born in +Berlin. After studying under Steffeck, he entered the school of art at +Weimar in 1869. Though the straightforward simplicity of his first +exhibited picture, "Women plucking Geese," in 1872, presented already a +striking contrast to the conventional art then in vogue, it was heavy +and bituminous in colour, like all the artist's paintings before his +visit to Paris at the end of 1872. A summer spent at Barbizon in 1873, +where he became personally acquainted with Millet and had occasion to +study the works of Corot, Troyon, and Daubigny, resulted in the clearing +and brightening of his palette, and taught him to forget the example of +Munkacsy, under whose influence he had produced his first pictures in +Paris. He subsequently went to Holland, where the example of Israels +confirmed him in the method he had adopted at Barbizon; but on his +return to Munich in 1878 he caused much unfavourable criticism by his +realistic painting of "Christ in the Temple," which was condemned by the +clergy as irreverent and remained his only attempt at a scriptural +subject. Henceforth he devoted himself exclusively to the study of +free-light and to the painting of the life of humble folk. He found his +best subjects in the orphanages and asylums for the old in Amsterdam, +among the peasants in the fields and village streets of Holland, and in +the beer-gardens, factories, and workrooms of his own country. Germany +was reluctant, however, in admitting the merit of an artist whose style +and method were so markedly at variance with the time-honoured academic +tradition. Only when his fame was echoed back from France, Belgium, and +Holland did his compatriots realize the eminent position which is his +due in the history of German art. It is hardly too much to say that +Liebermann has done for his country what Millet did for France. His +pictures hold the fragrance of the soil and the breezes of the heavens. +His people move in their proper atmosphere, and their life is stated in +all its monotonous simplicity, without artificial pathos or melodramatic +exaggeration. His first success was a medal awarded him for "An Asylum +for Old Men" at the 1881 Salon. In 1884 he settled again in Berlin, +where he became professor of the Academy in 1898. He became a member of +the Société nationale des Beaux Arts, of the Société royale belge des +Aquarellistes, and of the Cercle des Aquarellistes at the Hague. +Liebermann is represented in most of the German and other continental +galleries. The Berlin National Gallery owns "The Flax-Spinners"; the +Munich Pinakothek, "The Woman with Goats"; the Hamburg Gallery, "The +Net-Menders"; the Hanover Gallery, the "Village Street in Holland." "The +Seamstress" is at the Dresden Gallery; the "Man on the Dunes" at +Leipzig; "Dutch Orphan Girls" at Strassburg; "Beer-cellar at +Brandenburg" at the Luxembourg Museum in Paris, and the "Knöpflerinnen" +in Venice. His etchings are to be found in the leading print cabinets of +Europe. + + + + +LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON, BARON (1803-1873), German chemist, was born at +Darmstadt, according to his baptismal certificate, on the 12th of May +1803 (4th of May, according to his mother). His father, a drysalter and +dealer in colours, used sometimes to make experiments in the hope of +finding improved processes for the production of his wares, and thus his +son early acquired familiarity with practical chemistry. For the +theoretical side he read all the text-books which he could find, +somewhat to the detriment of his ordinary school studies. Having +determined to make chemistry his profession, at the age of fifteen he +entered the shop of an apothecary at Appenheim, near Darmstadt; but he +soon found how great is the difference between practical pharmacy and +scientific chemistry, and the explosions and other incidents that +accompanied his private efforts to increase his chemical knowledge +disposed his master to view without regret his departure at the end of +ten months. He next entered the university of Bonn, but migrated to +Erlangen when the professor of chemistry, K. W. G. Kastner (1783-1857), +was appointed in 1821 to the chair of physics and chemistry at the +latter university. He followed this professor to learn how to analyse +certain minerals, but in the end he found that the teacher himself was +ignorant of the process. Indeed, as he himself said afterwards, it was a +wretched time for chemistry in Germany. No laboratories were accessible +to ordinary students, who had to content themselves with what the +universities could give in the lecture-room and the library, and though +both at Bonn and Erlangen Liebig endeavoured to make up for the +deficiencies of the official instruction by founding a students' +physical and chemical society for the discussion of new discoveries and +speculations, he felt that he could never become a chemist in his own +country. Therefore, having graduated as Ph.D. in 1822, he left +Erlangen--where he subsequently complained that the contagion of the +"greatest philosopher and metaphysician of the century" (Schelling), in +a period "rich in words and ideas, but poor in true knowledge and +genuine studies," had cost him two precious years of his life--and by +the liberality of Louis I., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, was enabled +to go to Paris. By the help of L. J. Thénard he gained admission to the +private laboratory of H. F. Gaultier de Claubry (1792-1873), professor +of chemistry at the École de Pharmacie, and soon afterwards, by the +influence of A. von Humboldt, to that of Gay-Lussac, where in 1824 he +concluded his investigations on the composition of the fulminates. It +was on Humboldt's advice that he determined to become a teacher of +chemistry, but difficulties stood in his way. As a native of +Hesse-Darmstadt he ought, according to the academical rules of the time, +to have studied and graduated at the university of Giessen, and it was +only through the influence of Humboldt that the authorities forgave him +for straying to the foreign university of Erlangen. After examination +his Erlangen degree was recognized, and in 1824 he was appointed +extraordinary professor of chemistry at Giessen, becoming ordinary +professor two years later. In this small town his most important work +was accomplished. His first care was to persuade the Darmstadt +government to provide a chemical laboratory in which the students might +obtain a proper practical training. This laboratory, unique of its kind +at the time, in conjunction with Liebig's unrivalled gifts as a teacher, +soon rendered Giessen the most famous chemical school in the world; men +flocked from every country to enjoy its advantages, and many of the most +accomplished chemists of the 19th century had to thank it for their +early training. Further, it gave a great impetus to the progress of +chemical education throughout Germany, for the continued admonitions of +Liebig combined with the influence of his pupils induced many other +universities to build laboratories modelled on the same plan. He +remained at Giessen for twenty-eight years, until in 1852 he accepted +the invitation of the Bavarian government to the ordinary chair of +chemistry at Munich university, and this office he held, although he was +offered the chair at Berlin in 1865, until his death, which occurred at +Munich on the 10th of April 1873. + + Apart from Liebig's labours for the improvement of chemical teaching, + the influence of his experimental researches and of his contributions + to chemical thought was felt in every branch of the science. In regard + to methods and apparatus, mention should be made of his improvements + in the technique of organic analysis, his plan for determining the + natural alkaloids and for ascertaining the molecular weights of + organic bases bv means of their chloroplatinates, his process for + determining the quantity of urea in a solution--the first step + towards the introduction of precise chemical methods into practical + medicine--and his invention of the simple form of condenser known in + every laboratory. His contributions to inorganic chemistry were + numerous, including investigations on the compounds of antimony, + aluminium, silicon, &c., on the separation of nickel and cobalt, and + on the analysis of mineral waters, but they are outweighed in + importance by his work on organic substances. In this domain his first + research was on the fulminates of mercury and silver, and his study of + these bodies led him to the discovery of the isomerism of cyanic and + fulminic acids, for the composition of fulminic acid as found by him + was the same as that of cyanic acid, as found by F. Wöhler, and it + became necessary to admit them to be two bodies which differed in + properties, though of the same percentage composition. Further work on + cyanogen and connected substances yielded a great number of + interesting derivatives, and he described an improved method for the + manufacture of potassium cyanide, an agent which has since proved of + enormous value in metallurgy and the arts. In 1832 he published, + jointly with Wöhler, one of the most famous papers in the history of + chemistry, that on the oil of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde), wherein + it was shown that the radicle benzoyl might be regarded as forming an + unchanging constituent of a long series of compounds obtained from oil + of bitter almonds, throughout which it behaved like an element. + Berzelius hailed this discovery as marking the dawn of a new era in + organic chemistry, and proposed for benzoyl the names "Proïn" or + "Orthrin" (from [Greek: prôi] and [Greek: örthrus]). A continuation of + their work on bitter almond oil by Liebig and Wöhler, who remained + firm friends for the rest of their lives, resulted in the elucidation + of the mode of formation of that substance and in the discovery of the + ferment emulsin as well as the recognition of the first glucoside, + amygdalin, while another and not less important and far-reaching + inquiry in which they collaborated was that on uric acid, published in + 1837. About 1832 he began his investigations into the constitution of + ether and alcohol and their derivatives. These on the one hand + resulted in the enunciation of his ethyl theory, by the light of which + he looked upon those substances as compounds of the radicle ethyl + (C2H5), in opposition to the view of J. B. A. Dumas, who regarded them + as hydrates of olefiant gas (ethylene); on the other they yielded + chloroform, chloral and aldehyde, as well as other compounds of less + general interest, and also the method of forming mirrors by depositing + silver from a slightly ammoniacal solution by acet aldehyde. In 1837 + with Dumas he published a note on the constitution of organic acids, + and in the following year an elaborate paper on the same subject + appeared under his own name alone; by this work T. Graham's doctrine + of polybasicity was extended to the organic acids. Liebig also did + much to further the hydrogen theory of acids. + + These and other studies in pure chemistry mainly occupied his + attention until about 1838, but the last thirty-five years of his life + were devoted more particularly to the chemistry of the processes of + life, both animal and vegetable. In animal physiology he set himself + to trace out the operation of determinate chemical and physical laws + in the maintenance of life and health. To this end he examined such + immediate vital products as blood, bile and urine; he analysed the + juices of flesh, establishing the composition of creatin and + investigating its decomposition products, creatinin and sarcosin; he + classified the various articles of food in accordance with the special + function performed by each in the animal economy, and expounded the + philosophy of cooking; and in opposition to many of the medical + opinions of his time taught that the heat of the body is the result of + the processes of combustion and oxidation performed within the + organism. A secondary result of this line of study was the preparation + of his food for infants and of his extract of meat. Vegetable + physiology he pursued with special reference to agriculture, which he + held to be the foundation of all trade and industry, but which could + not be rationally practised without the guidance of chemical + principles. His first publication on this subject was _Die Chemie in + ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie_ in 1840, which was at + once translated into English by Lyon Playfair. Rejecting the old + notion that plants derive their nourishment from humus, he taught that + they get carbon and nitrogen from the carbon dioxide and ammonia + present in the atmosphere, these compounds being returned by them to + the atmosphere by the processes of putrefaction and + fermentation--which latter he regarded as essentially chemical in + nature--while their potash, soda, lime, sulphur, phosphorus, &c., come + from the soil. Of the carbon dioxide and ammonia no exhaustion can + take place, but of the mineral constituents the supply is limited + because the soil cannot afford an indefinite amount of them; hence the + chief care of the farmer, and the function of manures, is to restore + to the soil those minerals which each crop is found, by the analysis + of its ashes, to take up in its growth. On this theory he prepared + artificial manures containing the essential mineral substances + together with a small quantity of ammoniacal salts, because he held + that the air does not supply ammonia fast enough in certain cases, and + carried out systematic experiments on ten acres of poor sandy land + which he obtained from the town of Giessen in 1845. But in practice + the results were not wholly satisfactory, and it was a long time + before he recognized one important reason for the failure in the fact + that to prevent the alkalis from being washed away by the rain he had + taken pains to add them in an insoluble form, whereas, as was + ultimately suggested to him by experiments performed by J. T. Way + about 1850, this precaution was not only superfluous but harmful, + because the soil possesses a power of absorbing the soluble saline + matters required by plants and of retaining them, in spite of rain, + for assimilation by the roots. + + Liebig's literary activity was very great. The Royal Society's + _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_ enumerates 318 memoirs under his + name, exclusive of many others published in collaboration with other + investigators. A certain impetuousness of character which disposed him + to rush into controversy whenever doubt was cast upon the views he + supported accounted for a great deal of writing, and he also carried + on an extensive correspondence with Wöhler and other scientific men. + In 1832 he founded the _Annalen der Pharmazie_, which became the + _Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie_ in 1840 when Wöhler became + joint-editor with himself, and in 1837 with Wöhler and Poggendorff he + established the _Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie_. + After the death of Berzelius he continued the _Jahresbericht_ with H. + F. M. Kopp. The following are his most important separate + publications, many of which were translated into English and French + almost as soon as they appeared: _Anleitung zur Analyse der + organischen Körper_ (1837); _Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf + Agrikultur und Physiologie_ (1840); _Die Thier-Chemie oder die + organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie_ + (1842); _Handbuch der organischen Chemie mit Rücksicht auf Pharmazie_ + (1843); _Chemische Briefe_ (1844); _Chemische Untersuchungen über das + Fleisch und seine Zubereitung zum Nahrungsmittel_ (1847); _Die + Grundsätze der Agrikultur-Chemie_ (1855); _Über Theorie und Praxis in + der Landwirthschaft_ (1856); _Naturwissenschaftliche Briefe über die + moderne Landwirtschaft_ (1859). A posthumous collection of his + miscellaneous addresses and publications appeared in 1874 as _Reden + und Abhandlungen_, edited by his son George (b. 1827). His criticism + of Bacon, _Über Francis von Verulam_, was first published in 1863 in + the _Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung_, where also most of his letters on + chemistry made their first appearance. + + See _The Life Work of Liebig_ (London, 1876), by his pupil A. W. von + Hofmann, which is the Faraday lecture delivered before the London + Chemical Society in March 1875, and is reprinted in Hofmann's _Zur + Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde_; also W. A. Shenstone, _Justus + von Liebig, his Life and Work_ (1895). + + + + +LIEBKNECHT, WILHELM (1826-1900), German socialist, was burn at Giessen +on the 29th of March 1826. Left an orphan at an early age, he was +educated at the gymnasium in his native town, and attended the +universities of Giessen, Bonn and Marburg. Before he left school he had +become affected by the political discontent then general in Germany; he +had already studied the writings of St Simon, from which he gained his +first interest in communism, and had been converted to the extreme +republican theories of which Giessen was a centre. He soon came into +conflict with the authorities, and was expelled from Berlin apparently +in consequence of the strong sympathy he displayed for some Poles, who +were being tried for high treason. He proposed in 1846 to migrate to +America, but went instead to Switzerland, where he earned his living as +a teacher. As soon as the revolution of 1848 broke out he hastened to +Paris, but the attempt to organize a republican corps for the invasion +of Germany was prevented by the government. In September, however, in +concert with Gustav von Struve, he crossed the Rhine from Switzerland at +the head of a band of volunteers, and proclaimed a republic in Baden. +The attempt collapsed; he was captured, and, after suffering eight +months' imprisonment, was brought to trial. Fortunately for him, a new +rising had just broken out; the mob burst into the court, and he was +acquitted. During the short duration of the revolutionary government he +was an active member of the most extreme party, but on the arrival of +the Prussian troops he succeeded in escaping to France. Thence he went +to Geneva, where he came into intercourse with Mazzini; but, unlike most +of the German exiles, he was already an adherent of the socialist creed, +which at that time was more strongly held in France. Expelled from +Switzerland he went to London, where he lived for thirteen years in +close association with Karl Marx. He endured great hardships, but +secured a livelihood by teaching and writing; he was a correspondent of +the _Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung_. The amnesty of 1861 opened for him +the way back to Germany, and in 1862 he accepted the post of editor of +the _Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung_, the founder of which was an old +revolutionist. Only a few months elapsed before the paper, passed under +Bismarck's influence. There is no more curious episode in German +history than the success with which Bismarck acquired the services of +many of the men of 1848, but Liebknecht remained faithful to his +principles and resigned his editorship. He became a member of the +Arbeiterverein, and after the death of Ferdinand Lassalle he was the +chief mouthpiece in Germany of Karl Marx, and was instrumental in +spreading the influence of the newly-founded _International_. Expelled +from Prussia in 1865, he settled at Leipzig, and it is primarily to his +activity in Saxony among the newly-formed unions of workers that the +modern social democrat party owes its origin. Here he conducted the +_Demokratisches Wochenblatt_. In 1867 he was elected a member of the +North German Reichstag, but in opposition to Lassalle's followers he +refused all compromise with the "capitalists," and avowedly used his +position merely for purposes of agitation whilst taking every +opportunity for making the parliament ridiculous. He was strongly +influenced by the "great German" traditions of the democrats of 1848, +and, violently anti-Prussian, he distinguished himself by his attacks on +the policy of 1866 and the "revolution from above," and by his +opposition to every form of militarism. His adherence to the traditions +of 1848 are also seen in his dread of Russia, which he maintained to his +death. His opposition to the war of 1870 exposed him to insults and +violence, and in 1872 he was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a +fortress for treasonable intentions. The Union of the German Socialists +in 1874 at the congress of Gotha was really a triumph of his influence, +and from that time he was regarded as founder and leader of the party. +From 1874 till his death he was a member of the German Reichstag, and +for many years also of the Saxon diet. He was one of the chief spokesmen +of the party, and he took a very important part in directing its policy. +In 1881 he was expelled from Leipzig, but took up his residence in a +neighbouring village. After the lapse of the Socialist law (1890) he +became chief editor of the _Vorwärts_, and settled in Berlin. If he did +not always find it easy in his later years to follow the new +developments, he preserved to his death the idealism of his youth, the +hatred both of Liberalism and of State Socialism; and though he was to +some extent overshadowed by Bebel's greater oratorical power, he was the +chief support of the orthodox Marxian tradition. Liebknecht was the +author of numerous pamphlets and books, of which the most important +were: _Robert Blum und seine Zeit_ (Nuremberg, 1892); _Geschichte der +Französischen Revolution_ (Dresden, 1890); _Die Emser Depesche_ +(Nuremberg, 1899) and _Robert Owen_ (Nuremberg, 1892). He died at +Charlottenburg on the 6th of August 1900. + + See Kurt Eisner, _Wilhelm Liebknecht, sein Leben und Wirken_ (Berlin, + 1900). + + + + +LIECHTENSTEIN, the smallest independent state in Europe, save San Marino +and Monaco. It lies some way S. of the Lake of Constance, and extends +along the right bank of the Rhine, opposite Swiss territory, between +Sargans and Sennwald, while on the E. it also comprises the upper +portion of the Samina glen that joins the Ill valley at Frastanz, above +Feldkirch. It is about 12 m. in length, and covers an area of 61.4 or +68.8 sq. m. (according to different estimates). Its loftiest point rises +at the S.E. angle of the state, in the Rhätikon range, and is named to +Naafkopf or the Rothe Wand (8445 ft.); on its summit the Swiss, +Vorarlberg, and Liechtenstein frontiers join. In 1901 the population was +9477 (of whom 4890 were women and 4587 men). The capital is Vaduz (1523 +ft.), with about 1100 inhabitants, and 2 m. S. of the Schaan railway +station, which is 2 m. from Buchs (Switz.). Even in the 17th century the +Romonsch language was not extinguished in the state, and many Romonsch +place-names still linger, e.g. Vaduz, Samina, Gavadura, &c. Now the +population is German-speaking and Romanist. The constitution of 1862 was +amended in 1878, 1895 and 1901. All males of 24 years of age are primary +electors, while the diet consists of 12 members, holding their seats for +4 years and elected indirectly, together with 3 members nominated by the +prince. The prince has a lieutenant resident at Vaduz, whence there is +an appeal to the prince's court at Vienna, with a final appeal (since +1884) to the supreme district court at Innsbruck. Compulsory military +service was abolished in 1868, the army having till then been 91 strong. +The principality forms ecclesiastically part of the diocese of Coire, +while as regards customs duties it is joined with the Vorarlberg, and as +regards postal and coinage arrangements with Austria, which (according +to the agreement of 1852, renewed in 1876, by which the principality +entered the Austrian customs union) must pay it at least 40,000 crowns +annually. In 1904 the revenues of the principality amounted to 888,931 +crowns, and its expenditure to 802,163 crowns. There is no public debt. + +The county of Vaduz and the lordship of Schellenberg passed through many +hands before they were bought in 1613 by the count of Hohenems (to the +N. of Feldkirch). In consequence of financial embarrassments, that +family had to sell both (the lordship in 1699, the county in 1713) to +the Liechtenstein family, which had since the 12th century owned two +castles of that name (both now ruined), one in Styria and the other a +little S.W. of Vienna. In 1719 these new acquisitions were raised by the +emperor into a principality under the name of Liechtenstein, which +formed part successively of the Holy Roman Empire (till 1806) and of the +German Confederation (1815-1866), having been sovereign 1806-1815 as +well as since 1866. + + See J. Falke's _Geschichte d. fürstlichen Hauses Liechtenstein_ (3 + vols., Vienna, 1868-1883); J. C. Heer, _Vorarlberg und Liechtenstein_ + (Feldkirch, 1906); P. Kaiser, _Geschichte d. Fürstenthums + Liechtenstein_ (Coire, 1847); F. Umlauft, _Das Fürstenthum + Liechtenstein_ (Vienna, 1891); E. Walder, _Aus den Bergen_ (Zürich, + 1896); A. Waltenberger, _Algäu, Vorarlberg, und Westtirol_ (Rtes. 25 + and 26) (10th ed., Innsbruck, 1906). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LIÉGE, one of the nine provinces of Belgium, touching on the east the +Dutch province of Limburg and the German district of Rhenish Prussia. To +a certain extent it may be assumed to represent the old +prince-bishopric. Besides the city of Liége it contains the towns of +Verviers, Dolhain, Seraing, Huy, &c. The Meuse flows through the centre +of the province, and its valley from Huy down to Herstal is one of the +most productive mineral districts in Belgium. Much has been done of late +years to develop the agricultural resources of the Condroz district +south of the Meuse. The area of the province is 723,470 acres, or 1130 +sq. m. The population in 1904 was 863,254, showing an average of 763 per +sq. m. + + + + +LIÉGE (Walloon, _Lige_, Flemish, _Luik_, Ger. _Lüttich_), the capital of +the Belgian province that bears its name. It is finely situated on the +Meuse, and was long the seat of a prince-bishopric. It is the centre of +the Walloon country, and Scott commits a curious mistake in _Quentin +Durward_ in making its people talk Flemish. The Liége Walloon is the +nearest existing approach to the old Romance language. The importance of +the city to-day arises from its being the chief manufacturing centre in +Belgium, and owing to its large output of arms it has been called the +Birmingham of the Netherlands. The productive coal-mines of the Meuse +valley, extending from its western suburb of Seraing to its northern +faubourg of Herstal, constitute its chief wealth. At Seraing is +established the famous manufacturing firm of Cockerill, whose offices +are in the old summer palace of the prince-bishops. + +The great cathedral of St Lambert was destroyed and sacked by the French +in 1794, and in 1802 the church of St Paul, dating from the 10th century +but rebuilt in the 13th, was declared the cathedral. The law courts are +installed in the old palace of the prince-bishops, a building which was +constructed by Bishop Everard de la Marck between 1508 and 1540. The new +boulevards are well laid out, especially those flanking the river, and +the views of the city and surrounding country are very fine. The +university, which has separate schools for mines and arts and +manufactures, is one of the largest in the country, and enjoys a high +reputation for teaching in its special line. + +Liége is a fortified position of far greater strength than is generally +appreciated. In the wars of the 18th century Liége played but a small +part. It was then defended only by the citadel and a detached fort on +the right side of the Meuse, but at a short distance from the river, +called the Chartreuse. Marlborough captured these forts in 1703 in +preparation for his advance in the following year into Germany which +resulted in the victory of Blenheim. The citadel and the Chartreuse were +still the only defences of Liége in 1888 when, after long discussions, +the Belgian authorities decided on adequately fortifying the two +important passages of the Meuse at Liége and Namur. A similar plan was +adopted at each place, viz. the construction of a number of detached +forts along a perimeter drawn at a distance varying from 4 to 6 m. of +the town, so as to shelter it so far as possible from bombardment. At +Liége twelve forts were constructed, six on the right bank and six on +the left. Those on the right bank beginning at the north and following +an eastern curve are Barchon, Evegnée, Fléron, Chaudfontaine, Embourg +and Boncelles. The average distance between each fort is 4 m., but +Fléron and Chaudfontaine are separated by little over 1 m. in a direct +line as they defend the main line of railway from Germany. The six forts +on the left bank also commencing at the north, but following a western +curve, are Pontisse, Liers, Lantin, Loncin, Hollogne and Flemalle. These +forts were constructed under the personal direction of General +Brialmont, and are on exactly the same principle as those he designed +for the formidable defences of Bucarest. All the forts are constructed +in concrete with casemates, and the heavy guns are raised and lowered +automatically. Communication is maintained between the different forts +by military roads in all cases, and by steam tramways in some. It is +estimated that 25,000 troops would be required for the defence of the +twelve forts, but the number is inadequate for the defence of so +important and extensive a position. The population of Liége, which in +1875 was only 117,600, had risen by 1900 to 157,760, and in 1905 it was +168,532. + +_History._--Liége first appears in history about the year 558, at which +date St Monulph, bishop of Tongres, built a chapel near the confluence +of the Meuse and the Legia. A century later the town, which had grown up +round this chapel, became the favourite abode of St Lambert, bishop of +Tongres, and here he was assassinated. His successor St Hubert raised a +splendid church over the tomb of the martyred bishop about 720 and made +Liége his residence. It was not, however, until about 930 that the title +bishop of Tongres was abandoned for that of bishop of Liége. The +episcopate of Notger (972-1008) was marked by large territorial +acquisitions, and the see obtained recognition as an independent +principality of the Empire. The popular saying was "Liége owes Notger to +God, and everything else to Notger." By the munificent encouragement of +successive bishops Liége became famous during the 11th century as a +centre of learning, but the history of the town for centuries records +little else than the continuous struggles of the citizens to free +themselves from the exactions of their episcopal sovereigns; the aid of +the emperor and of the dukes of Brabant being frequently called in to +repress the popular risings. In 1316 the citizens compelled Bishop +Adolph de la Marck to sign a charter, which made large concessions to +the popular demands. It was, however, a triumph of short duration, and +the troubles continued, the insurgent subjects now and again obtaining a +fleeting success, only to be crushed by the armies of the powerful +relatives of the bishops, the houses of Brabant or of Burgundy. During +the episcopate of Louis de Bourbon (1456-1484) the Liégeois, having +expelled the bishop, had the temerity to declare war on Philip V., duke +of Burgundy. Philip's son, Charles the Bold, utterly defeated them in +1467, and razed the walls of the town to the ground. In the following +year the citizens again revolted, and Charles being once more successful +delivered up the city to sack and pillage for three days, and deprived +the remnant of the citizens of all their privileges. This incident is +narrated in _Quentin Durward_. The long episcopate of Eberhard de la +Marck (1505-1538) was a time of good administration and of quiet, during +which the town regained something of its former prosperity. The outbreak +of civil war between two factions, named the _Cluroux_ and the +_Grignoux_, marked the opening of the 17th century. Bishop Maximilian +Henry of Bavaria (1650-1688) at last put an end to the internal strife +and imposed a regulation (_règlement_) which abolished all the free +institutions of the citizens and the power of the gilds. Between this +date and the outbreak of the French Revolution the chief efforts of the +prince-bishops were directed to maintaining neutrality in the various +wars, and preserving their territory from being ravaged by invading +armies. They were only in part successful. Liége was taken by +Marlborough in 1702, and the fortress was garrisoned by the Dutch until +1718. The French revolutionary armies overran the principality in 1792, +and from 1794 to the fall of Napoleon it was annexed to France, and was +known as the department of the Ourthe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 +decreed that Liége with the other provinces of the southern Netherlands +should form part of the new kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of +William I., of the house of Orange. The town of Liége took an active +part in the Belgian revolt of 1830, and since that date the ancient +principality has been incorporated in the kingdom of Belgium. + +The see, which at first bore the name of the bishopric of Tongres, was +under the metropolitan jurisdiction of the archbishops of Cologne. The +principality comprised besides the town of Liége and its district, the +counties of Looz and Hoorn, the marquessate of Franchimont, and the +duchy of Bouillon. + + AUTHORITIES.--Théodore Bouille, _Histoire de la ville et du pays de + Liége_ (3 vols., Liége, 1725-1732); A. Borgnet, _Histoire de la + révolution liégeoise_ (2 vols., Liége, 1865); Baron B. C. de Gerlache, + _Histoire de Liége_ (Brussels, 1843); J. Daris, _Histoire du diocèse + et de la principauté de Liége_ (10 vols., Liége, 1868-1885); Ferdinand + Henaux, _Histoire du pays de Liége_ (2 vols., Liége, 1857); L. Polain, + _Histoire de l'ancien pays de Liége_ (2 vols., Liége, 1844-1847). For + full bibliography see Ulysse Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources + historiques_. _Topo-bibliographie_, s.v. (Montbéliard, 1900). + + + + +LIEGE, an adjective implying the mutual relationship of a feudal +superior and his vassal; the word is used as a substantive of the feudal +superior, more usually in this sense, however, in the form "liege lord," +and also of the vassals, his "lieges." Hence the word is often used of +the loyal subjects of a sovereign, with no reference to feudal ties. It +appears that _ligeitas_ or _ligentia_, the medieval Latin term for this +relationship, was restricted to a particular form of homage. According +to N. Broussel (_Nouvel examen de l'usage général des fiefs en France_, +1727) the homage of a "liege" was a stronger form of the ordinary +homage, the especial distinction being that while the ordinary vassal +only undertook forty days' military service, the liege promised to serve +as long as the war might last, in which his superior was engaged (cf. +Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "_Ligius_"). + +The etymology of the word has been much discussed. It comes into English +through the O. Fr. _lige_ or _liege_, Med. Lat. _ligius_. This was early +connected with the Lat. _ligatus_, bound, _ligare_, to bind, from the +sense of the obligation of the vassal to his lord, but this has been +generally abandoned. Broussel takes the Med. Lat. _liga_, i.e., +_foedus_, _confederatio_, the English "league," as the origin. Ducange +connects it with the word _lities_, which appears in a gloss of the +Salic law, and is defined as a _scriptitius_, _servus glebae_. The more +usually accepted derivation is now from the Old High Ger. _ledic_, or +_ledig_, meaning "free" (Mod. Ger. _ledig_ means unoccupied, _vacuus_). +This is confirmed by the occurrence in a charter of Otto of Benthem, +1253, of a word "ledigh-man" (quoted in Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v.), +_Proinde affecti sumus ligius homo, quod Teutonice dictur Ledighman_. +Skeat, in explaining the application of "free" to such a relationship as +that subsisting between a feudal superior and his vassal, says "'a +_liege_ lord' seems to have been the lord of a free band; and his +_lieges_, though serving under him, were privileged men, free from all +other obligations; their name being due to their _freedom_, not to their +service" (_Etym. Dict._, ed. 1898). A. Luchaire (_Manuel des +institutions françaises_, 1892, p. 189, n. 1) considers it difficult to +call a man "free" who is under a strict obligation to another; further +that the "liege" was not free from all obligation to a third party, for +the charters prove without doubt that the "liege men" owed duty to more +than one lord. + + + + +LIEGNITZ, a town in Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, +picturesquely situated on the Katzbach, just above its junction with +the Schwarzwasser, and 40 m. W.N.W, of Breslau, on the main line of +railway to Berlin via Sommerfeld. Pop. (1885) 43,347, (1905) 59,710. It +consists of an old town, surrounded by pleasant, shady promenades, and +several well-built suburbs. The most prominent building is the palace, +formerly the residence of the dukes of Liegnitz, rebuilt after a fire in +1835 and now used as the administrative offices of the district. The +Ritter Akademie, founded by the emperor Joseph I. in 1708 for the +education of the young Silesian nobles, was reconstructed as a gymnasium +in 1810. The Roman Catholic church of St John, with two fine towers, +contains the burial vault of the dukes. The principal Lutheran church, +that of SS. Peter and Paul (restored in 1892-1894), dates from the 14th +century. The manufactures are considerable, the chief articles made +being cloth, wool, leather, tobacco, pianos and machinery. Its trade in +grain and its cattle-markets are likewise important. The large market +gardens in the suburbs grow vegetables of considerable annual value. + +Liegnitz is first mentioned in an historical document in the year 1004. +In 1163 it became the seat of the dukes of Liegnitz, who greatly +improved and enlarged it. The dukes were members of the illustrious +Piast family, which gave many kings to Poland. During the Thirty Years' +War Liegnitz was taken by the Swedes, but was soon recaptured by the +Imperialists. The Saxon army also defeated the imperial troops near +Liegnitz in 1634. On the death of the last duke of Liegnitz in 1675, the +duchy came into the possession of the Empire, which retained it until +the Prussian conquest of Silesia in 1742. On the 15th of August 1760 +Frederick the Great gained a decisive victory near Liegnitz over the +Austrians, and in August 1813 Blücher defeated the French in the +neighbourhood at the battle of the Katzbach. During the 19th century +Liegnitz rapidly increased in population and prosperity. In 1906 the +German autumn manoeuvres were held over the terrain formerly the scene +of the great battles already mentioned. + + See Schuchard, _Die Stadt Liegnitz_ (Berlin, 1868); Sammter and + Kraffert, _Chronik von Liegnitz_ (Liegnitz, 1861-1873); Jander, + _Liegnitz in seinem Entwickelungsgange_ (Liegnitz, 1905); and _Führer + für Liegnitz und seine Umgebung_ (Liegnitz, 1897); and the + _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Liegnitz bis 1455_, edited by Schirrmacher + (Liegnitz, 1866). + + + + +LIEN, in law. The word _lien_ is literally the French for a band, cord +or chain, and keeping in mind that meaning we see in what respect it +differs from a pledge on the one hand and a mortgage on the other. It is +the bond which attaches a creditor's right to a debtor's property, but +which gives no right _ad rem_, i.e. to property in the thing; if the +property is in the possession of the creditor he may retain it, but in +the absence of statute he cannot sell to recover what is due to him +without the ordinary legal process against the debtor; and if it is not +in possession, the law would indeed assist him to seize the property, +and will hold it for him, and enable him to sell it in due course and +pay himself out of the proceeds, but does not give him the property +itself. It is difficult to say at what period the term lien made its +appearance in English law; it probably came from more than one source. +In fact, it was used as a convenient phrase for any right against the +owner of property in regard to the property not specially defined by +other better recognized species of title. + +The possessory lien of a tradesman for work done on the thing, of a +carrier for his hire, and of an innkeeper for his bill, would seem to be +an inherent right which must have been in existence from the dawn, or +before the dawn, of civilization. Probably the man who made or repaired +weapons in the Stone Age was careful not to deliver them until he +received what was stipulated for, but it is also probable that the term +itself resulted from the infusion of the civil law of Rome into the +common law of England which the Norman Conquest brought about, and that +it represents the "tacit pledge" of the civil law. As might be expected, +so far as the possessory lien is concerned the common law and civil law, +and probably the laws of all countries, whether civilized or not, +coincide; but there are many differences with respect to other species +of lien. For instance, by the common law--in this respect a legacy of +the feudal system--a landlord has a lien over his tenant's furniture and +effects for rent due, which can be enforced without the assistance of +the law simply by the landlord taking possession, personally or by his +agent, and selling enough to satisfy his claim; whereas the maritime +lien is more distinctly the product of the civil law, and is only found +and used in admiralty proceedings, the high court of admiralty having +been founded upon the civil law, and still (except so far as restrained +by the common-law courts prior to the amalgamation and co-ordination of +the various courts by the Judicature Acts, and as affected by statute +law) acting upon it. The peculiar effects of this maritime lien are +discussed below. There is also a class of liens, usually called +equitable liens (e.g. that of an unpaid vendor of real property over the +property sold), which are akin to the nature of the civil law rather +than of the common law. The word lien does not frequently occur in +statute law, but it is found in the extension of the common-law +"carriers' or shipowners' lien" in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894; in +the definition, extension and limitation of the vendor's lien; in the +Factors Act 1877, and the Sale of Goods Act 1893; in granting a maritime +lien to a shipmaster for his wages and disbursements, and in regulating +that of the seamen in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894; and in the equity +jurisdiction of the county courts 1888. + +_Common-Law Liens._--These may be either particular, i.e. a right over +one or more specified articles for a particular debt, or general, i.e. +for all debts owing to the creditor by the debtor. + +The requisites for a particular lien are, firstly, that the creditor +should be in possession of the article; secondly, that the debt should +be incurred with reference to the article; and thirdly, that the amount +of the debt should be certain. It may be created by express contract, by +implied contract (such as the usage of a particular trade or business), +or as a consequence of the legal relation existing between the parties. +As an example of the first, a shipowner at common law has a lien on the +cargo for the freight; but though the shipper agrees to pay dead freight +in addition, i.e. to pay freight on any space in the ship which he fails +to occupy with his cargo, the shipowner has no lien on the cargo for +such dead freight except by express agreement. The most usual form of +the second is that which is termed a possessory lien--the right a +ship-repairer has to retain a ship in his yard till he is paid for the +repairs executed upon her,[1] and the right a cobbler has to retain a +pair of shoes till he is paid for the repairs done to them. But this +lien is only in respect of the work done on, and consequent benefit +received by, the subject of the lien. Hence an agistor of cattle has no +lien at common law upon them for the value of the pasturage consumed, +though he may have one by agreement; nor a conveyancer upon deeds which +he has not drawn, but which are in his possession for reference. The +most common example of the third is that of a carrier, who is bound by +law to carry for all persons, and has, therefore, a lien for the price +of the carriage on the goods carried. It has been held that even if the +goods are stolen, and entrusted to the carrier by the thief, the carrier +can hold them for the price of the carriage against the rightful owner. +Of the same nature is the common-law lien of an innkeeper on the baggage +of his customer for the amount of his account, he being under a legal +obligation to entertain travellers generally. Another instance of the +same class is where a person has obtained possession of certain things +over which he claims to hold a lien in the exercise of a legal right. +For example, when a lord of a manor has seized cattle as estrays, he has +a lien upon them for the expense of their keep as against the real +owner; but the holder's claim must be specific, otherwise a general +tender of compensation releases the lien. + +A general lien is a right of a creditor to retain property, not merely +for charges relating to it specifically, but for debts due on a general +account. This not being a common-law right, is viewed by the English +courts with the greatest jealousy, and to be enforced must be strictly +proved. This can be done by proof either of an express or implied +contract or of a general usage of trade. The first of these is +established by the ordinary methods or by previous dealings between the +parties on such terms; the second is recognized in certain businesses; +it would probably be exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to extend +it at the present time to any other trades. When, however, a lien by +general usage has once been judicially established, it becomes part of +the Law Merchant, and the courts are bound to recognize and enforce it. +The best known and most important instance is the right of a solicitor +to retain papers in his hands belonging to his client until his account +is settled. The solicitor's lien, though probably more commonly enforced +than any other, is of no great antiquity in English law, the earliest +reported case of it being in the reign of James II.; but it is now of a +twofold nature. In the first place there is the retaining lien. This is +similar in kind to other possessory liens, but of a general nature +attaching to all papers of the client, and even to his money, up to the +amount of the solicitor's bill, in the hands of the solicitor in the +ordinary course of business. There are certain exceptions which seem to +have crept in for the same reason as the solicitor's lien itself, i.e. +general convenience of litigation; such exceptions are the will of the +client after his decease, and proceedings in bankruptcy. In this latter +case the actual possessory lien is given up, the solicitor's interests +and priorities being protected by the courts, and it may be said that +the giving up the papers is really only a means of enforcing the lien +they give in the bankruptcy proceedings. In the second place there is +what is called a charging lien--more correctly classed under the head of +equitable lien, since it does not require possession, but is a lien the +solicitor holds over property recovered or preserved for his client. He +had the lien on an order by the court upon a fund in court by the common +law, but as to property generally it was only given by 23 & 24 Vict. c. +127, § 28; and it has been held to attach to property recovered in a +probate action (_ex parte Tweed_, C.A. 1899, 2 Q.B. 167). A banker's +lien is the right of a banker to retain securities belonging to his +customer for money due on a general balance. Other general liens, +judicially established, are those of wharfingers, brokers and factors +(which are in their nature akin to those of solicitors and bankers), and +of calico printers, packers of goods, fullers (at all events at Exeter), +dyers and millers; but in all these special trades it is probable that +the true reason is that the account due was for one continuous +transaction. The calico would come to be printed, the goods to be +packed, the cloth to be bleached, the silk to be dyed, and the corn to +be ground, in separate parcels, and at different times, but all as one +undertaking; and they are therefore, though spoken of as instances of +general lien, only adaptations by the courts of the doctrine of +particular lien to special peculiarities of business. In none of these +cases would the lien exist, in the absence of special agreement, for +other matters of account, such as money lent or goods sold. + +_Equitable Liens._--"Where equity has jurisdiction to enforce rights and +obligations growing out of an executory contract," e.g. in a suit for +specific performance, "this equitable theory of remedies cannot be +carried out unless the notion is admitted that the contract creates some +right or interest in or over specific property, which the decree of the +court can lay hold of, and by means of which the equitable relief can be +made efficient. The doctrine of equitable liens supplies this necessary +element; and it was introduced for the sole purpose of furnishing a +ground for these specific remedies which equity confers, operating upon +particular identified property instead of the general pecuniary +recoveries granted by courts of common law. It follows, therefore, that +in a large class of executory contracts express and implied, which the +common law regards as creating no property, right nor interest analogous +to property, but only a mere personal right to obligation, equity +recognizes in addition to the personal obligation a particular right +over the thing with which the contract deals, which it calls a _lien_, +and which though not property is analogous to property, and by means of +which the plaintiff is enabled to follow the identical thing and to +enforce the defendant's obligation by a remedy which operates directly +on the thing. The theory of equitable liens has its ultimate +foundation, therefore, in contracts express or implied which either deal +or in some manner relate to specific property, such as a tract of land, +particular chattels or securities, a certain fund and the like. It is +necessary to divest oneself of the purely legal notion concerning the +effects of such contracts, and to recognize the fact that equity regards +them as creating a charge upon, or hypothecation of, the specific thing, +by means of which the personal obligation arising from the agreement may +be more effectively enforced than by a mere pecuniary recovery at law" +(Pomeroy, 2 Eq. Jur. 232). + +This description from an American text-book seems to give at once the +fullest and most concise definition and description of an equitable +lien. It differs essentially from a common-law lien, inasmuch as in the +latter possession or occupation is as a rule necessary, whereas in the +equitable lien the person claiming the lien is seldom in possession or +occupation of the property, its object being to obtain the possession +wholly or partially. A special instance of such a lien is that claimed +by a publisher over the copyright of a book which he has agreed to +publish on terms which are not complied with--for example, the author +attempting to get the book published elsewhere. It cannot perhaps be +said that this has been absolutely decided to exist, but a strong +opinion of the English court of exchequer towards the close of the 18th +century was expressed in its favour (_Brook_ v. _Wentworth_, 3 +Anstruther 881). Other instances are the charging lien of a solicitor, +and the lien of a person on improvements effected by him on the property +of another who "lies by" and allows the work to be done before claiming +the property. So also of a trustee for expenses lawfully incurred about +the trust property. The power of a limited liability company to create a +lien upon its own shares was in 1901 established (_Allen_ v. _Gold +Reefs, &c._, C.A. 1900, 1 Ch. 656). + +_Maritime Liens._--Maritime lien differs from all the others yet +considered, in its more elastic nature. Where a maritime lien has once +attached to property--and it may and generally does attach without +possession--it will continue to attach, unless lost by laches, so long +as the thing to which it attaches exists, notwithstanding changes in the +possession of and property in the thing, and notwithstanding that the +new possessor or owner may be entirely ignorant of its existence; and +even if enforced it leaves the owner's personal liability for any +balance unrealized intact (the "_Gemma_," 1899, P. 285). So far as +England is concerned, it must be borne in mind that the courts of +admiralty were conducted in accordance with the principles of civil law, +and in that law both the pledge with possession and the hypothecation +without possession were well recognized. The extreme convenience of such +a right as the latter with regard to such essentially movable chattels +as ships is apparent. Strictly speaking, a maritime lien is confined to +cases arising in those matters over which the courts of admiralty had +original jurisdiction, viz. collisions at sea, seamen's wages, salvage +and bottomry, in all of which cases the appropriate remedy is a +proceeding _in rem_ in the admiralty court. In the first of +these--collisions at sea--if there were no maritime lien there would +frequently be no remedy at all. When two ships have collided at sea it +may well be that the innocent ship knows neither the name nor the +nationality of the wrongdoer, and the vessel may escape with slight +damage and not have to make a port of refuge in the neighbourhood. +Months afterwards it is ascertained that she was a foreign ship, and in +the interval she has changed owners. Then, were it not a fact that a +maritime lien invisible to the wrongdoer nevertheless attaches itself to +his ship at the moment of collision, and continues to attach, the +unfortunate owner of the innocent ship would have no remedy, except the +doubtful one of pursuing the former owner of the wrong-doing vessel in +his own country in a personal action where such proceedings are +allowed--which is by no means the case in all foreign countries. The +same reasons apply, though not possibly with quite the same force, to +the other classes of cases mentioned. + +Between 1840 and 1873 the jurisdiction of the admiralty court was +largely extended. At the latter date it was merged in the probate, +divorce and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Since the +merger questions have arisen as to how far the enlargement of +jurisdiction has extended the principle of maritime lien. An interesting +article on this subject by J. Mansfield, barrister-at-law, will be found +in the _Law Quarterly Review_, vol. iv., October 1888. It must be +sufficient to state here that where legislation has extended the already +existing jurisdiction to which a maritime lien pertained, the maritime +lien is extended to the subject matter, but that where a new +jurisdiction is given, or where a jurisdiction formerly existing without +a maritime lien is extended, no maritime lien is given, though even then +the extended jurisdiction can be enforced by proceedings _in rem_. Of +the first class of extended jurisdictions are collisions, salvage and +seamen's wages. Prior to 1840 the court of admiralty only had +jurisdiction over these when occurring or earned on the high seas. The +jurisdiction, and with it the maritime lien, is extended to places +within the body of a county in collision or salvage; and as to seamen's +wages, whereas they were dependent on the earning of freight, they are +now free from any such limitation; and also, whereas the remedy _in rem_ +was limited to seamen's wages not earned under a special contract, it is +now extended to all seamen's wages, and also to a master's wages and +disbursements, and the maritime lien covers all these. The new +jurisdiction given over claims for damage to cargo carried into any port +in England or Wales, and on appeal from the county courts over all +claims for damage to cargo under £300, though it may be prosecuted by +proceedings _in rem_, i.e. by arrest of the ship, yet confers no +maritime lien; and so also in the case of claims by material men +(builders and fitters-out of ships) and for necessaries. Even though in +the latter case the admiralty court had jurisdiction previously to 1840 +where the necessaries were supplied on the high seas, yet as it could +not be shown that such jurisdiction had ever been held to confer a +maritime lien, no such lien is given. Even now there is much doubt as to +whether towage confers a maritime lien or not, the services rendered +being pursuant to contract, and frequently to a contract made verbally +or in writing on the high seas, and being rendered also to a great +extent on the high seas. In these cases and to that extent the high +court of admiralty would have had original jurisdiction. But prior to +1840 towage, as now rendered by steam tugs expressly employed for the +service, was practically unknown, and therefore there was no established +catena of precedent to show the exercise of a maritime lien. It may be +argued on the one hand that towage is only a modified form of salvage, +and therefore entitled to a maritime lien, and on the other that it is +only a form of necessary power supplied like a new sail or mast to a +ship to enable her to complete her voyage expeditiously, and therefore +of the nature of necessaries, and as such not entitled to a maritime +lien. The matter is not of academical interest only, for though in the +case of an inward-bound ship the tug owner can make use of his statutory +right of proceeding _in rem_, and so obtain much of the benefit of a +maritime lien, yet in the case of an outward-bound ship, if she once +gets away without payment, and the agent or other authorized person +refuses or is unable to pay, the tug owner's claim may, on the return of +the ship to a British port, be met by an allegation of a change of +ownership, which defeats his right of proceeding at all if he has no +maritime lien; whereas if he has a maritime lien he can still proceed +against the ship and recover his claim, if he has not been guilty of +laches. + + A convenient division of the special liens other than possessory on + ships may be made by classifying them as maritime, statutory-maritime + or quasi-maritime, and statutory. The first attach only in the case of + damage done by collision between ships on the high seas, salvage on + the high seas, bottomry and seamen's wages so far as freight has been + earned; the second attach in cases of damage by collision within the + body of a county, salvage within the body of a county, life salvage + everywhere, seamen's wages even if no freight has been earned, + master's wages and disbursements. These two classes continue to attach + notwithstanding a change of ownership without notice of the lien, if + there have been no laches in enforcing it (the "_Bold Buccleuch_," + 1852, 7 Moo. P.C. 267; the "_Kong Magnus_," 1891, P. 223). The third + class, which only give a right to proceed _in rem_, i.e. against the + ship itself, attach, so long as there is no _bona fide_ change of + ownership, without citing the owners, in all cases of claims for + damage to ship and of claims for damage to cargo where no owner is + domiciled in England or Wales. Irrespective of this limitation, they + attach in all cases not only of damage to cargo, but also of breaches + of contract to carry where the damage does not exceed £300, when the + suit must be commenced in a county court having admiralty + jurisdiction; and in cases of claims for necessaries supplied + elsewhere than in the ship's home port, for wages earned even under a + special contract by masters and mariners, and of claims for towage. In + all three classes the lien also exists over cargo where the suit from + its nature extends to it, as in salvage and in some cases of bottomry + or respondentia, and in cases where proceedings are taken against + cargo by the shipowner for a breach of contract (cargo _ex_ "_Argos_" + and the "_Hewsons_," 1873, L.R. 5 P.C. 134; the "_Alina_," 1880, 5 Ex. + D. 227). + + Elsewhere than in England, and those countries such as the United + States which have adopted her jurisprudence in maritime matters + generally, the doctrine of maritime lien, or that which is substituted + for it, is very differently treated. Speaking generally, those states + which have adopted the Napoleonic codes or modifications of + them--France, Italy, Spain, Holland, Portugal, Belgium, Greece, + Turkey, and to some extent Russia--have instead of a maritime lien the + civil-law principle of privileged debts. Amongst these in all cases + are found claims for salvage, wages, bottomry under certain + restrictions, and necessaries. Each of these has a privileged claim + against the ship, and in some cases against freight and cargo as well, + but it is a matter of very great importance that, except in Belgium, a + claim for collision damage (which as we have seen confers a maritime + lien, and one of a very high order, in Great Britain) confers no + privilege against the wrong-doing ship, whilst in all these countries + an owner can get rid of his personal liability by abandoning the ship + and freight to his creditor, and so, if the ship is sunk, escape all + liability whilst retaining any insurance there may be. This, indeed, + was at one time the law of Great Britain; the measure of damage was + limited by the value of the _res_; and in the United States at the + present time a shipowner can get rid of his liability for damage by + abandoning the ship and freight. A different rule prevails in Germany + and the Scandinavian states. There claims relating to the ship, unless + the owner has specially rendered himself liable, confer no personal + claim at all against him. The claim is limited _ab initio_ to ship and + freight, except in the case of seamen's wages, which do confer a + personal claim so far as they have been earned on a voyage or passage + completed prior to the loss of the ship. In all maritime states, + however, except Spain, a provisional arrest of the ship is allowed, + and thus between the privilege accorded to the debt and the power to + arrest till bail is given or the ship abandoned to creditors, a + condition of things analogous to the maritime lien is established; + especially as these claims when the proper legal steps have been taken + to render them valid--usually by endorsement on the ship's papers on + board, or by registration at her port of registry--attach to the ship + and follow her into the hands of a purchaser. They are in fact notice + to him of the incumbrance. + +_Duration of Lien._--So long as the party claiming the lien at common +law retains the property, the lien continues, notwithstanding the debt +in respect of which it is claimed becoming barred by the Statute of +Limitations (_Higgins_ v. _Scott_, 1831, 2 B. & Ald. 413). But if he +takes proceedings at law to recover the debt, and on a sale of the goods +to satisfy the judgment purchases them himself, he so alters the nature +of the possession that he loses his lien (_Jacobs_ v. _Latour_, 5 Bing. +130). An equitable lien probably in all cases continues, provided the +purchaser of the subject matter has notice of the lien at the time of +his purchase. A maritime lien is in no respect subject to the Statute of +Limitations, and continues in force notwithstanding a change in the +ownership of the property without notice, and is only terminated when it +has once attached, by laches on the part of the person claiming it (the +"_Kong Magnus_," 1891, P. 223). There is an exception in the case of +seamen's wages, where by 4 Anne c. 16 (_Stat. Rev._ 4 & 5 Anne c. 3) all +suits for seamen's wages in the Admiralty must be brought within six +years. + +_Ranking of Maritime Liens._--There may be several claimants holding +maritime and other liens on the same vessel. For example, a foreign +vessel comes into collision by her own fault and is damaged and her +cargo also; she is assisted into port by salvors and ultimately under a +towage agreement, and put into the hands of a shipwright who does +necessary repairs. The innocent party to the collision has a maritime +lien for his damage, and the seamen for their wages; the cargo owner has +a suit _in rem_ or a statutory lien for damage, and the shipwright a +possessory lien for the value of his repairs, while the tugs certainly +have a right _in rem_ and possibly a maritime lien also in the nature of +salvage. The value of the property may be insufficient to pay all +claims, and it becomes a matter of great consequence to settle whether +any, and if so which, have priority over the others, or whether all rank +alike and have to divide the proceeds of the property _pro ratâ_ amongst +them. The following general rules apply: liens for benefits conferred +rank against the fund in the inverse, and those for the reparation of +damage sustained in the direct order of their attaching to the _res_; as +between the two classes those last mentioned rank before those first +mentioned of earlier date; as between liens of the same class and the +same date, the first claimant has priority over others who have not +taken action. The courts of admiralty, however, allow equitable +considerations, and enter into the question of marshalling assets. For +example, if one claimant has a lien on two funds, or an effective right +of action in addition to his lien, and another claimant has only a lien +upon one fund, the first claimant will be obliged to exhaust his second +remedy before coming into competition with the second. As regards +possessory liens, the shipwright takes the ship as she stands, i.e. with +her incumbrances, and it appears that the lien for seaman's wages takes +precedence of a solicitor's lien for costs, under a charging order made +in pursuance of the Solicitors Act 1860, § 28. + + Subject to equitable considerations, the true principle appears to be + that services rendered under an actual or implied contract, which + confer a maritime lien, make the holder of the lien in some sort a + proprietor of the vessel, and therefore liable for damage done by + her--hence the priority of the damage lien--but, directly it has + attached, benefits conferred on the property by enabling it to reach + port in safety benefit the holder of the damage lien in common with + all other prior holders of maritime liens. It is less easy to see why + of two damage liens the earlier should take precedence of the later, + except on the principle that the _res_ which came into collision the + second time is depreciated in value by the amount of the existing lien + upon her for the first collision, and where there was more than one + damage lien, and also liens for benefits conferred prior to the first + collision between the two collisions and subsequent to the second, the + court would have to make a special order to meet the peculiar + circumstances. The claim of a mortgagee naturally is deferred to all + maritime liens, whether they are for benefits conferred on the + property in which he is interested or for damage done by it, and also + for the same reason to the possessory lien of the shipwright, but both + the possessory lien of the shipwright and the claim of the mortgagee + take precedence over a claim for necessaries, which only confers a + statutory lien or a right to proceed _in rem_ in certain cases. In + other maritime states possessing codes of commercial law, the + privileged debts are all set out in order of priority in these codes, + though, as has been already pointed out, the lien for damage by + collision--the most important in English law--has no counterpart in + most of the foreign codes. + +_Stoppage in Transitu._--This is a lien held by an unpaid vendor in +certain cases over goods sold after they have passed out of his actual +possession. It has been much discussed whether it is an equitable or +common-law right or lien. The fact appears to be that it has always been +a part of the Law Merchant, which, properly speaking, is itself a part +of the common law of England unless inconsistent with it. This +particular right was, in the first instance, held by a court of equity +to be equitable and not contrary to English law, and by that decision +this particular part of the Law Merchant was approved and became part of +the common law of England (see per Lord Abinger in _Gibson_ v. +_Carruthers_, 8 M. & W., p. 336 et seq.). It may be described as a lien +by the Law Merchant, decided by equity to be part of the common law, but +in its nature partaking rather of the character of an equitable lien +than one at common law. "It is a right which arises solely upon the +insolvency of the buyer, and is based on the plain reason of justice and +equity that one man's goods shall not be applied to the payment of +another man's debts. If, therefore, after the vendor has delivered the +goods out of his own possession and put them in the hands of a carrier +for delivery to the buyer, he discovers that the buyer is insolvent, he +may re-take the goods if he can before they reach the buyer's +possession, and thus avoid having his property applied to paying debts +due by the buyer to other people" (_Benjamin on Sales_, 2nd ed., 289). +This right, though only recognized by English law in 1690, is highly +favoured by the courts on account of its intrinsic justice, and extends +to quasi-vendors, or persons in the same position, such as consignors +who have bought on behalf of a principal and forwarded the goods. It is, +however, defeated by a lawful transfer of the document of title to the +goods by the vendor to a third person, who takes it _bonâ fide_ and for +valuable consideration (Factors Act 1889; Sale of Goods Act 1893). + +_Assignment or Transfer of Lien._--A lien being a personal right +acquired in respect of personal services, it cannot, as a rule, be +assigned or transferred; but here again there are exceptions. The +personal representative of the holder of a possessory lien on his +decease would probably in all cases be held entitled to it; and it has +been held that the lien over a client's papers remains with the firm of +solicitors notwithstanding changes in the constitution of the firm +(_Gregory_ v. _Cresswell_, 14 L.J. Ch. 300). So also where a solicitor, +having a lien on documents for his costs, assigned the debt to his +bankers with the benefit of the lien, it was held that the bankers might +enforce such lien in equity. But though a tradesman has a lien on the +property of his customer for his charges for work done upon it, where +the property is delivered to him by a servant acting within the scope of +his employment, such lien cannot be transferred to the servant, even if +he has paid the money himself; and the lien does not exist at all if the +servant was acting without authority in delivering the goods, except +where (as in the case of a common carrier) he is bound to receive the +goods, in which case he retains his lien for the carriage against the +rightful owner. Where, however, there is a lien on property of any sort +not in possession, a person acquiring the property with knowledge of the +lien takes it subject to such lien. This applies to equitable liens, and +cannot apply to those common-law liens in which possession is necessary. +It is, however, true that by statute certain common-law liens can be +transferred, e.g. under the Merchant Shipping Act a master of a ship +having a lien upon cargo for his freight can transfer the possession of +the cargo to a wharfinger, and with it the lien (Merchant Shipping Act +1894, § 494). In this case, however, though the matter is simplified by +the statute, if the wharfinger was constituted the agent or servant of +the shipmaster, his possession would be the possession of the +shipmaster, and there would be no real transfer of the lien; therefore +the common-law doctrine is not altered, only greater facilities for the +furtherance of trade are given by the statute, enabling the wharfinger +to act in his own name without reference to his principal, who may be at +the other side of the world. So also a lien may be retained, +notwithstanding that the property passes out of possession, where it has +to be deposited in some special place (such as the Custom-House) to +comply with the law. Seamen cannot sell or assign or in any way part +with their maritime lien for wages (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 156), +but, nevertheless, with the sanction of the court, a person who pays +seamen their wages is entitled to stand in their place and exercise +their rights (the _Cornelia Henrietta_, 1866, L.R. 1 Ad. & Ec. 51). + +_Waiver._--Any parting with the possession of goods is in general a +waiver of the lien upon them; for example, when a factor having a lien +on the goods of his principal gives them to a carrier to be carried at +the expense of his principal, even if undisclosed, he waives his lien, +and has no right to stop the goods _in transitu_ to recover it; so also +where a coach-builder who has a lien on a carriage for repairs allows +the owner from time to time to take it out for use without expressly +reserving his lien, he has waived it, nor has he a lien for the standage +of the carriage except by express agreement, as mere standage does not +give a possessory lien. It has even been held that where a portion of +goods sold as a whole for a lump sum has been taken away and paid for +proportionately, the conversion has taken place and the lien for the +residue of the unpaid purchase-money has gone (_Gurr_ v. _Cuthbert_, +1843, 12 L.J. Ex. 309). Again, an acceptance of security for a debt is +inconsistent with the existence of a lien, as it substitutes the credit +of the owner for the material guarantee of the thing itself, and so acts +as a waiver of the lien. For the same reason even an agreement to take +security is a waiver of the lien, though the security is not, in fact, +given (_Alliance Bank_ v. _Broon_, 11 L.T. 332). + +_Sale of Goods under Lien._--At common law the lien only gives a right +to retain the goods, and ultimately to sell by legal process, against +the owner; but in certain cases a right has been given by statute to +sell without the intervention of legal process, such as the right of an +innkeeper to sell the goods of his customer for his unpaid account +(Innkeepers Act 1878, § 1), the right of a wharfinger to sell goods +entrusted to him by a shipowner with a lien upon them for freight, and +also for their own charges (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, §§ 497, 498), +and of a railway company to sell goods for their charges (Railway +Clauses Act 1845, § 97). Property affected by an equitable lien or a +maritime lien cannot be sold by the holder of the lien without the +interposition of the court to enforce an order, or judgment of the +court. In Admiralty cases, where a sale is necessary, no bail having +been given and the property being under arrest, the sale is usually made +by the marshal in London, but may be elsewhere on the parties concerned +showing that a better price is likely to be obtained. + +AMERICAN LAW.--In the United States, speaking very generally, the law +relating to liens is that of England, but there are some considerable +differences occasioned by three principal causes. (1) Some of the +Southern States, notably Louisiana, have never adopted the common law of +England. When that state became one of the United States of North +America it had (and still preserves) its own system of law. In this +respect the law is practically identical with the Code Napoleon, which, +again speaking generally, substitutes privileges for liens, i.e. gives +certain claims a prior right to others against particular property. +These privileges being _strictissimae interpretationis_, cannot be +extended by any principle analogous to the English doctrine of equitable +liens. (2) Probably in consequence of the United States and the several +states composing it having had a more democratic government than Great +Britain, in their earlier years at all events, certain liens have been +created by statute in several states in the interest of the working +classes which have no parallel in Great Britain, e.g. in some states +workmen employed in building a house or a ship have a lien upon the +building or structure itself for their unpaid wages. This statutory lien +partakes rather of the nature of an equitable than of a common-law lien, +as the property is not in the possession of the workman, and it may be +doubted whether the right thus conferred is more beneficial to the +workman than the priority his wages have in bankruptcy proceedings in +England. Some of the states have also practically extended the maritime +lien to matters over which it was never contended for in England. (3) By +the constitution of the United States the admiralty and inter-state +jurisdiction is vested in the federal as distinguished from the state +courts, and these federal courts have not been liable to have their +jurisdiction curtailed by prohibition from courts of common law, as the +court of admiralty had in England up to the time of the Judicature Acts; +consequently the maritime lien in the United States extends further than +it does in England, even after recent enlargements; it covers claims for +necessaries and by material men (see _Maritime Lien_), as well as +collision, salvage, wages, bottomry and damage to cargo. + +Difficulties connected with lien occasionally arise in the federal +courts in admiralty cases, from a conflict on the subject between the +municipal law of the state where the court happens to sit and the +admiralty law; but as there is no power to prohibit the federal court, +its view of the admiralty law based on the civil law prevails. More +serious difficulties arise where a federal court has to try inter-state +questions, where the two states have different laws on the subject of +lien; one for example, like Louisiana, following the civil law, and the +other the common law and equitable practice of Great Britain. The +question as to which law is to govern in such a case can hardly be said +to be decided. "The question whether equitable liens can exist to be +enforced in Louisiana by the federal courts, notwithstanding its +restrictive law of privileges, is still an open one" (Derris, +_Contracts of Pledge_, 517; and see _Burdon Sugar Refining Co._ v. +_Payne_, 167 U.S. 127). + +BRITISH COLONIES.--In those colonies which before the Canadian +federation were known as Upper Canada and the Maritime Provinces of +British North America, and in the several Australasian states where the +English common law is enforced except as modified by colonial statute, +the principles of lien, whether by common law or equitable or maritime, +discussed above with reference to England, will prevail; but questions +not dissimilar to those treated of in reference to the United States may +arise where colonies have come to the crown of Great Britain by cession, +and where different systems of municipal law are enforced. For example, +in Lower Canada the law of France prior to the Revolution occupies the +place of the common law in England, but is generally regulated by a code +very similar to the Code Napoleon; in Mauritius and its dependencies the +Code Napoleon itself is in force except so far as modified by subsequent +ordinances. In South Africa, and to some extent in Ceylon and Guiana, +Roman-Dutch law is in force; in the island of Trinidad old Spanish law, +prior to the introduction of the present civil code of Spain, is the +basis of jurisprudence. Each several system of law requires to be +studied on the point; but, speaking generally, apart from the possessory +lien of workmen and the maritime lien of the vice-admiralty courts, it +may be assumed that the rules of the civil law, giving a privilege or +priority in certain specified cases rather than a lien as understood in +English law, prevail in those colonies where the English law is not in +force. (F. W. Ra.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This right, however, is not absolute, but depends on the custom + of the port (_Raitt_ v. _Mitchell_, 1815, 4 Camp. 146). + + + + +LIERRE (Flemish, _Lier_), a town in the province of Antwerp, Belgium; 9 +m. S.E. of Antwerp. Pop. (1904) 24,229. It carries on a brisk industry +in silk fabrics. Its church of St Gommaire was finished in 1557 and +contains three fine glass windows, the gift of the archduke Maximilian, +to celebrate his wedding with Mary of Burgundy. + + + + +LIESTAL, the capital (since 1833) of the half canton of Basel-Stadt in +Switzerland. It is a well-built but uninteresting industrial town, +situated on the left bank of the Ergolz stream, and is the most populous +town in the entire canton of Basel, after Basel itself. By rail it is 9¼ +m. S.E. of Basel, and 15¾ m. N.W. of Olten. In the 15th-century town +hall (_Rathaus_) is preserved the golden drinking cup of Charles the +Bold, duke of Burgundy, which was taken at the battle of Nancy in 1477. +In 1900 the population was 5403, all German-speaking and mainly +Protestants. The town was sold in 1302 by its lord to the bishop of +Basel who, in 1400, sold it to the city of Basel, at whose hands it +suffered much in the Peasants' War of 1653, and so consented gladly to +the separation of 1833. + + + + +LIEUTENANT, one who takes the place, office and duty of and acts on +behalf of a superior or other person. The word in English preserves the +form of the French original (from _lieu_, place, _tenant_, holding), +which is the equivalent of the Lat. _locum tenens_, one holding the +place of another. The usual English pronunciation appears early, the +word being frequently spelled _lieftenant_, _lyeftenant_ or _luftenant_ +in the 14th and 15th centuries. The modern American pronunciation is +_lewtenant_, while the German is represented by the present form of the +word _Leutnant_. In French history, _lieutenant du roi_ (_locum tenens +regis_) was a title borne by the officer sent with military powers to +represent the king in certain provinces. With wider powers and +functions, both civil as well as military, and holding authority +throughout an entire province, such a representative of the king was +called _lieutenant général du roi_. The first appointment of these +officials dates from the reign of Philip IV. the Fair (see CONSTABLE). +In the 16th century the administration of the provinces was in the hands +of _gouverneurs_, to whom the _lieutenants du roi_ became subordinates. +The titles _lieutenant civil_ or _criminel_ and _lieutenant général de +police_ have been borne by certain judicial officers in France (see +CHÂTELET and BAILIFF: _Bailli_). As the title of the representative of +the sovereign, "lieutenant" in English usage appears in the title of the +lord lieutenant of Ireland, and of the lords lieutenant of the counties +of the United Kingdom (see below). + +The most general use of the word is as the name of a grade of naval and +military officer. It is common in this application to nearly every navy +and army of the present day. In Italy and Spain the first part of the +word is omitted, and an Italian and Spanish officer bearing this rank +are called _tenente_ or _teniente_ respectively. In the British and most +other navies the lieutenants are the commissioned officers next in rank +to commanders, or second class of captains. Originally the lieutenant +was a soldier who aided, and in case of need replaced, the captain, who, +until the latter half of the 17th century, was not necessarily a seaman +in any navy. At first one lieutenant was carried, and only in the +largest ships. The number was gradually increased, and the lieutenants +formed a numerous corps. At the close of the Napoleonic War in 1815 +there were 3211 lieutenants in the British navy. Lieutenants now often +qualify for special duties such as navigation, or gunnery, or the +management of torpedoes. In the British army a lieutenant is a subaltern +officer ranking next below a captain and above a second lieutenant. In +the United States of America subalterns are classified as first +lieutenants and second lieutenants. In France the two grades are +_lieutenant_ and _sous-lieutenant_, while in Germany the _Leutnant_ is +the lower of the two ranks, the higher being _Ober-leutnant_ (formerly +_Premier-leutnant_). A "captain lieutenant" in the British army was +formerly the senior subaltern who virtually commanded the colonel's +company or troop, and ranked as junior captain, or "puny captain," as he +was called by Cromwell's soldiers. + + The lord lieutenant of a county, in England and Wales and in Ireland, + is the principal officer of a county. His creation dates from the + reign of Henry VIII. (or, according to some, Edward VI.), when the + military functions of the sheriff were handed over to him. He was + responsible for the efficiency of the militia of the county, and + afterwards of the yeomanry and volunteers. He was commander of these + forces, whose officers he appointed. By the Regulation of the Forces + Act 1871, the jurisdiction, duties and command exercised by the lord + lieutenant were revested in the crown, but the power of recommending + for first appointments was reserved to the lord lieutenant. By the + Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907, the lord lieutenant of a + county was constituted president of the county association. The office + of lord lieutenant is honorary, and is held during the royal pleasure, + but virtually for life. Appointment to the office is by letters patent + under the great seal. Usually, though not necessarily, the person + appointed lord lieutenant is also appointed custos rotulorum (q.v.). + Appointments to the county bench of magistrates are usually made on + the recommendation of the lord lieutenant (see JUSTICE OF THE PEACE). + + A deputy lieutenant (denoted frequently by the addition of the letters + D.L. after a person's name) is a deputy of a lord lieutenant of a + county. His appointment and qualifications previous to 1908 were + regulated by the Militia Act 1882. By s. 30 of that act the lieutenant + of each county was required from time to time to appoint such properly + qualified persons as he thought fit, living within the county, to be + deputy lieutenants. At least twenty had to be appointed for each + county, if there were so many qualified; if less than that number were + qualified, then all the duly qualified persons in the county were to + be appointed. The appointments were subject to the sovereign's + approval, and a return of all appointments to, and removals from, the + office had to be laid before parliament annually. To qualify for the + appointment of deputy lieutenant a person had to be (a) a peer of the + realm, or the heir-apparent of such a peer, having a place of + residence within the county; or (b) have in possession an estate in + land in the United Kingdom of the yearly value of not less than £200; + or (c) be the heir-apparent of such a person; or (d) have a clear + yearly income from personalty within the United Kingdom of not less + than £200 (s. 33). If the lieutenant were absent from the United + Kingdom, or through illness or other cause were unable to act, the + sovereign might authorize any three deputy lieutenants to act as + lieutenant (s. 31), or might appoint a deputy lieutenant to act as + vice-lieutenant. Otherwise, the duties of the office were practically + nominal, except that a deputy lieutenant might attest militia recruits + and administer the oath of allegiance to them. The reorganization in + 1907 of the forces of the British crown, and the formation of county + associations to administer the territorial army, placed increased + duties on deputy lieutenants, and it was publicly announced that the + king's approval of appointments to that position would only be given + in the case of gentlemen who had served for ten years in some force of + the crown, or had rendered eminent service in connexion with a county + association. + + The lord lieutenant of Ireland is the head of the executive in that + country. He represents his sovereign and maintains the formalities of + government, the business of government being entrusted to the + department of his chief secretary, who represents the Irish + government in the House of Commons, and may have a seat in the + cabinet. The chief secretary occupies an important position, and in + every cabinet either the lord lieutenant or he has a seat. + + Lieutenant-governor is the title of the governor of an Indian + province, in direct subordination to the governor-general in council. + The lieutenant-governor comes midway in dignity between the governors + of Madras and Bombay, who are appointed from England, and the chief + commissioners of smaller provinces. In the Dominion of Canada the + governors of provinces also have the title of lieutenant-governor. The + representatives of the sovereign in the Isle of Man and the Channel + Islands are likewise styled lieutenant-governors. + + + + +LIFE, the popular name for the activity peculiar to protoplasm (q.v.). +This conception has been extended by analogy to phenomena different in +kind, such as the activities of masses of water or of air, or of +machinery, or by another analogy, to the duration of a composite +structure, and by imagination to real or supposed phenomena such as the +manifestations of incorporeal entities. From the point of view of exact +science life is associated with matter, is displayed only by living +bodies, by all living bodies, and is what distinguishes living bodies +from bodies that are not alive. Herbert Spencer's formula that life is +"the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations" +was the result of a profound and subtle analysis, but omits the +fundamental consideration that we know life only as a quality of and in +association with living matter. + +In developing our conception we must discard from consideration the +complexities that arise from the organization of the higher living +bodies, the differences between one living animal and another, or +between plant and animal. Such differentiations and integrations of +living bodies are the subject-matter of discussions on evolution; some +will see in the play of circumambient media, natural or supernatural, on +the simplest forms of living matter, sufficient explanation of the +development of such matter into the highest forms of living organisms; +others will regard the potency of such living matter so to develop as a +mysterious and peculiar quality that must be added to the conception of +life. Choice amongst these alternatives need not complicate +investigation of the nature of life. The explanation that serves for the +evolution of living matter, the vehicle of life, will serve for the +evolution of life. What we have to deal with here is life in its +simplest form. + +The definition of life must really be a description of the essential +characters of life, and we must set out with an investigation of the +characters of living substance with the special object of detecting the +differences between organisms and unorganized matter, and the +differences between dead and living organized matter. + +Living substance (see PROTOPLASM), as it now exists in all animals and +plants, is particulate, consisting of elementary organisms living +independently, or grouped in communities, the communities forming the +bodies of the higher animals and plants. These small particles or larger +communities are subject to accidents, internal or external, which +destroy them, immediately or slowly, and thus life ceases; or they may +wear out, or become clogged by the products of their own activity. There +is no reason to regard the mortality of protoplasm and the consequent +limited duration of life as more than the necessary consequence of +particulate character of living matter (see LONGEVITY). + +Protoplasm, the living material, contains only a few elements, all of +which are extremely common and none of which is peculiar to it. These +elements, however, form compounds characteristic of living substance and +for the most part peculiar to it. Proteid, which consists of carbon, +hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur, is present in all protoplasm, is +the most complex of all organic bodies, and, so far, is known only from +organic bodies. A multitude of minor and simpler organic compounds, of +which carbohydrates and fats are the best known, occur in different +protoplasm in varying forms and proportions, and are much less isolated +from the inorganic world. They may be stages in the elaboration or +disintegration of protoplasm, and although they were at one time +believed to occur only as products of living matter, are gradually +being conquered by the synthetic chemist. Finally, protoplasm contains +various inorganic substances, such as salts and water, the latter giving +it its varying degrees of liquid consistency. + +We attain, therefore, our first generalized description of life as the +property or peculiar quality of a substance composed of none but the +more common elements, but of these elements grouped in various ways to +form compounds ranging from proteid, the most complex of known +substances to the simplest salts. The living substance, moreover, has +its mixture of elaborate and simple compounds associated in a fashion +that is peculiar. The older writers have spoken of protoplasm or the +cell as being in a sense "manufactured articles"; in the more modern +view such a conception is replaced by the statement that protoplasm and +the cell have behind them a long historical architecture. Both ideas, or +both modes of expressing what is fundamentally the same idea, have this +in common, that life is not a sum of the qualities of the chemical +elements contained in protoplasm, but a function first of the peculiar +architecture of the mixture, and then of the high complexity of the +compounds contained in the mixture. The qualities of water are no sum of +the qualities of oxygen and hydrogen, and still less can we expect to +explain the qualities of life without regard to the immense complexity +of the living substance. + +We must now examine in more detail the differences which exist or have +been alleged to exist between living organisms and inorganic bodies. +There is no essential difference in structure. Confusion has arisen in +regard to this point from attempts to compare organized bodies with +crystals, the comparison having been suggested by the view that as +crystals present the highest type of inorganic structure, it was +reasonable to compare them with organic matter. Differences between +crystals and organized bodies have no bearing on the problem of life, +for organic substance must be compared with a liquid rather than with a +crystal, and differs in structure no more from inorganic liquids than +these do amongst themselves, and less than they differ from crystals. +Living matter is a mixture of substances chiefly dissolved in water; the +comparison with the crystals has led to a supposed distinction in the +mode of growth, crystals growing by the superficial apposition of new +particles and living substance by intussusception. But inorganic liquids +also grow in the latter mode, as when a soluble substance is added to +them. + +The phenomena of movement do not supply any absolute distinction. +Although these are the most obvious characters of life, they cannot be +detected in quiescent seeds, which we know to be alive, and they are +displayed in a fashion very like life by inorganic foams brought in +contact with liquids of different composition. Irritability, again, +although a notable quality of living substance, is not peculiar to it, +for many inorganic substances respond to external stimulation by +definite changes. Instability, again, which lies at the root of +Spencer's definition "continuous adjustment of internal relations to +external relations" is displayed by living matter in very varying +degrees from the apparent absolute quiescence of frozen seeds to the +activity of the central nervous system, whilst there is a similar range +amongst inorganic substances. + +The phenomena of reproduction present no fundamental distinction. Most +living bodies, it is true, are capable of reproduction, but there are +many without this capacity, whilst, on the other hand, it would be +difficult to draw an effective distinction between that reproduction of +simple organisms which consists of a sub-division of their substance +with consequent resumption of symmetry by the separate pieces, and the +breaking up of a drop of mercury into a number of droplets. + +Consideration of the mode of origin reveals a more real if not an +absolute distinction. All living substance so far as is known at present +(see BIOGENESIS) arises only from already existing living substance. It +is to be noticed, however, that green plants have the power of building +up living substance from inorganic material, and there is a certain +analogy between the building up of new living material only in +association with pre-existing living material, and the greater readiness +with which certain inorganic reactions take place if there already be +present some trace of the result of the reaction. + +The real distinction between living matter and inorganic matter is +chemical. Living substance always contains proteid, and although we know +that proteid contains only common inorganic elements, we know neither +how these are combined to form proteid, nor any way in which proteid can +be brought into existence except in the presence of previously existing +proteid. The central position of the problem of life lies in the +chemistry of proteid, and until that has been fully explored, we are +unable to say that there is any problem of life behind the problem of +proteid. + +Comparison of living and lifeless organic matter presents the initial +difficulty that we cannot draw an exact line between a living and a dead +organism. The higher "warm-blooded" creatures appear to present the +simplest case and in their life-history there seems to be a point at +which we can say "that which was alive is now dead." We judge from some +major arrest of activity, as when the heart ceases to beat. Long after +this, however, various tissues remain alive and active, and the event to +which we give the name of death is no more than a superficially visible +stage in a series of changes. In less highly integrated organisms, such +as "cold-blooded" vertebrates, the point of death is less conspicuous, +and when we carry our observations further down the scale of animal +life, there ceases to be any salient phase in the slow transition from +life to death. + +The distinction between life and death is made more difficult by a +consideration of cases of so-called "arrested vitality." If credit can +be given to the stories of Indian fakirs, it appears that human beings +can pass voluntarily into a state of suspended animation that may last +for weeks. The state of involuntary trance, sometimes mistaken for +death, is a similar occurrence. A. Leeuwenhoek, in 1719, made the +remarkable discovery, since abundantly confirmed, that many animalculae, +notably tardigrades and rotifers, may be completely desiccated and +remain in that condition for long periods without losing the power of +awaking to active life when moistened with water. W. Preyer has more +recently investigated the matter and has given it the name "anabiosis." +Later observers have found similar occurrences in the cases of small +nematodes, rotifers and bacteria. The capacity of plant seeds to remain +dry and inactive for very long periods is still better known. It has +been supposed that in the case of the plant seeds and still more in that +of the animals, the condition of anabiosis was merely one in which the +metabolism was too faint to be perceptible by ordinary methods of +observation, but the elaborate experiments of W. Kochs would seem to +show that a complete arrest of vital activity is compatible with +viability. The categories, "alive" and "dead," are not sufficiently +distinct for us to add to our conception of life by comparing them. A +living organism usually displays active metabolism of proteid, but the +metabolism may slow down, actually cease and yet reawaken; a dead +organism is one in which the metabolism has ceased and does not +reawaken. + +_Origin of Life._--It is plain that we cannot discuss adequately the +origin of life or the possibility of the artificial construction of +living matter (see ABIOGENESIS and BIOGENESIS) until the chemistry of +protoplasm and specially of proteid is more advanced. The investigations +of O. Bütschli have shown how a model of protoplasm can be manufactured. +Very finely triturated soluble particles are rubbed into a smooth paste +with an oil of the requisite consistency. A fragment of such a paste +brought into a liquid in which the solid particles are soluble, slowly +expands into a honeycomb like foam, the walls of the minute vesicles +being films of oil, and the contents being the soluble particles +dissolved in droplets of the circumambient liquid. Such a model, +properly constructed, that is to say, with the vesicles of the foam +microscopic in size, is a marvellous imitation of the appearance of +protoplasm, being distinguishable from it only by a greater symmetry. +The nicely balanced conditions of solution produce a state of unstable +equilibrium, with the result that internal streaming movements and +changes of shape and changes of position in the model simulate closely +the corresponding manifestations in real protoplasm. The model has no +power of recuperation; in a comparatively short time equilibrium is +restored and the resemblance with protoplasm disappears. But it suggests +a method by which, when the chemistry of protoplasm and proteid is +better known, the proper substances which compose protoplasm may be +brought together to form a simple kind of protoplasm. + +It has been suggested from time to time that conditions very unlike +those now existing were necessary for the first appearance of life, and +must be repeated if living matter is to be constructed artificially. No +support for such a view can be derived from observations of the existing +conditions of life. The chemical elements involved are abundant; the +physical conditions of temperature pressure and so forth at which living +matter is most active, and within the limits of which it is confined, +are familiar and almost constant in the world around us. On the other +hand, it may be that the initial conditions for the synthesis of proteid +are different from those under which proteid and living matter display +their activities. E. Pflüger has argued that the analogies between +living proteid and the compounds of cyanogen are so numerous that they +suggest cyanogen as the starting-point of protoplasm. Cyanogen and its +compounds, so far as we know, arise only in a state of incandescent +heat. Pflüger suggests that such compounds arose when the surface of the +earth was incandescent, and that in the long process of cooling, +compounds of cyanogen and hydrocarbons passed into living protoplasm by +such processes of transformation and polymerization as are familiar in +the chemical groups in question, and by the acquisition of water and +oxygen. His theory is in consonance with the interpretation of the +structure of protoplasm as having behind it a long historical +architecture and leads to the obvious conclusion that if protoplasm be +constructed artificially it will be by a series of stages and that the +product will be simpler than any of the existing animals or plants. + +Until greater knowledge of protoplasm and particularly of proteid has +been acquired, there is no scientific room for the suggestion that there +is a mysterious factor differentiating living matter from other matter +and life from other activities. We have to scale the walls, open the +windows, and explore the castle before crying out that it is so +marvellous that it must contain ghosts. + +As may be supposed, theories of the origin of life apart from doctrines +of special creation or of a primitive and slow spontaneous generation +are mere fantastic speculations. The most striking of these suggests an +extra-terrestrial origin. H. E. Richter appears to have been the first +to propound the idea that life came to this planet as cosmic dust or in +meteorites thrown off from stars and planets. Towards the end of the +19th century Lord Kelvin (then Sir W. Thomson) and H. von Helmholtz +independently raised and discussed the possibility of such an origin of +terrestrial life, laying stress on the presence of hydrocarbons in +meteoric stones and on the indications of their presence revealed by the +spectra of the tails of comets. W. Preyer has criticized such views, +grouping them under the phrase "theory of cosmozoa," and has suggested +that living matter preceded inorganic matter. Preyer's view, however, +enlarges the conception of life until it can be applied to the phenomena +of incandescent gases and has no relation to ideas of life derived from +observation of the living matter we know. + + REFERENCES.--O. Bütschli, _Investigations on Microscopic Foams and + Protoplasm_ (Eng. trans. by E. A. Minchin, 1894), with a useful list + of references; H. von Helmholtz, _Vorträge und Reden_, ii. (1884); W. + Kochs, _Allgemeine Naturkunde_, x. 673 (1890); A. Leeuwenhoek, + _Epistolae ad Societatem regiam Anglicam_ (1719); E. Pflüger, "Über + einige Gesetze des Eiweissstoffwechsels," in _Archiv. Ges. Physiol._ + liv. 333 (1893); W. Preyer, _Die Hypothesen über den Ursprung des + Lebens_ (1880); H. E. Richter, _Zur Darwinischen Lehre_ (1865); + Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Biology_; Max Verworm, _General + Physiology_ (English trans. by F. S. Lee, 1899), with a very full + literature. (P. C. M.) + + + + +LIFE-BOAT, and LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. The article on DROWNING AND +LIFE-SAVING (q.v.) deals generally with the means of saving life at sea, +but under this heading it is convenient to include the appliances +connected specially with the life-boat service. The ordinary open boat +is unsuited for life-saving in a stormy sea, and numerous contrivances, +in regard to which the lead came from England, have been made for +securing the best type of life-boat. + +The first life-boat was conceived and designed by Lionel Lukin, a London +coach-builder, in 1785. Encouraged by the prince of Wales (George IV.), +Lukin fitted up a Norway yawl as a life-boat, took out a patent for it, +and wrote a pamphlet descriptive of his "Insubmergible Boat." Buoyancy +he obtained by means of a projecting gunwale of cork and air-chambers +inside--one of these being at the bow, another at the stern. Stability +he secured by a false iron keel. The self-righting and self-emptying +principles he seems not to have thought of; at all events he did not +compass them. Despite the patronage of the prince, Lukin went to his +grave a neglected and disappointed man. But he was not altogether +unsuccessful, for, at the request of the Rev Dr Shairp, Lukin fitted up +a coble as an "unimmergible" life-boat, which was launched at +Bamborough, saved several lives the first year and afterwards saved many +lives and much property. + +Public apathy in regard to shipwreck was temporally swept away by the +wreck of the "Adventure" of Newcastle in 1789. This vessel was stranded +only 300 yds. from the shore, and her crew dropped, one by one, into the +raging breakers in presence of thousands of spectators, none of whom +dared to put off in an ordinary boat to the rescue. An excited meeting +among the people of South Shields followed; a committee was formed, and +premiums were offered for the best models of a life-boat. This called +forth many plans, of which those of William Wouldhave, a painter, and +Henry Greathead, a boatbuilder, of South Shields, were selected. The +committee awarded the prize to the latter, and, adopting the good points +of both models, gave the order for the construction of their boat to +Greathead. This boat was rendered buoyant by nearly 7 cwts. of cork, and +had very raking stem and stern-posts, with great curvature of keel. It +did good service, and Greathead was well rewarded; nevertheless no other +life-boat was launched till 1798, when the duke of Northumberland +ordered Greathead to build him a life-boat which he endowed. This boat +also did good service, and its owner ordered another in 1800 for Oporto. +In the same year Mr Cathcart Dempster ordered one for St Andrews, where, +two years later, it saved twelve lives. Thus the value of life-boats +began to be recognized, and before the end of 1803 Greathead had built +thirty-one boats--eighteen for England, five for Scotland and eight for +foreign lands. Nevertheless, public interest in life-boats was not +thoroughly aroused till 1823. + +In that year Sir William Hillary, Bart., stood forth to champion the +life-boat cause. Sir William dwelt in the Isle of Man, and had assisted +with his own hand in the saving of three hundred and five lives. In +conjunction with two members of parliament--Mr Thomas Wilson and Mr +George Hibbert--Hillary founded the "Royal National Institution for the +Preservation of Life from Shipwreck." This, perhaps the grandest of +England's charitable societies, and now named the "Royal National +Life-boat Institution," was founded on the 4th of March 1824. The king +patronized it; the archbishop of Canterbury presided at its birth; the +most eloquent men in the land--among them Wilberforce--pleaded the +cause; nevertheless, the institution began its career with a sum of only +£9826. In the first year twelve new life-boats were built and placed at +different stations, besides which thirty-nine life-boats had been +stationed on the British shores by benevolent individuals and by +independent associations over which the institution exercised no control +though it often assisted them. In its early years the institution placed +the mortar apparatus of Captain Manby at many stations, and provided for +the wants of sailors and others saved from shipwreck,--a duty +subsequently discharged by the "Shipwrecked Fishermen and Mariners' +Royal Benevolent Society." At the date of the institution's second +report it had contributed to the saving of three hundred and forty-two +lives, either by its own life-saving apparatus or by other means for +which it had granted rewards. With fluctuating success, both as regards +means and results, the institution continued its good work--saving many +lives, and occasionally losing a few brave men in its tremendous battles +with the sea. Since the adoption of the self-righting boats, loss of +life in the service has been comparatively small and infrequent. + +Towards the middle of the 19th century the life-boat cause appeared to +lose interest with the British public, though the life-saving work was +prosecuted with unremitting zeal, but the increasing loss of life by +shipwreck, and a few unusually severe disasters to life-boats, brought +about the reorganization of the society in 1850. The Prince Consort +became vice-patron of the institution in conjunction with the king of +the Belgians, and Queen Victoria, who had been its patron since her +accession, became an annual contributor to its funds. In 1851 the duke +of Northumberland became president, and from that time forward a tide of +prosperity set in, unprecedented in the history of benevolent +institutions, both in regard to the great work accomplished and the +pecuniary aid received. In 1850 its committee undertook the immediate +superintendence of all the life-boat work on the coasts, with the aid of +local committees. Periodical inspections, quarterly exercise of crews, +fixed rates of payments to coxswains and men, and quarterly reports, +were instituted, at the time when the self-righting self-emptying boat +came into being. This boat was the result of a hundred-guinea prize, +offered by the president, for the best model of a life-boat, with +another hundred to defray the cost of a boat built on the model chosen. +In reply to the offer no fewer than two hundred and eighty models were +sent in, not only from all parts of the United Kingdom, but from France, +Germany, Holland and the United States of America. The prize was gained +by Mr James Beeching of Great Yarmouth, whose model, slightly modified +by Mr James Peake, one of the committee of inspection, was still further +improved as time and experience suggested (see below). + +The necessity of maintaining a thoroughly efficient life-boat service is +now generally recognized by the people not only of Great Britain, but +also of those other countries on the European Continent and America +which have a seaboard, and of the British colonies, and numerous +life-boat services have been founded more or less on the lines of the +Royal National Life-boat Institution. The British Institution was again +reorganized in 1883; it has since greatly developed both in its +life-saving efficiency and financially, and has been spoken of in the +highest terms as regards its management by successive governments--a +Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1897 reporting to the House +that the thanks of the whole community were due to the Institution for +its energy and good management. On the death of Queen Victoria in +January 1901 she was succeeded as patron of the Institution by Edward +VII., who as prince of Wales had been its president for several years. +At the close of 1908 the Institution's fleet consisted of 280 +life-boats, and the total number of lives for the saving of which the +committee of management had granted rewards since the establishment of +the Institution in 1824 was 47,983. At this time there were only +seventeen life-boats on the coast of the United Kingdom which did not +belong to the Institution. In 1882 the total amount of money received by +the Institution from all sources was £57,797, whereas in 1901 the total +amount received had increased to £107,293. In 1908 the receipts were +£115,303, the expenditure £90,335. + + In 1882 the Institution undertook, with the view of diminishing the + loss of life among the coast fishermen, to provide the masters and + owners of fishing-vessels with trustworthy aneroid barometers, at + about a third of the retail price, and in 1883 the privilege was + extended to the masters and owners of coasters under 100 tons burden. + At the end of 1901 as many as 4417 of these valuable instruments had + been supplied. In 1889 the committee of management secured the passing + of the Removal of Wrecks Act 1877 Amendment Act, which provides for + the removal of wrecks in non-navigable waters which might prove + dangerous to life-boat crews and others. Under its provisions + numerous highly dangerous wrecks have been removed. + + In 1893 the chairman of the Institution moved a resolution in the + House of Commons that, in order to decrease the serious loss of life + from shipwreck on the coast, the British Government should provide + either telephonic or telegraphic communication between all the + coast-guard stations and signal stations on the coast of the United + Kingdom; and that where there are no coast-guard stations the post + offices nearest to the life-boat stations should be electrically + connected, the object being to give the earliest possible information + to the life-boat authorities at all times, by day and night, when the + life-boats are required for service; and further, that a Royal + Commission should be appointed to consider the desirability of + electrically connecting the rock lighthouses, light-ships, &c., with + the shore. The resolution was agreed to without a division, and its + intention has been practically carried out, the results obtained + having proved most valuable in the saving of life. + + On the 1st of January 1898 a pension and gratuity scheme was + introduced by the committee of management, under which life-boat + coxswains, bowmen and signalmen of long and meritorious service, + retiring on account of old age, accident, ill-health or abolition of + office, receive special allowances as a reward for their good + services. While these payments act as an incentive to the men to + discharge their duties satisfactorily, they at the same time assist + the committee of management in their effort to obtain the best men for + the work. For many years the Institution has given compensation to any + who may have received injury while employed in the service, besides + granting liberal help to the widows and dependent relatives of any in + the service who lose their own lives when endeavouring to rescue + others. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The 33-ft., Double-banked, Ten-oared, +Self-righting and Self-emptying Life-boat (1881) of the Institution on +its Transporting Carriage, ready for launching.] + +A very marked advance in improvement in design and suitability for +service has been made in the life-boat since the reorganization of the +Institution in 1883, but principally since 1887, when, as the result of +an accident in December 1886 to two self-righting life-boats in +Lancashire, twenty-seven out of twenty-nine of the men who manned them +were drowned. At this time a permanent technical sub-committee was +appointed by the Institution, whose object was, with the assistance of +an eminent consulting naval architect--a new post created--and the +Institution's official experts, to give its careful attention to the +designing of improvements in the life-boat and its equipment, and to the +scientific consideration of any inventions or proposals submitted by the +public, with a view to adopting them if of practical utility. Whereas in +1881 the self-righting life-boat of that time was looked upon as the +Institution's special life-boat, and there were very few life-boats in +the Institution's fleet not of that type, at the close of 1901 the +life-boats of the Institution included 60 non-self-righting boats of +various types, known by the following designations: Steam life-boats 4, +Cromer 3, Lamb and White 1, Liverpool 14, Norfolk and Suffolk 19, +tubular 1, Watson 18. In 1901 a steam-tug was placed at Padstow for use +solely in conjunction with the life-boats on the north coast of +Cornwall. The self-righting life-boat of 1901 was a very different boat +from that of 1881. The Institution's present policy is to allow the men +who man the life-boats, after having seen and tried by deputation the +various types, to select that in which they have the most confidence. + +The present life-boat of the self-righting type (fig. 2) differs +materially from its predecessor, the stability being increased and the +righting power greatly improved. The test of efficiency in this last +quality was formerly considered sufficient if the boat would quickly +right herself in smooth water without her crew and gear, but every +self-righting life-boat now built by the Institution will right with +her full crew and gear on board, with her sails set and the anchor down. +Most of the larger self-righting boats are furnished with +"centre-boards" or "drop-keels" of varying size and weight, which can be +used at pleasure, and materially add to their weather qualities. The +drop-keel was for the first time placed in a life-boat in 1885. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plans, Profile and Section of Modern English +Self-righting Life-boat. + + A, Deck. + B, Relieving valves for automatic discharge of water off deck. + C, Side air-cases above deck. + D, End air compartments, usually called "end-boxes," an important + factor in self-righting. + E, Wale, or fender. + F, Iron keel ballast, important in general stability and + self-righting. + G, Water-ballast tanks. + H, Drop-keel.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plans, Profile and Section of English Steam +Life-boat. + + A, Cockpit. + a, Deck. + b, Propeller hatch. + c, Relief valves. + B, Engine-room. + C, Boiler-room. + D, Water-tight compartments. + E, Coal-bunkers. + F, Capstan. + G, Hatches to engine and boiler rooms. + H, Cable reel. + I, Anchor davit.] + +Steam was first introduced into a life-boat in 1890, when the +Institution, after very full inquiry and consideration, stationed on the +coast a steel life-boat, 50 ft. long and 12 ft. beam, and a depth of 3 +ft. 6 in., propelled by a turbine wheel driven by engines developing 170 +horse-power. It had been previously held by all competent judges that a +mechanically-propelled life-boat, suitable for service in heavy weather, +was a problem surrounded by so many and great difficulties that even the +most sanguine experts dared not hope for an early solution of it. This +type of boat (fig. 3) has proved very useful. It is, however, fully +recognized that boats of this description can necessarily be used at +only a very limited number of stations, and where there is a harbour +which never dries out. The highest speed attained by the first hydraulic +steam life-boat was rather more than 9 knots, and that secured in the +latest 9½ knots. In 1909 the fleet of the Institution included 4 steam +life-boats and 8 motor life-boats. The experiments with motor life-boats +in previous years had proved successful. + +The other types of pulling and sailing life-boats are all +non-self-righting, and are specially suitable for the requirements of +the different parts of the coast on which they are placed. Their various +qualities will be understood by a glance at the illustrations (figs. 4, +5, 6, 7 and 8). + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plans, Profile and Section of Cromer Type of +Life-boat. + + A, Deck. + B, Relieving valves for automatic discharge of water off deck. + C, Side air-cases above deck. + E, Wale, or fender. + G, Water-ballast tanks.] + +The Institution continues to build life-boats of different sizes +according to the requirements of the various points of the coast at +which they are placed, but of late years the tendency has been generally +to increase the dimensions of the boats. This change of policy is mainly +due to the fact that the small coasters and fishing-boats have in great +measure disappeared, their places being taken by steamers and steam +trawlers. The cost of the building and equipping of pulling and sailing +life-boats has materially increased, more especially since 1898, the +increase being mainly due to improvements and the seriously augmented +charges for materials and labour. In 1881 the average cost of a +fully-equipped life-boat and carriage was £650, whereas at the end of +1901 it amounted to £1000, the average annual cost of maintaining a +station having risen to about £125. + +The _transporting-carriage_ continues to be a most important part of the +equipment of life-boats, generally of the self-righting type, and is +indispensable where it is necessary to launch the boats at any point not +in the immediate vicinity of the boat-house. It is not, however, usual +to supply carriages to boats of larger dimensions than 37 ft. in length +by 9 ft. beam, those in excess as regards length and beam being either +launched by means of special slipways or kept afloat. The +transporting-carriage of to-day has been rendered particularly useful at +places where the beach is soft, sandy or shingly, by the introduction in +1888 of Tipping's sand-plates. They are composed of an endless plateway +or jointed wheel tyre fitted to the main wheels of the carriage, thereby +enabling the boat to be transferred with rapidity and with greatly +decreased labour over beach and soft sand. Further efficiency in +launching has also been attained at many stations by the introduction in +1890 of pushing-poles, attached to the transporting-carriages, and of +horse launching-poles, first used in 1892. Fig. 9 gives a view of the +modern transporting-carriage fitted with Tipping's sand- or +wheel-plates. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plans, Profile and Section of Liverpool Type of +Life-boat. A, B, C, E, G, as in fig. 3; D, end air-compartments; F, iron +keel; H, drop-keels.] + +The _life-belt_ has since 1898 been considerably improved, being now +less cumbersome than formerly, and more comfortable. The feature of the +principal improvement is the reduction in length of the corks under the +arms of the wearer and the rounding-off of the upper portions, the +result being that considerably more freedom is provided for the arms. +The maximum extra buoyancy has thereby been reduced from 25 lb. to 22 +lb., which is more than sufficient to support a man heavily clothed with +his head and shoulders above the water, or to enable him to support +another person besides himself. Numerous life-belts of very varied +descriptions, and made of all sorts of materials, have been patented, +but it is generally agreed that for life-boat work the cork life-belt of +the Institution has not yet been equalled. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Plans, Profile and Section of Norfolk and +Suffolk Type of Life-boat. A, B, E, F, G, H, as in fig. 4; A, side deck; +I, cable-well.] + +_Life-saving rafts, seats for ships' decks, dresses, buoys, belts, &c.,_ +have been produced in all shapes and sizes, but apparently nothing +indispensable has as yet been brought out. Those interested in +life-saving appliances were hopeful that the Paris Exhibition of 1900 +would have produced some life-saving invention which might prove a +benefit to the civilized world, but so lacking in real merit were the +life-saving exhibits that the jury of experts were unable to award to +any of the 435 competitors the Andrew Pollok prize of £4000 for the best +method or device for saving life from shipwreck. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Plan, Profile and Section of Tubular Type of +Life-boat. A, deck; E, wale, or fender; H, drop-keel.] + +The _rocket apparatus_, which in the United Kingdom is under the +management of the coast-guard, renders excellent service in life-saving. +This, next to the life-boat, is the most important and successful means +by which shipwrecked persons are rescued on the British shores. Many +vessels are cast every year on the rocky parts of the coasts, under +cliffs, where no life-boat could be of service. In such places the +rocket alone is available. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Plans, Profile and Section of Watson Type of +Life-boat. Lettering as in fig. 5, but C, side air-cases above deck and +thwarts.] + + The rocket apparatus consists of five principal parts, viz. the + rocket, the rocket-line, the whip, the hawser and the sling life-buoy. + The mode of working it is as follows. A rocket, having a light line + attached to it, is fired over the wreck. By means of this line the + wrecked crew haul out the whip, which is a double or endless line, + rove through a block with a tail attached to it. The tail-block, + having been detached from the rocket-line, is fastened to a mast, or + other portion of the wreck, high above the water. By means of the whip + the rescuers haul off the hawser, to which is hung the travelling or + sling life-buoy. When one end of the hawser has been made fast to the + mast, about 18 in. _above_ the whip, and its other end to tackle + fixed to an anchor on shore, the life-buoy is run out by the rescuers, + and the shipwrecked persons, getting into it one at a time, are hauled + ashore. Sometimes, in cases of urgency, the life-buoy is worked by + means of the whip alone, without the hawser. Captain G. W. Manby, + F.R.S., in 1807 invented, or at least introduced, the mortar + apparatus, on which the system of the rocket apparatus, which + superseded it in England, is founded. Previously, however, in 1791, + the idea of throwing a rope from a wreck to the shore by means of a + shell from a mortar had occurred to Serjeant Bell of the Royal + Artillery, and about the same time, to a Frenchman named La Fère, both + of whom made successful experiments with their apparatus. In the same + year (1807) a rocket was proposed by Mr Trengrouse of Helston in + Cornwall, also a hand and lead line as means of communicating with + vessels in distress. The _heaving-cane_ was a fruit of the latter + suggestion. In 1814 forty-five mortar stations were established, and + Manby received £2000, in addition to previous grants, in + acknowledgment of the good service rendered by his invention. Mr John + Dennett of Newport, Isle of Wight, introduced the rocket, which was + afterwards extensively used. In 1826 four places in the Isle of Wight + were supplied with Dennett's rockets, but it was not till after + government had taken the apparatus under its own control, in 1855, + that the rocket invented by Colonel Boxer was adopted. Its peculiar + characteristic lies in the combination of two rockets in one case, one + being a continuation of the other, so that, after the first + compartment has carried the machine to its full elevation, the second + gives it an additional impetus whereby a great increase of range is + obtained. (R. M. B.; C. Di.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Life-boat Transporting-Carriage with Tipping's +Wheel-Plates.] + +UNITED STATES.--In the extent of coast line covered, magnitude of +operations and the extraordinary success which has crowned its efforts, +the life-saving service of the United States is not surpassed by any +other institution of its kind in the world. Notwithstanding the exposed +and dangerous nature of the coasts flanking and stretching between the +approaches to the principal seaports, and the immense amount of shipping +concentrating upon them, the loss of life among a total of 121,459 +persons imperilled by marine casualty within the scope of the operations +of the service from its organization in 1871 to the 30th of June 1907, +was less than 1%, and even this small proportion is made up largely of +persons washed overboard immediately upon the striking of vessels and +before any assistance could reach them, or lost in attempts to land in +their own boats, and people thrown into the sea by the capsizing of +small craft. In the scheme of the service, next in importance to the +saving of life is the saving of property from marine disaster, for which +no salvage or reward is allowed. During the period named vessels and +cargoes to the value of nearly two hundred million dollars were saved, +while only about a quarter as much was lost. + +The first government life-saving stations were plain boat-houses erected +on the coast of New Jersey in 1848, each equipped with a fisherman's +surf-boat and a mortar and life-car with accessories. Prior to this +time, as early as 1789, a benevolent organization known as the +Massachusetts Humane Society had erected rude huts along the coast of +that state, followed by a station at Cohasset in 1807 equipped with a +boat for use by volunteer crews. Others were subsequently added. Between +1849 and 1870 this society secured appropriations from Congress +aggregating $40,000. It still maintains sixty-nine stations on the +Massachusetts coast. The government service was extended in 1849 to the +coast of Long Island, and in 1850 one station was placed on the Rhode +Island coast. In 1854 the appointment of keepers for the New Jersey and +Long Island stations, and a superintendent for each of these coasts, was +authorized by law. Volunteer crews were depended upon until 1870, when +Congress authorized crews at each alternate station for the three winter +months. + +The present system was inaugurated in 1871 by Sumner I. Kimball, who in +that year was appointed chief of the Revenue Cutter Service, which had +charge of the few existing stations. He recommended an appropriation of +$200,000 and authority for the employment of crews for all stations for +such periods as were deemed necessary, which were granted. The existing +stations were thoroughly overhauled and put in condition for the housing +of crews; necessary boats and equipment were furnished; incapable +keepers, who had been appointed largely for political reasons, were +supplanted by experienced men; additional stations were established; all +were manned by capable surfmen; the merit system for appointments and +promotions was inaugurated; a beach patrol system was introduced, +together with a system of signals; and regulations for the government of +the service were promulgated. The result of the transformation was +immediate and striking. At the end of the year it was found that not a +life had been lost within the domain of the service; and at the end of +the second year the record was almost identical, but one life having +been lost, although the service had been extended to embrace the +dangerous coast of Cape Cod. Legislation was subsequently secured, +totally eliminating politics in the choice of officers and men, and +making other provisions necessary for the completion of the system. The +service continued to grow in extent and importance until, in 1878, it +was separated from the Revenue Cutter Service and organized into a +separate bureau of the Treasury, its administration being placed in the +hands of a general superintendent appointed by the president and +confirmed by the senate, his term of office being limited only by the +will of the president. Mr Kimball was appointed to the position, which +he still held in 1909. + + The service embraces thirteen districts, with 280 stations located at + selected points upon the sea and lake coasts. Nine districts on the + Atlantic and Gulf coasts contain 201 stations, including nine houses + of refuge on the Florida coast, each in charge of a keeper only, + without crews; three districts on the Great Lakes contain 61 stations, + including one at the falls of the Ohio river, Louisville, Kentucky; + and one district on the Pacific coast contains 18 stations, including + one at Nome, Alaska. + + The general administration of the service is conducted by a general + superintendent; an inspector of life-saving stations and two + superintendents of construction of life-saving stations detailed from + the Revenue Cutter Service; a district superintendent for each + district; and assistant inspectors of stations, also detailed from the + Revenue Cutter Service "to perform such duties in connexion with the + conduct of the service as the general superintendent may require." + There is also an advisory board on life-saving appliances consisting + of experts, to consider devices and inventions submitted by the + general superintendent. + + Station crews are composed of a keeper and from six to eight surfmen, + with an additional man during the winter months at most of the + stations on the Atlantic coast. The surfmen are reenlisted from year + to year during good behaviour, subject to a thorough physical + examination. The keepers are also subject to annual physical + examinations after attaining the age of fifty-five. Stations on the + Atlantic and Gulf coasts are manned from August 1st to May 31st. On + the lakes the active season covers the period of navigation, from + about April 1st to early in December. The falls station at Louisville, + and all stations on the Pacific coast, are in commission continuously. + One station, located in Dorchester Bay, an expanse of water within + Boston harbour, where numerous yachts rendezvous and many accidents + occur, which, with the one at Louisville are, believed to be the only + floating life-saving stations in the world, is manned from May 1st to + November 15th. Its equipment includes a steam tug and two gasoline + launches, the latter being harboured in a slip cut into the after-part + of the station and extending from the stern to nearly amidships. The + Louisville stations guard the falls of the Ohio river, where life is + much endangered from accidents to vessels passing over the falls and + small craft which are liable to be drawn into the chutes while + attempting to cross the river. Its equipment includes two river skiffs + which can be instantly launched directly from the ways at one end of + the station. These skiffs are small boats modelled much like + surf-boats, designed to be rowed by one or two men. Other equipments + are provided for the salvage of property. The stations, located as + near as practicable to a launching place, contain as a rule convenient + quarters for the residence of the keeper and crew and a boat and + apparatus room. In some instances the dwelling- and boat-house are + built separately. Each station has a look-out tower for the day watch. + + The principal apparatus consists of surf- and life-boats, Lyle gun and + breeches-buoy apparatus and life-car. The Hunt gun and Cunningham + line-carrying rocket are available at selected stations on account of + their greater range, but their use is rarely necessary. The crews are + drilled daily in some portion of rescue work, as practice in + manoeuvring, upsetting and righting boats, with the breeches-buoy, in + the resuscitation of the apparently drowned and in signalling. The + district officers upon their quarterly visits examine the crews orally + and by drill, recording the proficiency of each member, including the + keeper, which record accompanies their report to the general + superintendent. For watch and patrol the day of twenty-four hours is + divided into periods of four or five hours each. Day watches are stood + by one man in the look-out tower or at some other point of vantage, + while two men are assigned to each night watch between sunset and + sunrise. One of the men remains on watch at the station, dividing his + time between the beach look-out and visits to the telephone at + specified intervals to receive messages, the service telephone system + being extended from station to station nearly throughout the service, + with watch telephones at half-way points. The other man patrols the + beach to the end of his beat and returns, when he takes the look-out + and his watchmate patrols in the opposite direction. A like patrol and + watch is maintained in thick or stormy weather in the daytime. Between + adjacent stations a record of the patrol is made by the exchange of + brass checks; elsewhere the patrolman carries a watchman's clock, on + the dial of which he records the time of his arrival at the keypost + which marks the end of his beat. On discovering a vessel standing into + danger the patrolman burns a Coston signal, which emits a brilliant + red flare, to warn the vessel of her danger. The number of vessels + thus warned averages about two hundred in each year, whereby great + losses are averted, the extent of which can never be known. When a + stranded vessel is discovered, the patrolman's Coston signal apprises + the crew that they are seen and assistance is at hand. He then + notifies his station, by telephone if possible. When such notice is + received at the station, the keeper determines the means with which to + attempt a rescue, whether by boat or beach-apparatus. If the + beach-apparatus is chosen, the apparatus cart is hauled to a point + directly opposite the wreck by horses, kept at most of the stations + during the inclement months, or by the members of the crew. The gear + is unloaded, and while being set up--the members of the crew + performing their several allotted parts simultaneously--the keeper + fires a line over the wreck with the Lyle gun, a small bronze cannon + weighing, with its 18 lb. elongated iron projectile to which the line + is attached, slightly more than 200 lb., and having an extreme range + of about 700 yds., though seldom available at wrecks for more than 400 + yds. This gun was the invention of Lieutenant (afterwards Colonel) + David A. Lyle, U.S. Army. Shot lines are of three sizes, {4/32}, + {7/32} and {9/32} of an inch diameter, designated respectively Nos. 4, + 7 and 9. The two larger are ordinarily used, the No. 4 for extreme + range. A line having been fired within reach of the persons on the + wreck, an endless rope rove through a tail-block is sent out by it + with instructions, printed in English and French on a tally-board, to + make the tail fast to a mast or other elevated portion of the wreck. + This done, a 3-in. hawser is bent on to the whip and hauled off to the + wreck, to be made fast a little above the tail-block, after which the + shore end is hauled taut over a crotch by means of tackle attached to + a sand anchor. From this hawser the breeches-buoy or life-car is + suspended and drawn between the ship and shore of the endless + whip-line. The life-car can also be drawn like a boat between ship and + shore without the use of a hawser. The breeches-buoy is a cork + life-buoy to which is attached a pair of short canvas breeches, the + whole suspended from a traveller block by suitable lanyards. It + usually carries one person at a time, although two have frequently + been brought ashore together. The life-car, first introduced in 1848, + is a boat of corrugated iron with a convex iron cover, having a hatch + in the top for the admission of passengers, which can be fastened + either from within or without, and a few perforations to admit air, + with raised edges to exclude water. At wreck operations during the + night the shore is illuminated by powerful acetylene (calcium carbide) + lights. If any of the rescued persons are frozen, as often happens, + or are injured or sick, first aid and simple remedies are furnished + them. Dry clothing, supplied by the Women's National Relief + Association, is also furnished to survivors, which the destitute are + allowed to keep. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--American Power Life-boat.] + + Several types of light open surf-boats are used, adapted to the + special requirements of the different localities and occasions. They + are built of cedar, from 23 to 27 ft. long, and are provided with end + air chambers and longitudinal air cases on each side under the + thwarts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Beebe-McLellan Self-bailing Boat.] + + Self-righting and self-bailing life-boats, patterned after those used + in England and other countries, have heretofore been used at most of + the Lake stations and at points on the ocean coast where they can be + readily launched from ways. Most of these boats, however, have now + been transformed into power boats without the sacrifice of any of + their essential qualities. The installation of power is effected by + introducing a 25 H.P. four-cycle gasoline motor, weighing with its + fittings, tanks, &c., about 800 lb. The engine is installed in the + after air chamber, with the starting crank, reversing clutches, &c., + recessed into the bulkhead to protect them from accidents. These boats + attain a speed of from 7 to 9 m. an hour, and have proved extremely + efficient. A new power life-boat (fig. 10) on somewhat improved lines, + 36 ft. in length, and equipped with a 35-40 H.P. gasoline engine, + promises to prove still more efficient. A number of surf-boats have + also been equipped with gasoline engines of from 5 to 7 H.P., for + light and quick work, with very satisfactory results. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Details of boat shown in Fig. 10.] + + A distinctively American life-boat extensively used is the + Beebe-McLellan self-bailing boat (fig. 11), which for all round + life-saving work is held in the highest esteem. It possesses all the + qualities of the self-righting and self-bailing life-boats in use in + all life-saving institutions, except that of self-righting; and the + sacrifice of this quality is largely counteracted by the ease with + which it can be righted by its crew when capsized. For accomplishing + this the crews are thoroughly drilled. In drill a trained crew can + upset and right the boat and resume their places at the oars in twenty + seconds. The boat is built of cedar, weighs about 1200 lb., and can be + used at all stations and launched by the crew directly off the beach + from the boat-wagon especially made for it. The self-bailing quality + is secured by a water-tight deck at a level a little above the load + water line with relieving tubes fitted with valves through which any + water shipped runs back into the sea by gravity. Air cases along the + sides under the thwarts, inclining towards the middle of the boat, + minimize the quantity of water taken in, and the water-ballast tank in + the bottom increases the stability by the weight of the water which + can be admitted by opening the valve. When transported along the land + it is empty. The Beebe-McLellan boat is 25 ft. long, 7 ft. beam, and + will carry 12 to 15 persons in addition to its crew. Some of these + boats, intended for use in localities where the temperature of the + water will not permit of frequent upsetting and righting drills, are + built with end air cases which render them self-righting. + + In addition to the principal appliances described, a number of minor + importance are included in the equipment of every life-saving station, + such as launching carriages for life-boats, roller boat-skids, heaving + sticks and all necessary tools. Members of all life-saving crews are + required on all occasions of boat practice or duty at wrecks to wear + life-belts of the prescribed pattern. (A. T. T.) + +_Life-boat Service in other Countries._--Good work is done by the +life-boat service in other countries, most of these institutions having +been formed on the lines of the Royal National Life-boat Institution of +Great Britain. The services are operating in the following countries:-- + + _Belgium._--Established in 1838. Supported entirely by government. + + _Denmark._--Established in 1848. Government service. + + _Sweden._--Established in 1856. Government service. + + _France._--Established in 1865. Voluntary association, but assisted by + the government. + + _Germany._--Established in 1885. Supported entirely by voluntary + contributions. + + _Turkey_ (Black Sea).--Established in 1868. Supported by dues. + + _Russia._--Established in 1872. Voluntary association, but receiving + an annual grant from the government. + + _Italy._--Established in 1879. Voluntary association. + + _Spain._--Established in 1880. Voluntary association, but receiving + annually a grant of £1440 from government. + + _Canada._--Established in 1880. Government service. + + _Holland._--Established in 1884. Voluntary association, but assisted + by a government subsidy. + + _Norway._--Established in 1891. Voluntary association, but receiving a + small annual grant from government. + + _Portugal._--Established in 1898. Voluntary society. + + _India (East Coast)._--Voluntary association. + + _Australia (South)._--Voluntary association. + + _New Zealand._--Voluntary association. + + _Japan._--The National Life-boat Institution of Japan was founded in + 1889. It is a voluntary society, assisted by government. Its affairs + are managed by a president and a vice-president, supported by a very + influential council. The head office is at Tôkyô; there are numerous + branches with local committees. The Imperial government contributes an + annual subsidy of 20,000 _yen_ (£2000). The members of the Institution + consist of three classes--honorary, ordinary and sub-ordinary, the + amount contributed by the member determining the class in which he is + placed. The chairman and council are not, as in Great Britain, + appointed by the subscribers, but by the president, who must always be + a member of the imperial family. The Institution bestows three medals: + (a) the medal of merit, to be awarded to persons rendering + distinguished service to the Institution; (b) the medal of membership, + to be held by honorary and ordinary members or subscribers; and (c) + the medal of praise, which is bestowed on those distinguishing + themselves by special service in the work of rescue. + + + + +LIFFORD, the county town of Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the left bank of +the Foyle. Pop. (1901) 446. The county gaol, court house and infirmary +are here, but the town is practically a suburb of Strabane, across the +river, in Co. Londonderry. Lifford, formerly called Ballyduff, was a +chief stronghold of the O'Donnells of Tyrconnell. It was incorporated as +a borough (under the name of Liffer) in the reign of James I. It +returned two members to the Irish parliament until the union in 1800. + + + + +LIGAMENT (Lat. _ligamentum_, from _ligare_, to bind), anything which +binds or connects two or more parts; in anatomy a piece of tissue +connecting different parts of an organism (see CONNECTIVE TISSUES and +JOINTS). + + + + +LIGAO, a town near the centre of the province of Albay, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, close to the left bank of a tributary of the Bicol +river, and on the main road through the valley. Pop. (1903) 17,687. East +of the town rises Mayón, an active volcano, and the rich volcanic soil +in this region produces hemp, rice and coco-nuts. Agriculture is the +sole occupation of the inhabitants. Their language is Bicol. + + + + +LIGHT. _Introduction._--§ 1. "Light" may be defined subjectively as the +sense-impression formed by the eye. This is the most familiar +connotation of the term, and suffices for the discussion of optical +subjects which do not require an objective definition, and, in +particular, for the treatment of physiological optics and vision. The +objective definition, or the "nature of light," is the _ultima Thule_ of +optical research. "Emission theories," based on the supposition that +light was a stream of corpuscles, were at first accepted. These gave +place during the opening decades of the 19th century to the "undulatory +or wave theory," which may be regarded as culminating in the "elastic +solid theory"--so named from the lines along which the mathematical +investigation proceeded--and according to which light is a transverse +vibratory motion propagated longitudinally though the aether. The +mathematical researches of James Clerk Maxwell have led to the rejection +of this theory, and it is now held that light is identical with +electromagnetic disturbances, such as are generated by oscillating +electric currents or moving magnets. Beyond this point we cannot go at +present. To quote Arthur Schuster (_Theory of Optics_, 1904), "So long +as the character of the displacements which constitute the waves remains +undefined we cannot pretend to have established a theory of light." It +will thus be seen that optical and electrical phenomena are co-ordinated +as a phase of the physics of the "aether," and that the investigation of +these sciences culminates in the derivation of the properties of this +conceptual medium, the existence of which was called into being as an +instrument of research.[1] The methods of the elastic-solid theory can +still be used with advantage in treating many optical phenomena, more +especially so long as we remain ignorant of fundamental matters +concerning the origin of electric and magnetic strains and stresses; in +addition, the treatment is more intelligible, the researches on the +electromagnetic theory leading in many cases to the derivation of +differential equations which express quantitative relations between +diverse phenomena, although no precise meaning can be attached to the +symbols employed. The school following Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz +has certainly laid the foundations of a complete theory of light and +electricity, but the methods must be adopted with caution, lest one be +constrained to say with Ludwig Boltzmann as in the introduction to his +_Vorlesungen über Maxwell's Theorie der Elektricität und des Lichtes_:-- + + "So soll ich denn mit saurem Schweiss + Euch lehren, was ich selbst nicht weiss." + + GOETHE, _Faust_. + +The essential distinctions between optical and electromagnetic phenomena +may be traced to differences in the lengths of light-waves and of +electromagnetic waves. The aether can probably transmit waves of any +wave-length, the velocity of longitudinal propagation being about 3.10^10 +cms. per second. The shortest waves, discovered by Schumann and +accurately measured by Lyman, have a wave-length of 0.0001 mm.; the +ultra-violet, recognized by their action on the photographic plate or by +their promoting fluorescence, have a wave-length of 0.0002 mm.; the eye +recognizes vibrations of a wave-length ranging from about 0.0004 mm. +(violet) to about 0.0007 (red); the infra-red rays, recognized by their +heating power or by their action on phosphorescent bodies, have a +wave-length of 0.001 mm.; and the longest waves present in the radiations +of a luminous source are the residual rays ("_Rest-strahlen_") obtained +by repeated reflections from quartz (.0085 mm.), from fluorite (0.056 +mm.), and from sylvite (0.06 mm.). The research-field of optics includes +the investigation of the rays which we have just enumerated. A +delimitation may then be made, inasmuch as luminous sources yield no +other radiations, and also since the next series of waves, the +electromagnetic waves, have a minimum wave-length of 6 mm. + +§ 2. The commonest subjective phenomena of light are colour and +visibility, i.e. why are some bodies visible and others not, or, in +other words, what is the physical significance of the words +"transparency," "colour" and "visibility." What is ordinarily understood +by a _transparent_ substance is one which transmits all the rays of +white light without appreciable absorption--that some absorption does +occur is perceived when the substance is viewed through a sufficient +thickness. _Colour_ is due to the absorption of certain rays of the +spectrum, the unabsorbed rays being transmitted to the eye, where they +occasion the sensation of colour (see COLOUR; ABSORPTION OF LIGHT). +Transparent bodies are seen partly by reflected and partly by +transmitted light, and opaque bodies by absorption. Refraction also +influences visibility. Objects immersed in a liquid of the same +refractive index and dispersion would be invisible; for example, a glass +rod can hardly be seen when immersed in Canada balsam; other instances +occur in the petrological examination of rock-sections under the +microscope. In a complex rock-section the boldness with which the +constituents stand out are measures of the difference between their +refractive indices and the refractive index of the mounting medium, and +the more nearly the indices coincide the less defined become the +boundaries, while the interior of the mineral may be most advantageously +explored. Lord Rayleigh has shown that transparent objects can only be +seen when non-uniformly illuminated, the differences in the refractive +indices of the substance and the surrounding medium becoming inoperative +when the illumination is uniform on all sides. R. W. Wood has performed +experiments which confirm this view. + +The analysis of white light into the spectrum colours, and the +reformation of the original light by transmitting the spectrum through a +reversed prism, proved, to the satisfaction of Newton and subsequent +physicists until late in the 19th century, that the various coloured +rays were present in white light, and that the action of the prism was +merely to sort out the rays. This view, which suffices for the +explanation of most phenomena, has now been given up, and the modern +view is that the prism or grating really does _manufacture_ the colours, +as was held previously to Newton. It appears that white light is a +sequence of irregular wave trains which are analysed into series of more +regular trains by the prism or grating in a manner comparable with the +analytical resolution presented by Fourier's theorem. The modern view +points to the _mathematical_ existence of waves of all wave-lengths in +white light, the Newtonian view to the _physical_ existence. Strictly, +the term "monochromatic" light is only applicable to light of a single +wave-length (which can have no actual existence), but it is commonly +used to denote light which cannot be analysed by the instruments at our +disposal; for example, with low-power instruments the light emitted by +sodium vapour would be regarded as homogeneous or monochromatic, but +higher power instruments resolve this light into two components of +different wave-lengths, each of which is of a higher degree of +homogeneity, and it is not impossible that these rays may be capable of +further analysis. + +§ 3. _Divisions of the Subject._--In the early history of the science of +light or optics a twofold division was adopted: _Catoptrics_ (from Gr. +[Greek: katoptron], a mirror), embracing the phenomena of reflection, +i.e. the formation of images by mirrors; and _Dioptrics_ (Gr. [Greek: +dia], through), embracing the phenomena of refraction, i.e. the bending +of a ray of light when passing obliquely through the surface dividing +two media.[2] A third element, _Chromatics_ (Gr. [Greek: chrôma], +colour), was subsequently introduced to include phenomena involving +colour transformations, such as the iridescence of mother-of-pearl, +feathers, soap-bubbles, oil floating on water, &c. This classification +has been discarded (although the terms, particularly "dioptric" and +"chromatic," have survived as adjectives) in favour of a twofold +division: geometrical optics and physical optics. _Geometrical optics_ +is a mathematical development (mainly effected by geometrical methods) +of three laws assumed to be rigorously true: (1) the law of rectilinear +propagation, viz. that light travels in straight lines or _rays_ in any +homogeneous medium; (2) the law of reflection, viz. that the incident +and reflected rays at any point of a surface are equally inclined to, +and coplanar with, the normal to the surface at the point of incidence; +and (3) the law of refraction, viz. that the incident and refracted rays +at a surface dividing two media make angles with the normal to the +surface at the point of incidence whose sines are in a ratio (termed the +"refractive index") which is constant for every particular pair of +media, and that the incident and refracted rays are coplanar with the +normal. _Physical optics_, on the other hand, has for its ultimate +object the elucidation of the question: what is light? It investigates +the nature of the rays themselves, and, in addition to determining the +validity of the axioms of geometrical optics, embraces phenomena for the +explanation of which an expansion of these assumptions is necessary. + +Of the subordinate phases of the science, "physiological optics" is +concerned with the phenomena of vision, with the eye as an optical +instrument, with colour-perception, and with such allied subjects as +the appearance of the eyes of a cat and the luminosity of the glow-worm +and firefly; "meteorological optics" includes phenomena occasioned by +the atmosphere, such as the rainbow, halo, corona, mirage, twinkling of +stars and colour of the sky, and also the effects of atmospheric dust in +promoting such brilliant sunsets as were seen after the eruption of +Krakatoa; "magneto-optics" investigates the effects of electricity and +magnetism on optical properties; "photo-chemistry," with its more +practical development photography, is concerned with the influence of +light in effecting chemical action; and the term "applied optics" may be +used to denote, on the one hand, the experimental investigation of +material for forming optical systems, e.g. the study of glasses with a +view to the formation of a glass of specified optical properties (with +which may be included such matters as the transparency of rock-salt for +the infra-red and of quartz for the ultra-violet rays), and, on the +other hand, the application of geometrical and physical investigations +to the construction of optical instruments. + +§ 4. _Arrangement of the Subject._--The following three divisions of +this article deal with: (I.) the history of the science of light; (II.) +the nature of light; (III.) the velocity of light; but a summary (which +does not aim at scientific precision) may here be given to indicate to +the reader the inter-relation of the various optical phenomena, those +phenomena which are treated in separate articles being shown in larger +type. + +The simplest subjective phenomena of light are COLOUR and intensity, the +measurement of the latter being named PHOTOMETRY. When light falls on a +medium, it may be returned by REFLECTION or it may suffer ABSORPTION; or +it may be transmitted and undergo REFRACTION, and, if the light be +composite, DISPERSION; or, as in the case of oil films on water, +brilliant colours are seen, an effect which is due to INTERFERENCE. +Again, if the rays be transmitted in two directions, as with certain +crystals, "double refraction" (see REFRACTION, DOUBLE) takes place, and +the emergent rays have undergone POLARIZATION. A SHADOW is cast by light +falling on an opaque object, the complete theory of which involves the +phenomenon of DIFFRACTION. Some substances have the property of +transforming luminous radiations, presenting the phenomena of +CALORESCENCE, FLUORESCENCE and PHOSPHORESCENCE. An optical system is +composed of any number of MIRRORS or LENSES, or of both. If light +falling on a system be not brought to a focus, i.e. if all the emergent +rays be not concurrent, we are presented with a CAUSTIC and an +ABERRATION. An optical instrument is simply the setting up of an optical +system, the TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, OBJECTIVE, optical LANTERN, CAMERA +LUCIDA, CAMERA OBSCURA and the KALEIDOSCOPE are examples; instruments +serviceable for simultaneous vision with both eyes are termed BINOCULAR +INSTRUMENTS; the STEREOSCOPE may be placed in this category; the optical +action of the Zoétrope, with its modern development the CINEMATOGRAPH, +depends upon the physiological persistence of VISION. Meteorological +optical phenomena comprise the CORONA, HALO, MIRAGE, RAINBOW, colour of +SKY and TWILIGHT, and also astronomical refraction (see REFRACTION, +ASTRONOMICAL); the complete theory of the corona involves DIFFRACTION, +and atmospheric DUST also plays a part in this group of phenomena. + + +I. HISTORY + +§ 1. There is reason to believe that the ancients were more familiar +with optics than with any other branch of physics; and this may be due +to the fact that for a knowledge of external things man is indebted to +the sense of vision in a far greater degree than to other senses. That +light travels in straight lines--or, in other words, that an object is +seen in the direction in which it really lies--must have been realized +in very remote times. The antiquity of mirrors points to some +acquaintance with the phenomena of reflection, and Layard's discovery of +a convex lens of rock-crystal among the ruins of the palace of Nimrud +implies a knowledge of the burning and magnifying powers of this +instrument. The Greeks were acquainted with the fundamental law of +reflection, viz. the equality of the angles of incidence and reflection; +and it was Hero of Alexandria who proved that the path of the ray is the +least possible. The lens, as an instrument for magnifying objects or for +concentrating rays to effect combustion, was also known. Aristophanes, +in the _Clouds_ (c. 424 B.C.), mentions the use of the burning-glass to +destroy the writing on a waxed tablet; much later, Pliny describes such +glasses as solid balls of rock-crystal or glass, or hollow glass balls +filled with water, and Seneca mentions their use by engravers. A +treatise on optics ([Greek: Katoptrika]), assigned to Euclid by Proclus +and Marinus, shows that the Greeks were acquainted with the production +of images by plane, cylindrical and concave and convex spherical +mirrors, but it is doubtful whether Euclid was the author, since neither +this work nor the [Greek: Optika], a work treating of vision and also +assigned to him by Proclus and Marinus, is mentioned by Pappus, and more +particularly since the demonstrations do not exhibit the precision of +his other writings. + +Reflection, or catoptrics, was the key-note of their explanations of +optical phenomena; it is to the reflection of solar rays by the air that +Aristotle ascribed twilight, and from his observation of the colours +formed by light falling on spray, he attributes the rainbow to +reflection from drops of rain. Although certain elementary phenomena of +refraction had also been noted--such as the apparent bending of an oar +at the point where it met the water, and the apparent elevation of a +coin in a basin by filling the basin with water--the quantitative law of +refraction was unknown; in fact, it was not formulated until the +beginning of the 17th century. The analysis of white light into the +continuous spectrum of rainbow colours by transmission through a prism +was observed by Seneca, who regarded the colours as fictitious, placing +them in the same category as the iridescent appearance of the feathers +on a pigeon's neck. + +§ 2. The aversion of the Greek thinkers to detailed experimental inquiry +stultified the progress of the science; instead of acquiring facts +necessary for formulating scientific laws and correcting hypotheses, the +Greeks devoted their intellectual energies to philosophizing on the +nature of light itself. In their search for a theory the Greeks were +mainly concerned with vision--in other words, they sought to determine +how an object was seen, and to what its colour was due. Emission +theories, involving the conception that light was a stream of concrete +particles, were formulated. The Pythagoreans assumed that vision and +colour were caused by the bombardment of the eye by minute particles +projected from the surface of the object seen. The Platonists +subsequently introduced three elements--a stream of particles emitted by +the eye (their "divine fire"), which united with the solar rays, and, +after the combination had met a stream from the object, returned to the +eye and excited vision. + +In some form or other the emission theory--that light was a longitudinal +propulsion of material particles--dominated optical thought until the +beginning of the 19th century. The authority of the Platonists was +strong enough to overcome Aristotle's theory that light was an activity +([Greek: energeia]) of a medium which he termed the _pellucid_ ([Greek: +diaphanes]); about two thousand years later Newton's exposition of his +corpuscular theory overcame the undulatory hypotheses of Descartes and +Huygens; and it was only after the acquisition of new experimental facts +that the labours of Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel indubitably +established the wave-theory. + +§ 3. The experimental study of refraction, which had been almost +entirely neglected by the early Greeks, received more attention during +the opening centuries of the Christian era. Cleomedes, in his _Cyclical +Theory of Meteors_, c. A.D. 50, alludes to the apparent bending of a +stick partially immersed in water, and to the rendering visible of coins +in basins by filling up with water; and also remarks that the air may +refract the sun's rays so as to render that luminary visible, although +actually it may be below the horizon. The most celebrated of the early +writers on optics is the Alexandrian Ptolemy (2nd century). His +writings on light are believed to be preserved in two imperfect Latin +manuscripts, themselves translations from the Arabic. The subjects +discussed include the nature of light and colour; the formation of +images by various types of mirrors, refractions at the surface of glass +and of water, with tables of the angle of refraction corresponding to +given angles of incidence for rays passing from air to glass and from +air to water; and also astronomical refractions, i.e. the apparent +displacement of a heavenly body due to the refraction of light in its +passage through the atmosphere. The authenticity of these manuscripts +has been contested: the _Almagest_ contains no mention of the _Optics_, +nor is the subject of astronomical refractions noticed, but the +strongest objection, according to A. de Morgan, is the fact that their +author was a poor geometer. + +§ 4. One of the results of the decadence of the Roman empire was the +suppression of the academies, and few additions were made to scientific +knowledge on European soil until the 13th century. Extinguished in the +West, the spirit of research was kindled in the East. The accession of +the Arabs to power and territory in the 7th century was followed by the +acquisition of the literary stores of Greece, and during the following +five centuries the Arabs, both by their preservation of existing works +and by their original discoveries (which, however, were but few), took a +permanent place in the history of science. Pre-eminent among Arabian +scientists is Alhazen, who flourished in the 11th century. Primarily a +mathematician and astronomer, he also investigated a wide range of +optical phenomena. He examined the anatomy of the eye, and the functions +of its several parts in promoting vision; and explained how it is that +we see one object with two eyes, and then not by a single ray or beam as +had been previously held, but by two cones of rays proceeding from the +object, one to each eye. He attributed vision to emanations from the +body seen; and on his authority the Platonic theory fell into disrepute. +He also discussed the magnifying powers of lenses; and it may be that +his writings on this subject inspired the subsequent invention of +spectacles. Astronomical observations led to the investigation of +refraction by the atmosphere, in particular, astronomical refraction; he +explained the phenomenon of twilight, and showed a connexion between its +duration and the height of the atmosphere. He also treated _optical +deceptions_, both in direct vision and in vision by reflected and +refracted light, including the phenomenon known as the _horizontal +moon_, i.e. the apparent increase in the diameter of the sun or moon +when near the horizon. This appearance had been explained by Ptolemy on +the supposition that the diameter was actually increased by refraction, +and his commentator Theon endeavoured to explain why an object appears +larger when viewed under water. But actual experiment showed that the +diameter did not increase. Alhazen gave the correct explanation, which, +however, Friar Bacon attributes to Ptolemy. We judge of distance by +comparing the angle under which an object is seen with its supposed +distance, so that if two objects be seen under nearly equal angles and +one be supposed to be more distant than the other, then the former will +be supposed to be the larger. When near the horizon the sun or moon, +conceived as very distant, are intuitively compared with terrestrial +objects, and therefore they appear larger than when viewed at +elevations. + +§ 5. While the Arabs were acting as the custodians of scientific +knowledge, the institutions and civilizations of Europe were gradually +crystallizing. Attacked by the Mongols and by the Crusaders, the Bagdad +caliphate disappeared in the 13th century. At that period the Arabic +commentaries, which had already been brought to Europe, were beginning +to exert great influence on scientific thought; and it is probable that +their rarity and the increasing demand for the originals and +translations led to those forgeries which are of frequent occurrence in +the literature of the middle ages. The first treatise on optics written +in Europe was admitted by its author Vitello or Vitellio, a native of +Poland, to be based on the works of Ptolemy and Alhazen. It was written +in about 1270, and first published in 1572, with a Latin translation of +Alhazen's treatise, by F. Risner, under the title _Thesaurus opticae_. +Its tables of refraction are more accurate than Ptolemy's; the author +follows Alhazen in his investigation of lenses, but his determinations +of the foci and magnifying powers of spheres are inaccurate. He +attributed the twinkling of stars to refraction by moving air, and +observed that the scintillation was increased by viewing through water +in gentle motion; he also recognized that both reflection and refraction +were instrumental in producing the rainbow, but he gave no explanation +of the colours. + +The _Perspectiva Communis_ of John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury, +being no more than a collection of elementary propositions containing +nothing new, we have next to consider the voluminous works of Vitellio's +illustrious contemporary, Roger Bacon. His writings on light, +_Perspectiva_ and _Specula mathematica_, are included in his _Opus +majus_. It is conceivable that he was acquainted with the nature of the +images formed by light traversing a small orifice--a phenomenon noticed +by Aristotle, and applied at a later date to the construction of the +camera obscura. The invention of the magic lantern has been ascribed to +Bacon, and his statements concerning spectacles, the telescope, and the +microscope, if not based on an experimental realization of these +instruments, must be regarded as masterly conceptions of the +applications of lenses. As to the nature of light, Bacon adhered to the +theory that objects are rendered visible by emanations from the eye. + +The history of science, and more particularly the history of inventions, +constantly confronts us with the problem presented by such writings as +Friar Bacon's. Rarely has it been given to one man to promote an +entirely new theory or to devise an original instrument; it is more +generally the case that, in the evolution of a single idea, there comes +some stage which arrests our attention, and to which we assign the +dignity of an "invention." Furthermore, the obscurity that surrounds the +early history of spectacles, the magic lantern, the telescope and the +microscope, may find a partial solution in the spirit of the middle +ages. The natural philosopher who was bold enough to present to a prince +a pair of spectacles or a telescope would be in imminent danger of being +regarded in the eyes of the church as a powerful and dangerous magician; +and it is conceivable that the maker of such an instrument would +jealously guard the secret of its actual construction, however much he +might advertise its potentialities.[3] + +§ 6. The awakening of Europe, which first manifested itself in Italy, +England and France, was followed in the 16th century by a period of +increasing intellectual activity. The need for experimental inquiry was +realized, and a tendency to dispute the dogmatism of the church and to +question the theories of the established schools of philosophy became +apparent. In the science of optics, Italy led the van, the foremost +pioneers being Franciscus Maurolycus (1494-1575) of Messina, and +Giambattista della Porta (1538-1615) of Naples. A treatise by Maurolycus +entitled _Photismi de Lumine et Umbra prospectivum radiorum incidentium +facientes_ (1575), contains a discussion of the measurement of the +intensity of light--an early essay in photometry; the formation of +circular patches of light by small holes of any shape, with a correct +explanation of the phenomenon; and the optical relations of the parts of +the eye, maintaining that the crystalline humour acts as a lens which +focuses images on the retina, explaining short- and long-sight (myopia +and hyper-metropia), with the suggestion that the former may be +corrected by concave, and the latter by convex, lenses. He observed the +spherical aberration due to elements beyond the axis of a lens, and also +the caustics of refraction (diacaustics) by a sphere (seen as the bright +boundaries of the luminous patches formed by receiving the transmitted +light on a screen), which he correctly regarded as determined by the +intersections of the refracted rays. His researches on refraction were +less fruitful; he assumed the angles of incidence and refraction to be +in the constant ratio of 8 to 5, and the rainbow, in which he recognized +four colours, orange, green, blue and purple, to be formed by rays +reflected in the drops along the sides of an octagon. Porta's fame rests +chiefly on his _Magia naturalis sive de miraculis rerum naturalium_, of +which four books were published in 1558, the complete work of twenty +books appearing in 1589. It attained great popularity, perhaps by reason +of its astonishing medley of subjects--pyrotechnics and perfumery, +animal reproduction and hunting, alchemy and optics,--and it was several +times reprinted, and translated into English (with the title _Natural +Magick_, 1658), German, French, Spanish, Hebrew and Arabic. The work +contains an account of the camera obscura, with the invention of which +the author has sometimes been credited; but, whoever the inventor, Porta +was undoubtedly responsible for improving and popularizing that +instrument, and also the magic lantern. In the same work practical +applications of lenses are suggested, combinations comparable with +telescopes are vaguely treated and spectacles are discussed. His _De +Refractione, optices parte_ (1593) contains an account of binocular +vision, in which are found indications of the principle of the +stereoscope. + +§ 7. The empirical study of lenses led, in the opening decade of the +17th century, to the emergence of the telescope from its former +obscurity. The first form, known as the Dutch or Galileo telescope, +consisted of a convex and a concave lens, a combination which gave erect +images; the later form, now known as the "Keplerian" or "astronomical" +telescope (in contrast with the earlier or "terrestrial" telescope) +consisted of two convex lenses, which gave inverted images. With the +microscope, too, advances were made, and it seems probable that the +compound type came into common use about this time. These single +instruments were followed by the invention of binoculars, i.e. +instruments which permitted simultaneous vision with both eyes. There is +little doubt that the experimental realization of the telescope, opening +up as it did such immense fields for astronomical research, stimulated +the study of lenses and optical systems. The investigations of +Maurolycus were insufficient to explain the theory of the telescope, and +it was Kepler who first determined the principle of the Galilean +telescope in his _Dioptrice_ (1611), which also contains the first +description of the astronomical or Keplerian telescope, and the +demonstration that rays parallel to the axis of a plano-convex lens come +to a focus at a point on the axis distant twice the radius of the curved +surface of the lens, and, in the case of an equally convex lens, at an +axial point distant only once the radius. He failed, however, to +determine accurately the case for unequally convex lenses, a problem +which was solved by Bonaventura Cavalieri, a pupil of Galileo. + +Early in the 17th century great efforts were made to determine the law +of refraction. Kepler, in his _Prolegomena ad Vitellionem_ (1604), +assiduously, but unsuccessfully, searched for the law, and can only be +credited with twenty-seven empirical rules, really of the nature of +approximations, which he employed in his theory of lenses. The true +law--that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and +refraction is constant--was discovered in 1621 by Willebrord Snell +(1591-1626); but was published for the first time after his death, and +with no mention of his name, by Descartes. Whereas in Snell's manuscript +the law was stated in the form of the ratio of certain lines, +trigonometrically interpretable as a ratio of cosecants, Descartes +expressed the law in its modern trigonometrical form, viz. as the ratio +of the sines. It may be observed that the modern form was independently +obtained by James Gregory and published in his _Optica promota_ (1663). +Armed with the law of refraction, Descartes determined the geometrical +theory of the primary and secondary rainbows, but did not mention how +far he was indebted to the explanation of the primary bow by Antonio de +Dominis in 1611; and, similarly, in his additions to the knowledge of +the telescope the influence of Galileo is not recorded. + +§ 8. In his metaphysical speculations on the system of nature, Descartes +formulated a theory of light at variance with the generally accepted +emission theory and showing some resemblance to the earlier views of +Aristotle, and, in a smaller measure, to the modern undulatory theory. +He imagined light to be a pressure transmitted by an infinitely elastic +medium which pervades space, and colour to be due to rotatory motions of +the particles of this medium. He attempted a mechanical explanation of +the law of refraction, and came to the conclusion that light passed more +readily through a more highly refractive medium. This view was combated +by Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), who, from the principle known as the +"law of least time," deduced the converse to be the case, i.e. that the +velocity varied inversely with the refractive index. In brief, Fermat's +argument was as follows: Since nature performs her operations by the +most direct routes or shortest paths, then the path of a ray of light +between any two points must be such that the time occupied in the +passage is a minimum. The rectilinear propagation and the law of +reflection obviously agree with this principle, and it remained to be +proved whether the law of refraction tallied. + +Although Fermat's premiss is useless, his inference is invaluable, and +the most notable application of it was made in about 1824 by Sir William +Rowan Hamilton, who merged it into his conception of the "characteristic +function," by the help of which all optical problems, whether on the +corpuscular or on the undulator theory, are solved by one common +process. Hamilton was in possession of the germs of this grand theory +some years before 1824, but it was first communicated to the Royal Irish +Academy in that year, and published in imperfect instalments some years +later. The following is his own description of it. It is of interest as +exhibiting the origin of Fermat's deduction, its relation to +contemporary and subsequent knowledge, and its connexion with other +analytical principles. Moreover, it is important as showing Hamilton's +views on a very singular part of the more modern history of the science +to which he contributed so much. + + "Those who have meditated on the beauty and utility, in theoretical + mechanics, of the general method of Lagrange, who have felt the power + and dignity of that central dynamical theorem which he deduced, in the + _Mécanique analytique_ ..., must feel that mathematical optics can + only then attain a coordinate rank with mathematical mechanics ..., + when it shall possess an appropriate method, and become the unfolding + of a central idea.... It appears that if a general method in deductive + optics can be attained at all, it must flow from some law or + principle, itself of the highest generality, and among the highest + results of induction.... [This] must be the principle, or law, called + usually the Law of Least Action; suggested by questionable views, but + established on the widest induction, and embracing every known + combination of media, and every straight, or bent, or curved line, + ordinary or extraordinary, along which light (whatever light may be) + extends its influence successively in space and time: namely, that + this linear path of light, from one point to another, is always found + to be such that, if it be compared with the other infinitely various + lines by which in thought and in geometry the same two points might be + connected, a certain integral or sum, called often _Action_, and + depending by fixed rules on the length, and shape, and position of the + path, and on the media which are traversed by it, is less than all the + similar integrals for the other neighbouring lines, or, at least, + possesses, with respect to them, a certain _stationary_ property. From + this Law, then, which may, perhaps, be named the LAW OF STATIONARY + ACTION, it seems that we may most fitly and with best hope set out, in + the synthetic or deductive process and in the search of a mathematical + method. + + "Accordingly, from this known law of least or stationary action I + deduced (long since) another connected and coextensive principle, + which may be called by analogy the LAW OF VARYING ACTION, and which + seems to offer naturally a method such as we are seeking; the one law + being as it were the last step in the ascending scale of induction, + respecting linear paths of light, while the other law may usefully be + made the first in the descending and deductive way. + + "The former of these two laws was discovered in the following manner. + The elementary principle of straight rays showed that light, under the + most simple and usual circumstances, employs the direct, and therefore + the shortest, course to pass from one point to another. Again, it was + a very early discovery (attributed by Laplace to Ptolemy), that, in + the case of a plane mirror, the bent line formed by the incident and + reflected rays is shorter than any other bent line having the same + extremities, and having its point of bending on the mirror. These + facts were thought by some to be instances and results of the + simplicity and economy of nature; and Fermat, whose researches on + maxima and minima are claimed by the Continental mathematicians as the + germ of the differential calculus, sought anxiously to trace some + similar economy in the more complex case of refraction. He believed + that by a metaphysical or cosmological necessity, arising from the + simplicity of the universe, light always takes the course which it can + traverse in the shortest time. To reconcile this metaphysical opinion + with the law of refraction, discovered experimentally by Snellius, + Fermat was led to suppose that the two lengths, or _indices_, which + Snellius had measured on the incident ray prolonged and on the + refracted ray, and had observed to have one common projection on a + refracting plane, are inversely proportional to the two successive + velocities of the light before and after refraction, and therefore + that the velocity of light is diminished on entering those denser + media in which it is observed to approach the perpendicular; for + Fermat believed that the time of propagation of light along a line + bent by refraction was represented by the sum of the two products, of + the incident portion multiplied by the index of the first medium and + of the refracted portion multiplied by the index of the second medium; + because he found, by his mathematical method, that this sum was less, + in the case of a plane refractor, than if light went by any other than + its actual path from one given point to another, and because he + perceived that the supposition of a velocity inversely as the index + reconciled his mathematical discovery of the minimum of the foregoing + sum with his cosmological principle of least time. Descartes attacked + Fermat's opinions respecting light, but Leibnitz zealously defended + them; and Huygens was led, by reasonings of a very different kind, to + adopt Fermat's conclusions of a velocity inversely as the index, and + of a _minimum time_ of propagation of light, in passing from one given + point to another through an ordinary refracting plane. Newton, + however, by his theory of emission and attraction, was led to conclude + that the velocity of light was _directly_, not _inversely_, as the + index, and that it was _increased_ instead of being _diminished_ on + entering a denser medium; a result incompatible with the theorem of + the shortest time in refraction. This theorem of shortest time was + accordingly abandoned by many, and among the rest by Maupertuis, who, + however, proposed in its stead, as a new cosmological principle, that + _celebrated law of least action_ which has since acquired so high a + rank in mathematical physics, by the improvements of Euler and + Lagrange." + +§ 9. The second half of the 17th century witnessed developments in the +practice and theory of optics which equal in importance the +mathematical, chemical and astronomical acquisitions of the period. +Original observations were made which led to the discovery, in an +embryonic form, of new properties of light, and the development of +mathematical analysis facilitated the quantitative and theoretical +investigation of these properties. Indeed, mathematical and physical +optics may justly be dated from this time. The phenomenon of +_diffraction_, so named by Grimaldi, and by Newton _inflection_, which +may be described briefly as the spreading out, or deviation, from the +strictly rectilinear path of light passing through a small aperture or +beyond the edge of an opaque object, was discovered by the Italian +Jesuit, Francis Maria Grimaldi (1619-1663), and published in his +_Physico-Mathesis de Lumine_ (1665); at about the same time Newton made +his classical investigation of the spectrum or the band of colours +formed when light is transmitted through a prism,[4] and studied +_interference_ phenomena in the form of the colours of thin and thick +plates, and in the form now termed _Newton's rings_; _double +refraction_, in the form of the dual images of a single object formed by +a rhomb of Iceland spar, was discovered by Bartholinus in 1670; +Huygens's examination of the transmitted beams led to the discovery of +an absence of symmetry now called _polarization_; and the finite +velocity of light was deduced in 1676 by Ole Roemer from the comparison +of the observed and computed times of the eclipses of the moons of +Jupiter. + +These discoveries had a far-reaching influence upon the theoretical +views which had been previously held: for instance, Newton's +recombination of the spectrum by means of a second (inverted) prism +caused the rejection of the earlier view that the prism actually +manufactured the colours, and led to the acceptance of the theory that +the colours were physically present in the white light, the function of +the prism being merely to separate the physical mixture; and Roemer's +discovery of the finite velocity of light introduced the necessity of +considering the momentum of the particles which, on the accepted +emission theory, composed the light. Of greater moment was the +controversy concerning the emission or corpuscular theory championed by +Newton and the undulatory theory presented by Huygens (see section II. +of this article). In order to explain the colours of thin plates Newton +was forced to abandon some of the original simplicity of his theory; and +we may observe that by postulating certain motions for the Newtonian +corpuscles all the phenomena of light can be explained, these motions +aggregating to a transverse displacement, translated longitudinally, and +the corpuscles, at the same time, becoming otiose and being replaced by +a medium in which the vibration is transmitted. In this way the +Newtonian theory may be merged into the undulatory theory. Newton's +results are collected in his _Opticks_, the first edition of which +appeared in 1704. Huygens published his theory in his _Traité de +lumière_ (1690), where he explained reflection, refraction and double +refraction, but did not elucidate the formation of shadows (which was +readily explicable on the Newtonian hypothesis) or polarization; and it +was this inability to explain polarization which led to Newton's +rejection of the wave theory. The authority of Newton and his masterly +exposition of the corpuscular theory sustained that theory until the +beginning of the 19th century, when it succumbed to the assiduous skill +of Young and Fresnel. + +§ 10. Simultaneously with this remarkable development of theoretical and +experimental optics, notable progress was made in the construction of +optical instruments. The increased demand for telescopes, occasioned by +the interest in observational astronomy, led to improvements in the +grinding of lenses (the primary aim being to obtain forms in which +spherical aberration was a minimum), and also to the study of +achromatism, the principles of which followed from Newton's analysis and +synthesis of white light. Kepler's supposition that lenses having the +form of surfaces of revolution of the conic sections would bring rays to +a focus without spherical aberration was investigated by Descartes, and +the success of the latter's demonstration led to the grinding of +ellipsoidal and hyperboloidal lenses, but with disappointing results.[5] +The grinding of spherical lenses was greatly improved by Huygens, who +also attempted to reduce chromatic aberration in the refracting +telescope by introducing a stop (i.e. by restricting the aperture of the +rays); to the same experimenter are due compound eye-pieces, the +invention of which had been previously suggested by Eustachio Divini. +The so-called Huygenian eye-piece is composed of two plano-convex lenses +with their plane faces towards the eye; the field-glass has a focal +length three times that of the eye-glass, and the distance between them +is twice the focal length of the eye-glass. Huygens observed that +spherical aberration was diminished by making the deviations of the rays +at the two lenses equal, and Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich subsequently +pointed out that the combination was achromatic. The true development, +however, of the achromatic refracting telescope, which followed from the +introduction of compound object-glasses giving no dispersion, dates from +about the middle of the 18th century. The difficulty of obtaining lens +systems in which aberrations were minimized, and the theory of Newton +that colour production invariably attended refraction, led to the +manufacture of improved specula which permitted the introduction of +reflecting telescopes. The idea of this type of instrument had +apparently occurred to Marin Mersenne in about 1640, but the first +reflector of note was described in 1663 by James Gregory in his _Optica +promota_; a second type was invented by Newton, and a third in 1672 by +Cassegrain. Slight improvements were made in the microscope, although +the achromatic type did not appear until about 1820, some sixty years +after John Dollond had determined the principle of the achromatic +telescope (see ABERRATION, TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT). + +§ 11. Passing over the discovery by Ehrenfried Walther Tschirnhausen +(1651-1708) of the caustics produced by reflection ("catacaustics") and +his experiments with large reflectors and refractors (for the +manufacture of which he established glass-works in Italy); James +Bradley's discovery in 1728 of the "aberration of light," with the +subsequent derivation of the velocity of light, the value agreeing +fairly well with Roemer's estimate; the foundation of scientific +photometry by Pierre Bouguer in an essay published in 1729 and expanded +in 1760 into his _Traité d'optique sur la graduation de la lumière_; the +publication of John Henry Lambert's treatise on the same subject, +entitled _Photometria, sive de Mensura et Gradibus Luminis, Colorum et +Umbrae_ (1760); and the development of the telescope and other optical +instruments, we arrive at the closing decades of the 18th century. +During the forty years 1780 to 1820 the history of optics is especially +marked by the names of Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel, and in a +lesser degree by Arago, Malus, Sir William Herschel, Fraunhofer, +Wollaston, Biot and Brewster. + +Although the corpuscular theory had been disputed by Benjamin Franklin, +Leonhard Euler and others, the authority of Newton retained for it an +almost general acceptance until the beginning of the 19th century, when +Young and Fresnel instituted their destructive criticism. Basing his +views on the earlier undulatory theories and diffraction phenomena of +Grimaldi and Hooke, Young accepted the Huygenian theory, assuming, from +a false analogy with sound waves, that the wave-disturbance was +longitudinal, and ignoring the suggestion made by Hooke in 1672 that the +direction of the vibration might be transverse, i.e. at right angles to +the direction of the rays. As with Huygens, Young was unable to explain +diffraction correctly, or polarization. But the assumption enabled him +to establish the principle of interference,[6] one of the most fertile +in the science of physical optics. The undulatory theory was also +accepted by Fresnel who, perceiving the inadequacy of the researches of +Huygens and Young, showed in 1818 by an analysis which, however, is not +quite free from objection, that, by assuming that every element of a +wave-surface could act as a source of secondary waves or wavelets, the +diffraction bands were due to the interference of the secondary waves +formed by each element of a primary wave falling upon the edge of an +obstacle or aperture. One consequence of Fresnel's theory was that the +bands were independent of the nature of the diffracting edge--a fact +confirmed by experiment and therefore invalidating Young's theory that +the bands were produced by the interference between the primary wave and +the wave reflected from the edge of the obstacle. Another consequence, +which was first mathematically deduced by Poisson and subsequently +confirmed by experiment, is the paradoxical phenomenon that a small +circular disk illuminated by a point source casts a shadow having a +bright centre. + +§ 12. The undulatory theory reached its zenith when Fresnel explained +the complex phenomena of polarization, by adopting the conception of +Hooke that the vibrations were transverse, and not longitudinal.[7] +Polarization by double refraction had been investigated by Huygens, and +the researches of Wollaston and, more especially, of Young, gave such an +impetus to the study that the Institute of France made double refraction +the subject of a prize essay in 1812. E. L. Malus (1775-1812) discovered +the phenomenon of polarization by reflection about 1808 and investigated +metallic reflection; Arago discovered circular polarization in quartz in +1811, and, with Fresnel, made many experimental investigations, which +aided the establishment of the Fresnel-Arago laws of the interference of +polarized beams; Biot introduced a reflecting polariscope, investigated +the colours of crystalline plates and made many careful researches on +the rotation of the plane of polarization; Sir David Brewster made +investigations over a wide range, and formulated the law connecting the +angle of polarization with the refractive index of the reflecting +medium. Fresnel's theory was developed in a strikingly original manner +by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who interpreted from Fresnel's analytical +determination of the geometrical form of the wave-surface in biaxal +crystals the existence of two hitherto unrecorded phenomena. At +Hamilton's instigation Humphrey Lloyd undertook the experimental search, +and brought to light the phenomena of external and internal conical +refraction. + +The undulatory vibration postulated by Fresnel having been generally +accepted as explaining most optical phenomena, it became necessary to +determine the mechanical properties of the aether which transmits this +motion. Fresnel, Neumann, Cauchy, MacCullagh, and, especially, Green and +Stokes, developed the "elastic-solid theory." By applying the theory of +elasticity they endeavoured to determine the constants of a medium which +could transmit waves of the nature of light. Many different allocations +were suggested (of which one of the most recent is Lord Kelvin's +"contractile aether," which, however, was afterwards discarded by its +author), and the theory as left by Green and Stokes has merits other +than purely historical. At a later date theories involving an action +between the aether and material atoms were proposed, the first of any +moment being J. Boussinesq's (1867). C. Christiansen's investigation of +anomalous dispersion in 1870, and the failure of Cauchy's formula +(founded on the elastic-solid theory) to explain this phenomenon, led to +the theories of W. Sellmeier (1872), H. von Helmholtz (1875), E. +Ketteler (1878), E. Lommel (1878) and W. Voigt (1883). A third class of +theory, to which the present-day theory belongs, followed from Clerk +Maxwell's analytical investigations in electromagnetics. Of the greatest +exponents of this theory we may mention H. A. Lorentz, P. Drude and J. +Larmor, while Lord Rayleigh has, with conspicuous brilliancy, explained +several phenomena (e.g. the colour of the sky) on this hypothesis. + + For a critical examination of these theories see section II. of this + article; reference may also be made to the _British Association + Reports_: "On Physical Optics," by Humphrey Lloyd (1834), p. 35; "On + Double Refraction," by Sir G. G. Stokes (1862), p. 253; "On Optical + Theories," by R. T. Glazebrook (1885), p. 157. + +§ 13. _Recent Developments._--The determination of the velocity of light +(see section III. of this article) may be regarded as definitely +settled, a result contributed to by A. H. L. Fizeau (1849), J. B. L. +Foucault (1850, 1862), A. Cornu (1874), A. A. Michelson (1880), James +Young and George Forbes (1882), Simon Newcomb (1880-1882) and Cornu +(1900). The velocity in moving media was investigated theoretically by +Fresnel; and Fizeau (1859), and Michelson and Morley (1886) showed +experimentally that the velocity was increased in running water by an +amount agreeing with Fresnel's formula, which was based on the +hypothesis of a stationary aether. The optics of moving media have also +been investigated by Lord Rayleigh, and more especially by H. A. +Lorentz, who also assumed a stationary aether. The relative motion of +the earth and the aether has an important connexion with the phenomenon +of the aberration of light, and has been treated with masterly skill by +Joseph Larmor and others (see AETHER). The relation of the earth's +motion to the intensities of terrestrial sources of light was +investigated theoretically by Fizeau, but no experimental inquiry was +made until 1903, when Nordmeyer obtained negative results, which were +confirmed by the theoretical investigations of A. A. Bucherer and H. A. +Lorentz. + +Experimental photometry has been greatly developed since the pioneer work +of Bouguer and Lambert and the subsequent introduction of the photometers +of Ritchie, Rumford, Bunsen and Wheatstone, followed by Swan's in 1859, +and O. R. Lummer and E. Brodhun's instrument (essentially the same as +Swan's) in 1889. This expansion may largely be attributed to the increase +in the number of artificial illuminants--especially the many types of +filament- and arc-electric lights, and the incandescent gas light. Colour +photometry has also been notably developed, especially since the +enunciation of the "Purkinje phenomenon" in 1825. Sir William Abney has +contributed much to this subject, and A. M. Meyer has designed a +photometer in which advantage is taken of the phenomenon of contrast +colours. "Flicker photometry" may be dated from O. N. Rood's +investigations in 1893, and the same principle has been applied by +Haycraft and Whitman. These questions--colour and flicker +photometry--have important affinities to colour perception and the +persistence of vision (see VISION). The spectrophotometer, devised by De +Witt Bristol Brace in 1899, which permits the comparison of similarly +coloured portions of the spectra from two different sources, has done +much valuable work in the determination of absorptive powers and +extinction coefficients. Much attention has also been given to the +preparation of a standard of intensity, and many different sources have +been introduced (see PHOTOMETRY). Stellar photometry, which was first +investigated instrumentally with success by Sir John Herschel, was +greatly improved by the introduction of Zöllner's photometer, E. C. +Pickering's meridian photometer and C. Pritchard's wedge photometer. +Other methods of research in this field are by photography--photographic +photometry--and radiometric method (see PHOTOMETRY, CELESTIAL). + +The earlier methods for the experimental determination of refractive +indices by measuring the deviation through a solid prism of the +substance in question or, in the case of liquids, through a hollow prism +containing the liquid, have been replaced in most accurate work by other +methods. The method of total reflection, due originally to Wollaston, +has been put into a very convenient form, applicable to both solids and +liquids, in the Pulfrich refractometer (see REFRACTION). Still more +accurate methods, based on interference phenomena, have been devised. +Jamin's interference refractometer is one of the earlier forms of such +apparatus; and Michelson's interferometer is one of the best of later +types (see INTERFERENCE). The variation of refractive index with density +has been the subject of much experimental and theoretical inquiry. The +empirical rule of Gladstone and Dale was often at variance with +experiment, and the mathematical investigations of H. A. Lorentz of +Leiden and L. Lorenz of Copenhagen on the electromagnetic theory led to +a more consistent formula. The experimental work has been chiefly +associated with the names of H. H. Landolt and J. W. Brühl, whose +results, in addition to verifying the Lorenz-Lorentz formula, have +established that this function of the refractive index and density is a +colligative property of the molecule, i.e. it is calculable additively +from the values of this function for the component atoms, allowance +being made for the mode in which they are mutually combined (see +CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL). The preparation of lenses, in which the refractive +index decreases with the distance from the axis, by K. F. J. Exner, H. +F. L. Matthiessen and Schott, and the curious results of refraction by +non-homogeneous media, as realized by R. Wood may be mentioned (see +MIRAGE). + +The spectrum of white light produced by prismatic refraction has engaged +many investigators. The infra-red or heat waves were discovered by Sir +William Herschel, and experiments on the actinic effects of the +different parts of the spectrum on silver salts by Scheele, Senebier, +Ritter, Seebeck and others, proved the increased activity as one passed +from the red to the violet and the ultra-violet. Wollaston also made +many investigations in this field, noticing the dark lines--the +"Fraunhofer lines"--which cross the solar spectrum, which were further +discussed by Brewster and Fraunhofer, who thereby laid the foundations +of modern spectroscopy. Mention may also be made of the investigations +of Lord Rayleigh and Arthur Schuster on the resolving power of prisms +(see DIFFRACTION), and also of the modern view of the function of the +prism in analysing white light. The infra-red and ultra-violet rays are +of especial interest since, although not affecting vision after the +manner of ordinary light, they possess very remarkable properties. +Theoretical investigation on the undulatory theory of the law of +reflection shows that a surface, too rough to give any trace of regular +reflection with ordinary light, may regularly reflect the long waves, a +phenomenon experimentally realized by Lord Rayleigh. Long waves--the +so-called "residual rays" or "_Rest-strahlen_"--have also been isolated +by repeated reflections from quartz surfaces of the light from zirconia +raised to incandescence by the oxyhydrogen flame (E. F. Nichols and H. +Rubens); far longer waves were isolated by similar reflections from +fluorite (56 µ) and sylvite (61 µ) surfaces in 1899 by Rubens and E. +Aschkinass. The short waves--ultra-violet rays--have also been studied, +the researches of E. F. Nichols on the transparency of quartz to these +rays, which are especially present in the radiations of the mercury arc, +having led to the introduction of lamps made of fused quartz, thus +permitting the convenient study of these rays, which, it is to be noted, +are absorbed by ordinary clear glass. Recent researches at the works of +Schott and Genossen, Jena, however, have resulted in the production of a +glass transparent to the ultra-violet. + +Dispersion, i.e. that property of a substance which consists in having a +different refractive index for rays of different wave-lengths, was first +studied in the form known as "ordinary dispersion" in which the +refrangibility of the ray increased with the wave-length. Cases had been +observed by Fox Talbot, Le Roux, and especially by Christiansen (1870) +and A. Kundt (1871-1872) where this normal rule did not hold; to such +phenomena the name "anomalous dispersion" was given, but really there is +nothing anomalous about it at all, ordinary dispersion being merely a +particular case of the general phenomenon. The Cauchy formula, which was +founded on the elastic-solid theory, did not agree with the experimental +facts, and the germs of the modern theory, as was pointed out by Lord +Rayleigh in 1900, were embodied in a question proposed by Clerk Maxwell +for the Mathematical Tripos examination for 1869. The principle, which +occurred simultaneously to W. Sellmeier (who is regarded as the founder +of the modern theory) and had been employed about 1850 by Sir G. G. +Stokes to explain absorption lines, involves an action between the +aether and the molecules of the dispersing substance. The mathematical +investigation is associated with the names of Sellmeier, Hermann +Helmholtz, Eduard Ketteler, P. Drude, H. A. Lorentz and Lord Rayleigh, +and the experimental side with many observers--F. Paschen, Rubens and +others; absorbing media have been investigated by A. W. Pflüger, a great +many aniline dyes by K. Stöckl, and sodium vapour by R. W. Wood. Mention +may also be made of the beautiful experiments of Christiansen (1884) and +Lord Rayleigh on the colours transmitted by white powders suspended in +liquids of the same refractive index. If, for instance, benzol be +gradually added to finely powdered quartz, a succession of beautiful +colours--red, yellow, green and finally blue--is transmitted, or, under +certain conditions, the colours may appear at once, causing the mixture +to flash like a fiery opal. Absorption, too, has received much +attention; the theory has been especially elaborated by M. Planck, and +the experimental investigation has been prosecuted from the purely +physical standpoint, and also from the standpoint of the physical +chemist, with a view to correlating absorption with constitution. + +Interference phenomena have been assiduously studied. The experiments +of Young, Fresnel, Lloyd, Fizeau and Foucault, of Fresnel and Arago on +the measurement of refractive indices by the shift of the interference +bands, of H. F. Talbot on the "Talbot bands" (which he insufficiently +explained on the principle of interference, it being shown by Sir G. B. +Airy that diffraction phenomena supervene), of Baden-Powell on the +"Powell bands," of David Brewster on "Brewster's bands," have been +developed, together with many other phenomena--Newton's rings, the +colours of thin, thick and mixed plates, &c.--in a striking manner, one +of the most important results being the construction of interferometers +applicable to the determination of refractive indices and wave-lengths, +with which the names of Jamin, Michelson, Fabry and Perot, and of Lummer +and E. Gehrcke are chiefly associated. The mathematical investigations +of Fresnel may be regarded as being completed by the analysis chiefly +due to Airy, Stokes and Lord Rayleigh. Mention may be made of Sir G. G. +Stokes' attribution of the colours of iridescent crystals to periodic +twinning; this view has been confirmed by Lord Rayleigh (_Phil. Mag._, +1888) who, from the purity of the reflected light, concluded that the +laminae were equidistant by the order of a wave-length. Prior to 1891 +only interference between waves proceeding in the same direction had +been studied. In that year Otto H. Wiener obtained, on a film 1/20th of +a wave-length in thickness, photographic impressions of the stationary +waves formed by the interference of waves proceeding in opposite +directions, and in 1892 Drude and Nernst employed a fluorescent film to +record the same phenomenon. This principle is applied in the Lippmann +colour photography, which was suggested by W. Zenker, realized by +Gabriel Lippmann, and further investigated by R. G. Neuhauss, O. H. +Wiener, H. Lehmann and others. + +Great progress has been made in the study of diffraction, and "this +department of optics is precisely the one in which the wave theory has +secured its greatest triumphs" (Lord Rayleigh). The mathematical +investigations of Fresnel and Poisson were placed on a dynamical basis +by Sir G. G. Stokes; and the results gained more ready interpretation by +the introduction of "Babinet's principle" in 1837, and Cornu's graphic +methods in 1874. The theory also gained by the researches of Fraunhofer, +Airy, Schwerd, E. Lommel and others. The theory of the concave grating, +which resulted from H. A. Rowland's classical methods of ruling lines of +the necessary nature and number on curved surfaces, was worked out by +Rowland, E. Mascart, C. Runge and others. The resolving power and the +intensity of the spectra have been treated by Lord Rayleigh and Arthur +Schuster, and more recently (1905), the distribution of light has been +treated by A. B. Porter. The theory of diffraction is of great +importance in designing optical instruments, the theory of which has +been more especially treated by Ernst Abbe (whose theory of microscopic +vision dates from about 1870) by the scientific staff at the Zeiss +works, Jena, by Rayleigh and others. The theory of coronae (as +diffraction phenomena) was originally due to Young, who, from the +principle involved, devised the _eriometer_ for measuring the diameters +of very small objects; and Sir G. G. Stokes subsequently explained the +appearances presented by minute opaque particles borne on a transparent +plate. The polarization of the light diffracted at a slit was noted in +1861 by Fizeau, whose researches were extended in 1892 by H. Du Bois, +and, for the case of gratings, by Du Bois and Rubens in 1904. The +diffraction of light by small particles was studied in the form of very +fine chemical precipitates by John Tyndall, who noticed the polarization +of the beautiful cerulean blue which was transmitted. This subject--one +form of which is presented in the blue colour of the sky--has been most +auspiciously treated by Lord Rayleigh on both the elastic-solid and +electromagnetic theories. Mention may be made of R. W. Wood's +experiments on thin metal films which, under certain conditions, +originate colour phenomena inexplicable by interference and diffraction. +These colours have been assigned to the principle of optical resonance, +and have been treated by Kossonogov (_Phys. Zeit._, 1903). J. C. Maxwell +Garnett (_Phil. Trans_. vol. 203) has shown that the colours of coloured +glasses are due to ultra-microscopic particles, which have been +directly studied by H. Siedentopf and R. Zsigmondy under limiting +oblique illumination. + +Polarization phenomena may, with great justification, be regarded as the +most engrossing subject of optical research during the 19th century; the +assiduity with which it was cultivated in the opening decades of that +century received a great stimulus when James Nicol devised in 1828 the +famous "Nicol prism," which greatly facilitated the determination of the +plane of vibration of polarized light, and the facts that light is +polarized by reflection, repeated refractions, double refraction and by +diffraction also contributed to the interest which the subject excited. +The rotation of the plane of polarization by quartz was discovered in +1811 by Arago; if white light be used the colours change as the Nicol +rotates--a phenomenon termed by Biot "rotatory dispersion." Fresnel +regarded rotatory polarization as compounded from right- and left-handed +(dextro- and laevo-) circular polarizations; and Fresnel, Cornu, Dove +and Cotton effected their experimental separation. Legrand des Cloizeaux +discovered the enormously enhanced rotatory polarization of cinnabar, a +property also possessed--but in a lesser degree--by the sulphates of +strychnine and ethylene diamine. The rotatory power of certain liquids +was discovered by Biot in 1815; and at a later date it was found that +many solutions behaved similarly. A. Schuster distinguishes substances +with regard to their action on polarized light as follows: substances +which act in the isotropic state are termed _photogyric_; if the +rotation be associated with crystal structure, _crystallogyric_; if the +rotation be due to a magnetic field, _magnetogyric_; for cases not +hitherto included the term _allogyric_ is employed, while optically +inactive substances are called _isogyric_. The theory of photogyric and +crystallogyric rotation has been worked out on the elastic-solid +(MacCullagh and others) and on the electromagnetic hypotheses (P. Drude, +Cotton, &c.). Allogyrism is due to a symmetry of the molecule, and is a +subject of the greatest importance in modern (and, more especially, +organic) chemistry (see STEREOISOMERISM). + +The optical properties of metals have been the subject of much +experimental and theoretical inquiry. The explanations of MacCullagh and +Cauchy were followed by those of Beer, Eisenlohr, Lundquist, Ketteler +and others; the refractive indices were determined both directly (by +Kundt) and indirectly by means of Brewster's law; and the reflecting +powers from [lambda] = 251 µµ to [lambda] = 1500 µµ were determined in +1900-1902 by Rubens and Hagen. The correlation of the optical and +electrical constants of many metals has been especially studied by P. +Drude (1900) and by Rubens and Hagen (1903). + +The transformations of luminous radiations have also been studied. John +Tyndall discovered calorescence. Fluorescence was treated by John +Herschel in 1845, and by David Brewster in 1846, the theory being due to +Sir G. G. Stokes (1852). More recent studies have been made by Lommel, +E. L. Nichols and Merritt (_Phys. Rev._, 1904), and by Millikan who +discovered polarized fluorescence in 1895. Our knowledge of +phosphorescence was greatly improved by Becquerel, and Sir James Dewar +obtained interesting results in the course of his low temperature +researches (see LIQUID GASES). In the theoretical and experimental study +of radiation enormous progress has been recorded. The pressure of +radiation, the necessity of which was demonstrated by Clerk Maxwell on +the electromagnetic theory, and, in a simpler manner, by Joseph Larmor +in his article RADIATION in these volumes, has been experimentally +determined by E. F. Nichols and Hull, and the tangential component by J. +H. Poynting. With the theoretical and practical investigation the names +of Balfour Stewart, Kirchhoff, Stefan, Bartoli, Boltzmann, W. Wien and +Larmor are chiefly associated. Magneto-optics, too, has been greatly +developed since Faraday's discovery of the rotation of the plane of +polarization by the magnetic field. The rotation for many substances was +measured by Sir William H. Perkin, who attempted a correlation between +rotation and composition. Brace effected the analysis of the beam into +its two circularly polarized components, and in 1904 Mills measured +their velocities. The Kerr effect, discovered in 1877, and the Zeeman +effect (1896) widened the field of research, which, from its intimate +connexion with the nature of light and electromagnetics, has resulted in +discoveries of the greatest importance. + +§ 14. _Optical Instruments._--Important developments have been made in +the construction and applications of optical instruments. To these three +factors have contributed. The mathematician has quantitatively analysed +the phenomena observed by the physicist, and has inductively shown what +results are to be expected from certain optical systems. A consequence +of this was the detailed study, and also the preparation, of glasses of +diverse properties; to this the chemist largely contributed, and the +manufacture of the so-called _optical glass_ (see GLASS) is possibly the +most scientific department of glass manufacture. The mathematical +investigations of lenses owe much to Gauss, Helmholtz and others, but +far more to Abbe, who introduced the method of studying the aberrations +separately, and applied his results with conspicuous skill to the +construction of optical systems. The development of Abbe's methods +constitutes the main subject of research of the present-day optician, +and has brought about the production of telescopes, microscopes, +photographic lenses and other optical apparatus to an unprecedented +pitch of excellence. Great improvements have been effected in the +stereoscope. Binocular instruments with enhanced stereoscopic vision, an +effect achieved by increasing the distance between the object glasses, +have been introduced. In the study of diffraction phenomena, which led +to the technical preparation of gratings, the early attempts of +Fraunhofer, Nobert and Lewis Morris Rutherfurd, were followed by H. A. +Rowland's ruling of plane and concave gratings which revolutionized +spectroscopic research, and, in 1898, by Michelson's invention of the +echelon grating. Of great importance are interferometers, which permit +extremely accurate determinations of refractive indices and +wave-lengths, and Michelson, from his classical evaluation of the +standard metre in terms of the wave-lengths of certain of the cadmium +rays, has suggested the adoption of the wave-length of one such ray as a +standard with which national standards of length should be compared. +Polarization phenomena, and particularly the rotation of the plane of +polarization by such substances as sugar solutions, have led to the +invention and improvements of polarimeters. The polarized light employed +in such instruments is invariably obtained by transmission through a +fixed Nicol prism--the polarizer--and the deviation is measured by the +rotation of a second Nicol--the analyser. The early forms, which were +termed "light and shade" polarimeters, have been generally replaced by +"half-shade" instruments. Mention may also be made of the microscopic +examination of objects in polarized light, the importance of which as a +method of crystallographic and petrological research was suggested by +Nicol, developed by Sorby and greatly expanded by Zirkel, Rosenbusch and +others. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There are numerous text-books which give elementary + expositions of light and optical phenomena. More advanced works, which + deal with the subject experimentally and mathematically, are A. B. + Bassett, _Treatise on Physical Optics_ (1892); Thomas Preston, _Theory + of Light_, 2nd ed. by C. F. Joly (1901); R. W. Wood, _Physical Optics_ + (1905), which contains expositions on the electromagnetic theory, and + treats "dispersion" in great detail. Treatises more particularly + theoretical are James Walker, _Analytical Theory of Light_ (1904); A. + Schuster, _Theory of Optics_ (1904); P. Drude, _Theory of Optics_, + Eng. trans. by C. R. Mann and R. A. Millikan (1902). General treatises + of exceptional merit are A. Winkelmann, _Handbuch der Physik_, vol. + vi. "Optik" (1904); and E. Mascart, _Traité d'optique_ (1889-1893); M. + E. Verdet, _Leçons d'optique physique_ (1869, 1872) is also a valuable + work. Geometrical optics is treated in R. S. Heath, _Geometrical + Optics_ (2nd ed., 1898); H. A. Herman, _Treatise on Geometrical + Optics_ (1900). Applied optics, particularly with regard to the theory + of optical instruments, is treated in H. D. Taylor, _A System of + Applied Optics_ (1906); E. T. Whittaker, _The Theory of Optical + Instruments_ (1907); in the publications of the scientific staff of + the Zeiss works at Jena: _Die Theorie der optischen Instrumente_, vol. + i. "Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten" (1904); in S. + Czapski, _Theorie der optischen Instrumente_, 2nd ed. by O. Eppenstein + (1904); and in A. Steinheil and E. Voit, _Handbuch der angewandten + Optik_ (1901). The mathematical theory of general optics receives + historical and modern treatment in the _Encyklopädie der + mathematischen Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig). Meteorological optics is + fully treated in J. Pernter, _Meteorologische Optik_; and + physiological optics in H. v Helmholtz, _Handbuch der physiologischen + Optik_ (1896) and in A. Koenig, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur + physiologischen Optik_ (1903). + + The history of the subject may be studied in J. C. Poggendorff, + _Geschichte der Physik_ (1879); F. Rosenberger, _Die Geschichte der + Physik_ (1882-1890); E. Gerland and F. Traumüller, _Geschichte der + physikalischen Experimentierkunst_ (1899); reference may also be made + to Joseph Priestley, _History and Present State of Discoveries + relating to Vision, Light and Colours_ (1772), German translation by + G. S. Klügel (Leipzig, 1775). Original memoirs are available in many + cases in their author's "collected works," e.g. Huygens, Young, + Fresnel, Hamilton, Cauchy, Rowland, Clerk Maxwell, Stokes (and also + his _Burnett Lectures on Light_), Kelvin (and also his _Baltimore + Lectures_, 1904) and Lord Rayleigh. Newton's _Opticks_ forms volumes + 96 and 97 of Ostwald's Klassiker; Huygens' _Über d. Licht_ (1678), + vol. 20, and Kepler's _Dioptrice_ (1611), vol. 144 of the same series. + + Contemporary progress is reported in current scientific journals, e.g. + the _Transactions_ and _Proceedings_ of the Royal Society, and of the + Physical Society (London), the _Philosophical Magazine_ (London), the + _Physical Review_ (New York, 1893 seq.) and in the _British + Association Reports_; in the _Annales de chimie et de physique and + Journal de physique_ (Paris); and in the _Physikalische Zeitschrift_ + (Leipzig) and the _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_ (since 1900: + _Annalen der Physik_) (Leipzig). (C. E.*) + + +II. NATURE OF LIGHT + +1. _Newton's Corpuscular Theory._--Until the beginning of the 19th +century physicists were divided between two different views concerning +the nature of optical phenomena. According to the one, luminous bodies +emit extremely small corpuscles which can freely pass through +transparent substances and produce the sensation of light by their +impact against the retina. This _emission_ or _corpuscular theory_ of +light was supported by the authority of Isaac Newton,[8] and, though it +has been entirely superseded by its rival, the _wave-theory_, it remains +of considerable historical interest. + +2. _Explanation of Reflection and Refraction._--Newton supposed the +light-corpuscles to be subjected to attractive and repulsive forces +exerted at very small distances by the particles of matter. In the +interior of a homogeneous body a corpuscle moves in a straight line as +it is equally acted on from all sides, but it changes its course at the +boundary of two bodies, because, in a thin layer near the surface there +is a resultant force in the direction of the normal. In modern language +we may say that a corpuscle has at every point a definite potential +energy, the value of which is constant throughout the interior of a +homogeneous body, and is even equal in all bodies of the same kind, but +changes from one substance to another. If, originally, while moving in +air, the corpuscles had a definite velocity v0, their velocity v in the +interior of any other substance is quite determinate. It is given by the +equation ½mv² - ½mv0² = A, in which m denotes the mass of a corpuscle, +and A the excess of its potential energy in air over that in the +substance considered. + + A ray of light falling on the surface of separation of two bodies is + reflected according to the well-known simple law, if the corpuscles + are acted on by a sufficiently large force directed towards the first + medium. On the contrary, whenever the field of force near the surface + is such that the corpuscles can penetrate into the interior of the + second body, the ray is refracted. In this case the law of Snellius + can be deduced from the consideration that the projection w of the + velocity on the surface of separation is not altered, either in + direction or in magnitude. This obviously requires that the plane + passing through the incident and the refracted rays be normal to the + surface, and that, if [alpha]1 and [alpha]2 are the angles of + incidence and of refraction, v1 and v2 the velocities of light in the + two media, + + sin [alpha]1/sin [alpha]2 = w/v1 : w/v2 = v2/v1. (1) + + The ratio is constant, because, as has already been observed, v1 and + v2 have definite values. + + As to the unequal refrangibility of differently coloured light, Newton + accounted for it by imagining different kinds of corpuscles. He + further carefully examined the phenomenon of total reflection, and + described an interesting experiment connected with it. If one of the + faces of a glass prism receives on the inside a beam of light of such + obliquity that it is totally reflected under ordinary circumstances, + a marked change is observed when a second piece of glass is made to + approach the reflecting face, so as to be separated from it only by a + very thin layer of air. The reflection is then found no longer to be + total, part of the light finding its way into the second piece of + glass. Newton concluded from this that the corpuscles are attracted by + the glass even at a certain small measurable distance. + +3. _New Hypotheses in the Corpuscular Theory._--The preceding +explanation of reflection and refraction is open to a very serious +objection. If the particles in a beam of light all moved with the same +velocity and were acted on by the same forces, they all ought to follow +exactly the same path. In order to understand that part of the incident +light is reflected and part of it transmitted, Newton imagined that each +corpuscle undergoes certain alternating changes; he assumed that in some +of its different "phases" it is more apt to be reflected, and in others +more apt to be transmitted. The same idea was applied by him to the +phenomena presented by very thin layers. He had observed that a gradual +increase of the thickness of a layer produces periodic changes in the +intensity of the reflected light, and he very ingeniously explained +these by his theory. It is clear that the intensity of the transmitted +light will be a minimum if the corpuscles that have traversed the front +surface of the layer, having reached that surface while in their phase +of easy transmission, have passed to the opposite phase the moment they +arrive at the back surface. As to the nature of the alternating phases, +Newton (_Opticks_, 3rd ed., 1721, p. 347) expresses himself as +follows:--"Nothing more is requisite for putting the Rays of Light into +Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission than that they be small +Bodies which by their attractive Powers, or some other Force, stir up +Vibrations in what they act upon, which Vibrations being swifter than +the Rays, overtake them successively, and agitate them so as by turns to +increase and decrease their Velocities, and thereby put them into those +Fits." + +4. _The Corpuscular Theory and the Wave-Theory compared._--Though Newton +introduced the notion of periodic changes, which was to play so +prominent a part in the later development of the wave-theory, he +rejected this theory in the form in which it had been set forth shortly +before by Christiaan Huygens in his _Traité de la lumière_ (1690), his +chief objections being: (1) that the rectilinear propagation had not +been satisfactorily accounted for; (2) that the motions of heavenly +bodies show no sign of a resistance due to a medium filling all space; +and (3) that Huygens had not sufficiently explained the peculiar +properties of the rays produced by the double refraction in Iceland +spar. In Newton's days these objections were of much weight. + +Yet his own theory had many weaknesses. It explained the propagation in +straight lines, but it could assign no cause for the equality of the +speed of propagation of all rays. It adapted itself to a large variety +of phenomena, even to that of double refraction (Newton says +[ibid.]:--"... the unusual Refraction of Iceland Crystal looks very much +as if it were perform'd by some kind of attractive virtue lodged in +certain Sides both of the Rays, and of the Particles of the Crystal."), +but it could do so only at the price of losing much of its original +simplicity. + +In the earlier part of the 19th century, the corpuscular theory broke +down under the weight of experimental evidence, and it received the +final blow when J. B. L. Foucault proved by direct experiment that the +velocity of light in water is not greater than that in air, as it should +be according to the formula (1), but less than it, as is required by the +wave-theory. + +5. _General Theorems on Rays of Light._--With the aid of suitable +assumptions the Newtonian theory can accurately trace the course of a +ray of light in any system of isotropic bodies, whether homogeneous or +otherwise; the problem being equivalent to that of determining the +motion of a material point in a space in which its potential energy is +given as a function of the coordinates. The application of the dynamical +principles of "least and of varying action" to this latter problem leads +to the following important theorems which William Rowan Hamilton made +the basis of his exhaustive treatment of systems of rays.[9] The total +energy of a corpuscle is supposed to have a given value, so that, since +the potential energy is considered as known at every point, the velocity +v is so likewise. + + (a) The path along which light travels from a point A to a point B is + determined by the condition that for this line the integral [int]v ds, + in which ds is an element of the line, be a minimum (provided A and B + be not too near each other). Therefore, since v = µv0, if v0 is the + velocity of light _in vacuo_ and µ the index of refraction, we have + for every variation of the path the points A and B remaining fixed, + + [delta][int]µ ds = 0. (2) + + (b) Let the point A be kept fixed, but let B undergo an infinitely + small displacement BB´ (=q) in a direction making an angle [theta] + with the last element of the ray AB. Then, comparing the new ray AB´ + with the original one, it follows that + + [delta][int]µ ds = µ_B q cos [theta], (3) + + where µ_B is the value of µ at the point B. + +6. _General Considerations on the Propagation of Waves._--"Waves," i.e. +local disturbances of equilibrium travelling onward with a certain +speed, can exist in a large variety of systems. In a theory of these +phenomena, the state of things at a definite point may in general be +defined by a certain directed or vector quantity P,[10] which is zero in +the state of equilibrium, and may be called the disturbance (for +example, the velocity of the air in the case of sound vibrations, or the +displacement of the particles of an elastic body from their positions of +equilibrium). The components P_x, P_y, P_z of the disturbance in the +directions of the axes of coordinates are to be considered as functions +of the coordinates x, y, z and the time t, determined by a set of +partial differential equations, whose form depends on the nature of the +problem considered. If the equations are homogeneous and linear, as they +always are for sufficiently small disturbances, the following theorems +hold. + + (a) Values of P_x, P_y, P_z (expressed in terms of x, y, z, t) which + satisfy the equations will do so still after multiplication by a + common arbitrary constant. + + (b) Two or more solutions of the equations may be combined into a new + solution by addition of the values of P_x, those of P_y, &c., i.e. by + compounding the vectors P, such as they are in each of the particular + solutions. + + In the application to light, the first proposition means that the + phenomena of propagation, reflection, refraction, &c., can be produced + in the same way with strong as with weak light. The second proposition + contains the principle of the "superposition" of different states, on + which the explanation of all phenomena of interference is made to + depend. + + In the simplest cases (monochromatic or homogeneous light) the + disturbance is a simple harmonic function of the time ("simple + harmonic vibrations"), so that its components can be represented by + + P_x = a1 cos (nt + f1), + P_y = a2 cos (nt + f2), + P_z = a3 cos (nt + f3). + + The "phases" of these vibrations are determined by the angles nt + f1, + &c., or by the times t + f1/n, &c. The "frequency" n is constant + throughout the system, while the quantities f1, f2, f3, and perhaps + the "amplitudes" a1, a2, a3 change from point to point. It may be + shown that the end of a straight line representing the vector P, and + drawn from the point considered, in general describes a certain + ellipse, which becomes a straight line, if f1 = f2 = f3. In this + latter case, to which the larger part of this article will be + confined, we can write in vector notation + + P = A cos (nt + f), (4) + + where A itself is to be regarded as a vector. + + We have next to consider the way in which the disturbance changes from + point to point. The most important case is that of plane waves with + constant amplitude A. Here f is the same at all points of a plane + ("wave-front") of a definite direction, but changes as a linear + function as we pass from one such wave-front to the next. The axis of + x being drawn at right angles to the wave-fronts, we may write f = f0 + - kx, where f0 and k are constants, so that (4) becomes + + P = A cos (nt - kx + f0). (5) + + This expression has the period 2[pi]/n with respect to the time and + the perion 2[pi]/k with respect to x, so that the "time of vibration" + and the "wave-length" are given by T = 2[pi]/n, [lambda] = 2[pi]/k. + Further, it is easily seen that the phase belonging to certain values + of x and t is equal to that which corresponds to x + [Delta]x and t + + [Delta]t provided [Delta]x = (n/k)[Delta]t. Therefore the phase, or + the disturbance itself, may be said to be propagated in the direction + normal to the wave-fronts with a velocity (velocity of the waves) v = + n/k, which is connected with the time of vibration and the wave-length + by the relation + + [lambda] = vT. (6) + + In isotropic bodies the propagation can go on in all directions with + the same velocity. In anisotropic bodies (crystals), with which the + theory of light is largely concerned, the problem is more complicated. + As a general rule we can say that, for a given direction of the + wave-fronts, the vibrations must have a determinate direction, if the + propagation is to take place according to the simple formula given + above. It is to be understood that for a given direction of the waves + there may be two or even more directions of vibration of the kind, and + that in such a case there are as many different velocities, each + belonging to one particular direction of vibration. + +7. _Wave-surface._--After having found the values of v for a particular +frequency and different directions of the wave-normal, a very +instructive graphical representation can be employed. + + Let ON be a line in any direction, drawn from a fixed point O, OA a + length along this line equal to the velocity v of waves having ON for + their normal, or, more generally, OA, OA´, &c., lengths equal to the + velocities v, v´, &c., which such waves have according to their + direction of vibration, Q, Q´, &c., planes perpendicular to ON through + A, A^1, &c. Let this construction be repeated for all directions of + ON, and let W be the surface that is touched by all the planes Q, Q´, + &c. It is clear that if this surface, which is called the + "wave-surface," is known, the velocity of propagation of plane waves + of any chosen direction is given by the length of the perpendicular + from the centre O on a tangent plane in the given direction. It must + be kept in mind that, in general, each tangent plane corresponds to + one definite direction of vibration. If this direction is assigned in + each point of the wave-surface, the diagram contains all the + information which we can desire concerning the propagation of plane + waves of the frequency that has been chosen. + + The plane Q employed in the above construction is the position after + unit of time of a wave-front perpendicular to ON and originally + passing through the point O. The surface W itself is often considered + as the locus of all points that are reached in unit of time by a + disturbance starting from O and spreading towards all sides. Admitting + the validity of this view, we can determine in a similar way the locus + of the points reached in some infinitely short time dt, the + wave-surface, as we may say, or the "elementary wave," corresponding + to this time. It is similar to W, all dimensions of the latter surface + being multiplied by dt. It may be noticed that in a heterogeneous + medium a wave of this kind has the same form as if the properties of + matter existing at its centre extended over a finite space. + +8. _Theory of Huygens._--Huygens was the first to show that the +explanation of optical phenomena may be made to depend on the +wave-surface, not only in isotropic bodies, in which it has a spherical +form, but also in crystals, for one of which (Iceland spar) he deduced +the form of the surface from the observed double refraction. In his +argument Huygens availed himself of the following principle that is +justly named after him: Any point that is reached by a wave of light +becomes a new centre of radiation from which the disturbance is +propagated towards all sides. On this basis he determined the progress +of light-waves by a construction which, under a restriction to be +mentioned in § 13, applied to waves of any form and to all kinds of +transparent media. Let [sigma] be the surface (wave-front) to which a +definite phase of vibration has advanced at a certain time t, dt an +infinitely small increment of time, and let an elementary wave +corresponding to this interval be described around each point P of +[sigma]. Then the envelope [sigma]´ of all these elementary waves is the +surface reached by the phase in question at the time t + dt, and by +repeating the construction all successive positions of the wave-front +can be found. + + Huygens also considered the propagation of waves that are laterally + limited, by having passed, for example, through an opening in an + opaque screen. If, in the first wave-front [sigma], the disturbance + exists only in a certain part bounded by the contour s, we can confine + ourselves to the elementary waves around the points of that part, and + to a portion of the new wave-front [sigma]´ whose boundary passes + through the points where [sigma]´ touches the elementary waves having + their centres on s. Taking for granted Huygens's assumption that a + sensible disturbance is only found in those places where the + elementary waves are touched by the new wave-front, it may be inferred + that the lateral limits of the beam of light are determined by lines, + each element of which joins the centre P of an elementary wave with + its point of contact P´ with the next wave-front. To lines of this + kind, whose course can be made visible by using narrow pencils of + light, the name of "rays" is to be given in the wave-theory. The + disturbance may be conceived to travel along them with a velocity u = + PP´/dt, which is therefore called the "ray-velocity." + + The construction shows that, corresponding to each direction of the + wave-front (with a determinate direction of vibration), there is a + definite direction and a definite velocity of the ray. Both are given + by a line drawn from the centre of the wave-surface to its point of + contact with a tangent plane of the given direction. It will be + convenient to say that this line and the plane are conjugate with each + other. The rays of light, curved in non-homogeneous bodies, are always + straight lines in homogeneous substances. In an isotropic medium, + whether homogeneous or otherwise, they are normal to the wave-fronts, + and their velocity is equal to that of the waves. + + By applying his construction to the reflection and refraction of + light, Huygens accounted for these phenomena in isotropic bodies as + well as in Iceland spar. It was afterwards shown by Augustin Fresnel + that the double refraction in biaxal crystals can be explained in the + same way, provided the proper form be assigned to the wave-surface. + + In any point of a bounding surface the normals to the reflected and + refracted waves, whatever be their number, always lie in the plane + passing through the normal to the incident waves and that to the + surface itself. Moreover, if [alpha]1 is the angle between these two + latter normals, and [alpha]2 the angle between the normal to the + boundary and that to any one of the reflected and refracted waves, and + v1, v2 the corresponding wave-velocities, the relation + + sin [alpha]1/sin [alpha]2 = v1/v2 (7) + + is found to hold in all cases. These important theorems may be proved + independently of Huygens's construction by simply observing that, at + each point of the surface of separation, there must be a certain + connexion between the disturbances existing in the incident, the + reflected, and the refracted waves, and that, therefore, the lines of + intersection of the surface with the positions of an incident + wave-front, succeeding each other at equal intervals of time dt, must + coincide with the lines in which the surface is intersected by a + similar series of reflected or refracted wave-fronts. + + In the case of isotropic media, the ratio (7) is constant, so that we + are led to the law of Snellius, the index of refraction being given by + + µ = v1/v2 (8) + + (cf. equation 1). + + 9. _General Theorems on Rays, deduced from Huygens's + Construction._--(a) Let A and B be two points arbitrarily chosen in a + system of transparent bodies, ds an element of a line drawn from A to + B, u the velocity of a ray of light coinciding with ds. Then the + integral [int]u^(-1) ds, which represents the time required for a + motion along the line with the velocity u, is a minimum for the course + actually taken by a ray of light (unless A and B be too far apart). + This is the "principle of least time" first formulated by Pierre de + Fermat for the case of two isotropic substances. It shows that the + course of a ray of light can always be inverted. + + (b) Rays of light starting in all directions from a point A and + travelling onward for a definite length of time, reach a surface + [sigma], whose tangent plane at a point B is conjugate, in the medium + surrounding B, with the last element of the ray AB. + + (c) If all rays issuing from A are concentrated at a point B, the + integral [int]u^(-1) ds has the same value for each of them. + + (d) In case (b) the variation of the integral caused by an infinitely + small displacement q of B, the point A remaining fixed, is given by + [delta][int]u^(-1) ds = q cos [theta]/v_B. Here [theta] is the angle + between the displacement q and the normal to the surface [sigma], in + the direction of propagation, v_B the velocity of a plane wave + tangent to this surface. + + In the case of isotropic bodies, for which the relation (8) holds, we + recover the theorems concerning the integral [int]µds which we have + deduced from the emission theory (§ 5). + + 10. _Further General Theorems._--(a) Let V1 and V2 be two planes in a + system of isotropic bodies, let rectangular axes of coordinates be + chosen in each of these planes, and let x1, y1 be the coordinates of a + point A in V1, and x2, y2 those of a point B in V2. The integral + [int]µds, taken for the ray between A and B, is a function of x1, y1, + x2, y2 and, if [xi]1 denotes either x1 or y1, and [xi]2 either x2 or + y2, we shall have + _ _ + [dP]² / [dP]² / + ------------------- | µ ds = ------------------- | µ ds. + [dP][xi]1 [dP][xi]2 _/ [dP][xi]2 [dP][xi]1 _/ + + On both sides of this equation the first differentiation may be + performed by means of the formula (3). The second differentiation + admits of a geometrical interpretation, and the formula may finally be + employed for proving the following theorem: + + Let [omega]1 be the solid angle of an infinitely thin pencil of rays + issuing from A and intersecting the plane V2 in an element [sigma]2 at + the point B. Similarly, let [omega]2 be the solid angle of a pencil + starting from B and falling on the element [sigma]1 of the plane V1 at + the point A. Then, denoting by µ1 and µ2 the indices of refraction of + the matter at the points A and B, by [theta]1 and [theta]2 the sharp + angles which the ray AB at its extremities makes with the normals to + V1 and V2, we have + + (µ1)² [sigma]1 [omega]1 cos [theta]1 = + (µ2)² [sigma]2 [omega]2 cos [theta]2. + + (b) There is a second theorem that is expressed by exactly the same + formula, if we understand by [sigma]1 and [sigma]2 elements of surface + that are related to each other as an object and its optical image--by + [omega]1, [omega]2 the infinitely small openings, at the beginning and + the end of its course, of a pencil of rays issuing from a point A of + [sigma]1 and coming together at the corresponding point B of [sigma]2, + and by [theta]1, [theta]2 the sharp angles which one of the rays makes + with the normals to [sigma]1 and [sigma]2. The proof may be based upon + the first theorem. It suffices to consider the section [sigma] of the + pencil by some intermediate plane, and a bundle of rays starting from + the points of [sigma]1 and reaching those of [sigma]2 after having all + passed through a point of that section [sigma]. + + (c) If in the last theorem the system of bodies is symmetrical around + the straight line AB, we can take for [sigma]1 and [sigma]2 circular + planes having AB as axis. Let h1 and h2 be the radii of these circles, + i.e. the linear dimensions of an object and its image, [epsilon]1 and + [epsilon]2 the infinitely small angles which a ray R going from A to B + makes with the axis at these points. Then the above formula gives + µ1h1[epsilon]1 = µ2h2[epsilon]2, a relation that was proved, for the + particular case µ1 = µ2 by Huygens and Lagrange. It is still more + valuable if one distinguishes by the algebraic sign of h2 whether the + image is direct or inverted, and by that of [epsilon]2 whether the ray + R on leaving A and on reaching B lies on opposite sides of the axis or + on the same side. + + The above theorems are of much service in the theory of optical + instruments and in the general theory of radiation. + +11. _Phenomena of Interference and Diffraction._--The impulses or +motions which a luminous body sends forth through the universal medium +or aether, were considered by Huygens as being without any regular +succession; he neither speaks of vibrations, nor of the physical cause +of the colours. The idea that monochromatic light consists of a +succession of simple harmonic vibrations like those represented by the +equation (5), and that the sensation of colour depends on the frequency, +is due to Thomas Young[11] and Fresnel,[12] who explained the phenomena +of interference on this assumption combined with the principle of +super-position. In doing so they were also enabled to determine the +wave-length, ranging from 0.000076 cm. at the red end of the spectrum to +0.000039 cm. for the extreme violet and, by means of the formula (6), +the number of vibrations per second. Later investigations have shown +that the infra-red rays as well as the ultra-violet ones are of the same +physical nature as the luminous rays, differing from these only by the +greater or smaller length of their waves. The wave-length amounts to +0.006 cm. for the least refrangible infra-red, and is as small as +0.00001 cm. for the extreme ultra-violet. + +Another important part of Fresnel's work is his treatment of diffraction +on the basis of Huygens's principle. If, for example, light falls on a +screen with a narrow slit, each point of the slit is regarded as a new +centre of vibration, and the intensity at any point behind the screen is +found by compounding with each other the disturbances coming from all +these points, due account being taken of the phases with which they come +together (see DIFFRACTION; INTERFERENCE). + +12. _Results of Later Mathematical Theory._--Though the theory of +diffraction developed by Fresnel, and by other physicists who worked on +the same lines, shows a most beautiful agreement with observed facts, +yet its foundation, Huygens's principle, cannot, in its original +elementary form, be deemed quite satisfactory. The general validity of +the results has, however, been confirmed by the researches of those +mathematicians (Siméon Denis Poisson, Augustin Louis Cauchy, Sir G. G. +Stokes, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff) who investigated the propagation of +vibrations in a more rigorous manner. Kirchhoff[13] showed that the +disturbance at any point of the aether inside a closed surface which +contains no ponderable matter can be represented as made up of a large +number of parts, each of which depends upon the state of things at one +point of the surface. This result, the modern form of Huygens's +principle, can be extended to a system of bodies of any kind, the only +restriction being that the source of light be not surrounded by the +surface. Certain causes capable of producing vibrations can be imagined +to be distributed all over this latter, in such a way that the +disturbances to which they give rise in the enclosed space are exactly +those which are brought about by the real source of light.[14] Another +interesting result that has been verified by experiment is that, +whenever rays of light pass through a focus, the phase undergoes a +change of half a period. It must be added that the results alluded to in +the above, though generally presented in the terms of some particular +form of the wave theory, often apply to other forms as well. + +13. _Rays of Light._--In working out the theory of diffraction it is +possible to state exactly in what sense light may be said to travel in +straight lines. Behind an opening _whose width is very large in +comparison with the wave-length_ the limits between the illuminated and +the dark parts of space are approximately determined by rays passing +along the borders. + + This conclusion can also be arrived at by a mode of reasoning that is + independent of the theory of diffraction.[15] If linear differential + equations admit a solution of the form (5) with A constant, they can + also be satisfied by making A a function of the coordinates, such + that, in a wave-front, it changes very little over a distance equal to + the wave-length [lambda], and that it is constant along each line + conjugate with the wave-fronts. In cases of this kind the disturbance + may truly be said to travel along lines of the said direction, and an + observer who is unable to discern lengths of the order of [lambda], + and who uses an opening of much larger dimensions, may very well have + the impression of a cylindrical beam with a sharp boundary. + + A similar result is found for curved waves. If the additional + restriction is made that their radii of curvature be very much larger + than the wave-length, Huygens's construction may confidently be + employed. The amplitudes all along a ray are determined by, and + proportional to, the amplitude at one of its points. + +14. _Polarized Light._--As the theorems used in the explanation of +interference and diffraction are true for all kinds of vibratory +motions, these phenomena can give us no clue to the special kind of +vibrations in light-waves. Further information, however, may be drawn +from experiments on plane polarized light. The properties of a beam of +this kind are completely known when the position of a certain plane +passing through the direction of the rays, and _in_ which the beam is +said to be polarized, is given. "This plane of polarization," as it is +called, coincides with the plane of incidence in those cases where the +light has been polarized by reflection on a glass surface under an angle +of incidence whose tangent is equal to the index of refraction +(Brewster's law). + +The researches of Fresnel and Arago left no doubt as to the direction of +the vibrations in polarized light with respect to that of the rays +themselves. In isotropic bodies at least, the vibrations are exactly +transverse, i.e. perpendicular to the rays, either in the plane of +polarization or at right angles to it. The first part of this statement +also applies to unpolarized light, as this can always be dissolved into +polarized components. + +Much experimental work has been done on the production of polarized rays +by double refraction and on the reflection of polarized light, either by +isotropic or by anisotropic transparent bodies, the object of inquiry +being in the latter case to determine the position of the plane of +polarization of the reflected rays and their intensity. + +In this way a large amount of evidence has been gathered by which it has +been possible to test different theories concerning the nature of light +and that of the medium through which it is propagated. A common feature +of nearly all these theories is that the aether is supposed to exist not +only in spaces void of matter, but also in the interior of ponderable +bodies. + +15. _Fresnel's Theory._--Fresnel and his immediate successors +assimilated the aether to an elastic solid, so that the velocity of +propagation of transverse vibrations could be determined by the formula +v = [root](K/[rho]), where K denotes the modulus of rigidity and [rho] +the density. According to this equation the different properties of +various isotropic transparent bodies may arise from different values of +K, of [rho], or of both. It has, however, been found that if both K and +[rho] are supposed to change from one substance to another, it is +impossible to obtain the right reflection formulae. Assuming the +constancy of K Fresnel was led to equations which agreed with the +observed properties of the reflected light, if he made the further +assumption (to be mentioned in what follows as "Fresnel's assumption") +that the vibrations of plane polarized light are perpendicular to the +plane of polarization. + + Let the indices p and n relate to the two principal cases in which the + incident (and, consequently, the reflected) light is polarized in the + plane of incidence, or normally to it, and let positive directions h + and h´ be chosen for the disturbance (at the surface itself) in the + incident and for that in the reflected beam, in such a manner that, by + a common rotation, h and the incident ray prolonged may be made to + coincide with h´ and the reflected ray. Then, if [alpha]1 and [alpha]2 + are the angles of incidence and refraction, Fresnel shows that, in + order to get the reflected disturbance, the incident one must be + multiplied by + + [alpha]_p = -sin ([alpha]1 - [alpha]2) / sin ([alpha]1 + [alpha]2) (9) + + in the first, and by + + [alpha]_n = tan ([alpha]1 - [alpha]2) / tan ([alpha]1 + [alpha]2) (10) + + in the second principal case. + +As to double refraction, Fresnel made it depend on the unequal +elasticity of the aether in different directions. He came to the +conclusion that, for a given direction of the waves, there are two +possible directions of vibration (§6), lying in the wave-front, at right +angles to each other, and he determined the form of the wave-surface, +both in uniaxal and in biaxal crystals. + +Though objections may be urged against the dynamic part of Fresnel's +theory, he admirably succeeded in adapting it to the facts. + +16. Electromagnetic Theory.--We here leave the historical order and pass +on to Maxwell's theory of light. + + James Clerk Maxwell, who had set himself the task of mathematically + working out Michael Faraday's views, and who, both by doing so and by + introducing many new ideas of his own, became the founder of the + modern science of electricity,[16] recognized that, at every point of + an electromagnetic field, the state of things can be defined by two + vector quantities, the "electric force" E and the "magnetic force" H, + the former of which is the force acting on unit of electricity and the + latter that which acts on a magnetic pole of unit strength. In a + non-conductor (dielectric) the force E produces a state that may be + described as a displacement of electricity from its position of + equilibrium. This state is represented by a vector D ("dielectric + displacement") whose magnitude is measured by the quantity of + electricity reckoned per unit area which has traversed an element of + surface perpendicular to D itself. Similarly, there is a vector + quantity B (the "magnetic induction") intimately connected with the + magnetic force H. Changes of the dielectric displacement constitute an + electric current measured by the rate of change of D, and represented + in vector notation by + + C = D (11) + + Periodic changes of D and B may be called "electric" and "magnetic + vibrations." Properly choosing the units, the axes of coordinates (in + the first proposition also the positive direction of s and n), and + denoting components of vectors by suitable indices, we can express in + the following way the fundamental propositions of the theory. + + (a) Let s be a closed line, [sigma] a surface bounded by it, n the + normal to [sigma]. Then, for all bodies, + _ _ _ _ + / 1 / / 1 d / + | H_s ds = --- | C_n d[sigma], | E_s ds = - --- --- | B_n d[sigma], + _/ c _/ _/ c dt _/ + + where the constant c means the ratio between the electro-magnet and + the electrostatic unit of electricity. + + From these equations we can deduce: + + ([alpha]) For the interior of a body, the equations + + [dP]H_z [dP]H_y 1 + ------- - ------- = --- C_x, + [dP]y [dP]z c + + [dP]H_x [dP]H_z 1 + ------- - ------- = --- C_y, + [dP]z [dP]x c + + [dP]H_y [dP]H_x 1 + ------- - ------- = --- C_z (12) + [dP]x [dP]y c + + [dP]E_z [dP]E_y 1 [dP]B_x + ------- - ------- = - --- -------, + [dP]y [dP]z c [dP]t + + [dP]E_x [dP]E_z 1 [dP]B_y + ------- - ------- = - --- -------, + [dP]z [dP]x c [dP]t + + [dP]E_y [dP]E_x 1 [dP]B_z + ------- - ------- = - --- -------; (13) + [dP]x [dP]y c [dP]t + + (ß) For a surface of separation, the continuity of the tangential + components of E and H; + + ([gamma]) The solenoidal distribution of C and B, and in a dielectric + that of D. A solenoidal distribution of a vector is one corresponding + to that of the velocity in an incompressible fluid. It involves the + continuity, at a surface, of the normal component of the vector. + + (b) The relation between the electric force and the dielectric + displacement is expressed by + + D_x = [epsilon]1 E_x, D_y = [epsilon]2 E_y, D_z = [epsilon]3 E_z, (14) + + the constants [epsilon]1, [epsilon]2, [epsilon]3 (dielectric + constants) depending on the properties of the body considered. In an + isotropic medium they have a common value [epsilon], which is equal to + unity for the free aether, so that for this medium D = E. + + (c) There is a relation similar to (14) between the magnetic force and + the magnetic induction. For the aether, however, and for all + ponderable bodies with which this article is concerned, we may write + B = H. + + It follows from these principles that, in an isotropic dielectric, + transverse electric vibrations can be propagated with a velocity + + v = c/[root][epsilon]. (15) + + Indeed, all conditions are satisfied if we put + + D_x = 0, D_y = a cos n(t - xv^(-1) + l), D_z = 0, + + H_x = 0, H_y = 0 , H_z = avc^(-1) cos n(t - xv^{-1} + l) (16) + + For the free aether the velocity has the value c. Now it had been + found that the ratio c between the two units of electricity agrees + within the limits of experimental errors with the numerical value of + the velocity of light in aether. (The mean result of the most exact + determinations[17] of c is 3,001·10^10 cm./sec., the largest + deviations being about 0,008·10^10; and Cornu[18] gives 3,001·10^10 ± + 0,003·10^10 as the most probable value of the velocity of light.) By + this Maxwell was led to suppose that light consists of transverse + electromagnetic disturbances. On this assumption, the equations (16) + represent a beam of plane polarized light. They show that, in such a + beam, there are at the same time electric and magnetic vibrations, + both transverse, and at right angles to each other. + + It must be added that the electromagnetic field is the seat of two + kinds of energy distinguished by the names of electric and magnetic + energy, and that, according to a beautiful theorem due to J. H. + Poynting,[19] the energy may be conceived to flow in a direction + perpendicular both to the electric and to the magnetic force. The + amounts per unit of volume of the electric and the magnetic energy are + given by the expressions + + ½(E_x D_x + E_y D_y + E_z D_z), (17) + + and + + ½(H_x B_x + H_y B_y + H_z B_z) = ½H², (18) + + whose mean values for a full period are equal in every beam of light. + + The formula (15) shows that the index of refraction of a body is given + by [root][epsilon], a result that has been verified by Ludwig + Boltzmann's measurements[20] of the dielectric constants of gases. + Thus Maxwell's theory can assign the true cause of the different + optical properties of various transparent bodies. It also leads to the + reflection formulae (9) and (10), provided the electric vibrations of + polarized light be supposed to be perpendicular to the plane of + polarization, which implies that the magnetic vibrations are parallel + to that plane. + + Following the same assumption Maxwell deduced the laws of double + refraction, which he ascribes to the unequality of [epsilon]1, + [epsilon]2, [epsilon]3. His results agree with those of Fresnel and + the theory has been confirmed by Boltzmann,[21] who measured the three + coefficients in the case of crystallized sulphur, and compared them + with the principal indices of refraction. Subsequently the problem of + crystalline reflection has been completely solved and it has been + shown that, in a crystal, Poynting's flow of energy has the direction + of the rays as determined by Huygens's construction. + + Two further verifications must here be mentioned. In the first place, + though we shall speak almost exclusively of the propagation of light + in transparent dielectrics, a few words may be said about the optical + properties of conductors. The simplest assumption concerning the + electric current C in a metallic body is expressed by the equation C = + [sigma]E, where [sigma] is the coefficient of conductivity. Combining + this with his other formulae (we may say with (12) and (13)), Maxwell + found that there must be an absorption of light, a result that can be + readily understood since the motion of electricity in a conductor + gives rise to a development of heat. But, though Maxwell accounted in + this way for the fundamental fact that metals are opaque bodies, there + remained a wide divergence between the values of the coefficient of + absorption as directly measured and as calculated from the electrical + conductivity; but in 1903 it was shown by E. Hagen and H. Rubens[22] + that the agreement is very satisfactory in the case of the extreme + infra-red rays. + + In the second place, the electromagnetic theory requires that a + surface struck by a beam of light shall experience a certain pressure. + If the beam falls normally on a plane disk, the pressure is normal + too; its total amount is given by c^{-1}(i1 + i2 - i3), if i1, i2 and + i3 are the quantities of energy that are carried forward per unit of + time by the incident, the reflected, and the transmitted light. This + result has been quantitatively verified by E. F. Nicholls and G. F. + Hull.[23] + + Maxwell's predictions have been splendidly confirmed by the + experiments of Heinrich Hertz[24] and others on electromagnetic waves; + by diminishing the length of these to the utmost, some physicists have + been able to reproduce with them all phenomena of reflection, + refraction (single and double), interference, and polarization.[25] A + table of the wave-lengths observed in the aether now has to contain, + besides the numbers given in § 11, the lengths of the waves produced + by electromagnetic apparatus and extending from the long waves used in + wireless telegraphy down to about 0.6 cm. + +17. _Mechanical Models of the Electromagnetic Medium._--From the results +already enumerated, a clear idea can be formed of the difficulties which +were encountered in the older form of the wave-theory. Whereas, in +Maxwell's theory, longitudinal vibrations are excluded _ab initio_ by +the solenoidal distribution of the electric current, the elastic-solid +theory had to take them into account, unless, as was often done, one +made them disappear by supposing them to have a very great velocity of +propagation, so that the aether was considered to be practically +incompressible. Even on this assumption, however, much in Fresnel's +theory remained questionable. Thus George Green,[26] who was the first +to apply the theory of elasticity in an unobjectionable manner, arrived +on Fresnel's assumption at a formula for the reflection coefficient A_n +sensibly differing from (10). + +In the theory of double refraction the difficulties are no less serious. +As a general rule there are in an anisotropic elastic solid three +possible directions of vibration (§ 6), at right angles to each other, +for a given direction of the waves, but none of these lies in the +wave-front. In order to make two of them do so and to find Fresnel's +form for the wave-surface, new hypotheses are required. On Fresnel's +assumption it is even necessary, as was observed by Green, to suppose +that in the absence of all vibrations there is already a certain state +of pressure in the medium. + + If we adhere to Fresnel's assumption, it is indeed scarcely possible + to construct an elastic model of the electromagnetic medium. It may be + done, however, if the velocities of the particles in the model are + taken to represent the magnetic force H, which, of course, implies + that the vibrations of the particles are parallel to the plane of + polarization, and that the magnetic energy is represented by the + kinetic energy in the model. Considering further that, in the case of + two bodies connected with each other, there is continuity of H in the + electromagnetic system, and continuity of the velocity of the + particles in the model, it becomes clear that the representation of H + by that velocity must be on the same scale in all substances, so that, + if [xi], [eta], [zeta] are the displacements of a particle and g a + universal constant, we may write + + [dP][xi] [dP][eta] [dP][zeta] + H_x = g --------, H_y = g ---------, H_z = g ----------. (19) + [dP]t [dP]t [dP]t + + By this the magnetic energy per unit of volume becomes + _ _ + | /[dP][xi]\² /[dP][eta]\² /[dP][zeta]\² | + ½g² | ( -------- ) + ( --------- ) + ( ---------- ) |, + |_ \ [dP]t / \ [dP]t / \ [dP]t / _| + + and since this must be the kinetic energy of the elastic medium, the + density of the latter must be taken equal to g², so that it must be + the same in all substances. + + It may further be asked what value we have to assign to the potential + energy in the model, which must correspond to the electric energy in + the electromagnetic field. Now, on account of (11) and (19), we can + satisfy the equations (12) by putting D_x = gc ([dP][zeta]/[dP]y - + [dP][eta]/[dP]z), &c., so that the electric energy (17) per unit of + volume becomes + _ + | 1 /[dP][zeta] [dP][eta]\² + ½g²c² | ---------- ( ---------- - --------- ) + + |_[epsilon]1 \ [dP]y [dP]z / + + 1 /[dP][xi] [dP][zeta]\² + ---------- ( -------- - ---------- ) + + [epsilon]2 \ [dP]z [dP]x / + _ + 1 /[dP][eta] [dP][xi]\² | + ---------- ( --------- - -------- ) |. + [epsilon]3 \ [dP]x [dP]y / _| + + This, therefore, must be the potential energy in the model. + + It may be shown, indeed, that, if the aether has a uniform constant + density, and is so constituted that in any system, whether homogeneous + or not, its potential energy per unit of volume can be represented by + an expression of the form + + _ + | /[dP][zeta] [dP][eta]\² + ½ | L ( ---------- - --------- ) + + |_ \ [dP]y [dP]z / + + /[dP][xi] [dP][zeta]\² + M ( -------- - ---------- ) + + \ [dP]z [dP]x / + _ + /[dP][eta] [dP][xi]\² | + N ( --------- - -------- ) |, (20) + \ [dP]x [dP]y / _| + + where L, M, N are coefficients depending on the physical properties of + the substance considered, the equations of motion will exactly + correspond to the equations of the electromagnetic field. + +18. _Theories of Neumann, Green, and MacCullagh._--A theory of light in +which the elastic aether has a uniform density, and in which the +vibrations are supposed to be parallel to the plane of polarization, was +developed by Franz Ernst Neumann,[27] who gave the first deduction of +the formulas for crystalline reflection. Like Fresnel, he was, however, +obliged to introduce some illegitimate assumptions and simplifications. +Here again Green indicated a more rigorous treatment. + + By specializing the formula for the potential energy of an anisotropic + body he arrives at an expression which, if some of his coefficients + are made to vanish and if the medium is supposed to be incompressible, + differs from (20) only by the additional terms + _ + | /[dP][zeta] [dP][eta] [dP][eta] [dP][zeta]\ + 2 | L ( ---------- --------- - --------- ---------- ) + + |_ \ [dP]y [dP]z [dP]y [dP]z / + + /[dP][xi] [dP][zeta] [dP][zeta] [dP][xi]\ + M ( -------- ---------- - ---------- -------- ) + + \ [dP]z [dP]x [dP]z [dP]x / + _ + /[dP][eta] [dP][xi] [dP][xi] [dP][eta]\ | + N ( --------- -------- - -------- --------- ) |. (21) + \ [dP]x [dP]y [dP]x [dP]y / _| + + If [xi], [eta], [zeta] vanish at infinite distance the integral of + this expression over all space is zero, when L, M, N are constants, + and the same will be true when these coefficients change from point to + point, provided we add to (21) certain terms containing the + differential coefficients of L, M, N, the physical meaning of these + terms being that, besides the ordinary elastic forces, there is some + extraneous force (called into play by the displacement) acting on all + those elements of volume where L, M, N are not constant. We may + conclude from this that all phenomena can be explained if we admit the + existence of this latter force, which, in the case of two contingent + bodies, reduces to a surface-action on their common boundary. + + James MacCullagh[28] avoided this complication by simply assuming an + expression of the form (20) for the potential energy. He thus + established a theory that is perfectly consistent in itself, and may + be said to have foreshadowed the electromagnetic theory as regards the + form of the equations for transparent bodies. Lord Kelvin afterwards + interpreted MacCullagh's assumption by supposing the only action which + is called forth by a displacement to consist in certain couples acting + on the elements of volume and proportional to the components + ½{([dP][zeta]/[dP]y) - ([dP][eta]/[dP]z)}, &c., of their rotation from + the natural position. He also showed[29] that this "rotational + elasticity" can be produced by certain hidden rotations going on in + the medium. + +We cannot dwell here upon other models that have been proposed, and most +of which are of rather limited applicability. A mechanism of a more +general kind ought, of course, to be adapted to what is known of the +molecular constitution of bodies, and to the highly probable assumption +of the perfect permeability for the aether of all ponderable matter, an +assumption by which it has been possible to escape from one of the +objections raised by Newton (§ 4) (see AETHER). + +The possibility of a truly satisfactory model certainly cannot be +denied. But it would, in all probability, be extremely complicated. For +this reason many physicists rest content, as regards the free aether, +with some such general form of the electromagnetic theory as has been +sketched in § 16. + +19. _Optical Properties of Ponderable Bodies. Theory of Electrons._--If +we want to form an adequate representation of optical phenomena in +ponderable bodies, the conceptions of the molecular and atomistic +theories naturally suggest themselves. Already, in the elastic theory, +it had been imagined that certain material particles are set vibrating +by incident waves of light. These particles had been supposed to be +acted on by an elastic force by which they are drawn back towards their +positions of equilibrium, so that they can perform free vibrations of +their own, and by a resistance that can be represented by terms +proportional to the velocity in the equations of motion, and may be +physically understood if the vibrations are supposed to be converted in +one way or another into a disorderly heat-motion. In this way it had +been found possible to explain the phenomena of dispersion and +(selective) absorption, and the connexion between them (anomalous +dispersion).[30] These ideas have been also embodied into the +electromagnetic theory. In its more recent development the extremely +small, electrically charged particles, to which the name of "electrons" +has been given, and which are supposed to exist in the interior of all +bodies, are considered as forming the connecting links between aether +and matter, and as determining by their arrangement and their motion all +optical phenomena that are not confined to the free aether.[31] + +It has thus become clear why the relations that had been established +between optical and electrical properties have been found to hold only +in some simple cases (§ 16). In fact it cannot be doubted that, for +rapidly alternating electric fields, the formulae expressing the +connexion between the motion of electricity and the electric force take +a form that is less simple than the one previously admitted, and is to +be determined in each case by elaborate investigation. However, the +general boundary conditions given in § 16 seem to require no alteration. +For this reason it has been possible, for example, to establish a +satisfactory theory of metallic reflection, though the propagation of +light in the interior of a metal is only imperfectly understood. + +One of the fundamental propositions of the theory of electrons is that +an electron becomes a centre of radiation whenever its velocity changes +either in direction or in magnitude. Thus the production of Röntgen +rays, regarded as consisting of very short and irregular electromagnetic +impulses, is traced to the impacts of the electrons of the cathode-rays +against the anti-cathode, and the lines of an emission spectrum indicate +the existence in the radiating body of as many kinds of regular +vibrations, the knowledge of which is the ultimate object of our +investigations about the structure of the spectra. The shifting of the +lines caused, according to Doppler's law, by a motion of the source of +light, may easily be accounted for, as only general principles are +involved in the explanation. To a certain extent we can also elucidate +the changes in the emission that are observed when the radiating source +is exposed to external magnetic forces ("Zeeman-effect"; see +MAGNETO-OPTICS). + + 20. _Various Kinds of Light-motion._--(a) If the disturbance is + represented by + + P_x = 0, P_y = a cos (nt - kx + f), P_z = a´ cos (nt - kx + f´), + + so that the end of the vector P describes an ellipse in a plane + perpendicular to the direction of propagation, the light is said to be + elliptically, or in special cases circularly, polarized. Light of this + kind can be dissolved in many different ways into plane polarized + components. + + There are cases in which plane waves must be elliptically or + circularly polarized in order to show the simple propagation of phase + that is expressed by formulae like (5). Instances of this kind occur + in bodies having the property of rotating the plane of polarization, + either on account of their constitution, or under the influence of a + magnetic field. For a given direction of the wave-front there are in + general two kinds of elliptic vibrations, each having a definite form, + orientation, and direction of motion, and a determinate velocity of + propagation. All that has been said about Huygens's construction + applies to these cases. + + (b) In a perfect spectroscope a sharp line would only be observed if + an endless regular succession of simple harmonic vibrations were + admitted into the instrument. In any other case the light will occupy + a certain extent in the spectrum, and in order to determine its + distribution we have to decompose into simple harmonic functions of + the time the components of the disturbance, at a point of the slit for + instance. This may be done by means of Fourier's theorem. + + An extreme case is that of the unpolarized light emitted by + incandescent solid bodies, consisting of disturbances whose variations + are highly irregular, and giving a continuous spectrum. But even with + what is commonly called homogeneous light, no perfectly sharp line + will be seen. There is no source of light in which the vibrations of + the particles remain for ever undisturbed, and a particle will never + emit an endless succession of uninterrupted vibrations, but at best a + series of vibrations whose form, phase and intensity are changed at + irregular intervals. The result must be a broadening of the spectral + line. + + In cases of this kind one must distinguish between the velocity of + propagation of the phase of regular vibrations and the velocity with + which the said changes travel onward (see below, iii. _Velocity of + Light_). + + (c) In a train of plane waves of definite frequency the disturbance is + represented by means of goniometric functions of the time and the + coordinates. Since the fundamental equations are linear, there are + also solutions in which one or more of the coordinates occur in an + exponential function. These solutions are of interest because the + motions corresponding to them are widely different from those of which + we have thus far spoken. If, for example, the formulae contain the + factor + + e^(-rx) cos (nt - sy + l), + + with the positive constant r, the disturbance is no longer periodic + with respect to x, but steadily diminishes as x increases. A state of + things of this kind, in which the vibrations rapidly die away as we + leave the surface, exists in the air adjacent to the face of a glass + prism by which a beam of light is totally reflected. It furnishes us + an explanation of Newton's experiment mentioned in § 2. (H. A. L.) + + +III. VELOCITY OF LIGHT + +The fact that light is propagated with a definite speed was first +brought out by Ole Roemer at Paris, in 1676, through observations of the +eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, made in different relative positions +of the Earth and Jupiter in their respective orbits. It is possible in +this way to determine the time required for light to pass across the +orbit of the earth. The dimensions of this orbit, or the distance of the +sun, being taken as known, the actual speed of light could be computed. +Since this computation requires a knowledge of the sun's distance, which +has not yet been acquired with certainty, the actual speed is now +determined by experiments made on the earth's surface. Were it possible +by any system of signals to compare with absolute precision the times at +two different stations, the speed could be determined by finding how +long was required for light to pass from one station to another at the +greatest visible distance. But this is impracticable, because no natural +agent is under our control by which a signal could be communicated with +a greater velocity than that of light. It is therefore necessary to +reflect a ray back to the point of observation and to determine the time +which the light requires to go and come. Two systems have been devised +for this purpose. One is that of Fizeau, in which the vital appliance is +a rapidly revolving toothed wheel; the other is that of Foucault, in +which the corresponding appliance is a mirror revolving on an axis in, +or parallel to, its own plane. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + + Fizeau. + + The principle underlying Fizeau's method is shown in the accompanying + figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1 shows the course of a ray of light which, + emanating from a luminous point L, strikes the plane surface of a + plate of glass M at an angle of about 45°. A fraction of the light is + reflected from the two surfaces of the glass to a distant reflector R, + the plane of which is at right angles to the course of the ray. The + latter is thus reflected back on its own course and, passing through + the glass M on its return, reaches a point E behind the glass. An + observer with his eye at E looking through the glass sees the return + ray as a distant luminous point in the reflector R, after the light + has passed over the course in both directions. + + In actual practice it is necessary to interpose the object glass of a + telescope at a point O, at a distance from M nearly equal to its focal + length. The function of this appliance is to render the diverging + rays, shown by the dotted lines, nearly parallel, in order that more + light may reach R and be thrown back again. But the principle may be + conceived without respect to the telescope, all the rays being ignored + except the central one, which passes over the course we have + described. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + Conceiving the apparatus arranged in such a way that the observer sees + the light reflected from the distant mirror R, a fine toothed wheel WX + is placed immediately in front of the glass M, with its plane + perpendicular to the course of the ray, in such a way that the ray + goes out and returns through an opening between two adjacent teeth. + This wheel is represented in section by WX in fig. 1, and a part of + its circumference, with the teeth as viewed by the observer, is shown + in fig. 2. We conceive that the latter sees the luminous point between + two of the teeth at K. Now, conceive that the wheel is set in + revolution. The ray is then interrupted as every tooth passes, so that + what is sent out is a succession of flashes. Conceive that the speed + of the mirror is such that while the flash is going to the distant + mirror and returning again, each tooth of the wheel takes the place of + an opening between the teeth. Then each flash sent out will, on its + return, be intercepted by the adjacent tooth, and will therefore + become invisible. If the speed be now doubled, so that the teeth pass + at intervals equal to the time required for the light to go and come, + each flash sent through an opening will return through the adjacent + opening, and will therefore be seen with full brightness. If the speed + be continuously increased the result will be successive disappearances + and reappearances of the light, according as a tooth is or is not + interposed when the ray reaches the apparatus on its return. The + computation of the time of passage and return is then very simple. The + speed of the wheel being known, the number of teeth passing in one + second can be computed. The order of the disappearance, or the number + of teeth which have passed while the light is going and coming, being + also determined in each case, the interval of time is computed by a + simple formula. + + + Cornu. + + The most elaborate determination yet made by Fizeau's method was that + of Cornu. The station of observation was at the Paris Observatory. The + distant reflector, a telescope with a reflector at its focus, was at + Montlhéry, distant 22,910 metres from the toothed wheel. Of the wheels + most used one had 150 teeth, and was 35 millimetres in diameter; the + other had 200 teeth, with a diameter of 45 mm. The highest speed + attained was about 900 revolutions per second. At this speed, 135,000 + (or 180,000) teeth would pass per second, and about 20 (or 28) would + pass while the light was going and coming. But the actual speed + attained was generally less than this. The definitive result derived + by Cornu from the entire series of experiments was 300,400 kilometres + per second. Further details of this work need not be set forth because + the method is in several ways deficient in precision. The eclipses and + subsequent reappearances of the light taking place gradually, it is + impossible to fix with entire precision upon the moment of complete + eclipse. The speed of the wheel is continually varying, and it is + impossible to determine with precision what it was at the instant of + an eclipse. + + The defect would be lessened were the speed of the toothed wheel + placed under control of the observer who, by action in one direction + or the other, could continually check or accelerate it, so as to keep + the return point of light at the required phase of brightness. If the + phase of complete extinction is chosen for this purpose a definite + result cannot be reached; but by choosing the moment when the light is + of a certain definite brightness, before or after an eclipse, the + observer will know at each instant whether the speed should be + accelerated or retarded, and can act accordingly. The nearly constant + speed through as long a period as is deemed necessary would then be + found by dividing the entire number of revolutions of the wheel by the + time through which the light was kept constant. But even with these + improvements, which were not actually tried by Cornu, the estimate of + the brightness on which the whole result depends would necessarily be + uncertain. The outcome is that, although Cornu's discussion of his + experiments is a model in the care taken to determine so far as + practicable every source of error, his definitive result is shown by + other determinations to have been too great by about {1/1000} part of + its whole amount. + + + Young and Forbes. + + An important improvement on the Fizeau method was made in 1880 by + James Young and George Forbes at Glasgow. This consisted in using two + distant reflectors which were placed nearly in the same straight line, + and at unequal distances. The ratio of the distances was nearly 12:13. + The phase observed was not that of complete extinction of either + light, but that when the two lights appeared equal in intensity. But + it does not appear that the very necessary device of placing the speed + of the toothed wheel under control of the observer was adopted. The + accordance between the different measures was far from satisfactory, + and it will suffice to mention the result which was + + _Velocity in vacuo_ = 301,382 km. per second. + + These experimenters also found a difference of 2% between the speed of + red and blue light, a result which can only be attributed to some + unexplained source of error. + + The Foucault system is much more precise, because it rests upon the + measurement of an angle, which can be made with great precision. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + + Foucault. + + The vital appliance is a rapidly revolving mirror. Let AB (fig. 3) be + a section of this mirror, which we shall first suppose at rest. A ray + of light LM emanating from a source at L, is reflected in the + direction MQR to a distant mirror R, from which it is perpendicularly + reflected back upon its original course. This mirror R should be + slightly concave, with the centre of curvature near M, so that the ray + shall always be reflected back to M on whatever point of R it may + fall. Conceiving the revolving mirror M as at rest, the return ray + will after three reflections, at M, R and M again, be returned along + its original course to the point L from which it emanated. An + important point is that the return ray will always follow the fixed + line ML no matter what the position of the movable mirror M, provided + there is a distant reflector to send the ray back. Now, suppose that, + while the ray is going and coming, the mirror M, being set in + revolution, has turned from the position in which the ray was + reflected to that shown by the dotted line. If [alpha] be the angle + through which the surface has turned, the course of the return ray, + after reflection, will then deviate from ML by the angle 2[alpha], and + so be thrown to a point E, such that the angle LME = 2[alpha]. If the + mirror is in rapid rotation the ray reflected from it will strike the + distant mirror as a series of flashes, each formed by the light + reflected when the mirror was in the position AB. If the speed of + rotation is uniform, the reflected rays from the successive flashes + while the mirror is in the dotted position will thus all follow the + same direction ME after their second reflection from the mirror. If + the motion is sufficiently rapid an eye observing the reflected ray + will see the flashes as an invariable point of light so long as the + speed of revolution remains constant. The time required for the light + to go and come is then equal to that required by the mirror to turn + through half the angle LME, which is therefore to be measured. In + practice it is necessary on this system, as well as on that of Fizeau, + to condense the light by means of a lens, Q, so placed that L and R + shall be at conjugate foci. The position of the lens may be either + between the luminous point L and the mirror M, or between M and R, the + latter being the only one shown in the figure. This position has the + advantage that more light can be concentrated, but it has the + disadvantage that, with a given magnifying power, the effect of + atmospheric undulation, when the concave reflector is situated at a + great distance, is increased in the ratio of the focal length of the + lens to the distance LM from the light to the mirror. To state the + fact in another form, the amplitude of the disturbances produced by + the air in linear measure are proportional to the focal distance of + the lens, while the magnification required increases in the inverse + ratio of the distance LM. Another difficulty associated with the + Foucault system in the form in which its originator used it is that if + the axis of the mirror is at right angles to the course of the ray, + the light from the source L will be flashed directly into the eye of + the observer, on every passage of the revolving mirror through the + position in which its normal bisects the two courses of the ray. This + may be avoided by inclining the axis of the mirror. + + In Foucault's determination the measures were not made upon a luminous + point, but upon a reticule, the image of which could not be seen + unless the reflector was quite near the revolving mirror. Indeed the + whole apparatus was contained in his laboratory. The effective + distance was increased by using several reflectors; but the entire + course of the ray measured only 20 metres. The result reached by + Foucault for the velocity of light was 298,000 kilometres per second. + + + Michelson. + + The first marked advance on Foucault's determination was made by + Albert A. Michelson, then a young officer on duty at the U.S. Naval + Academy, Annapolis. The improvement consisted in using the image of a + slit through which the rays of the sun passed after reflection from a + heliostat. In this way it was found possible to see the image of the + slit reflected from the distant mirror when the latter was nearly 600 + metres from the station of observation. The essentials of the + arrangement are those we have used in fig. 3, L being the slit. It + will be seen that the revolving mirror is here interposed between the + lens and its focus. It was driven by an air turbine, the blast of + which was under the control of the observer, so that it could be kept + at any required speed. The speed was determined by the vibrations of + two tuning forks. One of these was an electric fork, making about 120 + vibrations per second, with which the mirror was kept in unison by a + system of rays reflected from it and the fork. The speed of this fork + was determined by comparison with a freely vibrating fork from time to + time. The speed of the revolving mirror was generally about 275 turns + per second, and the deflection of the image of the slit about 112.5 + mm. The mean result of nearly 100 fairly accordant determinations + was:-- + + Velocity of light in air 299,828 km. per sec. + Reduction to a vacuum +82 + Velocity of light in a vacuum 299,910 ± 50 + + + Newcomb. + + While this work was in progress Simon Newcomb obtained the official + support necessary to make a determination on a yet larger scale. The + most important modifications made in the Foucault-Michelson system + were the following:-- + + 1. Placing the reflector at the much greater distance of several + kilometres. + + 2. In order that the disturbances of the return image due to the + passage of the ray through more than 7 km. of air might be reduced to + a minimum, an ordinary telescope of the "broken back" form was used to + send the ray to the revolving mirror. + + 3. The speed of the mirror was, as in Michelson's experiments, + completely under control of the observer, so that by drawing one or + the other of two cords held in the hand the return image could be kept + in any required position. In making each measure the receiving + telescope hereafter described was placed in a fixed position and + during the "run" the image was kept as nearly as practicable upon a + vertical thread passing through its focus. A "run" generally lasted + about two minutes, during which time the mirror commonly made between + 25,000 and 30,000 revolutions. The speed per second was found by + dividing the entire number of revolutions by the number of seconds in + the "run." The extreme deviations between the times of transmission of + the light, as derived from any two runs, never approached to the + thousandth part of its entire amount. The average deviation from the + mean was indeed less than {1/5000} part of the whole. + + To avoid the injurious effect of the directly reflected flash, as well + as to render unnecessary a comparison between the directions of the + outgoing and the return ray, a second telescope, turning horizontally + on an axis coincident with that of the revolving mirror, was used to + receive the return ray after reflection. This required the use of an + elongated mirror of which the upper half of the surface reflected the + outgoing ray, and the lower other half received and reflected the ray + on its return. On this system it was not necessary to incline the + mirror in order to avoid the direct reflection of the return ray. The + greatest advantage of this system was that the revolving mirror could + be turned in either direction without break of continuity, so that + the angular measures were made between the directions of the return + ray after reflection when the mirror moved in opposite directions. In + this way the speed of the mirror was as good as doubled, and the + possible constant errors inherent in the reference to a fixed + direction for the sending telescope were eliminated. The essentials of + the apparatus are shown in fig. 4. The revolving mirror was a + rectangular prism M of steel, 3 in. high and 1½ in. on a side in cross + section, which was driven by a blast of air acting on two fan-wheels, + not shown in the fig., one at the top, the other at the bottom of the + mirror. NPO is the object-end of the fixed sending telescope the rays + passing through it being reflected to the mirror by a prism P. The + receiving telescope ABO is straight, and has its objective under O. It + was attached to a frame which could turn around the same axis as the + mirror. The angle through which it moved was measured by a divided arc + immediately below its eye-piece, which is not shown in the figure. The + position AB is that for receiving the ray during a rotation of the + mirror in the anti-clockwise direction; the position A´B´ that for a + clockwise rotation. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + In these measures the observing station was at Fort Myer, on a hill + above the west bank of the Potomac river. The distant reflector was + first placed in the grounds of the Naval Observatory, at a distance of + 2551 metres. But the definitive measures were made with the reflector + at the base of the Washington monument, 3721 metres distant. The + revolving mirror was of nickel-plated steel, polished on all four + vertical sides. Thus four reflections of the ray were received during + each turn of the mirror, which would be coincident were the form of + the mirror invariable. During the preliminary series of measures it + was found that two images of the return ray were sometimes formed, + which would result in two different conclusions as to the velocity of + light, according as one or the other was observed. The only + explanation of this defect which presented itself was a tortional + vibration of the revolving mirror, coinciding in period with that of + revolution, but it was first thought that the effect was only + occasional. + + In the summer of 1881 the distant reflector was removed from the + Observatory to the Monument station. Six measures made in August and + September showed a systematic deviation of +67 km. per second from the + result of the Observatory series. This difference led to measures for + eliminating the defect from which it was supposed to arise. The pivots + of the mirror were reground, and a change made in the arrangement, + which would permit of the effect of the vibration being determined and + eliminated. This consisted in making the relative position of the + sending and receiving telescopes interchangeable. In this way, if the + measured deflection was too great in one position of the telescopes, + it would be too small by an equal amount in the reverse position. As a + matter of fact, when the definitive measures were made, it was found + that with the improved pivots the mean result was the same in the two + positions. But the new result differed systematically from both the + former ones. Thirteen measures were made from the Monument in the + summer of 1882, the results of which will first be stated in the form + of the time required by the ray to go and come. Expressed in + millionths of a second this was:-- + + Least result of the 13 measures 24.819 + Greatest result 24.831 + Double distance between mirrors 7.44242 km. + + Applying a correction of +12 km. for a slight convexity in the face of + the revolving mirror, this gives as the mean result for the speed of + light in air, 299,778 km. per second. The mean results for the three + series were:-- + + Observatory, 1880-1881 V in air = 299,627 + Monument, 1881 V " = 299,694 + Monument, 1882 V " = 299,778 + + The last result being the only one from which the effect of distortion + was completely eliminated, has been adopted as definitive. For + reduction to a vacuum it requires a correction of +82 km. Thus the + final result was concluded to be + + _Velocity of light in vacuo_ = 299,860 km. per second. + + This result being less by 50 km. than that of Michelson, the latter + made another determination with improved apparatus and arrangements at + the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland. The result was + + _Velocity in vacuo_ = 299,853 km. per second. + + So far as could be determined from the discordance of the separate + measures, the mean error of Newcomb's result would be less than ±10 + km. But making allowance for the various sources of systematic error + the actual probable error was estimated at ±30 km. + +It seems remarkable that since these determinations were made, a period +during which great improvements have become possible in every part of +the apparatus, no complete redetermination of this fundamental physical +constant has been carried out. + +The experimental measures thus far cited have been primarily those of +the velocity of light in air, the reduction to a vacuum being derived +from theory alone. The fundamental constant at the basis of the whole +theory is the speed of light in a vacuum, such as the celestial spaces. +The question of the relation between the velocity in vacuo, and in a +transparent medium of any sort, belongs to the domain of physical +optics. Referring to the preceding section for the principles at play we +shall in the present part of the article confine ourselves to the +experimental results. With the theory of the effect of a transparent +medium is associated that of the possible differences in the speed of +light of different colours. + + + Velocity and wave-length. + +The question whether the speed of light in vacuo varies with its +wave-length seems to be settled with entire certainty by observations of +variable stars. These are situated at different distances, some being so +far that light must be several centuries in reaching us from them. Were +there any difference in the speed of light of various colours it would +be shown by a change in the colour of the star as its light waxed and +waned. The light of greatest speed preceding that of lesser speed would, +when emanated during the rising phase, impress its own colour on that +which it overtook. The slower light would predominate during the falling +phase. If there were a difference of 10 minutes in the time at which +light from the two ends of the visible spectrum arrived, it would be +shown by this test. As not the slightest effect of the kind has ever +been seen, it seems certain that the difference, if any, cannot +approximate to {1/1.000.000} part of the entire speed. The case is +different when light passes through a refracting medium. It is a +theoretical result of the undulatory theory of light that its velocity +in such a medium is inversely proportional to the refractive index of +the medium. This being different for different colours, we must expect a +corresponding difference in the velocity. + +Foucault and Michelson have tested these results of the undulatory +theory by comparing the time required for a ray of light to pass through +a tube filled with a refracting medium, and through air. Foucault thus +found, in a general way, that there actually was a retardation; but his +observations took account only of the mean retardation of light of all +the wave-lengths, which he found to correspond with the undulatory +theory. Michelson went further by determining the retardation of light +of various wave-lengths in carbon bisulphide. He made two series of +experiments, one with light near the brightest part of the spectrum; the +other with red and blue light. Putting V for the speed in a vacuum and +V1 for that in the medium, his result was + + Yellow light V : V1 = 1.758 + Refractive index for yellow 1.64 + Difference from theory +0.12 + +The estimated uncertainty was only 0.02, or 1/6 of the difference +between observation and theory. + +The comparison of red and blue light was made differentially. The +colours selected were of wave-length about 0.62 for red and 0.49 for +blue. Putting V_r and V_b for the speeds of red and blue light +respectively in bisulphide of carbon, the mean result compares with +theory as follows:-- + + Observed value of the ratio V_r, V_b 1.0245 + Theoretical value (Verdet) 1.025 + +This agreement may be regarded as perfect. It shows that the divergence +of the speed of yellow light in the medium from theory, as found above, +holds through the entire spectrum. + +The excess of the retardation above that resulting from theory is +probably due to a difference between "wave-speed" and "group-speed" +pointed out by Rayleigh. Let fig. 5 represent a short series of +progressive undulations of constant period and wave-length. The +wave-speed is that required to carry a wave crest A to the position of +the crest B in the wave time. But when a flash of light like that +measured passes through a refracting medium, the front waves of the +flash are continually dying away, as shown at the end of the figure, and +the place of each is taken by the wave following. A familiar case of +this sort is seen when a stone is thrown into a pond. The front waves +die out one at a time, to be followed by others, each of which goes +further than its predecessor, while new waves are formed in the rear. +Hence the group, as represented in the figure by the larger waves in the +middle, moves as a whole more slowly than do the individual waves. When +the speed of light is measured the result is not the wave-speed as above +defined, but something less, because the result depends on the time of +the group passing through the medium. This lower speed is called the +group-velocity of light. In a vacuum there is no dying out of the waves, +so that the group-speed and the wave-speed are identical. From +Michelson's experiments it would follow that the retardation was about +{1/14} of the whole speed. This would indicate that in carbon bisulphide +each individual light wave forming the front of a moving ray dies out in +a space of about 15 wave-lengths. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + AUTHORITIES.--For Foucault's descriptions of his experiments see + _Comptes Rendus_ (September 22 and November 24, 1862), and _Recueil de + Travaux Scientifiques de Léon Foucault_ (2 vols., 4to, Paris, 1878). + Cornu's determination is found in _Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris, + Mémoires_, vol. xiii. The works of Michelson and Newcomb are published + _in extenso_ in the _Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris_, + vols. i. and ii. (S. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The invention of "aethers" is to be carried back, at least, to + the Greek philosophers, and with the growth of knowledge they were + empirically postulated to explain many diverse phenomena. Only one + "aether" has survived in modern science--that associated with light + and electricity, and of which Lord Salisbury, in his presidential + address to the British Association in 1894, said, "For more than two + generations the main, if not the only, function of the word 'aether' + has been to furnish a nominative case to the verb 'to undulate.'" + (See AETHER.) + + [2] With the Greeks the word "Optics" or [Greek: Optika] (from + [Greek: optomai], the obsolete present of [Greek: orô], I see) was + restricted to questions concerning vision, &c., and the nature of + light. + + [3] It seems probable that spectacles were in use towards the end of + the 13th century. The Italian dictionary of the _Accademici della + Crusca_ (1612) mentions a sermon of Jordan de Rivalto, published in + 1305, which refers to the invention as "not twenty years since"; and + Muschenbroek states that the tomb of Salvinus Armatus, a Florentine + nobleman who died in 1317, bears an inscription assigning the + invention to him. (See the articles TELESCOPE and CAMERA OBSCURA for + the history of these instruments.) + + [4] Newton's observation that a second refraction did not change the + colours had been anticipated in 1648 by Marci de Kronland + (1595-1667), professor of medicine at the university of Prague, in + his _Thaumantias_, who studied the spectrum under the name of _Iris + trigonia_. There is no evidence that Newton knew of this, although he + mentions de Dominic's experiment with the glass globe containing + water. + + [5] The geometrical determination of the form of the surface which + will reflect, or of the surface dividing two media which will + refract, rays from one point to another, is very easily effected by + using the "characteristic function" of Hamilton, which for the + problems under consideration may be stated in the form that "the + optical paths of all rays must be the same." In the case of + reflection, if A and B be the diverging and converging points, and P + a point on the reflecting surface, then the locus of P is such that + AP + PB is constant. Therefore the surface is an ellipsoid of + revolution having A and B as foci. If the rays be parallel, i.e. if A + be at infinity, the surface is a paraboloid of revolution having B as + focus and the axis parallel to the direction of the rays. In + refraction if A be in the medium of index µ, and B in the medium of + index µ´, the characteristic function shows that µAP + µ´PB, where P + is a point on the surface, must be constant. Plane sections through A + and B of such surfaces were originally investigated by Descartes, and + are named Cartesian ovals. If the rays be parallel, i.e. A be at + infinity, the surface becomes an ellipsoid of revolution having B for + one focus, µ´/µ for eccentricity, and the axis parallel to the + direction of the rays. + + [6] Young's views of the nature of light, which he formulated as + _Propositions_ and _Hypotheses_, are given _in extenso_ in the + article INTERFERENCE. See also his article "Chromatics" in the + supplementary volumes to the 3rd edition of the _Encyclopaedia + Britannica_. + + [7] A crucial test of the emission and undulatory theories, which was + realized by Descartes, Newton, Fermat and others, consisted in + determining the velocity of light in two differently refracting + media. This experiment was conducted in 1850 by Foucault, who showed + that the velocity was less in water than in air, thereby confirming + the undulatory and invalidating the emission theory. + + [8] Newton, _Opticks_ (London, 1704). + + [9] _Trans. Irish Acad._ 15, p. 69 (1824); 16, part i. "Science," p. + 4 (1830), part ii., _ibid._ p. 93 (1830); 17, part i., p. 1 (1832). + + [10] This kind of type will always be used in this article to denote + vectors. + + [11] _Phil. Trans._ (1802), part i. p. 12. + + [12] _Oeuvres complètes de Fresnel_ (Paris, 1866). (The researches + were published between 1815 and 1827.) + + [13] _Ann. Phys. Chem._ (1883), 18, p. 663. + + [14] H. A. Lorentz, _Zittingsversl. Akad. v. Wet. Amsterdam, 4_ + (1896), p. 176. + + [15] H. A. Lorentz, _Abhandlungen über theoretische Physik_, 1 + (1907), p. 415. + + [16] Clerk Maxwell, _A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism_ + (Oxford, 1st ed., 1873). + + [17] H. Abraham, _Rapports présentés au congrès de physique de 1900_ + (Paris), 2, p. 247. + + [18] Ibid., p. 225. + + [19] _Phil. Trans._, 175 (1884), p. 343. + + [20] _Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem._ 155 (1875), p. 403. + + [21] Ibid. 153 (1874), p. 525. + + [22] _Ann. d. Phys_. 11 (1903), p. 873. + + [23] _Phys. Review_, 13 (1901), p. 293. + + [24] _Hertz, Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen + Kraft_ (Leipzig, 1892). + + [25] A. Righi, _L'Ottica delle oscillazioni elettriche_ (Bologna, + 1897); P. Lebedew, _Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem._, 56 (1895), p. 1. + + [26] "Reflection and Refraction," _Trans. Cambr. Phil. Soc._ 7, p. 1 + (1837); "Double Refraction," ibid. p. 121 (1839). + + [27] "Double Refraction," _Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem._ 25 (1832), p. 418; + "Crystalline Reflection," _Abhandl. Akad. Berlin_ (1835), p. 1. + + [28] _Trans. Irish Acad._ 21, "Science," p. 17 (1839). + + [29] _Math. and Phys. Papers_ (London, 1890), 3, p. 466. + + [30] Helmholtz, _Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem._, 154 (1875), p. 582. + + [31] H. A. Lorentz, _Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen u. + optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern_ (1895) (Leipzig, 1906); + J. Larmor, _Aether and Matter_ (Cambridge, 1900). + + + + +LIGHTFOOT, JOHN (1602-1675), English divine and rabbinical scholar, was +the son of Thomas Lightfoot, vicar of Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, and was +born at Stoke-upon-Trent on the 29th of March 1602. His education was +received at Morton Green near Congleton, Cheshire, and at Christ's +College, Cambridge, where he was reckoned the best orator among the +undergraduates. After taking his degree he became assistant master at +Repton in Derbyshire; after taking orders he was appointed curate of +Norton-under-Hales in Shropshire. There he attracted the notice of Sir +Rowland Cotton, an amateur Hebraist of some distinction, who made him +his domestic chaplain at Bellaport. Shortly after the removal of Sir +Rowland to London, Lightfoot, abandoning an intention to go abroad, +accepted a charge at Stone in Staffordshire, where he continued for +about two years. From Stone he removed to Hornsey, near London, for the +sake of reading in the library of Sion College. His first published +work, entitled _Erubhin, or Miscellanies, Christian and Judaical, penned +for recreation at vacant hours_, and dedicated to Sir R. Cotton, +appeared at London in 1629. In September 1630 he was presented by Sir R. +Cotton to the rectory of Ashley in Staffordshire, where he remained +until June, 1642, when he went to London, probably to superintend the +publication of his next work, _A Few and New Observations upon the Book +of Genesis: the most of them certain; the rest, probable; all, harmless, +strange and rarely heard of before_, which appeared at London in that +year. Soon after his arrival in London he became minister of St +Bartholomew's church, near the Exchange; and in 1643 he was appointed to +preach the sermon before the House of Commons on occasion of the public +fast of the 29th of March. It was published under the title of _Elias +Redivivus_, the text being Luke i. 17; in it a parallel is drawn between +the Baptist's ministry and the work of reformation which in the +preacher's judgment was incumbent on the parliament of his own day. + +Lightfoot was also one of the original members of the Westminster +Assembly; his "Journal of the Proceedings of the Assembly of Divines +from January 1, 1643 to December 31, 1644," now printed in the +thirteenth volume of the 8vo edition of his _Works_, is a valuable +historical source for the brief period to which it relates. He was +assiduous in his attendance, and, though frequently standing almost or +quite alone, especially in the Erastian controversy, he exercised a +material influence on the result of the discussions of the Assembly. In +1643 Lightfoot published _A Handful of Gleanings out of the Book of +Exodus_, and in the same year he was made master of Catharine Hall by +the parliamentary visitors of Cambridge, and also, on the recommendation +of the Assembly, was promoted to the rectory of Much Munden in +Hertfordshire; both appointments he retained until his death. In 1644 +was published in London the first instalment of the laborious but never +completed work of which the full title runs _The Harmony of the Four +Evangelists among themselves, and with the Old Testament, with an +explanation of the chiefest difficulties both in Language and Sense: +Part I. From the beginning of the Gospels to the Baptism of our +Saviour._ The second part _From the Baptism of our Saviour to the first +Passover after_ followed in 1647, and the third _From the first Passover +after our Saviour's Baptism to the second_ in 1650. On the 26th of +August 1645 he again preached before the House of Commons on the day of +their monthly fast. His text was Rev. xx. 1, 2. After controverting the +doctrine of the Millenaries, he urged various practical suggestions for +the repression with a strong hand of current blasphemies, for a thorough +revision of the authorized version of the Scriptures, for the +encouragement of a learned ministry, and for a speedy settlement of the +church. In the same year appeared _A Commentary upon the Acts of the +Apostles, chronical and critical; the Difficulties of the text +explained, and the times of the Story cast into annals. From the +beginning of the Book to the end of the Twelfth Chapter. With a brief +survey of the contemporary Story of the Jews and Romans_ (down to the +third year of Claudius). In 1647 he published _The Harmony, Chronicle, +and Order of the Old Testament_, which was followed in 1655 by _The +Harmony, Chronicle, and Order of the New Testament_, inscribed to +Cromwell. In 1654 Lightfoot had been chosen vice-chancellor of the +university of Cambridge, but continued to reside by preference at +Munden, in the rectory of which, as well as in the mastership of +Catharine Hall, he was confirmed at the Restoration. The remainder of +his life was devoted to helping Brian Walton with the Polyglot Bible +(1657) and to his own best-known work, the _Horae Hebraicae et +Talmudicae_, in which the volume relating to Matthew appeared in 1658, +that relating to Mark in 1663, and those relating to 1 Corinthians, John +and Luke, in 1664, 1671 and 1674 respectively. While travelling from +Cambridge to Ely (where he had been collated in 1668 by Sir Orlando +Bridgman to a prebendal stall), he caught a severe cold, and died at Ely +on the 6th of December 1675. The _Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae impensae +in Acta Apostolorum et in Ep. S. Pauli ad Romanos_ were published +posthumously. + + The _Works_ of Lightfoot were first edited, in 2 vols. fol., by G. + Bright and Strype in 1684; the _Opera Omnia, cura Joh. Texelii_, + appeared at Rotterdam in 1686 (2 vols. fol.), and again, edited by J. + Leusden, at Franeker in 1699 (3 vols. fol.). A volume of _Remains_ was + published at London in 1700. The _Hor. Hebr. et Talm_. were also + edited in Latin by Carpzov (Leipzig, 1675-1679), and again, in + English, by Gandell (Oxford, 1859). The most complete edition is that + of the _Whole Works_, in 13 vols. 8vo, edited, with a life, by R. + Pitman (London, 1822-1825). It includes, besides the works already + noticed, numerous sermons, letters and miscellaneous writings; and + also _The Temple, especially as it stood in the Days of our Saviour_ + (London, 1650). + + See D. M. Welton, _John Lightfoot, the Hebraist_ (Leipzig, 1878). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 16, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41567 *** |