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diff --git a/41566.txt b/41566.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a987ddf..0000000 --- a/41566.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12540 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Curiosities of Superstition, by W. H. -Davenport Adams - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Curiosities of Superstition - And Sketches of Some Unrevealed Religions - - -Author: W. H. Davenport Adams - - - -Release Date: December 5, 2012 [eBook #41566] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CURIOSITIES OF SUPERSTITION*** - - -E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/curiositiesofsup00adam - - -Transcriber's note: - - The original text includes Greek words or phrases that have - been replaced with transliterations and displayed in this form: - [Greek: transliteration]. - - The original text includes Arabic characters that have been - replaced with [Arabic]. - - - - - -CURIOSITIES OF SUPERSTITION, - -And Sketches of some Unrevealed Religions. - -by - -W. H. DAVENPORT ADAMS, - -Author of "Heroes of the Cross," etc. - - "To my mind there is no study more absorbing than that of - the Religions of the World,--the study, if I may so call - it, of the various languages in which man has spoken to - his Maker, and of that language in which his Maker 'at - sundry times and in divers manners' spake to man."--MAX MUELLER. - - "Primus in orbe Deos fecit timor."--STATIUS, _Thebaid_, 661. - - - - - - - -London: -J. Masters and Co., 78, New Bond Street. -MDCCCLXXXII. - -London: -Printed by J. Masters and Co., -Albion Buildings, Bartholomew Close. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. BUDDHISM, ITS ORIGIN AND CEREMONIES 1 - - II. MAGIANISM: THE PARSEES 43 - - III. JEWISH SUPERSTITIONS 68 - - IV. BRAHMANISM 84 - - V. HINDU MYTHOLOGY, AND THE VISHNU PURANA 99 - - VI. IN CHINA: CONFUCIANISM, TAOUISM, AND BUDDHISM 119 - - VII. AMONG THE MALAYS, THE SLAMATAN BROMOK, THE DYAKS, THE - PAPUAN TRIBES, THE AHETAS 142 - - VIII. THE SAVAGE RACES OF ASIA: THE SAMOJEDES; THE MONGOLS; - THE OSTIAKS; IN TIBET 155 - - IX. SOME AFRICAN SUPERSTITIONS 171 - - X. THE ZULU WITCH-FINDERS 180 - - XI. ZABIANISM AND SERPENT-WORSHIP 186 - - XII. POLYNESIAN SUPERSTITIONS 214 - - XIII. THE FIJI ISLANDERS 230 - - XIV. THE RELIGION OF THE MAORIES 241 - - XV. THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 254 - - XVI. AMONG THE ESKIMOS 274 - - XVII. A MEDIAEVAL SUPERSTITION: THE FLAGELLANTS 279 - - XVIII. SCOTTISH SUPERSTITIONS: HALLOWEEN 288 - - XIX. SECOND SIGHT: DIVINATION: UNIVERSALITY OF CERTAIN - SUPERSTITIONS: FAIRIES IN SCOTLAND 300 - - - - -CURIOSITIES OF SUPERSTITION. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -_BUDDHISM: ITS ORIGIN AND CEREMONIES._ - - -PRAYER-WHEELS OF THE BUDDHISTS. - -Travelling on the borders of Chinese Tartary, in the country of the Lamas -or Buddhists, Miss Gordon Cumming remarks that it was strange, every now -and again, to meet some respectable-looking workman, twirling little brass -cylinders, only about six inches in length, which were incessantly -spinning round and round as they walked along the road. What could they -be? Not pedometers, not any of the trigonometrical instruments with which -the officers of the Ordnance Survey go about armed? No; she was informed -that they were prayer-wheels, and that turning them was just about -equivalent to the telling of beads, which in Continental lands workmen may -often be seen counting as homeward along the road they plod their weary -way. - -The telling of beads seems to the Protestant a superfluous piece of -formalism: what then are we to think of prayer by machinery? The prayers, -or rather invocations, to Buddha--the Buddhists never pray, in the -Christian sense--are all closely written upon strips of cloth or paper; -the same sentence being repeated some thousands of times. These strips are -placed inside a cylinder, revolving on a long spindle, the end of which is -the handle. From the wind-cylinder depends a small lump of metal, which, -whirling round, communicates the necessary impetus to the little machine, -so that it rotates with the slightest possible effort, and continues to -grind any required number of acts of worship, while the owner, with the -plaything in his hand, carries on his daily work. His religion requires -that he should be all his time immersed in holy contemplation of the -perfections of Buddha, but to a busy man no such self-absorption is -possible. He is content, therefore, to say the sentences aloud at the -beginning and end of his devotions, and in the interval twirls slowly, -while a tiny bell marks each rotation, and reminds him if he should -unconsciously quicken his pace. - -Tennyson finely speaks of Prayer as that by which - - "The whole round world is every way - Bound by gold chains around the feet of GOD;" - -but no such efficacy can be ascribed to the cylinders of brass, copper, or -gold, which are fashionable among the Buddhists. Yet we must not condemn -too unreservedly: Prayer, even among Christians, is apt to degenerate into -a dull, mechanical uniformity, and to become scarcely less perfunctory -than that which the Tibetans grind out of their prayer-machine. - -In a Lama temple, Miss Gordon Cumming once saw a colossal prayer-wheel, -which might almost have sufficed for the necessities of a nation. It was -turned by a great iron crank, which acted as a handle. The cylinder -measured about twelve feet in height, and six to eight feet in diameter. -Circular bands of gold and vermilion adorned it, each band bearing the -well-known Buddhist ascription, or invocation, "To the jewel on the -Lotus." Of this inscription, multiplied on strips of paper and cloth, the -cylinder was full, and each time that it revolved on its axis, the devotee -was accredited with having uttered the pious invocation just as often as -it was repeated within the cylinder. The whole history of Superstition -offers scarcely any fact more curious or suggestive than this method of -prayer by machinery; and that such a grotesque extravagance should have -emanated from so subtle and metaphysical a faith as Buddhism is an anomaly -not easily to be explained. - -Each votary who is too poor to possess a prayer-wheel of his own, attends -the temple, does homage to the head Lama, receives his benediction, and -then, squatting in front of the great wheel, he turns the crank on behalf -of himself and his family. But if there be a considerable number of -worshippers, the priest himself works the handle, that all may participate -simultaneously in the act of prayer. - -The use of these machines is traced back for fully fourteen centuries, and -is supposed to have originated in the belief that it was a meritorious -act, and a patent cure for sin, to be continually reading or reciting -portions of the sacred books of Buddha. But as many of the people could -not read, a substitute had to be found, and it came to be considered -sufficient if they turned over the rolled manuscripts which embodied the -invaluable precepts. And as a vast amount of time and trouble was saved by -this process, a further simplification became possible and popular,--the -invention of wheels termed _Tehu-Chor_,--great cylindrical bands full of -prayers; a cord being attached to the base of the band, which, when the -cord was pulled, twirled like a children's toy. Prayer-wheels of this kind -are set up in all public places in Tibet, so that the poor who do not -possess little pocket Wheels of Devotion may not lose their chance of -accumulating merit. In some of the monasteries the rows of small cylinders -are so arranged, that the priest, or any passer-by can set them all in -simultaneous motion, by just drawing his hand along them. - -According to Miss Cumming, who is confirmed by other travellers, the -cylinders vary in size, from tiny hand-mills, about as big as a -policeman's rattle, to huge machines, eight or ten feet in diameter, -worked by a heavy iron crank, or sometimes by wind or water power. The -wind prayer-mills are turned by wings, which, like the cylinder, are -plentifully covered with prayers. The water-mills are placed over streams, -so as to dispense with human aid, and allow the running water to turn them -for the general welfare of the village. Through the cylinder passes a -wooden axle, which is fastened to a horizontal wheel, whose cogs are -turned diagonally to the water. - -"One such group of little mills we noticed," says Miss Cumming,[1] "set in -a clear stream half-way between Rarung and Pangi, a lively, rapid river, -rushing headlong down the mountain side to join the Sutlej. Having never -then heard of prayer-mills, we assumed them to be for corn, as perhaps -they were. At all events, we passed them without inspection, to our -subsequent infinite regret. These wheels rotate with the action of the -water, and so turn the cylinder, which must invariably stand upright. -Sometimes several of these are placed almost across the stream, and the -rudest form of temple is built over them. - -"They are so placed that the wheel must invariably turn from right to -left, following the course of the sun; to invert that course would not -only involve ill-luck, but would amount to being a sin. Hence the -exceeding unwillingness of the people we met to let us tend their little -wheels, knowing from sad experience that the English sahibs rather enjoy -the fun of turning them the wrong way, and so undoing the efficacy of all -their morning's work. - -"Some of the little pocket cylinders are very beautifully wrought; some -are even inlaid with precious stones. I saw one great beauty which I -coveted exceedingly. The owner would on no account sell it. I returned to -the temple next morning, wishing at least to make a drawing of it, but I -think he mistrusted me, for he and his plaything had both vanished, and I -had to be content with a much simpler one of bronze, inlaid with copper. -The people have the greatest reluctance to sell even the ugliest old -mills. They cling to them as lovingly as you might do to your dear old -Bible; but, as I said before, not merely from the charm of association, -but from a dread lest a careless hand should turn them against the sun, -and so change their past acts of merit into positive sin. So there was a -great deal of talk, and many irons in the fire, before I was allowed to -purchase two of these, at a price which would have supplied half the -village with new ones." - -The prayer-mill sometimes contains the Tibetan prayer, or litany, for the -six classes of living creatures, namely, the souls in heaven, the evil -spirits in the air, men, animals, souls in purgatory, and souls in hell; -but, as a rule, the Lama worship begins and ends in the famous inscription -to which we have already alluded--_Aum Mani Padmi Hoong_ (to the jewel in -the lotus.) These mystic words are raised in embossed letters on the -exterior of the cylinder, and are closely written on strips of paper -inside. All the sacred places are covered with them; the face of the rock, -the walls of the temple; just as the Alhambra glitters with its -_azulejos_, its blazoned inscriptions from the Kuran. - -This mystic sentence is composed as follows: _Aum_ or _Om_, equivalent to -the Hebrew JAH or JEHOVAH, the most glorious title of the Almighty; -_Mani_, the jewel, one of Buddha's appellations; _Padmi_, the lotus, in -allusion to his lotus-throne; and _Hoong_, synonymous with _Amen_. The -Buddhists regard this "six-syllabled" charm as a talisman of never-failing -efficacy; but by some of the sects it is more or less varied. For -instance: the Chinese Fo-ists read it as _Aum-mi-to-fuh_, which is also -one of Buddha's titles; and every devout Fo-ist aims at repeating it at -least three hundred thousand times in the course of his life. Some of -their priests will shut themselves up in the temples for months at a time, -and devote themselves to the dreary task of repetition, hour after hour, -day and night. Sometimes, ten or twelve devotees will voluntarily -sequester themselves, and continue all day to cry aloud in chorus; and at -night they undertake the task successively, one person droning through the -monotonous chant while the others sleep. Thus do they think to be heard -for their much speaking! Similar excesses of formalism, however, are -recorded in the history of mediaeval Christianity,--in the biographies of -saints and ascetics who have substituted for a practical Christianity and -the active performance of social duties the dreary vanity of an -unprofitable solitude, spent in the discharge of useless penances. - -The Buddhist prayer which is consecrated to Buddha as the Chakravarta -Rajah, or King of the Wheel, proves, on examination, to be closely related -to that Sun-worship which prevailed in the early ages of the world. The -wheel is, in many creeds, the symbol of the sun's chariot, that is, of the -revolution of the heavenly bodies. In a sculpture, nearly two thousand -years old, on the Bilsah Tepe, Buddha is represented simply by a wheel, -overshadowed by the mystic _chattah_, or golden umbrella, which is a -common emblem of his power. His worshippers are represented as making -their offerings to the King of the Wheel. "This sacred Wheel of the Law, -or Wheel of Faith, is found again and again among the fain and Buddhist -sculptures in the caves of Ellora and Ajunta, in most cases projecting in -front of Buddha's Lotus-Throne. In one instance an astronomical table is -carved above the wheel. In another it is supported on either side by a -stag, supposed to represent the fleetness wherewith the sun runs his daily -circuit, 'going forth from the uttermost part of the heaven, and running -about unto the end of it again.'" - - -THE HINDU TEMPLES. - -Visiting the Temples at Hardwar, one of the sacred cities of India, Miss -Gordon Cumming remarks upon the number of their hideous idols, painted and -carved, their multitudinous brass bells, their brazen horns, their sacred -courts all covered with elaborate carving, and their mythological -sculptures. - -She says:--"I frankly confess that there is something startling in the -rapidity with which one gets quite at home amongst all this paraphernalia -of heathenism, and how very soon idolatry ceases to shock the mind, and -becomes merely a curious study with picturesque adjuncts. Six months -previously the sight of a veritable temple with its hideous idols and -devout worshippers was a thing from which one shrank in shuddering pity." -But she soon became a connoisseur, and "lounged from one temple to -another, inspecting jewels and exquisite stone carving, and anything -wonderful the priests had to show, and quite forgot to be shocked, it was -all so perfectly natural, and seemed so entirely in keeping with the -tastes of the people." In this remark there is a wonderful _naivete_; for -it may reasonably be supposed that the tastes of the people would be in -accord with a religion which, during its career of two thousand years, -must have exercised so great an influence in forming them! - -In some of the temples, according to the same writer, there are sacred -bulls, carved in white marble and adorned with costly necklaces. In others -the attendant priests spend the whole day in pouring single drops of -precious oil on holy pebbles brought from the Nerbudda and other sacred -streams, and here arranged in little trays. Amongst the privileged -inhabitants are the monkeys, who frolic about incessantly with their -babies in their arms, or sitting on their backs, and twining their little -arms round the parental necks. - -The ceremonies in the different temples are, on the whole, very similar; -and the following description, taken from the Rao Mala, applies, except in -minor details, to all. - -The day is marked by five services: the first at sunrise, when bells are -rung in the temple, and drums or conch-shells sounded, to rouse the Du, or -god, from his slumbers. After performing copious ablutions, the -officiating priest enters the holy place, and swings before the idol a -lamp with five or seven branches. An hour or two later, the Du is attired -in raiment appropriate to the season. He wears a quilted coat in cold -weather, and has a lighted brazier placed beside him; whereas, in hot -weather, he is anointed with sandal-wood dust and water, clothed in fine -linen, and decked out with gems and flowers. Placed close to a cool -fountain, he is assiduously fanned by his attendants. In rainy weather, he -is wrapped about in scarlet cloth and shawls. When he is dressed, a light -breakfast of rice and milk is served up, and his votaries perform "the -sixteen acts of worship." At noon a third service takes place. The Du is -again rubbed with oil of sandal-wood, or sandal-dust and water, and -adorned with fresh flowers. The lamps are trimmed; incense is burned; and -his dinner is set before him: after which he is supposed to indulge in his -noonday sleep, and profound silence is maintained throughout the temple. - -At three in the afternoon a drum beats, and the god awakes! His attendants -hasten to serve fruits and sweetmeats, and perform various games for his -amusement. At sunset he is enshrined: his feet are basted, he is sprinkled -with water, his mouth is washed, and another offering is made of -sandal-wood dust, and flowers, and incense. He is once more clothed; an -elaborate dinner is spread before him; betel leaves are presented; and -again the many-branched candlestick is waved, while all the votaries -present for the second time perform "the sixteen acts of worship." - -The last service takes place at night, when the image is supposed to sup -on bread and water. After receiving the usual oblations of incense and -flowers, he is undressed, and if he be movable, put to bed, or if not, is -warmly covered with shawls and quilts. - -Not the least remarkable objects in the Hindu temples are their great -statues of bulls in marble or in metal. It is worthy of note that "in the -great Brazen Laver, which Solomon was commanded to make for the use of the -Temple at Jerusalem, the symbols selected for the adornment of that -consecrated Molten Sea should have been those which in later ages were to -hold so prominent a place in the symbolism of faiths so widely spread as -those of Brahma and Buddha. That huge laver was supported by twelve oxen -of cast metal, three looking to each point of the compass, while the brim -of the great sea itself was all wrought with flowers of lilies, much the -same as the pattern of lotus or water-lily with which the shrine of Buddha -is invariably edged." The bull is another symbol which seems to connect -the creed of the Hindu with the old nature-worship; for the vernal equinox -takes place when the sun enters the sign of Taurus, and this event was -always and everywhere a signal for feasting and rejoicing. - -But, as Max Mueller observes, the ancient religion of the Aryan inhabitants -of India started, like the religion of Greece and Rome, of the Germans, -Slavs, and Celts, with a simple and intelligible mythological -phraseology.[2] In the Veda, the names of all the so-called gods or Devas -undisguisedly betray their original physical character and meaning. Under -the name of Agni (ignis) was praised and invoked the fire; the earth by -that of Prithvi (the brave); the sky by the name of Dyu (Zeus, Jupiter), -and afterwards of Indra; the firmament and the waters by the name of -[Greek: Ouranos]. Under many appellations was the sun invoked, such as -Surya, Savitri, Vishnu, or Mitra; and the dawn by the titles of Ushas, -Urvasi, Ahana, and Surya. Nor was the moon forgotten: for though not often -mentioned under its usual name of Kandra, reference is made to it under -its more sacred appellation of Soma; and a particular denomination was -reserved for each of its phases. There is hardly any fact of nature, if it -could impress the human mind in any way with the ideas of a higher power, -of order, eternity, or beneficence,--whether the woods, or the rivers, or -the trees, or the mountains,--without a name and representative in the -early Hindu Pantheon. No doubt there existed in the human mind, from the -very beginning, something, whether we call it a suspicion, an innate idea, -an intuition, or a sense of the Divine. What distinguishes man from the -rest of the animal creation is chiefly his ineradicable feeling of -dependence and reliance upon some higher power; that consciousness of -bondage, from which the very name of "religion" was derived. "It is He -that hath made us, and not we ourselves." The presence of that power was -felt everywhere, and nowhere more clearly and strongly than in the rising -and setting of the sun, in the change of day and night, of spring and -winter, of birth and death. But although the Divine Presence was felt -everywhere, it was impossible, in that early period of thought, and with a -language incapable as yet of defining anything but material objects, to -conceive the idea of God in its purity and fulness, or to assign to it an -adequate and worthy expression. - -It must also be remembered that the influence of the genius and forces of -Nature would necessarily be greater in an age when the human mind was -occupied by few objects of thought, than now when it ranges over the whole -world of art and science. Moreover, to the eye of ignorance everything -seems large and portentous, or dim and inscrutable. The fire from heaven, -the reverberating thunder, the gale that crashed down the mountain ravines -and felled great trees before it, the planetary bodies steadily revolving -in their courses, the stream with its glow and its ripple, the dense -shadows of the haunted forest, the recurring rush and roll of the -sea,--all these were things which for early man had a constant novelty and -strangeness, and seemed incessantly to claim his reverent consideration. -He could not account for them: whether a bane or a delight they were -equally unintelligible. They represented, therefore, some Power which he -could regard only with awe and reverence. And of that Power the sun would -necessarily be the chief type and symbol. All life and love seemed -dependent upon it. The trees throve, and the flowers bloomed, and the -banks rippled, and the birds sang, and the harvests ripened, through the -sun. It was the source of light and heat, of the vigour and activity of -nature. While it shone men's hearts leaped with joy, and the wheels of -labour revolved with pleasant toil; but when it disappeared, and the -darkness usurped the heavens, the spirits sank, and humanity felt in the -change of scene a presentiment and presage of the darkness of death. All -vitality, all motion centred in the sun. "It was like a deep furrow," says -Max Mueller, "which that heavenly luminary drew, in its silent procession -from east to west, over the fallow mind of the gazing multitude; and in -the impression left there by the first rising and setting of the sun, -there lay the dark seed of a faith in a more than human being, the first -intimation of a life without beginning, of a world without end." Who can -wonder that the Chaldean, and the Celt, alike ascended to the high places, -and paid their worship of symbolic fires to the great fountain of life and -light, the central force of the universe? Who can wonder that all the -Aryan tribes made it, so to speak, the nucleus of their religious systems? -The Hindu peasant, centuries ago, addressed it in his heart in much the -same language which Gawain Douglas afterwards employed. As its glorious -orb rose above the gleaming horizon, he sent forth to it a message of -welcome: - - "Welcome, the lord of light and lamp of day; - Welcome, fosterer of tender herbis green; - Welcome, quickener of flourished flowers' sheen; - Welcome, support of every root and vein; - Welcome, comfort of all kind fruits and grain; - Welcome, the bird's green beild upon the brier; - Welcome, master and ruler of the year; - Welcome, welfare of husbands at the ploughs; - Welcome, repairer of woods, trees, and boughs; - Welcome, depainter of the bloomit meads; - Welcome, the life of everything that spreads." - -And because it was all this, and more, the Hindu saw in it something -greater than a mere luminary,--a planetary body; he endowed it with Divine -attributes, he made it a god, he gave it his worship, and by an elaborate -symbolism kept it ever before him. - -A necessary consequence of this deification of the sun was the -deification of the other bodies that shared with him the firmament; but as -they were inferior in splendour and utility, they naturally became -recognized as inferior gods. And when once the religious feeling of -humanity had gone thus far, its further development became only a question -of time. The homage given to the stars was soon extended to the winds and -streams and groves. A legion of gods sprang into existence, and for a -while they seemed to satisfy the needs and aspirations of humanity. But as -the thoughts of men expanded, as their intellect ripened with the ages, -and grew strong enough to doubt, and bold enough to question the -conclusions of the common faith, a revolt took place against "the -contradictions of a mythological phraseology, though it had been hallowed -by sacred customs and traditions." Men grew tired of so complex and -cumbrous a religious system, and having observed a definite fundamental -unity of nature in spite of the diversity of its operations, they came to -believe in a similar unity of the Divine Power. The idea of a supreme -authority once entertained, men soon understood that supremacy meant -oneness; that if there were a God over all, He must be one and -indivisible. One of the earliest proclamations of this sublime truth is -found in the Rig-Veda, which says:[3]-- - -"That which is one the sages speak of in many ways--they call it Agni, -Yama, Malarisvan." - -And again:[4]-- - -"In the beginning there came the Source of golden light--He was the only -true Lord of all that is--He stablished the earth and this sky:--Who is -God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? - -"He who gives life, He who gives strength; whose blessing all the bright -gods desire; whose shadow is immortality; whose shadow is death:--Who is -the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? - -"He who through His power is the only King of the breathing and awakening -world; He who governs all, man and beast:--Who is the God to whom we shall -offer our sacrifice? - -"He whose power these snowy mountains, whose power the sea proclaims, -with the distant river--He whose these regions are, as it were, His two -arms:--Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? - -"He through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm--He through whom -heaven was stablished--nay, the highest heaven--He who measured out the -light in the air:--Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? - -"He to whom heaven and earth, standing firm by His will, look up, -trembling inwardly--He over whom the rising sun shines forth:--Who is the -GOD to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? - -"Wherever the mighty water-clouds went, where they placed the reed and lit -the fire, thence even He, who is the only life of the bright gods:--Who is -the GOD to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? - -"He, who of His might looked even over the water-clouds, the clouds which -gave strength and lit the sacrifice, He _who is God above all gods_:--Who -is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? - -"May He not destroy us--He the creator of the earth; or He, the righteous, -who created Heaven; He who also created the bright and mighty waters:--Who -is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?" - - * * * * * - -The creed of a plurality of gods was one that carried in itself the seeds -of its destruction. But there was another cause of weakness in their -mortal attributes. Deriving their existence from the life of nature, they -were subject to the accidents which that life involved. Thus, the sun at -noonday might glow with splendour, but at night it was conquered by the -shadows, and in winter it seemed to yield to some stronger Power. The moon -waxed and waned, and was frequently eclipsed. As nature is subject to -change, so also must be the gods that represent its forces and aspects. -Such instability, such inherent weakness could not long satisfy the human -mind; having risen to the height of the idea of one God, it next demanded -that that God should be immutable. What rest, what contentment would it -find in the supposition of deities as changeful as the winds? Tossed about -by the currents of passion and feeling, buffeted by adverse circumstances, -the soul yearns intensely for something fixed, something absolute, -something unaffected by vicissitude, and finds it in the Divine Being, the -same to-day as yesterday, and the same to-morrow as to-day. - -These two opposite principles did not come into immediate collision; the -priests of heathendom laboured long and earnestly to avert such a -catastrophe. In Greece they succeeded by transferring the mortal or -changeable element from "the gods" to "the heroes."[5] The human details -in the characters and lives of Zeus and Apollon were transferred to the -demi-gods or heroes represented as the sons or favourites of the gods. The -two-fold character of Herakles as a god and a hero is recognized even by -Herodotus; and indeed, some of the epithets applied to him sufficiently -indicate his solar and originally divine personality. But to make some of -the solar myths of which Herakles was the centre intelligible and -conceivable, it became needful to depict Herakles as a mere human being, -and to raise him to the seat of the Immortals only after he had endured -toils and sufferings incompatible with the dignity of an Olympian -divinity. - -In Peru the same treatment was adopted, but with different results. A -thinking, or, as he was called, a free-thinking Inca, remarked that the -sun's perpetual travelling--he knew nothing, of course, of the Copernican -theory--was a sign of servitude, and he threw doubts on the divine nature -of aught so restless as the great luminary appeared to him to be. These -doubts led to a tradition, which, even if unhistorical was not wholly -untrue, that in Peru had existed an earlier worship--that of an Invisible -Deity, the Creator of the World--Pachacamac. - -"In Greece, also, there are signs of a similar craving after the 'Unknown -God.' A supreme God was wanted, and Zeus, the stripling of Creta, was -raised to that rank. He became God above all gods--[Greek: hapanton -kyrios], as Pindar calls him. Yet more was wanted than a mere Zeus; and -then a supreme Fate or Spell was imagined before which all the gods, and -even Zeus, had to bow. And even this Fate was not allowed to remain -supreme, and there was something in the destinies of man which was called -[Greek: hypermoron] or 'beyond Fate.' The most awful solution, however, -of the problem belongs to Teutonic mythology. Here, also, some heroes were -introduced; but their death was only the beginning of the final -catastrophe. 'All gods must die.' Such is the last word of that religion -which had grown up in the forests of Germany, and found a last refuge -among the glaciers and volcanoes of Iceland. The death of Sigurd, the -descendant of Odin, could not avert the death of Balder, the son of Odin, -and the death of Balder was soon to be followed by the death of Odin -himself, and of all the immortal gods." - -Such a catastrophe was inevitable, so that Prometheus, the man of -forethought, could safely predict the fall of Zeus.[6] - -A similar issue was worked out in India, but with this difference; that -the seeming triumph of reason threatened to end in the destruction of all -religious belief. At the outset no vehement contention took place. On the -basis of the old mythology arose two new formations,--the Brahmanical -philosophy and the Brahmanical ceremonial; the former opening up all -avenues of philosophical inquiry, the latter immuring religious sentiment -and sympathy within the narrowest possible barriers. Both, however, -claimed to find their origin and antiquity in the sacred book of the Veda. - -It was in the sixteenth or fifteenth century before CHRIST that the -Brahmans, a branch of the white Aryans, passed into Hindustan from the -north-west, and mixed with a more numerous race of coloured and barbarous -aborigines. Among their immigrants the sacerdotal and the royal or noble -classes already occupied an authoritative and a distinct position; and -soon after their settlement in India, the lower classes, by a natural -process, sank into the markedly inferior condition of the aborigines. Thus -was established a singularly rigorous system of caste,--the priesthood -and the aristocracy combining to oppress and keep down the two inferior -orders of the Brahmans and the aborigines. Intermarriage was strictly -forbidden, and every device adopted which could be made useful in -strengthening and perpetuating the class-distinction. - -This revolution in the social world assisted the revolution in the -religious; and the educated classes rapidly abandoned their nature worship -in favour of the idea of an infinite and everlasting Godhead, which soared -far above the feeblenesses and sins of humanity. To become one with this -Godhead by throwing off the personality linked with a mind that was mean -and miserable, thenceforth constituted the religious aspiration of the -Brahman. And in attaining this object he was instructed to seek the help -of the Brahmanical priesthood; nay, he was taught that without that help -he would never succeed, and for this purpose a complex and comprehensive -ceremonial was enjoined upon him. From his cradle to his grave it dogged -his footsteps. Put forward as a stay and support, it was really a clog, an -encumbrance. Not an event in his life could take place for which a formula -of praise or prayer was not invented. Thanksgiving and sacrifice were -alike minutely regulated. For the benefit of the inferior castes the old -Pantheon of gods and demons had been retained, and the priesthood allotted -to each his share of the worshipper's offerings and oblations. Each was -represented as insisting so strongly on certain observances, and punishing -so heavily any neglect or violation of them, that the votary feared to -approach their shrine unless under the protection and guidance of their -priests. Otherwise he might unwittingly rush into all kinds of sins. They -alone knew what food might be eaten, what dress might be worn, what god -might be addressed, what sacrifice paid. An error in pronunciation, a -mistake about clarified butter, an unauthorised arrangement of raiment or -hair, might involve the unassisted worshipper in pains and penalties of -the most awful character. Never was so complete and absolute a ceremonial -system known as that by which the Hindu priesthood obtained an entire -mastery over the Hindu people. Never was any law more minute in its -provisions, or more Draconic in the severity with which it punished their -violation. - -Yet, strange to say, this ceremonial did not interfere with liberty of -thought. Any amount of heresy was compatible with its observance. A man -might think as he liked so long as he complied with its various -conditions. In some of the Brahmanical schools of thought the names of the -devs or gods were never heard; in others their existence was ignored, was -virtually contradicted. Thus, one philosophical system maintained the -existence of a single Supreme Being, and asserted that everything else -which seemed to exist was but a dream and an illusion which might and -would be dispelled by a true knowledge of the One God. Another contended -for two principles,--first, a Mind, subjective and self-existent; second, -Matter endowed with qualities; and explained that the world with its cloud -and sunshine, its sorrows and joys, was the result of the subjective self, -reflected in the mirror of Matter, and that the freedom of the soul could -be secured only by diverting the gaze from the shows and phantasms of -Nature, and becoming absorbed in the knowledge of the true and absolute -self. A third system allowed the existence of atoms, and referred every -effect, including the elements and the mind, gods, men, and animals to -their fortuitous concourse. This was identical with the Lucretian system, -which in its turn was related to the Epicurean. Hence it has been said -that the history of the philosophy of India is an abridgment of the -history of philosophy. Each of these systems was traced back to the sacred -books of the Vedas, Brahmanas and Upanishads; and those who believed in -any one of them was considered as orthodox as the most devout worshipper -of Agni,--if the latter were saved by works and faith, the former was -saved by faith and knowledge,--a distinction not unknown in the Christian -philosophy.[7] - -Out of this condition of the Hindu mind arose Buddhism, springing from it -as naturally as the flower from the seed. - -The remarkable man[8] who founded this wide-spread religion is reputed to -have been a prince of the name of Siddhartha, son of Suddhodana, king of -Kapilavastu, a territory supposed to have been situated on the borders of -Oudh and Nipal. He is often called Sakya, after his family, and also -Gautama, from the great "Solar" race of which the family was a branch.[9] -Having at an early age exhibited an ascetic and contemplative tendency, -his father fearing he might be induced to abandon his high station as -Kshatriga, found him a wife in a princess of great personal charms, and -involved him in all the pomp and luxury of a magnificent court. But -Siddhartha drank of the cup only to taste the bitter in the draught; and -each year's experience of the world convinced him of its inability to -satisfy the aspirations of the soul; so that, like Solomon, he would -exclaim, "Vanity, vanity, all is vanity." The joys of life could not -render him forgetful of its sorrows. The thought would force itself upon -him that at any moment he might be afflicted with some loathsome or -torturing disease; that his friends might be suddenly snatched away; that -however sunny and bright the present, it could not prevent the inevitable -approach of old age, with its grey hairs, its wrinkled brow, and its -tottering limbs; and that the moral of the whole show was to be sought in -the darkness of the grave. Unable to endure any longer the mental conflict -begotten of his keen sense of the realities as compared with the illusions -of the world, he stole from the guarded palace, and at the age of 29 or -30, went forth as a beggar, or religious mendicant, to study in the -schools of the Brahman priests. He underwent their penances; he mastered -their philosophy; but dissatisfied with their cumbrous code of -superstitious ceremonial, he withdrew into the forest, and adopted a -course of religious asceticism. - -This lasted for six or seven years, but brought him no repose. Then he -resolved on returning once more to human companionship. Beset by the -Spirit of Evil he fought long and bravely against temptation, and having -triumphed, prepared to attain the secret of happiness by giving himself up -to abstruse meditation. Week after week he was absorbed in thought, -continually investigating the origin of things, and the mystery of -existence. All the evils under which he, in common with his fellow-men, -groaned, he traced back to birth. Were we not born, we could not suffer. -But whence comes birth or continued existence?... We have no room, -however, to dwell on his processes of thought; enough to say that he came -to the conclusion that the ultimate cause of existence is ignorance, and -that the removal of ignorance means, therefore, the termination of -existence, and of all the pain and sorrow which existence implies and -induces. Realising this absolute unconsciousness of the outer world in his -own self, he claimed and assumed the name of the Buddha, or "Enlightened." - -The scene of his victory over life and the world received the name of -Bodhimanda, (the seat of intelligence,) and the tree under which the -religious reformer sat in his hour of moral and intellectual triumph was -called Bodhidruma, (the tree of intelligence,) whence Bo-tree. The -Buddhists believe that it marks the centre of the earth. Hiouen-thsang, -the Chinese pilgrim, professes to have found the Bodhidruma, or some tree -that passed for it, twelve hundred years after Buddha's death, at a spot -near Gaya Proper, in Bahar, where still may be seen an old dagoba, or -temple, and some considerable ruins. - -Having at last attained to a knowledge of the causes of human suffering, -and of the method of removing and counteracting them, the Buddha felt that -the task was imposed upon him of communicating that knowledge to others. -He began "to turn the wheel of the law,"--that is to preach,--at Benares; -and among his earliest disciples was Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha. His -career as a teacher extended over forty years, during which period he -travelled over almost every part of Northern India, making a large number -of converts, and firmly establishing his religious system. He died at -Kusinagara in Oudh, in 543 B.C., at the age of eighty, and his body being -burned, the relics were distributed among numerous claimants, who raised -monumental tumuli, or topes, for their preservation. - -All the expositions and teachings of the Buddha were oral, and the task of -committing them to writing was undertaken by the chief of his disciples -shortly after his death. These canonical books are divided into three -classes, forming the "Tripitaka," or "three-fold basket." In the first -class we find the _Soutras_, or Sermons of the Buddha; in the second, the -_Vinaya_, or book of discipline; in the third, the _Abhidharma_, or -philosophy. After a period of a century or so, the Buddhist leaders met -and revised the Tripitaka, and a third revision took place in 250 or 240 -B.C., since which date the text has remained without alteration. - -The doctrine of Buddha has been defined as a development of four main -principles, (or "Sublime Verities.") 1st. That every kind of existence is -painful and transitory; 2nd. That all existence is the result of passion; -3rd. That, therefore, the extinction of passion is the one means of escape -from existence and from the misery necessarily attendant upon it; 4th. -That all obstacles to this existence must be swept away. - -But what is meant by existence? That separation from the general Being of -the world which is involved in individual life, and in the opposition of -the subject which thinks, and the object which is thought about. And what -is meant by its extinction? Not so much annihilation, as the becoming one -with nature, wherein that form of consciousness which separates subject -and object is set aside. This extinction Buddha called Nirvana, or "the -blowing out of the lamp;" it does not necessarily mean the annihilation of -consciousness altogether, but only of a finite form of it, which may be as -the light of a lamp compared with the light of day. - -Buddha's doctrine has been stigmatised as Atheism and Nihilism, and was -unquestionably liable on its metaphysical side to both charges. It was -Atheistic, not because it denied, for it simply ignored, the existence of -such gods as Indra and Brahma, but because, like the Sankhya philosophy, -it admitted but one subjective Self, and considered creation as an -illusion of that Self, imaging itself for a while in the mirror of Nature. -If there were no reality in nature, there would be no real Creator. - -Says Max Mueller,[10] stating with his usual clearness a problem which has -perplexed most students of the history of religion: "How a religion which -taught the annihilation of all existence, of all thought, of all -individuality and personality, as the highest object of all endeavours, -could have laid hold of the minds of millions of human beings, and how at -the same time, by enforcing the duties of morality, justice, kindness, and -self-sacrifice, it could have exercised a decided beneficial influence, -not only on the natives of India, but on the lowest barbarians of Central -Asia, is one of the riddles which no philosophy yet has been able to -solve. The morality which it teaches is not a morality of expediency and -rewards. Virtue is not enjoined because it necessarily leads to happiness. -No; virtue is to be practised, but happiness is to be shunned, and the -only reward for virtue is, that it subdues the passions, and thus prepares -the human mind for that knowledge which is to end in complete -annihilation." - -Probably no religious system has ever attained a wide-spread influence -over the minds of men which has held out so few of those inducements most -alluring to human nature. The idea of complete annihilation might -recommend itself to a philosopher, but would hardly have been regarded as -likely to attract the masses. We suppose the explanation is to be found in -the particularity of ritual enjoined by the Buddhist priests, this -particularity of ritual having always had a fascination for the multitude. - -"There are ten commandments which Buddha imposes on his disciples. They -are--not to kill, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, not to -get intoxicated, to abstain from unseasonable meals, to abstain from -public spectacles, to abstain from expensive dresses, not to have a large -bed, not to receive silver or gold. The duties of those who embraced a -religious life were most severe. They were not allowed to wear any dress -except rags collected in cemeteries, and these rags they had to sew -together with their own hands; a yellow cloak was to be thrown over these -rags. Their food was to be extremely simple, and they were not to possess -anything except what they could get by collecting alms from door to door -in their wooden bowl. They had but one meal in the morning, and were not -allowed to touch any food after midday. They were to live in forests, not -in cities, and their only shelter was to be the shadow of a tree. There -they were to sit, to spread their carpet, but not to lie down, even during -sleep. They were allowed to enter the nearest city or village in order to -beg, but they had to return to their forest before night, and the only -change which was allowed, or rather prescribed, was, when they had to -spend some nights in the cemeteries, there to meditate on the vanity of -all things. And what was the object of all this asceticism? Simply to -guide each individual towards that path which would finally bring him to -Nirvana, to utter extinction or annihilation. The very definition of -virtue was that it helped man to cross over to the other shore, and that -other shore was not death, but the cessation of all being. Thus charity -was considered a virtue; modesty, patience, courage, contemplation, and -science, all were virtues, but they were practised only as a means of -arriving at deliverance." - -Buddha himself was an incarnation of the virtues. His charity, for -example, was melting as day. When he saw a tigress standing, and unable to -feed her cubs, he offered up his body to be devoured by them. The Chinese -pilgrim, visiting the spot on the banks of the Indus where this miracle -was supposed to have occurred, remarks that the soil was still red with -the blood of Buddha, as were also the trees and flowers. - -Then as to his modesty, it was as supreme as that of a virgin who has -never seen men. One day Prasenagit, his royal disciple and protector, -besought him to work some miracles in order to silence his adversaries, -the Brahmans. Buddha complied, and performed the required miracles; but at -the same time he exclaimed, "Great King, I do not teach the law to my -pupils, telling them, Go, ye saints, and before the eyes of the Brahmans -and householders perform, by means of your supernatural powers, miracles -greater than any man can perform. I tell them, when I teach the law, Live, -ye saints, hiding your good works and showing your sins." And yet, all -this self-sacrificing charity, all this self-sacrificing humility by which -the life of Buddha was distinguished throughout, and which he preached to -the multitudes that came to listen to him, had but one object, and that -object was final annihilation.[11] - -Annihilation! what drearier prospect can be opened to the heart, or soul, -or mind of man? The utter cessation of that individuality of which the -meanest and wretchedest among us feels proudly conscious; of the thoughts -which animate, the desires which warm, the dreams that delight, the hopes -that stimulate, the affections that inspire! Do we indeed suffer all the -sorrows and uncertainties of life,--do we indeed strive, and endure, and -struggle,--do we, indeed, learn to labour and to wait, to bear the burden -of the day and the torture of the night, for no other purpose, with no -other prospect, than when the brief fever is over, to pass away into -nothingness? With so much difficulty can the mind reconcile itself to such -a dreary hypothesis that the creed of almost every race and people has -contemplated a future stage of existence, even when it has failed to -attain to anything like a clear and full conviction of the immortality of -the soul. The law of compensation seems to demand that a future life shall -redress the inequalities of the present. - -Yet this doctrine of Annihilation was preached by Buddha, and apparently -accepted by the millions who became his disciples. But did they really -accept it as he preached it? No; the truth is, they read into it, as it -were, their own innate, unconquerable belief in a hereafter, and converted -his Nirvana into a Paradise, which they embellished with the bright -colours of imagination. It can hardly be doubted that this was not the -meaning or intention of Buddha himself. Look, for a moment, at his "Four -Verities." The first of these, as we have already stated, asserts the -existence of pain; the second, that the cause of pain is sin; the third, -that the cessation of pain may be secured by Nirvana; the fourth, that the -way to this Nirvana consists of eight things: right faith or orthodoxy, -right judgment or logic, right language or veracity, right purpose or -honesty, right practice or religious life, right obedience or lawful life, -right memory, and right meditation. - -These precepts may be understood as the usual laws of an elevated -morality, pointing to and terminating in a state of meditation on the -highest object of thought, such as has been enjoined by several -philosophical or religious systems;--such as was revived in France and -Germany in the seventeenth century under the name of Pietism. There is -nothing in this teaching incompatible with a belief in the immortality of -the soul and the existence of a GOD. But with the Buddhist Nirvana it is -otherwise. Its motive principle, by the way, is a mean and cowardly one, -for it makes happiness depend upon the cessation of pain; represents as -the highest purpose of human effort the escape from pain. The Buddhist -insists that life is a prolonged misery; that birth is the cause of all -evil; and he adds that even death cannot deliver him from this evil, -because he believes in transmigration, or an eternal cycle of existence. -To escape from it we must free ourselves from the bondage, not of life -only, but of existence; and this must be done "by extirpating the cause of -existence." - -But what _is_ that cause? - -The Buddhist teacher, involving himself in a cloud of metaphysics, -answers, that it is attachment; an inclination towards something, having -its root in thirst or desire. "Desire presupposes perception of the object -desired; perception presupposes contact; contact, at least a sentient -contact, presupposes the senses; and as the senses can only perform what -has form and name, or what is distinct, distinction is the real cause of -all the effects which end in existence, birth, and pain. Now this -conception is itself the result of conceptions or ideas; but these ideas, -so far from being, as in Greek philosophy, the true and everlasting forms -of the Absolute, are in themselves mere illusions, the effects of -ignorance. Ignorance, therefore, is really the primary cause of all that -seems to exist. To know that ignorance, as the root of all evil, is the -same as to destroy it, and with it all effects that flowed from it." - -In Buddha's own case we may see how such teaching operated upon the -individual. - -He entered into the first stage of meditation when he became conscious of -freedom from sin, acquired a knowledge of the nature of all things, and -yearned after nothing but Nirvana. But he was still open to the sensation -of pleasure, and could employ his powers of discrimination and reasoning. - -In the second stage he ceased to use those powers, and nothing remained -but the desire of Nirvana, and the satisfaction inherent to his -intellectual perfection. - -In the third stage indifference succeeded to satisfaction; but -self-consciousness remained, and a certain amount of physical -gratification. - -These, too, faded away in the fourth stage, along with memory, and all -sense of pain; and before the neophyte opened the doors of Nirvana. - -After having gone through the four stages once, Buddha began them a second -time, but died before he attained the fourth stage. - -After passing through the four stages of meditation, every Buddhist enters -into the infinity of space; thence rises into the infinity of -intelligence; to soar, afterwards, into the region of Nothing. But even -there he finds no repose; something still remains--the idea of the Nothing -in which he rejoices. This is annihilated in the fourth and last region, -and then he enjoys absolute, perfect rest, "undisturbed by nothing, or -what is not nothing." - -Buddha taught that this Nirvana--which to most persons will seem a -metaphysical incomprehensibility--could be attained by all men. As there -is no difference between the body of a prince and the body of a beggar, so -is there none between their spirits. Every man is equally capable of -coming to a knowledge of the truth, and if he but _will_ to do so, of -working out his own emancipation. - -It is important to observe the absence of any theological element in -Buddhism. Its founder seems never to have spoken of God, and his Nirvana -is wholly different from the Brahmanic idea of absorption into the Divine -Essence. Of the gods of the people he taught that they were, like men, -subject to the law of Metempsychosis, or Transmigration, and therefore -that as they were unable to deliver, they were unworthy to be worshipped. -A recent writer thinks it would be incorrect to speak of Buddha either as -a theist or an atheist, and asserts that he simply describes a condition -of absolute rest as an escape from the popular metempsychosis, which may -be interpreted either in a theistic or an atheistic sense. But a careful -examination of his system shows, we think, that it was wholly alien to a -belief in a Supreme Spirit. - -"Buddhism," says Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, "has no God; it has not even -the confused and vague notion of a Universal Spirit, in which the human -soul, according to the orthodox doctrine of Brahmanism, and the Sankhya -philosophy, may be absorbed. Nor does it admit Nature, in the proper sense -of the word, and it ignores that profound division between spirit and -matter which forms the system and the glory of Kapila. It confounds man -with all that surrounds him, all the while preaching to him the laws of -virtue. Buddhism, therefore, cannot unite the human soul, which it does -not even mention, with a God, whom it ignores; nor with nature, which it -does not know better. Nothing remained but to annihilate the soul; and in -order to be quite sure that the soul may not re-appear under some new -guise in this world, which has been cursed as the abode of illusion and -misery, Buddhism destroys its very elements, and never wearies of glorying -in this achievement. What more is wanted? if this be not the Absolute -Nothing, what is Nirvana?" - - * * * * * - -Repellent as seems to us the central doctrine of Buddhism, it extended -rapidly. This extension was due, however, to the simplicity of the ritual -which Buddha enjoined; the pure morality which he advocated; the equality -of all men on which he insisted; and the spirit of love, tenderness, -gentleness, compassion, and toleration which he inspired. Hence it came to -pass that his disciples multiplied in the north-western territories of -Hindustan, and his creed found acceptance, at a later period, probably -about three centuries before CHRIST, all over India. In Ceylon it was -adopted at a very early period; but it was not until the second century -before CHRIST that it made its way into China and Tibet. From Ceylon it -spread into Birmah and Siam, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago, -and from China it penetrated into Japan. It is now the religion of more -than one fifth of the whole human race. - -Its influence has been very considerable, and may distinctly be traced in -some of the Gnostic teaching and in the Alexandrine or Neo-Platonic -philosophy. It modified the old Brahmanic religion, which, acting under -its impulse, threw off its human sacrifices and more barbarous rites. The -festival of Juggernaut, which for the time places in abeyance all caste -distinctions, and adopts many Buddhist symbols, shows that the Brahmans, -even when they drove it out of India, were compelled to retain some of -its relics, just as they were under the necessity of recognising Buddha as -one of the Avatars of their god Vishnu. Buddhism may be described as "the -parent of Indian architecture," which, fashioned at first on the Greek -patterns, speedily assumed a character of its own, as may be seen in its -colossal temples. - -But, as is the case with all religious systems of purely human origin, -Buddhism gradually fell away from the standard of its founder. The heart -craves an object of worship, a something or some one on which or on whom -to rest its hopes and fears, and the Buddhists, untaught to reverence a -Supreme Being, transferred their adoration to Buddha himself, whose life -and work they involved in a cloud of myth and legend. His relics came to -be worshipped, and reliquary towers for their preservation were everywhere -erected. - -The enthusiasm which fired the Buddhists, and largely contributed to the -rapid extension of their creed, for Buddhism, unlike Brahmanism, is a -proselytising religion, finds a striking illustration in the career of -Hiouen-thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, who, in the middle of the seventh -century, crossed the deserts and mountains which separate China from -India, and visited the principal cities of the Indian Peninsula. - - -HIOUEN-THSANG, A BUDDHIST PILGRIM.[12] - -Hiouen-thsang was born in a provincial town of China, in one of the -revolutionary and anarchical periods of the Chinese Empire. His father, -having quitted the public service, was able to devote his leisure to the -education of his four children, one of whom, Hiouen-thsang, was -distinguished at an early age by his genius and his thirst for knowledge. -After receiving instruction at a Buddhist monastery, he was admitted as a -monk, when only thirteen years old. During the next seven years, he -travelled about with his brethren from place to place, in order to profit -by the lectures of the most eminent professors; but his peaceful studies -were frequently interrupted by the horrors of war, and he was forced to -seek refuge in the more remote provinces of the empire. - -At the age of twenty he took priest's orders, having already become famous -for his multifarious learning. He had studied the chief canonical book of -the Buddhist faith, the records of Buddha's life and teaching, the system -of ethics and metaphysics, and had completely mastered the works of -K'ung-fu-tze and Lao-tse. But, like many inquiring minds, he was tortured -by doubt. For six years more he prosecuted his studies in the principal -places of learning in China, and was frequently solicited to teach when he -had come to learn. Baffled in all his efforts to satisfy his anxious and -restless intellect, he resolved at last on paying a visit to India, the -parent-land of Buddhism, where he knew he should find the original of the -works, which, in their Chinese translation, had proved so dubious and -excited so much mistrust. From the records of his pilgrim predecessors he -was aware of the dangers of his journey; yet the glory, as he says, of -recovering the Law, which was to be a guide to all men, and the means of -their salvation, seemed to him worthy of attainment. In common with -several other priests, he applied for the Imperial permission to travel -out of China. It was refused, and his companions lost heart. But -Hiouen-thsang was made of sterner stuff. His mother had often told him -how, before his birth, she had had visions of her future offspring -travelling to the Far West in search of the law; and he himself had been -similarly encouraged. - -Having no worldly pleasures to enfeeble him, and believing only in one -object as worth living for, he resolved to face danger and difficulty; -made his way to the Hoang-Ho, and the place of departure of the caravans -for the West, and, eluding the vigilance of the Governor, succeeded in -crossing the frontier. He was without friends or helpers; but after -spending the night in fervent prayer, found a guide in a person who, next -morning, unexpectedly presented himself. For some distance this guide -conducted him faithfully, but abandoned him when they reached the Desert. -There were still five watch-towers to be passed, and the uncertain track -through the Desert was indicated only by skeletons and the hoof-marks of -horses. Bravely went the pilgrim on his way, and though misled by the -"mirage" of the Desert, he safely reached the first tower. There he -narrowly escaped death from the arrows of the watchman, but the officer in -command was himself a devout Buddhist, and he not only allowed -Hiouen-thsang to proceed, but gave him letters of recommendation to the -governors of the other towers. At the last tower, however, he was refused -leave to pass, and neither bribes nor entreaties proved of any avail. He -was compelled to retrace his steps, and make a long detour, in the course -of which he lost his way. His water-bag burst, and for the first time his -courage wavered. Should he not return? But no; he had taken an oath never -to make a step backward until he had reached India. It were better to die -with his face to the West, than return to the East and live. - -For four nights and five days he traversed the Desert, without a drop of -water to quench his thirst, with no other refreshment than that which he -derived from his prayers; and that these should afford any hope or -consolation seems strange enough, when we remember that Buddhism held out -to him no hope of a God or a Saviour. "It is incredible in how exhausted -an atmosphere the Divine spark within us will glimmer on, and even warm -the dark chambers of the human heart." Comforted by his prayers, he -resumed his onward march, and in due time arrived at a large lake in the -country of the Oigom Tatars, by whom he was received with an abundant -hospitality. One of the Tatar Khans insisted that he should reside with -him and teach his people; and as he would listen to no remonstrances or -explanations, Hiouen-thsang was driven to a desperate expedient. The king, -he said, might fetter his body, but had no power over his mind and will; -and he refused all food, with a view to put an end to a life which he no -longer regarded as of value. In this resolution he persisted for three -days, and the Khan, afraid that he would perish, was compelled at last to -yield. But he extracted from him a promise that on his return to China he -would visit him, and abide with him for three years. At last, after a -month's detention, during which the Khan and his court daily attended the -lectures of the pious monk, he resumed his journey, attended by a strong -escort, and furnished with letters of introduction to the twenty-four -princes whose dominions he must cross. - -His route lay through what is now called Dsungary, across the -Musur-dabaghan mountains, the northern chain of the Belur-tag, the valley -of the Yaxartes, Bactria, and Kabulistan. The pilgrim's description of the -scenes through which he passed is interesting and vivid; he was a keen -observer, and gifted with considerable powers of expression. - -Of the Musur-dabaghan mountains he says:-- - -"The crest of these heights rises to the sky. Since the beginning of the -world the snow has been accumulating, and it is now transformed into -masses of ice, which never melt, either in spring or summer. Hard shining -sheets of snow are spread out until they vanish into the infinite, and -mingle with the clouds. If one looks at them, one's eyes are dazzled by -the splendour. Frozen peaks impend over both sides of the wood, some -hundred feet in height, and some twenty or thirty feet in thickness. It is -not without difficulty and danger that the traveller can clear them or -climb over them. Sudden gusts of hurricane and tornadoes of snow attack -the pilgrims. Even with double shoes, and in thick furs, one cannot help -trembling and shivering." - -But as Max Mueller justly observes, what is more important in the early -portion of our traveller's narrative than any descriptions of scenery, is -his account of the high degree of civilisation that then obtained among -the tribes of Central Asia. Historians have learned to believe in the -early civilisation of Egypt, Babylon, China, India; but they will have to -abandon all their old ideas of barbarism and barbarians now that they find -the Tatar hordes possessing, in the seventh century, "the chief arts and -institutions of an advanced society." The theory of M. Oppert, who gives -to a Turanian or Scythian race the original invention of the cuneiform -letters and a civilisation anterior to that of Babylon and Nineveh, ceases -to be improbable; since no new wave of civilisation could have touched -these countries between the cuneiform period of their literature and -history and the epoch of Hiouen-thsang's visit.[13] - -"In the kingdom of Okini, on the western portion of China, Hiouen-thsang -found an active commerce, gold, silver, and copper coinage; monasteries, -where the chief works of Buddhism were studied, and an alphabet derived -from Sanskrit. As he travelled on he met with mines, with agriculture, -including pears, plums, peaches, almonds, grapes, pomegranates, rice, and -wheat. The inhabitants were dressed in silk and woollen materials. There -were musicians in the chief cities who played on the flute and the guitar. -Buddhism was the prevailing religion, but there were traces of an earlier -worship, the Bactrian fire-worship. The country was everywhere studded -with halls, monasteries, monuments and statues. Samarkand formed at that -early time a kind of Athens, and its manners were copied by all the tribes -in the neighbourhood. Balkh, the old capital of Bactria, was still an -important place on the Oxus, well-fortified, and full of sacred buildings. -And the details which our traveller gives of the exact circumference of -the cities, the number of their inhabitants, the products of the soil, the -articles of trade, can leave no doubt in our minds that he relates what he -had seen and heard himself. A new page in the history of the world is here -opened, and new ruins pointed out, which would reward the pickaxe of a -Layard." - -Hiouen-thsang passed into India by way of Kabul. Shortly before he reached -Pou-lou-cha-pou-lo, the Sanskrit Purushapura, the modern Peshawer, he was -informed of a remarkable cave, where Buddha had converted a dragon, and -had promised to leave it his shadow, in order that, whenever the fierce -passions of its dragon-nature should awake, it might be reminded of its -vows by the presence of its master's shadowy features. The promise was -fulfilled, and the dragon-cave became a favourite resort for pilgrims. Our -traveller was warned that the roads to the cave were haunted by robbers, -so that for three years no pilgrim had been known to return from it. But -he replied that it would be difficult during a hundred thousand Kalpas to -meet once with the true shadow of Buddha, and that having come so near it -in his pilgrimage, he could not pass on without paying the tribute of his -adoration. - -He left his companions in their security, and having, with some -difficulty, obtained a guide, proceeded on his way. They had accomplished -but a few miles when they were attacked by five robbers. Hiouen-thsang -showed them his shaven head and priestly robes. "Master," said one of the -fraternity, "where are you going?" "I desire," replied Hiouen-thsang, "to -adore the shadow of Buddha." "Master," said the robber, "do you not know -that these roads are full of bandits?" "Robbers are men," was the answer, -"and as for me, when I am going to adore the shadow of Buddha, though the -roads might be full of wild beasts, I shall walk on fearless. And inasmuch -as I will not fear you, because you are men, you will not be insensible to -pity." These words, in their simple faith, produced a strange effect upon -the robbers, who opened their minds to the enlightenment of the wise man's -teaching. - -Hiouen-thsang resumed his journey, with his guide, and passed a stream -which rushed tumultuously between the walls of a precipitous ravine. In -the rock was a door opening into a depth of darkness. With a fervent -prayer the pilgrim entered boldly, advanced towards the east, then moved -fifty steps backwards, and began his devotions. He made one hundred -salutations, but saw nothing. This he conceived to be a punishment for his -sins; he reproached himself despairingly and wept bitter tears, because he -was denied the happiness of seeing Buddha's shadow. At last, after many -prayers and invocations, he saw on the eastern wall a dim patch of light. -But it passed away. With mingled joy and pain he continued to pray, and -again he saw a light, and again it vanished swiftly. Then, in his ecstasy -of loving devotion, he vowed that he would never leave the place until he -had seen the "Venerable of the age." After two hundred prayers, he saw the -cave suddenly fill with radiance, and the shadow of Buddha, of a brilliant -white colour, rose majestically on the wall, as when the clouds are riven, -and all at once flashes on the wondering eye the marvellous image of the -"Mountain of Light." The features of the divine countenance were -illuminated with a dazzling glow. Hiouen-thsang was absorbed in wondering -contemplation, and from an object so sublime and incomparable he could not -turn his eyes away. - -After he awoke from his trance, he called in six men, and bade them kindle -a fire in the cave, that he might burn incense; but as the glitter of the -flame made the shadow of Buddha disappear, he ordered it to be -extinguished. Five of the attendants saw the shadow, but the sixth saw -nothing; and the guide, when Hiouen-thsang told him of the vision, could -only express his astonishment. "Master," he said, "without the sincerity -of your faith and the energy of your vows, you could not have seen such a -miracle." - -Such is the account which Hiouen-thsang's biographers give of his visit to -Buddha's cave; but Max Mueller remarks, to the credit of Hiouen-thsang -himself, that in the _Si-yu-hi_, which contains his own diary, the story -is told much more simply. After describing the cave, he merely -adds:--"Formerly, the shadow of Buddha was seen in the cave, bright, like -his natural appearance, and with all the marks of his divine beauty. One -might have said, it was Buddha himself. For some centuries, however, it -has not been possible to see it completely. Though one does perceive -something, it is only a feeble and doubtful resemblance. If a man prays -with sincere faith, and if he have received from above a secret -impression, he sees the shadow clearly, but cannot enjoy the sight for any -length of time." - - * * * * * - -From Peshawer the undaunted pilgrim proceeded to Kashmir, visited the -principal towns of Central India, and arrived at last in Magadha, the Holy -land of the Buddhists. There, for a space of five years, he devoted -himself to the study of Sanskrit and Buddhist literature; he explored -every place which was consecrated by memories of the past. Passing through -Bengal, he travelled southward, with the view of visiting Ceylon, the -chief seat of Buddhism. But, unable to carry out his design, he crossed -the peninsula from east to west, ascended the Malabar coast, reached the -Indus, and after numerous excursions to scenes of interest in -North-Western India, returned to Magadha to enjoy, with his old friends, -the delights of learned leisure and intellectual companionship. - -Eventually, his return to China became necessary, and traversing the -Punjab, Kabulistan, and Bactria, he struck the river Oxus, following its -course nearly up to its springhead on the remote Pamir tableland; and -after a residence of some duration in the three chief towns of Turkistan, -Khasgar, Yarkand, and Khoten, he found himself again, after sixteen years -of varied experience, in his native land. By this time he had attained a -world-wide reputation, and he was received by the Emperor with the honours -usually accorded to a military hero. His entry into the capital was marked -by public rejoicings; the streets were decked with gay carpets, festoons -of flowers, and waving banners. The splendour of martial pomp was not -wanting; the civic magistrates lent the dignity of their presence to the -scene; and all the monks of the district issued forth in solemn -procession. - -If this were a triumph of unusual character, not less unaccustomed were -the trophies which figured in it. - -First, 150 grains of Buddha's dust; - -Second, a golden statue of Buddha; - -Third, another statue of sandal-wood; - -Fourth, a statue of sandal-wood, representing Buddha as descending from -heaven; - -Fifth, a statue of silver; - -Sixth, a golden statue, representing Buddha victorious over the dragon; - -Seventh, a statue of sandal-wood, representing Buddha as a preacher; and - -Eighth, a collection of 657 Buddhist works in 520 volumes. - - * * * * * - -Admitted to an audience of the Emperor in the Phoenix Palace, he was -offered, but declined, a high position in the Government. "The doctrine of -Confucius," he said, "is still the soul of the administration;" and he -preferred to devote his remaining years to the study of the Law of Buddha. -The Emperor invited him to write a narrative of his travels, and placed at -his disposal a monastery where he might employ himself in peaceful and -happy seclusion in translating the works he had brought back from India. -He quickly wrote and published his travels, but the translation of the -Sanskrit MSS. occupied the rest of his life. It is said that the number of -the works he translated, with the assistance of a large staff of monks, -amounted to 740, in 1335 volumes. Often he might be seen pondering a -passage of difficulty, when suddenly a flash of inspiration would seem to -enlighten his mind. His soul was cheered, as when a man walking in -darkness sees all at once the sun piercing the clouds and shining in its -full brightness; and, unwilling to trust to his own understanding, he used -to attribute his knowledge to a secret inspiration of Buddha and the -Bodhisattvas. - -When his last hour approached, he divided all his property among the poor, -invited his friends to come and see him, and take a cheerful farewell of -the impure body of Hiouen-thsang. "I desire," he said, "that whatever -merits I may have gained by good works may fall upon other people. May I -be born again with them in the heaven of the blessed, be admitted to the -family of Mi-le, and serve the Buddha of the future, who is full of -kindness and affection. When I descend again upon earth to pass through -other forms of existence, I desire at every new birth to fulfil my duties -towards Buddha, and arrive at the last at the highest and most perfect -intelligence." He died in the year 664. - -The life of Hiouen-thsang, and his narrative of travel, have been -translated into French by M. Stanislas Julien.[14] The foregoing -particulars have been borrowed from a review of M. Julien's work, by Max -Mueller, which originally appeared in the "Times" of April 17 and 20, 1857. - -We translate from Stanislas Julien's "Vie et Voyages de Hiouen-thsang" the -Chinese narrative of the pilgrim's last days:-- - -"After completing his translation of the Pradjna, the Master of the Law -became conscious that his strength was failing, and that his end was near -at hand. Accordingly he spoke to his disciples: 'If I came into the palace -of Yu-hoa-kong, it was, as you know, on account of the sacred book of the -Pradjna. Now that the work is finished, I feel that my thread of life is -run out. When after death you remove me to my last resting-place, see that -everything be done in a modest and simple manner. You will wrap my body -in a mat, and deposit it in some calm and solitary spot in the bosom of a -valley. Carefully avoid the neighbourhood of palace or convent; a body so -impure as mine should be separated from it by a great distance.' - -"On hearing these words, his disciples broke out into sobs and cries. -Drying their tears, they said to him: 'Master, you have still a reserve of -strength and vigour; your countenance is in no wise altered; why do you -give sudden utterance to such miserable words?' - -"'I know it through and in myself,' replied the Master of the Law; 'how -would it be possible for you to understand my presentiments?' - -"On the first day of the first moon in the spring of the first year -_Lin-te_ (664), the neighbouring interpreters and all the religious of the -convent, came to solicit him, with the most pressing earnestness, to -translate the collection of the _Ratnakouta soutra_. - -"The Master of the Law, yielding to their fervid persistency, made an -effort to overcome his weakness, and translated a few lines. Then, closing -the Hindu text, he said: 'This collection is as great as that of the -_Pradjna_, but I feel I have not sufficient strength to complete such an -enterprise. My last moments have arrived, and my life can be only of short -duration. To-day I would fain visit the valley of Lantchi, to offer my -last homages to the statues of the innumerable Buddhas.' - -"Accordingly, he set forth with his disciples. The monks, at his -departure, did not cease to shed tears. - -"After this pious excursion he returned to the convent. Thenceforward he -ceased to translate, and occupied himself solely in his religious duties. - -"On the eighth day, one of his disciples, the monk Hiouen-Khio, originally -of Kao-tch'ang, related to the Master of the Law a dream which he had had. -He had seen a _Fesu-thou_ (or _Stoupa_,) of imposing aspect and prodigious -height, crumble suddenly to the ground. Awakened by the fall, he ran to -inform the Master of the Law. 'The event does not concern you,' said -Hiouen-thsang; 'it is the presage of my approaching end.' - -"On the evening of the ninth day, as he crossed the bridge of a canal in -the rear of his residence, he fell, and injured his leg. From that moment -his strength declined perceptibly. - -"On the sixteenth day he cried out, as if awaking from a dream: 'Before my -eyes I see an immense lotus-flower, charming in its freshness and purity.' - -"He had another dream on the seventeenth day, in which he saw hundreds and -thousands of men of tall stature, who, decorated with garments of -embroidered silk, with flowers of marvellous beauty, and jewels of great -price, issued from the sleeping-chamber of the Master of the Law, and -proceeded to set out, both internally and externally, the hall consecrated -to the translation of the holy books. Afterwards, in the rear of that -hall, on a wooded mountain, they everywhere planted rich banners of the -most vivid colours, and created an harmonious music. He saw moreover, -without the gate, an innumerable multitude of splendid chariots loaded -with perfumed viands and fruits of more than a thousand kinds, as -beautiful in form as in colour; no fruits were there of terrestrial -growth! The people brought them to him, one after the other, and offered -him a profusion; but he refused them, saying: 'Such viands as these belong -only to those who have obtained the superior intelligence. Hiouen-thsang -has not yet arrived at that sublime rank: how could he dare to receive -them?' In spite of his energetic refusal they continued to serve him -without intermission. - -"The disciples who watched by him happening to make some slight sound, he -opened his eyes suddenly, and related his dream to the sub-director -(_Karmmadana_), a certain Hoei-te." - -"'And from these omens,' added the Master, 'it seems to me that such -merits as I have been able to acquire during my life have not fallen into -oblivion, and I believe, with an entire faith, that it is not in vain one -practises the doctrine of the Buddha.' - -"Immediately, he ordered the master Kia-chang to make a written list of -the titles of the sacred books and the treatises which he had translated, -forming altogether seven hundred and forty works and thirteen hundred and -thirty-five volumes (_livres_). He wrote down also the _Koti_ (ten -millions) of paintings of the Buddha, as well as the thousand images of -_Mi-le_ (_Maitreya bodhisattva_), painted on silk, which he had caused to -be executed. There were, moreover, the _Kotis_ (one hundred millions) of -statuettes of uniform colour. He had also caused to be written a thousand -copies of the following sacred books: - - _Nong-touan-pan-jo-king (Vadjra tchhedika pradjna paramita soutra)._ - - _Yo-sse-jou-lai-pou-youen-kong-te-king (Arya bhagavati bhaichadja - gourou pourwa pranidhana nama maha yana soutra)._ - - _Lou-men-t'o-lo-ni-king (Chat moukhi dharani)._" - -He had ministered to the wants of upwards of twenty thousand persons among -the faithful and heretical; he had kindled a hundred thousand lamps, and -purchased thousands upon thousands (_ocean_) of creatures. - -When Kia-chang had finished this long catalogue of good works, he was -ordered to read it aloud. After hearing it, the religious crossed their -hands and loaded the Master with congratulations. Then he said to -them:--"The moment of my death approaches; already my mind grows feeble -and seems to be on the point of quitting me. Distribute at once in alms my -clothes and goods; let statues be fabricated; and order the religious to -recite some prayers." - -On the twenty-third day, a meal was given to the poor, at which alms were -distributed. On the same day, he ordered a moulder named Song-kia-tchi, to -raise, in the Kia-cheou-tien palace, a statue of the Intelligence -(Buddha); after which he invited the population of the convent, the -translators, and his disciples, to bid "a joyous farewell to that impure -and contemptible body of Hiouen-thsang, who, having finished his work, -merited no longer existence. I desire," he added, "to see poured back upon -other men the merits which I have acquired by any good works; to be born -with them in the heaven of the Touchitas; to be admitted into the family -of _Mi-le_ (_Maitreya_); and to serve the Buddha, full of tenderness and -affection. When I shall return to earth to pass through other existences, -I desire, at each new birth, to discharge with boundless zeal my duties -towards the Buddha, and finally to arrive at the Transcendent Intelligence -(_Anouttara samyak sambodhi_)." - -After having made these adieux, he was silent, and engaged in meditation; -then with his dying tongue he faltered forth his bitter regret that he did -not enjoy more of the "world of the eyes" (the faculty of seeing), of the -"world of the thought" (the faculty of thinking), of "the world of the -knowledge which springs from observation" (the knowledge of sensible -objects); of the "world of the knowledge which springs from the -mind"--_l'esprit_ (the perception of spiritual things); and that he did -not possess the fulness of the Intelligence. Finally, he pronounced two -_gubhas_, which he caused to be repeated to the persons near him:-- - -"Adoration to _Maitreya Tathagata_, gifted with a sublime intelligence! I -desire, with all men, to see your affectionate visage. - -"Adoration to _Maitreya Tathagata_! I desire, when I quit this life, to be -born again in the midst of the multitude who surround you." - -The Master of the Law, after having long fixed his gaze upon Te-hoei, the -sub-director of the convent (_Karmmadana_), raised his right hand to his -chin and his left upon his breast; then he stretched out his legs, crossed -them, and lay down on the right side. - -He remained thus, immovable, without taking anything, until the fifth day -of the second moon. In the middle of the night his disciples asked him: - -"Master, have you at length obtained to be born in the midst of the -assembly of _Maitreya_?" - -"Yes," he replied, with a failing voice. And having spoken, his breathing -grew rapidly weaker, and in a few moments, his soul passed away. - -His servants, feeling quietly, found that his feet were already cold, but -that the back part of the head retained its warmth. - -On the seventh day (of the second moon) his countenance had not undergone -any alteration, and his body exhaled no odour. - -The religious of the convent having passed several days in prayers, it was -not until the morning of the ninth day that the sad news reached the -capital. - - * * * * * - -The Master of the Law was seven _tchi_ high; his face was of a fresh -complexion. His eyebrows were wide apart, his eyes brilliant. His air was -grave and majestic, and his features were full of grace and vivacity. The -quality or tone (_timbre_) of his voice was pure and penetrating, and his -language at times soared to a lofty eloquence, so noble and so harmonious -that one could not refuse to listen. When he was surrounded by his -disciples, or animated by the presence of an illustrious guest, he would -often speak for half-a-day, while his hearers sat riveted in an immovable -attitude. His favourite attire was a robe of fine cotton stuff, -proportioned to his height and figure; his gait was light and easy; he -looked straight before him, throwing his glances neither to the right nor -to the left. He was majestic as those great rivers which embrace the -earth; calm and shining as the lotus which springs in the midst of the -waters. A severe observer of discipline, he was unchanged and -unchangeable. Nothing could equal his affectionate benevolence and tender -pity, the fervour of his zeal or his inviolable attachment to the -practices of the Law. He was reserved in his friendship, made no hasty -bonds, and when once he had entered his convent, nothing but an imperial -decree could have drawn him from his pious retreat. - -On the third day of the second moon (of the period _Lin-te_,--664), the -Master of the Law had sent Hiu-hiouen-pi to inform the Emperor of the -wound he had received, and of the malady it had induced. - -On the seventh day of the same month the Emperor, by a decree, ordered one -of the imperial physicians to take with him medicaments and attend upon -the Master of the Law, but by the time he arrived, the Master was already -dead. Teou-sse-lun, governor of Fang-tcheou, announced by a report this -melancholy event. - -At the news, the Emperor shed tears copiously, and cried aloud in his -sorrow, declaring that he had just lost the treasure of the empire. For -several days he suspended the usual audiences. - -All the civil and military functionaries abandoned themselves to groans -and tears: the Emperor himself was unable to repress his sobs or moderate -his grief. On the next day but one, he spoke to his great officers as -follows: - -"What a misfortune for my empire is the loss of Thsang, the Master of the -Law! It may well be said that the great family of Cakya has seen its sole -support shattered beneath it, and that all men remain without master and -without guide. Do they not resemble the mariner who sees himself sinking -into the abyss, when the storm has destroyed his oars and his shallop? the -traveller astray in the midst of the darkness, whose lamp dies out at the -entrance to a bottomless gulf?" - -When he had uttered these words, the Emperor groaned again, and sighed -many times. - -On the twenty-sixth day of the same month, the Emperor issued the -following decree: - -"In accordance with a report addressed to me by Teou-sse-lun on the death -of the Master of the Law, Hiouen-thsang, of the convent _Yu-hoa-sse_, I -order that his funeral take place at the expense of the State." - -On the sixth day of the third moon, he issued a new decree as follows: - -"By the death of Thsang, the Master of the Law, the translation of the -sacred books is stopped. In conformity to the ancient ordinances, the -magistrates will cause the translations already completed to be copied -carefully: as for the (Indian) manuscripts which have not yet been -translated, they will be handed over in their entirety to the director of -the convent _Ts'e'-en-sse_ (of the Great Beneficence,) who will watch over -their safety. The disciples of Hiouen-thsang and the translators' company, -who previously did not belong to the convent _Yu-hoa-sse_, will all return -to their respective convents." - -On the fifth day of the third moon appeared the following decree: - -"On the day of the funeral of the Master of the Law, Hiouen-thsang, I -permit the male and female religious of the capital to accompany him _with -banners and parasols_ to his last resting-place. The Master of the Law -shone by his noble conduct and his eminent virtues, and was the idol of -his age. Wherefore, now he is no more, it is just that I should diffuse -again abundant benefits to honour the memory of a man who has had no equal -in past times." - -His disciples, faithful to his last wishes, formed a litter of coarse -mats, removed his body to the capital, and deposited it in the convent of -the Great Beneficence, in the middle of the hall devoted to the labours -of translation. United by the sentiment of a common sorrow, they uttered -such cries as might have shaken the earth. The religious and the laics of -the capital hastened to the spot, and poured out tears mingled with sobs -and cries. Every day the crowd was swollen by fresh arrivals. - -On the fourteenth day of the fourth month, preparations were made for his -interment in the capital of the West. The male and female religious, and a -multitude of the men of the people, prepared upwards of five hundred -objects necessary for the celebration of his obsequies; parasols of smooth -(_unia_) silk, banners and standards, the tent and the litter of the -_Ni-ouan_ (Nirvana;) the inner coffin of gold, the outer one of silver, -the _so-lo_ trees (_salas_,) and disposed them in the middle of the -streets to be traversed by the procession. The plaintive cadences of the -funereal music, and the mournful dirges of the bearers resounded even to -Heaven. The inhabitants of the capital and of the districts situated -within a radius of five hundred _li_ (fifty leagues,) who formed the -procession, exceeded one million in number. Though the obsequies were -celebrated with pomp, the coffin of the Master nevertheless was borne upon -a litter composed of rude coarse mats. The silk manufacturers of the East -had employed three thousand pieces of different colours in making the -chariot of the Nirvana, which they had ornamented with flowers and -garlands, loaded with precious stones. They had asked permission to place -the body of the Master of the Law upon this resplendent catafalque; but -afraid of infringing his dying command, his disciples had refused. So it -went first, bearing the Master's three robes and his religious mantle, of -the value of one hundred ounces of silver; next came the litter -constructed of coarse mats. Not one of the assistants but shed copious -tears or was almost choked with grief! - -Upwards of thirty thousand religious and laics spent the night near his -tomb. - -On the morning of the fifteenth day the grave was closed; then, at the -place of sepulture, an immense distribution of alms was made, and the -crowd afterwards dispersed in silence. - -On the eighth day of the fourth moon of the second year of the -Tsong-tchang period (669,) the Emperor decreed that the tomb of the Master -of the Law should be transported into a plain, situated to the west of the -_Fan-tch'ouen_ valley, and that a tower should be erected in his -honour.[15] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -_MAGIANISM: THE PARSEES._ - - -THE ZENDAVESTA.[16] - -When the pure morality of Christianity is adduced as a proof of its high -origin, one of the favourite devices of Modern Unbelief is to claim an -equally high standard for the morality inculcated by the primitive creeds, -and to rain praises upon the ethical systems embodied in the Soutras of -the Buddhists, the Rig-Veda of the Brahmans, or the Zendavesta of the -Parsees. In making this claim our philosophers probably calculate on the -little knowledge which the multitude possess of any creeds but their own. -They are well aware that, to the popular mind, the teaching of Buddha or -Zoroaster is necessarily a sealed book, and that the whole extent of its -purport is known only to a few scholars. Hence, when they come to support -their thesis by quotations, they are able to select those isolated -passages which shine with the lustre of genuine diamonds, and produce an -absolutely false impression of the general character of the writings in -which they occur; thin veins of precious metal shining here and there -through masses of worthless ore. No doubt the Veda contains numerous -utterances of the highest beauty, in which the soul's devotion to a -Supreme Power is expressed with a lyrical fervour inferior only to that of -the Sweet Singer of Israel. No doubt the Zendavesta, or the books of -K'ung-fu-tze, like the works of later and maturer intellects--a Xenophon -and a Plato, a Seneca and a Marcus Aurelius--are enriched with thoughts of -the loftiest description, and frequently breathe the most exalted -aspirations. But what we have to remember is, that these are wholly -exceptional; that they are the most arduous efforts of each self-absorbed -thinker, and the indications of his boldest flights. At other times the -wing grows feeble; at other times the music is faint and even discordant; -the bird can do no more than creep along the ground. In the sayings of our -Lord, however, or in the writings of His Apostles, the tone is always -sustained, clear, definite. There is no uncertainty or hesitation. Nothing -mean or unworthy is woven in their texture. No concessions are made to -man's coarser desires or grosser passions. The system set before us is -rounded in perfection, and shows not a flaw from beginning to end. We feel -that He who speaks, whether in His own Person or through His disciples, -speaks as never man spoke before; and that the Voice which fills our ears -and stirs our hearts is, in deed and in truth, a Voice from Heaven. - -We propose to furnish in this chapter a general view of the construction -and teaching of the Parsee Scriptures, with the view of showing the signal -inferiority of the creed it embodies to Christianity in all that can -elevate the mind and satisfy the soul. At the same time we admit that the -Parsee creed, and all similar creeds, possess an intrinsic value, apart -from their ethical deficiencies, as illustrating the recognition of an -Almighty Will, an Eternal and Supreme Force, by all the higher races of -mankind. They show us the hopes, fears, and desires of great tribes and -peoples which existed in the days before men wrote history; and they show -us how their wisest teachers groped in the dark, and stumbled in the -thorny path,--favoured occasionally, it is true, with a wonderful glimpse -of light, and striking now and again into the pleasant places, but never -rejoicing in the glory which rose upon earth with the Sun of -Righteousness, never treading in that narrow but secure way which leads to -Eternal Life. We see in them the great minds of the early world, like -children on the seashore, perplexed by a music which they could not -comprehend, and astonished by a power which they were unable to define. -Yet happier and wiser they than the cold materialist of a later age, who -resolves all mysteries, all phenomena, into the working of a blind -inflexible Law, and takes out of creation its light, beauty, and joy by -denying the existence of an all-powerful and all-loving Creator. - -The religion professed by the ancient Persians, and still accepted by the -Parsees of Western India, and by a scattered population in Yezd and -Kerman, is taught in the books known as the Zend-Avesta. This title comes -from the Sassanian term _Avesta_ or _Apusta_, that is, the text;[17] and -_Zend_, or _Zand_, that is, the commentary upon it. The meaning of the -latter word, however, seems to have varied at different periods. -Originally it signified the interpretation of the sacred texts handed down -from Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) and his disciples. In course of time the -interpretation came to be esteemed not less authoritative and sacred than -the original text, and both were called _Avesta_. But the language in -which they were written having died out, they became unintelligible to the -majority of the people, and a new _Zend_ or commentary was required before -they could be understood. The new "Zend" was the work of the most learned -priests of the Sassanian period, and consisted of a translation of the -double "Avesta" into the vernacular language then in vogue.[18] And as -this translation is the only key which the priests of modern Persia -possess to the old creed as taught by Zarathustra, it has usurped the -place of the original Zend, and is now the recognised official commentary. - -But, anciently, the word "Zend" implied something more than a simple -interpretation of the "Avesta," or sacred texts. That interpretation was -the source of certain new doctrines, the whole of which were considered -orthodox, and designated _Zandi-agahi_, or Zend doctrines; doctrines -which, it can hardly be doubted, supplied Plutarch and some other of the -Greeks with ethical suggestions. The name _Pazend_, which frequently -occurs in connection with _Avesta_ and _Zend_, denotes a further -exposition of Zarathustrian teaching, as contained in the Vendidad, to -which we shall shortly refer. - -Thus far we have been indebted to Dr. Haug's account of the origin of the -Zendavesta. His views are confirmed by Westergaard, who asserts that the -sacred books belong to two epochs; that is, that they are written in one -age, and collected and systematised in another, in much the same way as, -according to Wolf, the Homeric poems were produced and assumed their -present form. All the earlier traditions ascribe their origin to -Zarathustra; but modern philologists affirm that they could not have -sprung from any single mind, because they present no defined or -self-consistent system of religious belief or moral economy. Like the -hymns of the Vedas, and the strains of the Norse Edda, the several -portions of the Zendavesta, so they say, must have been composed by -different bards, each of whom coloured his particular theme according to -the hues of his lively imagination. This theory, however, though it may -have an element of truth in it, is hardly the whole truth. The Zendavesta -is unquestionably wanting in unity and completeness. But it seems to us -that traces of a dominant mind are everywhere visible; that the various -parts are held together as on a thread by the teaching of Zarathustra -himself; and that the additions made by later and inferior writers are not -such as wholly to obscure the original work. - -It is to the celebrated Frenchman, Anquetil Duperron, that the scholars of -the West owe their knowledge of these remarkable books. Happening to see a -facsimile of a few pages written in Zend characters, he resolved on -setting out for India in order to purchase manuscripts of all the sacred -books of the Zarathustrian religion, to acquire a thorough insight into -their signification, and to obtain a knowledge of the rites and religious -observances of the Parsees. His means being limited, he entered himself as -a sailor on board a ship of the Dutch Indian Company, and worked his way -out to Bombay in 1754. With money supplied by the French Government to -assist him in his ingenious researches, he bribed one of the most learned -_dustoors_ or priests, Dustoor Darat, or Surat, to procure the treasures -he desired, and to instruct him in the Zend and Pehlvi languages. As soon -as he had acquired the requisite proficiency, he addressed himself to the -task of translating the whole of the Zendavesta into French. This was in -1759. Returning to Europe, he convinced himself of the genuineness of his -purchases by comparing them with MSS. in the Bodleian Library; and, after -several years of arduous labour, produced the first European version in -1771. At the outset, the authenticity of his work was challenged both in -England and Germany; but all doubts have been set at rest by the inquiries -of Rask and others; and thus, through the fanciful enterprise of a young -Frenchman, the veil has been lifted which for so long a period shrouded -the mysterious religion of the Magi. - -We do not, however, possess the whole of the Avesta. It is asserted by an -Arabian writer that Zarathustra himself covered with his verses no fewer -than twelve thousand parchments, and who shall compute the extent of the -literature accumulated by his disciples? Whether this literature perished -at the epoch of the Macedonian conquest of Persia, or whether it was -destroyed by Alexander the Great, or whether it gradually perished as the -influence of the Greek philosophy prevailed over the Zarathustrian -theology, it is impossible to determine. The remains of the sacred books, -however, with short summaries of their contents, have been handed down to -us. Originally they were twenty-one in number, called _Nosks_, and each -_Nosk_ consisting of "Avesta" and "Zend"--text and commentary. The number -twenty-one corresponded to the number of words composing the "Honovar," or -most sacred prayer, of the Zarathustrians. It is, we may add, a magical -number, being the result of the multiplication of the sacred numbers, -_three_ and _seven_. - -Of these divisions the _precis_ now extant, and collected for the first -time by the Danish scholar Westergaard, comprise the following books: -First, the _Yasna_, which sets before us the devotions proper to be -offered in connection with the sacrificial ceremonies. This Yasna is -divided into seventy-two chapters, representing the six Yahanhars, or -"seasons" during which Ahura-Mazda, the Good Principle, created the world. -The reader will here note the coincidence between the six creative seasons -of the Magian seer, and the six creative days of the Hebrew lawgiver. The -Yasna consists of two parts, the older of which is written in what is -called the Gatha dialect, and had acquired a peculiar sanctity prior to -the date of composition of the other books. It may be described as a -treasury of songs, hymns, and metrical prayers, which embody a variety of -abstruse reflections upon subjects of metaphysical inquiry, and are much -better adapted to stimulate the intellect of the student than to foster -the devotion of the worshipper. They are rhymeless, like the poetical -effusions of Caedmon, and in their metrical structure bear a curious -resemblance to the Vedic hymns. Of these collections, or Gathas, there are -five, and their leading title seems to be: "The Revealed Thought, the -Revealed Word, and the Revealed Deed of Zarathustra the Holy." It is added -that the Archangels first sang the Gathas. Their general purport is an -exposition of the work and teaching of the great founder of Magianism, who -is represented as inveighing against a belief in the _devas_, or gods, and -exhorting his disciples to lift up their hearts only to Ahura-Mazda, the -Supreme Goodness. - -Now it seems necessary to correct a popular error, that the Zendavesta is -largely liturgical: an error confirmed by the assertion of Gibbon, who -says: "Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression on -the human mind, must exercise our obedience, by enjoining practices of -devotion for which we can assign no reason; and must acquire our esteem by -inculcating moral duties analogous to the dictates of our own hearts. The -religion of Zoroaster was abundantly provided with the former, and -possessed a sufficient portion of the latter." But Zarathustra himself, in -one of his best-known precepts, warns his followers that "he who sows the -ground with care and diligence, acquires a greater stock of religious -merit than he would gain by the repetition of ten thousand prayers." It is -the tendency of all ethico-religious systems, at least in their earliest -stage of development, to discourage purely liturgical observances, and to -enjoin on the disciple a state of self-concentration and self-absorption -varied only by physical activity. Unaided by a divine Revelation, their -founders never rise higher than the passive virtues of endurance and -patience. As time passes away, and the new creed falls into the hands of a -special school of expounders, minute rites and rigid practices are -accumulated in order to impose upon the neophyte, and deepen the influence -of those who alone possess a clue to their meaning. The formalities which -encumber the Zarathustrian worship were invented long after the death of -the master, and no indication of them appears in the oldest section of -the Zendavesta. They are to be found chiefly in the much later pages of -the _Sadder_, where fifteen different genuflexions and prayers are -required of the devout Persian every time he cuts his finger-nails! - -To return to the Yasna. The Gathas, of which we have been speaking, were -not improbably composed by Zarathustra himself, and may be held to express -his belief and his thoughts in his own words. The second part, or "Younger -Yasna," is of a much later date and less lofty tone. The invention of some -of the Master's disciples or priests, it re-establishes the Polytheism -which Zarathustra so strenuously condemned; and furnishes the believer -with a manual of prayers and incantations (in prose) to the genii of the -woods and streams and hills, the powers of fire and earth and water, and -all the invisible spirits which haunt the luminous air. - -We come next to the _Visparad_, a collection of prayers in -three-and-twenty chapters, written in Zend, and of a similar tenour to -those in the younger Yasna. These prayers refer to the preparation of the -sacred water, and the consecration of certain offerings--such as the -sacred bread--which are carried round about the sacred fire, and after -having been exhibited to it, are eaten by the priest and by the votary on -whose behalf the ceremony is performed. - -The _Yashts_ (Yesti)--that is, worship by prayers and sacrifices--fall to -be considered in the third place. Of these devotions, which are -consecrated to the praise and worship of one Divine Being, and of a -certain limited group of inferior deities, twenty-four are extant. In -using them the votary endeavours, by a wearisome enumeration of the -glorious achievements of the deity he is addressing, and of the miracles -he has wrought, to induce him to come and enjoy the meal prepared for him, -and then to bestow on his fervid worshipper a blessing not inferior to the -boons bestowed on his children in bygone times. So far as concerns the -legendary history of the ancient Iranians, and in connection with their -belief in the pantheon of Magianism, the Yashts are of great value, and -indeed, from this point of view, are the most precious portion of the -Zendavesta. - -While the three parts already described exhibit more or less of a -liturgical character, the fourth division, known as the _Vendidad_, forms -a collection of customs, observances, laws, pains, and penalties, the -growth of a period much later than that of Zarathustra, when Ritual began -its encroachments on Religion. It is the essence of all _genuine_ Ritual -that it should illustrate and explain Doctrine, but this is never found to -be the case in the primitive creeds. In all such it becomes merely the -ingenious invention of a subtle priesthood, by which its members -established their influence over an ignorant community. In the eyes of the -unlearned its complex character invested it with an air of mystery; they -were led to look upon the "form" as of greater importance than the -"spirit," and to attribute a strange, a wonderful potency to rites and -ceremonies which they could not understand. While it is the special -feature of the faith of CHRIST that it appeals in its sweet simplicity to -every heart, and that it requires of the believer to present himself -before the altar with the innocence and trustfulness of a little child; -that it seeks not to confuse by a multiplicity of minute observances, and -even sums up its leading tenets in two brief and easily intelligible -commandments; Magianism, conscious of its inherent defects, unable to fall -back on the redeeming sacrifice of a SAVIOUR, deficient in any enduring -principle of vitality, sought to build up its structure on a foundation of -ceremonies and formalities. And when it could not feed the soul with the -bread of truth, it dazzled the senses by imposing spectacles, and confused -the imagination with a cumbrous code of the most complicated ritualistic -frivolities; so that the Persian worship, with its incantations and -devices, laid the foundation of the later Magic. - - * * * * * - -Turning our attention now to that portion of the Zendavesta which is -called the Vendidad, we find that it is divided into twenty-two Fargards, -or chapters. - -In the first of these we find an account of the creation by Ahura-Mazda, -of sixteen holy regions, sinless spotless Edens, localities of perfect -bliss; each of which is destroyed in succession by Ahriman, the Spirit of -Evil,--a fable evidently suggested by the Mosaic history of Paradise. The -second treats of a certain king, Yimo Vivaugham, who introduced -agriculture into the land of Iran. The third sets forth the various means -by which Zoma, or the Earth, may be rendered happy. You must beware of -excavating deep holes in it, for through these the _devs_, or demons, pass -to and fro between hell and earth; nor must you bury within it the dead -bodies of men or dogs, or other animals. The fourth chapter enumerates six -categories of crime, and the several punishments connected with them. The -fifth and sixth are occupied with a description of various kinds of -impurity. The seventh and eighth contain liturgical directions in -reference to the disposal of the carcases of men and dogs;[19] and it is -stated that whoever eats of flesh so unclean can never be purified, but -that hell will undoubtedly be his portion. Even the house in which a man -or a dog dies must immediately be purified by the use of incense or -sweet-smelling odours; a sanitary precaution of some importance in hot -climates. In the ninth occurs an elaborate detail of the rite of -purification denominated the _Barathium_, to be performed by, and on -behalf of a person who shall have been unwittingly defiled by touching the -dead. The tenth and eleventh are not less minute in their directions what -word must be repeated twice, and thrice, and four times at the different -Gathas, in order that Ahriman and his lieutenants may be expelled from men -and women who have been in contact with the dead, and from houses, cities, -and provinces into which they have obtained an entrance. - -The twelfth Fargard treats of various funeral ceremonies, and repeats a -number of injunctions relative to the cleansing of places, of clothes and -other articles, polluted by lifeless bodies. It concludes with elaborate -warnings against a two-footed _dev_, called Ashmog. The thirteenth and -fourteenth run riot in praise of the noble qualities of dogs, and severe -in their rebuke of the "superior animals" who ill-use them. The fifteenth -reads like a Commination Service, in its denunciation of certain crimes -which can never be undone even by the profoundest penitential offices, and -are punished by Ahura-Mazda with eternal condemnation. The seventeenth, -like the sixteenth, is tediously liturgical, and discusses such minutiae as -the arrangement of the hair of the head, the extraction of bad or gray -hairs, and the cutting of nails. If these operations are performed -without certain prescribed ceremonies, the devs come upon earth, and -parasitical organisms are produced to the great discomfort and injury of -man. The eighteenth lays down the distinctions which should characterise -an _Athrava_, or priest. He must wear the _padan_, a mouth-cover, of two -fingers' breadth; must carry an instrument for disposing of parasitical -insects; devote his nights to study, keep alive the sacred fire, and -succour the distressed. The nineteenth chapter recounts the perils to -which Zarathustra was exposed, when he had left the south on his mission, -from the murderous assaults of Ahriman and his host, who hastened up from -the north; the north, to an inhabitant of the warm sunny south, naturally -appearing the fit home and haunt of the Spirit of Evil. The twentieth is -devoted to the praise of Taneslied, who is represented as having swept -away disease, death, bloodshed, war, evil-doers, falsehood, and all kinds -of wickedness. The twenty-first enjoins the salutations to be paid to the -sacred Bull, and extols some of its illustrious qualities. Finally, the -twenty-second narrates the mission of Zarathustra, and describes the evil -he will dispel through the influence of the Word; Ahura-Mazda having -ordered him to establish his worship in the region called Airya-Mava, or -Irman, so that it may become bright, pure, and happy as the abode of -Ahura-Mazda himself, free from sin, and, consequently, free from sorrow -and suffering. - -From this brief summary it will be seen that the religion of the Parsees -in its present form is a definite Dualism, recognizing the existence of -two distinct principles, Good and Evil, impersonated by spirits of equal -power, named Ahura-Mazda, (or Spento-Manyus,) and Ahriman, (or -Angro-Manyus.) But no such doctrine was taught by Zarathustra himself. His -creed, like all the earliest creeds, was purely Monotheistic. He set -before men, as the sole object of their love and adoration, one Supreme -Being, Ahura-Mazda, the great "Life-Giver" or the "Living Wisdom," as the -name is variously explained. Nor was his conception of this one God -altogether unworthy of the Founder of a Religion. He does not represent -Him, indeed, as the "Father," loving, sympathetic, compassionate, and so -full of condescension, that He is willing to give His Son to die for the -salvation of erring Humanity; for he did not enjoy that fuller revelation -of the Divine Nature which was vouchsafed to the Hebrew race. But he shows -Him as the "Lord over all lords, the Forgiving, the Omniscient." He is -ineffably pure, the source of all Truth, the Holy God. In the Khordah -Avesta, Zarathustra is introduced as inquiring: "Tell me the name, O pure -Ahura-Mazda, which is Thy greatest, best, and fairest name?" Ahura-Mazda -replies: "My name is He who may be questioned: the Gatherer of the people: -the Most Pure: He who takes account of the actions of men. My name is God -(Ahura); My name is the Great Wise One (Mazdas.) I am the All-Seeing, the -Desirer of Good for My creatures, He who cannot be deceived: the -Protector: the Tormentor of tormentors: He who smiteth once and only once: -the Creator of All." - -His happiness, like His holiness, is without spot or blemish; every -blessing is His that man can imagine--health and wealth, virtue, wisdom, -prosperity, immortality; and these blessings He is willing to bestow on -His creatures if in thought and word and deed they eschew impurity. But we -nowhere read that He will assist them in the struggle against sin by -creating in them a new heart, or by vouchsafing the grace of His Holy -Spirit. The mystery of the Atonement was beyond the reach of the soul and -intellect even of Zarathustra; and the highest conception of God to which -he could attain was that of a Being of perfect Goodness, sitting enthroned -in a strange awful loneliness, with no other feeling than that of approval -of Good and disapproval of Evil. He is, of course, the supreme type of -Power: all that _is_ flows from Him, as light from the Sun: He creates -both the shadow and the brightness of the human existence, good and ill, -fortune and misfortune. So far above all human intelligence is He placed, -that images of Him are forbidden, though He is understood to be symbolised -by the sun and by fire. He can be served only by prayers and offerings, by -a life of purity and truth, by abstinence from sinful passions, by the -banishment of sinful thoughts. Thus Herodotus says of the Zarathustrians, -that they reject the use of temples, of altars, and of statues. "They -smile," he says, "at the folly of those nations who imagine that the Gods -are descended from, or have any affinity with, human nature. The loftiest -mountain-tops are the places chosen for their sacrifices. Hymns and -prayers are their principal forms of worship. And the Supreme God, who -fills the vast sphere of Heaven, is the object to whom they are -addressed." - -The service of Ahura-Mazda consisted, then, as we see, in the performance -of good works, in the cultivation of virtue, and in the due offering up of -prayer and praise. It was an intellectual worship that Zarathustra -prescribed; a worship that might assist in the development of a high -morality, but could not inculcate a deep and true religious feeling. Of -contrition for sin, of humbling oneself before God, of self-sacrifice and -self-abnegation, of love, and faith, and hope, the creed of Zarathustra -took no account. And here, as well as elsewhere, we observe its vast -inferiority to the religion of CHRIST. It made no provision for the -awakening and fostering of those tender emotions of profound humility, -thankful adoration, and unutterable gratitude which are awakened in the -Christian's heart by the name of JESUS. It could never have called forth -such an utterance of the son's glad submission to the will of the FATHER -as we find, for example, in the ejaculatory verse of Ben Jonson: - - "Hear me, O GOD! - A broken heart - Is my best part: - Use still Thy rod, - That I may prove - Therein Thy love. - - "If Thou hadst not - Been stern to me, - But left me free, - I had forgot - Myself and Thee. - - "For sin's so sweet, - As minds ill-bent - Rarely repent, - Until they meet - Their punishment." - -Such lines as these indicate a relation between man and his GOD which -could never obtain between the Zarathustrian and his Ahura-Mazda. His was -a cold, unimpassioned, logical creed, warmed by no single heart-throb of -Divine love and mercy; a creed which demanded human worship for a sinless -God, but did not invite human faith in a loving Redeemer; and, -consequently, a creed which left untouched the deepest springs and most -responsive chords of our humanity. - - * * * * * - -Both the excellencies and the short-comings of Magianism are shown in the -confessions and prayers included in the Zendavesta. For example, there is -much that is elevated and noble in the following, yet its tone is -curiously Pharisaical, and may be contrasted with that of Ben Jonson's -verses. Instead of being the aspiration of a sinful soul after -forgiveness, and a reaching forth towards love and light, it is the -self-eulogium of a mind confident in its own sustaining power, and to -appreciate its weakness we need only to contrast it with the fervour of a -David or a S. Paul. We remember that the Hebrew king exclaimed: "My heart -panteth, my strength faileth me: as for the light of mine eyes, it also is -gone from me," and how the Apostle confessed himself "the chief of -sinners." With no such aching consciousness of weakness does the -Zarathustrian bow himself before God. There is all the pride of -self-righteousness in his prayer. Thus: - -"I remain standing fast in the statutes of the law which Ahura-Mazda gave -to Zarathustra. As long as life endures I will stand fast in good thoughts -in my soul, in good words in my speech, in good deeds in my actions. With -all good am I in harmony, with all evil am I at variance. With the -punishments of the future life I am content. I have taken hold of good -thoughts, words, and works. I have forsaken evil thoughts, words, and -works. May the power of Ahriman be broken! may the reign of Ahura-Mazda -increase!" - -And again: - -"I am steadfast in this faith, and turn myself not away from it, for the -sake of a happy life, or for the sake of a longer life, nor for power, nor -for a kingdom. If I must give up my body for the sake of my soul, I give -it willingly. I believe firmly in the good Mazda-yusaian faith; in the -Resurrection; in the bridge of souls,[20] in the invariable reward of good -deeds and punishment of bad deeds, in the everlasting continuance of -paradise and the annihilation of hell; and I believe that, at the last, -Ahura-Mazda will be victorious, and Ahrimanes will perish with the Devs, -and all the children of darkness.... I am full of hope that I shall attain -to Paradise and the shining Garathanan, where all majesty dwelleth. I make -this confession in the hope that I may hereafter become more zealous to -accomplish good works and keep myself more from sin; and that my good -deeds may serve for the diminution of evil and the increase of good till -the rising again." - -We know the form of prayer taught us by JESUS CHRIST; how simple it is, -how complete, how absolute in its renunciation of self, how comprehensive -in its charity. "Thy will be done".... "Forgive us our trespasses as we -forgive them who trespass against us".... "Lead us not into temptation." -Such are its leading thoughts: submission before GOD, charity before Man; -both implying and demanding the conquest and humiliation of self. Let us -contrast it with a Zarathustrian prayer: - -"In the name of God the Giver and Forgiver, Rich in Love, praise be to -Ahura-Mazda, the God with the name ... 'Who always was, always is, and -always will be.'... Ahura-Mazda the Wise, the Creator, the Over-seeing -God, pure, good, and just! With all strength bring I thank-offerings and -praise to the Lord, the completer of good works, who made men greater than -all earthly beings, and through the gift of speech created them to rule -over the creatures and to war against the evil spirits. Praise to the -omniscience of God who has sent through the holy Zarathustra power and -knowledge of the law. All good do I accept at Thy command, O God, and -think, speak, and do it. I believe in the pure law, and by every good work -I seek forgiveness for sins. I keep pure the six powers--thought, speech, -act, memory, reason, understanding. According to Thy will am I able to -fulfil (these resolutions.) O Accomplisher of Good, to Thy honour are good -thoughts, good words, and good works. I enter on the shining way to -Paradise. May the terror of hell not overcome me! May I pass the bridge -Chinavat and attain to Paradise, the bright and odoriferous, where are all -joys. Praise to the Lord who awards those who accomplish good deeds -according to His will, who purifies the obedient, and at last purifies the -wicked in hell. All praise be to the Creator, Ahura-Mazda, the All-Wise, -the Mighty, the Rich in Love." - - * * * * * - -Prayer, according to Zarathustra, is not the humbling of the soul before -its Creator, not the aspirations of the spirit towards the Source of all -Love and Mercy, not the desire of the creature to be at peace with GOD, -but the renunciation of will,--a noble and worthy aim in itself, but not -fulfilling the Christian idea of prayer. To do good and to shun evil is, -no doubt, the motive of the Christian life; but prayer is something more -and something higher, the sacrifice of an humble and a contrite heart. - - "Heaven is the magazine wherein GOD puts - Both good and evil; prayer's the key that shuts - And opens this great treasure; 'tis a key - Whose wards are Faith, and Hope, and Charity. - Wouldst thou prevent a judgment due to sin? - Turn but the key and thou mayst lock it in. - Or wouldst thou have a blessing fall upon thee! - Open the door and it will shower on thee."[21] - -But no such conception as this is discernible throughout the length and -breadth of the Parsee Scriptures, which here, as elsewhere, and in -relation to other matters, attain a lofty, but not the loftiest, level; -rise above earth, but do not soar to Heaven. They seem instinct with -echoes of the original revelation vouchsafed to man, but those echoes are -faint and imperfect; whereas, in the Hebrew creed, the voices of GOD are -repeated with a fulness and a power which leaves the heart nothing to -desire. In this vast superiority we cannot fail to see a strong and -striking proof of its authenticity. If it be found difficult to account -for the moral excellence and aesthetic beauty of Zarathustrianism without -tracing it back in some indirect way to a Divine origin; how shall we -explain the sublimity and grandeur of the Hebrew Theism, unless we admit -that it is all it professes to be,--is, in very truth, the expression of -the will of the everliving GOD? - -We have spoken of Zarathustra's religion as originally monotheistic; its -purity, however, was not long preserved, and the cause of its corruption -lay in itself. Zarathustra could not deny the existence of Evil, and to -explain it was driven to concoct an extraordinary hypothesis. As in every -electrified object there are two poles, a positive and a negative, so, -according to the Prophet, in Ahura-Mazda, and in all rational beings, man -included, are present a good and holy Will, and its shadow or negative,--a -higher and a lower nature,--the Positive and the Negative Mind. How -Zarathustra reconciled this idea with his conception of Ahura-Mazda, as -Perfect Goodness, we are unable to comprehend. At all events, it contained -the germs of the future Dualism of the Persian religion. The Negative Mind -soon came to be separated from the good and holy Will, and was quickly -personified as an independent evil being, a Power of Night and Darkness, -Ahriman (Angro-Manyus,) equal in might to Ahura-Mazda, and disputing with -him the possession of the world. Thus arose the myth of the constant -struggle between the two powers, as between Day and Night; the servants of -Ahura-Mazda being sent forth to encounter, resist, and overcome the slaves -and works of Ahriman, thereby bringing about the end of all things, when -Ahriman himself should be vanquished and reconciled. - -In course of time the difficulties of this dual theory were detected by -acute intellects, and at the Sassanian Revival an attempt was made to -dispose of them by introducing the doctrine of Monotheism under a new -form, that of a Great Primal Cause (Zervana Akarana), the Boundless Time -or Uncreated Whole, such as we trace in the later Greek poetry, and -apparently rather a "metaphysical abstraction," like the Greek [Greek: -Anagke], or the Roman Nemesis, than "an active and presiding deity." -Thence proceeded both the Good and the Evil Principles; the two antagonist -creators who balanced against each other in perpetual conflict a race of -spiritual and material beings, light and darkness, good and evil. The wise -benevolence of Ahura-Mazda formed men capable of virtuous impulses, and -endowed each with everything that could contribute to his happiness. He -preserved by his watchful providence the harmonious movements of the -planets, and the temperate combination of the elements. But the malice of -Ahriman has long since pierced Ahura-Mazda's "egg;" in other words, -violated the sweet accord and bounteous beauty of His works. Since that -fatal irruption, the most minute articles of good and evil are alternately -commingled and agitated together; the most poisonous herbs spring up among -the most wholesome plants; the warfare of deluges, earthquakes, and -conflagrations disturbs the serenity of nature; and humanity is subjected -to all the blighting influences of sin, suffering, and sorrow. While the -rest of mankind were led away captive in the chains of their terrible -enemy, the faithful Persian alone remained constant in his faith in -Ahura-Mazda, and fought under his banner of light, looking forward to a -triumphant day when Good should prevail over all the world. - -It seems to us impossible to doubt that, in this later development of the -Zoroastrian faith, its priests and teachers were largely indebted to the -Sacred Writings, though into what they borrowed they introduced much -original and fanciful speculation. - -A Parsee, with a firm faith in Ahura-Mazda, and conscious of having obeyed -the law, offered up prayer and praise, and renounced, in intention at -least, evil thoughts and deeds and words, lay down on his death bed in a -certain hope and expectation of the Eternal life. We have seen that the -Zendavesta appointed a variety of penances, by the performance of which -the believer obtained immediate pardon for ordinary transgressions; and -therefore, full of the self-righteousness which his creed was so well -adapted to inculcate, he faced the passage of the Dark River without fear. -He knew not of any need to implore the mercy of a Redeemer, to humble -himself in sackcloth and ashes, to base his hope on the infinite love of -GOD made man, on the glorious sacrifice of the Cross; his soul passed -straight to Paradise, as an arrow flies towards its mark. In the Khordah -Avesta we can follow the stages of its journey:--On the first night after -death the soul dwelt near the head of the inanimate body it had just -deserted, and sat there praying, rejoicing in as much joy as is vouchsafed -to the whole living world. And so did it dwell on the second night, -praying. And so did it dwell on the third night, praying. But when the -third night verged upon dawn, the soul of the pure man went forward. A -wind, sweeter than all other winds, blew to meet it from the south. And in -that wind came to embrace the pilgrim _his own law_, under the figure of a -maiden beautiful and shining, fair as the fairest of created beings. The -pilgrim then took the first step in his celestial progress, and arrived in -the paradise _Hamata_; he took the second, and reached the paradise -_Hukhta_; he took the third, and arrived at the paradise _Hvarsta_. The -beatified wanderer made yet another step, and gained the presence of the -Eternal Light. There was he addressed by an already beatified soul: "How -art thou, O pure deceased, who hast come from the perishable world hither -to the imperishable?" Ahura-Mazda here interrupted: "Ask him not, for he -has come on the fearful trembling way, the separation of soul and body. -Bring him hither of the food of the full fatness, that is, of the filling -food for those who think, speak, and do good, for the pure after death." - -A recent writer says of this notion of a progressive advance to the -"Eternal Light," of the welcome received from the blessed, and from the -gentle words of Ahura-Mazda himself; and of the conducting angel who -represents the man's own earthly faith and life, (like Bunyan's Mr. -Good-Conscience meeting old Honest beside the River of Death,) "all -these," he says, "are beautiful thoughts." Surely fanciful, rather than -beautiful; and better adapted to amuse religious sentimentalists than to -satisfy healthy and earnest believers. The obvious reference to the three -days and nights spent by our LORD "in prison" appears to indicate that -this is a comparatively modern portion of the Zendavesta, founded upon -some vague knowledge of the mystery of the Resurrection. - -While the pure soul proceeded, as we have seen, by three stages or -gradations to the Paradise of Light and Sweetness, the evil and unclean -soul, on the other hand, descended, also by three stages, to the terrors -of Douzakh, the dark abode of Ahriman and the Devs. There it suffered -according to its sinfulness until the general day of Resurrection. At that -great epoch these nights of indescribable woe will be undergone by all who -have not expiated their earthly offences; woe so terrible, that the -Blessed, looking down upon it from their celestial battlements, will be -moved to tears of pity. And then the massive mountains and the solid rocks -shall be melted by the heat, and streams of liquid gold shall flow, in -which both the pure and evil shall receive a regenerating bath. Ahriman -and his devs shall share in the universal happiness, and all created life -shall swell the song of praise sent up in honour of Ahura-Mazda. - -While we are unable to doubt that in the Zendavesta, as it has come down -to us, may be traced the direct influence of the Hebrew creed, and that -ideas and principles of a still later date were borrowed more or less -closely from Christianity, we can as little doubt that Zarathustrianism -had no inconsiderable effect on the Jewish popular belief. The Jewish -prophets, after the Captivity, would seem to have adopted much of what may -be called their poetic language and machinery from the writings of the -Magian teachers. The Talmud contains unmistakable evidence of its -indebtedness to the same source. The Angelology of the Jewish doctors -originated, probably during the captivity of the Tribes in Babylonia, in -the Magian superstitions; and it was then that the complete angelic -hierarchy was evolved, with its seven great archangels corresponding to -the seven Amchaspands of the Zendavesta. It was then that for the first -time the Jewish popular creed recognised the existence of two antagonistic -hosts of spiritual beings, arrayed against each other in everlasting -battle. Then was developed the fancy of a guardian angel attending every -individual to shelter him from the malignant hostility of his Dev or -demon. So that much of the mythology which Milton employs so effectively -in "Paradise Lost," having borrowed it from the traditions and legends of -the Hebrew race, came originally from the far East, and was invented by -the followers of Zarathustra. The Miltonic and popular conception of -Satan, so unlike the Biblical representation of the great Destroyer, was -largely coloured from the Magian sketch of Ahriman, the Power of Darkness. - -It is certain that the grand and lofty Hebrew revelation of the One GOD -was modified and debased by its contact with the Magian teaching. It has -been well remarked that wherever any approximation had been made to this -sublime truth of the existence of the one great First Cause, either "awful -religious reverence" or "philosophic abstraction" had removed the Creative -Power absolutely out of the range of human sense, and supposed that the -intercourse of the Divinity with man, the moral government, and even the -actual creative work, had been carried on by the intermediate agency of, -in Oriental phrase, an Emanation, or, in Platonic language, of the -"Wisdom," "Reason," or "Intelligence" of the Supreme. The Jews, under the -influence of their intercourse with the Persians, adopted that conception, -and, departing from the path laid down for them by Revelation, interposed -one or more intermediate beings as the channels of communication between -GOD and man. The Apostle seizes on the popular fancy, and endeavours to -restore from it the original truth, when he tells his readers that the -"Word" of which they spoke so vaguely and presumptuously was none other -than GOD Himself,--the SON of GOD, but equal with the FATHER,--the -brightness of His glory and the express image of His person. He showed -them that the mediation between the lofty spiritual nature of GOD and the -intellectual and moral being of Man was not to be accomplished through any -independent agency, but by the revelation of GOD Himself in the person and -presence of His beloved SON. That this, the essential and central truth of -Christianity, was one which the unassisted human intellect could never -have developed we know, from the fact that it is found in no creed of -admittedly human origin, and that it is never clearly set forth even in -any religious system which has borrowed from Christianity. - -We can imagine the ability of man to shape out for himself an idea of some -awful Power, some mighty First Cause, which created and ordered the -universe, and controlled and shaped its destinies. Looking around upon -creation, he might, perhaps, without any severe intellectual effort, -attain to the thought of a Creator. This conception once realised, he -might in due time come to believe that the Creator could be pleased or -angered by the doings of His creatures; and that the anger of One so -powerful would be something to dread and avoid. But the idea of this grand -and terrible Creator sending from Heaven His own Son to take upon Himself -humanity, and thereby save the creature from the just wrath it had -provoked, and the dread retribution it had deserved,--an idea, so glorious -and consoling, could never, we believe, have been grasped by the loftiest -human intellect, unless aided by a revelation from above. - -The exact relation of Zarathustrianism to Christianity it is somewhat -difficult to define, because a cloud of doubt and uncertainty hangs over -the compilation of the later portions of the Zendavesta. While the great -antiquity of the Gathas cannot be disputed, while there is clear evidence -that they contain much of the original teaching of Zarathustra,--teaching -nobler and more exalted than that of his followers,--it seems not less -certain that the doctrines of the Resurrection and the Future Life were -borrowed from the Hebrews. What then is left to justify a comparison with -Christianity? The keynote of its scheme is intellectual pride; that of the -Christian religion, spiritual abasement. The former urges on its disciples -the necessity of good thoughts, words, and deeds in order to please -Ahura-Mazda; the latter, as a proof of faith in the mission of its -Founder. The former teaches an excellent code of morals, so far as relates -to the individual; the latter lays down one golden rule, "Do unto others -as thou wouldest they should do unto thee." The former enforces the law of -self-control; the latter of self-renunciation. It is impossible to pretend -that Magianism shows the same insight into man's wants, failings, -passions, temptations, as Christianity shows; or provides a system so -capable of adaptation to every age, and rank, and character. - -We see no reason to doubt the authenticity and antiquity of the -Zendavesta; but it is somewhat surprising that scholars who make haste to -accept _it_ as genuine, should show so much scepticism in reference to the -Christian Scriptures. Surely, as regards the latter, the evidence of -genuineness is infinitely stronger than as regards the former. We know -that they were implicitly accepted by men who lived almost in the very -time of those who recorded them; on the other hand, of Zarathustra and his -contemporaries or successors we know absolutely nothing. Some authorities -represent him to have flourished as early as 2200 B.C.; others as late as -500 B.C. Some consider him to have been the founder of a dynasty; others -invest him with a supernatural personality. But at the best he remains -_nominis umbra_; as indistinct and shadowy, as in his teaching he is cold -and clear. Of the authenticity of his writings the principal proofs are -those derivable from the writings themselves. But if we allow that such -proofs are admissible, what shall we say of those to be found in the -Gospels and Epistles? As their morality is so much more elevated than that -of the Zendavesta, so is the certainty of their Divine origin infinitely -more assured. The class of testimony which asserts the authenticity of the -one not less convincingly affirms the genuineness of the other. And if the -Gospels are all that they purport to be, how can we avoid the conclusion -that they are truthful also in the witness they bear to the life and -character of CHRIST? - -We may point to a remarkable contrast between Magianism and -Christianity,--that the former has undergone an almost complete revolution -of meaning and doctrine, while, in spite of sectarian glosses, the latter -remains virtually unaltered. The faith once for all delivered to the -saints is held by believers to-day in all its original purity. We repeat -the Creed just as it fell from the rapt lips of martyrs, saints and -confessors. But the monotheism of Zarathustra has been broken up into a -curious Dualism; and upon the religious system of the Gathas has been -accumulated such a burden of ritual, of novel teaching, of borrowed -dogmas, and alien mysteries, that the acutest students are almost baffled -in their endeavours to distinguish the false from the true, and the new -from the old. It is almost impossible to determine what belongs to the -Zarathustrian original, and what to perversions or adaptations from the -Jewish Scriptures. - -It is an indisputable testimony to the living force and divine genius of -Christianity, that it occupies a void which no one of the primitive -religions has ever been able to fill. We find it difficult to conceive -that any man who has once been a Christian could voluntarily embrace -Zarathustrianism or Buddhism, and attempt to satisfy his soul with it, any -more than with the philosophy of the Stoics. We are tempted to ask, -indeed, whether either could at any time have satisfied the cravings of -humanity. We know that all their ethical schemes could not lift the sages -of Greece and Rome out of the deep, the intense sadness which possessed -them, nor respond to their yearnings after a something they could neither -describe nor define. Their state of thought and feeling has been expressed -by a modern poet, Matthew Arnold, with what seems to us a wonderful -fidelity:-- - - "Nor only in the intent - To attach blame elsewhere, - Do we at will invent - Stern powers who make their care - To embitter human life, malignant deities. - - "But next, we would reverse - The scheme ourselves have spun, - And what we made to curse - We now would lean upon, - And feign kind gods who perfect what man vainly tries.... - - "We pause, we hush our heart, - And then address the gods: - 'The world hath failed to impart - The joy our youth forebodes, - Failed to fill up the void which in our breasts we bear!'" - -Their principles of thought were pure, but they felt that there existed a -purity which was beyond their reach; their standard of conduct was high, -but they were inwardly conscious that it ought to be higher. On that -golden "ladder of sunbeams" which rises from earth to the angel-guarded -battlements of heaven, they had ascended a few timid steps, but above and -beyond they could see a glory to which it was not given them to rise. -Hence it has often been said, and justly, that the men were greater than -their system; and such, so far as Magianism was concerned, may well have -been the case with the loftier minds of Bactria and Persia. But it can -never be pretended that the Christian is greater than Christianity. Let -him be ever so holy in his living, ever so exalted in his aspirations, he -will not seek for something _beyond_ and _out of_ Christianity, because he -feels and knows that he cannot exhaust all its capabilities; that it soars -far higher than he can ever soar. It has truths which the profoundest -psychologist cannot fathom; it opens up visions which the boldest -imagination cannot comprehend; it contains a wealth of emotion and -sympathy which the most passionate soul can never exhaust. After we have -said and done all we can, after we have mastered all that has been said -and done by other men, we still find in the life and character of CHRIST -that which may well engage, and yet never weary our attention. And here we -touch upon a feature which no human system of religion or morality has -ever matched. Strip the Zendavesta, if you will, of all its later and less -worthy adjuncts, and yet it cannot, any more than the Rig-Veda, present us -with the divine beauty of the Man of Sorrows. But this it is which fills, -soothes, blesses, inspires the aching, restless, craving human heart. When -it can no longer satisfy itself with the cold moralities of philosophy, -when it pines for a deeper and a warmer life, when it is weary with -problems which it cannot solve, and disappointed in hopes which it has -seen fade away like dreams of the night, it turns to the Cross and is -comforted. The mysteries which perplexed it vanish in the light that -emanates from the Divine history of the SON of GOD. The awe with which it -regards the passionless abstraction of a great First Cause, a supreme -entity of Power and Wisdom without Love, passes into reverent admiration -and joyous thanksgiving when it looks up into the face of the Good -Shepherd, and reposes in the shadow of the Vine, and learns how that He -Who was with the FATHER before the beginning, has suffered even as we -suffer, has borne the heavy burden of the flesh even as we have borne it, -and now sits on the right hand of GOD,--not an idea, not a principle, not -a Spirit, but a PERSON, bidding all who believe to come unto Him and be at -rest. - -This, indeed, is the cardinal merit of Christianity,--it has given us -CHRIST. - -GOD forbid that we should deny a certain value even to the "unconscious -prophecies of heathendom," or refuse to see something of the spirit of -CHRIST in the teaching of the ancient sages and philosophers; but when an -attempt is made to raise Magianism to an equal rank with Christianity, and -the cold intellectual utterances of the Zendavesta to rank with the -living voices of Holy Writ, it is essential to point out how vast, how -impassable is the gulf between them; how little Magianism did or could do -to elevate man's spiritual nature; and how largely Christianity surpasses -it, in and through the manifestation of the Divine love in the mystery of -GOD made Man. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -_JEWISH SUPERSTITIONS._ - - -THE TALMUD. - -The Talmud, (from the Hebrew _lamad_, to learn,) is the name given to the -great code of the Jewish civil and canonical law. It is divided, like the -Zendavesta, into two parts, the Mishna and the Gemara; the former being, -as it were, the text, and the latter the commentary and supplement. Of -late years public attention has been exceptionally drawn to it by the -writings of the late Emanuel Deutsch, and it has obtained, as we think, a -wholly undeserved amount of panegyric. - -Deutsch, an enthusiast in his attachment to the land and religion of his -forefathers, put it forward as a wondrous treasure, the real value of -which had been wholly overlooked. It contained, he seemed to say, a -complete _corpus juris_; and, as an encyclopaedia of law, should be -compared with the corresponding collections of Roman or of English law, -with the Pandects of Justinian and the Commentaries of Blackstone. Herein -lies the excuse for rules that have been considered unduly subtle, or in -other ways offensive to modern taste. But it contains something more than -a body of law; it is also a collection of Jewish poetry and legend, of -Jewish science, and Jewish metaphysical speculation. The Mishna is a -development of the laws contained in the Pentateuch. The members of the -Sanhedrim, who were chiefly concerned in the formation of this law, were -obliged (so argues Deutsch) to be accomplished men. It was necessary that -they should possess some knowledge of physical science, or at least of -zoology, botany, and geography in their then condition. It was necessary -also that they should be good linguists, having some acquaintance with -Latin and Greek, as well as with Aramaic, Syriac, and Hebrew. Disreputable -men were kept out, and all were compelled to be married men and fathers of -families. "The origin of the Talmud," he says, "is coeval with the return -from the Babylonish captivity." And though it is the glory of Christianity -to have carried into the heart of humanity at large the golden germs of -thought previously hidden in the schools of the learned, yet numerous -precepts, supposed to be purely Christian, lie enshrined in the pages of -the Talmud. It would be difficult to find a penal legislation more -distinctly humane. As for its myths, its allegories, its apparent -absurdities, they should be read in the spirit in which Christians read -Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress." The Talmud insists upon the pre-existence -of the soul, on the dogmas of Immortality and the Resurrection, it denies -the doctrine of everlasting damnation; it excludes no human being from the -world to come. And as the Talmud, continues Deutsch, although redacted at -a later period, is, in point of time, prior to the New Testament, the -beautiful maxims of the former cannot have been borrowed from the latter. -In a word, it is a collection which took nearly a thousand years to form, -and has been commented upon for a thousand years since. It breathes -charity to all men. If we except a few items of coarseness, such as must -occur in every legal code, it is all good; at least, it is never bad; it -deserves all possible respect and even reverence. Such, in a condensed -form, is the account of the Talmud which Deutsch asks us to accept. - -But it cannot be admitted that the defects of the Talmud are trivial, any -more than that the spirit of the Rabbins towards Christianity was -tolerant. Nor can it be admitted that the Talmud owes nothing to the -Christian Scriptures. - -On the first point hear what Professor Hurwitz says:--"The Talmud contains -many things which every enlightened, nay, every pious Jew, must sincerely -wish had never appeared there, or should at least long ago have been -expunged from its pages. Some of these Agadatha are objectionable _per -se_; others, indeed, are susceptible of explanations, but without them are -calculated to produce false and erroneous impressions." So much may be -said, we think, of the legends in the Talmud; such as the size of -Leviathan and the way in which he is to be killed and cooked for the -chosen people, and the marriage of Adam with Lilith before the creation of -Eve, with the diabolic progeny which sprang from them. - -Another point to be considered is the influence of the Alexandrian books, -commonly known by us as the Apocrypha. Of these the Books of Wisdom and -Ecclesiasticus at any rate exhibit the reflections of singularly devout -and thoughtful minds, which had exercised themselves in the contemplation -of the writings of Moses and the prophets in combination with no -inconsiderable tincture of Greek philosophy. It would be a question of -great interest to see how far ideas suggested in those very remarkable -compositions have found their way into the Talmud. - -As regards the sentiments of the Rabbins towards Christianity: in the -reign of Domitian, (that is, about A.D. 90,) the Sanhedrim took measures -against the Minim, that is to say, the degenerated; for so they called the -Jews who had been converted to Christianity. The Rabbi Tarphon said:--"The -Gospels and all the books of the Minim deserve to be burnt, for Paganism -is less dangerous: the Pagans misunderstand the truths of Judaism from -ignorance, the Minim deny them with full knowledge of the case. Better to -seek an asylum in a Pagan temple than in the synagogues of the Minim." The -Sanhedrim of Jamnia and other similar bodies adopted the like tone. And it -was men like these who helped to form the Talmud. - -Not the less it remains true, that every powerful movement which has -occurred in the world's history has shown a part of its power in the way -it has influenced opponents. The Reformation, as the Ultramontane De -Maistre is compelled to admit, wrought a very perceptible change even -among Roman Catholics. The French Revolution of 1793 did not leave -Legitimists in the position they had occupied before its outbreak. Now -Christianity is the greatest movement the world has ever seen. Dean -Merivale in his excellent "History of the Romans under the Empire," states -with no less eloquence than truth the immense indirect influence which it -had begun to exercise on heathen thought by the end even of the first -century. We can trace it in Pagan literature. But Deutsch and similar -Talmudophilists would have us believe that it had no influence whatever -upon the Talmud, and that whenever we find kindred thoughts in the -teaching of Christianity, and in the teaching of their favourite work, it -is the Gospel which is indebted to the Talmud and not the Talmud to the -Gospel. - -But for our part we wholly dissent from this extraordinary theory, which, -indeed, cannot be supported by any chronological evidence. There are -occasions, of course, in which dates become of comparatively trifling -importance. A man feels troubled, for example, with the enigmas of life, -and finds light and consolation in reading the book of Job; that most -beautiful book--_quel bellissimo libro_, as the Italian poet Giusti called -it. Some friend, finding him thus engaged, begins to argue in favour of -Bishop Warburton's view, that it is a composition of comparatively late -date, perhaps of the age of Jeremiah, and not (as used to be generally -supposed) as early as the time of Moses. In such a case a man may well -reply, that without any wish to discourage critical inquiry in its proper -place, he is content for the present to go on reading for his soul's -health, to accept the words before him as a message from above, and to -feel sure that whenever GOD gave it, it was given at the time when it was -most needed. But in the case of the Talmud dates are of real and living -importance, though we own that it is difficult to fix them with accuracy. -We believe, however, with one of Deutsch's critics, that Christian -elements _have_ found their way into the Talmud, though doubtless, -pre-Christian ideas, similar to those which are met with in the Books of -Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus, are also to be found there. Is it not true that -the Mishna was brought into its present form by Rabbi Jehudah, surnamed -the Holy, about A.D. 200, and that the Gemara was not completed until A.D. -500? Deutsch, indeed, appeals to the article in the "Novellae -Constitutiones" (or _Novels_, as they are commonly called) of Justinian -against the Talmud. The reference is correct enough, but the _Novels_ -belong to the later parts of Justinian's reign, and were not promulgated -before the year 534. - -It is well known that at the present time there are three parties among -the Jews who differ widely as to the amount of respect which ought to be -paid to the legislation contained within the pages of the Talmud. Two out -of these parties would greatly modify it, or actually sweep it away. We -believe that its influence upon practice is not destined to endure; and -that though there _is_ a book which will continue so to influence life, -that book is not the Talmud, but the Bible. The Talmud has its curiosities -and even beauties, as well as its gross absurdities and defects; but, -after all, it will be found, we believe, that it often reflects but too -truly the mind of those of whom it was said, "Ye have made the commandment -of GOD of none effect by your traditions." - - * * * * * - -With these preliminary observations, we pass on to a more particular -description of the Talmud. - -There are two Talmuds, the one called the Talmud of the Occidentals, or -the "Jerusalem" Talmud, and the other the "Babylonian" Talmud. The former -of these originally included the whole of the first five _Sedarim_ (or -portions,) but now consists of only thirty-nine treatises. Its final -redaction is supposed to have taken place towards the close of the fourth -Christian century, but the authorities engaged in the work cannot now be -determined. But it is certainly distinguished by more accuracy of -expression and precision of statement than the second or Babylonian, or -"our" Talmud, which makes use of its predecessor, and was not completed -for a century later. Its editor is generally considered to be Rabbi Ashi, -president of the Academy of Syro in Babylon (A.D. 365-427.) Both the -Mishna, though revised in A.D. 219, and the "Palestine" Gemara, had become -greatly corrupted through the interpolation of gross traditions and the -critical judgments of different schools, when Rabbi Ashi, with the -assistance of his friend and disciple, Abina, undertook the labour of -sifting the old from the new, and introducing order into chaos. - -Ashi was appointed to the headship of the school of Sora at the age of -twenty-three, and under his rule Sora became the head-quarters of -Rabbinism in the East. When he entered on the redaction of the Mishna and -Gemara, he began by assembling yearly at the great feasts the most learned -Hebrews, and examining them with respect to their traditional practices -and expositions. He then called together his disciples every spring, and -gave out to them a particular treatise of the Mishna; in the autumn they -again came before him with all the information relative to it they had -collected in the interval. This he personally investigated, and reduced -into shape. The Mishna being composed of sixty-three treatises, he was -thus engaged for upwards of thirty years. The final revision occupied him -twenty-two years. At the time of his death (in his seventy-fifth year) the -work was all but completed; the last touches were given by his friend, -Rabbi Abina. - -The Mosaic is the written law of the Jews; the Mishna, the oral. The -latter is the very basis of Judaism, is its civil, religious, and -juridico-political code,--an explanation and amplification of the Mosaic. -It was developed out of the authoritative decisions of the schools and of -certain distinct and well-authenticated traditions which were traced back -to Sinai itself. Thus there were two chief sections, or parts: _Halacoth_, -the rabbinical decisions, and _Haggadah_, the traditional narratives and -popular illustrations. Of the great bulk of the former the reputed author -is Hillel, the head of the Sanhedrim in the early part of Herod the -Great's reign, but, probably, he only collected them. Maimonides arranges -them under five heads:-- - - _a._ Mosaic and Scriptural; - - _b._ Mosaic and traditional; - - _c._ Dicta and decisions generally received, but doubtful; - - _d._ Decisions of the wise, given by them as "hedges of the law;" and - - _e._ Counsels of prudence, which it was well to follow, though they - had no legal authority. - -The Haggadic narratives are generally of a light and amusing character, -though occasionally a deep significance underlies them, converting them -into allegories and fables and parables well worthy the attention of the -student, though he may not think so highly of them as Frankel, who -exclaims: "They are as vivid flashes: or as those spirits of light in -Jewish myth, that flow forth in daily myriads from GOD'S throne, and then -vanish to make way for others." - -The Halacoth and Haggadoth accumulated rapidly after the Captivity, -representing in due time "a body of traditional exposition of high -authority, which increased rapidly, and required the life-long study of a -numerous body of Sopherim, or Scribes, to digest and hand on without loss -to succeeding generations." Soon it outgrew the grasp of even the -strongest memory and the profoundest application, and it became evident -that, unless put upon record, all that was valuable would perish, and only -that be preserved which chanced to be in accordance with popular -sentiment. To the digest made by Hillel, Simon ben Gamaliel added the -worthiest of the later material; and his son, Jehudah the Holy, entered on -a complete redaction and revision, which he published in A.D. 219. Hillel, -grandfather of the Gamaliel at whose feet S. Paul sat, had arranged the -traditional Halacoth under eighteen heads; Jehudah re-arranged them into -six Sedarim, or sections:-- - - 1. _Zeraim_ (Seeds,) on Agriculture; - - 2. _Moed_ (Feast,) on the Sabbath, Festivals, and Fasts; - - 3. _Nashim_ (Women,) on Marriage, Divorce, &c., including the laws on - Vows and the Nazirship; - - 4. _Nizikin_ (Damages,) chiefly civil and penal law, including the - ethical treatise Aboth; - - 5. _Kadashim_ (Sacred things,) Sacrifices, &c., a description of the - Temple at Jerusalem, &c.; - - 6. _Tehoroth_ (Purifications,) on pure and impure persons and things. - -We now see that, about A.D. 221 Jehudah the Holy created the Mishna, we -have already seen that three centuries later, the same exhaustive work of -redaction and revision was done for the Gemara,--the two forming what is -now known as the Talmud. The two "editors" received each his peculiar -title of honour; Jehudah was styled Rabbina, Ashi Rabban. - -Of the language of the Babylon Talmud it is said that it is debased with -foreign and barbarous terms and grammatical solecisms to a much greater -extent than the "Jerusalem Talmud." Mr. Blunt asserts that "the Haggadic -narratives resemble more closely the vernacular Aramaic, showing their -origin in ordinary folk lore. The Halacoth are in Mishnic Hebrew, carrying -evidence of higher date. The style is so exceedingly concise as to make -the sense that it contains a microscopic study. The difficulties indeed -of the Gemara are so great, that no one need think to master them -thoroughly who has not drawn in Gemara with his mother's milk. The study -of the Talmud presumes a thorough knowledge also of the Hebrew Bible, a -single word often indicating an entire passage. The wonderful moral -confusion of the Talmud, the mixed character of which may be detected in -every page, is nowhere more strikingly exemplified than in the prayer put -by the Gemarist into the mouth of Rabbi Nechoniah ben Hakakana, on -entering the school, or Beth Midrash, and quitting it again in the -evening." - -The morning prayer was as follows:-- - -"I beseech Thee that no scandal may occur through fault of mine, and that -I err not in matters of Halacah, so as to cause my colleagues to exult. -May I not call impurity pure, or purity impure; and may my colleagues not -blunder in matters of Halacah, that I may have no cause to triumph over -them." - -The spirit of this prayer, in its meekness and modesty, is truly -commendable, and presents a striking contrast to that of the evening -prayer:-- - -"I thank Thee that Thou hast given me my portion among those who have a -seat in the Beth Midrash, and that Thou hast not cast my lot among those -who sit in the corner. I early rise, and they early rise; but I rise to -the service of the law, they to vanity. I labour, and they also labour, -but I labour and receive a recompense; they labour, but receive nothing. I -hasten, and they also hasten; but I hasten in the direction of the world -to come, they hasten towards the pit of destruction." - -It is impossible to believe that both these prayers come from the same -source; "sweet waters and bitter" do not alike flow from the fountain of -Marah. - -With respect to the general character of the Talmud, with all its weakness -and strength, its beauty and deformity, its poetry and commonplace, its -tender wisdom and glaring absurdity, we cannot do better than quote the -moderate opinion of the writer already cited, as infinitely more -trustworthy than the dithyrambic utterances of Deutsch and his imitators. -He says:-- - -"In its origin it was the result of an almost necessary development. -Starting with the axiom that the law of Moses is binding on the children -of Abraham in every generation, its precepts have been applied to the -changing habits and customs of the Jews in different ages and under -various climates, by a literal interpretation when possible, otherwise on -the _ci-pres_ principle, rarely by giving a new direction to its -enactments, as instanced under the Hillel _regime_. It is this application -of the Law to the needs of Jewish Society, by a process slow and gradual, -that has made each successive stage of development, in Jewish opinion, -more valuable than its predecessors. Thus if the Law has been likened to -water, the Mishna, which gives a later direction to its precepts, is as -wine; and the Gemara, declaring as it does the sense in which the Mishnic -Hilkoth are to be taken, is as hippocras. It is not that the Law is less, -or that the traditional decisions and expository matter are more sacred, -but the latest phase of judicial interpretation is the most binding; and -where the rule of action is clear and decisive, no antecedent utterance -need trouble the inquirer. Yet the Talmud has always been antiquated. It -has never known the sunshine of youth. It has still been the mouldering, -moss-grown ruin. In its origin it presupposed vital action where there was -nothing but death; Temple service with the Temple hopelessly in ruins, -'not one stone upon another;' sacrificial rites that were impossible -without an altar, and for which certain prayers were substituted, -carefully numbered out, and made binding on the individual in lieu of -public offering.... Nothing can be more completely out of place than -strict Talmudism amid the complications of modern society; it is -impossible to make its precepts consist with the social and political -duties of the highly educated Jew. Our LORD, Who came not to destroy the -Law, but to fulfil it, has pointed out those modes of dealing with the Law -in its higher and more spiritual bearings, that in the end must be -accepted by Israel as his truest wisdom." - -Mr. Deutsch gives the following account of the six sections of the -Mishna:-- - -"Section I. _Seeds_: of Agrarian laws, commencing with a chapter on -Prayers. In this section the various tithes and donations due to the -Priests, the Levites, and the poor, from the products of the lands, and -further the Sabbatical year, and the prohibited mixtures in plants, -animals, and garments, are treated of. - -"Section II. _Feasts_: of Sabbaths, Feast and Fast days, the work -prohibited, the ceremonies ordained, the sacrifices to be offered, on -them. Special chapters are devoted to the Feast of the Exodus from Egypt, -to the New Year's Day, to the Day of Atonement (one of the most impressive -portions of the whole book,) to the Feast of Tabernacles, and to that of -Haman. - -"Section III. _Women_: of betrothal, marriage, divorce, &c.; also of vows. - -"Section IV. _Damages_: including a great part of the civil and criminal -law. It treats of a law of trades, of buying and selling, and the ordinary -monetary transactions. Further, of the greatest crime known to the law, -viz., idolatry. Next of witnesses, of oaths, of legal punishments, and of -the Sanhedrim itself. This section concludes with the so-called 'Sentences -of the Fathers,' containing some of the sublimest ethical dicta known in -the history of religious philosophy. - -"Section V. _Sacred Things_: of sacrifices, the first-born, &c.; also of -the measurements of the Temple (Middoth). - -"Section VI. _Purifications_: of the various Levitical and other Hygienic -laws, of impure things and persons, their purification, &c."[22] - -In defence of the Haggadah, with all its incongruities, puerilities, and -absurdities, it is only just to hear what Deutsch, its enthusiastic -apostle, has to say. And first he applies to it the rhyming apology which -Bunyan put forward on behalf of his great allegory,--which, by the way, -Mr. Deutsch surely misrepresents and misunderstands when he speaks of it -as Haggadistic:-- - - "... Wouldst thou divert thyself from melancholy? - Wouldst thou be pleasant, yet be far from folly? - Wouldst thou read riddles and their explanation? - Or else be drowned in thy contemplation? - Dost thou love picking meat? Or wouldst thou see - A man in the clouds, and hear him speak to thee? - Wouldst thou be in a dream, and yet not sleep? - Or wouldst thou in a moment laugh and weep? - Wouldst lose thyself, and catch no harm? - And find thyself again without a charm? - Wouldst read thyself, and read thou know'st not what - And yet know whether thou art blest or not - By reading the same lines? O then come hither, - And lay this book, thy head and heart together." - -Mr. Deutsch thus seeks to disarm antagonists by a skilful concession. He -does not wonder--not he--that the so-called "Rabbinical stories," -submitted at intervals to the English public, should have met with an -unflattering reception. The Talmud, which has always at hand a drastic -word, says of their collectors:--"They dived into an ocean, and brought up -a potsherd." But then, he says, these follies form only a small item in -the vast mass of allegories, parables, and the like, that compose the -Haggadah. And, besides, they are partly ill-chosen, partly ill-translated, -and partly did not even belong to the Talmud, but to some recent Jewish -story books. Herder--to name the most famous critic of the "Poetry of -Peoples"--has spoken most eulogistically of what he saw of the genuine -specimens. And, indeed, "not only is the entire world of pious biblical -legend which Islam has said and sung in its many tongues to the delight of -the wise and simple for twelve centuries, now to be found either in embryo -or fully developed in the Haggadah, but much that is familiar among -ourselves in the circles of mediaeval sagas, in Dante, in Boccaccio, in -Cervantes, in Milton, in Bunyan, has consciously or unconsciously flowed -out of this wondrous realm, the Haggadah. That much of it is overstrained, -even according to Eastern notions, we do not deny. But," argues Mr. -Deutsch, "there are feeble passages even in Homer and Shakespeare." To -this it may be replied, that in Homer and Shakespeare such passages are -rare, and do not form the bulk of their writings; and, moreover, that for -the Iliad or for Hamlet we do not claim the position of authority which is -claimed for the Talmud. - -Let us glance briefly at the cosmogony of the Talmud. It assumes that the -universe has been developed by means of a series of cataclysms; that world -was destroyed after world, until GOD made "this world, and saw that it -was very good." It assumes also that the kosmos was wrought out of some -original substance, itself created by GOD. "One or three things were -before this world,--Water, Fire, and Wind; Water begat the darkness, Fire -begat light, and Wind begat the spirit of Wisdom." - -"The _how_ of the creation was not mere matter of speculation. The -co-operation of angels, whose existence was warranted by Scripture, and a -whole hierarchy of whom had been built up under Persian influences, was -distinctly denied. In a discussion about the day of their creation, it is -agreed on all hands that there were no angels at first, lest men might -say, 'Michael spanned out the firmament on the south, and Gabriel to the -north.'" There is a distinct foreshadowing of the Gnostic Demiurgos--that -antique link between the Divine Spirit and the world of matter--to be -found in the Talmud. What with Plato were the Ideas, with Philo the Logos, -with the Kabbalists the "World of Aziluth," what the Gnostics called more -emphatically the wisdom ([Greek: sophia]), or power ([Greek: dynamis]), -and Plotinus the [Greek: nous], that the Talmudical authors call Metation. -There is a good deal, in the post-captivity Talmud, about the Angels, -borrowed from the Persian. The Archangels or Angelic princes are seven in -number, and their Hebrew names and functions correspond almost exactly to -those of their Persian prototypes. There are also hosts of ministering -angels, the Persian _Yazatas_, whose functions, besides that of being -messengers, were twofold,--to praise GOD, and to be guardians of man. In -their first capacity they are daily created by GOD'S breath out of a -stream of fire that rolls its waves under the supernal throne. In their -second, two of them accompany every man, and for every new good deed man -acquires a new guardian angel, who always watches over his steps. When a -righteous man dies, three hosts of angels descend from the celestial -battlements to meet him. One says, (in the words of Scripture,) "He shall -go in peace;" the second takes up the strain and says, "Who has walked in -righteousness;" and the third concludes, "Let him come in peace and rest -upon his bed." In like manner, when the wicked man passes away, three -hosts of wicked angels are ready to escort him, but their address is not -couched in any spirit of consolation or encouragement. - -There are various indications in the Talmud of a belief in the -resurrection and immortality of the soul. The resurrection, it teaches, is -to be brought about by the mystic influence of the "Dew of life" in -Jerusalem. It does not uphold the dogma of everlasting damnation, though -it allows that the punishment of apostates, idolaters, and traitors will -endure for "generations upon generations." - -In conclusion, it is but fair that we should present the brighter and -better aspect of this extraordinary book, its ethical side, and afford -some illustrations of the moral and religious philosophy which pervades -it,--which is its salt, and preserves its savour. The following sayings -have been translated by Deutsch.[23] Many of them bear a striking -resemblance to the great and glorious sayings of the Gospels; and to us it -seems impossible to doubt that they evidence the influence of the former. -It is true that the Talmud as a whole preceded the New Testament, but as -its redaction took place at a much later period, we see nothing absurd in -the hypothesis that its redactors had felt the spell of the Christian -teaching, and occasionally introduced some of its rare and precious -threads of purest silk into the coarse woof woven by traditionalists, -scholiasts, and commentators:-- - -The house that does not open to the poor shall open to the physician; even -the birds in the air despise the miser. He who gives charity in secret is -greater than Moses himself. Honour the sons of the poor, it is they who -bring science into splendour. - -Let the honour of thy neighbour be to thee like thine own. Rather be -thrown into a fiery furnace than bring any one to public shame. - -Hospitality is the most important part of divine worship. There are three -crowns: of the law, the priesthood, the kingship; but the crown of a good -name is greater than they all. - -Iron breaks the stone, fire melts iron, water extinguishes fire, the -clouds drink up the water, a storm drives away the clouds, man withstands -the storm, fear unmans man, wine dispels fear, sleep drives away wine, and -death sweeps all away--even sleep. But Solomon the Wise says, Charity -saves from death. - -The dog sticks to you on account of the crumbs in your pocket. - -The camel wanted to have horns, and they took away his ears. - -The soldiers fight, and the kings are the heroes. - -He in whose family there has been one hanged should not say to his -neighbour, Pray hang this little fish up for me. - -The cock and the owl both await the daylight. The light, says the cock, -brings delight to me; but what are _you_ waiting for? - -When the thief has no opportunity for stealing, he considers himself an -honest man. - -If thy friends agree in calling thee an ass, go and get a halter round -thee. - -Fools are no proof. - -One eats, another says grace. - -He who is ashamed will not easily commit sin. There is a great difference -between him who is ashamed before his own self, and him who is only -ashamed before others. It is a good sign in man to be capable of being -ashamed. One contrition in man's heart is better than many flagellations. - -How can you escape sin? Think of three things,--whence thou camest, -whither thou goest, and to whom thou wilt have to account for all thy -deeds,--even to the King of kings, the All-holy, praised be He. - -Love your wife like yourself, honour her more than yourself. Whosoever -lives unmarried lives without joy, without comfort, without blessing. -Descend a step in choosing a wife. If thy wife is small, bend down to her -and whisper into her ear. He who forsakes the love of his youth, GOD'S -altar weeps for him. He who sees his wife die before him, has, as it were, -been present at the destruction of the sanctuary itself, around him the -world grows dark. It is woman alone through whom GOD'S blessings are -vouchsafed to a house. She teaches the children, speeds the husband to the -place of worship and instruction, welcomes him when he returns, keeps the -house godly and pure, and GOD'S blessings rest upon all these things. He -who marries for money, his children shall be a curse to him. - -After the thief runs the theft; after the beggar, poverty. - -While thy foot is shod, smash the thorn. - -When the ox is down, many are the butchers. - -Luck makes rich, luck makes wise. - -If you wish to hang yourself, choose a big tree. - -When the pitcher falls upon the stone, woe unto the pitcher; when the -stone falls upon the pitcher, woe unto the pitcher; whatever befalls, woe -unto the pitcher. - -Youth is a garland of roses, age a crown of thorns. - -Be thou the cursed, not he who curses. Be of them that are persecuted, not -of them that persecute. Look at Scripture, there is not a single bird more -persecuted than the dove, yet GOD has chosen her to be offered up on His -altar. The bull is hunted by the lion, the sheep by the wolf, the goat by -the tiger. And GOD said, "Bring Me a sacrifice not from them that -persecute, but from them that are persecuted." - -"Hath GOD pleasure in the meat and blood of sacrifices?" asks the prophet. -No; He has not so much ordained as permitted them. It is for yourselves, -He says, not for Me that you offer, Like a king, who sees his son -carousing daily with all manner of evil companions: You shall henceforth -eat and drink entirely at your will at my own table, he says. They offered -sacrifices to demons and devils, for they loved sacrificing, and would not -do without it. And the LORD said, "Bring your offerings to Me, you shall -then at least offer to the true GOD." - -Even when the gates of heaven are shut to prayer, they are open to tears. - -The reward of good works is like dates, sweet and late to ripen. - -Life is a passing shadow, says the Scripture. Is it the shadow of a tower, -of a tree? A shadow that prevails for a while? No, it is the shadow of a -bird in his flight,--away speeds the bird, and there is neither bird nor -shadow. - -Repent one day before thy death. There was a king who bade all his -servants to a great repast, but did not indicate the hour; some went home -and put on their best garments, and stood at the door of the palace; -others said, There is ample time, the king will let us know beforehand. -But the king summoned them of a sudden; and those that came in their best -garments were well received, but the foolish ones, who came in their -slovenliness, were turned away in disgrace. Repent to-day, lest to-morrow -you might be called. - -He who has more learning than good works is like a tree with many branches -but few roots, which the first wind throws on its face; whilst he whose -works are greater than his knowledge, is like a tree with many roots but -fewer branches, but which all the winds of heaven cannot uproot. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -_BRAHMANISM._ - - -THE BRAHMANS. - -In the "Book of Sir Marco Polo" occurs a quaint description of the -_Abraiaman_ or Brahmans, which, though inaccurate in some of its details, -seems worth quotation here:-- - -You must know, he says, that these Abraiaman are the best merchants in the -world [an obvious misconception!] and the most truthful, for they would -not tell a lie for anything on earth. If a foreign merchant who does not -know the ways of the country apply to them, and place his goods in their -hands, they will take charge of them most loyally, selling them to the -best advantage, seeking jealously the profit of the foreigner, and asking -no commission except what he pleases to bestow. They eat no flesh, drink -no wine, and live a life of great chastity; nor would they on any account -take what belongs to another, for so their law commands. And they are all -distinguished by wearing a thread of cotton over one shoulder and tied -under the other arm, so that it crosses the breast and the back. - -They have a rich and powerful king, who is eager to purchase precious -stones and large pearls; and he sends these Abraiaman merchants into the -kingdom of Maabar called Soli, which is the best and noblest Province of -India, and where the best pearls are found, to fetch him as many of these -as they can get, and he pays them double the cost price for all. So in -this way he has a vast treasure of such valuables. - -These Abraiaman are idolaters; and they give greater heed to signs and -omens than any people that exist. I will mention one of their customs as -an example. To every day of the week they assign a special augury. Suppose -some purchase is on foot; he who proposes to become the buyer takes note, -when he rises in the morning, of his shadow in the sun, which ought, he -says, on that day to be of such and such a length; and should his shadow -be of the proper length for that day he completes his purchase; if it be -not, he will on no account do so, but waits till his shadow reaches the -prescribed measurement. For there is a certain length fixed for every day -in the week; and the merchant will not complete any business unless he -finds his shadow of the length set down for that particular day. Also to -each day in the week they assign one hour as unlucky, which they term -_Choiach_. For example, on Monday the hour of Half-tierce (7 to 8 a.m.), -on Tuesday that of Tierce, (9 to 10 a.m.), on Wednesday Nones (12 to 1 -p.m.), and so on. - -Again, if one of them be in the house, and, while meditating a purchase, -should see a tarantula (such as is very common in that country) on the -wall, provided that it advance from a quarter which he deems lucky, he -will complete his purchase at once; but if it come from a quarter which he -considers unlucky, he will not do so on any inducement. Moreover, if, on -going forth, he hear any one sneeze, he will proceed if he consider it a -good omen; but, if the reverse, he will straightway sit down in his place -for as long as he thinks it well to tarry. Or if, in travelling along the -road, he see a swallow fly past, should its direction be lucky he will -proceed, but, if not, he will turn back again: in fact, they are worse, in -these vagaries, than so many Patarins! (i.e. heretics.) - -These Abraiaman are very long-lived, owing to their extreme abstinence in -eating. And they never allow themselves to let blood in any part of the -body. They have capital teeth, which is due to a certain herb they chew; -it greatly improves their appearance, and is also very good for the -health. - -There is another class of people called _Chugi_ [Jogi], who are indeed -properly Abraiaman, but they form a religious order devoted to the Idols. -They are extremely long-lived, every man of them living to 150 or 200 -years. They eat very little, but what they do eat is good; rice and milk -chiefly. And these people make use of a very strange beverage; for they -brew a potion of mixed sulphur and quicksilver, and drink it twice every -month. This, they say, gives them long life; and they are used to take it -from their childhood. - -Certain members of this Order lead the most ascetic life imaginable, going -completely naked; they worship the Ox. Most of them wear a small image of -an ox, in brass, pewter, or gold, tied over the forehead. Moreover, they -take cow-dung, and burn it, and make a powder of it; and then they make it -into an ointment, with which they daub themselves as devoutly as -Christians use holy water. Further, if they meet any person who treats -them well, they daub a little of this powder on the middle of his -forehead. - -They do not eat from bowls or trenchers, but place their food on leaves of -the Apple of Paradise and other large leaves; these, however, they use -dry, never green. For they say the green leaves have a soul in them, and -so it would be a sin. And they would rather die than do what their Law -pronounces to be sin. If any one ask how it comes that they are not -ashamed to go about in their nudity, they say:--"We go naked because naked -we came into the world, and we desire to have nothing about us that is of -this world. Moreover, we have no sin of the flesh to be conscious of, and -therefore we are not ashamed of our nakedness, any more than you are to -show your hand or your face. You who are conscious of the sins of the -flesh do well to be ashamed, and to cover your nakedness." - -On no account would they kill an animal, not even a fly, or a flea, or a -louse, or anything in fact that has life; for they say all these have -souls, and it would be sinful to do so. They eat no vegetables in a green -state, only when they are dry. And they sleep on the ground, naked, -without a rag of clothing over them or under them; so that it is a marvel -they do not all die, instead of living so long as I have told you. They -fast every day in the year, and drink nothing but water. And when a novice -has to be received among them they keep him awhile in their convent, and -make him follow their rule of life. - -They are such cruel and perfidious idolaters that it is very devilry! They -say that they burn the bodies of the dead, because if they were not burnt, -worms would generate and consume them; and when no more food remained for -them, they would die, and the souls belonging to those bodies would bear -the sin and the punishment of their death. - - * * * * * - -In another part of his immortal work, Marco Polo speaks of the -fish-charmers of Ceylon as Brahmans (or _Abraiaman_.) The pearl-fishers, -he says, pay one twentieth part of all that they take to these men, who -charm the great fishes, and prevent them from injuring the divers whilst -engaged in seeking pearls under water. Their charm holds good only for the -day; at night they dissolve it, so that the fishes can work mischief at -their will. These Abraiaman, he adds, know also how to charm beasts and -birds and every living thing. - -Commenting on this statement, Colonel Yule observes that the modern -snake-charmers do not seem entitled to the distinctive appellation of -Abraiaman, or Brahmans, though they may have been so in former days. At -the diamond-mines of the Northern Circars Brahmans are employed in the -similar task of propitiating the tutelary genii. The snake-charmers are -called in Tamul _Kadal-kalti_, "Sea-binders," and in Hindustani, -_Haibanda_, or "Shark-binders." At Aripo they belong to one family, -supposed to enjoy monopoly of the charm. The chief operator is (or was, -not many years ago) paid by Government, and he also received two oysters -from each boat daily during the fishery. Turnoub, on his visit, found the -incumbent of the office to be a Roman Catholic Christian, but that did not -seem to affect the exercise or the validity of his practices. It is -remarkable that when Turnoub wrote, not more than one authenticated -accident from sharks had taken place, during the whole period of the -British occupation. - - * * * * * - -Among the shepherds, or hillmen, in the neighbourhood of Rampore (or "City -of Rama,")--the Paharis, as they are called,--a curious custom lingers, -which resembles the strange old Highland ceremony of the sunwise turn, or -Deisul, round any particular object, partly for luck, partly as a survival -of the sun-worship of the men of old. Sometimes the villagers gather their -flocks into one great herd, and, walking at the head, lead them slowly -round the village, following the solar course. Gradually they quicken -their pace to a run, and in this fashion perambulate the village thrice or -even oftener. - -This sunwise turn is practised in other cases, as in sickness or accident. -Sheep and goats are solemnly paraded round the sufferer; after which they -lose their heads. If the sufferer be wealthy, the number so sacrificed to -the demons is often considerable. But the Paharis very firmly hold that -though the lesser spirits may be thus propitiated, no sacrifice is -acceptable to the Supreme Deity; that all He claims is devout worship. - -They believe in the existence of three and thirty millions of good and -evil spirits, but their special adoration seems to be reserved for the -spirit which watches over their particular village, and in their temples -they reserve for him a kind of ark or shrine, wherein his veiled image is -carefully preserved. Every day this ark is slung upon long poles, and -taken out for an airing; and once a year it is borne through the country -side in solemn procession, and the people assemble and dance before it, as -the Israelites of old danced before the tabernacle. The said ark is gaily -decorated with bright-coloured hangings, and upon it is set a brazen head, -with four or more faces, overshadowed by yaks' tails, like huge plumes of -dark or scarlet wool. Sometimes the whole structure is adorned with faces -of polished metal, which gleam and reflect like mirrors in the sun. -Moreover, it is usually draped all around with a deep fringe of silky -white yaks' tails, depending almost to the ground, and concealing the -bodies of the bearers, so that the tabernacle seems to crawl along upon -its own feet. - -To the service of the temple certain people are set apart in every -village. In the morning they sound an alarm in honour of the god with -bell, and conch, and cymbal, and again in the evening with a similar din -they announce the close of day. Ablutions are ignored by the villagers in -their own case, but they will have their goddess washed and dressed -daily. They burn incense before her, and serve her with offerings of -leaves of wild mint. - -Occasionally, all the tribes assemble at a religious festival, and each -village sends forth its ark, with the men and women attired in their -brightest colours, and glittering with all their jewels. The various -processions, with dance and song and gambol, proceed towards the appointed -rendezvous; one of their little temples, of rudely carved cedar-wood, -situated in the calm shade of a group of forest-trees. Near this temple is -usually prepared a neatly-levelled space, covered with green turf, or, -perhaps, paved; and here the Khudas, or arks, are solemnly deposited. For -three days the festivities are kept up, and the sound of singing and -dancing seems continuous. Every now and then each village-company raises -its Khuda from the ground, and carries it in a little circle, sunwise, -while the nodding plumes seem to keep time to the rude chant of the simple -worshippers, and an outer ring of men, joining hands, follow the rhythm in -fantastic dance. Then the idol is set down; the people prepare their -homage; the dance goes on; and the women, in a long undulating chain, -sunwise revolve around the mystic Khuda. - -Each woman, throwing one arm around her neighbour's waist, keeps the other -free, and waves a plume-like chowni or yak's tail, as she bows to the -Khuda. They do not all wave simultaneously, but in swift succession, so as -to produce the effect of a continuous graceful motion. If one of the women -retire, from fatigue, another slips into her place: sometimes the men form -the circle, then both men and women join, always carrying on the same -evolutions, the same circular motion. At nightfall the huge fires are -kindled, and the lurid gleams of pine-wood torches flicker athwart the -darkness, while the echoes ring incessantly with the monotonous clang of -great trumpet-shells and tomtoms. - -When they have expended all their energies the revellers bring the -festival to a close, and each village-company bears back its -patron-goddess to her own little sanctuary. - -Whether, as some surmise, this ceremony is associated with any tradition -of Noah's Ark, we cannot pretend to determine. But it is certain that some -legends of the Flood still linger among the hillmen. There is a popular -myth which tells of a mighty ship built by Manu and the Seven Sages, in -which they stored the seed of all kinds of life, and of its being rescued -by Brahma when the Deluge overwhelmed the primitive earth. Brahma, it -says, drew the great vessel for many days until he reached a high peak of -the Himalayas, where he moored it securely. In memory whereof, the peak -has ever since borne the name of _Naubandhana_. - -Mr. W. Simpson, who has seen much of India and the Indians, describes an -Ark-festival which he witnessed in a Himalayan valley. After indulging in -the usual ceremonial ablutions, the people of the district assembled at -the village of Coatee to do honour to its patron-goddess. The Khuda was -brought out, and with dance and music, conducted in noisy procession -through the deep shades of the forest and its lonesome glens, until they -reached a certain grove, in which a small temple was situated. The Khuda -was then deposited on the paved space in front; and an aged priest washed -all the brazen faces with mint leaves and water previous to offering up -incense, flowers, fruit, and bread. - -A number of playful young kids were next brought forward. The priest -sprinkled them with water. On the ground lay a large flat brazen dish, and -one of the villagers stood beside it with a sacred hatchet, rudely -ornamented. At a single blow he struck off the head of a kid. The priest's -assistant raised the head, and muttering certain words, presented it to -the Khuda. Dipping his finger into the blood, he flicked some drops upon -the carven image, and placed the head with the other offerings. Meanwhile, -the kid's body had been so disposed that all its blood dripped into the -brazen vessel; and when two or three animals had been sacrificed and the -dish was full, one of the men lifted it up, and, first presenting it to -the Khuda, turned round, and swang the body against the whitewashed wall -of the temple, so as to empty it of blood. This ceremony was thrice -repeated. - -The festival is known as the _Akrot-ka-pooja_, or Walnut Festival, from -the pastime that follows the sacrificial scene. The priest, with a few -companions, takes his place in the balcony of the temple, and all the -young men present pelt them liberally with walnuts and green pine-cones, -which the group in the balcony rapidly collect and return in plentiful -volleys. For about half-an-hour this severe encounter lasts, when the -assailed descend, and once more mingle with the crowd. - -By this time the sacrificial kids have been cooked, and the people seating -themselves on the paved space in front of the Khuda, cakes and flesh are -served out among them. In opposition to the usual Eastern custom, the -women are helped before the men. It is now time for the homeward journey, -but the mysterious oscillation of the Khuda is understood to signify its -desire to visit the neighbouring village of Cheenee; and thither the -multitude at once proceed, dancing, singing, shouting, while the forest -glades resound with the trumpets and the tomtoms, and a few of the -nimbler-footed speed ahead to give notice to the authorities at Cheenee of -the honour in store for them. When near the latter village, the procession -is met by the goddess of Cheenee, with her retinue, and an exchange of -courtesies takes place. Next morning, the goddess of Kothi, or Coatee, -returns to her own charge. - - -SHAMANISM: DEVIL-DANCING. - -In many parts of Central and Southern India the rite of Devil-Dancing is -practised, and Bishop Caldwell gives a striking description of it as it -exists among the Shawars of Tinnevelly:[24] - -"When the preparations are completed and the devil-dance is about to -commence, the music is at first comparatively slow; the dancer seems -impassive and sullen, and he either stands still or moves about in gloomy -silence. Gradually, as the music becomes quicker and louder, his -excitement begins to rise. Sometimes, to help him to work himself up into -a frenzy, he uses medicated draughts, cuts and lacerates himself till the -blood flows, lashes himself with a huge whip, presses a burning torch to -his breast, drinks the blood which flows from his own wounds, or drains -the blood of the sacrifice, putting the throat of the decapitated goat to -his mouth. Then, as if he had acquired new life, he begins to brandish his -staff of bells, and to dance with a quick but wild unsteady step. -Suddenly the afflatus descends; there is no mistaking that glare, or those -frantic leaps. He snorts, he swears, he gyrates. The demon has now taken -bodily possession of him, and though he retains the power of utterance and -motion, both are under the demon's control, and his separate consciousness -is in abeyance. The bystanders signalize the event by raising a long -shout, attended with a peculiar vibratory noise, caused by the motion of -the hand and tongue, or the tongue alone. The devil-dancer is now -worshipped as a present deity, and every bystander consults him respecting -his diseases, his wants, the welfare of his absent relatives, the -offerings to be made for the accomplishment of his wishes, and, in short, -everything for which superhuman knowledge is supposed to be available." - - * * * * * - -Before we quit this subject, it may be for the interest and convenience of -the reader, if we offer a brief account of the doctrines and rites of -Brahmism. This movement against the old Hindu faith, initiated by Rammohun -Roy, and developed by Babu Keshub Chunda Sen, owes its origin, however -unconsciously, to the influence of Christianity, which the Hindu mind, on -awaking from its long sleep of centuries, found, as it were, by its side, -and the pure and elevated character of which it could not but recognise. - -Rammohun Roy was born in the district of Moorshadabad in 1772, and was -upwards of forty years of age when he undertook the part of a religious -reformer. A man of considerable natural powers, he had cultivated them -carefully, acquired a thorough knowledge of Sanskrit and Arabic, and -accompanied his meditations on the Sastras, or Hindu religious books, with -a close study of the English Scriptures. Removing to Calcutta in 1814, he -endeavoured to engage his friends in the same pursuits, and as this effort -led him naturally to new inquiries, he soon came to abandon his belief in -traditional Hinduism. A cry of 'infidel!' was immediately raised against -him; he became the subject of an incessant hostility; was on one occasion -mobbed in the streets of Calcutta; and owed his life to the protection of -the British Government. Persecution, however, could not quench his thirst -after knowledge. He applied himself to the study of Greek and Hebrew, -that by reading the Bible in its original languages, he might penetrate -more thoroughly into the spirit of Hebrew and Christian devotion. - -Having dismissed the authority of the Puranas, he rested his faith on the -Vedas, the oldest of the Hindu sacred books, in the conviction (an -erroneous one) that the old creed of Hinduism was monotheistic, and the -belief (a justifiable one) that the Puranas represented the degeneracy of -a later age. Strange to say, he did not detect the Pantheism that -overflows the Vedas: in the Upanishads or treatises attached to them, he -fancied that he saw a pure Deism, and to diffuse this among his -countrymen, he published numerous translations and organised a society of -believers, who recited texts from the Vedas, and chanted Christian hymns. -In 1830 he went further; founding a prayer-meeting, which proved the seed -of what is now known as the Brahma Samaj. The building erected for the -purpose of holding the meetings was, according to the trust deed, to be -open to people of all sorts and conditions, "who shall behave and conduct -themselves in an orderly, sober, religious, and devout manner, for the -worship and adoration of the Eternal, Unsearchable, and Immutable Being, -who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe, but not under and by any -other name, designation, or title, peculiarly used for and applied to any -particular Being or Beings by any man or set of men whatsoever." It -provided also, in direct opposition to the practices of Hinduism, that no -graven image, sculpture, carving, picture, painting, portrait, or likeness -of anything, should "be admitted within the walls of this building;" that -no animal sacrifices should take place there; that no eating or drinking, -feasting or rioting, should be permitted; that evil speaking against the -beliefs of men should be prohibited; and that no prayer, or sermon, or -teaching should be allowed, unless it had "a tendency to the contemplation -of the Author and Preserver of the Universe, or to the promotion of -charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue, and the strengthening of -the bonds of union between men of all religious persuasions and creeds." - -Here we have a distinct advance on Brahmanism and even on Buddhism, but -the religious system indicated in the closing sentence is nevertheless as -vague as it is cold; and lacks that vital element which Christianity -derives from its recognition of GOD the FATHER and CHRIST the SAVIOUR. -However, Rammohun Roy, in his fashion, was a sincere "seeker after GOD;" -and in his vague endeavour to grasp the truth he persevered in the face of -an intolerant opposition. He still continued to give a foremost place to -the Vedas as channels of religious instruction, but he introduced the -Psalms of David; and as time wore on, he separated himself more and more -completely from the traditions of orthodox Hinduism. Even his faith in the -Vedas came to be much shaken; and finding himself at last in that state of -isolation which is the suffering and martyrdom of the man in advance of -his age, he quitted India and went to live in England. At Bristol he -resided, much esteemed, until his death in 1833. - -For awhile the torch which he had lighted flickered ominously near to -extinction, until, in 1841, it passed into the hands of Babu Debendronath -Tagore. By him it was again lighted up; and as much had happened since -Rammohun Roy's departure, as education had gradually weakened the old -traditional prejudices, it became the rallying-point of a crowd of earnest -inquirers. Debendronath Tagore devoted himself with eager unselfishness, -giving unsparingly of his time, his money, and his talents. His work -derived no inconsiderable moral support from his unblemished personal -character. He provided the Samaj with a printing-press, expended much -money in fitting up their place of worship, and collected a valuable -library of the Hindu sacred books, besides providing for the support of -poor but promising students, sent to Benares to prosecute their studies. - -A remarkable change, however, soon came over the faith and teaching of the -Samaj. Hitherto, as we have seen, they had been based upon the Vedas, as -the authorized rule of Hindu theology; but inquiry and criticism had -gradually disclosed their Pantheistic character, and their consequent -incompatibility with the creed of the Samaj. Thus it came to pass that -about 1850 the Vedas had to go; and the members of the Samaj no longer -called themselves Vedantists but Brahmoists, or Brahmists (from _Brahm_, -or Brahma, the Supreme Being.) In other words, they openly became -Theists. - -A religious sect, brought together by a common monotheism and accepting a -common covenant, was naturally impelled towards an expansion of their -creed. But this expansion in the case of the Brahma Samaj, was probably -hastened by the number of branch Samajes that sprang up in the -neighbourhood of the metropolis and in some of the larger towns of the -Bengal presidency. These branches, constantly increasing in number through -the accessions of educated young men from the colleges and zillah schools, -naturally looked to the parent Samaj to define and establish their creed; -and what must be regarded as an authoritative exposition of it was -published in 1868. The following is a summary of it:-- - -"1. The book of Nature and Intuition form the basis of the Brahmaic faith. - -"2. Although the Brahmas do not consider any book written by man the basis -of their religion, yet do they accept with pleasure and respect any -_truth_ contained in any book. - -"3. The Brahmas believe that the religious condition of man is -progressive, like the other facts of his condition in this world. - -"4. They believe that the fundamental doctrines of their religion are at -the basis of every religion followed by man. - -"5. They believe in the existence of One Supreme GOD--a GOD endowed with a -distinct personality, and attributes equal to His nature, and intelligence -befitting the Governor of the Universe; and worship Him--Him alone. They -do not believe in His incarnation. - -"6. They believe in the immortality and progressive state of the soul, and -declare that there is a state of conscious existence succeeding life in -this world, and supplementary to it as respects the action of the -universal moral government. - -"7. They believe that atonement is the only way to salvation. They do not -recognise any other mode of reconcilement to the offended but loving -Father. - -"8. They pray for _spiritual_ welfare, and believe in the _efficacy_ of -real prayers. - -"9. They believe in the Providential care of the Divine Father. - -"10. They avow that love towards Him, and performing the works He loveth, -constitute His worship. - -"11. They recognise the necessity of public worship, but do not believe -that they cannot hold communion with the Great Father without resorting to -any fixed place at any fixed time. They maintain that we can adore Him at -any time and at any place, provided that time and that place are -calculated to compose and direct the mind towards Him. - -"12. They do not believe in pilgrimages, but declare that holiness can be -attained only by elevating and purifying the mind. - -"13. They do not perform any rites and ceremonies, or believe in penances, -as instrumental in obtaining the grace of GOD. They declare that moral -righteousness, the gaining of wisdom, Divine contemplation, charity, and -the cultivation of devotional feelings, are their rites and ceremonies. -They further say, Govern and regulate your feelings, discharge your duties -to GOD and to man, and you will gain everlasting blessedness; purify your -hearts, cultivate devotional feelings, and you will see Him who is Unseen. - -"14. Theoretically, there is no distinction of caste among the Brahmas. -They declare that we are all the children of GOD, and, therefore, must -consider ourselves as brothers and sisters." - -Briefly speaking, the religious system herein set forth may be described -as Christianity without CHRIST; and yet it was unwilling to acknowledge -its obligations to Christianity. Its apostles sought to persuade -themselves and others that they derived everything from the Vedas and -nothing from the Bible; and when they were compelled to abandon the Vedas, -they fell back upon Nature as a Divine Revelation. But, as an Anglo-Indian -authority contends, it is certain that but for the new life which at this -time flowed in with the tide of Western thought, and the study of a -literature "saturated at every pore" with Christian sentiment and the high -Gospel morality; and but for the strong and ceaseless opposition -maintained by Christianity in the person of its missionaries against the -Atheism, which was the first, though a short-lived result of the sudden -intellectual quickening the young men of Calcutta experienced when Western -science was substituted for Oriental myths, neither would the study of the -Vedas have been revived, nor would the great lessons of nature have -appeared so intelligible as they then became.[25] - -We have seen that Brahmanism made one advance under Rammohun Roy; it was -led still further forward by Debendronath Tagore; and then he too suddenly -halted, as his predecessor had done. The leadership next devolved upon a -man of higher courage, not less fitted to lead a great movement by his -enthusiasm than by his ability, Babu Keshub Chunda Sen. Keshub was -determined that the challenge should be thrown down to orthodox Hinduism: -and persuaded Debendronath Tagore, when his daughter was married, to -celebrate the occasion without the usual idolatrous ceremony. After this, -he purified of their idolatrous element the rites observed at birth and -death. Still, Debendronath Tagore supported him; but, at last, when an -attempt was made to eliminate not only what was purely idolatrous, but -also everything offensive to enlightened feeling and a purer taste, -Debendronath and the conservative party opposed, and a schism was the -result. - -"The time had arrived," says the writer already quoted, "when Brahmism, if -it was a power and not mere talk, must do battle with the system of caste -distinctions. The first step in this direction taken by Keshub Chunda Sen, -was the celebration of a marriage between persons belonging to different -castes. That was an innovation such as might well startle the venerable -pundits of Nuddea and Benares. There could henceforward be no doubt as to -the more than heretical tendency of the theistic doctrine. An electric -shock ran through society: all Hindudom was roused from its slumber, and -began suspiciously to ponder what Brahmism meant by such daring. But the -real test of principle was yet to come. It was comparatively safe to make -a few modifications in domestic religious rites: the marriage of people of -different castes compromised the principals chiefly: it was necessary that -the entire Brahma community should by some act be universally committed to -war against the evils and iniquities of caste. Keshub and his party -accepted this necessity, threw off the sacred thread that distinguished -them as Brahmans, and insisted that all who desired membership with their -Samaj should consent to renounce caste. There could be no greater triumph -than this, of principle over traditionalism: it stamped Brahmism as a -power in the land, and not an idle theological speculation." - -Thenceforward, Keshub Chunda Sen became the recognised leader of "the -Brahma Samaj of India," and the new sect adopted an active proselytism. -Branch Samajes have been established all over the country; missionaries -have been sent as far as Madras and Bombay and the Punjab. Tracts and -lectures have been freely circulated. In Calcutta a so-called "church" has -been built, and is well attended every Sunday evening, not only by men, -but by women, for whom special accommodation is provided. The services are -conducted in the vernacular, so as to be intelligible to all worshippers. -Brahmist hymns are sung to the accompaniment of the harmonium, and the -solemn _mridong_ (a kind of drum): passages are read from a book of -selections in which the extracts from the Bible greatly outnumber those -from any other source; extemporaneous prayers are offered with an -intensity of spiritual feeling that could do no disgrace to a Christian -congregation; and discourses are delivered which breathe a pure and noble -tone of sentiment and feeling. Two weekly periodicals, one Bengali and the -other English, the "Dharma Tattwa" and the "Indian Mirror," are the -recognised exponents of the views and teaching of the Samaj. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -_THE HINDU MYTHOLOGY: AND THE VISHNU PURANA._ - - -The word _Purana_ means "old," and the original object of the Puranas -would seem to have been the preservation of ancient mythological fictions -and historical traditions. But in the form in which they have come down to -us they do something more than this. They comprehend, more or less -thoroughly, the five following subjects:--1, Primary creation, or -cosmogony; 2, Secondary creation, or the destruction and renovation of -worlds, including chronology; 3, Genealogy of gods and patriarchs; 4, -Reigns of the Manus, or periods called Manwantaras; and 5, History, or -such particulars as are extant of the princes of the solar and lunar -races, and of their descendants to modern times. According to Professor -Wilson, they are evidently derived from the same religious system as the -Ramayana and Mahabharata, or from what he calls the mytho-heroic stage of -Hindu belief. "They present, however, peculiarities which designate their -belonging to a later period, and to an important modification in the -progress of opinion. They repeat the theoretical cosmogony of the two -great poems; they expound and systematise the chronological computations; -and they give a more definite and connected representation of the -mythological fictions and the historical traditions. But besides these and -other particulars, which may be derivable from an old, if not from a -primitive era, they offer characteristic peculiarities of a more modern -description, in the paramount importance which they assign to individual -divinities, in the variety and purport of the rites and observances -addressed to them, and in the invention of new legends illustrative of the -power and graciousness of those deities, and of the efficacy of implicit -devotion to them." - -The form of composition adopted in the Puranas is that of a dialogue, in -which its contents are related by one imaginary individual in reply to -another. Several dialogues are eventually woven together; and they purport -to have been held on different occasions between different individuals, in -consequence of similar questions having been asked. Usually the immediate -narrator is Lomaharshana or Romaharshana, the disciple of Vyasa, who, as -Plato did for Socrates, communicates to the reader his great master's -utterances. The Vyasa or compiler here meant was Krishna Dwaipayana, the -son of Parasara; it is said of him that he taught the Vedas and Puranas to -various pupils, but it seems more probable that he was at the head of a -school or college, the members of which moulded the sacred literature of -the Hindus into its present form. - -There appear to have been eighteen Puranas: namely, 1, Brahma; 2, Padma; -3, Vaishnava; 4, Saiva; 5, Bhagavata; 6, Naradiya; 7, Markandeya; 8, -Agneya; 9, Bhavishya; 10, Brahma Vaivarta; 11, Lainga; 12, Varaha; 13, -Skanda; 14, Vamana; 15, Kaurma; 16, Matsya; 17, Garuda; 18, Brahmanda. - -The Vishnu Purana is described as that in which Parasara, beginning with -the events of the Varaha Kalpa, expounds man's moral and religious -obligations in about seven thousand stanzas. It is divided into six -books:-- - -The first deals chiefly with the details of creation, primary (Sarga) and -secondary (Pratisarga); the first explaining how the universe proceeds -from Prakriti or eternal crude matter; the second, in what way "the forms -of things are developed from the elementary substances previously evolved, -or how they reappear after their temporary destruction." Both these -creations are periodical; the first does not end until the life of Brahma -ends, when not only the gods and all other forms are annihilated, but the -elements are resolved into the primary substance, besides which one only -spiritual being exists. The latter occurs at the end of every Kalpa, aeon, -or day of Brahma, and is wholly limited to the forms of inferior creatures -and the lower worlds; leaving untouched sages and gods and the substance -of the heavens. A description of the ages or periods of time on which -these events depend is involved in the explanation; and it is given -accordingly in wearisome detail. Their character has been a source of very -unnecessary perplexity to European writers; for they belong to a wholly -mythological scheme of chronology, which has no reference to any real or -supposed history of the Hindus, but prefigures, according to their system, -the infinite and eternal revolutions of the universe. - -By a singular incongruity the existence of Pradhana, or crude matter, is -identified with Vishnu, who is declared to be both spirit and crude -matter, and not only crude matter, but all visible substance, and Time. He -is Purusha, "spirit;" Pradhana, "crude matter;" Vyakta, "visible form;" -and Kala, "time." "This," says Professor Wilson, "cannot but be regarded -as a departure from the primitive dogmas of the Hindus, in which the -distinctness of the Deity and His works was enunciated; in which, upon His -willing the world to be, it was; and in which His interposition in -creation, held to be inconsistent with the quiescence of perfection, was -explained away by the personification of attributes in action, which -afterwards came to be considered as real divinities, Brahma, Vishnu, and -Siva, charged severally, for a given season, with the creation, -preservation, and temporary annihilation of material forms." In the Vishnu -Purana, these divinities are declared to be no other than Vishnu. - -The earth having been duly prepared for the reception of living creatures, -it was peopled by the will-begotten sons of Brahma, the Prajapatis or -patriarchs. But it was necessary to provide these "grey forefathers" of -the early world with wives. For this purpose, the Manu Swayambhuva and his -wife Satarupa, were invented; and their daughters supplied the patriarchs -with female partners. Numerous legends were built up on this basis, and -the whole story assumed an allegorical form. Swayhambhuva, the son of the -self-born or uncreated, and his wife Satarupa, the hundred-formed or -multiform, are themselves allegories; and their female descendants, who -became the wives of the Rishis, are Faith, Devotion, Content, -Intelligence, Tradition, and the like; whilst among their posterity are -found the different phases of the moon and the sacrificial fires. There -are other legends in explanation of the peopling of the earth. All seem to -indicate that the Prajapatis and Rishis were "real personages, the authors -of the Hindu system of social, moral, and religious obligations, and the -first observers of the heavens, and teachers of astronomical science." - -The genealogy is traced of the royal personages of this first race or -dynasty, and is continued into the second book; after which comes a detail -of the geographical system of the Puranas, with Mount Meru, the seven -circular continents, and their surrounding oceans, to the limits of the -world. This (except so far as India or Bharata is concerned) is purely -mythological. In the early portion of the third book, the arrangement of -the Vedas and other sacred writings of the Hindus is described. Then -follows an account of the principal Hindu institutions, the duties of -castes, the obligations of different stages of life, and the celebration -of funeral rites, in a brief but primitive strain, and in harmony with the -laws of Manu. "It is a distinguishing feature of the Vishnu Purana, and it -is characteristic of its being the work of an earlier period than most of -the Puranas, that it enjoins no sectarial or other acts of supererogation; -no Vratas, occasional self-imposed observances; no holy days, no birthdays -of Krishna, no nights dedicated to Lakshmi; no sacrifices or modes of -worship other than those conformable to the ritual of the Vedas. It -contains no Mahalinyas or golden legends, even of the temples in which -Vishnu is adored." - -The fourth book contains a tolerably full list of royal dynasties and -individuals, with a dull chronicle of events, the authenticity of which -cannot always be accepted. In the fifth book we have the life of Krishna, -one of the avatars or manifestations of Vishnu; and in the last an account -of the dissolution of the world, "in both its major and minor cataclysms," -which, "in the particulars of the end of all things by fire and water, as -well as in the principle of their perpetual renovation, presents a -faithful exhibition of opinions that were general in the ancient world." - -We now proceed to give a few specimens of the contents of this remarkable -work. - - -_Origin of Rudra_ (Bk. i. c. 8.) - -In the beginning of the Kalpa, as Brahma proposed to create a son, who -should be like himself, a youth of a purple complexion appeared; crying -with a low cry, and running about. Brahma, when he beheld him thus -afflicted, said to him: "Why dost thou weep?" "Give me a name," replied -the boy. "Rudra be thy name," rejoined the great father of all creatures: -"be composed; desist from tears." But, though thus addressed, the boy -still wept seven times; and Brahma therefore gave to him seven other -denominations: and to these eight persons regions and wives and posterity -belong. The eight manifestations, then, are named Rudra, Bhava, Sarva, -Isana, Pasaputi, Bhima, Ugra, and Mahadeva, which were given to them by -their great progenitor. He also assigned to them their respective -stations, the sun, water, earth, air, fire, ether, the ministrant Brahman, -and the moon; for these are their several forms. The wives of the sun and -the other manifestations, termed Rudra and the east, were, respectively: -Suvarchala, Usha, Vikesi, Siva, Swaha, Disas, Diksha, and Rohini. Now hear -an account of their progeny, by whose successive generations this world -has been peopled. Their sons were severally: Sawaischara (Saturn,) Sukra -(Venus,) the fiery-bodied (Mars,) Mamjava, Skanda, Swarga, Santana, and -Budha (Mercury.) - - -_Sacrifice of Daksha._ - -(This remarkable legend, according to Professor Wilson, is intended to -allegorise a struggle between the worshippers of Siva and of Vishnu, in -which the former, after a temporary defeat, obtained the victory.) - -There was formerly a peak of Meru, named Savitra, abounding with gems, -radiant as the sun, and celebrated throughout the three worlds; of immense -extent, difficult of access, and an object of universal adoration. Upon -that glorious eminence, rich with mineral treasures, as upon a splendid -couch, the deity Siva reclined, accompanied by the daughter of the -sovereign of mountains, and attended by the mighty Adityas, the powerful -Vasus, and by the heavenly physicians, the sons of Aswini; by Kubera, -surrounded by his train of Guhyakas, the lord of the Yakshas, who dwells -on Kailasa. There also was the great Muni Usanas: there were Rishis of the -first order, with Sanatkumara at their head, divine Rishis, preceded by -Angiras; Viswavasu, with his bands of heavenly choristers; the sages -Narada and Parvata; and innumerable troops of celestial nymphs. - -The breeze blew upon the mountain, bland, pure, and fragrant; and the -trees were decorated with flowers that blossomed in every season. - -The Vidyadharas and Siddhas, affluent in devotion, waited upon Mahadeva, -the lord of living creatures; and many other beings, of various forms, did -him homage. Prakshasas of terrific semblance, and Pisachas of great -strength, of different shapes and features, armed with various weapons, -and blazing like fire, were delighted to be present, as the followers of -the god. There stood the royal Naudin, high in the favour of his lord, -armed with a fiery trident, shining with inherent lustre; and there the -best of rivers, Ganga, the assemblage of all holy waters, stood adoring -the mighty deity. Thus worshipped by all the most excellent of sages and -of gods, abode the omnipotent and all-glorious Mahadeva. - -In former times Daksha commenced a holy sacrifice on the side of Himavat, -at the sacred spot Gangadwara, frequented by the Rishis. The gods, -desirous of assisting at this solemn rite, came, with Indra at their head, -to Mahadeva, and intimated their purpose, and having received his -permission, departed, in their splendid chariots, to Gangadwara, as -tradition reports. They found Daksha, the best of the devout, surrounded -by the singers and nymphs of heaven, and by numerous sages, beneath the -shade of clustering trees and climbing plants; and all of them, whether -dwellers on earth, in air, or in the regions above the skies, approached -the patriarch with outward gestures of respect. The Adityas, Vasus, -Rudras, Maruts, all entitled to partake of the oblations, together with -Jishnu, were present. - -The (four classes of Pitris) Ushmapas, Somapas, Ajyapas, and Dhumapas, (or -those who feed upon the flame, the acid juice, the butter, or the smoke of -offerings,) the Aswins, and the progenitors, came along with Brahma. -Creatures of every class, born from the womb, the egg, from vapour, or -vegetation, came upon their invocation; as did all the gods, with their -brides, who, in their resplendent vehicles, blazed like so many fires. - -Beholding them thus assembled, the sage Dadhicha was filled with -indignation, and observed: "The man who worships what ought not to be -worshipped, or pays not reverence where veneration is due, is guilty, most -assuredly, of heinous sin." Then, addressing Daksha, he said to him: "Why -do you not offer homage to the god who is the lord of life (Pasubhartri?)" -Daksha spake: "I have already many Rudras present, armed with tridents, -wearing braided hair, and existing in eleven forms. I recognise no other -Mahadeva." Dadhicha spake: "The invocation that is not addressed to Isa -is, for all, but a solitary (and imperfect) summons. Inasmuch as I behold -no other divinity who is superior to Sankhara, this sacrifice of Daksha -will not be completed." Daksha spake: "I offer in a golden cup, this -entire oblation, which has been consecrated by many prayers, as an -offering ever due to the unequalled Vishnu, the sovereign lord of all...." - -(After a conversation between the mighty Maheswara and his spouse, whom he -addresses in epithets which have quite an Homeric sound:) - -The mighty Maheswara created, from his mouth, a being like the fire of -fate; a divine being, with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand -feet; wielding a thousand clubs, a thousand shafts; holding the shell, the -discus, the mace, and bearing a blazing bow and battle-axe; fierce and -terrific, shining with dreadful splendour, and decorated with the crescent -moon; clothed in a tiger's skin dripping with blood, having a capacious -stomach, and a vast mouth armed with formidable tusks. His ears were -erect, his lips were pendulous; his tongue was lightning; his hand -brandished the thunderbolt; flames streamed from his hair; a necklace of -pearls wound round his neck; a garland of flame descended on his breast. - -Radiant with lustre, he looked like the final fire that consumes the -world. Four tremendous tusks projected from a mouth which extended from -ear to ear. - -He was of vast bulk, vast strength, a mighty male and lord, the destroyer -of the universe, and like a large fig tree in circumference; shining like -a hundred moons at once; fierce as the fire of love; having four heads, -sharp white teeth, and of mighty fierceness, vigour, activity, and -courage; glowing with the blaze of a thousand fiery suns at the end of the -world; like a thousand undimmed moons; in bulk like Himadri, Kailasa, or -Sumnu, or Mundara, with all its gleaming herbs; bright as the sun of -destruction at end of ages; of irresistible prowess and beautiful aspect; -irascible, with lowering eyes, and a countenance burning like fire; -clothed in the hide of the elephant and lion, and girt round with snakes; -wearing a turban on his head, a moon on his brow: sometimes savage, -sometimes mild; having a chaplet of many flowers on his head, anointed -with various unguents, adorned with different ornaments and many sorts of -jewels, wearing a garland of heavenly Karnikara flowers, and rolling his -eyes with rage. Sometimes he danced; sometimes he laughed aloud; sometimes -he stood wrapt in meditation; sometimes he trampled upon the earth; -sometimes he sang; sometimes he wept repeatedly. And he was endowed with -the faculties of wisdom, dispassion, power, penance, truth, endurance, -fortitude, dominion, and self-knowledge. - -This being then knelt down upon the ground, and raising his hands -respectfully to his head, said to Mahadeva: "Sovereign of the gods, -command what it is that I must do for thee;" to which Maheswara replied: -"Spoil the sacrifice of Daksha." Then the mighty Virabhadra, having heard -the pleasure of his lord, bowed down his head to the feet of Prajapati, -and starting like a lion loosed from bonds, despoiled the sacrifice of -Daksha; knowing that he had been created by the displeasure of Devi. She, -too, in her wrath, as the fearful goddess Rudrakali, accompanied him, with -all her train, to witness his deeds. Virabhadra, the fierce, abiding in -the region of ghosts, is the minister of the anger of Devi. And he then -created, from the pores of his skin, powerful demigods, the mighty -attendants upon Rudra, of equal valour and strength, who started by -hundreds and by thousands into existence. A loud and confused clamour -straightway filled all the expanse of ether, and inspired the denizens of -heaven with dread. The mountains tottered, and earth shook; the winds -roared, and the depths of the sea were disturbed; the fires lost their -radiance, and the sun grew pale; the planets of the firmament shone not, -neither did the stars give light; the Rishis ceased their hymns, and gods -and demons were mute; and thick darkness eclipsed the chariot of the -skies. - -Then from the gloom emerged fearful and numerous forms, shouting the cry -of battle; who instantly broke or overturned the sacrificial columns, -trampled upon the altars, and danced amidst the oblations. Running wildly -hither and thither, with the speed of wind, they tossed about the -implements and vessels of sacrifice, which looked like stars precipitated -from the heavens. The piles of food and beverage for the gods, which had -been heaped up like mountains;[26] the rivers of milk; the tanks of curds -and butter; the masses of honey, and butter-milk, and sugar; the mounds of -condiments and spices of every flavour; the undulating knolls of flesh and -other viands; the celestial liquors; pastes and confections which had been -prepared; these the spirits of wrath devoured, or defiled, or scattered -abroad. And, falling upon the host of the gods, these vast and resistless -Rudras beat or terrified them, mocked and insulted the nymphs and -goddesses, and quickly put an end to the rite, although defended by all -the gods; being the ministers of Rudra's wrath, and similar to himself. -Some then made a hideous clamour, whilst others fearfully shouted, when -Yajna was decapitated. For the divine Yajna, the lord of sacrifice, began -to fly up to heaven, in the shape of a deer; and Virabhadra, of -immeasurable spirit, apprehending his power, cut off his vast head, after -he had mounted into the sky. - -Daksha, the patriarch, his sacrifice being destroyed, overcome with -terror, and utterly broken in spirit, fell prone upon the ground, where -his head was spurned by the feet of the cruel Virabhadra. The thirty -scores of sacred divinities were all presently bound, with a band of fire, -by their lion-like foe; and they all addressed him, crying: "O Rudra, have -mercy upon thy servants! O lord, dismiss thine anger!" This spake Brahma, -and the other gods, and the patriarch Daksha; and, raising their hands, -they said: "Declare, mighty being, who thou art." - -Virabhadra said: "I am not a god, nor an Aditya, nor am I come hither for -enjoyment, nor curious to behold the chiefs of the divinities. Know that I -am come to destroy the sacrifice of Daksha, and that I am called -Virabhadra, the issue of the wrath of Rudra. Bhadrakali, also, who has -sprung from the anger of Devi, is sent here, by the god of gods, to -destroy this rite. Take refuge, king of kings, with him who is the lord of -Uma. For better is the anger of Rudra than the blessings of other gods." - -Having heard the words of Virabhadra, the righteous Daksha propitiated the -mighty god, the holder of the trident, Maheswara. The hearth of sacrifice, -deserted by the Brahmans, had been consumed; Yajna had been metamorphosed -to an antelope; the fires of Rudra's wrath had been kindled; the -attendants, wounded by the tridents of the servants of the god, were -groaning with pain; the pieces of the uprooted sacrificial posts were -scattered here and there; and the fragments of the meat-offerings were -carried off by flights of hungry vultures and herds of howling jackals. - -Suppressing his vital airs, and taking up a posture of meditation, the -many-sighted victor of his foes, Daksha, fixed his eyes everywhere upon -his thoughts. And the god of gods appeared from the altar resplendent as a -thousand suns, and smiling upon him, said, "Daksha, thy sacrifice has been -destroyed through sacred knowledge, I am well pleased with thee." And he -smiled again, and exclaimed, "What shall I do for thee? Declare, together -with the preceptor of the gods." - -And Daksha, frightened, alarmed, and agitated, his eyes suffused with -tears, raised his hands reverently to his brow, and said, "If, lord, thou -art pleased; if I have found favour in thy sight; if I am to be the object -of thy benevolence; if thou wilt confer upon me a boon, this is the -blessing I solicit, that all these provisions for the solemn sacrifice -which have been collected with much trouble and during a long time, and -have now been eaten, drunk, devoured, burnt, broken, scattered abroad, may -not have been prepared in vain." "So let it be," replied Hara, the subduer -of Indra. And thereupon Daksha knelt down upon the earth, and praised -gratefully the author of righteousness, the three-eyed god Mahadeva, -repeating the eight thousand names of the deity whose emblem is a bull. - - -_Public Games._ (Bk. v., c. 10.) - -As Krishna and Rama proceeded along the high road, they saw coming towards -them a young girl, who was crooked, carrying a pot of unguent. Addressing -her sportively, Krishna said, "For whom are you carrying that unguent? -Tell me, lovely maiden, tell me truly." Spoken to as it were through -affection, Kubja[27], well disposed towards Hari, replied to him also -mirthfully, being smitten by his appearance, "Know you not, beloved, that -I am the servant of Kamsa, and appointed, crooked as I am, to prepare his -perfumes? Of unguent ground by any other he does not approve, and hence I -am enriched through his liberal rewards." Then said Krishna, "Fair-faced -damsel, give us of this unguent,--fragrant and fit for kings,--as much as -we may rub upon our bodies." "Take it," answered Kubja. And she gave them -as much of the unguent as was sufficient for their persons. And they -rubbed it on various parts of their faces and bodies, till they looked -like two clouds, one white and one black, decorated by the many-tinted bow -of Indra. - -And Krishna, skilled in the curative art, took hold of her under the chin -with the thumb and two fingers, and lifted up her head, whilst with his -feet he pressed down her feet, and in this way he made her straight. - -When she was thus relieved from her deformity, she was a most beautiful -woman; and filled with gratitude and affection, she took Govinda by the -garment, and invited him to her house. Promising to come at some other -time, Krishna smilingly dismissed her, and then laughed aloud on beholding -the countenance of Baladeva. - -Dressed in blue and yellow garments, and anointed with fragrant unguents, -Krishna and Rama proceeded to the hall of arms, which was hung round with -garlands. Inquiring of the warders which bow he was to try, and being -directed to it, Krishna took it, and bent it. But drawing it with -violence, he snapped it in two, and all Mathura resounded with the noise -which its fracture occasioned. Abused by the warders for breaking the bow, -Krishna and Rama retorted, and defied them, and left the hall. - -When Kamsa knew that Akrura had returned, and heard that the bow had been -broken, he then said to Chanura and Mushtika, his boxers, "Two youths, -cowherd boys, have arrived. You must kill them both, in a trial of -strength, in my presence; for they practise against my life. I shall be -well pleased if you kill them in the match, and will give you whatever you -wish, but not otherwise. These two foes of mine must be killed by you, -fairly or unfairly. The kingdom shall be ours in common when they have -perished." - -Having given them their orders, he sent next for his elephant driver, and -desired him to station his great elephant, Kuvalayapida,--who was as vast -as a cloud charged with rain,--near the gate of the arena, and drive him -upon the two boys when they should attempt to enter. When Kamsa had issued -these commands, and ascertained that the platforms were all ready (for the -spectators), he awaited the rising of the sun, unconscious of impending -death. - -In the morning the citizens assembled on the platforms set apart for them; -and the princes, with the ministers and courtiers, occupied the royal -seats. Near the centre of the circle, judges of the games were stationed -by Kamsa, whilst he himself sat apart close by, upon a lofty throne. -Separate platforms were erected for the ladies of the palace, for the -courtesans, and for the wives of the citizens. Nanda and the cowherds had -places appropriated to them, at the end of which sat Akrura and Vasudeva. -Amongst the wives of the citizens appeared Devaki, mourning for her son, -whose lovely face she longed to behold, even in the hour of his -destruction. - -When the musical instruments sounded, Chanura sprang forth, and the people -cried, "Alas!" and Mushtika slapped his arms in defiance. Covered with -blood and mud from the elephant, which, when goaded upon them by its -driver, they had slain, and armed with its tusks, Balabhadra and Janardana -confidently entered the arena, like two lions amidst a herd of deer. -Exclamations of pity arose from all the spectators, along with expressions -of astonishment. "This, then," said the people, "is Krishna. This is -Balabhadra. This is he by whom the fierce night-walker Putana was slain; -by whom the waggon was overturned, and the two Arjuna trees felled. This -is the boy who trampled and danced on the serpent Kaliya; who upheld the -mountain Govardhana for seven nights; who killed, as if in play, the -iniquitous Arishta, Dhenuka, and Kisra. This, whom we see, is Achyuta. -This is he who has been foretold by the wise, skilled in the sense of the -Puranas, as Gopala, who shall exalt the depressed Yadava race. This is a -portion of the all-existing, all-generating Vishnu, descended upon earth, -who will, assuredly, lighten her load." - -Thus did the citizens describe Rama and Krishna, as soon as they appeared: -whilst the breast of Devaki glowed with maternal affection; and Vasudeva, -forgetting his infirmities, felt himself young again, on beholding the -countenances of his sons as a season of rejoicing. The women of the -palace, and the wives of the citizens, wide opened their eyes, and gazed -intently upon Krishna. - -"Look, friends," said they to their companions; "look at the face of -Krishna. His eyes are reddened by his conflict with the elephant; and the -drops of perspiration stand upon his cheeks, outvying a full-blown lotus -in autumn, studded with glittering dew. Avail yourself, now, of the -faculty of vision. Observe his breast,--the seat of splendour, marked -with the mystic sign,--and his arms, menacing destruction to his foes. Do -you not notice Balabhadra, dressed in a blue garment,--his countenance as -fair as the jasmine, as the moon, as the fibres of the lotus-stem? See how -he gently smiles at the gestures of Mushtika and Chanura, as they spring -up. - -"And now behold Hari advance to encounter Chanura. What! Are there no -elders, judges of the field? How can the delicate form of Hari,--only yet -in the dawn of adolescence,--be regarded as a match for the vast and -adamantine bulk of the great demon? Two youths, of light and elegant -persons, are in the arena, to oppose athletic fiends, headed by the cruel -Chanura. This is a great sin in the judges of the games, for the umpires -to suffer a contest between boys and strong men." - -As thus the women of the city conversed with one another, Hari, having -tightened his girdle, danced in the ring, shaking the ground on which he -trod. Balabhadra also danced, slapping his arms in defiance. Where the -ground was firm, the invincible Krishna contended, foot to foot, with -Chanura. The practised demon Mushtika was opposed by Balabhadra. Mutually -entwining, and pushing, and pulling, and beating each other with fists, -arms, and elbows, pressing each other with their knees, interlacing their -arms, kicking with their feet, pressing with their whole weight upon one -another, fought Hari and Chanura. - -Desperate was the struggle, though without weapons, and one for life and -death, to the great gratification of the spectators. In proportion as the -contest continued, so Chanura was gradually losing something of his -original vigour, and the wreath upon his head trembled from his fury and -distress; whilst the world-comprehending Krishna wrestled with him as if -but in sport. Beholding Chanura losing, and Krishna gaining strength, -Kamsa, furious with rage, commanded the music to cease. - -As soon as the drums and trumpets were silenced, a numerous band of -heavenly instruments was heard in the sky; and the unseen gods exclaimed: -"Victory to Govinda! Kesava, kill the demon Chanura!" Madhusudana, having, -for a long time, dallied with his adversary, at last lifted him up, and -whirled him round, with the intention of putting an end to him. Having -whirled Chanura round a hundred times, until his breath was expended in -the air, Krishna dashed him on the ground, with such violence as to smash -his body into a hundred fragments, and strew the earth with a hundred -pools of gory mire. - -Whilst this took place, the mighty Baladeva was engaged, in the same -manner, with the demon bruiser, Mushtika. Striking him on the head with -his fists, and on the breast with his knees, he stretched him on the -ground, and pummelled him there till he was dead. Again, Krishna -encountered the royal bruiser Tosaluka, and felled him to the earth with a -blow of his left hand. When the other athletes saw Chanura, Mushtika, and -Tosaluka killed, they fled from the field; and Krishna and Sankarshana -danced, victorious, on the arena, dragging along with them, by force, the -cowherds of their own age. Kamsa, his eyes reddening with wrath, called -aloud to the surrounding people:--"Drive those two cowboys out of the -assembly: seize the villain Nanda, and secure him with chains of iron; put -Vasudeva to death with tortures intolerable to his years: and lay hands -upon the cattle, and whatever else belongs to those cowherds who are the -associates of Krishna." - -Upon hearing these orders, the destroyer of Madhu laughed at Kamsa, and, -springing up to the place where he was seated, laid hold of him by the -hair of his head, and struck his tiara to the ground. Then, casting him -down upon the earth, Govinda threw himself upon him. Crushed by the weight -of the upholder of the universe, the son of Ugrasena (Kamsa), the king, -gave up the ghost. Krishna then dragged the dead body, by the hair of the -head, into the centre of the arena; and a deep furrow was made by the vast -and heavy carcase of Kamsa, when it was dragged along the ground by -Krishna, as if a torrent of water had rushed through it. - -Seeing Kamsa thus treated, his brother Sunaman came to his succour: but he -was encountered, and easily killed, by Balabhadra. Then arose a general -cry of grief from the surrounding circle, as they beheld the King of -Mathura thus slain, and treated with such contumely, by Krishna. Krishna, -accompanied by Balabhadra, embraced the feet of Vasudeva and of Devaki: -but Vasudeva raised him up; and he and Devaki recalling to recollection -what he had said to them at his birth, they bowed to Janardana; and the -former thus addressed him: "Have compassion upon mortals, O god, -benefactor, and lord of deities. It is by thy favour to us two that thou -hast become the present upholder of the world. That, for the punishment of -the rebellious, thou hast descended upon earth in my house, having been -propitiated by my prayers, sanctifies our race. Thou art the heart of all -creatures; thou abidest in all creatures; and all that has been, or will -be, emanates from thee, O universal spirit. Thou, Achyuta, who -comprehendest all the gods, art eternally worshipped with sacrifices: thou -art sacrifice itself, and the offerer of sacrifices. The affection that -inspires my heart, and the heart of Devaki, towards thee, as if thou wert -our child, is, indeed, but an error and a great delusion. - -"How shall the tongue of a mortal such as I am call the creator of all -things, who is without beginning or end, son? Is it consistent that the -lord of the world, from whom the world proceeds, should be born of me, -except through illusion? How should he, in whom all fixed and moveable -things are contained, be conceived in the womb and born of a mortal being? -Have compassion, therefore, indeed, O supreme lord, and, in thy descended -portions, protect the universe. Thou art no son of mine. This whole world, -from Brahma to a tree, thou art. Wherefore dost thou, who art one with the -Supreme, beguile us? Blinded by delusion, I thought thee my son, and for -thee, who art beyond all fear, I dreaded the anger of Kamsa; and, -therefore, did I take thee, in my turn, to Gokula, where thou hast grown -up. But I no longer claim thee as mine own. Thou, Vishnu,--the sovereign -lord of all, whose actions Rudra, Maruts, the Aswins, Indra, and the gods -cannot equal, although they behold them; thou, who hast come amongst us, -for the benefit of the world,--art recognised; and delusion is no more." - -We shall furnish but one other specimen:-- - - -_Anecdotes of Khandikya and Kesidhwaja._ - -Maitreya, addressing Parasara, says: "Reverend teacher, I am desirous of -being informed what is meant by the term meditation (_yoga_), by -understanding which I may behold the Supreme Being, the upholder of the -universe." - -Parasara, in reply, says that he will repeat the explanation formerly -given by Kesidhwaja to the magnanimous Khandikya, also called Janaka. - -Whereupon Maitreya replies: "Tell me, first, Brahman, who Kandikya was and -who Kesidhwaja; and how it happened that a conversation relating to the -practice of Yoga occurred between them." - -Thereupon follows Parasara's narrative: - -There was Janaka, named Dharmadhwaja, who had two sons, Mitadhwaja and -Kritadhwaja; and the latter was a king ever intent upon existent supreme -spirit: his son was the celebrated Kesidhwaja. The son of Mitadhwaja was -Janaka, called Khandikya. Khandikya was diligent in the way of works, and -was renowned, on earth, for religious rites. Kesidhwaja, on the other -hand, was endowed with spiritual knowledge. These two were engaged in -hostilities; and Khandikya was driven from his principality by Kesidhwaja. -Expelled from his dominions, he wandered, with a few followers, his -priest, and his counsellors, amidst woods and mountains, where, destitute -of true wisdom, he performed many sacrifices, expecting, thereby, to -obtain divine truth, and to escape from death by ignorance. - -Once, while the best of those who are skilled in devotion (Kesidhwaja) was -engaged in devout exercises, a fierce tiger slew his milch-cow, in the -lonely forest. When the Raja heard that the cow had been killed, he asked -the ministering priests what form of penance would expiate the crime. They -replied, that they did not know, and referred him to Kaseru. Kaseru, when -the Raja consulted him, told him that he, too, knew not, but that Sunaka -would be able to tell him. Accordingly, the Raja went to Sunaka; but he -replied: "I am as unable, great king, to answer your question as Kaseru -has been; and there is no one now, upon earth, who can give you the -information, except your enemy Khandikya, whom you have conquered." - -Upon receiving this answer, Kesidhwaja said: "I will go, then, and pay a -visit to my foe. If he kill me, no matter; for, then, I shall obtain the -reward that attends being killed in a holy cause. If (on the contrary) he -tell me what penance to perform, then my sacrifice will be unimpaired in -efficacy." - -Accordingly, he ascended his car, having clothed himself in the deer skin -of the religious student, and went to the forest where the wise Khandikya -resided. When Khandikya beheld him approach, his eyes reddened with rage, -and he took up his bow and said to him: "You have armed yourself with the -deer skin to accomplish my destruction; imagining that, in such an attire, -you will be safe from me. But, fool, the deer upon whose backs this skin -is seen are slain, by you and me, with sharp arrows. So will I slay you: -you shall not go free, whilst I am living. You are an unprincipled felon, -who have robbed me of my kingdom, and are deserving of death." - -To this Kesidhwaja answered: "I have come hither, Khandikya, to ask you to -solve my doubts, and not with any hostile intention. Lay aside, therefore, -both your arrow and your anger." - -Thus spoken to, Khandikya retired awhile, with his counsellors and his -priest, and consulted them what course he should pursue. They strongly -urged him to slay Kesidhwaja while he was in his power, since by his death -he would again become the monarch of the whole world. - -Khandikya replied to them:--"It is, no doubt, true that, by such an act, I -should become the monarch of the whole earth. He, however, would thereby -conquer the world to come; whilst the earth would be mine. Now, if I do -not kill him, I shall subdue the next world, and leave him this earth. It -seems to me that this world is not of more value than the next: for the -subjugation of the next world endures for ever; the conquest over this is -but for a brief season. I will, therefore, not kill him, but tell him what -he wishes to know." - - * * * * * - -Accordingly, Kesidhwaja proceeds to describe the benefits which result -from the Yoga or contemplative devotion. - -The sage, or Yogin, when first applying himself to contemplative devotion, -is called the novice or practitioner (Yoga-yuj); when he has attained -spiritual union, he is termed the adept, or he whose meditations are -accomplished. Should the thoughts of the former be unvitiated by any -obstructing imperfection, he will obtain freedom, after practising -devotion through several lives. The latter speedily obtains liberation in -that existence in which he reaches perfection, all his acts being consumed -by the fire of contemplative devotion. The sage who would bring his mind -into a fit state for the performance of devout contemplation must be -devoid of desire, and observe invariably continence, compassion, truth, -honesty, and disinterestedness: he must fix his mind intently on the -supreme Brahma, practising holy study, purification, contentment, penance, -and self-control. These virtues, respectively termed the five acts of -restraint (Yama) and five of obligation (Niyama), bestow excellent -rewards, when practised for the sake of reward, and eternal liberation, -when they are not prompted by desire of transient benefits. Endowed with -these merits, the sage, self-restrained, should sit in one of the modes -termed Bhadrasana,[28] and engage in contemplation. - -Bringing his vital airs, called Prana, under subjection, by frequent -repetition, is thence called a Pranayama, which is, as it were, a seed -with a seed. In this, the breath of expiration and that of inspiration are -alternately obstructed, constituting the act twofold; and the suppression -of both modes of breathing produces a third. The exercise of the Yogin, -whilst endeavouring to bring before his thoughts the gross form of the -Eternal, is denominated Alambana.[29] He is then to perform the -Pratyahara, which consists in restraining his organs of sense from -susceptibility to outward impressions, and directing them entirely to -mental perceptions. By these means the entire subjugation of the unsteady -senses is effected; and, if they are not controlled, the sage will not -accomplish his devotions. When, by the Pranayama, the vital airs are -restrained, and the senses are subjugated by the Pratyahara, then indeed -the sage will be able to keep his mind steady in its perfect asylum. - -The sage now plunges into transcendentalism which would be barely -intelligible, and certainly uninteresting to the reader, and we shall -therefore decline to follow him, concluding our extract with the -description of Vishnu which Kesidhwaja furnishes to his inquiring guest. - -Think of him as having a pleased and lovely countenance, with eyes like -the leaf of the lotus, marble cheeks, and a broad and brilliant forehead; -ears of equal size, the lobes of which are decorated with splendid -pendants; a painted neck; and a broad breast, on which shines the Srivatsa -mark; a belly falling in graceful folds, with a deep-seated navel; eight -long arms, or else four; and firm and well-knit thighs and legs, with -well-formed feet and toes. Let him, with well-governed thoughts, -contemplate, as long as he can persevere in unremitting attention, Hari, -as clad in a yellow robe, wearing a rich diadem on his head, and brilliant -armlets and bracelets on his arms, and bearing in his hands the bow, the -shell, the mace, the sword, the discus, the rosary, the lotus, and the -arrow. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -_IN CHINA:--CONFUCIANISM, TAOUISM, AND BUDDHISM._ - - -The creeds in vogue amongst the Chinese may be regarded as -three:--_Confucianism_, the religion of the state; _Taouism_, the religion -of the philosophers; and _Buddhism_, the religion of the people. - -It has been justly said that a religion which, like Confucianism, has -exercised for twenty-four centuries a potent influence over the Chinese -mind, though owing its name and origin to a simple citizen, must possess -in it something well worthy of consideration. There must be in it a spell -which strongly attracts the popular sympathies. This spell is said to be, -though possibly we ought to search deeper and farther for it, the purely -practical character of its tenets, and the harmony which exists between -those tenets and the patriarchal character of the government and the -institutions of the country. And in fact it is not so much a religion as -an ethical system,--something such as Christianity would be, if we took -out of it JESUS CHRIST. Or we may distinguish it as "a system of -ceremonies on a moral basis," and, as such, admirably adapted to the -tastes and needs of so ceremonial-loving a people as the Chinese. To this -day the Ly-pou watch with jealous vigilance the maintenance of all the old -traditional rites, and rigidly enforce the observance of the traditional -details in the construction of the temples. Moreover such particulars as -the six kinds of sceptres, the five kinds of mats, and the five kinds of -stools are strictly insisted upon; and it is known that the innumerable -prescribed sacrifices offered to the various gods of the heaven and the -earth, to a man's forefathers, to the hills and the rivers, the sea and -the central mount, the god of the south pole and the god of thunder, are -the same now as they have been for upwards of 2,000 years. - -The founder of Confucianism, Kong-foo-tse, or Confucius, (as the Jesuits -latinised the name,) was born about 550 B.C. in the state Loo, within the -district now called Keo-fou Hien, lying to the eastward of the great -Imperial canal, in the province of Shang-tung. - -Tradition asserts that his father was a descendant of the imperial family -of Hoang-ty, of the dynasty of Chang (2,000 B.C.), and the chief minister -of his native kingdom. At an early age, as is common with most who are -destined to rise to greatness, Confucius gave indisputable proof of no -ordinary mental capacity, and these budding powers were carefully -developed by the training and tuition of the ablest masters. He was still -young when he made himself acquainted with the literature of the period, -and especially with the canonical and classical books attributed to the -ancient legislators Yam Chun, and others. His amiability of temper is -warmly commended, and no shadow of reproach rests upon his moral -character; except in so far as he exposed himself to censure by divorcing -his wife, after she had borne him a son, in order, it is said, "that he -might devote himself the more absolutely to his studies." It is some -excuse for him that, at this time, he was only twenty. In the same year he -was appointed "superintendent of cattle,"--not exactly the ideal office -for a philosophical student. However his assiduity and fidelity soon -secured the approbation of his superiors; he was promoted to a more -influential position; and there seemed every probability of his attaining -to the highest rank, when a sudden revolution in the state for a time -obscured his prospects. - -The next eight years of his life he spent in travel, assuming the role of -a religious reformer, and everywhere gathering round him a crowd of ardent -disciples, whom he instructed in the rules and principles of his ethical -system. It is said that they numbered as many as 3,000, of whom -seventy-two were specially distinguished by their devotion to their -master and their rigid observance of his tenets. Returning to Loo, when he -was about forty-three years old, he was again called to the service of the -state, and from grade to grade rose to the post of Prime Minister, or -"governor of the people." Invested with plenary power, he proceeded, with -the ardour of an enthusiast, to realise his ideas, and rapidly brought -about a vast improvement in both the moral and physical condition of the -country. The poor were the particular objects of his care: he provided -them with plentiful supplies of cheap and good food, and released them -from the thraldom in which the nobles had held them. His energy and wisdom -extended to every department of the state; and with extraordinary -fertility of resource, he initiated measures for the extension of -commerce, the improvement of the bridges and highways, the impartial -administration of justice, and the extirpation of the robber bands which -infested the mountains. But the neighbouring sovereigns regarded with -alarm the progress of his bold reforms. No doubt they talked about -communistic and socialistic doctrines, and the advancing flood of -democracy, as timid people do in our own day. At all events they contrived -to put such a pressure upon the King of Loo that he was compelled to part -with his great minister, who fled from his enemies northward, and found -refuge in the kingdom of Tsi, on the Gulf of Petchali. For twelve, or, as -some say, fourteen years he wandered from place to place, adding to the -number of his proselytes; until spent with fatigue, and bowed down with -years, he retired with a few favourite disciples to a quiet valley in his -native land, and devoted the remainder of his life to the task of revising -and improving the famous writings which for so many centuries have been -consecrated by the devout acceptance of the Chinese. He died at the age of -seventy-three, in 477 B.C.,[30] "on the eighteenth day of the second -moon," after a seven days' illness. Like many other great reformers, -though but indifferently treated in his lifetime, he became after death -the object of universal admiration, and to this day the Chinese pay homage -to the memory of the "Great Master," the "Chief Doctor," the "Wise King of -Literature," the "Saint," the "Instructor of Emperors and Kings." His -descendants have been loaded with honours and privileges, and now -constitute the only hereditary nobility in the Chinese empire. Like the -princes of the blood, they are exempt from taxation. And in every city of -the first, second, and third rank, stands at least one temple dedicated to -Confucius, where the emperor himself and the mandarins are bound to -worship, with offerings of wine, fruit, and flowers,--with burning of -fragrant gums, frankincense, and tapers of sandal wood,--and with singing -of appropriate hymns. The eighteenth day of the second moon is kept sacred -by the Chinese as the anniversary of his death. - - * * * * * - -We have already said that the system of Confucius was ethical rather than -religious. It is absolutely free from any theological strain, and, indeed, -makes no mention of a Creator. "How should I know God," he would say, -"when as yet I know not man?" "His system was essentially conservative; he -aimed at the correction of new vices which had crept into the body politic -by endeavouring to restore the old customs of the country; and hence the -high favour in which his system has ever been held by the rulers and -magnates of the empire. It inculcated the most perfect subordination, the -most servile obedience, and the most scrupulous adherence to ancient -usage; every social, civil, and political duty is set forth in it with the -greatest precision; but inasmuch as all the parts of the great machine of -empire are not absolutely deprived of volition, a rebellious cog-wheel or -insignificant pinion will sometimes disarrange and impede the entire -machinery." - -Confucius held that the universe had been generated by the union of two -material principles,--a heavenly and an earthly, Yang and Ya. He -represents man as having fallen by his own act from his original purity -and happiness, and asserts that by his own act he can recover that -condition. For this purpose he must lead a life of obedience to the law, -and he must not do unto others that which he would not have others do unto -him. He made the supremacy of parental authority the basis of his -political teaching, and strongly advocated that the son's submission to -the father must be as complete as that of the servant to the master, of -the master to the magistrate, of the magistrate to the crown, and of the -crown to the law. Of course this implied that the reciprocal obligations -must be observed. This rigid application of the family ideal to the -administration of the government, and the consequent creation of a pure -despotism, has been the cause of all that is most perplexing to Europeans -in the Chinese civilisation, and explains why it has never advanced beyond -the standard or mark to which it had attained in the era of Confucius. - -The Confucian doctrines are set forth in _Gze-Chou_, "The Four Books," and -_King_, "The Five Canonical Works," of which the following particulars may -interest the reader. - - -_The Ta-heo, or "Great Study."_ - -The _Ta-heo_, or "School of Adults," has been translated by Dr. Marshman, -in the "Clavis Sinica." It is a treatise, in two chapters, on politics and -morals, rising gradually from the government of oneself to the government -of a family, thence to the government of a province, and finally to the -control of the affairs of an empire. Its leading principle is -self-improvement, self-culture. In one of the sections an eulogium is -bestowed upon the beauty of virtue as a means of self-enjoyment. And the -book closes with a fine exhortation to be just, and truthful, and honest, -to those whom fortune places at the head of the state. - - -_The Chung-Yung, or "The Invariable in the Mean,"_ - -Also translated as "the Safe Middle Course," and "the Infallible Medium," -describes the golden mean, the due medium by which a man should regulate -his conduct. He is not to be lifted up by prosperity, nor cast down by -adversity. Through thirty-three sections, in language sometimes clear and -strenuous, sometimes obscure, the subject is pursued, and the whole duty -of man inculcated. Here is a passage describing a kingly man which may be -compared with one in Seneca:-- - -"It is only the man supremely holy, who, by the faculty of knowing -thoroughly, and comprehending perfectly the primitive laws of living -beings, is worthy of possessing supreme authority, and governing men; who -by possessing a soul, grand, firm, constant, and imperturbable, is capable -of making justice and equity reign; who by his faculty of being always -honest, simple, upright, grave, and just, is able to attract respect and -veneration; who by his faculty of being clothed with the ornaments of the -mind, and the talents procured by assiduous study, and by the -enlightenment that springs from an exact investigation of the most hidden -things, and the most subtle principles, can with accuracy discern the true -from the false, and the good from the evil." - - -_The Lun-Yu, or "Philosophical Conversation."_ - -This is the Chinese _Phaedo_, and contains a record of the conversations -held between Confucius and his disciples, but the author lacked the -eloquence and imagination of Plato. It is interesting however from its -anecdotes of the Great Teacher. In introducing his guests, it seems that -he kept his arms extended, like the wings of a bird; that he never ate -meat which had not been cut in a straight line; that he never used his -fingers to point to anything; and that he would not occupy the mat spread -for him as a seat unless it was regularly placed. - - -_The Meng-tze, or "Mencius,"_ - -Is a Commentary upon Confucius, written about a century after his death by -his disciple Meng-tze. The subjects treated in it are of various nature. -In one part the virtues of individual life and of domestic relations are -discussed; in another, the order of affairs. Here are investigated the -duties of superiors, from the sovereign to the lowest magistrate, for the -attainment of good government. There are expounded the labours of -students, peasants, traders, artisans, while, in the course of the work, -the laws of the physical world, of the heavens and the earth, the -mountains and rivers, of birds, fishes, quadrupeds, insects, plants, and -trees, are occasionally described. The great number of affairs which -Mencius managed, in the course of his life, in his intercourse with men, -his occasional conversations with people of rank, his instructions to his -pupils, his expositions of books, ancient and modern,--all these details -are incorporated in this publication. It is a collection of historical -facts, and of the words of ancient ages, put together for the instruction -of mankind. - -Mencius died when he was eighty-four years of age; his memory is revered -by the Chinese next to that of Confucius, and his descendants are treated -with a distinction inferior only to that which is accorded to those of -Confucius. - - -_King; or, The Five Canonical Works._ - -These, which were either written or compiled by Confucius, are the most -venerable existing monuments of Chinese literature, and embody the -fundamental principles of the earliest creeds and customs of China. - -The first is the _Y-King_, or "Sacred Book of Changes," which may be -termed a Chinese Cyclopaedia, and contains a great variety of subjects, -morals, physics, and metaphysics. It is founded on the combinations of -sixty-four lines,--some entire, and some broken,--and called _Koua_; the -discovery of which has been attributed to Fo-hi, the traditional founder -of Chinese civilisation. He found them, it is said, on the shell of a -tortoise, and asserted that they were capable of explaining all things. It -does not seem easy, however, to explain _them_, and the commentaries upon -them are more numerous than even the commentaries upon Shakespeare. The -Imperial Library at Peking contains no fewer than 1450. - -Second in order comes the _Shu-King_, or "Book of History," which, despite -its imperfect and fragmentary condition, is full of interest. It contains -a concise narrative of Early Chinese history, down to the eighth century -before our era; including the speeches addressed by several emperors to -their high officers, and numerous valuable documents of great antiquity. -Reference is made in its pages to a great deluge, which some suppose to be -the Flood recorded in the book of Genesis, but others, with more -probability, identify with one of the early and extensive inundations of -the Hoang-Ho. - -The third is the _Shi-King_, or "Book of Sacred Songs," a collection of -311 poems, ancient, national, and official, the best of which every -well-educated Chinaman commits to memory. They range from the eighteenth -to the third century before our era, and are divided into four parts: -first, the Ku-fung, or songs of "the manners of different states;" second -and third, songs for state occasions; and fourth, Soong, a collection of -eulogies on the various emperors of the Chow dynasty. This book is -described as replete with very interesting and probably authentic -information on the ancient manners of China, and is frequently quoted by -both Confucius and Mencius, and by them recommended to the study of their -disciples. - -Fourth comes the _Li-King_, or "Book of Rites and Ceremonies," in which we -find a mass of fragments dating from the time of Confucius downwards, and -throwing a vivid light on the permanent characteristics of the Chinese -civilisation, and on the causes which made it what it is in all its iron -immutability. The ceremonial usages of China, as prescribed in this -ritual, number about 3000; and one of the six tribunals, the Ly-pou, is -specially charged with their custody and interpretation. - -Fifth and last is the _Chun-tsien_, or _Tchuntsiou_, or "Book of Spring -and Autumn," so called from the seasons in which it was respectively begun -and ended by Confucius. Here the Great Teacher has simply written down the -earlier history of his native land of Loo; with the view of recalling the -princes of his age to a conservative spirit of reverence for the customs -of the past by indicating the misfortunes that took place after they fell -into neglect. - - * * * * * - -Strictly speaking, Confucianism has no priests, no distinct sacerdotal -order; the emperor himself is the patriarch or head, and every magistrate, -within the sphere of his jurisdiction is a religious official or -hierophant. "Generally, all literary persons, and those who propose to -become such, in attaching themselves to it do not necessarily renounce -practices borrowed from other religions. But, in fact, faith does not seem -to have anything to do with the matter; and habit alone induces them to -conform to ceremonies which they themselves turn into ridicule--such as -divinations, horoscopes, and calculating lucky and unlucky days, all of -which superstitions are in great vogue throughout the empire." - -China possesses an enormous number of pagodas, or idol-temples; Peking -boasts of 10,000; every village has several, and they are distributed all -along the roads and all over the fields. Some are remarkable for their -splendour; but the majority do not differ in appearance, or very slightly, -from other buildings. Often they are nothing more than small chapels, in -which are niches containing idols and vases filled with burning perfumes, -or the ashes of gilt paper on which prayers have been printed, these -papers having been burnt, as a religious rite, by devotees. The -worshippers, if such they may be called, display the utmost indifference -of behaviour in these temples: they enter them to enjoy a rest or a sleep; -or they walk about with their hats on, whistling, smoking, laughing, -chattering. Round the sides are seated the vendors of the aforesaid gilt -paper prayers and pastiles; ever and anon they demand attention to their -wares by striking a gong; while the people incessantly burn paper models -of clothing, shoes, money, junks, and the like, to assist their deceased -friends on their long journey. For though the Chinese have no distinct -recognition of a future state, the worship of the dead is a prominent -element of their religion. Noble and peasant alike bring offerings, or -send them by proxy, and kneel before the shades of their ancestors: this -duty at least is always remembered, whatever other may be forgotten. - -The following may be given as an example of the prayers used upon such -occasions:-- - -"I, Lea Kwang, second son of the third generation, presume to come before -the grave of my ancestors. Revolving years have brought again the season -of Spring; I sweep your tomb with reverence, and, prostrate, beg you to be -spiritually present, and grant that your posterity may be illustrious. At -this season I desire to recompense the root of my existence, and -reverently, therefore, before your holy spirit present the five-fold -offering of pork, fowl, duck, goose, and fish; with five fruits and the -drink _samshu_;[31] entreating that you will condescend to inspect them. -This announcement is presented on high." - -Such offerings as are not accepted by the priests are generally taken home -again to furnish full the worshipper's own table. - - * * * * * - -The Ritual State Worship, which concerns the Emperor and his court, but -affects not the great body of the people, we must glance at very briefly. -It may be defined as the ceremonial of a philosophical pantheism, -unconnected with any theological doctrine. Three classes of natural -objects are distinguished, to which the "Great," the "Medium," and the -"Lesser" Sacrifices are offered. The first class, the _Ta-sze_, includes -the Heaven and the Earth, and along with and equal to these, the great -Temple of Imperial Ancestors. Among the _Chung-sze_, or "Medium -Sacrifices," are the Genii, the Great Light and the Evening Light (that -is, the Sun and the Moon), the Gods of Land and Grain, the God of Letters, -and the Inventors of Agriculture, Manufactures, and the Useful Arts. To -the "Lesser Sacrifices," or _Scaou-sze_, belong the Founder of the Art of -Healing, as well as the spirits of statesmen, scholars, and persons of -eminent virtue. They are offered also to various natural phenomena, such -as the clouds, the rain, the wind, the thunder. The God of War, and Lung -Wang, the dragon-king, who represents the rivers and streams, have their -worshippers; nor is Tien-How, the Queen of Heaven, forgotten. There are, -besides, a host of household deities, like the Lares and Penates of the -ancients, who are propitiated by domestic sacrifices at the new year, when -they are supposed to pay a brief visit to the Other World, and report, as -it were, the doings and misdoings of the families over which they preside. - -The chief sacrificial seasons are these: the winter solstice for all -offered to heaven, the summer season for all offered to earth. The others -have their appointed dates. Then, in the course of the year, numerous -festivals of a more or less religious character are held. First among them -is the Imperial Ploughing of the Sacred Field, which takes place towards -the end of March. The Emperor, attended by some of the princes of the -blood and his chief ministers, then proceeds to a field on one side of the -central street in Peking, where fitting preparations have, of course, been -made. After certain sacrifices, consisting chiefly of grain preserved from -the produce of the same field, the Emperor takes the plough, and drives a -few furrows. His example is followed by the princes and ministers in -succession: a red tablet indicating the space allotted to each -distinguished amateur. The "five sorts of grain" are then sown; and when -the Emperor has seen the work completed by the attendant husbandmen, the -field is committed to the charge of an officer whose business it is to -collect and store the produce with a view to future sacrifices to the Gods -of the Harvest. - - * * * * * - -Of the _Shae-tung_, or Feast of Lanterns, every traveller has spoken. -There are also the _Too-te-tan_, or birthdays of the familiar gods of the -city; the _Tsing-ming-tsee_, or Feast of Tombs; the festivals of all and -sundry deities; and the birthdays of the living Emperor and Empress, as -well as the anniversaries of the deaths of their predecessors, which, -however, are observed only by the mandarins. So numerous are the festivals -that were they celebrated everywhere by everybody there would be neither -"time" nor "hands" for the works of agriculture or commerce, trade, -science, or the arts. - - * * * * * - -We pass on to a brief account of - - -TAOUISM. - -The founder of Taouism, the doctrine of Tao, or Reason, was a celebrated -philosopher named Lao-tsze, who was born in the third year of the Emperor -Ting-wang, of the Chow dynasty (B.C. 604) in the state of Tseu, now known -as Hoo-pih and Hoo-nan. He preceded Confucius by half a century. His -family name was _Le_, or Plum, and his youthful name, _Urh_, or Ear, in -allusion to the exceptional size of his "auricular appendages." The events -of his career are so obscured in an atmosphere of legend and fable, -created by admiring disciples, that it is difficult to get at any -authentic particulars; but he seems to have been an assiduous student, and -the historian or chronologist of a king of the Chow dynasty. Visiting, -about B.C. 600, the western parts of China, he gained there a knowledge of -the system of Fo, or Buddha, and soon afterwards began to develope his own -religious teaching. So great was his fame that Confucius went to see him; -but the interview was hardly of the character that might have been -expected when two religious philosophers met. Lao-tsze reproached the -younger sage with pride and ostentation and vanity, affirming that -philosophers loved retirement and seclusion, and made no boast of virtue -and knowledge. It speaks well for the good nature of Confucius that he -replied to this tirade by highly commending Lao-tsze to his followers, and -describing him as a dragon soaring to the clouds of Heaven, unsurpassed -and unsurpassable. - -Lao-tsze inquired of Confucius if he had discovered the _Taou_, the "path" -or "reason" by which Heaven acts, and was informed that the philosopher -had searched for it unsuccessfully. Lao-tsze replied that the wealthy -dismissed their friends with presents, and sages theirs with good counsel; -and that for himself, he humbly claimed to be thought a sage--an indirect -way of advising Confucius to continue his quest of the _Taou_. Retiring to -Han-kwan, he wrote there his _Taou-tih-king_, or Book of Reason and -Virtue. He died, or as his followers say, ascended to Heaven on a black -buffalo, in the twenty-first year of the reign of King-wang of the Chow or -Cheu dynasty, or B.C. 523, having attained the age of 119 years.[32] - -The contrast between the system of Lao-tsze and that of Confucius may be -indicated in a word: the former was _speculative_, the latter _practical_, -and it is no wonder, therefore that the latter, addressing itself to man's -actual necessities and daily duties, prevailed over the former. But, in an -abstract sense, Lao's, as originally defined by himself, was the purer and -more elevated; for it aimed at securing the immortality of man through the -contemplation of GOD, the subjugation of the passions, and the absolute -tranquillity of the soul. He taught that Silence and the Void generated -the Taou, the "Logos" or reason by which movement was produced; and that -all beings containing in themselves the duality of male and female sprang -from them. - -Man, he said, was composed of two principles, the material and the -spiritual: from the latter he emanated, and to it he ought to return, by -throwing off the fetters and snares of the world, crushing out the -material passions, the desires of the soul, and the pleasures of the body, -and abandoning riches, honours, and the ties of life. - -Before Lao-tsze's time, the Chinese seem to have worshipped the -_Shang-te_, or Supreme Ruler, and the _Tien_, or Heaven: but Lao-tsze -preached in their place the _Taou_, or "reason" of the Kosmos. Of a -Supreme Creative and Eternal Power he had no conception. There was as -little theology in his system as in that of Confucius; but its morality -was not less admirable; it insisted on the practice of those virtues which -form the moral code of all the higher religions,--charity, benevolence, -chastity, and the free-will, moral agency, and responsibility of man. But -there was an obscurity about Lao-tsze's teaching, which enabled his -followers successfully to pervert it, and it gradually assumed a form -which the Teacher himself would undoubtedly have been the first to -repudiate. The Taossi, as they were called, professed to have discovered -the drink of immortality, and practised divination, alchemy, the -invocation of spirits, and other superstitious rites. These follies were -gravely ridiculed by the Joo-Keaou, or sect of Confucius, and gradually -were abandoned by all but the most illiterate. - -Among the host of deities worshipped by this sect we may instance the -_San-tsing_, or "Three Pure Ones," the three-fold ruler of the assembled -gods in heaven, the sun, the moon, and the stars, who delivers his name -and benevolent commands to be promulgated amongst mankind, that all who -see and recite that name may be delivered from all evil, and obtain -infinite happiness. "It is impossible to doubt," says a writer, "that we -see here traces of a Divine revelation, corrupted though it has now -become. China has her Trinity in Taouism as well as in Buddhism; as other -Pagan nations have had theirs in the Orphic mythology, where there were -'counsel, and light, and life;' in the Platonic theology, which had its -'good, and mind, and the soul of the world,' as in the Egyptian mysteries -there were 'On, and Isis, and Neith;' and in that of Fo, 'Brahma, Vishnu, -and Seeva.'" - -The Taossi, Tien-sze, or "Celestial Doctors,"--the priests of -Taouism,--are outwardly distinguished amongst the Chinese by the manner in -which they dress their hair. They shave the sides of the head, and coil -the remaining hair in a tuft on the crown. Moreover, they wear -slate-coloured robes. There are two orders; one, the keepers of the -temples, vowed to celibacy; the others, who are free to marry, live in -their own houses, or wander about the country selling charms and medical -nostrums. In the feast of one of their deities, the "High Emperor of all -the Sombre Heavens," they assemble before his temple, and having kindled a -huge fire, about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, go over it barefoot, -carrying the gods in their arms. "They firmly assert," says Williams, -"that if they possess a sincere mind they will not be injured by the fire; -but both priests and people get miserably burnt on these occasions." -Escayrac de Lauture says that they leap, dance, and whirl round the fire, -striking at the devils with a straight Roman-like sword, and sometimes -wounding themselves as the priests of Baal and Moloch were wont to do. - - * * * * * - -Some interesting particulars of the Buddhist temples of China are supplied -by Mr. Fortune. He speaks of the temple of Tien-tung as a congeries of -temples, a collection of spacious structures, which occupy the site of -former buildings. All of these are crowded with idols, or images of the -favourite gods, such as the "Three precious Buddhas," "the Queen of -Heaven," represented as sitting on the celebrated lotus or nelumbium--"the -God of War," and many other deified kings and great men of former days. -Many of these images are from thirty to forty feet in height, and have a -striking appearance as they stand arranged in the spacious lofty halls. -The priests themselves reside in a range of low buildings, erected at -right angles with the different temples and courts that divide them. Each -has a little temple under his own roof; a family altar crowded with petty -images, where he is often engaged in private devotion. - -Mr. Fortune, after inspecting the various temples and the belfry, which -contains a noble bronze bell of large dimensions, was conducted to the -house of the principal priest, where dinner was already spread upon the -table. The Buddhist priests are not permitted to eat animal food at any of -their meals. The dinner, therefore, consisted entirely of vegetables, -served _a la Chinoise_, in numerous small round basins, the contents of -each--soups excepted--being cut up into small square bits, to be eaten -with chopsticks. The Buddhist priests contrive to procure a quantity of -vegetables of different kinds, which, by a peculiar mode of preparation, -are rendered very savoury. "In fact," says Mr. Fortune,[33] "so nearly do -they resemble animal food in taste and in appearance, that at first we -were deceived, imagining that the little bits we were able to get hold of -with our chopsticks were really pieces of fowl or beef. Such, however, was -not the case, as our good host was consistent on this day at least, and -had nothing but vegetable productions at his table. Several other priests -sat with us at table, and a large number of others of inferior rank with -servants, crowded around the doors and windows outside." - -During dinner, Mr. Fortune learned that about a hundred priests were -connected with the monastery, but that many were always about on missions -to various parts of the country. A considerable portion of land in the -vicinity belonged to the temple, and supplied its revenue: large sums were -raised every year from the sale of bamboos, which are here very excellent, -and of the branches of trees and brushwood, which are made up in bundles -for firewood. Many rice and tea farms also belong to the priests and are -cultivated by them. In addition to the sums thus raised, a considerable -revenue must accrue from the contributions of the devotees who frequent -the temple, as well as from the alms and donations collected by the -mendicant priests of the order, who are sent out on begging excursions at -stated periods of the year. There are, of course, all grades of priests; -some being merely the servants of the others, both domestic and -agricultural. - -The temple forms the centre of a fine landscape. It stands at the head of -a fertile valley, with green hills all around it; this valley echoes with -the music of several bright mountain streams, and yields abundant crops of -rice. On the lower slopes of the more fertile hills grow masses of tea -shrubs, with dark green leaves, lending a fine background to the picture. -A long avenue of Chinese pine trees leads up to the temple. At first it is -straight, but near the temple it winds picturesquely round the edges of -the artificial lakes, to end at a flight of stone steps. Behind, and on -each side, the mountains rise in irregular ridges, from 1,000 to 2,000 -feet above the sea level; not bare and desolate like the mountains of the -south, but clothed to their tops with a dense tropical-looking growth of -brushwood, shrubs, and trees. Some of the finest bamboos of China flourish -in the ravines, and the sombre-coloured pine attains to a large size on -the acclivities. - -A quaint account of the origin of the monastery was given by one of the -head priests:-- - -"Many hundred years ago a pious old man retired from the world, and came -to dwell in these mountains, giving himself up entirely to the performance -of religious duties. So earnest was he in his devotions that he neglected -everything relating to his temporal wants, even to his daily food. -Providence, however, would not suffer so good a man to starve. Some boys -were sent in a miraculous manner, who daily supplied him with food. In the -course of time the fame of the sage extended all over the adjacent -country, and disciples flocked to him from all quarters. A small range of -temples was built, and thus commenced the extensive buildings which now -bear the name of 'Tien-tung,' or the 'Temple of the Heavenly Boys;' _Tien_ -signifying heaven, and _tung_, a boy. At last the old man died, but his -disciples supplied his place. The fame of the temple spread far and wide, -and votaries came from the most distant parts of the empire--one of the -Chinese kings being amongst the number--to worship and leave their -offerings at its altars. Larger temples were built in front of the -original ones, and these again in their turn gave way to those spacious -buildings which form the principal part of the structure of the present -day." - -Mr. Fortune remarks that a large number of Buddhist temples are scattered -over all this part of the country. Their architects have shown as keen a -sympathy with nature as the Cistercian founders in Europe, always building -them in the most lovely and picturesque situations, amongst the green -hills, and in the shelter of spreading woods--the leafy enclosures that in -England indicate the presence of an old manor house, or "ancestral hall." -_Poo-to_, or the Worshipping Island, as foreigners call it, is one of the -eastern islands in the Chusan Archipelago, and seems to be one of the -great Buddhist centres. The principal group of temples is situated in a -fine romantic glen, and from the high ground above it, seems like a town -of considerable size. As the traveller approaches nearer, he finds the -view of great interest. In front extends a large artificial pond, filled -with the broad green leaves and noble red and white flowers of the -nelumbium speciosum,--a plant in high favour with the Chinese. Access to -the monastery is obtained by a very ornamental bridge thrown across this -piece of water. - -The temples or halls containing the idols are extremely spacious; many of -the idols are thirty or forty feet high, generally made of wood or clay, -and then richly gilt. In a temple of far less pretentious character than -any of the others Mr. Fortune met with some exquisite bronze statues, of -undoubted value. - -Having examined these temples, our traveller made his way towards another -group of them, about two miles to the eastward, and close on the sea -shore. Entering the courts through a kind of triumphal arch, which looked -out upon the sapphire sea, he found that these temples were constructed on -the same plan. - -On the following day he inspected various parts of the island. In addition -to the larger temples just noticed, about sixty or seventy smaller ones -are built on all the hill sides, each containing three or four priests, -who are all under the abbot, or superior, residing near one of the large -temples. "Even on the top of the highest hill," he says, "probably 1,500 -or 1,800 feet above the level of the sea, we found a temple of -considerable size and in excellent repair. There are winding stone steps -from the sea-beach all the way up to this temple, and a small -resting-place about half-way up the hill, where the weary devotee may -rest and drink of the refreshing stream which flows down the sides of the -mountain, and in the little temple close at hand, which is also crowded -with idols, he can supplicate Buddha for strength to enable him to reach -the end of his journey. We were surprised to find a Buddhist temple in -such excellent order as the one on the summit of the hill proved to be in. -It is a striking fact, that almost all these places are crumbling fast -into ruins. There are a few exceptions, in cases where they happen to get -a good name amongst the people from the supposed kindness of the gods; but -the great mass are in a state of decay." - -The island of Poo-to is nothing but a residence for Buddhist priests, and -no other persons are allowed to live there but their servants and -attendants. No women are admitted, as the principles of Buddhism insist -upon sacerdotal celibacy. There are about 2,000 priests, many of whom are -constantly absent on begging expeditions for the maintenance of their -religion. On certain high days, at different periods of the year, many -thousands of both sexes, but more particularly females, visit these -temples, clothed in their gayest attire, to pay their vows and engage in -the other practices of heathen worship. In the temples or at the doorways -stand little stalls, for the sale of incense, candles, paper made up to -resemble ingots of Sycee-silver, and other holy things, which are regarded -as acceptable offerings to the gods, and are either consumed in the -temples or carried home to bring, it is supposed, a blessing upon the -homes and families of their purchasers. The profits of these sales go, of -course, to the maintenance of the establishment. Whatever we may think of -the superstitious character of Buddhism, it is impossible to doubt the -sincerity of its disciples, when we find them sometimes travelling a -distance of several hundred miles to worship in their temples. - -"I was once staying," says Fortune,[34] "in the temple of Tien-tung when -it was visited for three days by devotees from all parts of the country. -As they lined the roads on their way to the temple, clad in the graceful -and flowing costumes of the East, the mind was naturally led back to -those days of Scripture History when Jerusalem was in its glory, and the -Jews, the chosen people of God, came from afar to worship in its temple." - -Mr. Gutzlaff, the missionary, is of opinion that the priests and devotees -of Buddhism entertain no sincere conviction of the truth of their creed. -Describing a visit to Poo-to, he says: "We were present at the vespers of -the priests, which they chanted in the Pali language, not unlike the Latin -service of the Romish Church. They held rosaries in their hands, which -rested folded upon their breasts. One of them had a small bell, by the -tinkling of which their service was regulated; and they occasionally beat -the drum and large bell to rouse Buddha's attention to their prayers. The -same words were a hundred times repeated. None of the officiating persons -showed any interest in the ceremony, for some were looking round laughing -and joking, while others muttered their prayers. The few people who were -present, not to attend the worship, but to gaze at us, did not seem, in -the least degree, to feel the solemnity of the service." But to condemn -the whole Buddhist sect from this solitary instance would be as reasonable -as to pronounce all Protestants insincere because a West-end congregation -in London may have shown signs of frivolity and indifference! Mr. Fortune, -on the contrary, declares that he was much impressed by the solemnity with -which the devotional exercises of the Buddhists were generally conducted. -"I have often walked," he says, "into Chinese temples when the priests -were engaged in prayer, and although there would have been some apology -for them had their attention been diverted, they went on in the most -solemn manner until the conclusion of the service, as if no foreigner were -present. They then came politely up to me, examining my dress and -everything about me with the most earnest curiosity. Nor does this apply -to priests only; the laity, and particularly the female sex, seem equally -sincere when they engage in their public devotions. Whether they are what -they appear to be, or how often they are in this pious frame of mind, are -questions which I cannot answer. Before judging harshly of the Chinese, -let the reader consider what effect would be produced upon the members of -a Christian church by the unexpected entrance of a small-footed Chinese -lady, or a Mandarin, with the gold button and peacock feather mounted on -his hat, and his long tail dangling over his shoulders. I am far from -being an admirer of the Buddhist priesthood; they are generally an -imbecile race, and shamefully ignorant of everything but the simple forms -of their religion, but nevertheless there are many traits in their -character not unworthy of imitation." - -The superstitious credulity of the Chinese is demonstrated by the nature -of their various religious ceremonies. In all the southern towns every -house has its temple or altar, both within and without. In the interior -the altar generally occupies the end of the principal hall or shop, as the -case may be; is raised a few feet from the ground, and adorned with an -effigy of the household god, enveloped in gaudy tinsel paper. By the way, -of what we call "taste," the Chinese do not seem to know even the -rudiments; nor do they appear to have any feeling for harmony of colour or -proportion. On the first day of the Chinese month, and other festivals, -candles and incense flare and smoke on the table in front of it. The altar -outside the door is like to a small furnace, and here the same ceremonies -are regularly performed. - -The traveller, as he passes in the neighbourhood of small villages, or in -even more sequestered localities, comes upon little joss-houses or -temples, all glaringly decorated in the same style with paintings and -tinsel paper, and stuck round about with bits of candles and sticks of -incense. Shops for the sale of idols of all kinds and sizes, but of -unvarying ugliness, at prices varying from a few pence to many pounds, are -found in all the large towns. Some are evidently very ancient, and have -passed through the hands of a long succession of proprietors. It is a -capital custom--is it not?--when you are tired of your god, because he -does not fulfil your wishes, to purchase another and a more powerful at a -slight increase of price! A deity who would really gratify _all_ our -petitions would be worth--so far as this world is concerned--a heavy sum! - - * * * * * - -Nothing in China is more remarkable than the periodical offerings of a -Chinese family to its gods. The traveller already cited witnessed such a -ceremony in a house at Shanghai. The principal hall was duly set out at an -early hour in the morning; a large table was placed in the centre; and -shortly afterwards covered with small dishes filled with the various -articles commonly used as food by the Chinese. All these were of the very -best description which could be procured. After a certain time had elapsed -numerous candles were lighted, and from the burning incense rose columns -of fragrant smoke. The inmates of the house and their friends were all -clothed in their best attire, and came in turn to _ko-too_, or bow lowly -and repeatedly in front of the table and the altar. "The scene," says our -authority, "although it was an idolatrous one, seemed to me to have -something very impressive about it, and whilst I pitied the delusion of -our host and his friends, I could not but admire their devotion. In a -short time after this ceremony was completed a large quantity of tinsel -paper, made up in the form and shape of the ingots of Sycee silver common -in China, was heaped on the floor in front of the tables, the burning -incense was then taken from the table and placed in the midst of it, and -the whole consumed together. By-and-by, when the gods were supposed to -have finished their repast, all the articles of food were removed from the -tables, cut up, and consumed by people connected with the family." - -On another occasion, Mr. Fortune, when at Ning-po, having been abroad all -day, did not return to the city until nightfall. The city gates were -closed, but, on knocking, he was admitted by the warder. Passing into the -widest and finest street in the city, he observed a blaze of light and a -general liveliness very unusual in any Chinese town after dark. The sounds -of music fell upon his ear, the monotonous beat of the drum and gong, and -the more pleasing and varied tones of several wind instruments. On -approaching nearer he discovered that a public offering was being made to -the gods, and it proved to be a more striking scene than he could have -anticipated. The table was spread in the open street, and all the -preparations were on a large and expensive scale. Instead of small dishes, -whole animals were sacrificed. On one side of the table was placed a pig, -on the other a sheep; the former, scraped clean in the usual fashion, the -latter skinned; of both the entrails had been removed, and on both were -placed flowers, an onion, and a knife. The other parts of the table -"groaned" with the delicacies in vogue among the more respectable Chinese, -such as fowls, ducks, numerous compound dishes, fruits, vegetables, and -rice. At one end of the table, when the gods were supposed to sit during -the meal, chairs were set; and chopsticks were laid in order by the side -of every dish. The whole place glared with light, and wreaths of incense -filled the air with sweet odours. At intervals, bands of musicians struck -up the favourite national airs, which are all of a plaintive cast, and -altogether the scene was a strange and curious revelation of human -superstition.[35] - - * * * * * - -Processions in honour of the gods are of frequent occurrence. Mr. Fortune -speaks of one which he saw at Shanghai as at least a mile in length. The -gods, or josses, arrayed in the finest silks, were carried about in -splendid sedan-chairs, in the centre of a long train of devotees, all -superbly dressed for the occasion, and all bearing their different -insignia of office. The dresses of the officials exactly resembled those -of some of the attendants who figure in the suite of the higher mandarins. -Some wore on the sides of their hats a broad fan, composed of -peacock-feathers; others strutted in gaudy theatrical costumes, with two -long black feathers stuck, like horns, in their low caps. The scowling -executioners carried long conical black hats on their heads, and whips in -their hands, for the prompt chastisement of the refractory. Bands of -music, in different parts of the procession, played at intervals as it -marched along. - -On arriving at a temple in the suburbs, it came to a halt. The gods were -taken out of the sedan-chairs, and with a great exhibition of reverence, -replaced in the temple, from which they had been removed in the morning. -Then their worshippers bent low before their altars, burning incense, and -depositing their gifts. Numerous groups of well-dressed ladies and their -children were scattered over the ground in the neighbourhood of the -temple; all were kneeling, and apparently they conducted their devotions -with great earnestness. A large quantity of paper, in the shape of the -Sycee silver ingots, was piled up on the grass by the different devotees, -and when the ceremonies of the day were being brought to a conclusion, the -whole was burned in honour of, or as an offering to, the gods. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -_AMONG THE MALAYS: THE SLAMATAN BROMOK; THE DYAKS; THE PAPUAN TRIBES; THE -AHETAS._ - - -THE SLAMATAN BROMOK. - -A religious ceremony exists in Java which has an obvious affinity to the -old Nature-Worship, and finds its excuse in the dread with which the -uncivilised races regarded the mysterious forces of Nature, unseen in -themselves, but palpable in their results. About three miles from the town -of Tosari, rises the barren cone of the Bromok, a still active volcano, -which is strangely situated in the bosom of green wooded hills and -mountains,--a significant blur upon the landscape. The traveller who -desires to accomplish its ascent climbs up the rough and almost -precipitous slope by a path winding through immense breadths of a tall -yellow grass called the alang-alang. When he has attained to the brink of -the Monegal, an enormous extinct crater, reputed to be the largest in the -world, he will do well to pause, and survey the landscape before him. Of -the knot of mountains on which his eye rests, the foremost is called the -Batok, or Butak, that is, the Bald; in allusion, probably, to its barren -summit, for its sides are well clothed with herbage. It is shaped like a -cone, with deep grooves down its declivities, indicating the course taken -by the lava-streams formerly ejected from its interior. To its right, a -little in the rear, stretches the sharp pointed chain of the Dedari and -Widadarea, or "abode of fairies;" while, on the left, shrouded in smoke -clouds, which partially conceal its bulk, is situated the mass of the -dreary Bromok. - -Descending into the crater, we cross its sandy floor, the Dasar,--or, as -it is appropriately called, the Sandy Sea,--where grows not tree nor -shrub, and the only signs of vegetation are a few scattered patches of -dried and scrubby grass. The surface is strangely corrugated or ridged, -like the sea-sand at ebb of tide; and the whole landscape is as full of -gloom as the waste of the African Sahara. - -Like many other volcanoes, the Bromok is a truncated cone. From one of its -sides project numerous irregular masses, or mounds of mud and sand, -incrusted in a baked clay like red lava. Some of these have been largely -reduced in size by the heavy tropical rains, which have ploughed deep -broad fissures in the Sandy Sea; while others, still supplied with liquid -matter from the volcano, are encroaching on the Dasar, and covering so -much of it as lies within the more immediate neighbourhood of the crater. -Large blocks of lime and limestone lie embedded in these mounds; also huge -black stones veined like marble and glittering like granite. These, as -well as the scoriae which abound in every direction, were products, it is -supposed, of the last eruption of the Bromok. - -Climbing to the summit of the ridge, and looking down into the abyss of -the crater, the traveller at first is tempted to suppose that before him -lies one of the "circles" of Dante's mediaeval Inferno. A yawning pit in -the centre belches dense volumes of sulphureous smoke, accompanied by -terrific sounds, like groans and shrieks and yells. The inner crater forms -a large basin, about 350 feet in diameter, with irregular broken sides, -descending to a depth of fully 250 feet. The sides, as well as the bottom, -are encrusted with deposits of yellow sulphureous matter. - -The ceremony of the benediction of this dread volcano takes place two or -three times a year; it is not without its picturesque details. Groups of -pilgrims are scattered about the Sandy Sea; some eating, others praying; -some singing, others laughing, talking, chaffering. Men are selling, and -finding a ready market for, amulets, charms, and volcanic stones, which, -in language as extravagant as that of the European proprietor of a patent -pill, they declare to be sovereign remedies for every human malady. -Provisions of all kinds are on sale, and lie exposed upon roughly -constructed stands, resembling those which are seen at English fairs; a -plank or two, supported on a couple of stone trestles. "Wodonos and -Mantries"--the Javanese nobles--parade up and down in gay attire, their -burnished krisses glittering amidst the folds of their sarong. Old men and -old women, who have come to pay their last homage to the shrine, totter -along feebly; watching with delight, however, the frolics of their -grandchildren as they scamper about in unchecked glee. - -At one part of the Sandy Sea twenty mats are ranged in a row, and upon -each a young priest kneels, having before him a box of myrrh, -frankincense, aloes, and other spices, which are sold for offerings. At -right angles runs another row, with the same number of priests, all -kneeling in the Arab fashion, their bodies partly resting on the calves of -their legs. These are older than the former group, and may be regarded as -the patriarchs of their respective villages. Behind each stands a -payong-bearer, shading his master from the sun with a large umbrella. -Their dress consists of a white gown worn over the sarong, which is tied -to the waist by a broad red belt. Over the shoulders hang two bands of -yellow silk, bound with scarlet, and their ends ornamented with tassels -and gold coins. The head-dress consists of a large turban, adorned with -gay silken scarfs. In front of each priest are spread small packets made -of plantain leaves, containing incense, sandal-wood chips, and other -preparations; wooden censers, throwing forth jets of fragrant smoke; and a -vessel, made of plaited ratan, for holding water. - -At a short distance from the priests a motley crowd is assembled, waiting -for the various offerings they have deposited upon specially prepared -bamboo stands, to be consecrated. These offerings consist of cocoa-nuts, -plantains, pine-apples, mangoes, and other fruits; of baskets of young -chickens; of trays loaded with all kinds of cakes; of strips of silk and -calico; of gold, silver, and copper coins. - -After spending a few minutes in prayer, the priest dips his goupillon or -cup into the vessel of water before him, mutters a few unintelligible -words, and sprinkles the oblations as they are successively presented. -Then all the holy men bow their heads, and repeat loudly and distinctly a -ritual prayer. - -The oldest rises up, followed in succession by his sacerdotal companions, -uttering a phrase which sounds like "Ayo, ayo, Bromok!" and probably -means, "Forward, forward to the Bromok!" At this signal all the crowd rush -to the Bromok, impressed with a belief that he who first gains the ridge -will be the favourite of fortune, and presently meet with some exceptional -stroke of good luck. At intervals some of the older priests come to a -halt, spread their mats, and prostrate themselves in prayer for five or -ten minutes, thus securing an interval of rest at the same time that they -win a reputation for special devoutness. - -On reaching the summit of the volcano, the various families and -individuals again present their offerings to the priests, who mumble over -them a few additional words: they are then thrown into the crater, each -person eagerly repeating some prayer or wish. And thus concludes the -strange ceremony by which the spirits of the Bromok are supposed to be -propitiated. The crowd descend from the volcano to join in various games -and pastimes; towards evening they begin to disperse, and as the night -spreads its cloud of darkness over the scene, the Sea of Sand resumes its -ordinary aspect of loneliness and desolation. - - -THE DYAKS OF BORNEO. - -It is not certain that the Dyaks possess any religion. Temminck asserts -that they _have_, and that it bears a close resemblance to "fetichism." -The god Djath, he says, rules the sublunar world, and the god Sangjang -presides over hell. These gods wear the human form, but are invisible; the -Dyaks invoke them by sprinkling rice on the ground, and offering various -sacrifices. In the houses of the Dyaks, adds Temminck, wooden idols are -frequently met with. - -Other travellers are of opinion that they profess a kind of Pantheism, and -represent them as believing, like the ancient Greeks, in a multitude of -gods, gods above and gods below the world, as well as innumerable good and -evil spirits, of whom Budjang-Brani is undoubtedly the most wicked. All -diseases are caused by the agency of evil demons, and all misfortunes; and -therefore the Dyaks make vigorous efforts to drive them away by shouts, -and shrieks, and the discordant gong. So in some of the West Indian -islands the natives, during an eclipse, would seek, by a horrible clamour, -to frighten away the monster they supposed to be devouring the moon. - -Some authorities go so far as to represent the Dyaks as cherishing vague -ideas of the Unity of the Godhead and the immortality of the soul. - -Madame Ida Pfeiffer was by no means a philosophical traveller, but she was -an honest observer; and as the result of her explorations in Borneo, she -positively affirms that among the tribes she visited are neither temples -nor idols, priests nor sacrifices. On the occasions of their births, -marriages and funerals they perform certain ceremonies, but these appear -to be devoid of all religious character. Usually on such occasions they -kill fowls as well as hogs. When concluding treaties of peace they always -slaughter swine, but they do not eat them, and in this custom we may trace -perhaps the propitiatory idea. A few tribes burn their dead, and preserve -the ashes in hollow trees; others inter them in the least accessible -localities, such as the summits of lofty mountains; others bind the corpse -to the trunk of a tree in the position in which S. Peter was crucified, -that is, with the feet upwards and the head downwards. - - -IN BOURU. - -The inhabitants of Bouru, one of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, -profess a creed which was taught them by one called Nabiata. From some of -its articles he would seem to have been a Mohammedan, or acquainted with -Mohammedanism; but whence he came, or how, or when he made his way to -Bouru, it is impossible to ascertain. The natives say that there is one -Supreme Being, Who created all things, and is the source of both good and -evil. He permits the existence of evil spirits. Those who pray to Him He -rewards with prosperity; those who neglect this duty He never fails to -punish. It was owing to His infinite love for man that He sent him this -inspired teacher Nabiata, who resided among the mountains, and delivered -his Master's will in seven commandments:-- - - 1. Thou shalt not kill nor wound. - - 2. Thou shalt not steal. - - 3. Thou shalt not commit adultery. - - 4. Thou shalt not set thyself up against thy _fenna_ (priest.) - - 5. A man shall not set himself up against the chief of his tribe. - - 6. A chief shall not set himself up against him who is over his or - other tribes. - - 7. The chief over more than one tribe shall not set himself up against - him who is placed over all the tribes. - -Nabiata also taught that though the body perishes, the soul will live for -ever; that those who keep the foregoing commandments, (and all the acts of -men are duly recorded by the Supreme Being,) shall dwell in His presence -far above the firmament; while those who have lived wickedly shall never -rise to the abode of the happy, nor shall they remain upon earth, but for -ever and ever, lonely and in sorrow, wander among the clouds, yearning -with a desire that can never be fulfilled, to join their brethren in the -heaven above or on the earth beneath. - -Nabiata also introduced the rite of circumcision, and ordained that it -should be performed on children of both sexes when they attained the age -of eight or ten years. - - -THE PAPUAN TRIBES. - -Among the Dorians, or the inhabitants of the north coast of New Guinea, -near Port Dory, an almost childish superstition prevails. Always and -everywhere they carry about with them a variety of charms and talismans, -such as bits of bone, or quartz, or carved wood, to which, for some reason -or other, an artificial value has come to be attached. Those among them -who have acquired a slight knowledge of Mohammedanism use verses of the -Koran written upon narrow strips of paper by the Mohammedan priests of -Ceram and Tidore. But most of the Dorians are pagans, and worship an idol -called "Karwar," a clumsy figure of which, carved in wood, holding a -shield, and distinguished by an exceptionally large head, with a sharp -nose and a wide mouth, is kept in every house, and plays the part of a -dumb oracle. Its owner, when involved in any difficulty or danger, hastens -to crouch before it, bowing or salaaming repeatedly, with his hands -clasped upon his forehead. If while thus engaged he experiences an emotion -of doubt or despondency, it is considered an evil sign, and he proceeds to -abandon whatever may have been his wish or object. It will thus be seen -that everything depends upon the votary's temperament or natural -disposition,--if he be a sanguine and resolute man, it is not likely that -he will be conscious of any untoward sensation; and, in such a case, he of -course concludes that he has the sanction of his "Karwar." In other words, -his will fortifies him to carry out his wishes. But even among civilised -nations a similar method of "consulting the oracle,"--of soliciting the -advice of another with the intention of following it only if it coincides -with one's own desires,--is sometimes heard of! - -The Dorians appear to maintain a priestly caste; but its functions are -confined to the interpretation of dreams and omens; besides which its -members act as "medicine men." There are no religious rites, no -sacrifices. The two notable events of marriage and death pass with little -show. In the former, the intending bride and bridegroom sit down before -the Karwar, the woman offers the man homage in the shape of tobacco and -betel-leaf; then they join hands, rise up, and are recognised as man and -wife. When a death occurs, the corpse is wrapped in a white calico shroud, -and interred in a pit about five feet deep. There it lies upon its side in -the midst of its weapons and ornaments, and a porcelain dish under its -ear. The grave is afterwards filled up with earth, roofed over with dried -grass, and crowned with the Karwar of the departed. - -The Aruans, like the Papuans, belong to the Australo-Malay division of the -Archipelago, and their religious system is but a little more developed. -And here we may note that as we recede from Asia and advance through the -great chain of the Eastern islands to Australia, we observe a gradual -religious decadence, until the depth of barbarism is reached in the -wretched aboriginal tribes of the great "island continent." The Aruans -have no idea of a heaven or a hell; no sense of any "world beyond the -grave," but their funeral rites are conducted on an extensive scale. - -When an Aruan dies, his kinsmen at once assemble and destroy all the goods -and chattels he has accumulated during his lifetime; breaking even the -gongs in pieces, which are carefully thrown away. The body is next laid -out on a small mat, and propped up against a ladder for three or four -days; after which the relatives again assemble, and apparently to prevent -further decay, cover the exposed parts with lime. Meanwhile the hut is -filled with the fumes of burning dammar or resin, and the guests sit in -the perfumed atmosphere drinking large draughts of arrack, and of a spirit -which they contrive to distil from the juice of some indigenous fruit. The -stimulant soon does its work; they give vent to their feelings in violent -shouts, which mingle with the howls and wails of the women and the hoarse -discord of the gongs. Food is offered to the deceased, and the mouth -crammed with various kinds of edibles, rice, and arrack. - -By this time all the friends and relatives of the departed have -assembled--as at a Scotch funeral; the body is placed on a kind of bier, -which is strewn with numerous pieces of cloth according to the wealth of -the deceased; while large dishes of China porcelain are set beneath to -catch any moisture that may fall from it. A high value is afterwards set -upon these dishes. Being taken out of the house, the body is supported -against a post, and another effort made to induce it to eat. The hollow -jaws are again stuffed with lighted cigars, rice, fruit, and arrack; and -the mourners join in a loud chant, inquiring whether the sleeper will not -awake at the sight of so many friends and fellow-villagers. Alas, the long -slumber continues! The body is again placed upon its bier, which is -carried into the forest, and it is hoisted upon the summit of four posts. -A tree, usually the _Pavetta Indica_, is then planted near it; and at this -final ceremony none, it is said, but naked women are allowed to be -present. This is called the _sudah buang_, and signifies that the body is -thenceforth abandoned to the silence of the wilderness as unable any -longer to see, hear, think, or feel. - - * * * * * - -The religion of savage or uncivilised men is, necessarily, coloured and -determined by the natural influences that surround them, and according as -they live in the African desert or the American forest, among the snows of -Siberia or on the table-land of Tibet, will bear its distinctive and -appropriate character. We do not doubt, therefore, but that Sherard Osborn -is right in the explanation he offers of the superstitious credulity of -the Malays, that the wonderful phenomena peculiar to the seas and islands -of the great Eastern Archipelago could never be intelligible to an -uneducated and highly imaginative race except on the supposition of -supernatural agency. Of course, this superstitious temperament is not -confined to the Malayan race. It is found, as we have said, in all savage -peoples, and springs from that profound though often vague and undefinable -sense of an overruling and mysterious Power which the influence of Nature -impresses on the heart of man. - -There were proofs by the thousand among the Malays with whom Admiral -Sherard Osborn came in contact, of that connection with the Unseen World -which men in every stage of civilisation seem to accept and to be desirous -of developing. And he relates a striking instance of their great -credulity, which we may quote here as not wholly without illustrative -value. - -Sherard Osborn's gunboat was lying one night close to the southern point -of the Quedah river, where it flows into the Strait of Malacca. The air -was chill and damp, and the sky obscured with clouds, through which a -young moon sped occasional shafts of silver light. - -About eleven o'clock his attention was directed to his look-out man, a -Malay, who, seated upon the fore-deck gun, was spitting violently, and -giving rapid utterance to expressions apparently of reproof or defiance. -Another Malay quickly joined him; pointed towards the jungle-loaded shore; -and then he too began the spitting and ejaculatory process. After awhile, -with an evident air of relief, the second Malay went down below. Unable -any longer to restrain his curiosity, Sherard Osborn walked forward. The -look-out man had turned his back to the jungle, but ever and anon threw a -furtive glance over his shoulder, and uttered sentences in which the name -of "Allah" frequently occurred. He seemed delighted at the coming of his -captain, and, springing to his feet, saluted him. - -"Anything new?" said Osborn; "any prahus in sight?" - -"Teda, Touhan--no, sir," was the reply; and then observing that his -officer was looking in the direction of the jungle, he made signs that it -was better to look anywhere but there. - -Calling Jamboo, his interpreter, Osborn desired him to ask the Malay what -he saw in the jungle. Judge his astonishment at the reply: - -"He says he saw a spirit, sir." - -"Nonsense. Ask him how or where? It may be some Malay scouts." - -Again came the answer: that the man had distinctly seen an _untoo_, or -spirit, moving about among the trees close to the margin of the water; and -that he had been assiduously praying and expectorating, in order to -prevent it from approaching the gunboat, as it was evidently a very bad -spirit, very dangerous, and clothed in a long dress. - -Sherard Osborn reprimanded his interpreter for repeating so ridiculous a -fancy, and ordered him to explain to the man that there were no such -things as "spirits," and that if he had seen anything, it must have been -an animal or a man. But he was earnestly assured by Jamboo, the -interpreter, that Malays frequently saw untoos; that some were dangerous, -and some harmless; and that as for the untoo he had just seen, the captain -would see it too, if he looked carefully. - -Accordingly, the English captain sat down by the side of the Malay sailor, -and looked in the same direction. The gunboat lay at anchor about one -hundred and fifty yards from the jungle; the water flowed up to its very -margin; among the spreading roots of the mangrove trees lay small ridges -of white shingle and broken shells, which receded into darkness or shone -out into distinct relief as the moonlight fell upon them. When these white -gleams became visible, Osborn immediately pointed to them, and hinted that -these were the Malay's "spirit." - -"No, no!" he answered vehemently, and Jamboo added, "He says he will warn -you immediately he sees _it_." - -Suddenly he touched his officer, and pointing earnestly, exclaimed, "Look, -look!" - -Sherard Osborn _did_ look, and for a moment yielded to the delusion as he -caught sight of what appeared to be, and probably was, the figure of a -female with drapery thrown around her. Gliding out of the dark forest -shadows, it halted at a hillock of white sand not more than three hundred -yards distant. Osborn rubbed his eyes; the interpreter called vigorously -on a Romish saint, and the Malay spat energetically, as if some unclean -animal had crossed his path. Again the captain looked, and again he saw -the form, which had passed a dense clump of trees, and was slowly crossing -another avenue in the forest. - -"Feeling the folly," says Sherard Osborn, "of yielding to the impression -of reality which the illusion was certainly creating in my mind, I walked -away, and kept the Malay employed in different ways until midnight; he, -however, every now and then spat vehemently, and cursed all evil spirits -with true Mohammedan fervour." - - -THE ORANG-LAUTS. - -Of this singular race of Malays, the Orang-Lauts, "Men of the Seas," or -"Sea-Gipsies," it is said that they do not seem to know anything of a -Creator. "A fact so difficult to believe," says Mr. Thomson, "when we find -that the most degraded of the human race, in other quarters of the globe, -have an intuitive idea of this unerring and primary truth imprinted on -their minds, that I took the greatest care to find a slight image of the -Deity within the chaos of their thoughts, however degraded such might be, -but was disappointed. They knew neither the God nor the Devil of the -Christians or Mohammedans, although they confessed they had been told of -such; nor any of the demi-gods of Hindu mythology, many of whom were -recounted to them." - -The three great epochs of individual life, birth, marriage, death, pass -unnoticed by them. At birth, the mother's joy is the only welcome to a -world it is not likely to find very bright or happy. At marriage, the sole -solemnity is the exchange between the male and the female of a mouthful of -tobacco and a cheepah, or gallon, of water. At death, the body of the -deceased is wrapped in his rags and tatters, and with, perhaps, a few -tears from the attendant women, committed to the earth. They have none of -that exquisite enjoyment of life which is felt by a cultured race; and -neither the entrance upon it nor the passage from it seems to them an -event calculated to awaken any emotion of interest. And as they are -absolutely without religion, so are they wholly free from superstition; -the solemn influences of Nature seem to produce no effect upon their -stolid dispositions. Of the parus, and dewas, and nambangs, and other -phantom forms which, in the quick imagination of the Malay, haunt each -mountain, rock, and tree, they nothing know; and knowing nothing, they do -not fear. Terror is as often the result of knowledge as of ignorance. The -mind that has no conception of an unseen world or a supernatural force, -must necessarily be free from all apprehension of it. - - * * * * * - -Passing on to the Philippine Islands, we meet there with the Ahetas, who, -like the Orang-Lauts, have no religious system, but, unlike the -Orang-Lauts, cherish at least a religious sentiment. It appears that they -have learned from--or have taught--the Tanguianes, a brave race dwelling -in the vicinity, the practice of worshipping--for a day--the trunk of a -distorted tree, or a fragment of rock, in which they trace some fancied -resemblance to an animal. Then they turn away from it, and think no more -about gods until they encounter another strange and fantastical form, for -the existence of which they are unable to account: this, in turn, they -make the object of a fugitive devotion. For the dead their reverence is -pathetic. Year after year they visit their graves, with as much fidelity -as a Christian mourner, though without the Christian's faith in a future -reunion, and place there a modest offering of tobacco and betel. The bows -and arrows of the departed are suspended above his grave on the day of -interment, and the Ahetas fondly believe that every night he rises from -his resting-place to pursue the shadowy hunt in the haunted glades of the -forest. - -In the case of an aged person afflicted with a mortal illness, they adopt -too often a summary procedure, not waiting for him to die before they bury -him. But no sooner has the body been deposited in the grave, than it -becomes imperative, according to their traditions, that his death -should be avenged; and, accordingly, the warriors of the tribe sally -forth, with lance and arrow, to slay the first living creature they -encounter,--whether man, or stag, or wild hog, or buffalo. When thus in -quest of an expiatory victim, they take the precaution of breaking off the -young shoots of the shrubs as they pass by, and leave the broken ends -hanging in the direction of their roots, as a warning to travellers or -neighbours to shun the path they are taking; for were one of their own -people to be the first to come across the avengers, they dare not suffer -him to escape any more than Agamemnon could spare his daughter Iphigenia. -As she suffered for her father's vow, so must the ill-fated Aheta suffer -for the custom of his tribe. - -Their superiority to many savage races is attested by their faithfulness -in marriage; they practise monogamy. When a young man has chosen his -future partner, his friends or relatives ask the consent of their parents, -which is never refused. The marriage day is fixed, and in the morning, -before sunrise, the maiden is despatched into the forest, where she -conceals herself or not, according to her inclinations towards her suitor. -An hour's grace is allowed, and the young man then goes in search of her: -if he succeed in finding her, and bringing her back to her friends before -sunset, she becomes his wife; but if he fail, he is required to abandon -all further claim to the damsel. A strange custom! But there is this much -at least to be said for it, that it allows the maiden more liberty of -choice than she always enjoys in civilised society! - -Whether the Ahetas (or Negritos) sprang from a mixture of Malay and Papuan -blood, or are of purely Papuan origin, our ethnologists do not seem to -have determined. But in their present development they are certainly -superior to the Papuan races.[36] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -_THE SAVAGE RACES OF ASIA: THE SAMOJEDES; THE MONGOLS; THE OSTIAKS; IN -TIBET._ - - -THE SAMOJEDES. - -The Samojedes are a people of Arctic Asia, where they inhabit the forests -and stony tundras of Northern Russia and Western Siberia; driving their -herds of reindeer from the banks of the Chatanga to the ice-bound shores -of the White Sea, or hunting the wild beasts in the thick forests which -extend between the Obi and the Yenisei. - -Their superstition is of a very coarse and degrading character. It is true -that they recognise the existence of a Supreme Deity, named -Jilibeambaertje, or Num, who resides in the air, and, like the Greek Zeus, -sends down rain and snow, thunder and lightning; and they afford a proof -of that latent capacity for poetical feeling, which some of even the most -barbarous tribes possess, in their description of the rainbow as "the hem -of his garment." To them, however, he seems so elevated above the things -of earth, so indifferent to the woes or joys of humanity, that they regard -it as useless to seek to propitiate him either by prayer or sacrifice; and -accordingly they appeal to the inferior gods who have, as they believe, -the control of human affairs, and can be affected by incantations, vows, -or special homage. - -The bleak and lonely island of Waigatz is still, as in the days of the -Dutch adventurer, Barentz, supposed to be the residence of the chief of -these minor divinities. There a block of stone, pointed at the summit, -bears a certain resemblance to a human head, having been wrought into -this likeness by a freak of Nature. The Samojede image-makers have taken -it for their model, and multiplied it in wood and stone; and the idols -thus easily manufactured they call _sjadaei_, because they wear a human (or -semi-human) countenance (_sja._) They attire them in reindeer skins, and -embellish them with innumerable coloured rags. In addition to the -_sjadaei_, they adopt as idols any curiously contorted tree or irregularly -shapen stone; and the household idol (_Hahe_) they carry about with them, -carefully wrapped up, in a sledge reserved for the purpose, the -_hahengan_. One of the said Penates is supposed to be the guardian of -wedded happiness, another of the fishery, a third of the health of his -worshippers, a fourth of their herds of reindeer. When his services are -needed, the Hahe is removed from its resting-place, and erected in the -tent or on the pasture-ground, in the wood, or on the river's bank. Then -his mouth is smeared with oil or blood, and before him is set a dish of -fish or flesh, in return for which repast it is expected that he will use -his power on behalf of his entertainers. When his aid is no longer needed, -he is returned to the hahengan. - -Besides these obliging deities, the Samojede believes in the existence of -an order of invisible spirits which he calls _Tadebtsois_. These are ever -and everywhere around him, and bent rather upon his injury than his -welfare. It becomes important, therefore, to propitiate them; but this can -be done only through the intervention of a _Tadibe_, or sorcerer; who, on -occasion, stimulates himself into a wildly excited condition, like the -frenzy of the Pythean or Delphic priestess. When the credulous Samojede -invokes his assistance, he attires himself in full necromantic costume: a -kind of shirt, made of reindeer leather; and trimmed with red cloth. Its -seams are similarly trimmed; and the shoulders are decorated with red -cloth tags, or epaulettes. A visor of red cloth conceals his face, and -upon his breast gleams a plate of polished metal. - -Thus imposingly arrayed, the Tadibe takes his drum of reindeer skin, -ornamented with brass rings, and, attended by a neophyte, walks round and -round with singular stateliness, while invoking the presence of the -spirits by a discordant rattle. This gradually increases in violence, and -is accompanied by the droning incantation of the words of enchantment. In -due time the spirits are supposed to appear, and the Tadibe proceeds to -consult them: beating his drum more gently, and occasionally pausing in -his lugubrious chant,--which, however, the novice is careful not to -interrupt,--to listen, as he pretends, to the answers of the deities. At -length the interrogations cease; the chant breaks into a fierce howl; more -and more loudly rattles the drum: the Tadibe appears possessed by a -supernatural influence; his body writhes; the foam-drops gather on his -lips. All at once the wild intoxication ceases; and the Tadibe delivers -the supposed will of the Tadebtsois: advises how a stray reindeer may be -recovered, or the disease of the Samojede worshipper relieved, or the -fisherman's labour may secure a plenteous "harvest of the sea." - -The Tadibe's office is usually hereditary; but occasionally some outsider, -predisposed by nature to hysteric manifestations, and gifted with a warm, -irregular imagination, is initiated into its mysteries. His morbid fancy -is intensified by long solitary self-communings and protracted fasts and -vigils; and his frame debilitated by the use of pernicious narcotics and -stimulants, until he comes to believe that he has been visited by the -spirits. He is then received as a Tadibe, with numerous ceremonies, which -take place at midnight, and is invested with the magic drum. It is -evident, therefore, that the Tadibe, if he deceive others, is the victim -to some extent of self-deception. But, in order to impose upon his -ignorant countrymen, he does not disdain to resort to the commonest cheats -of the conjuror. Among these is the notorious rope-trick, introduced into -England by the performers known as the "Davenport Brothers," and since -repeated by so many "professional artists." With hands and feet to all -appearance securely fastened, he sits down on a carpet of reindeer skin, -and, the lights being put out, summons the spirits to his assistance. -Their presence is speedily made known by singular noises; squirrels seem -to rustle, snakes to hiss, bears to growl. At length the disturbance -ceases; the lights are rekindled; and the Tadibe steps forward unbound; -the spectators of course believing that he has been assisted by the -Tadebtsois. - -Not less barbarous than the poor creatures who submit to his guidance, -the Tadibe is incapable, and probably not desirous, of improving their -moral condition. Similar impostors, claiming and exercising a similar -spiritual dictatorship,--_Schamans_, as the Tungusi call them, _Angekoks_ -among the Eskimos, _Medicine-men_ among the Crees and Chepewyans,--we find -among all the Arctic tribes of the Old and New World, where their -authority has not been overthrown by Christianity or Buddhism; and this -dreary superstition still prevails over at least half a million of souls, -from the White Sea to the extremity of Asia, and from the Pacific to -Hudson's Bay. - -Like the peoples of Siberia, the Samojedes offer up sacrifices to the -dead, and perform various ceremonies in their honour. Like the North -American Indians, they believe that the desires and pursuits of the -departed continue exactly the same as if they were still living; and -hence, that they may not be in want of weapons or implements, they deposit -in or about the graves a sledge, a spear, a knife, an axe, a cooking-pot. - -At the funeral, and for several years afterwards, the kinsmen sacrifice -reindeer over the grave. - -When a chief or Starochina dies,--the owner, it may be, of several herds -of reindeer,--his nearest relatives fashion an image, which is kept in the -tent of the deceased, and receives the same measure of respect that was -paid to the man himself in his lifetime. At every meal it occupies his -accustomed seat; every evening it is solemnly undressed, and duly laid -down in his bed. For three years these honours are regularly paid; after -which the image is buried, in a belief that the body must by that time -have decayed, and lost all recollection of the past. Only the souls of the -Tadibes, and of those who have died a violent death, are in the enjoyment -of immortality, and hover about the air as disembodied spirits. - - -THE OSTIAKS. - -Further to the east, and occupying the northernmost part of Siberia from -the Oural Mountains to Kamtschatka, are the Ostiaks. - -The Russians have imposed upon this people the Christian religion, as -taught by the Greek Church; but it seems probable that the majority adhere -in secret to their heathen creed. Madame Felinska, a Polish lady, who for -some years lived in exile in Siberia, relates that, one day, when she was -seeking a pathway through a wood, she came upon a couple of Ostiaks, on -the point of performing their devotions. These are certainly of a much -simpler kind than the rites enjoined by the Greek Church: the worshipper -simply places himself before a tree--he appears to prefer the larch--in -some sequestered forest-nook, and performs in rapid succession the most -extravagant contortions and gestures. As the practice is prohibited by the -Russian Government, it is necessarily made a matter of secresy. - -An Ostiak generally carries about him a rude image of one of the deities -or demons which he adores under the name of Schaitan; but he conforms to -Russian customs by wearing a small crucifix of copper on his breast. The -Schaitan is a rude imitation of the human figure, carved in wood. It is of -different sizes, according to the uses for which it is intended; if for -wearing on the person, it is a miniature doll; but as part of the -furniture of an Ostiak's hut it is made on a large scale. It is always -attired in seven pearl-broidered chemises, and suspended to the neck by a -string of silver coins. In every hut it fills the place of -honour,--sometimes in company with an image of the Virgin Mary or some -Russian saint; and when they sit down to their meals, the Ostiaks are -careful to offer it the daintiest morsels, smearing its lips with fish or -raw game; this sacred duty fulfilled, they attack with eagerness the -viands set before them. - -The Ostiak priests are called _Schamans_. Their influence is very great, -but is wholly employed in the promotion of their own selfish interests, -through the encouragement of the basest superstitions. - - -WEATHER-CONJURING AMONG THE MONGOLS. - -There are many allusions in Mongol history to the practice of -weather-conjuring. The operation was performed by means of a stone -supposed to be endowed with magical virtues, called _Yadah_ or _Jadah -Tash_; this was suspended over or hung in a basin of water with sundry -ceremonies. Ibn Mohalhal, an early Arab traveller, asserts that the -_Kimak_, a great tribe of the Turks, possessed such a stone. In the war -waged against Chinghiz and Aung Khan by a powerful tribal confederation in -1202, it is recorded that Sengun, the son of Aung Khan, who had been -despatched to arrest the enemy's advance, caused them to be enchanted, so -that all the movements they attempted against him were defeated by dense -mists and blinding snow-storms. So thick was the mist, so intense was the -darkness, that men and horses stumbled over precipices, and many also -perished with cold. - -The celebrated conqueror, Timur, in his _Memoirs_, records that the Jets -resorted to incantations to produce heavy rains which hindered his cavalry -from acting against them. A _Yadachi_, or weather-conjuror, was taken -prisoner, and after he had been beheaded the storm ceased. - -Babu refers to one of his early friends, Khwaja ka Mulai, as conspicuous -for his skill in falconry and his knowledge of _Yadageri_, or the science -of inducing rain and snow by means of enchantment. The Russians were much -distressed by heavy rains in 1552, when besieging Kazan, and universally -ascribed the unfavourable weather to the arts of the Tartar queen, who was -an enchantress. - -Early in the 18th century, the Emperor Shi-tsung issued a proclamation -against rain-conjuring, addressed to the Eight Banners of Mongolia. "If," -indignantly observes the Emperor, "if I, offering prayers in sincerity, -have yet cause to fear that it may please heaven to leave MY prayer -unanswered, it is truly intolerable that mere common people wishing for -rain should of their own fancy set up altars of earth; and bring together -a rabble of Hoshang (Buddhist Bonzes) and Taossi to conjure the spirits to -gratify their wishes." - -The belief in the efficacy of weather-conjuring prevailed all over Europe. -In the _Cento Novelle Antiche_, certain necromancers gave specimens of -their skill before the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa; and the weather began -to be overcast; and lo, of a sudden rain fell with continued thunders and -lightnings, as if the world were come to an end, and hailstones of the -size and appearance of steel caps. - - -IN TIBET. - -Marco Polo, describing his visit to the Kaan's Palace at Chandu, once -known as Kaipingfu, speaks of the immense stud of pure white mares which -the Kaan kept there, and adds:--"When the Kaan sets out from the Park on -the 28th of August, the milk of all those mares is taken and sprinkled on -the ground. And this is done on the injunction of the Idolaters and -Idol-priests, who affirm that it is an excellent thing to sprinkle that -milk on the ground every 28th of August, so that the Earth and the Air and -the False Gods shall have their share of it, and likewise the spirits that -inhabit the Air and the Earth. And then those beings will protect and -bless the Kaan and his children and his wives and his folk and his gear, -and his cattle and his horses, his corn and all that is his." - -Marco Polo proceeds:--"But I must now tell you a strange thing which -hitherto I have forgotten to mention. During the three months of every -year that the Emperor resides at that place, if it should happen to be bad -weather, there are enchanters and astrologers in his train, who are such -adepts in necromancy and diabolic arts, that they are able to prevent any -cloud or storm from passing over the spot on which the Emperor's Palace -stands. The sorcerers who do this are called Tebet and Kesimar, which are -the names of two nations of idolaters. Whatever they do in this way is by -the help of the Devil, but they make those people believe that it is -compassed by dint of their own sanctity and the help of GOD.... - -"There is another marvel performed by those Bacsi of whom I have been -speaking as knowing so many enchantments. For when the great Kaan is at -his capital and in his great palace, seated at his table, which stands on -a platform some eight cubits above the ground, his cups are set before him -on a great buffet in the middle of the hall pavement, at a distance of -some ten paces from the table, and filled with wine, or other good spiced -liquor such as they use. Now when the Kaan desires to drink, these -enchanters by the power of their enchantments cause the cups to move from -their place without being touched by anybody, and to present themselves to -the Emperor! This every one present may witness, and there are oftentimes -more than ten thousand persons thus present. 'Tis a truth and no lie! and -so will tell you the sages of our own country who understand necromancy, -for they also can perform it." - -On the occasion of one of these Idol Festivals, the Bacsi would go to the -Prince and say:--"Sire, the feast of such a god is come." And he would -continue:--"My Lord, you know that this god, when he gets no offering, -always sends bad weather and spoils our seasons. So we pray you to give us -such and such a number of black-faced sheep," (naming any number they -please). "And we beg also, good my Lord, that we may have such a quantity -of incense, and such a quantity of lign-aloes, and"--so much of this or so -much of that, according to the measure of their cupidity or the -probability of their expectations being gratified--"that we may perform a -solemn service and a great sacrifice to our Idols, and that so they may be -induced to protect us and all our property." - -When the Bacsi have obtained from the Kaan the fulfilment of their -desires, they make a great feast in honour of their god, and hold great -ceremonies of worship with grand illuminations and quantities of incense -of a variety of odours, which they make up from different aromatic spices. -And when the viands are cooked, they set them before the idols, and -sprinkle the bush about, affirming that in this way the idols obtain a -sufficiency. Thus it is that they keep their festivals. Each idol, we must -add, has a name of his own, and a feast-day, just as the Saints of the -Christian Church have their anniversaries. - -Large minsters and abbeys are theirs, some of them of the size of a small -town, with upwards of 2,000 monks in a single abbey. These monks dress -more decorously than the rest of the people, and have the head and the -beard shaven. Among them a limited number are, by their rule, allowed to -marry. - -Another kind of devotees were called the Seusin, men of extraordinary -abstemiousness, who led a life of extreme endurance. Their sole food was -bran mixed with hot water, so that one might call their lives a prolonged -fast. They had numerous idols, and idols of a monstrous size, but they -also worshipped fire. Idolaters not belonging to this sect naturally -called them "heretics," on the old principle that "my doxy" is -"orthodoxy," and "your doxy" "heterodoxy." Their dresses were made of -hempen stuff, black and blue, and they slept upon mats. In fact, says -Marco Polo, "their asceticism is something remarkable." - - * * * * * - -Chandu, or Xanadu, and its palace, suggested to Coleridge one of his most -exquisite passages of description:-- - - "In Xanadu did Kubla Kaan - A stately pleasure dome decree: - Where Alph, the sacred river, ran, - By caverns measureless to man, - Down to a sunless sea. - So twice five miles of fertile ground, - With walls and towers were girdled round: - And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills, - Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree; - And here were forests, ancient as the hills, - Enfolding sunny spots of greenery." - -Xanadu has disappeared, and so has its palace, but the superstitions -practised in it are still in vogue among the Mongolian peoples. The word -"Bakhshi," however, has come to have a different meaning in different -districts; among the Kirghiz Kazzaks it is applied, as Marco Polo applied -it, to a conjuror or medicine-man; among the modern Mongols it signifies -"a teacher," and is bestowed on the oldest and most learned priest of a -community; in Western Turkestan it means "a bard;" in our Indian army it -is "a paymaster." - -The jugglery of the goblets, to which Marco Polo refers, was not uncommon -in Mediaeval Europe. Colonel Yule cites[37] the Jesuit Delrio as lamenting -the credulity of certain princes, otherwise of pious repute, who allowed -diabolic tricks to be played in their presence; as for instance that -things of iron, and silver goblets, or other heavy articles, should be -moved by bounds from one end of a table to the other, without the use of a -magnet or of any attachment. The pious prince appears to have been Charles -IX., and the conjuror a certain Cesare Maltesio. In old legends this -trick is one of the sorceries ascribed to Simon Magus. "He made statues to -walk; leapt into the fire without being burnt; flew in the air; made bread -of stones; changed his shape; assumed two faces at once,"--an -accomplishment not confined to conjurors,--"converted himself into a -pillar; caused closed doors to fly open of their own will; and made the -vessels in a house seem to move of themselves." - -Colonel Yule asserts that the profession and practice of exorcism and -magic in general is much more prominent in Lamaism, or Tibetan Buddhism, -than in any other known form of that religion. "Indeed," he says, "the old -form of Lamaism, as it existed in Marco Polo's day, and till the reforms -of Tsongkhapa (1357-1419), and as it is still professed by the _Red_ sect -in Tibet, seems to be a kind of compromise between Indian Buddhism and the -old indigenous Shamanism. Even the reformed doctrine of the Yellow sect -recognises an orthodox kind of magic, which is due in great measure to the -combination of Sivaism with the Buddhist doctrines, and of which the -institutes are contained in the vast collection of the _Jud_ or Tantras, -recognised among the holy books. The magic arts of this code open even a -short road to the Buddhahood itself. To attain that perfection of power -and wisdom culminating in the cessation of sensible existence, requires, -according to the ordinary paths, a period of three _asankhyas_ (or say -Unaccountable Time x 3), whereas by means of the magic arts of the -_Tantras_, it may be reached in the course of three _rebirths_ only, nay, -of one! But from the Tantras also can be learned how to acquire miraculous -powers for objects entirely selfish and secular, and how to exercise these -by means of _Dharani_, or mystic Indian charms." - -The commonplace and vulgar exhibition of such exploits as blowing fire, -cutting off heads, and swallowing knives, is formally repudiated by the -orthodox Yellow Lamas; but as the crowd cannot be satisfied without them, -each of the great Yellow Lama monasteries in Tibet maintains a conjuror, -as of old each European sovereign kept his jester. This conjuror is not a -member of the monastic fraternity, and lives in a particular part of the -convent, out of the atmosphere of their sanctity. He is called _Choicong_, -or protector of religion, and is free to marry. The Choicong hand down -their magic lore from generation to generation orally, and by their cries -and howls, and their frenzied gestures, and their fantastic dress, are -connected with the Shamanist devil dancers. - -Magic seems to have always borne the same character in every country. The -marvels accomplished by the Indian mystic charms, or _Dharani_, are -exactly those which the Mediaeval magicians of Europe professed to achieve. -To make water flow backwards, to resuscitate the dead, to fly through the -air, to read a man's inmost thoughts, these were the wonders done by Simon -Magus in his day, and by Albertus Magnus and his followers in their day; -and form what may be called the ordinary stock-in-trade of the old -necromancers. The Bakhshis included them in their series of performances. -"There are certain men," says Ricold, "whom the Tartars honour above all -in the world, viz., the _Baxitae_, (or _Bakhshis_), who are a kind of idol -priests. These are men from India, persons of deep wisdom, well conducted, -and of the gravest morals. They are usually acquainted with magic arts, -and depend on the counsel and aid of demons; they exhibit many illusions, -and predict some future events. For instance, one of eminence among them -was said to fly; the truth however was (as it proved) that he did not fly, -but did walk close to the surface of the ground without touching it; and -would seem to sit down without having any substance to support him." Ibn -Batuta describes a performance of this kind as witnessed by him at Delhi, -in the presence of Sultan Mahomed Tughlak. Francis Valentyn, at a later -date, speaks of it as common in India. He was told, he says, that a man -would first go and sit upon three sticks which had been so put together as -to form a tripod, after which, first one stick, then a second, then a -third would be removed from under him, and yet the man would not fall, but -would remain suspended in the air. He could not bring himself to believe -it, so manifestly contrary was it to reason, yet he had spoken with two -friends who had both seen it done on the same occasion, and one of them -mistrusting his own eyes, had felt about with a long stick to ascertain if -there were not something on which the body rested, but could discover -nought. - -Superstition, like history, repeats itself,--some of the marvels with -which the Lama conjurors and the Tartar Bakhshis deluded their people are -repeated by the spiritualistic "mediums," of the present day and put -forward by them as the credentials of their pretended mission. - -They fall short, however, of the extraordinary feats performed by the -professional jugglers who laid no claim to a religious character, if we -may credit the accounts of the early travellers. Ibn Batuta, for instance, -gravely describes what he saw, or thought he saw, at a great entertainment -given by the Viceroy of Khansa:-- - -A juggler, he says, one of the Kaan's slaves, made his appearance, and at -the Amir's bidding, began to display his surprising accomplishments. -Taking a wooden ball, with several holes in it, through which long thongs -were passed, he laid hold of one of these, and slung the ball into the -air. It went so high, that the spectators wholly lost sight of it. -Observe, that the scene was the palace-court, _sub Jove_. There remained -only a little of the end of the thong in the juggler's hand, and of this -he desired a juvenile assistant to lay hold, and mount. He did so, -climbing by the thong, and was speedily lost to sight also. The conjuror -called him thrice, but receiving no answer, snatched up a knife, as if in -a great rage, laid hold of the thong, and in _his_ turn disappeared. -By-and-by he threw down one of the boy's hands, then a foot, then the -other hand, the other foot, the trunk, and lastly, the head! Finally, he -himself came down, all puffing and panting, and with blood-besmeared -clothes kissed the ground before the Amir, addressing him in Chinese. The -Amir made some reply; and straightway the juggler took the boy's _disjecta -membra_, laid them in their places, gave a kick, and lo and behold, the -boy arose and stood erect, "clothed and in his right mind." "All this," -says Ibn Batuta, "astonished me beyond measure,"--and no wonder!--"and I -had an attack of palpitation like that which overcame me once before in -the presence of the Sultan of India, when he showed me something of the -same kind. They gave me a cordial, however, which cured the attack. The -Kazi Afkharuddin was next to me, and quoth he, 'Wallah! 'tis my opinion -there has been neither going up nor coming down, neither maiming nor -mending; 'tis all hocus pocus!'" - -Impartial scientific observers have passed a similar verdict on the -proceedings of the "mediums," who, however, have never achieved anything -so surprising as the feat here recorded. Before we incredulously reject -the Arab traveller's narrative, let us compare it with an account -furnished by Edward Melton, an Anglo-Dutch traveller, of the performances -of some Chinese conjurors, which he saw at Batavia. Passing over the -basket-murder trick, which Houdin and others have made familiar to the -English public, we come to "a thing which surpasses all belief;" which, -indeed, Mr. Melton would scarcely have ventured to relate had not -thousands witnessed it at the same time as himself. - -One of the gang took a ball of cord, and grasping one end in his hand -hurled the other up into the air with such force that it was entirely lost -to sight. He then climbed up the cord as rapidly as a sailor up his ship's -rigging, and to such a height that he became invisible. Melton stood full -of astonishment, and at a loss to know what next would happen; when, -behold, a leg tumbled out of the air! A conjuror who was on the watch for -it immediately snatched it up, and threw it into a basket. Down came a -hand, and then another leg, and, in short, all the members of the body -successively fell from the air, to find shelter in the basket. The last of -the ghastly shower was the head; and no sooner had it touched the ground -than the man who had gathered the limbs and stowed them in the basket, -turned them all out again topsy-turvy. Straightway they began to creep -together, until they composed a whole man, who stood up and walked about -just as before, having sustained apparently no damage! "Never in my life," -says Melton, "was I so astonished as when I beheld this wonderful -performance, and I doubted now no longer that those misguided men did it -by the help of the Devil. For it seems to me totally impossible that such -things should be accomplished by natural means."[38] - -The Emperor Jahangir in his "Memoirs" (cited by Yule) describes the -exploits of some Bengali jugglers, who exhibited before him. Two of them -bear a close resemblance to the foregoing. Thus: they produced a man whom -they divided limb from limb, actually severing his head from the body. -These mutilated members they scattered along the ground, where they -remained for some time. A sheet or curtain was extended over the spot, and -one of the men placing himself under it, in a few minutes reappeared, in -company with the individual supposed to have been so roughly dissected, in -such perfect health and condition, that one might have safely sworn he had -never received the slightest wound or injury. - -Again: they produced a chain, fifty cubits long, and one end of it threw -towards the sky, when it remained as if fastened to something in the air. -A dog was then brought forward, and being placed at the lower end of the -chain, ran up it to the other end, and immediately vanished. In the same -manner a boy, a panther, a lion, and a tiger were successively sent up the -chain to disappear, in their turn, at the other end of it. And, lastly, -the chain was taken down and put away in a bag, without any of the -spectators discovering in what manner the different animals had been -spirited into space! - -The surprising dexterity of these jugglers is emulated by their -descendants, and many of the Indian conjurors produce illusions scarcely -less wonderful than any we have described. - -Take the pretty mango-trick. The juggler who exhibits has no other drapery -than half a yard of cotton, and no other apparatus than a handful of -common toys. He has none of those elaborate mechanical contrivances, on -which the European professors of legerdemain mostly rely for their -effects. - -He takes a mango-stone, buries it in a little mud, and covers it with a -jar. - -A few minutes later, the jar is lifted up; and lo, a tender green -seed-leaf has delicately sprouted. Another peep into the magic hotbed, and -we see that the tiny leaf has withered, and that a flourishing young tree -has sprung into sudden existence. - -Or we have the egg-trick, which an eye-witness thus describes:--[39] - -"One of the party, a very handsome woman, fixed on her head a fillet of -strong texture, to which were fastened, at equal distances, twenty pieces -of string of equal length, with a common noose at the end of each. Under -her arm she carried a basket, in which were carefully deposited twenty -eggs. Her basket, the fillet, and the nooses were carefully examined by -us. There was evidently no deception. - -"The woman advanced alone, and stood before us. She then began to move -rapidly round on one spot, whence she never for one instant moved, -spinning round and round like a top. - -"When her pace was at its height, she drew down one of the strings, which -now flew horizontally round her head, and, securing an egg in the noose, -she jerked it back to its original position, still twirling round with -undiminished velocity, and repeating the process until she had secured the -whole twenty eggs in the nooses previously prepared for them. She -projected them rapidly from her hand the moment she had secured them, -until at length the whole twenty were flying round her in an unbroken -circle. Thus she continued spinning at undiminished speed for fully five -minutes; after which, taking the eggs one by one from their nooses, she -replaced them in her basket; and then in one instant stopped, without the -movement of a limb, or even the vibration of a muscle, as if she had been -suddenly transformed into marble. The countenance was perfectly calm, nor -did she exhibit the slightest distress from her extraordinary exertions." - -The basket-murder trick, to which we have already referred, is as -follows:-- - -The juggler stepping forward, invites your examination of a light wicker -basket, and when you profess yourself satisfied, he places it over a -child, about eight years old, who is perfectly naked. He then asks the -child some indifferent question, and you hear her reply to it from the -basket. Question and answer are repeated frequently, each time in a louder -and more impassioned manner, until the juggler, in a seeming fit of rage, -threatens to kill the girl, who vainly supplicates for mercy. - -The dramatic character of the scene is as perfect in its realism as it is -horrible. The man plants his foot furiously on the frail basket, and -plunges his sword into it again and again, while the ears of the -spectators are rent and their hearts touched by the child's cries of -agony. For a moment it is impossible to believe that you are witnessing a -deception, as you listen to the passionate shrieks and watch the man's -furious face. Blood flows in a stream from the basket, and by degrees the -groans of the victim grow fainter and fainter, until all is hushed in a -silence so intense that you hear your heart beat. You are about to rush on -the murderer, and inflict summary punishment, when he mutters a few -cabalistic words, takes up the basket, and shows you--only a little -blood-stained earth; while the child, you know not how or whence, has come -to mingle with the crowd, and ask for baksheesh. - -Two simpler exploits may be recorded:-- - -Taking a large, wide-mouthed, earthen vessel, filled with water, the -conjuror turns it upside down, and, of course, the contents run out. - -He then reverses the jar, which to your amazement is seen to be perfectly -full, while all the earth round about is--dry! The jar is again emptied, -and submitted to the inspection of the spectators. He asks you to fill it -to the brim; after which he reverses it: not a drop of water flows, and -yet when you look into it, it is perfectly empty. At last the conjuror -breaks the jar by way of a practical demonstration of the fact that it is -made of common earthenware. - -A large basket is produced: the conjuror raises it, and a Pariah dog -appears crouching on the ground. The basket-cover is replaced; and a -second examination shows you a bitch with a litter of seven puppies. A -goat, a pig, and various other animals, come forth in due time from this -inexhaustible cornucopia. - -All these exploits are performed by a single exhibitor, who stands quite -alone, and at a distance of several feet from the crowd, so that collusion -with confederates would seem to be impossible. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -_SOME AFRICAN SUPERSTITIONS._ - - -Africa is the land of superstition,--dark, cruel, ghastly superstition. It -accompanies its victim from the cradle to the grave; throws its fell -shadow over every scene and incident of life. We cannot attempt, nor do we -desire, to paint it in all its horrors. For our purpose it will be -sufficient to glance at some of the ceremonies, hideous or grotesque, -which are practised by the Equatorial Savage. - -In his childhood he has to be initiated into certain mysteries. What those -are Mr. Winwood Reade learned from a negro steward, who informed him that -he was taken into a fetich, or idol house, severely flogged, and plastered -with goat-dung: this ceremony, like the rites of masonry, being conducted -to the sound of music. Afterwards from behind a kind of screen or shrine -issued uncouth and terrible sounds such as he had never before heard. -These, he was told, emanated from the spirit called Ukuk. He afterwards -brought to Mr. Winwood Reade the instrument with which the fetich-man -produces the noise. It may be described as a whistle made of hollowed -mangrove wood, about two inches long, and covered at one end with a scrap -of bat's wing. For a period of five days after initiation the novice wears -an apron of dry palm leaves. - -He is next instructed in the science of fetich; and afterwards he learns -what kinds of food are forbidden to his tribe, for one tribe may not eat -crocodile, another hippopotamus, nor a third buffalo. He learns to -reverence and dread the spirit _Ukuk_, which dwells, it is said, in the -bowels of the earth, and visits the upper world only when he has some -business to perform. On the occasion of his visits, he abides in the -fetich-house, which is built in a peculiar form, roofed with dry plantain -leaves, and always kept in darkness. Thence strange dread sounds, like the -growling of a tiger, are heard to proceed, so that the women and children -shudder as they listen. When the mangrove-tube is thus at work, the -initiated hasten to the house, and a "lodge" or "council" is held. - -"The natives of Equatorial Africa worship also the spirits of their -ancestors; a worship for which their minds are prepared by the veneration -which they pay to old age. Young men never enter the presence of an aged -person without curtseying (a genuine curtsey like that of a charity-school -girl), and passing in a stooping attitude, as if they were going under a -low door. When seated in his presence, it is always at a humble distance. -If they hand him a lighted pipe, or a mug of water, they fall on one knee. -If an old man, they address him as _rora_--father; if an old woman as -_ngwe_--mother. It is customary for only the old people to communicate bad -news to one another; and it is not to be wondered at that we find the -negroes such perfect courtiers, since it is the etiquette of the country -that the aged should only be addressed in terms of flattery and adulation. - -"When they die their relics are honoured. In the Congo country their -bodies are dried into mummies. Here, their bones are sometimes stored up -and visited at set periods. Or, when a person noted for his wisdom has -died, his head, when partially decomposed, is often cut off and suspended, -so as to drip upon a mass of chalk placed underneath. This matter is -supposed to be the wisdom which formerly animated the brain, and which, -rubbed upon the foreheads of others, will communicate its virtue." - -It can easily be understood how this reverence paid to the relics of one's -ancestors would develope into the worship of their spirits. The Equatorial -Savage believes that the manes of his forefathers influence his life and -fortunes entirely to his advantage, and by a dying friend or relative will -often send messages to them. Mr. Reade adds that a son has been known to -kill his aged mother from a conviction that her spirit would be of more -service to him than her substance; a reason for matricide which would -hardly be accepted as conclusive in civilised countries! The savage lives, -however, in constant communion and sympathy with the spirit-world. The -visions which come to him in his dreams, and the sounds which he fancies -himself to hear, are those of the Unseen. And as he is always brooding -upon his dreams and relating them to his friends, he necessarily dreams -the more, until it becomes difficult for him to draw a line between the -dream and the reality. - -When any calamity befalls the tribe, or at the approach of any imminent -danger, they gather together on the brink of some lofty bluff, or on the -forest's haunted threshold, and stretching their arms towards the sky, -while the women wail and the children weep, they call upon the spirits of -the departed to come and help them. - -They have a remarkable ceremony which illustrates the force and vividness -of their belief in spirits: - -When the dead are weary of staying in the bush, they come for one of their -people whom they most affect. And the spirit will say to the man: "I am -tired of dwelling in the bush; please to build for me in the town a little -house as close as possible to your own." And he tells him to dance and -sing too; and accordingly the man assembles the women at night to join in -dance and song. - -Then, next day, the people repair to the grave of the _Obambo_, or ghost, -and make a rude idol; after which the bamboo bier on which the body is -conveyed to the grave, and some of the dust of the ground, are carried -into a little hut erected near the house of the visited, and a white cloth -is draped over the door. - -It is a curious fact, which seems to show that they have a legend -something like the old Greek myth of Charon and the Styx, that in one of -the songs chanted during this ceremony occurs the following line: "You are -well dressed, but you have no canoe to carry you across to the other -side." - -According to Mr. Reade, these savages have their Naiads and Dryads; their -spirits of the mountains and the forests, the lakes and the streams, and -the high places. They have also their Typhon and their Osiris, their Good -and Evil Genius; thus recognising, in common with almost every other -race, the enduring antagonism between the Principles and Powers of Good -and Evil. The Evil Spirit, _Mbwiri_, they worship with a special homage; -his might is to be dreaded, and his anger, if possible, averted. He is the -lord of earth; and before him, as before a tyrant whose hand can grasp -their lives and fortunes, they bend in humble adoration. But as the Good -Spirit will do them no injury, they conceive it unnecessary to address to -it any regular or formal prayer. "The word by which they express this -Supreme Being answers exactly to our word of God. Like the Jehovah of the -Hebrews, like that word in masonry which is only known to masters, and -never pronounced but in a whisper and in full lodge, this word they seldom -dare to speak; and they display uneasiness if it is uttered before them. -Twice only," says Mr. Reade, "I remember having heard it. Once when we -were in a dangerous storm, the men threw their clenched hands upwards and -cried it twice. And again, when I was at Ngambi, taking down words from an -Ashira slave, I asked him what was the word for God in the language of his -country. He raised his eyes, and pointing to heaven, said in a soft voice, -_Njambi_." - -Epileptic diseases, in almost all uncivilised countries, are assumed to be -the result of demoniac possession. In Africa the sufferer is supposed to -be possessed by Mbwiri, and he can be relieved only by the intervention of -the medicine-man or fetich. In the middle of the street a hut is built for -his accommodation, and there he resides until cured, or maddened, along -with the priest and his disciples. There for ten days or a fortnight a -continuous revel is held; much eating and drinking at the expense of the -patient's relatives, and unending dances to the sound of flute and drum. -For obvious reasons the fetich gives out that Mbwiri regards good living -with aversion. The patient dances, usually shamming madness, until the -epileptic attack comes on, with all its dreadful concomitants--the -frenzied stare, the convulsed limbs, the gnashing teeth, and the -foam-flecked lips. The man's actions at this period are not ascribed to -himself, but to the demon which has control of him. When a cure has been -effected, real or pretended, the patient builds a little fetich-house, -avoids certain kinds of food, and performs certain duties. Sometimes the -process terminates in the patient's insanity; he has been known to run -away to the bush, hide from all human beings, and live on the roots and -berries of the forest. - -"These fetich-men are priest doctors, like those of the ancient Germans. -They have a profound knowledge of herbs, and also of human nature, for -they always monopolize the real power in the state. But it is very -doubtful whether they possess any secrets save that of extracting virtue -and poison from plants. During the first trip which I made into the bush I -sent for one of these doctors. At that time I was staying among the -Shekani, who are celebrated for their fetich. He came attended by -half-a-dozen disciples. He was a tall man, dressed in white, with a girdle -of leopard's skin, from which hung an iron bell, of the same shape as our -sheep bells. He had two chalk marks over his eyes. I took some of my own -hair, frizzled it with a burning glass, and gave it to him. He popped it -with alacrity into his little grass bag; for white man's hair is fetich of -the first order. Then I poured out some raspberry vinegar into a glass, -drank a little of it first, country fashion, and offered it to him, -telling him that it was blood from the brains of great doctors. Upon this -he received it with great reverence, and dipping his fingers into it as if -it was snap-dragon, sprinkled with it his forehead, both feet between the -two first toes, and the ground behind his back. He then handed his glass -to a disciple, who emptied it, and smacked his lips afterwards in a very -secular manner. I then desired to see a little of his fetich. He drew on -the ground with red chalk some hieroglyphics, among which I distinguished -the circle, the cross, and the crescent. He said that if I would give him -a fine 'dush,' he would tell me all about it. But as he would not take -anything in reason, and as I knew that he would tell me nothing of very -great importance in public, negotiations were suspended." - -The fetich-man seldom finds a native disposed to question his claim to -supernatural powers. He is not only a doctor and a priest,--two capacities -in which his influence is necessarily very powerful; he is also a -witch-finder, and this is an office which invests him with a truly -formidable authority. When a man of worth dies, his death is invariably -ascribed to witchcraft, and the aid of the fetich-man is invoked to -discover the witch. - -"When a man is sick a long time," said Mongilombas, "they call _Ngembi_, -and if she cannot make him well, the fetich-man. He comes at night, in a -white dress, with cock's feathers on his head, and having his bell and -little glass. He calls two or three relations together into a room. He -does not speak, but always looks in his glass. Then he tells them that the -sickness is not of Mbwiri, nor of Obambo, nor of God, but that it comes -from a witch. They say to him, 'What shall we do?' He goes out and says, -'I have told you: I have no more to say.' They give him a dollar's worth -of cloth; and every night they gather together in the street, and they -cry, 'I know that man who witch my brother. It is good for you to make him -well.' Then the witch makes him well. But if the man do _not_ recover, -they call the bush doctor from the Shekani country. He sings in the -language of the bush. At night he goes into the street; all the people -flock about him. With a tiger-cat skin in his hand, he walks to and fro, -until, singing all the while, he lays the tiger skin at the feet of the -witch. At the conclusion of his song the people seize the witch, and put -him, or her, in chains, saying, 'If you don't restore our brother to -health, we will kill you.'" - -One evening, as Mr. Reade was sitting in a mission house at Corisco, with -the windows open, he heard a wild and piteous cry rising from a village at -a short distance. A sudden silence fell upon his friends. The school was -in the next room, and two girls who belonged to that village lifted up -their voices and wept. It was the death-knell, and the knell of more lives -than one. A chieftain for some time had been lying in a hopeless -condition, and a woman had been denounced for having bewitched him. She -had a son of about seven years of age, and fearing lest when he reached -manhood, he should become her avenger, the accusers included him also in -their denunciation. Both had been made prisoners, and on the death of the -chief would be killed. - -The following day was Sunday, and Mr. Reade accompanied Mr. Mackay, the -missionary, to the village. The man was not dead; but he had suddenly -become speechless, and his attendants had concluded that the spirit had -departed. Entering the house, Mr. Reade found him lying on the bamboo -bedstead in a state of stupor. The house was thronged with women, who had -stripped off their garments and shaved the heads in token of mourning, and -were "raining tears" in their purchased and admirably acted grief. -Sometimes one of them would sit by his side, and flinging her arms around -him, would shriek--almost in the very words of the Irish death-wail,--"Why -did ye die, darling? why did ye die?" For they regarded him as really -dead, when he could neither look at them nor speak to them. - -In contrast to their loud sorrow was the silent mourning of the men who, -hushed and fasting, sat in the chief house of the town. In their midst -crouched the seven years old boy, the marks of a severe wound visible on -his arm, and his wrists securely bound together. The dogged expression of -the child's face was something wonderful. It wore that look of stolid -endurance which seems natural to the negro. One of the men with horrible -pleasantry held an axe below his eyes; but the boy contemplated it without -emotion--he displayed all the cold indifference of the ancient Stoicism. -When his name was first mentioned, his eyes flashed; but this indication -of passion was only momentary. He showed the same indifference when a plea -was put in for his life, as when, just before, he had been threatened and -taunted with death. - -Mr. Reade did not see the unfortunate mother, but was afterwards told that -she had been flogged into confessing that she and she only had bewitched -the man. Her son had acknowledged the crime as soon as he was charged with -it. It is well known that such confessions amount to nothing. During the -witch epidemic in Mediaeval Europe, scores of unhappy creatures confessed -to the practice of witchcraft, though by so doing they doomed themselves -to death. The imagination in some way or other is powerfully excited, and -completely overcomes the judgment; or it may be from a fear of torture or -a thirst for notoriety that such confessions are made. - -Mr. Mackey, the missionary, said that he had come to speak to Okota, the -nearest kinsman of the dying chief, upon whom, in all such cases, the -responsibility rests. Okota came out from the throng, placed his stool -near the feet of the missionary, and listened to him attentively. - -"Death," said the missionary, "must come to all. It is foolish to think -that because a man dies he has been bewitched." - -"Yes," replied Okota, "death must come to all, but not always from GOD. -Sometimes it comes from the hand of man." - -"But how do you know that in this instance it comes from the hand of man?" - -"The woman has been given _quai_ (the drink of ordeal) to drink, and the -_quai_ says that she bewitched him." - -"But the _quai_ is not always right. When Cabinda went to the Muni, he was -a long time lost. All people said that he was dead. A man you declared was -the witch, you gave him _quai_; _quai_ said that the man had killed -Cabinda, but Cabinda came back alive, and _quai_ was wrong." - -A roar of laughter acknowledged the force of this pertinent reply. - -"It is not only _quai_," said Okota, "the woman confesses that she has -used the arts of witchcraft. Will any man come to you and say, 'I have -stolen your fowl,' if he has not stolen it? This woman is killing my -brother, when my brother is dead I will kill her." - -After so decisive a declaration, further argument was useless, and Mr. -Mackey was compelled to retire, unsuccessful. - -The ordeal drink of Equatorial Africa is not identical with the -"red-water" of Northern Guinea. It is prepared from the root of a small -shrub called _Nkazya_, or _Quai_. Half a pint of the decoction is given to -the accused, and small sticks being laid down on the ground at a distance -of two feet apart, he is compelled to step over them five times. If the -potion act upon him as a diuretic, he is pronounced innocent; but in some -persons it produces vertigo. The sticks before his dizzy eyes rise like -great logs, and in his awkward efforts to stride across them, he reels, -falls to the ground, and is immediately assumed to be guilty. - -Ultimately the chief died, and the woman and boy both suffered death. The -woman was taken out to sea in a boat, killed with an axe, and thrown -overboard. The boy was burnt alive, bags of gunpowder being tied to his -legs to shorten his sufferings. - -Apart from these superstitions, Mr. Reade asserts that the negroes possess -the remnants of a noble and sublime religion, though they have forgotten -its precepts, and debased its ceremonies. They still retain their belief -in GOD, the One, the Supreme, the Creator. He has made mankind and the -world; He thunders in the air, He destroys the wicked with His bolts. He -rewards the good with long life; He gives them the rain, the fruits of the -earth, and all things that are good. He is far above all the other gods. - -In some parts of Guinea the daily prayer is, "O GOD, I know Thee not, but -Thou knowest me, Thy aid is necessary to me." At meals they say, "O GOD, -Thou hast given me this, Thou hast made it grow." And when they work, "O -GOD, Thou hast caused that I should have strength to do this." And another -of their prayers runs, "O GOD, help us, we do not know whether we shall -live to-morrow; we are in Thy hand."[40] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -_THE ZULU WITCH-FINDERS._ - - -English Law now reigns in Zululand, and the occupation of the -Witch-finders is almost gone; but in times past they were potent -personages, whom an enslaving superstition had armed with despotic -influence. The Zulu witch-finders are regular Amazons--perfectly fearless, -with a martial gait, and grave composure of mien. It is their pride, -according to Lady Barker, to be looked upon as men when once they embrace -their dread profession, which the men sometimes share with them. They are -permitted to bear shield and spear as warriors, and they hunt and kill -with their own hands the wild beasts and reptiles whose skins they wear. -"It is not difficult to understand," says Lady Barker,[41] "bearing in -mind the superstition and cruelty which existed in remote parts of England -not so very long ago--how powerful such women become among a savage -people, or how tempting an opportunity they could furnish of getting rid -of an enemy. Of course they are exceptional individuals; more observant, -more shrewd, and more dauntless, than the average fat, hard-working Kafir -women; besides possessing the contradictory mixture of great physical -powers and strong hysterical tendencies. They work themselves up to a -pitch of frenzy, and get to believe as firmly in their own supernatural -discernment as any individual among the trembling circle of Zulus to whom -a touch from the whisk they carry is a sentence of instant death." - -The magician, like the melodramatist, must have his accompaniment of -music, and the Zulu witch-finders are attended by a circle of black girls -and women, who, like a Greek chorus, clap their hands together, and drone -through a low monotonous chant, the measure and rhythm of which change at -times with a stamp and a swing. Not less necessary is a ceremonial dress; -for such things appeal directly to the imagination of the crowd, and -prepare them to be readily influenced by the necromancer's devices. The -"Isinyanga," "Abangoma," or "witch-finders," whom Lady Barker describes -for us, were attired with an eye for effect which would have done credit -to a London theatre. It will suffice to depict one of them, by name -Nozinyanga. Her fierce face, spotted with gouts of red paint on cheek and -brow, was partly overshadowed by a helmet-like plume of the tall feathers -of the sakabula bird. In her right hand she carried a light sheaf of -assegais or lances, and on her left arm was slung a small and pretty -shield of dappled ox-hide. Her petticoat, made of a couple of large gay -handkerchiefs, was worn kilt-wise. But if there were little decoration in -her skirts, the deficiency was more than compensated by the bravery of the -bead-necklaces, the goat's-hair fringes, and the scarlet tassels which -covered her from throat to waist. Her ample chest rose and fell beneath a -baldric of leopard skin, fastened across it with huge brazen knobs; while -down her back hung a beautifully dried and flattened skin of an enormous -boa-constrictor. - -The interest attaching to these women is derived from the fact that it was -of old the custom, among the Zulu and other South African tribes, to -attribute all mishaps or catastrophes, political or social, to the agency -of witches. It is not for Englishmen to look down with contempt upon this -manifestation of barbarism and ignorance, considering that a similar -belief prevailed very generally among us up to the reign of Charles I., -and, in truth, is not wholly extinct even now: while the extent to which -the science of witch-finding was developed in New England will be known to -every reader of Cotton Mather. - -When the community had resolved that a certain misfortune was due to the -witches, the next step obviously would be to detect and punish them. For -this purpose the king would summon a great meeting, and cause his subjects -to sit on the ground in a ring or circle, for four or five days. The -witch-finders took their places in the centre, and as they gradually -worked themselves up to a frantic state of frenzy, resembling demoniacal -possession, they lightly switched with their quagga-tail one or other of -the trembling spectators, who was immediately dragged away and butchered -on the spot. And not only he, but all the living things in his hut--wives -and children, dogs and cats--not one was left alive, nor was a stick left -standing. Sometimes a whole kraal would be exterminated in this way; and -the reader will perceive how terribly the cruel custom could be made to -gratify private revenge or to work out the king's tyrannical inclinations. - -A terrible little sorceress is described under the name of Nozilwane,[42] -whose weird wistful glance had in it something uncanny and uncomfortable. -She was really dressed beautifully for her part, in lynx skins folded over -and over from waist to knee, the upper part of her body being covered by -strings of wild beasts' teeth and fangs, beads, skeins of gaily-coloured -yarn, strips of snake's skin, and fringes of Angora-goat fleece. This, as -a decoration, was both graceful and effective; it was worn round the body -and above each elbow, and fell in soft white flakes among the brilliant -colouring and against the dusky skin. Lynx-tails depended like lappets on -each side of her face, which was overshadowed and almost hidden by a -profusion of sakabula feathers. "This bird," says Lady Barker, "has a very -beautiful plumage, and is sufficiently rare for the natives to attach a -peculiar value and charm to the tail-feathers; they are like those of a -young cock, curved and slender, and of a dark chestnut colour, with a -white eye at the extreme tip of each feather." Among all this thick, -floating plumage were interspersed small bladders, and skewers or pins -wrought out of tusks. Each witch-finder wore her own hair, or rather wool; -highly greased, and twisted up with twine until it ceases to wear the -appearance of hair, and hangs around the face like a thick fringe, dyed -deep red. - -Bent double, and with a creeping, cat-like gait, as if seeking a trail, -out stepped Nozilwane. Every movement of her undulating body kept time to -the beat of the girls' hands and their low crooning chant. Presently she -pretended to find the thing she sought, and with a series of wild -pirouettes leaped into the air, shaking her spears and brandishing her -little shield like a Bacchante. Nowamso, another of the party, was -determined that her companion should not carry off all the applause, and -she too, with a yell and a leap, sprang into the dance to the sound of -louder grunts and harder hand-claps. Nowamso showed much anxiety to -display her back, where a magnificent snake skin, studded in a regular -pattern with brass-headed nails, floated like a stream. She was attired -also in a splendid kilt of leopard skins, decorated with red rosettes, and -her toilette was considered more careful and artistic than any of the -others. Brighter her bangles, whiter her goat-fringes, and more -elaborately painted her face. Nozilwane, however, had youth and a -wonderful self-reliance on her side. The others, though they all joined in -and hunted out an imaginary enemy, and in turn exulted over his discovery, -soon became breathless and spent, and were glad when their attendants led -them away to be anointed and to drink water. - -"As for another of the 'witch-finders,' the great, big Nozinyanga, she -danced like Queen Elizabeth, 'high and disposedly,' and no wonder, for I -should think she weighed at least fifteen stone. Ungiteni, in a petticoat -of white Angora-goat skin, and a corsage of bladders and teeth, beads and -viper skins, was nothing remarkable; neither was Um-a-noujozzla, a -melancholy-looking personage, with an enormous wig-like coiffure of red -woollen ringlets and white skewers. The physiognomy, too, was a trifle -more stolid and commonplace than that of her comrades, and altogether she -gave me the impression of being a sensible, respectable woman, who was -very much ashamed of herself for playing such antics. However, she -brandished her divining brush with the rest, and cut in now and then to -'keep the fleer' with the untiring Nozilwane." - -Lady Barker and her friends grew tired of this imaginary "witch-finding," -and to end the affair it was proposed to test the professed power of the -"weird women" to discover lost property. A silver pipe stem had recently -"gone a-missing," and they were requested to find what had been lost, and -where. They set to work in a curious and interesting way. In front, -squatted on heels and haunches, a semicircle of about a dozen men, who -were supposed to have invited the assistance of the sisterhood. They had -no idea of what was asked for, and were told to go on with their part -until a signal was given that the article had been named. - -"What is it the Inkos has lost?" they cried; "discover, reveal, make plain -to us." - -The witch-finders, by their singing and dancing, had wrought themselves up -to a highly-excited and enthusiastic condition, so that they -unhesitatingly accepted the challenge, Nowamso crying, "Sing for me: make -a cadence for me." Then, after a moment's pause, she went on rapidly, in -her own language. - -"Is this real? is it a test? is it but a show? Do the white chiefs want to -laugh at our pretensions? Has the white lady called us only to show other -white people that we can do nothing? Is anything really lost? is it not -hidden? No, it _is_ lost. Is it lost by a black person? No, a white person -has lost it. Is it lost by the great white chief? No, it is lost by an -ordinary white man. Let me see what it is that is lost. Is it money? No. -Is it a weighty thing? No, it can be always carried about--it is not -heavy. All people like to carry it, especially the white Inkosi: it is -made of the same metal as money. I could tell you more, but there is no -earnestness in all this,--it is only a spectacle." - -Between each of these ejaculations she made a pause, looking eagerly into -the faces of the men before her, who, for sole answer, gave a loud, -simultaneous snap of finger and thumb, pointing towards the ground as they -did so, and shouting the one word, "Yiz-ora," (the first syllable strongly -accented and much prolonged;) "discover, reveal!" They can say nothing -more to urge her on, because they themselves are ignorant: but the weird -women watch their countenances eagerly, to detect, if they can, some -unconscious sign or token that their guesses are near the truth. -Suspecting a trick, Nowamso lapses into silence; but Nozilwane rushes -about like one possessed, sobbing and quivering with excitement, "It is -this--it is that!" The tall Nozinyanga strikes her lance firmly into the -ground, and cries haughtily, in her own tongue, "It is his watch!" -throwing around a haughty glance, as if daring any one to contradict her. -The others then join hands, and gallop round and round, making a -suggestion here and a suggestion there, all alike improbable; the -"inquirers," as the kneeling men are called, affording them no assistance. -At last Nozilwane strikes home: "His pipe!" she exclaims; "Yoziva, yoziva, -a thing which has come off his pipe." - -And so it is. Nozilwane's pluck, and perseverance, and cunning scrutiny of -our faces at each hit she made, have brought her off victoriously. - -A murmur, or rather grunt, of admiration goes around. The "inquirers" jump -up, and "subside into ebony images of impassive respectability." The weary -chorus disperses in small groups, and the exhausted sisterhood drop, as if -by one consent, on their knees, sitting back on their heels, and raise -their right hands in salutation.[43] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -_ZABIANISM AND SERPENT-WORSHIP._ - - -There can be no question as to the antiquity or universality of -Serpent-Worship, whatever may be the difference of opinion as to its -origin. According to Bryant it began in Chaldea, and was "the first -variation from the purer Zabaism." But this statement requires from us a -brief preliminary explanation of that ancient form of worship. - -Zabaism, or Zabism, has had its two sects,--first the Chaldean Zabians of -the Kuran,--the "Parsified" Chaldee heathen, or non-Christian -Gnostics,--the ancestors of the present Mendaites, or so-called Joannes -Christians, who reside in the neighbourhood of the Persian Gulf, and speak -a corrupt form of Chaldee-Aramaic. And second, the Pseudo-Zabians, or -Syrian Zabians, in Harran, Edessa, Rakkah, and Bagdad. It is the latter -who now chiefly represent Zabism. - -The first named, or Chaldean Zabians, who transferred the name to the -Harranic, and greatly influenced the development of the peculiar system of -the latter, are the people so designated in the Kuran, and by the -Mohammedans of to-day. The Harranians, who rose about A.D. 830, profess to -derive their denomination from one Zabi, who is variously called a son of -Seth, son of Adam, or a son of Enoch or Idris, or a son of Methuselah, or -of some fictitious Badi or Mari, a supposed companion of Abraham; while -Mohammedan writers trace it to the word _ssaba_, "to turn, to move," -because its professors turned from the path of true religion, that is, -Islam, or, as the Zabians say, because they have turned _to_ the proper -faith. - -The Zabian creed, as professed by the Harranic Zabians, would appear to -resolve itself into the following elements:-- - -It teaches that the Creator is, in His essence, primitivity, originality, -and eternity, One; but in His numerous manifestations in bodily figures, -manifold. Chiefly He is personified by the seven principal planets, and by -the good, knowing, excellent earthly bodies. This, however, is without any -disturbance of His unity. It is, say the Zabians, as if the seven planets -were His seven limbs, and as if our seven limbs were His seven spheres in -which He manifests Himself,--so that He speaks with our tongues, sees with -our eyes, hears with our ears, touches with our hands, comes and goes with -our feet, and acts through our members. - -It teaches further, that GOD is too great and too sublime to occupy -Himself directly with the affairs of this world; that its government He -has therefore entrusted to other gods, and that it is only to the highest -things of destiny He Himself devotes His attention,--an attribution of -cold superiority and intellectual indifference in striking contrast to the -idea of GOD _the Father_ developed by Christianity, that all-loving, as -well as all-powerful GOD, Who watches over the fall of a sparrow, and -listens with tender ear to the prayer of even the meanest of His -creatures. Moreover, Zabism inculcates the chilling doctrine that man is -too feeble to offer his homage directly to the Supreme, and must therefore -address the inferior deities to whom the regimen of the world has been -handed. In this way we see that the veneration shown to the planets and -the worship of idols are only a symbolism resulting from the humiliating -doctrines just defined. - -Zabism is a polytheistic system,--it absolutely revels in gods and -goddesses. There are the spirits that direct and guide the planets, the -spirits that originate or represent every action in this world,--not a -natural effect, great or little, which does not emanate from a deity. -Whatever appears in the air, whatever is formed near the sky or springs -from the earth, must be traced to certain gods that govern these -manifestations, so that every flake of snow, every drop of rain has its -presiding spirit. - -These spirits also "mould and shape everything bodily from one form into -the other, and gradually bring all created things to the state of their -highest possible perfection, and communicate their powers to all -substances, beings, and things. By the movement and guidance of these -spiritual beings, the different elements and natural compositions are -influenced in such a way that the tenderest plant may pierce the hardest -cliff. He who guides this world is called the first spirit. These gods -know our most secret thoughts, and all our future is open to them. The -female deities seem to have been conceived as the feeling or passive -principle. These gods or intelligences emanate directly from GOD without -His will, as rays do from the sun. They are, further, of abstract forms, -free of all matter, and neither made of any substance or material. They -consist chiefly of a light in which there is no darkness, which the senses -cannot conceive by reason of its immense clearness, which the -understanding cannot comprehend by reason of its extreme delicacy, and -which fancy and imagination cannot fathom." - -Free from all animal desires, these spirits are created wholly for love -and harmony, for friendship and unity. They are unaffected by local and -temporal changes, and control the planetary spheres, without finding the -motion of the heaviest too heavy, or of the lightest too light. Their -never-ending existence is a prolonged happiness, owing to their nearness -to the Supreme GOD; whom they praise day and night, like the Angels, with -no sense of fatigue or satiety, and whose will they ever obey with the -keenest joy. Free agents, they are never inclined towards the evil. They -turn towards the good as readily as the flower towards the light. - -Passing on to the cosmogonical part of the Zabian system, we find that it -is based on the existence of five primaeval principles,--the Creator, -Reason, the Soul, Space, and the Void. These are the constituents of all -creation. But apart from these, or comprehending these, the Zabians seem -to have regarded two principles, GOD and the Soul, as specially active and -ever-living. Some writers represent them as believing also in a passive -principle, Matter; and in two principles which are neither living nor -passive, Time and Space. They appear to have regarded Matter as primeval -and everlasting, and to have ascribed to it the origin and duration of -Evil. GOD Himself created only the spheres, and the heavenly bodies which -they contain. These spheres (fathers) convey the types or ideas to the -elementary substances (mothers), and out of the combination, conjunction, -and motion of these spheres and elements are produced the various earthly -things (children). According to the Zabians, the world is renewed with -every "world-year," or cycle, that is once every 36,425 ordinary years. -And at the close of each cycle, the life, vegetable, animal, and human -that had flourished within it cease to multiply, and new forms or types -spring into existence. - -The vacillating and contending nature of man is due to the contradictory -elements of which he is composed. The desires and passions which sway him -to and fro, depress him to the low standard of the brute creation, and his -fall would be complete but for such religious rites as purifications, -sacrifices, and other means of grace. Through these he is able again to -draw near to the great gods, and to attain a resemblance unto them. The -human soul is dual, that is, it consists partly of the nature of the -animal soul and partly of that of the angelic soul. It is immortal, and -subject to future recompense and punishment, but not for ever, nor in any -world but this, though at different epochs of existence. Hence, our -present happiness is a reward for the good deeds done by us in an earlier -stage of existence; and our present suffering the just chastisement for -evil actions committed in the past. In its nature they hold that the soul -is primitive, because otherwise it must be material, and a material soul -is an impossibility. - -"The soul," says Kathibi, one of the Zabian teachers, "is thus immaterial, -and exists from eternity; is the involuntary reason of the first types, as -GOD is the First Cause of the Intelligences. Once on a time the soul -beheld matter and loved it. Glowing with the desire of assuming a bodily -shape, it would not again separate itself from that matter of which the -world was created. Since that time, the soul forgot itself, its -everlasting existence, its original abode, and knew nothing more of what -it had formerly known. But GOD, who converts all things to the best, -united it to matter, which it loved, and out of this union the heavens, -the elements, and other composite things arose. In order that the soul -might not wholly perish within matter, He endowed it with intelligence, -whereby it conceived its high origin, the spiritual world, and itself. It -further conceived through it that it was but a stranger in this world, in -which it was subject to many sufferings, and that even the joys of this -world are but the sources of new sufferings. As soon as the soul had -perceived all this, it began to yearn again for its spiritual home, as a -man who is away from his birthplace pines for his homestead. It then also -learned, that, in order to return to its primitive state, it had to shake -off the fetters of sensuous desires, and liberate itself from all -materialistic tendencies. Far from them all, it would once more regain its -heavenly sphere, and enjoy the bliss of the spiritual world."[44] - -Such is an outline of the religious system which flourished from the -middle of the ninth to the middle of the eleventh century, under the name -of Zabism. - -Evidently, out of _this_ Zabaism Serpent-worship could not spring, because -it is of much greater antiquity. What then is the Zabism to which Bryant -alludes? A purely imaginary creed, which the mediaeval, Jewish, Arabic, and -Persian writers identified with star-worship. The Mohammedan and other -writers of the twelfth century bestowed the name of Zabians indifferently -upon the ancient Chaldeans, the Buddhists, even the ante-Zoroastrian -Persians; and Bryant has followed their mistaken example. As a matter of -fact, Serpent-worship is a relic of nature-worship,--more particularly of -the old solar worship,--and the Serpent at first was unquestionably an -emblem of the Sun. - -In Babylon large serpents of silver supported the image of the goddess -Rhea, in the temple of Bel, or Belus; and the name Bel itself is thought -by some writers to be an abbreviation of Ob-el, "the Serpent-God." In the -Apocryphal book of Bel and the Dragon, we read: "In that same place there -was a great Dragon, which they of Babylon worshipped. And the king said -unto Daniel: Wilt thou say that this is of brass? lo, he eateth and -drinketh: thou canst not say he is no living god: therefore worship him." - -Speaking of the earlier stage of the Persian religion, Eusebius remarks -that all the Persians worshipped the First Principles under the form of -Serpents, having dedicated to them temples in which they performed -sacrifices, and held festivals and orgies, esteeming them the greatest of -Gods, and governors of the Universe. - -These first principles were the principles of Good and Evil, or Ormuzd and -Ahriman, whose terrible struggle for the supremacy of the universe was -symbolised in Persian mythology by two serpents contending for the mundane -egg. They are represented as standing upon their tails, and each of them -has fastened its teeth upon the disputed prize. But, more generally, the -Evil Principle alone was represented by the serpent, and a fable in the -Zendavesta recalls to our recollection the opening of the Book of Genesis; -for it says that Ahriman assumed a serpent's form in order to destroy the -first of the human race, whom he accordingly poisoned. - -In the Saddu, or Suddu, it is said: "When you kill serpents, you shall -repeat the Zendavesta, whereby you will obtain great merit; for it is the -same as if you had killed so many devils." - -Mithras, the Persian sun-god, was represented encircled by a serpent; and -in his rites a custom was observed similar to that practised in the -mysteries of Sebazius: a serpent was cast into the bosom of the neophyte, -and taken out at the lower part of his garments.[45] - -The hierogram of the winged circle and serpent is a remarkable and -significant emblem of Ophiolatreia, and is found in almost every country -where Serpent-worship prevailed. It is to be traced in the Egyptian, the -Persian, and even the Aztec hieroglyphics; and on the monuments of China, -Greece, Italy, Asia Minor, and India. Enthusiasts allege that it has been -discovered in Britain. It seems to have been a general symbol of -_consecration_, and as such mention is made of it by the poet Persius: - - "Pinge duos angues; pueri sacer est locus." - _Satir._ i. 113. - -Reference is here made to _two_ snakes, which, as we have seen, is the -hierogram of the worshippers of the Two Principles, each being represented -by a serpent. Generally, however, it is one serpent only that issues from -the winged circle, and sometimes the circle is without wings. As a -consecrating symbol, the ophite hierogram was inscribed upon the massive -portals of the Egyptian temples. Mr. Deane contends that the Druids "with -the consistent magnificence which characterised their religion," -transferred the symbol from the portal to the temple; and instead of -placing the circle and serpent over the entrance into their sanctuaries, -erected the whole building in the form of the ophite hierogram, as at -Abury in Wiltshire, and Stanton Drew in Somersetshire. The former -represents the ophite hierogram with one serpent, the latter is double; in -both cases the circle has no wings. - -In Argyllshire, near Oban, exists a huge serpent-shaped mound, discovered -by Mr. Phene in 1871, which must be mentioned in this connection. Looking -down upon it from the high ground to the westward, you see it rising -conspicuously from the flat grassy plain, which extends for some distance -on either side, with scarcely an undulation, save two artificial circular -mounds, in one of which lie several large stones forming a cromlech. A -recent visitor writes: - -"Finding ourselves in the very presence of the Great Dragon, we hastened -to improve our acquaintance, and in a couple of minutes had scrambled on -to the ridge which forms his backbone, and thence perceived that we were -standing on an artificial mound three hundred feet in length, forming a -double curve like a huge letter S, and wonderfully perfect in anatomical -outline. This we perceived the more perfectly on reaching the head, which -lies at the western end, whence diverge small ridges, which may have -represented the paws of the reptile. On the head rests a circle of stones, -supposed to be emblematic of the solar disc, and exactly corresponding -with the solar circle as represented on the head of the mystic serpents of -Egypt and Phoenicia, and in the great American Serpent Mound. At the time -of Mr. Phene's first visit to this spot there still remained in the centre -of this circle some traces of an altar, which, thanks to the depredations -of cattle and herd-boys, have since wholly disappeared.... - -"The circle was excavated on the 12th of October, 1871, and within it were -found three large stones, forming a chamber, which contained burnt human -bones, charcoal, and charred hazel-nuts. Surely the spirits of our Pagan -ancestors must rejoice to see how faithfully we, their descendants, -continue to burn our hazel-nuts on Hallow-e'en, their old autumnal Fire -Festival, though our modern divination is practised only with reference to -such a trivial matter as the faith of sweethearts! A flint was also found, -beautifully and minutely serrated at the edge; nevertheless, it was at -once evident, on opening the cairn, that the place had already been -ransacked, probably in secret, by treasure-seekers, as there is no -tradition of any excavation for scientific purposes having ever been made -here. - -"On the removal of the peat-moss and heather from the ridge of the -serpent's back, it was found that the whole length of the spine was -carefully constructed with regularly and symmetrically placed stones, at -such an angle as to throw off rain; an adjustment to which we doubtless -owe the preservation, or at least the perfection, of this most remarkable -relic. To those who know how slow is the growth of peat-moss, even in damp -and undrained places, the depth to which it has here attained, though in a -dry and thoroughly exposed situation and raised from seventeen to twenty -feet above the level of the surrounding moss, tells of many a long century -of silent undisturbed growth, since the days when the serpent's spine was -the well-worn path daily trodden by reverent feet. The spine is, in fact, -a long narrow causeway, made of large stones, set like the vertebrae of -some huge animal. They form a ridge sloping off in an angle at each side, -which is continued downwards with an arrangement of smaller stones, -suggestive of ribs." - -This strange memorial of a departed age and a vanished faith, lying in the -silence and solitude of the lonely shore of Loch Nell, recalls to mind -the eloquent lines of an American poet:[46] - - "All desolate their ruins rest, - Like bark that in mid-ocean rolls, - Her name effaced, her masts o'erthrown, - And none remaining of the souls - That once sailed in her, to relate - From what far distant port she came; - Whither she sailed and what her fate, - And what her nation and her name. - But only may conjecture guess - The fancied story of this place, - And from these crumbling ruins gain - Some knowledge of the vanished race." - -It must be noticed that the serpent-mound has been so disposed that the -worshipper standing at the altar would naturally look eastward, directly -along the whole length of the great reptile, and across the dark lake, to -the threefold peaks of Ben Cruachan. That this position was intentionally -selected is evident from the fact that the three peaks are visible from no -other point. - -And hence arises the not wholly fanciful conjecture that the people who -erected the great mound had some dim idea of the Triune character of GOD. -The serpent was the emblem of His wisdom, as the solar circle was of His -Eternal Unity; and this marked reverence for the triple-peaked mountain -seems to indicate that with a knowledge of His unity was combined a -recognition of His threefold manifestation. - -The writer whom we have already quoted remarks that, whatever doubts may -arise on speculative points, the clearly defined outlines of the great -Serpent-mound of Oban are beyond dispute; though it may long prove a -fertile subject for discussion, whether its serpentine, or rather, Saurian -form is to be accepted as direct evidence of ophiolatry in this land, or -whether we should regard it as simply the representative of some -tribe,--as, in short, a Totem of some extinct British race answering to -the Nagas, or snake-tribes of the East. The former supposition seems the -more reasonable, when we remember that the serpent and the serpent's egg -were held sacred by the Druids. Serpent-worship prevailed in every nation -of antiquity. It flourished in Greece and Rome, in Egypt and Chaldea, in -Arabia and Central Asia; it extended throughout the Indian peninsula from -Cape Comorin to Kashmir; it was practised in Ceylon and the islands of the -eastern seas; in Mexico and Peru; throughout the whole of Africa. Passing -northward, we find that it existed in Scythia and Scandinavia, as also -among vast tribes near the Oural mountains and throughout Northern Europe, -and particularly among the tribes on the Ob or Obi river, which owes its -name, it is said, to the veneration paid to the reptile. Until the end of -the fourteenth century, when Christianity was introduced, the people of -Poland worshipped domestic serpents, which were allowed to run free in -every house, and carefully tended, every mishap that occurred being -attributed to some negligence in their service. The Lapps, the Finns, the -Norwegians, the Swedes, the Danes, all fostered these strange household -gods, and shared with them the children's milk. The Vandals also kept -them; some lived in hollow trees, and thither repaired the women, with -their offerings of milk, as is common at the present day in Ceylon and -many parts of India. Long after they had accepted the faith of CHRIST, the -Lombards continued a form of serpent-worship, adoring, or paying homage -to, a golden viper and a tree. In 663, Barbatus, Bishop of Benevento, -finding the custom still observed, made a successful appeal to the -worshippers to cut down the tree, and allow him to melt the golden viper -into a sacramental chalice. - -One of the most interesting of the supposed Serpent-temples, or -_dracontia_, is that of Karnak. It is situated half a mile from the -village of that name, in the department of the Morbihan in Brittany, and -about nine miles from the picturesque town of Auray. It is also within a -mile of the Bay of Quiberon. - -The whole length of "the Stones of Karnak," as the temple is called, -measures, if we include its sinuosities, eight miles. The width varies -from 250 to 350 feet. The highest stones are as much as seventeen feet -high, and from thirty to forty feet in circumference. Vacant spaces have -unfortunately been cleared by ruthless spoliators for the erection of the -adjacent villages of Ploermel and Karnak, and the boundary walls of the -neighbouring fields. But what toil and time must have been originally -expended on its construction, we may infer from the fact that it consisted -of eleven rows of stones, about ten thousand in number, of which upwards -of three hundred averaged from fifteen to seventeen feet in height, and -from sixteen to twenty or thirty feet in girth; one stone even measuring -the huge circumference of forty-two feet. - -A glance at any engraving of this famous antiquity will show that the -course of the avenues is distinctly sinuous, and that it defines the -figure of an enormous serpent undulating over the ground. Necessarily, -however, the resemblance is more striking to one who views the original -_in situ_. To such, the alternations of the high and low stones, regularly -disposed, may seem to mark with sufficient accuracy "the swelling of the -serpent's muscles as he moves along," though this seems rather a flight of -imagination. But at all events the spectator will acknowledge the evidence -of design which clearly appears in the construction of the avenues. - -The Dracontium contains ten regularly defined areas; one near the village -of Karnak, which is shaped like a bell or horse-shoe; the other, towards -the eastern extremity, which approaches the figure of a rude circle, and -is in reality a parallelogram with rounded corners. - -The circle and the horse-shoe were both sacred figures in the Druidical -religion, as may be seen in Stonehenge, where they are united, the outer -circles enclosing inner horse-shoes. The connection between the latter -symbol and the Celtic faith is not very clear, unless it be intended as a -representation of the moon. It has been conjectured that from this symbol, -whatever may have been its signification, arose the superstition--even not -now wholly defunct--of nailing a horse-shoe over a door as a protection -against evil spirits. - -It is curious that at Erdeven, where the temple begins, an annual dance, -descriptive of the Ophite hierogram of the circle and serpent, is still -celebrated by the peasants at the Carnival. But the only tradition which -survives respecting the stones is one which lingers in various parts of -England where similar memorials are found, that they were originally -endowed with life, and were petrified as they stand. Some of the Bretons -believe they were the Roman army who pursued the centurion Cornelius on -account of his conversion to Christianity, and were stricken into stone -through his prayers. Others imagine that certain supernatural dwarfs -erected them in a single night, and that each still inhabits the stone he -reared. - -Mr. Deane tells us that near the Karnak side of the dracontium rises a -singular mound of great elevation, which has once been conical, and the -upper portion of which is evidently artificial.[47] He regards it as -analogous to the remarkable hill of Silbury, which occupies much the same -position towards the Albury dracontium. Probably these mounds served as -altars, on which, in conformity with the practices of the Solar worship, -was kept burning the perpetual fire kindled by the sun. They are of common -occurrence in Persia, and seem to be identical with "the high places" of -Scripture where the priests of Baal celebrated their sacrifices. The -conical mound near Karnak--which may be seen for miles around--has been -consecrated by the Christians to the Archangel Michael, who is the patron -saint of every height, hill, or cone, natural or artificial, in Brittany. -The reason of this dedication has been conjectured to be that S. Michael -is the assailant and conqueror of the spiritual Dragon of the Apocalypse. -The mutilated image of that great serpent lies prostrate below the mound; -and when its worshippers were converted to the religion of CHRIST, they -naturally erected on the Solar mount a chapel consecrated to its -archangelic slayer. This consecration indicates, therefore, the triumph of -Christianity over Ophiolatry; and it is but consistent, says Deane, that -the people who allegorised the conversion of the Ophites by the metaphor -of a victory over _serpents_, should, in token of the victory, erect upon -the high places of idolatry chapels to the great Archangel. - -It is possible that the mound gave name to the adjacent village: that is, -Karn-ak, or Carnac, from "_cairn_" a hill, and "_hac_," a snake. The -"serpent's hill" would be no unsuitable title for Mont S. Michel. In the -same manner the group of pillars called _Lemaenac_, may have been named -from _maen_, stones, and _hac_. - -It is curious to find proofs of the existence of Serpent-worship in the -New World as in the Old; to meet with its traces in Mexico as well as in -Egypt or Chaldea. But certain it is that the religion of Mexico had many -features which were common to the Egyptian and Chaldean creeds; the same -Solar Worship, the same pyramidal monuments, and the same Ophiolatrous -symbols. - -For instance, we learn that the temple of Huitziliputli, in Mexico, was -built of great stones, in the fashion of snakes tied one to another, and -that the circuit was called "the circuit of snakes," because the walls of -the enclosure were covered with the figures of snakes. This -truculent-looking deity held in his right hand a staff cut in the fashion -of a serpent; and the four corners of the ark or tabernacle, in which he -was seated, terminated each with a carved effigy of a serpent's head. - -The Mexican astronomers represented a century by a circle, with a sun in -the centre, surrounded by the symbols of the years. The circumference was -a serpent twisted into four knots at the cardinal points. - -The Mexican month was divided into twenty days, two of which were -symbolised by the serpent and dragon. Further, the doorway of the temple, -dedicated to "the god of the air," was so wrought as to resemble a -serpent's mouth. - -The Mexicans, however, went beyond the _symbolical_ worship of the sacred -serpent, and like many other branches of the Ophite family, they fostered -living serpents in their dwellings as household gods. Mr. Bullock asserts -that they make the rattlesnake an object of their worship and veneration; -and that representations of this reptile, and of others of its species, -are very commonly met with among the remains of their ancient idolatry. He -says that the finest known to be in existence may be seen in a deserted -part of the cloister of the Dominican convent, opposite to the Palace of -the Inquisition. It is curled up in an irritated, erect position, with the -jaws extended, and is represented in the act of gorging a woman, richly -dressed, who lies between its fangs, crushed and lacerated. - -The Conquistadors, or Spanish followers of Cortez, all assert that the -Aztecs, or inhabitants of Mexico, worshipped an idol wrought into the -shape of a serpent. Bonal Dias del Castello, one of the Spanish invader's -veteran captains, and the chronicler of the expedition, describes the -interior of the principal temple, to which he and his leader were -conducted by the Emperor Montezuma: "When we had ascended to the summit of -the temple, we observed on the platform as we passed, the large stones on -which were placed the victims intended for sacrifice. Here was a great -figure representing a Dragon, and much blood lay spilled. Cortez, -addressing Montezuma, requested him to do him the favour to show his gods. -After consulting the priests, Montezuma led them into a tower where was a -kind of hall. Here were two altars, highly adorned with richly-wrought -timbers on the roof; above the roof, spread gigantic figures like unto -men. The one on the right hand was Huitzilopochtli, their war god, with a -great face and terrible eyes. This figure was entirely covered with gold -and jewels, and his body wreathed about with golden serpents. Before the -idol smoked a pan of incense, in which the hearts of three human victims -were burning, mixed with copal. The other great figure, on the left, with -a face like a bear's, was the god of the infernal regions. His body was -everywhere covered with figures of devils, having serpents' tails. In this -place was kept a drum of most enormous dimensions, the head of which was -made of the skins of large serpents. At a short distance from the temple -stood a tower, and at the door grinned frightful idols, like serpents and -devils: in front of these were tables and knives for sacrifice." - -Mr. Bullock, who made a valuable collection of Mexican antiquities, -describes an idol, "the goddess of war," on which Cortez and his followers -may possibly have looked: - -"This monstrous idol," he says, "is, with its pedestal, twelve feet high, -and four feet wide. Its form is partly human and partly composed of -rattlesnakes and the tiger. The head, enormously wide, seems that of two -rattlesnakes united; the fangs hanging out of the mouth, on which the -still-palpitating hearts of the unfortunate victims were rubbed as an act -of the most acceptable oblation. The body is that of a deformed man, the -place of arms being supplied by the heads of rattlesnakes, placed on -square plinths, and united by fringed ornaments. Round the waist is a -girdle, which was originally encrusted with gold; and beneath this, -reaching nearly to the ground, and partly covering its deformed cloven -feet, a drapery entirely composed of wreathed rattlesnakes, which the -natives call "a garment of serpents.... Between the feet, descending from -the body, another wreathed serpent rests his head upon the ground." - -"The only worship," says Mr. Deane,[48] "which can vie with that of the -Serpent in antiquity or universality, is the adoration of the SUN. But -uniformly with the progress of the Solar superstitions has advanced the -sacred serpent from Babylon to Peru. If the worship of the Sun, therefore, -was the first deviation from the truth, the worship of the Serpent was one -of the first innovations of idolatry. Whatever doubt may exist as to which -was the first error, little doubt can arise as to the primitive and -antediluvian character of both. For in the earliest heathen records we -find them inexplicably interwoven as the first of superstitions. Thus -Egyptian mythology informs us, that Helios (the Sun) was the first of the -Egyptian gods; for in early history, kings and gods are generally -confounded. But Helios married Ops, the serpent deity, and became father -of Osiris, Isis, Typhoeus, Apollo, and Venus: a tradition which would make -the superstitions coeval. This fable being reduced to more simple laws, -informs us, that the Sun, having married the Serpent, became, by this -union, the father of Adam and Eve, the Evil Spirit, the Serpent-solar -deity, and Lust; which appears to be a confusion of Scriptural truths, in -which chronological order is sacrificed from the simplification of a -fable. But--_ex pede Herculem_--from the small fragments of the truth -which are here combined, we may judge of the original dimensions of the -knowledge whose ruins are thus heaped together. We may conclude that, -since idolatry, lust, the serpent, and the evil spirit, are here said to -have been synchronous with the First Man and Woman, the whole fable is -little more than a mythological version of the events in Paradise." - -Mr. Deane, who lived before the days of Comparative Mythology, read into -the old fables a meaning which they are hardly capable of bearing. It is -clear enough that Serpent-worship had an astronomical origin; but we may -agree with him that it was as ancient and universal as the worship of the -Sun, with which, indeed, it was closely connected. - - * * * * * - -We shall now borrow a few illustrations of the character, extent, and -significance of Serpent-worship from Mr. Fergusson's elaborate work,[49] -in which he deals particularly with the Topes at Sanchi and Amravati. But, -first, a word or two in explanation of the origin and purpose of the Topes -will be desirable. - -The era of stone architecture in India seems to have begun with the reign -of Asoka about 250 B.C. It is contemporaneous with the rise of Buddhism, -whose followers gradually usurped the place formerly occupied by the -Aryans. The Buddhist buildings then erected may be divided into three -principal classes: - -1st. _Topes_ or _Stupas_, with their surrounding rails and lats: - -2nd. _Chaityas_, which, in form and purpose, closely resemble the early -Churches of the Christians, though several of those cut in the rock were, -in all probability, excavated before the Christian era: and, - -3rd. _Viharas_, or Monasteries, forming in the earliest times the -dwellings of the monks or priests who ministered in the Topes or Chaityas, -but afterwards becoming the independent abode of monastic communities, who -had chapels or oratories appropriated to their use within the walls of -their monasteries. - -We are here concerned only with the Tope or Stupa. - -In its origin we suspect that it simply took the place of the mound or -tumulus which the Turanian and other races had from earliest ages been -accustomed to raise over the last resting-place of their dead. No such -tumuli now exist in India, having probably been washed away by the -tropical rains or river-floods; but some are still found in Afghanistan. -The Indian type is distinguished from the tumulus of other countries by -its material and its shape. It is built of brick or stone, in a rounded or -conical form. It is distinguished also by the circumstance that instead of -being the place of interment of a corpse, it is the depository of relics. - -Besides being used as a relic-shrine, the Tope was frequently employed as -a memorial tower to indicate a sacred spot. Of the 84,000 Stupas which, -according to tradition, Asoka erected, fully one half would seem to have -been raised to mark the scenes where Buddha or some Bodhisatwa had -performed a miracle or done something worthy of being remembered by the -faithful. - -The "rails," or stone-circles, surrounding the Indian Topes are often of -as much importance as the Topes themselves; and in the case of Sanchi and -Amravati, are even _more_ important. As with the Topes, they are -sepulchral in origin. "The circles of rude stones found all over Europe -certainly are so in most cases. They may sometimes enclose holy spots, and -may possibly have in some instances places of assembly, though this is -improbable. Their application to the purposes of ancestral worship is, -however, not only probable, but appropriate. Sometimes a circle of stones -encloses a sepulchral mound, as at New Grange in Ireland, and very -frequently in Scandinavia and Algeria. In India rude stone circles are of -frequent occurrence." Some hundreds are found in the neighbourhood of -Amravati alone, and all are sepulchral; but like the Topes when adopted by -the Buddhists, they were "sublimated into a symbol instead of a reality." - -Reference must briefly be made to another group of early Buddhist -monuments, the lats or stembhas, of which very few are now extant in -India, the British engineer having used them for his roads, and the native -zemindar for his rice or sugar mills. Those erected by Asoka are uniform -in character: circular stone shafts, monoliths, thirty or forty feet high, -and surmounted by a capital of a bell-shaped or falling leaf form, -imitated from the later Grecian architecture. They were erected in order -that certain edicts might be engraved upon them, which Asoka desired to -keep constantly in the remembrance and before the eyes of his subjects. -But in the fifth century, those raised by the Guptas had no other object -than to perpetuate the name and fame of their royal founders. - - * * * * * - -The Topes at Sanchi form part of a large group of Topes situated between -the towns of Bhilsa and Bhopul in Central India. They range over an area -about seventeen miles from east to west, and about ten miles from north to -south, in five or six different clusters, and number in all between forty -and fifty of various dimensions. It is believed that the smallest are -merely the places of interment of local chiefs; others are strictly -Dagobas, or relic-shrines; while the largest is a chaitya or stupa, -designed apparently to consecrate some sacred spot, or perpetuate the -memory of some remarkable event in Buddhist history. - -Architecturally speaking, it consists, first, of a basement 121 feet in -diameter and 14 feet in height. This is surmounted by a platform or -procession path, within which the dome or tumulus itself rises in the -shape of a truncated hemisphere to a height of 39 feet. The summit is a -level area, measuring 34 feet across, and surrounded by a circular railing -or barrier of stones, which enclosed a square Tu or reliquary, 11-1/2 feet -square, and this in its turn enclosed a circular support for the sacred -and symbolic umbrella that always crowned these edifices. - -At a distance of 9-1/2 feet from the base, the tope is encircled by a -rail, eleven feet high, and consisting apparently of one hundred pillars, -exclusive of the gateways. Each pillar seems to have been the gift of an -individual, and even the rails between them have apparently been -contributed by different persons. The rail or circle is devoid of -sculpture; but four gateways which were added to it about the Christian -era are covered with sculptured work of the most elaborate kind. - -The human figures represented in these sculptures belong in the main to -two great races. One of them is easily recognised as "Hindus,"--"meaning -by that term the civilized race who formerly occupied the valley of the -Ganges, and who, from their capitals of Ayodhya and Indraprastha or -Pataliputra (Palibothra), had been the dominant class in India for at -least two thousand years before the time to which we are now referring." -It may be taken as proved that these people were originally pure -immigrant Aryans, but by intermixture with other races their blood took, -as it were, a new colouring, though they did not lose the civilisation and -pre-eminence which they owed to their intellectual superiority. - -We know them in the sculptures by their costume; by the dhoti, wrapped -round the loins exactly as it is worn now-a-days; the chadder over their -shoulders; and the turban on their heads. So much for the dress of the -men; of the undress of the women it is more difficult to speak. They are -always decorated with enormous bangles about the wrists and ankles, and -strings of beads round the neck; but with the exception of a bead belt -round the body below the waist they wear little body clothing. From this -belt slips of cloth are sometimes suspended, more generally at the sides -or behind than in front,--and sometimes also a cloth not unlike a dhoti, -invariably of transparent texture. This scantiness of attire can hardly be -regarded as finding compensation in the dimensions and amplitude of the -head-dress, which, consisting of two long plaits of hair mixed with beads, -and a thick roll of cloth, forms almost a kind of tippet, covering the -whole of the woman's back. - -Mr. Fergusson remarks:[50] - -"It is, however, not only in the Topes that this absence of dress is so -conspicuous. In all the sculptures at Karli, or Ellora, or Mahavellipore, -or in the paintings in Ajanta, the same peculiarity is observable. -Everywhere, indeed, before the Mahometan conquest, nudity in India -conveyed no sense of indecency. The wife and mother of Buddha are at times -represented in this manner. The queen on her throne, the female disciples -of Buddha, listening to his exhortations, and on every public occasion on -which women take part in what is going on, the costume is the same. It is -equally remarkable that in those days those unveiled females seem to have -taken part in every public transaction and show, and to have mixed with -the men as freely as women do in Europe at the present day. - -"All this is the more remarkable, as in Buddhist books modesty of dress in -women is frequently insisted upon. In the Dulva, for instance, a story is -told of the King of Kalinga presenting to the King of Kosala (probably -Padh), a piece of muslin, which afterwards fell into the hands of a lewd -priestess. She, it is said, wore it in public, while it was so thin that -she, notwithstanding this, appeared naked to the great scandal of all who -witnessed the exhibition.[51] The probability is, that the story and the -book that contains it are of very much more modern date than our -sculptures. It certainly is in direct conflict with their evidence." - -The want of shame in women, to which this exposure of the person bears -witness, is always the mark and sign of inferior civilisation. - -The other race depicted in the sculptures has its distinctive -characteristics. The male costume consists of a kilt,--not a cloth wrapped -round the loins, but a kilt, shaped, sewn, and fastened by buckle or -string;--and also of a cloak or tippet, which seems to be similarly shaped -and sewn. As for the hair, it is twisted into a long rope or plait like a -Chinaman's, and then folded round the head in a conical form, or a piece -of cloth or rope was treated in this way. The beard is worn, whereas no -single individual of the Hindu race, either at Sanchi or Amravati, has any -trace of beard or moustache; a circumstance the more remarkable, because, -according to Nearchus, the Hindus dyed their beards with various colours, -so that some were red, some white, some black, others purple, some green. -The female dress differs from that of the Hindus even more than the male. -A striped petticoat is gathered in at the knees so as to form a neat and -modest garb, and a cloak or tippet like that of the men is thrown -generally over one shoulder so as to leave one breast bare, but sometimes -both are covered. The head-dress is a neat and elegant turban. - -Who then are these people? From the peculiarities of their costume, and -their living in the woods, some authorities are inclined to regard them as -priests or ascetics, though, it is to be noted, they are nowhere -represented as worshipping Topes, hero-wheels, or the disc and crescent -symbols (the sun and moon.) In one compartment, however, they are -evidently worshipping the serpent in a fire-temple. Fergusson concludes -that they were the aboriginal inhabitants of Malwa, to whom came the -Hindus as conquerors or missionaries (or both?) The Topes were erected -and the sculpture wrought by the conquering race, and the others are -always represented as inferior and engaged in servile employments, but not -as converts to Buddhism. The only act of adoration in which we see them -concerned is the adoration of the five-headed Naga. Mr. Fergusson proposes -to call them Dasyus, not because such a name has any local or traditional -authority, but because in the Vedas and the heroic poems it seems to be -applied to the aboriginal people of India as opposed to the Aryans. - - * * * * * - -Proceeding now to a consideration of the sculptures, we find that one half -of those at Sanchi represent religious acts, such as the worship of the -Dagoba or of Trees. Once or twice the Wheel is the object of adoration, -and once the Serpent. Other bas-reliefs represent events in history, and -some again are devoted to the ordinary incidents of every man's life. -Their general execution is vigorous though rude. Those at Amravati "are -perhaps as near in scale of excellence to the contemporary art of the -Roman empire under Constantine, as to any other that could be named; or, -rather, they should be compared with the sculptures of the early Italian -Renaissance, as it culminated in the hands of Ghiberti, and before the -true limits between the provinces of painting and sculpture were -understood." - -Let us describe an upper bas-relief which has been found on the eastern -gateway. - -Here the people whom Mr. Fergusson calls Dasyus are represented -worshipping the five-headed Naga, or Serpent, which appears in a small -hexagonal temple, raising its head over something very like an altar. In -front stands a pot of fire,--probably a fire-altar,--and in spite of Mr. -Fergusson's doubts, we think both the Serpent and the Fire are connected -with the old Sun-worship.[52] - -In the foreground an old man is seated in a circular leaf-thatched hut, -with, according to a frequent Indian custom, a scarf bound round his knees -and loins. Behind him in the hut is suspended his upper garment, and in -front a bearded senior, of his own tribe, is, to all appearance, -addressing him. Near this individual stands another pot of fire, with -three pairs of tongs or ladles, and a bundle of sticks to feed the flame. -Close beside him we see one elephant, two buffaloes, sheep, and deer. The -scene takes place in a forest. Above are trees and cocks, with monkeys and -peacocks; below, a reedy marsh opens into a lake blooming with -lotus-flowers and occupied by geese. - -A lower bas-relief in the same gateway puts before us a very different -scene: - -In the centre of the upper part blooms the sacred Buddhist Tree, behind -its altar, with its Chattee and garlands, occupying a position similar to -that of the serpent in the other bas-relief. Two Garudas or Devas, or -flying figures, present garlands, and two females, instead of griffins, -approach it on either side. - -In the lower part of the picture, the Inja, or chief male personage, sits -enthroned upon the Naga, and is sheltered by its five-headed hood. On his -right crouch three women on stools, eating and drinking, and each with her -tutelary or snake behind her; and above them are a female Chaori bearer -and a woman with a bottle--there are snakes behind both. On the other side -are two women playing on drums, two on harps, one on a flute, and a fifth -dancing, but all likewise with snakes, and all in the costume which Mr. -Fergusson defines as that of the Hindus. - -The worship of the Naga by the bearded Dasyus as represented in the upper -bas-relief, does not occur again at Sanchi, and occurs only once at -Amravati. There, however, the five-headed snake is seen very frequently in -front of the dagoba, and in a position which is designed to command the -worship, not only of the Dasyus, but of the whole world. - -The Hindu male or chief canopied by the Naga, as shown in the lower -bas-relief, occurs at least ten times at Sanchi, and must have occurred -several hundred times at Amravati. - -Mr. Fergusson asks, what are we to infer from these facts? Is it that the -Naga, or serpent, was the god of the aborigines, whom the conquering -Hindus adopted as their own deity, and pretended that it was for _them_ he -reserved his patronage and support? We must recollect that the Topes were -built and the sculptures carved by Hindus, and that there is no -representation of a Hindu doing honour to a snake; on the contrary, the -snake always does homage to the Hindu. - -Shall we conclude, then, that the Hindus were the real Naga-worshipping -people, and that it was they who enforced serpent-worship on the Dasyus? A -conquered people have not infrequently imposed their language, laws, and -religion on their conquerors. - -It is, perhaps, impossible to answer these questions: a cloud of obscurity -hangs over the whole subject of Snake-worship; but we take it to have been -the old and prevalent faith of the aborigines of India prior to the Aryan -immigration, and we believe that the Aryans adopted it more and more -generally as they mixed more and more widely with the Hindus, and their -blood became less and less pure. It is not mentioned in the Vedas; there -is scarcely an allusion in the Ramayana; in the Mahabahrata it occupies a -considerable space; it appears timidly at Sanchi in the first century of -the Christian era; is triumphant at Amravati in the fourth; and might have -become the dominant faith of India had it not been elbowed from its pride -of place by Vishnuism and Sivaism, which took its position when it fell -together with the Buddhism to which it had allied itself so closely. - - * * * * * - -We turn to the celebrated Tope at Amravati, a town situated on the river -Kishna. The dimensions of the Tope are 195 feet for inside diameter of the -outer circle, and 165 feet for that of the inner. The procession path is -paved with slabs 13 feet long, and the inner rail is 2 feet wide. It has -four gateways, and projecting about 30 feet beyond the outer rail; but -these are in so dilapidated a condition that their size cannot be -accurately ascertained. - -These circles, or circular bas-reliefs, from the intermediate rails of the -outer enclosure are thus described: - -In the upper circle on the right hand side a group of Buddhist priests, -in their yellow robes, may be seen worshipping. In front two supple women, -such as so frequently occur in these sculptures, bend in attitudes of -adoration, and on the left a chief in the ordinary Hindu -costume--surrounded by the women of his family--presents his little son to -the Buddha-emblem. - -In the lower circle the same structural arrangements occur up to the -Trisul (or emblem), but the whole is surmounted by the Chakra, or Wheel, -which we know to be the symbol of Dharma or the Law. Here all the -worshippers are men; it is, we are told, one of the very few scenes in -these sculptures from which women are entirely excluded. Whether it was -considered that the study of the Law was unsuited for women, or whether -some other motive governed the designers, certain it is that, contrary to -the usual rule, the whole of the worshippers are of one sex and one race. -The only other noticeable peculiarity is the introduction of two -antelopes, one on each side of the throne. - -The second circle represents the Trisul ornament, or emblem, not on a -throne, but behind an altar. The sacred feet of Buddha are depicted, but -there are no relics. In the upper compartment the principal worshippers -are two men with seven-headed snake-hoods, and two women with single -snakes. - -In the centre of the bas-relief sits the principal personage, with a -nine-headed snake-hood, between two of his wives, and beyond, on both rims -of the circle, stands a female figure, supporting herself by the branches -of a tree. On each a young girl waits; one of these girls has a snake at -the back of her head. In front are three musicians, also with snakes; and -on their right a lady _without_ a snake receives the assistance of a girl -_with_ a snake. - -"This distinction," says Mr. Fergusson, "between people with snakes and -those without is most curious and perplexing. After the most attentive -study I have been unable to detect any characteristic either of feature or -costume by which the races can be distinguished, beyond the possession or -absence of this strange adjunct. That those with snakes are the Naga -people we read of, can hardly be doubted; yet they never are seen actually -worshipping the snake like the Dasyus, but rather as protected by it. The -snake seems their tutelary genius, watching over, perhaps inspiring them; -but whether they borrowed this strange emblem from the natives of the -country, or brought it with them from the north-west, are questions we are -hardly yet in a position to answer satisfactorily." - - * * * * * - -We have thus abundant evidence of the prevalence of Serpent-worship in -India in "olden times;" the reader will, perhaps, be surprised to hear -that it lingers still throughout the peninsula. Dr. Balfour, who had an -intimate acquaintance with the habits and customs of the natives, asserts -that the worship both of the sculptured form and the living creature, is -general. The sculpture invariably represents the Nag or Cobra, and almost -every hamlet owns its Serpent deity. Sometimes it is a single snake, with -the hood spread open. Occasionally the sculptured figures are nine in -number, forming the _Nao Nag_, which is designed to represent a parent -snake and eight of its young, but the prevalent form is that of two snakes -twining in the manner of the Esculapian rod of classical antiquity. - -It is the opinion of some Hindus that the living snake is not worshipped -as a devata, or deity, but simply reverenced in commemoration of some -ancient event--possibly of some astronomical occurrences. Others, however, -distinctly assert that it is worshipped as a devata. However this may be, -there can be no doubt that the living snake is worshipped throughout all -Southern India. On their feast days the worshippers resort to the snake's -lair, which they bedaub with vermilion streaks and patches of turmeric and -of wheat flour, and close at hand they suspend garlands of flowers, strung -upon white cotton thread, and laid over wooden frames. During the rainy -seasons occurs the great Nagpanchanic festival, when the Hindus go in -search of snakes, or have them brought to their houses by the Sanpeli, the -snake-charmers who ensnare them. The snakes are then worshipped, and -offerings of milk are made to them, and in almost every house figures of -snakes, drawn on paper, are affixed to the walls, and worshipped. Those -who visit the snakes' abodes, or tents, plant sticks around the hole, and -about and over these sticks wind white cotton thread. A bevy of Mahrathi -women repair to the hut, and joining hands, wind round it in a circle five -times, singing songs; after which they prostrate themselves. They pour -milk into the hole; hang festoons of Chembela flowers and cucumber fruit, -and sprinkle a mixture of sugar and flour. - -In reference to this festival, Colonel Meadows Taylor writes:-- - -On this occasion, Nags or Cobras are worshipped by most of the lower -classes of the people in the Dekhan, and more particularly in the -Shorapore country. The ceremonies are very simple: the worshippers bathe, -smear their foreheads with red colour, and in small parties,--generally -families acquainted with one another,--resort to the places known to be -frequented by snakes. In such places there are generally sacred stones, to -which various offerings are made, and they are anointed with red colour -and ground turmeric, and invocations are addressed to the local genius and -to the serpents. Near the stones are placed small new earthen saucers, -filled with milk; for cobras are fond of milk, and are believed to watch -the ceremony, coming out of their holes and drinking the milk, even while -the worshippers are near, or are lingering in the distance to see if their -offerings be received. It is considered a fortunate augury for the -worshippers if the snake should appear and drink. Should the snake _not_ -appear, the worshippers, after waiting awhile, return to the place next -morning, to ascertain the result: if the milk have disappeared, the rite -has been accepted, but not under such favourable auspices as if the -reptile had come out at once. These ceremonies end with a feast. - -Colonel Meadows Taylor (whose language we are partly adopting) -continues:-- - -It is on behalf of children that Snake-worship is particularly practised; -and the women and children of a family invariably accompany the male head, -not only at the annual festival, but whenever a vow has been made to a -Serpent Deity. The first hair shaved from a child which has passed -teething, and gone through the other infantile ailments, is frequently -dedicated to a Serpent. On such occasions the child is taken to the -locality of the vow, the usual ceremonies are performed, and with the -other offerings is included the child's hair. In every case a feast -follows, served near the spot, and the attendant Brahmins receive alms and -largess. - -"In the Shakti ceremonies, Pooma-elhishek, which belong, I think, to -aboriginal customs, the worship of the Snake forms a portion, as -emblematical of energy and wisdom. Most of these ceremonies are, however, -of an inconceivably obscene and licentious character. They are not -confined to the lowest classes, though rarely perhaps resorted to by -Brahmins; but many of the middle class sects, of obscure origin and -denomination, practise them in secret, under the strange delusion that the -divine energy of nature is to be obtained thereby, with exemption from -earthly troubles. - -"Although Snake-worship ordinarily belongs professedly to the descendants -of aboriginal tribes, yet Brahmins never or rarely pass them over, and the -Nagpanchani is observed as a festival of kindly greeting and visiting -between families and friends--as a day of gifts of new clothes or -ornaments to wives or children, &c. - -"The worship of Gram Deotas, or village divinities, is universal all over -the Dekhan, and indeed I believe throughout India. These divinities have -no temples nor priests. Sacrifice and oblation is made to them at sowing -time and harvest, for rain or fine weather, in time of cholera, malignant -fever, or other disease or pestilence. The Nag is always one of the Gram -Deota, the rest being known by local names. The Gram Deota are known as -heaps of stones, generally in a grove or quiet spot near every village, -and are smeared some with black and others with red colour. - -"Nag is a common name both for males and females among all classes of -Hindus, from Brahmins downwards to the lowest classes of Sudras and -Mlechhas. Nago Rao, Nagoju, &c., are common Mahratta names, as Nagappa, -Nagowa, and the like are among the Canarese and Telugu population. - -"No Hindu will kill a Nag or Cobra willingly. Should any one be killed -within the precincts of a village, by Mahomedans or others, a piece of -copper money is put into its mouth, and the body is burned with offerings -to avert the evil. - -"It is, perhaps, remarkable, that the Snake festival is held after the -season or at the season of casting the skin, and when the Snake, addressed -or worshipped, is supposed to have been purified. Some Brahmins always -keep the skin of a Nag in one of their sacred books. - -"In reference to the lower castes alluded to, I may mention those who -practise Snake-worship with the greatest reverence:--1, Beydars. 2, -Dhungars or shepherds, Ahens or milkmen, Waddiwars or stone-masons, -Khungins or rope-makers, Brinjaras and other wandering tribes, Mangs, -Dhers, and Chennars, Ramorsers, Bhils, Ghonds, and Kohs, all which I -believe, with many others, to be descendants of aboriginal tribes, partly -received within the pale of Hinduism. - -"Lingayots, who are schismatics from Hinduism, and who deny _in toto_ the -religious supremacy of the Brahmins, are nevertheless Snake-worshippers, -many of them bearing the name Nag, both male and female. - -"I cannot speak of the North of India, but in the whole of the South of -India, from the Nerbudda to Cape Comorin, Snake-worship is now -existent."[53] - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -_POLYNESIAN SUPERSTITIONS._ - - -When Captain Cook first visited those beautiful islands of the South -Pacific which are now included under the general name of Polynesia, he -found their inhabitants given over to the lowest and coarsest idolatry. -Many of their rites and ceremonies were as lewd as any practised in -ancient times under the auspices of the Paphian Venus. Gradually they were -brought within the influence of the missionary work of the Christian -Church; and though, if we may credit the testimony of recent observers, -much heathenism still prevails, and gross superstitions are still secretly -nourished, there cannot be a doubt, that, on the whole, their moral -condition has been materially elevated. - -Among the pioneers of the Cross in these "Summer-isles of Eden" one of the -most eminent and successful was the Rev. John Williams; a missionary of -the true type, of an enlightened mind and broad sympathies, who, after a -long career of noble labour, sealed his witness to the truth with his -blood, and lives in the Gospel record as the Martyr of Erromanga. From the -plain, unvarnished, and effective chronicle of his "Missionary -Enterprises" we glean much interesting information respecting the -idolatrous ways of the islanders, revealing their identity with the -superstitions that from all times have dominated over uncivilised man. In -Rarotonga as in Mexico, for instance, the gods were supposed to be -propitiated by human sacrifices; and in many of the islands cannibalism -existed in its most disgusting form and under the sanction of a religious -ordinance. - -From the chief of Aitutaki Mr. Williams obtained some curious relics of -idolatry. As for example:--an idol named _Te-rongo_, one of the great -deities, called a _Kaitangata_, or man-eater. The priests of this idol -were supposed to be inspired by the shark. - -Tangarou, the great national god of Aitutaki, and of almost all the -adjacent islands. He holds the net with which he catches the spirits of -men as they fly from their bodies, and a spear with which he kills them. - -A rod, with snares at the end, made of the fibres of the cocoa-nut husk, -with which the priest caught the spirit of the god. It was used in cases -of pregnancy, when the female was ambitious that her child should be a -son, and become a famous warrior. It was also employed in wartime to catch -the god by his leg, to secure his influence on the side of the party -performing the ceremony. - -Ruanu; a chief from Raiatea, who, ages ago, sailed in a canoe from that -island, and settled at Aitutaki. From him a genealogy is traced. He died -at Aitutaki, and was deified as _Te atua taitai tere_, or the conductor of -fleets. - -Tanu; with his fan and other appendages; the god of thunder. The natives, -when they heard a peal of thunder, were accustomed to say that this god -was flying: and produced this sound by the flapping of his wings. - -The Rarotongan idols were of a singular character. From their size they -might have suited Swift's nation of Brobdingnagians, for the smallest -seems to have been about fifteen feet high. Each was wrought out of a -piece of _aito_, or iron wood, about four inches in diameter, carved with -a rude imitation of the human hand at one end, and with an obscene figure -at the other; round it were wrapped numerous folds of native cloth, until -it measured two or three yards in circumference. Near the wooden image -some red feathers were strewn, and a string of small pieces of polished -pearl shells was regarded as the _manava_, or soul of the god. - -An idol, somewhat resembling a Chinese joss, was placed in the fore-part -of every fishing-canoe; and prior to their departure on a fishing -excursion, the boatmen aways presented it with offerings, and invoked it -to grant them a successful issue. - -A striking scene was that when Papeiha, a converted islander, lifted up -his voice against idolatry, for the first time, among the banana-groves of -Rarotonga. - -The Rarotongans had assembled in great numbers at a _marae_, or sacred -enclosure, for the purpose of making offerings of food to the gods. Many -priests, pretending to be inspired, were filling the air with shouts and -yells; whilst around them gathered the deluded worshippers, some with one -side of their face and body blackened with charcoal; others were painted -with stripes of various colours; others figured as warriors, wearing large -caps adorned with white cowrie shells and birds' feathers. Breaking into -their midst, Papeiha boldly addressed them on their folly in devoting such -large quantities of food to a log of wood which they had carved and -decorated and called a god. This challenge was immediately accepted by one -of the priests, who springing to his feet, protested that their god was a -real god, and a very powerful god, and that they were that day celebrating -a very sacred feast. - -Papeiha replied that the day was at hand when their folly would be -revealed to them by the true GOD JEHOVAH, who would make their so-called -gods "fuel for the fire." This strong declaration greatly perplexed the -crowd, but they continued to listen attentively while Papeiha commented on -the love of GOD in giving HIS SON to die for sinners. After he had ceased, -the people asked him many questions; among others,--"Where does your GOD -live?" He answered, that Heaven was His dwelling-place, but that both -Heaven and Earth were filled with the majesty of His presence. They -rejoined, in their inability to conceive of an Invisible but Omnipresent -Deity;--"We cannot see Him, but ours are here before our eyes, and, if the -earth was full of your GOD, He would surely be big enough to be seen." -"And," said another, "why do we not run against Him?" To which Papeiha -ingeniously responded:--"That the earth was full of air, but we did not -run against it: that we were surrounded by light, but it did not impede -our progress." - -Five months later, a priest came to Papeiha and his associate missionary -Tiberio, announcing his resolve to burn his idols; and he brought with him -his eldest son, a boy of ten years old, to place under their care, lest -the gods in their wrath should destroy him. Evidently, in spite of his -iconoclastic purpose, the priest still cherished a belief in the power of -his wooden deities. Leaving the child with the two teachers, he returned -home, and next day at early dawn returned, staggering under the weight of -his cumbrous idol. A crowd followed him, shouting at him as a madman, and -looking upon him as one pre-doomed to destruction by his own folly; but he -held fast to his resolve to embrace the word of JEHOVAH, and declared that -he had no fear of the issue. He threw his idol at the feet of the -teachers, one of whom fetched his saw to cut it up; but the crowd, as soon -as they saw the instrument applied to the head of the god, were stricken -with panic fear, and fled away. As no catastrophe occurred, they gradually -returned impelled by curiosity, which is sometimes stronger than fear; and -in their presence, amidst profound excitement, the first rejected idol of -Rarotonga was committed to the flames. - -To convince the people of the absurdity of their apprehensions, the -teachers, as soon as the idol was converted into ashes, roasted some -bananas upon them, of which they ate, and invited the spectators to -partake. None however were brave enough to admit so dangerous a morsel -into their mouths, and they waited, open-eyed, for the expected result of -the profane audacity of the two teachers. But, like the inhabitants of -Melita, "after they had looked a great while and saw no harm come to them, -they changed their minds," and in less than ten days after this event no -fewer than fourteen idols were destroyed. Soon afterwards, the chief -Tinomana sent for the missionaries, and on their arrival at his -mountain-home, informed them that after much deliberation, he had resolved -to become a Christian, and to place himself under their direction. He -therefore wished to know what was the first step he ought to take. They -informed him that he must destroy his maraes and burn his idols; to which -he immediately replied, "Come with me and see them destroyed." On reaching -the place he desired some person to take a firebrand and set fire to the -temple, the _ataraw_, or altar, and the _unus_, or sacred pieces of carved -wood by which the marae was decorated. Four huge idols were then deposited -at the feet of the teachers, who, having read a portion of the tenth -chapter of S. Luke's Gospel, which was peculiarly appropriate, especially -from verse 17 to 20, stripped them of their linen wrappings, which they -distributed among the people, and threw them into the flames. - -Some of the spectators waxed wroth with the chief, and expressed -themselves with great violence, denouncing him as a fool and a madman for -burning his gods, and listening to worthless fellows who "were drift-wood -from the sea, washed on shore by the waves of the ocean." The women were -specially vehement in their grief, and broke out into the loudest and -dolefulest lamentations imaginable. Many of them inflicted deep gashes on -their heads with sharp shells and shark's teeth, and ran wildly to and -fro, smeared with the blood which streamed from their wounds, and crying -in tones of the deepest melancholy, "Alas, alas, the gods of the madman -Tinomana, the gods of the insane chief are given to the flames!" Others, -blackened with charcoal, were not less demonstrative. - -In the course of a few days a clean sweep was made of the idols of the -district; never were Iconoclasts, not even our Puritan forefathers, more -thorough or more resolute. The teachers then advised Tinomana and their -other converts to prepare their food for the Sunday, and attend worship at -the mission station. This they did,--but they came armed as for battle, -with war-caps, slings, and spears, fearing lest the irate _Satanus_ (as -they called the idolaters) should attack them. Neither in coming nor -going, however, were they molested. - -"At this time," says Mr. Williams,[54] "a ludicrous circumstance occurred, -which will illustrate the ignorance and superstition of this people. A -favourite cat had been taken on shore by one of the teachers' wives on our -first visit, and not liking his new companions, Tom fled to the mountains. -The house of the priest Tiaki, who had just destroyed his idol, was -situated at a distance from the settlement, and at midnight while he was -lying asleep on his mat, his wife, who was sitting awake by his side -musing upon the strange events of the day, beheld with consternation two -fires glistening in the doorway, and heard with surprise a mysterious -voice. Almost petrified with fear, she awoke her husband, and began to -upbraid him for his folly in burning his god, who, she declared, was now -come to be avenged of them. 'Get up and pray, get up and pray,' she said. -The husband arose, and on opening his eyes beheld the same glaring lights, -and heard the same ominous sound. Impelled by the extreme urgency of the -case, he commenced, with all possible vehemence, vociferating the alphabet -as a prayer to GOD to deliver them from the vengeance of Satan. On hearing -this, the cat, as much alarmed as the priest and his wife, of whose -nocturnal peace he had been the unconscious disturber, ran away, leaving -the poor people congratulating themselves on the efficacy of their -prayer." - -Afterwards, in the course of his wanderings, Puss reached the district of -the _Satanus_; and, as the marae was situated in a sequestered corner, and -overshadowed by the luxuriant foliage of patriarchal trees, the graybeards -of the wood, he was well pleased with the place. In order to keep the best -of company, he took up his abode with the gods; and as he met with no -opposition from within, he little expected any from without. But some few -days after came the priest, accompanied by a number of worshippers, to -present some offerings to the god; on his opening the door, Tom -respectfully welcomed him with a _miaou_. At this unwonted salutation he -rushed back in terror, shouting to his followers: "Here's a monster from -the deep! here's a monster from the deep!" - -Whereupon the whole party hastened home, assembled several hundreds of -their companions, assumed their war-caps, equipped themselves with spear, -club, and sling, blackened their bodies with charcoal, and in all this -pomp and circumstance of Polynesian war, rushed, with yells, cries, and -shouts, to attack poor Puss. He, however, daunted by their grim and -strange array, did not await their approach. The moment the door was open, -a leap and a bound--he was gone! _Abiit, evasit, erupit._ As he darted -through the assembled warriors, they fled precipitately in all directions. - -The religious system of the Samoans, according to Mr. Williams, differed -in essential respects from that which prevailed at the Tahitian, Society, -and other Polynesian groups. They had neither maraes nor temples, nor -altars nor offerings; and consequently none of the barbarous and -sanguinary rites to which we have alluded. They shed no human blood; they -strewed no maraes with the skulls and bones of their victims; they -dedicated no sacred groves to brutal and sensual observances. Hence the -Rarotongans denounced them for their impiety, and "a godless Samoan" was a -proverbial phrase. Yet they were not without their superstitions; they had -lords many and gods many; and their credulity was as marked as that of any -other savage race on whom the light of Christianity and civilisation had -never shone. - -In considering the religion of the Polynesians, there are four points to -be glanced at; 1, their gods; 2, their cultus; 3, their ideas of -immortality; and 4, the means by which they hoped to secure future -happiness. - -1. Their gods consisted of three kinds: their deified ancestors, their -idols, and their etus. - -Some of their ancestors were deified, after the Greek fashion, for the -supposed boons they had conferred upon mankind. For example, it was -believed that the world was formerly in darkness; but that the sun, moon, -and stars were created by one of their progenitors in a manner too absurd -to be described. Also, that the heavens were of old so close to the earth -that men could not walk erect, and were compelled to crawl; until a great -man conceived the idea of elevating them to their present height; which he -effected by the employment of almost Herculean energy. By his first effort -he raised them to the top of a tender plant, called _teve_, about four -feet high. There they remained until he had refreshed and rested himself. -A second effort, and he upheaved them to the height of a tree called -_kanariki_, which is as tall as the sycamore. His third attempt carried -them to the summits of the mountains; and after a long period of repose, -and another tremendous struggle, he raised them to their present altitude, -at which they have ever since remained. This wonderful personage was -appropriately apotheosized; and down to the date of the introduction of -Christianity, was everywhere worshipped as "the Elevator of the Heavens." - -The fisherman had his god; so had the husbandman, the voyager, the -warrior, the thief; mothers dedicated their offspring to one or other of -these numerous Powers, and chiefly to Hero, the god of thieves, and to -Oro, the god of war. "If to the former, the mother, while pregnant, went -to the marae with the requisite offerings, when the priest performed the -ceremony of catching the spirit of the god with the snare previously -described, and infusing it into the child even prior to its birth, that it -might become a clever and desperate thief. Most parents, however, were -anxious that their children should become brave and renowned warriors. -This appears to have been the very summit of a heathen mother's ambition, -and to secure it, numerous ceremonies were performed before the child was -born; and after its birth it was taken to the marae, and formally -dedicated to Oro. The spirit of the god was then caught, and imparted to -the infant, and the ceremony was completed by numerous offerings and -prayers. At New Zealand, stones were thrust down the throat of the babe, -to give it a stony heart, and make it a dauntless and desperate warrior." - -This dedication of the child to the sanguinary war-god points to a -condition of society in which life was verily and indeed a battle, and -every one had to hold his own by right of a strong arm and a reckless -spirit. There was no room for the feeble in such a system; they crawled -aside to die; or were trampled to death in the rush and press of the -crowd. Civilisation has its victims; but assuredly they are few in -comparison to the thousands and tens of thousands destroyed by the -merciless tyranny of Heathenism. Civilisation does at least teach us our -duties towards our neighbours; while Savage Man had little sentiment of -compassion or affection for father or brother, daughter or wife. - -The second class of objects regarded with religious veneration was -_Idols_. In every island and district these were different; but in every -island and district they abounded. Some were large, some small; some -hideous in the extreme, others were almost comely. No fixed pattern -appears to have been before the idol-makers; each man followed his own -fancy. - -The third object of worship was the _Etu_,--that is, some bird, fish, or -reptile, in which the natives believed that a spirit resided. This form of -idolatry was more in vogue in the Samoas than in any other island-group. -Among the Samoans, the objects regarded as _etus_ were, indeed, almost -innumerable, and frequently they were of extraordinary triviality. It was -not unusual to see a chief, in other matters really intelligent, muttering -his prayers to a fly, an ant, or a lizard, if such chanced to crawl or -alight in his presence. - -"On one occasion," says Mr. Williams, "a vessel from New South Wales -touched at the Samoas, the captain of which had on board a cockatoo that -talked. A chief was invited to the ship, and shortly after he entered the -cabin the captain began a colloquy with the bird. At this he was struck -with amazement, trembled exceedingly, and immediately sprang upon deck, -leaped into the sea, and called aloud to the people to follow him, -affirming the captain had his _devolo_ on board, which he had both seen -and heard. Every native dashed at once into the sea, and swam to shore -with haste and consternation; and it was with much difficulty that they -could be induced to revisit the ship, as they believed that the bird was -the captain's _etu_, and that the spirit of the devil was in it." - -Another illustration is given by Mr. Williams:-- - -"While walking," he says, "on one occasion, across a small uninhabited -island, in the vicinity of Tongatabu, I happened to tread upon a nest of -sea snakes. At first I was startled at the circumstance, but being assured -that they were perfectly harmless, I desired a native to kill the largest -of them as a specimen. We then sailed to another island, where a number of -heathen fishermen were preparing their nets. Taking my seat upon a stone -under a tou tree, I desired my people to bring the reptile, and dry it on -the rocks; but as soon as the fishermen saw it, they raised a most -terrific yell, and, seizing their clubs, rushed upon the Christian -natives, shouting: 'You have killed our god, you have killed our god!' I -stepped in between them, and with some difficulty stayed their violence, -on the condition that the reptile should be immediately carried back to -the boat." - -The Polynesian islanders, or most of them, seem to have cherished a -general idea of a Supreme Being, whom they regarded as the Creator of all -things and the Author of their mercies. They called him Tangatoa; and at -their great feasts, before the food was distributed, an orator would -rise, and after enumerating each viand on the board, would say: "Thank you -for this, great Tangatoa!" - -The worship or _cultus_ observed by the islanders included prayers, -offerings of pigs, fish, vegetables, canoes, native cloth, and the like, -and incantations. To these must be added the dread rite of human -sacrifice. Of the style of their addresses to the gods one may form an -idea from the formula with which they were accustomed to conclude it. -Having presented the gift, the priest would say: "Now, if you are a god of -mercy, come this way, and be propitious to our offering; but if you are a -god of anger, go outside the world,--you shall have neither temples, -offerings, nor worshippers here." - -As in other savage countries, they sought to propitiate the gods by -inflicting physical injuries upon themselves. The Sandwich Islanders, in -performing some of their rites, would knock out their front teeth; the -Friendly Islanders would cut off one or two of the bones of their little -fingers. So common was the latter practice, that few were to be found who -had not in this way mutilated their hands. One missionary relates that, on -one occasion, a chief's daughter,--a fine young woman about eighteen years -of age,--was standing by his side, when he observed by the condition of -the wound that she had recently performed the ceremony. Taking her hand, -he asked why she had cut off her finger? There was a touch of pathos in -her reply. Her mother was ill, and fearing lest she should die, she had -mutilated herself in the hope the gods would preserve her life. "Well, and -how did you do it?" "I took a sharp shell, and worked it about until the -joint was separated, and then I allowed the blood to stream from it. This -was my offering to persuade the gods to restore my mother." One cannot -doubt the genuineness of the filial affection which could make such a -sacrifice, though we may wish that it had been more wisely exercised. - -When a second offering was required, the votary severed the second joint -of the same finger. If a third or fourth were demanded, he amputated the -same bones of the other little finger; and when he had no more joints that -he could conveniently spare, he would rub the stumps of his mutilated -fingers with rough stones, until the blood again streamed from the wounds. - -Human sacrifices, as we have said, were very numerous, especially in the -Henry, the Tahitian, and the Society island groups. At the so-called Feast -of Restoration (_Raumatavchi raa_,) no fewer than seven victims were -required. It was always celebrated after an invading army had forced the -inhabitants to retreat to the mountains, and had desecrated the maraes by -cutting down the branches of the sacred trees, and cooking their food with -them, and with the wooden altars and decorations of the sacred place. - -At the inauguration of their greatest kings, the islanders used what was -called _Maro ura_, or the red sash. This was a piece of network, about six -feet long and seven inches wide, upon which the red feathers of the -parroquet were neatly fastened. A chief could receive no more honourable -appellation than that of _Arii maro ura_, "King of the Red Sash." A new -piece, about eighteen inches long, was attached at every sovereign's -inauguration; and on all such occasions several human victims were -required. A sacrifice was made, first for the _mau raa tite_, or the -extension of the network upon pegs, in order to attach to it the new -piece. A second was necessary for the _fatu raa_, or actual attachment; -and a third for the _piu raa_, or twitching the sacred relic off the pegs. -These ceremonies not only invested the sash itself with peculiar -solemnity, but also rendered the chiefs who wore it more important in the -eyes of the people. Well might it be so, when the thing was dyed, as it -were, in innocent human blood. - -Human sacrifices were also offered on the breaking out of war. Mr. -Williams remarks that a correct idea of the extent to which this system is -carried may be obtained from a relation of the circumstances under which -the last Tahitian victim fell, immediately prior to the introduction of -Christianity. Pomare, king of Tahiti, was on the point of fighting a -battle which would assure his supremacy or deprive him of his dominions. -It became to him, therefore, a matter of the highest concern to propitiate -the gods by the most valuable offerings he could command. For this -purpose, rolls of native cloth, pigs, fish, and immense quantities of -other food were presented at the maraes; but the gods (or their priests) -would not be satisfied; a human victim was demanded. Pomare, therefore, -sent two of his messengers to the house of the victim, whom he had marked -for the occasion. On reaching the place they inquired of the wife where -her husband was, and she, in her innocence, gave the required explanation. -"Well," they continued, "we are thirsty; give us some cocoa-nut water." -She had no nuts in the house, she replied, but they were at liberty to -climb the trees, and take as many as they desired. They then requested her -to lend them the _O_,--a piece of ironwood, about four feet long and an -inch and a half in diameter, with which the natives open the cocoa-nut. -She cheerfully consented, little suspecting that she was placing in their -murderous hands the instrument which, in a few moments, was to inflict a -fatal blow on her husband's head. Upon receiving the _O_, the men left the -house, and went in search of their victim; and the woman, her suspicions -being excited, followed them shortly afterwards, reaching the scene just -in time to see the blow inflicted, and her husband fall. - -She rushed forward to take a last embrace, but was immediately seized and -bound hand and foot, while her husband's body was placed in a long basket -made of cocoa-nut leaves, and carried from her sight. The sacrificers were -always exceedingly careful to prevent the wife, or daughter, or any female -relative from touching the corpse; for so polluting were females -considered, that a victim would have been desecrated by a woman's touch or -breath, to such a degree as to have rendered it unfit for an offering to -the gods. - -While the men were bearing their victim to the marae, he recovered from -the stunning effect of the blow, and, bound as he was in the cocoa-nut -leaf basket, said to his murderers: "Friends, I know what you are about to -do with me; you are about to kill me, and offer me as a _tabu_ to your -savage gods; and I also know that it is useless for me to beg for mercy, -for you will not spare my life. You may kill my body, but you cannot hurt -my soul; for I have begun to pray to Jesus, the knowledge of Whom the -missionaries have brought to our island: you may kill my body, but you -cannot hurt my soul." - -This address did not move the compassion of his murderers. Laying their -victim on the ground with a stone under his head, they crushed it to -pieces with another. It appears that he had been selected as a victim -because he had "begun to pray for JESUS;" and it is not unjust, therefore, -to claim for this poor Tahitian savage a place in the noble army of -martyrs. - -"The manner in which human victims were sought," says Williams, "is -strikingly illustrative of many passages of Scripture which portray the -character of heathenism. As soon as the priest announced that such a -sacrifice was required, the king despatched messengers to the chiefs of -the various districts, and upon entering the dwelling they would inquire -whether the chief had a _broken calabash_ at hand, or a _rotten -cocoa-nut_. These and sinister terms were invariably used, and well -understood, when such applications were made. It generally happened that -the chief had some individual on his premises whom he intended to devote -to this horrid purpose. When, therefore, such a request was made, he would -notify, by a motion of the hand or head, the individual to be taken. The -only weapon with which these procurers of sacrifices were armed, was a -small round stone concealed in the hollow of their hand. With this they -would strike their victim a stunning blow upon the back of the head, when -others who were in readiness would rush in and complete the horrid work. -The body was then carried, amid songs and shouts of savage triumph, to the -marae, there to be offered to the gods. At other times, the king's gang of -desperadoes would arm themselves with spears, surround the house of their -victim, and enjoy the sport of spearing him through the apertures between -the poles which encircled the house. In these circumstances, the object of -their savage amusement, frenzied with pain and dread, would rush from one -part of the house to the other; but wherever he ran he found the spear -entering his body; and at length, perceiving no possibility of escape, he -would cover himself in his cloth, throw himself upon the floor, and wait -until a spear should pierce his heart." - -The Polynesian ideas of a future state were sufficiently curious. While -believing in its existence, the natives had no conception of the value and -immortality of the soul, no conception of the Everlasting. According to -the Tahitians, there were two places of existence for separated spirits: -one called _Roohutu noanoa_, or sweet-scented Roohutu, which in many -points resembled the paradise of the Rarotongans; and the other was -_Roohutu namu-namua_, or foul-scented Roohutu, of which it is impossible -to furnish a description. According to the Rarotongans, paradise was a -very long house, surrounded with beautiful shrubs and flowers, unfading, -and of perpetual sweetness; its inmates enjoyed a beauty which never -waned, and a youth which never waxed old, while passing their days, -without weariness, in dancing, merriment, and festivity. This was the -highest idea of Heaven and future blessedness to which they could attain, -and was as materialistic as that of the Mohammedans. - -It was not necessary that a man should live a pure, true, and noble life -to gain admission to the Polynesian paradise, nor was he excluded from it -on account of his sins. In order to pass the departed spirit into elysium, -the corpse was dressed in the best attire the relatives could provide, the -head was wreathed with flowers, and other decorations were added. A pig -was then baked whole, and placed on the deceased's body, surrounded by a -pile of vegetable food. After this, supposing the departed to have been a -son, the father would deliver some such speech as the following:--"My son, -when you were alive I treated you with kindness, and when you were taken -ill I did my best to restore you to health; and now you are dead, there's -your _momoe o_, or property of admission. Go, my son, and with that gain -an entrance into the palace of Tiki, and do not come to this world again -to disturb or alarm us." Body, pig, and food would then be buried; and, if -the kinsman received no contrary intimation within a few days of the -interment, they believed that the offerings had obtained for the departed -the desired admission. But if a cricket were heard on the premises, it was -considered an ill omen, and they would utter the dismalest howls, and such -expressions as the following: "Oh, our brother! his spirit has not entered -the Paradise; he is suffering from hunger, he is shivering with cold!" The -grave would immediately be opened, and the offering repeated,--generally -with success. - -The sacrifices of the Fijians are of a costlier character. The Fijian -chiefs had from twenty to a hundred wives, according to their rank; and at -the interment of a principal chief, the body was laid in state "upon a -spacious lawn," in the presence of a great crowd of interested spectators. -After the natives had exercised all the taste and skill at their command -in adorning her person, the principal wife would walk out and take her -seat near her husband's body. A rope was passed round her neck; eight or -ten powerful men pulled at it with all their strength until she died of -suffocation; and the body was then laid by that of the chief. This done, a -second wife seated herself in the same place; the process of strangulation -was repeated, and she, too, died. A third and a fourth became voluntary -sacrifices in the same manner; and all were interred in a common grave, -one above, one below, and one on either side of the husband. The motive of -this barbarous practice was said to be, that the spirit of the chief might -not be lonely in its passage to the invisible world, and that by such an -offering its happiness might be at once secured.[55] - - * * * * * - -The Earl of Pembroke, in his light, gossipy book entitled, "South Sea -Bubbles," describes a visit which he paid to one of the old sacrificial -_maraes_, or inclosures, in the island of Raiatea. - -"Strange places they were," he says; "built of enormous slabs of rock or -coral, arranged in an oblong shape, and the space inside them filled with -shingle and coral, so as to form a platform about eight feet high. I think -the largest was about fifty yards long; we scrambled up on to it by help -of a tree, and stood on the spot stained with so much blood shed in the -_name_ of religion. What horrible stories those stones could tell if they -could speak!... - -"What made the human sacrifices of the Society Islands so strangely -ghastly and horrible, was the fact that the wretched victim was always -chosen from one of certain families, set apart for that special purpose -for generation after generation for ever. How this caste originated I do -not know. Many of these families used to put to sea secretly in canoes, -preferring an almost certain death by drowning or starvation to the -terribly uncertain fate that was always hanging over their heads. - -"When a man came to the priests to beg some heavenly, or rather infernal, -favour, they would tell him, either from whim, malice, or some reason best -known to themselves, that the god required a human sacrifice, and naming -the victim, present the supplicant with the death-warrant in the shape of -a sacred stone. He hides this carefully somewhere about him, and -collecting a few friends, seeks out the doomed man. At last they find him -sitting lazily under a tree or mending his canoe, and squatting down round -him begin talking about the weather, fishing, or what not. Suddenly a hand -is opened--the death stone discovered to his horrified view. He starts up -terror-stricken, and tries to escape--one short, furious struggle and he -is knocked down, secured, and carried off to the merciless priests. Ugh! -it is an ugly picture."[56] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -_THE FIJI ISLANDERS._ - - -The annexation of the Fiji Islands to the British empire lends to the -practices and beliefs of their inhabitants a peculiar interest, though to -a great extent these have been abandoned since the establishment of -Christianity. - -Their creed is undiluted polytheism; their pantheon is full of all kinds -of gods, differing in rank and power, and very widely represented on earth -by some animate or inanimate object. Each Fijian has a god of his own, -under whose care he supposes himself to be placed. They do not seem to -have any religious teaching; but they have a priesthood, and that -priesthood has, of course, its traditional formulas of worship. But -nothing like regular worship, as Christians understand the phrase, is -accepted or observed, and the Fijian religion is really a superstition, -because its sole inspiring motive is fear. This motive the priests -carefully develope, making it the basis of their claims and the source of -their influence. - -No man can gain access to the gods except through the priests; and the -priests insist upon liberal offerings. When the worshipper comes upon -questions of importance, the _Soro_ or sacrifice consists of whales' teeth -and large quantities of food. For matters of inferior moment, the god is -content with a mat, a club, a spear, or a tooth, or even young nuts coated -with turmeric powder. On one occasion, when the chief Tuikilakila -solicited the help of the Somo-somo gods in war, he built a large new -temple to the war-god, and presented a quantity of cooked food, numerous -turtles, and whales' teeth. - -Part of the offering, or _sogaria_, is set apart for the god, and the rest -forms a feast to which everybody is invited. The god's portion, as the -reader will immediately conclude, is eaten by the priest and old men, but -to the younger members of the community is strictly _tapu_. - -Strangers who desire to consult a god begin by cutting a pile of firewood -for the table. Sometimes only a whale's tooth and a dish of yams are -presented. It is not necessary that the offering should be made in the -temple. Mr. Williams speaks of priests to whom the inspiration came in a -private house or in the open air. - -He who designs to consult the oracle dresses and anoints himself, and, -attended by his friends, goes to the priest, who, we will suppose, has -been previously informed of the intended visit, and is lying near the -sacred corner, preparing his response. When the votary arrives, the priest -rises and sits so that his back is near the white cloth by which the god -visits him, while the others occupy the opposite side. The votary presents -a whale's tooth, states the object of his visit, and expresses a hope that -the god will regard him with favour. Sometimes in front of the tooth is -placed a dish of scented oil, with which the priest anoints himself, and -then receives the tooth, eyeing it with deep and serious attention. - -Unbroken silence follows. The priest, says Mr. Williams, grows absorbed in -thought, and all gaze upon him with unwavering steadfastness. In a few -minutes he trembles; his face appears slightly distorted, and twitching -movements are seen in his limbs. These increase to a violent muscular -action, which spreads until the whole frame is strongly convulsed, and the -man shivers as with an ague fit. In some islands, adds Mr. Williams, this -is accompanied with sobs and murmurs, the veins expand, and the -circulation of the blood is quickened. - -The priest is now possessed by his god, and all his words and actions are -henceforth considered as the god's and not his own. Shrill cries of "Koi -au! Koi au!" (It is I! It is I!) fill the air, and are supposed to -indicate the deity's approach. While delivering the oracle, the priest's -eyes stand out and roll, as if a frenzy had seized him; his voice is -unnatural and his face pallid; his lips turn white; his breathing is -laboured; and his whole appearance resembles that of "a furious madman." -The perspiration streams from every pore; the tears start from his -strained eyes. But by degrees the symptoms disappear, and the priest -stares around with purposeless gaze. Then as the god says "I depart," he -throws himself down violently on the mat, or suddenly beats the ground -with a club; whereupon those at a distance are informed by blasts on the -conch, or the discharge of a musket, that the deity has returned into the -world of spirits. - -It would be a mistake to conclude that in these scenes the priest-actor is -always a conscious impostor; he is frequently the victim of his own -imagination, which he stimulates into an excess of frenzy. - -The Fijians conceive that the way to Buruto, or Heaven, is impeded by many -difficulties, except for the great chiefs, and that, therefore, the only -certain plan for a man of inferior rank is to impose upon the god with a -lie,--declaring himself to be a chief with so much earnestness that the -god believes him, and allows him to pass! Probably in no other creed is -admission to heaven made to depend upon a lie! With his war club and a -whale's tooth on his shoulder, the spirit journeys to the world's end. -There grows the sacred pine, at which the spirit hurls his whale's tooth. -If he miss the mark, his journey comes to an abrupt termination; if he hit -it, he travels onward until he reaches the spot where the spirits of the -women murdered at his death await his arrival. - -With these faithful attendants he goes forward, but is opposed by a god -called Ravuyalo, against whom he employs his club. If he be defeated, the -god kills and eats him; if he conquer, he again goes forward until he -falls in with a canoe. Embarking, he is conveyed to the celestial heights -where dwells the supreme god, Ndengei. Over the brink of the cliff -stretches the long-steering oar of the god's canoe. He is asked his name -and rank, and to this inquiry he replies with a detailed and very -imaginative recital of his greatness and opulence, the heroic deeds he has -achieved, the devastation he has effected, and the realms over which he -has ruled. He is then commanded to seat himself on the blade of the oar, -and, if his story have met with credence, he is borne aloft into Buruto; -if Ndengei disbelieves it, the oar is tilted up, and he is hurled down for -ever into the watery depths of blackness. - -Bachelors are not admitted into Buruto, because as we have stated, the -spirit waits for his wives, to prove that he is married. And if an -unmarried man venture on the journey, a goddess called the Great Woman, -throws herself in his way. She bears towards bachelors an implacable -hatred, and no sooner sees one than she springs upon him and tears him to -pieces. In her haste she sometimes misses him; but even then he has to -contend against another god, who conceals himself by the side of the path, -and as the bachelor spirit passes by, leaps upon him, and dashes him -against a stone. - -There is a ghastliness about the funeral ceremonies of the Fijians which -far surpasses even the dreary desolation of those in vogue among -ourselves. - -In common with several other savage tribes they hold that men and women -who have grown decrepit and infirm have lived their lives, and should -withdraw from this world of activity. Accordingly though they may be -neither dead nor dying, preparations are made for their interment. And it -seems that the moribund themselves do not object to this summary -anticipation of the moment of dissolution; on the contrary, when they -become sensible of infirmity, they invite their sons to strangle them. -While the sons, far from objecting to an act of parricide, will intimate -to their aged parents, if they delay the request, that they have lived -long enough, and that it will be well for them to enjoy the rest of the -grave. On both sides this singular conduct is due apparently to the Fijian -belief that the condition of the spirit in the next world will exactly -resemble that of the individual in this; and consequently everybody is -desirous to cross the threshold while he retains some degree of activity -of body. - -Alone we must die, but we need not pass alone into the spirit-world! Such -is the conviction of the Fijians, and accordingly they provide a dead -chief with attendants, by strangling at his grave his favourite wives. And -they slay a valiant warrior that he may precede him on his journey, and do -battle for him with all evil spirits or demons. These victims are called -"grass," and lie at the bottom of the chieftain's grave; the wives decked -out in fleecy folds of the softest masi, the servants with their various -implements in their hands, and the warrior equipped for the strife, with -his favourite club by his side. No resistance is offered by any one of the -sufferers; no attempt is made to escape; all seem to contend for the -honour of escorting their chief into the other world. - -Mr. Williams was present at the funeral of the King of Somo-somo in -August, 1845. Age was beginning to tell upon him, but there was no -immediately dangerous symptom, and on the 21st, when Mr. Williams visited -him, he was better than he had been for two or three days before. Judge, -then, of the missionary's surprise, when, on the 24th, he was informed -that the king was dead, and that preparations were being made for his -interment, he could scarcely believe the report. The ominous word -"preparations" induced him to hasten at once to the scene of action, but -his utmost speed failed to bring him to Nasima, the king's house, in time. -The moment he entered it was evident that, as far as concerned two of the -women, he was too late to save their lives. The effect of that ghastly -scene was overwhelming. Scores of deliberate murderers in the very act -surrounded him; yet was there no confusion, and the unearthly horrid -stillness was broken only by an occasional word from him who presided. -Nature seemed to lend her aid to enhance the impression of horror; there -was not a breath in the air, and the half subdued light in that hall of -death revealed every object with unusual distinctness. - -"All was motionless as sculpture, and"--writes Mr. Williams--"a strange -feeling came upon me, as though I was myself becoming a statue. To speak -was impossible; I was unconscious that I breathed; and involuntarily, or -rather against my will, I sank to the floor, assuming the cowering posture -of those who were actually engaged in murder. My arrival was during a -hush, just at the crisis of death, and to that strange silence must be -attributed my emotions; and I was but too familiar with murders of this -kind, neither was there anything novel in the apparatus employed. -Occupying the centre of that large room were two groups, the business of -whom could not be mistaken. - -"All sat on the floor; the middle figure of each group being held in a -sitting posture by several females, and hidden by a large veil. On either -side of each veiled figure was a company of eight or ten strong men, one -company hauling against the other a white cord which was passed twice -round the neck of the doomed one, who thus in a few minutes ceased to -live. As my self-command was returning to me the group furthest from me -began to move; the men slackened their hold, and the attendant women -removed the large covering, making it into a couch for the victim." - -Mr. Williams now repaired to the hut of the deceased king, to intercede -with his successor on behalf of the other intended victims. Judge of his -surprise and horror to find the king still alive. He was very feeble, it -was true, but he retained complete consciousness, and occasionally put his -hand to his side as his cough shook and tortured him. The young king -seemed overcome with grief, and embracing Mr. Williams, said: "See, the -father of us two is dead." He regarded his father's movements, even his -speaking and taking food, as mechanical; in his view, the spirit had -departed, and nothing remained but an infirm, and, therefore, valueless -body. The preparations for the funeral were not interrupted, and Mr. -Williams could obtain no hearing for his expostulations. The young chief's -principal wife and an attendant busily dusted his body with black powder, -as if dressing him for the war-dance; and bound his arms and legs with -long rolls of white masi, tied in rosettes, with the ends streaming on the -ground. He was attired in a new masi robe, which fell about him in ample -folds; his head was decorated with a scarlet handkerchief, arranged -turban-wise, and ornamented with white cowrie-shells, strings of which -flashed on his dusky arms; while round his neck depended an ivory -necklace, composed of long curved claw-like pieces of whale's teeth. - -At the sound of a couple of conch-shells the chiefs present did homage, so -to speak, to their new king, who was still deeply affected, and gazing on -the body of one of the murdered women, his father's eldest and most loving -wife, exclaimed: "Alas, Moalivu! There lies a woman truly unwearied, not -only in the day but the night also; the fire consumed the fuel gathered by -her hands. If we awoke in the still night, the sound of her feet reached -our ears, and if harshly spoken to, she continued to labour only. -Moalivu! alas, Moalivu!" - -The bodies of the victims were then wrapped up in mats, placed on a bier, -and carried out of the door; but the old king was borne through a gap -purposely made in the wall of the house. On arriving at the seaside, they -were deposited in a canoe, the old king reclining on the deck, attended by -his wife and the chief priest, who fanned away the insects. The place of -sepulture was at Weilangi. There, in a grave lined with mats, were laid as -"grass" the murdered women. Upon them was stretched the dying king, who -was stripped of his regal ornaments, and completely enveloped in mats. -Lastly, the earth was heaped over him, though he was still alive. At the -end of the ceremony the new king returned to his "palace," not unmindful -of the fact that in the course of time a similar fate awaited himself. - - * * * * * - -Since the annexation of the Fiji Islands, such a scene as this has, of -course, become impossible. Cannibalism, to which the Fijians were largely -addicted, has also, been prohibited. Lord George Campbell, in his "Log of -the Challenger," written in 1876, says that those who lived in the -interior still cherished cannibalistic tendencies, and he seems to have -been of opinion that cannibalism prevailed in those parts to which -missionaries or civilisation had not yet penetrated. But under the firm -rule of Sir Arthur Gordon it was doubtless extirpated. - -Even in Lord George Campbell's time the change effected by the sacred -influence of Christianity had been "great indeed." A party of English -officers made a boat-excursion to the large island of Bau, where the king -lived. They found him dressed in a waist-cloth, lying on his face in a -hut, reading the Bible. Not far distant were the great stones against -which they used to kill the sacrificial victims, battering their heads -against them till dead. There too they saw a great religious "maki-maki," -hundreds of men and women dancing, and singing New Testament verses before -Wesleyan missionaries, who, sitting at a table, received the -money-offerings of their converts as they defiled before them dancing and -singing. - -We have sketched a hideous scene belonging to the past, and associated -with the darkest superstitions of the Fijians. We shall adapt from Lord -George Campbell a more pleasing picture, in which the past mingles with -the present, and the old and the new are not unhappily blended. - -The chronicler of the cruise of the "Challenger" was witness of a native -dance or "maki-maki," given at Kandavu in honour of the English officers. -When he landed the first "set" had already begun, and torches, consisting -of bundles of palm branches tied together, threw a lurid light over the -savage scene. On a strip of grass in front of the huts were gathered the -dancers, and close around grouped picturesquely on the top of great piles -of cocoa-nuts, or squatting on the ground, were the natives of Kandavu and -the neighbouring villages, officiating as critics, but prepared in their -turn to take part in the wild revelry. - -"Glorious Rembrandt effects, as the torches' flames leapt and fell in the -still night air, bathing with ruddy glow that strange scene around,--the -semi-nude dusky natives chattering, laughing, glistening eyes and white -gleaming teeth, on the reed-built huts, on the foliage above, and flushing -redly up the white trunks of the cocoa-palms. Round a standing group of -tawny-hued boys and girls who formed the band, some two dozen men, dressed -in fantastic manner, their faces blackened, and skins shiny with cocoa-nut -oil, were dancing. Wound round their waists they wore great rolls of -tappa, or white cloth, falling nearly to the knees, and over these, belts -fringed with long narrow streamers of brightly coloured stuff--red, -yellow, and white, surging and rustling with every movement; on their -heads turbans of finely-beaten tappa, transparent and gauzy, piled high in -a peak; gaiters of long black seaweed or grass, strung with white beads; -anklets and armlets of large bone rings, or of beads worked in patterns; -tortoiseshell bracelets and bead necklaces, from which hung in front one -great curled boar's tusk. Some are dressed better than others, but all in -the same wild style. Moving slowly in a circle round and round the band, -whose clapping and rollicking strain they accompanied by a loud droning -kind of chant, at the end of each stave chiming in with the band with a -simultaneous shout, a sudden swaying of the body, a loud hollow clap of -the hands, once or twice repeated, and a heavy stamp, stamp of the feet; -a moment's halt and silence, broken plaintively by one of the singers, -quickly taken up by the remainder to a clapping, rattling, and vowely -measure, and again the dancers circle slowly round, swinging their arms -and bodies, clapping, shouting, and droning in faultless time together." - -The first dances were dances of peace; pantomimic representations of the -chief pursuits of a Fijian's life, as, for instance, fishermen hauling in -their lines, or the tillers of the field planting tare and gathering in -their crops. - -Next came the war dances, which reproduced the incidents of the past, -incidents never likely to be repeated under British rule. A solitary -singer began the strain, and the others gradually joined in,--clappingly, -jinglingly, bubblingly, slightly nasally, a strange ring audible -throughout, and not less audible the stirring boom of a bamboo drum. -Suddenly, from out the surrounding gloom, against which in strong contrast -stood the white stems of the cocoa-trees, and into the red light of the -torches, merged slowly one after another, in Indian file, a string of -"mad, savage-looking devils." Crouching and bounding, now backwards, now -forwards, from side to side, they gradually approached. Their hands -carried great clubs, the tips of which were decked with white plumes of -silvery "reva-reva," flashing whitely as they were whirled around; their -fantastic finery rustling loudly with every wild movement, eyeballs -glaring out from blackened faces, their motions sudden and simultaneous, -their splendid stalwart forms swelling with muscles and shining with -oil,--they looked "awfully savage and fine;" and to a captive bound and -about to be eaten, one would imagine well that the whole performance would -be thoroughly enjoyable. - -"Now stealthily working their arms and clubs, as if feeling their victim, -then with a shout bounding forward, brandishing aloft their clubs, -suddenly, as if struck by some unseen hand, falling to the ground on -bended knee, swaying first to the right, then to the left, and bringing -their clubs down with an ominous thud; again leaping up, bounding back, -from side to side, then to the right-about, and all over the place; it is -impossible for me to attempt describing them, so I won't. They were, I -suppose, braining enemies by the dozen, and as they worked themselves -into mad excitement, so the more they bounded, smashed their enemies' -heads, and were happy. Their drilling was admirable; standing in line with -the string, every club whirled as one, every bound and frantic motion went -together, and we are told they make fine soldiers, as far as drill is -concerned, from this idea of time that they have. In their dances they -were led by a small boy--a chief's son, this function being their -prerogative,--a lithe tawny little savage, with a great mop of frizzled -yellow hair, and his face dabbed with charcoal. In his hands he carried an -enormous palm-leaf fan, with which he directed the dancers. Going through -all the movements of the dance, he at the same time careered over the -ground, now shouting loud words of command to the singers, and now to the -dancers, yards away on their flanks. He was simply splendid, flying about -like a demented demon, here, there, and everywhere, the dancers, whether -their backs were turned or not, all keeping exact time with him. As these -men appeared, so, slowly, still bounding voicelessly, terrifically about, -and whirling their clubs, they vanished into the darkness." - -Out of darkness cometh light, and a future, irradiated by the light of -Christianity, succeeds to the ghastly past of Fiji, with all its cruel and -odious superstitions. - - -NOTE ON THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. - -_Exorcism._ - -When Captain Moresby, of H.M.S. Basilisk, visited Shepherd Isle, near the -Torres group, he found himself compelled to submit to a curious process of -exorcism before he was permitted to land. - -A "devil-man," fantastically painted, and adorned with leaves and flowers, -waded out to meet his boat, waving a bunch of palm leaves round his head, -and as the captain jumped on shore, the devil-man rushed at him, and -grasping his right hand, waved the palms round his head in the same -manner. It was evident that he meant no harm, and the captain therefore -offered no resistance. He placed the leaves in the captain's right hand -and a small twig in his own mouth, and then, as if with a great effort, -drew out the twig,--which was supposed to extract the evil spirit,--and -blew violently, as if to hurry it away. Afterwards the captain held a twig -between _his_ teeth, and the devil-man repeated the process, all the while -showing signs of strong excitement. - -"He led me then," says Captain Moresby, "to the edge of the bush, and I -began to feel rather reluctant, and doubtful as to how all was going to -end, but thought I had better see it out. Here two sticks, ornamented with -leaves, were fixed in the ground, and bent to an angle at the top, with -leaves tied to the point, and round these sticks the devil-man and I raced -in breathless circles till I was perfectly dizzy. He, however, did not -seem to mind it at all, and presently flew off with me up a steep path -into the bush, where at a short distance we came to two smaller sticks -crossed; here he dropped my hand, and taking the bunch of palm leaves from -me, waved them, and sprang over the sticks and back again. Then placing -both his hands on my shoulders, he leaped with extraordinary agility, -bringing his knees to the level of my face at each bound, as if to show -that he had conquered the devil, and was now trampling him into the earth. -When he had leaped for awhile, he made signs that all was over, and we -walked back together to the officers, who had been rather anxiously -watching these singular proceedings. The natives, who had kept quietly -aloof, now came freely about us, and showed by their manner that they -considered us free of the island." - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -_THE RELIGION OF THE MAORIES._ - - -We meet in New Zealand with that curious system of "taboo" or "tapu" which -prevails throughout the greater part of the Polynesian Archipelago; a -system evidently conceived in the interest of the priesthood, and forming, -to a great extent, the basis of its power. - -We meet also with a recognition of the two Principles of Good and Evil, -whose antagonism colours the creed of almost every race. - -The Good Spirit of the Maories is called Atua; the Evil Spirit, Wairua. -All evil spirits, or all the objects representing them, are known as -Wairuas, and all the emblems or types of the Good Spirit as Atuas; but -there is one supreme Goodness, one great and overruling God, to which the -name of Atua is also applied. - -According to Mr. Angas, the _Kakariki_, or green lizard, is specially -venerated as an Atua. On one occasion, during the early days of Christian -mission work in New Zealand, a missionary was examining a phial of green -lizards, and a Maori entering the room, the missionary showed it to him. -Whereupon the Maori immediately exhibited all the signs of extreme terror, -and exclaiming, "I shall die! I shall die!" proceeded to crawl away on his -hands and knees. Any novel object, any object beyond the intelligence of -the Maories, they convert into an Atua. Thus, a barometer is an Atua, -because it indicates changes of weather; a compass, because it points to -the north; a watch, because it mysteriously records the progress of time. -Not to these typical atuas, however, does the Maori render the homage of -prayer and praise; this he reserves for the supreme and unseen Atua, and -offers through the agency of his priests or tohungas. It is to be feared -that these prayers are often unintelligible to those on whose behalf they -are offered, but the Maories do not the less heartily believe in them; -and, indeed, the history of religion all over the world presents -innumerable illustrations of the fact that faith is not incompatible with -ignorance. It is the very essence and secret of Superstition. Whether they -understand the prayers of the tohungas or not, they delight in their -frequent repetition, and insist upon their use in almost every -circumstance of life. They are generally accompanied by offerings of -animal and vegetable food, which, of course, become the perquisites of the -tohungas. - -The Maori priesthood is hereditary, father transmits his office to son, -after carefully educating him in its duties. Dr. Dieffenbach was present -when an aged tohunga was giving a lesson to a neophyte. The old priest, he -says, was sitting under a tree, with part of a man's skull, filled with -water, by his side. At intervals he dipped a green branch into the water, -and sprinkled the hand of a boy, who reclined at his feet, and listened -attentively to his recital of a long string of words. Dr. Dieffenbach -doubts the common statement that the prayers are often without meaning, -while agreeing that they are unintelligible to the majority of the -worshippers. He thinks they are couched in a language now forgotten; or, -what is more probable, that among the Maories as among many of the nations -of antiquity, the religious mysteries are carefully confined to a certain -class of men, who conceal them from the _profanum vulgus_, or reveal only -such portions as they think proper. The claims of the exponents of an -artificial creed must necessarily depend in a great degree upon the amount -of mystery in which they involve it. With the common people familiarity -breeds contempt; they venerate that only which they do not understand; it -is darkness and not light which moves their wonder, and excites their awe. - -Devoid as it is of elevated attributes, the religion of the Maori rises -above some of the Polynesian creeds in its acknowledgment of the -immortality of man, though on this point its teaching is very vague. - -The Maori believes that, after death, his soul enters the Reinga, or abode -of departed spirits; and, with an unwonted touch of poetry, he looks upon -shooting and falling stars as souls passing swiftly to this undiscovered -bourne; the entrance to which he supposes to lie beneath a precipice at -Cape Maria Van Diemen. The spirits in falling are supposed to rest -momentarily, in order to break the descent, against an ancient tree, which -grows about half way down. The natives were wont to indicate a particular -branch as being the halting-place of the spirits; but a missionary having -cut it off, the tree has of late diminished in sanctity. - -The entrance to the Reinga is not accomplished by all spirits in the same -manner. Those of the chiefs ascend in the first place to the upper -heavens, where each chief leaves his left eye, this left eye becoming a -new star. Hence the custom in Maori warfare for the victor to eat the left -eye of a chief slain in battle, in the conviction that by this process he -absorbed into his own system the skill, sagacity, and courage of the -departed. - -It is humiliating, perhaps, to record these illustrations of human folly; -but they are valuable as proofs of the depths to which Humanity descends -when unaided by the elevating influence of revealed religion. - -According to the Maories, the soul is not confined absolutely within the -limits of the Reinga, but may at its will revisit "the glimpses of the -moon," and converse with its former friends and kinsmen,--of course, only -through the medium of the tohungas. The latter are sometimes favoured with -a view of the spiritual visitor, who takes the form of a sunbeam or a -shadow, and speaks with a low whistling voice, like the sound of a light -air passing through trees. This voice is occasionally heard by the -uninitiated, but the language it speaks can be comprehended by none but -the tohungas. - - * * * * * - -Respecting the wairuas, it is difficult to gather any satisfactory -information. The word "wairua" means either "a dream," or "the soul," and -Dr. Dieffenbach says it is chiefly used to signify the spirit of some -dead man or woman who is supposed to cherish a malignant feeling towards -the living. The wairuas frequent certain localities, such as -mountain-tops, which the Maori consequently takes good care not to visit. - - * * * * * - -It is a necessary result of the Maori belief in atuas and wairuas that -these should foster a belief in witchcraft. Individuals of bolder and -stronger minds than the majority will always claim a special relationship -to the unseen Powers, and avail themselves of this pretended relationship -to work upon the popular imagination. Convince the ignorant of the -existence of evil deities, and he will listen readily to any who tell him -that they can shield him from their malignant influence. And then it -naturally follows, "as the night the day," that all misfortunes arising -from unseen or unintelligible causes, will be attributed to witchcraft. A -vast--an almost boundless field is thus opened up to the practice of human -unscrupulousness and the weakness of human incredulity. - -Let a Maori chief lose some valued article, or suffer from an attack of -illness, and he immediately concludes that he has been bewitched. Who has -bewitched him? He fixes, as a matter of course, on the individual whom he -conceives to be his enemy, and orders him to be put to death. Or he -resorts to some potent witch, and bribes her to exercise her influence to -remove the maleficent spell under which he is labouring. - -According to Dr. Dieffenbach, the particular haunt of the witches is--or -rather _was_, for Christianity has rapidly extended its blessed power over -the population of New Zealand--a place called Urewera, in the North -Island, between Hawkes Bay and Taupo. The natives of this wild and -deserted district are reported to be the greatest witches in the country; -are much feared and studiously avoided by the neighbouring tribes. When -they come down to the coast, the natives there are almost afraid to oppose -their most extravagant demands, lest they should incur their displeasure. -It is said that they use the saliva of the people they design to bewitch, -and, therefore, visitors carefully conceal it, so as to deprive them of -the opportunity of working mischief. Yet, like the witches and sorcerers -of mediaeval England, they appear to be more sinned against than sinning, -and by no means to deserve the ill reputation which attaches to them. - -It is a curious fact, says Dr. Dieffenbach, which has been noticed in -Tahiti, Hawaii, and the Polynesian islands generally, that the first -intercourse of their inhabitants with Europeans produces civil war and -social degradation, but that a change of ideas is rapidly effected, and -the most ancient and apparently inveterate prejudices soon become a -subject of ridicule, and are swept away. The grey priest, or tohunga, -skilled in all the mysteries of witchcraft and native medical treatment, -readily yields in his attendance on the sick to every European who -possesses, or affects to possess, a knowledge of the science of surgery or -medicine, and laughs at the former credulity of his patient. It is evident -that, while deceiving others, he never deceived himself, and was well -aware of the futility of his pretended remedies. - -When a New Zealand chief or his wife fell sick, the most influential -tohunga, or some woman enjoying a special odour of sanctity, was instantly -called in, and waited night and day upon the patient, sometimes repeating -incantations over him, and sometimes sitting in front of the house, and -praying. The following is the incantation which the priests profess to be -a cure for headache. The officiant pulls out two stalks of the _Pteris -esculenta_, from which the fibres of the root must be removed, and beating -them together over the patient's head, says this chant. It is entitled, "A -prayer for the sick man, when his head aches: to Atua this prayer is -offered, that the sick man may become well." - -On the occasion of a chiefs illness, all his kith and kin gather around -his house, and give way to the loudest lamentations, in which the invalid -is careful to join. When the weeping and wailing capacities of one village -have been exhausted he is carried to another, and the process is repeated. -But in New Zealand, as elsewhere, the common lot cannot be averted by -sorrowing humanity; the sick man dies; and then all that remains to the -survivors is to show their respect and regret by such funeral pomp as they -are able to devise. They assemble round the dead body, after it has been -equipped in its bravest attire, and indulge in the most violent -demonstrations of grief,--partly feigned, no doubt, but partly sincere. -This luxury of woe, however, is chiefly accorded to the women, who display -that extravagance of passion we are accustomed to regard as characteristic -of the Southern nations. They throw themselves upon the ground, wrap their -faces and bodies in their mantles, shriek and sob aloud, wave their arms -frantically in the air, and finally gash and scar their skin with long, -deep cuts, which they fill in with charcoal until they become indelible -records of the loss they have sustained. Funeral orations, full of the -most vehement eulogies, and interrupted by complaints and reproaches -against the dead man for his unkindness in going away from them, are -incessantly delivered. These ceremonies completed, they place the corpse -in a kind of coffin, along with various emblems of the rank of the -departed, and leave it to decay. - -The process of decomposition is completed in about seven or eight months; -the ceremony of the _hahunga_ then takes place. The friends and relatives -assemble; the bones are removed from the coffin, and cleaned; a supply of -provisions is passed around; a new series of funeral panegyric is spoken; -and the _tiki_, _merai_, and other symbols of the departed chieftain's -headship are handed over to his eldest son, who is thus invested with his -father's power and privileges. - -The place where the dead body lies while undergoing decomposition, the -waki-tapu, as it is called, is frequently distinguished by peculiar signs, -and the neighbourhood left uninhabited. Mr. Angas describes a visit which -he paid to the village of Huriwonua. Its chief had died about six weeks -before the visit, and Mr. Angas, on arriving there, found it entirely -deserted. "From the moment the chief was laid beneath the upright canoe, -on which were inscribed his name and rank, the whole village, he says, -became strictly tapu, or sacred, and not a native, on pain of death, was -permitted to trespass near the spot. The houses were all fastened up, and -on most of the doors were inscriptions denoting that the property of such -an one remained there. An utter silence pervaded the place. After -ascertaining," says Mr. Angas, "that no natives were in the vicinity of -the forbidden spot, I landed, and trod the sacred ground; and my footsteps -were probably the first, since the desertion of the village, that had -echoed along its palisaded passages. - -"On arriving at the tomb, I was struck with the contrast between the -monument of the savage and that of the civilised European. In the erection -of the latter, marble and stone and the most durable of metals are -employed, while rapidly-decaying wood, red ochre, and feathers form the -decorations of the Maori tomb. Huriwonua having been buried only six -weeks, the ornaments of the _waki-tapu_, or sacred place, as those -erections are called, were fresh and uninjured. The central upright canoe -was thickly painted with black and red, and at the top was written the -name of the chief; above which there hung in clusters bunches of _kaka_ -feathers, forming a large mass at the summit of the canoe. A double fence -of high palings, also painted red, and ornamented with devices in -arabesque work, extended round the grave, and at every fastening of flax, -when the horizontal rails were attached to the upright fencing, were stuck -two feathers of the albatross, the snowy whiteness of which contrasted -beautifully with the sombre black and red of the remainder of the -monument." - -We have entered at some length into an explanation of the system of Tapu, -or Taboo, in our remarks on the religion of the Polynesians. It prevails, -as we have already stated, in New Zealand; and though its disadvantages -are many, and it is capable of great abuse, it serves nevertheless as a -substitute for law, and to a large extent protects both life and property. -For, supported and enforced as it is by the superstitious feelings of the -people, it erects an insuperable barrier between possession and -acquisition; it plays the part of a social police; it maintains the moral -standard; it shields the feeble from the oppression of the strong. A man -quits his dwelling for his day's work: he places the tapu mark on his -door, and thenceforward his dwelling is inviolate. Or he selects a tree -which will fashion into a good canoe; he distinguishes it with the tapu -mark, and it becomes his own. Civilisation has designed no more effectual -protection. - -But like all restrictive and prohibitive systems, it is easily pushed to -an inconvenient excess, and made an instrument of extortion or oppression -in the hands of the chief or priest. It is much in favour, says Mr. -Williams, among the chiefs, who adjust it so that it sits easily on -themselves, while they use it to gain influence over those who are nearly -their equals; by means of it they supply their most important wants, and -command at will all who are beneath them. If any object touch a chief's -garment it becomes tapu; so, too, if a drop of his blood fall upon it; -and, more particularly, it consecrates his head. To mention or refer to a -chief's head is an insult. Mr. Angas says that a friend of his, in -conversing with a Maori chief about his crops, inadvertently said: "Oh, I -have some apples in my garden as large as that little boy's head!" -pointing at the same time to the chief's son. This reference was felt and -resented as a deadly insult, and it was only with the greatest difficulty -that the incautious speaker obtained forgiveness. So very much _tapu_ is a -chiefs head that, should he touch it with his own fingers, he must touch -nothing else until he has applied the hand to his nostrils and smelt it, -and thus restored to the head the virtue that departed from it when first -touched. The hair is likewise sacred; it is cut by one of his wives, who -receives every particle in a cloth, and buries it in the ground. The -operation renders _her_ tapu, for a week, during which time she is not -allowed to make use of her hands. - -The carved image of a chief's head is not less sacred than the head -itself. Dr. Dieffenbach says: "In one of the houses of Te Puai, the head -chief of all the Waikato, I saw a bust, made by himself, with all the -serpentine lines of the aroko, or tattooing. I asked him to give it to me, -but it was only after much pressing that he parted with it. I had to go to -his house to fetch it myself, as none of his tribe could legally touch it, -and he licked it all over before he gave it to me; whether to take the -tapu off, or whether to make it more strictly sacred, I do not know. He -particularly engaged me not to put it into the provision-bag, nor to let -the natives see it at Rotu-rua, whither I was going, or he would certainly -die in consequence." - - * * * * * - -Cannibalism is now extinct in New Zealand, having been crushed out by the -strong arm of British authority, and the ever-increasing influence of -British civilisation. But it was hard to die, and lingered down to a very -recent date. As practised by the Maories, it lost few of its repulsive -features. We must admit, however, that they did not indulge in it from a -craving after human flesh, nor in time of peace, but after battles, from a -belief that he who ate the flesh or blood, or even the left eye, of a -slain warrior assimilated in his system all his martial and manly -qualities. When the fight was at an end, the dead bodies were collected, -and with much rejoicing carried into the villages, where they were roasted -in the cook-houses, and duly eaten. But, first, the tohunga cut off a -portion of the flesh, and with certain incantations and mystic gestures, -suspended it upon a tree or pole, as an offering to the gods. - -Mr. Angas describes one of the cooking-houses set apart for this horrid -orgy. It was erected by a Maori chief in the Waitahanui Pah; and when -visited by Mr. Angas, had happily ceased for some time to be used. The Pah -stands on a low swampy peninsula, which is washed on one side by the river -Waikato and on the other by the Taupo Lake. "The long facade of the Pah -presents an imposing appearance when viewed from the lake; a line of -fortifications, composed of upright poles and stakes, extending for at -least half a mile in a direction parallel to the water. On the top of many -of the posts are carved figures, much larger than life, of men in the act -of defiance, and in the most savage postures, having enormous protruding -tongues; and, like all the Maori carvings, these images, or waikapokos, -are coloured with kokowai, or red ochre. - -"The entire pah is now (1863) in ruins, and has been made tapu by Te -Heuhen since its destruction. Here, then, all was forbidden ground; but I -eluded the suspicions of our natives, and rambled about all day amongst -the decaying memorials of the past, making drawings of the most striking -and peculiar objects within the pah. The cook-houses, where the father of -Te Heuhen had his original establishment, remained in a perfect state; the -only entrances to these buildings were a series of circular apertures, in -and out of which the slaves engaged in preparing the food were obliged to -crawl. - -"Near to the cook-houses stood a carved patuka, which was the receptacle -of the sacred food of the chief; and nothing could exceed the richness of -the elaborate carving that adorned this storehouse.... Ruined -houses--many of them once beautifully ornamented and richly -carved--numerous _waki-tapu_, and other heathen remains with images and -carved posts, occur in various portions of this extensive pah; but in -other places the hand of Time has so effectually destroyed the buildings -as to leave them but an unintelligible mass of ruins. The situation of -this pah is admirably adapted for the security of the inmates: it commands -the lake on the one side, and the other fronts the extensive marshes of -Tukanu, where a strong palisade and a deep moat afford protection against -any sudden attack. Water is conveyed into the pah through a sluice or -canal for the supply of the besieged in times of war. - -"There was an air of solitude and gloomy desolation about the whole pah, -that was heightened by the screams of the plover and the tern, as they -uttered their mournful cry through the deserted coasts. I rambled over the -scenes of many savage deeds." - - * * * * * - -Cannibalism, or to use the scientific term, anthropophagy, has its origin -in different causes, and assumes different forms. Among some of the savage -peoples it is, as among the Maories, simply the expression of a sanguinary -instinct, of an atrocious sentiment of revenge. Among others it originates -in a chronic condition of misery and famine. Yet, again, it is sometimes -connected with the custom of human sacrifices, as among the Aztecs, and -those who practise it come to esteem it a sacred duty, pleasing to their -deities, or even to the _manes_ of their hapless victims. - -Unknown among the simple Eskimos, and, indeed, among all the hyperborean -races, anthropophagy prevails with more or less intensity among peoples -which have attained a rudimentary civilization. - -Let us take, for example, the Khonds of Orissa, who keep up a system of -human sacrifice, absolutely elaborate in its details. Its primary -condition is that the victim, or Meriah, should be _bought_. Even if taken -in war, he must be sold and purchased before the priest will accept him. -No distinction is made as to age or sex; but the efficiency of the victim -seems to depend on the sum he costs, and therefore the healthy are -preferred to the feeble, and adults to children. The number consumed in a -twelvemonth must be very considerable; as the Khonds do not believe in the -success of any undertaking, or in the promise of their fields, unless a -Meriah is first offered. - -The victims are kindly treated during the period of their captivity, which -is sometimes of considerable duration. In truth, a Meriah or dedicated -maiden is sometimes allowed to marry a Khond, and to live until she has -become twice or thrice a mother. Her children as well as herself are -destined to the sacrificial altar; but must never be slain in the village -in which they are born. To overcome this difficulty, one village exchanges -its Meriah children with another. - -There are various modes of accomplishing the sacrifice. In Goomten the -offering is made to the Earth-god, Tado Pumor, who is represented by the -emblem of a peacock. For a month previous to the day of doom, the people -maintain an almost continuous revel, feasting and dancing round the -Meriah, who seems to enter into the festivity with as much zest as they -do. On the last day but one he is bound to a stout pole, the top of which -carries the peacock emblem of the Tado Pumor; and around him wheel and -wheel the revellers, protesting in their wild rude songs that they do not -murder a victim, but sacrifice one who has been fairly purchased, and -that, therefore, his blood will not be upon their heads. The Meriah, being -stupefied with drink, makes no answer; and his silence is interpreted as a -willing assent to his immolation. Next day he is anointed with oil, and -carried round the village; after which he is brought back to the post, at -the bottom of which a small pit has been dug. A hog is killed, and the -blood poured into the pit, and mixed with the soil until a thick mud is -formed. Into this mud the face of the Meriah is pressed until he dies from -suffocation. It should be added that he is always unconscious from -intoxication when brought to the post. - -The zani, or officiating priest, cuts off a fragment of the victim's -flesh, and buries it near the pit; as an offering to the earth; after -which the spectators precipitate themselves upon the body, hack it to -pieces, and carry away the fragments to bury in their fields as a -propitiation to the rural deities. - -In Sumatra exists a tribe, that of the Battas, which has not only a -religion and a ceremonial worship, but a literature, a kind of -constitution, and a penal code. This code condemns certain classes of -criminals to be eaten alive. After the sentence has been pronounced by the -proper tribunal, two or three days are suffered to elapse, to give the -people time to assemble. On the day appointed, the criminal is led to the -place of execution, and bound to a stake. The prosecutor advances, and -selects the choicest morsel; after which the bystanders in due order -choose such pieces as strike their fancy, and, terrible to relate! hack -and hew them from the living body. At length the chief releases the poor -wretch from his long agony by striking off his head. The flesh is eaten on -the spot, raw or cooked, according to each man's taste. - - * * * * * - -We have seen that in some of the "sunny Eden-isles" of the Pacific, the -natives consider that they render a service to their aged and infirm -parents by putting them to death, and that, by eating them, they provide -the most honourable mode of sepulture. In others, as in New Zealand, the -belief prevails that a man, by devouring his enemy, gains possession of -all the virtues with which the latter may have been gifted. This -conviction is cherished by certain tribes on the river Amazon. - - * * * * * - -But it seems clear that in the majority of cases, anthropophagy originates -in a constant scarcity of food, and in the lack of cattle and game; though -in some it may be true that the cannibals are attracted by the delicious -savour of human flesh, which they prefer to every other. Maury asserts -that among the Cobens of the Uaupis, man is regarded as a species of game, -and that they declare war against the neighbouring tribes solely for the -purpose of procuring a supply of human flesh. When they obtain more than -they require for their present need, they dry it and smoke it, and store -it away for future use. - -In Africa, Captain Richard Burton discovered, on the shores of Lake -Tangauyika, a cannibal people, named the Worabunbosi, who fed upon -carrion, vermin, larvae, and insects, and even carried their brutality to -such an extent as to eat raw and putrid human flesh. Although you may see -on every countenance, says this enterprising traveller,[57] the expression -of chronic hunger, the poor wretched, timid, stunted, degraded, foul, seem -far more dangerous enemies to the dead than to the living. - - * * * * * - -We are speaking however of a barbarous custom which, from whatever cause -it may have arisen, is rapidly dying out. Owing to the constant advance of -the wave of civilisation, and to the vigorous efforts of our missionaries, -the practice of cannibalism, against which our better nature instinctively -rebels, is decaying even in the darkest and remotest regions of the globe. -In Polynesia, for instance, as in New Zealand, it is almost extinct. And -if we owed no other service to the heroic Soldiers of the Cross, this -result would of itself entitle them to our gratitude, the extermination of -Anthropophagy being the first step towards teaching man to reverence -humanity. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -_THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS._ - - -The general characteristics of the North American Indians, or the Red Men, -have been made familiar to us through the writings of travellers, and the -picturesque romances of Fenimore Cooper, the American novelist; though of -the latter it may be said, perhaps, that he has used bright colours too -uniformly, and introduced into his sketches too little shadow. The name by -which they are popularly known is, of course, ethnologically incorrect. -Just as, in speaking of the great Western Continent, our forefathers -employed the expression "the West Indies," or the "Great Indies," from a -mistaken conception of its geographical position, so they christened by -the term "Indians" all its aboriginal races; and the term has survived in -our common speech owing to its convenience. - -Says De Maury: From the North Pole to Tierra del Fuego almost every shade -of human colouring, from black to yellow, finds its representatives. -According to their tribe, the Aborigines are of a brown-olive, a dark -brown, bronze, pale yellow, copper yellow, red, brown, and so on. Nor do -they differ less in stature. Between the dwarf-like proportions of the -Changos, and the tall stature of the Patagonians, we meet with a great -number of intermediary "sizes." The contours of the body present the same -diversity. Some peoples, like those of the Pampas, are very long in the -bust; others, like the inhabitants of the Peruvian Andes, are short and -broad. So, too, with the shape and size of the head. Yet we recognize -between the various American populations an air of kinship, or certain -predominant and general features which distinguish them from the races of -the old world. As, for example, the pyramidal form of the head and the -narrowness of the forehead, characteristics of great antiquity among the -American populations, having been found in skulls discovered by Mr. Lund -in the caves of Brazil, in association with the bones of animals now -extinct. - -In spite of this variety of type, we may divide the Aborigines of America -into two great races, of which one, at least, the Red Skins, is remarkable -for its complete homogeneity. The Red Skins,--with whom alone we shall -concern ourselves,--were formerly distributed over all the upper portion -of the American Continent; that is, over the territory of Canada and the -United States and the northern districts of Mexico. In the sixteenth -century they numbered, it is said, a million and a half of souls. The -"advance of civilisation,"--in other words, the greed and cruelty of the -white man,--have reduced them now to a few thousand families. A few years -more, and American rifles, brandy, poverty, and disease will have -virtually effected the extermination of a race, which has assuredly -merited the respect and recognition we are generally prone to render to -courage and endurance. True it is that our estimate of the Red Skins must -not be taken entirely from the imaginative pages of Chateaubriand and -Fenimore Cooper. The Deerskins, the Hawkeyes, and the Leatherstockings of -the novelist are ideal creations, the like of which have never been found -in the wildernesses of the West. Yet we cannot deny to the Indians a -character of true nobility and exceptional manliness. Their scorn of death -and pain, their stoical composure under tortures, the mere description of -which makes the blood of ordinary men run cold, their disdain of the -allurements of civilisation, their stern refusal of foreign supremacy, -their haughty pride, even their cold and calculated ferocity, are so many -traits which raise them to a higher platform than that occupied by most -savage races. - -A hundred times in song, and romance, and drama have been portrayed the -manners of this remarkable people, their subtle stratagems in war and the -chase, the perseverance with which they hunt down their prey or enemy, -their astuteness, their impassiveness, their brooding revenge. Who has -not eagerly followed them in their unwearied wanderings across the rolling -prairies, and through the interminable forests? Who has not listened -eagerly, when seated round the watch-fire, with the calumet to their lips, -they have meditated on the chances of peace and war,--chief after chief -rising, with regal attitude and deliberate eloquence to take his part in -the stern debate? Who has not watched them in their furious -battle-charges, brandishing the dreadful tomahawk, and carrying off the -scalps of their defeated enemies to hang up in their wigwams as the -trophies of their prowess? Who has not breathlessly tracked them in their -pursuit of a flying foe, or in their skilful escape through the thick -brushwood from the pressure of some persistent antagonist? Assuredly this -was a race well worthy of attentive study; and their history, or the -narrative of their adventures, none can peruse without interest. There was -a strain of poetry in their faith, in their customs, in their language at -once laconic and picturesque, even in the names full of meaning which they -bestowed on each tribe, and chief, and warrior. We can hardly suppress a -feeling of regret that so much wild romance should have been swept off the -earth, unless we bring our minds to dwell upon the deep dark shades of the -picture, on their cruelty, perfidiousness, and lust. Even then our -humanity revolts from the treatment they have received at the hands of the -white man. Hunted from place to place like wild beasts, driven back from -one hunting-ground to another, brutalised by misery or drunkenness, -decimated by the diseases of civilisation, incapable of labour, the Red -Skins have struggled in vain against the irresistible onward movement of a -civilisation without bowels; a civilisation ill-adapted to attract and -persuade them, and more anxious to destroy than to assimilate. - -The treatment of the Indians is a dark chapter in the history of the -United States. The great nations which were formerly the valued allies or -dreaded enemies of the European settlers, the Hurons, the Algonquins, the -Iroquois, the Natchez, the Leni-Lenapes, have entirely disappeared. The -wrecks of other but less important tribes still linger on the shores of -the great Northern lakes, in the woods and wildernesses of the Far West, -at the base of the Rocky Mountains, in Texas, in Arkansas, in California, -and in the northern provinces and deserts of Mexico. Such are the Sioux, -the Dacotahs, the Flatheads, the Big-Bellies, the Blackfoot, the Apaches, -the Comanches. The two latter people have been the most successful in -preserving their vitality. Their characteristics however are very diverse. -The Comanches are of a mild gentle nature, and eager to live on peaceable -terms with the whites. The Apaches, on the other hand, have vowed a -relentless hatred against the Pale Faces; they are the terror of the -_hacienderos_ (or farm proprietors) and gold seekers of Upper Mexico, and -the American journals to this day are full of their incursions, and their -acts of cruelty and brigandage. - -Physiologically, the distinctive features of the Red Men are, in addition -to the colour of their skin and the pyramidal form of the head, the -prominency and arched outline of the nose, the width of the nasal -apertures, corresponding to a remarkable development of the olfactory -nerve, and the absence of beard. - -The superstitions, or religious customs, of the Red Men are in themselves -a sufficiently interesting subject of study. We begin with an account of -the ceremony through which every one of their youths has to pass before he -is acknowledged to have entered upon manhood. Our knowledge of it is due -to Mr. Catlin, who, as a reputed "medicine-man," lived for some time with -the Mandan tribe, and became acquainted with their most secret customs. - -The object of this rite, which for savage cruelty seems unparalleled, is, -first, to propitiate the Great Spirit on behalf of the neophyte who -undergoes it, so that he may become a successful hunter and a valiant -warrior; and, second, to enable the leader and chief of the tribe, to -watch his behaviour, and determine whether he will be likely to maintain -its character and renown. - -The Mandans, we must premise, cherish a legend of a flood which in times -long past inundated the earth, and of which only one man, who escaped in a -large canoe, was the survivor. In a large open space in the centre of the -village a representation of this canoe, a kind of tub, bound with wooden -hoops, and set up on one end, is carefully preserved. - -The ceremony of initiation occurs once a year, at the season when the -willow-leaves under the river-bank burst from their shade, and bloom in -all their greenness. Early in the morning of the great day, a figure is -seen on the distant ridge of hills, slowly approaching the village. -Immediately the whole village is alive! The dogs are caught and muzzled; -the horses are brought in from the meadows; the bravos paint their faces -as if for battle, string their bows, feather their arrows, and grasp their -pointed spears. Then into the central area strides the visitor, his body -painted white, a plume of raven's feathers waving on his head, a white -wolf's skin flung across his stalwart shoulders, and in his hand a -mystery-pipe. The chief and his leading warriors immediately greet the new -comer, Nu-mohk-muck-a-nah, or the First Man, as he is called,--and conduct -him to the great medicine-lodge, which is open only on this occasion, and -now reeks with the fragrant odours of various aromatic herbs. The skulls -of men and bisons are solemnly laid on the floor; over the beams of the -timber roof are hung several new ropes, with a heap of strong wooden -skewers underneath them; and in the centre is raised a small dais or -altar, on which the First Man deposits the medicine or mystery of the -tribe,--a profound, a sacred secret, known to none but himself. - -To every hut in the village next stalks the First Man, pausing at the door -of each to weep aloud, and when the owner comes out, relating to him the -old, old story of the Flood, and of his own escape from it, and requiring -axe or knife as an offering to the Great Spirit. The demand is never -refused; and loaded with edged tools of various kinds, he returns to the -medicine-lodge. There they remain until the conclusion of the ceremonies, -when they are thrown into the river's deepest pool. - -Thus passes the first day, during which, as during the whole period of the -ceremony, an absolute silence prevails in the village. None know the place -where he sleeps, but on the second morning he re-enters the village, and -marches to the medicine-lodge, followed by a long train of neophytes, and -carrying his bow and arrows, shield, and medicine-bag, and each painted in -the most fantastic fashion. Hanging his weapons over his head, each man -silently seats himself in front of the lodge, and for four days maintains -his position, speaking to none, and neither eating, drinking, nor -sleeping. At the outset, the First Man kindles his pipe at the fire that -burns in the centre of the lodge, and harangues the neophytes, exhorting -them to be brave and patient, and praying the Great Spirit to grant them -strength to endure their trial. - -Summoning an old medicine-man, he then appoints him to the charge of the -ceremonies, and as a symbol of office hands him the mystery-pipe. After -which he takes leave of the chiefs and their people, promising that he -will return next year to re-open the lodge, and with slow and stately step -passes out of the village, and disappears beyond the hills. - -The master of the ceremonies hastens to put himself in the centre of the -lodge, where he re-lights the pipe, and with every whiff of smoke utters a -petition to the Great Spirit in behalf of the candidates. - -During the three days' silence of the neophytes, the tribe indulge in a -variety of pastimes. - - * * * * * - -First and foremost is the buffalo dance, in which eight persons are -engaged, each wearing the skin of a bison, and carrying on his back a -large bundle of faggots. In one hand they hold a mystery-rattle, in the -other a small staff. In four couples they place themselves round the Big -Canoe, each couple facing one of the cardinal points of the compass, and -between them dances a young man,--two being got up in black, dotted with -white stars, to represent day, and two in red, to represent night. - -A couple of medicine-men, dressed in the hides of grizzly bears, sit -beside the Big Canoe, and profess their intention of devouring the whole -village. To satiate their voracity, the women convey to them abundant -supplies of meat, which men, painted black all over, except their heads, -which are white, in imitation of the bald-headed eagle, carry off -immediately to the prairie, pursued by a number of little boys, painted -yellow, with white heads, who are called antelopes. After a swift chase -they overtake the eagle-men, seize the food, and devour it. - -This rude frolic is repeated several times a day, the performers being -summoned by the master of the ceremonies, who, followed by his assistants, -issues from the medicine-lodge, and takes up his post against the Big -Canoe, pouring forth many tears. - -On the first day the dance is four times repeated, on the second eight -times, on the third twelve times, and on the fourth sixteen; the dancers -issuing from the hut in which they attire themselves immediately that the -old man lifts up his head, and weeps. - -During each performance, the old medicine-men keep up a rattle of drums, -except when they pause to announce to the crowd that the Great Spirit is -pleased with their offerings, and has given them peace; that even their -women and children can hold the mouths of grizzly bears, and the Evil One -does not appear to disturb them. - -This bold declaration is repeated thirty-two times during the four days, -and repeated without challenge; but at the thirty-third, the Evil Spirit -makes his appearance, threads his way through the village, and breaks into -the circle,--an uncanny creature, entirely naked, his body painted black, -but with white rings, and his mouth blotched with white indentations like -so many tusks. Carrying in his hand a long magic staff tipped with a red -ball, which he slides before him on the ground, this Evil Spirit makes a -rush at each group of females in the excited crowd. They shriek for -assistance. - -The master of the ceremonies straightway abandons his station by the Big -Canoe, and presents his magic pipe to the intruder, who stands immediately -as if petrified into stone, each limb quiescent, each muscle rigid,--a -statue, rather than a man. - -The women take advantage of this sudden pause to escape from the Evil -Spirit's clutch; and as soon as they are out of danger, though their -hearts still beat with excitement, they resume their ordinary quietude, -only laughing loudly and gleefully at the sudden discomfiture of their -antagonist, and at the awkward and ridiculous attitude in which he was -surprised. - -The old man stands upright by his side, with his eyeballs glaring him in -the face, while the medicine-pipe holds under its mystic spell his Satanic -Majesty, neutralises all the powers of his magic wand, and deprives him -of the power of locomotion. - -No two human beings, says Mr. Catlin, can ever present a more striking -group than is presented by those two individuals, with their fierce eyes -fixed in well-simulated hatred on each other; both contending for the -supremacy, both relying on the potency of their mystery or medicine; the -one, with dismal black body, pretending to be O-ku-hu-de, the Evil Spirit, -and pouring everlasting vengeance on the other, who sternly gazes back -with a look of contemptuous exultation, as he holds him bound by the -influence of his sacred mystery-pipe. Truly, these Red-skinned Mandans are -accomplished actors and pantomimists. - -A repetition of this performance takes place until the power of the -mystery-pipe has been sufficiently proved; and the women, gaining -confidence in it, proceed to turn the tables on their persecutor, jeering -him, and overwhelming him with shrieks of laughter. At last, one of the -boldest dashes a handful of sand in his face; an insult which completely -overwhelms him, so that he begins to weep abundantly. Another woman takes -courage to seize his magic staff, and snaps it across her knee. Other -women pick up the broken halves and break them into fragments, which they -fling at O-ku-hu-de's head. Bereft of all his power, he incontinently -turns tail, and dashes across the prairie, followed for half a mile or so -by volleys of mud and stones and slates. - -Thus ends the battle of Armageddon. The Evil Spirit has come, and fought, -and been conquered. The next step is to remove the little altar and its -mysterious deposit from the centre of the great medicine-lodge, and pass -the hide ropes through openings in the roof to men stationed without. Then -the master of the ceremonies and his assistants, together with the chiefs -and bravos of the tribe, re-enter the lodge, and take up their positions. - -Worn and wasted by four days of abstinence from food, drink, and sleep, -the first neophyte enters the lodge, when called, and takes his stand in -front of two of the executioners. One of them, with a blunt and jagged -double-edged knife, pinches up an inch or so of the flesh of the breast -or shoulder, inserts the knife, and through the incision thus -accomplished, forces a wooden skewer; repeating the process on the other -shoulder or breast, on each arm just below the shoulder and below the -elbow, upon each thigh, and upon each leg just below the knee. - -Painful as the operation must be, the neophyte bears it unflinchingly; not -a sigh escapes him; his countenance remains as calm and unruffled as if he -were wrapped in a pleasant dream. - -Two of the hide ropes are now let down from the roof, and twisted round -the skewers on the breast or shoulders. To the others are hung the -neophyte's weapons, while the skulls of bisons depend from those of the -lower arm or leg. At a given signal the neophyte is hauled aloft, and -allowed to swing, at a height of six or eight feet from the ground, -suspended only by the two skewers, while he sustains, not only his own -weight, but that of the heavy skulls. With almost incredible fortitude, he -endures this protracted agony, until exhausted nature gives way, and he -falls into a swoon. - -The bystanders seem no longer men, but demons intent on increasing his -tortures. They surround him, a dozen or more at a time, and consider what -new inventions can be adopted. At length, one advances towards the poor -wretch, and begins to turn him round with a pole, which he has brought for -the purpose. This is done very gently at first, but by degrees with more -rapidity and increasing violence, until the neophyte breaks down in his -self-control, and bursts forth into "the most lamentable and heart-rending -cries that the human voice is capable of producing," imploring the Great -Spirit to support and protect him in his agony, and repeatedly expressing -his belief in that protection. - -In this condition he revolves faster and faster, without the least hope of -escape or relief, until he again falls into a swoon; his voice falters, -his strugglings cease; he hangs a still and apparently lifeless thing. -"When he is by turning gradually brought to this condition, which is -generally done within ten or fifteen minutes, there is a close scrutiny -passed upon him among his tormentors, who are checking and holding each -other back as long as the least struggling or tremor can be discovered; -lest he should be removed, before he is, as they term it, dead." - -Having satisfied themselves that their victim is not feigning, they give a -signal; he is lowered to the ground; the skewers which passed through his -breast are removed, and the ropes attached to another candidate. He is -allowed to lie where he fell; none dare to touch him; to do so would be a -sacrilege, because he has placed himself under the protection of the Great -Spirit. - -After awhile he partially recovers, and crawls to another part of the -lodge, where, with gleaming axe in hand and a bison's skull before him, -sits a medicine-man. Holding up the little finger of his left hand as a -sacrifice to the Great Spirit, the neophyte lays it upon the skull, and, -in a moment, the medicine-man's axe severs it. Sometimes the fore-finger -of the same hand is also offered, and only the thumb and two middle -fingers, which are necessary in holding the bow, are left. - -Then comes the last scene of this strange, eventful history, bringing the -neophyte's sufferings to a climax. The skewers by which he is suspended to -the roof are removed when he is lowered, but eight still remain; two in -each arm, and two in each leg. To each is attached a heavy weight, such as -a bison's skull, and they must not be _drawn_ out, but must be _torn_ out -by sheer force. With this view he is required to run the last race,--which -takes place in the open air, and in the presence of a concourse of excited -spectators. Leaving the medicine-lodge, the master of the ceremonies leans -his head against the Big Canoe, and fills the air with a loud long wail. -Immediately a score or so of young men, all matched in height, wearing -beautiful dresses of eagle-quills, and carrying in one hand a wreath of -willow-boughs, issue from the dressing-hut. On arriving at the Big Canoe -they assemble round it in a circle, holding on to each other's -willow-wreath, and then race around it at their utmost speed, screaming -and shouting until the air is filled with their uproar. - -The candidates then come out of the medicine-lodge, dragging the heavy -weights attached to their limbs, and are stationed at equal intervals -outside the ring of runners. As each takes his place, two powerful young -men take charge of him, who pass round each of his wrists a broad -leathern strap, which they grasp very firmly, but without tying it. - -When all the preliminaries are completed, a signal is given, and the -neophytes begin to race round the Big Canoe, outside the inner circle, -each man being dragged along by his custodians, until the skulls and other -weights drag out the skewers to which they are fastened. The bystanders -scream and yell and shout in a frenzy of excitement; eager, moreover, to -drown the groans of the sufferers, should the instincts of nature prevail -over their self-control, and desirous of encouraging them in their final -trial. - -Sometimes the neophyte's flesh proves to be so tough that the skewers -cannot be dragged out, and in such cases their friends jump on the skulls -as they rattle along the ground, so as to increase their weight. - -Humanity cannot long endure a torture so horrible: the sufferers quickly -faint, though they are still hauled round in the barbarous race, nor set -free until the last weight is dragged from the quivering, bleeding body. -Then the unconscious wretch is released, and left, for the second time, in -the care and protection of the Great Spirit. In due time he recovers his -senses, struggles to his feet, totters through the crowd, is received by -his friends, and conducted to his own hut. - -Mr. Catlin supplies two illustrations of the rigorous tenacity with which -the Indians adhere to the rule that the skewers must be _dragged_, not -_removed_, from the sufferer's flesh. - -In one case the skewer had chanced to pass under a sinew, and the neophyte -was dragged round and round the ring in vain. In vain his friends added -their weight to that of the bison's skulls. The scene became so horrible -that even the spectators could no longer endure it, and in sympathy with -their cries the master of the ceremonies stopped the race, leaving the -youth, unconscious, on the ground. As soon as he regained his senses, he -crawled away to the prairie on his hands and knees, and there remained, -without food or drink, for three hours longer, until suppuration took -place, and he was enabled to get rid of the skewer. Then he crawled home, -and strange to say, notwithstanding the agony he had undergone, and his -loss of strength, recovered in a few days. - -In the second case, two of the weights attached to the arms refused to -yield, and the hapless neophyte crept as best he could to the steep bluff -overhanging the river, where he drove a stake into the ground. Fastening -the weights to this stake by a couple of ropes, he lowered himself about -midway down the cliff, and so hung suspended for more than two days, until -the obstinate flesh gave way, and allowed him to drop into the water. He -swam to the side, crawled up the acclivity, and returned to his village. -It gives one a vivid idea of the remarkable vitality and physical force of -the Indian race, when one reads that this man, too, recovered! - - * * * * * - -The Indian has a vague idea of God and immortality. He believes in a Great -Spirit, who, after death, admits the brave to his happy hunting-grounds, -where game is inexhaustible, and the pleasure of the chase is ever open to -the hunter. Beyond this dim and dubious conception, his imagination never -carries him. - -He is prone, as might be supposed, for such proneness is the cause of -ignorance, and ignorance is the Red Man's bane, to the wildest and -coarsest superstitions, and he is always at the mercy of the medicine-man -of his tribe. One of his most potent superstitions is that connected with -the "medicine-bag," which he firmly believes to be his sole "secret of -success," his all-powerful charm and talisman, without which he would fail -in every undertaking and be defeated and disgraced in battle. - -At the age of fourteen or fifteen, the young Indian goes forth into the -woods in search of his medicine. On a litter of leaves and twigs he lies -for some days--as long, in fact, as his physical powers hold out--neither -eating nor drinking; for in proportion to the duration of his fast will be -the potency of his "medicine." His endurance at length gives way, and he -goes to sleep. The bird, beast, or reptile of which he dreams becomes his -"medicine." He returns home, and as soon as he has recovered his strength, -he sallies forth in quest of the charm; having found and killed the -animal, he preserves the skin in such shape as his fancy -suggests,--usually in the form of pouch or bag. If small, he slings it -round his neck, and wears it concealed. In other cases, it hangs from his -waist or shoulder. - -However he may wear it, the Indian never parts from it. He would be -disgraced and defeated in battle--he would fail in his undertakings--if it -were absent from his person. Should he be deprived of it in battle, he is -overwhelmed with shame, until he can kill an enemy, and take _his_ -medicine-bag to replace his own. If, without losing his own, he captures -that of an enemy, he is entitled to assume a "double medicine," and with -two medicine-bags about him he stalks to and fro, the observed of all -observers. To take a medicine-bag is not less honourable than to take a -scalp, and the successful bearer has all the advantage of the double -protection afforded by the double charm. - -It is seldom that an Indian will voluntarily part with his medicine-bag, -and if he does, he forfeits his reputation almost irretrievably. Now and -then he is persuaded by the white man to bury it, but its place of -interment immediately assumes an air of sanctity in his eyes. He frequents -the spot as if drawn thither by an irresistible influence, will throw -himself on the sod, and talk to the buried treasure as if it were alive. -Sometimes he will offer sacrifices to it, and if he be a rich man, will -even offer a horse. On the latter occasion, the whole tribe take part in -the ceremony, and march forth to the prairie in picturesque procession, -led by the owner of the medicine-bag, who drives before him his most -valued and valuable steed, decked with coloured devices. At the appointed -spot, he delivers a long prayer or oration to the Great Spirit, and sets -free the horse, which thenceforth enjoys the free life of the wild horses -of the prairie, and if at any time recaptured is immediately released. - -The position which in most savage tribes is held by the priest, among the -American Indians is held by the "medicine-man." His influence is -considerable, and his powers are supposed to be vast. He is called upon to -heal the sick and save the dying, and, above all, to bring down the genial -rain from heaven when it is needed for the growth of the crops. - -We owe to Mr. Catlin an interesting description of the rain-making -ceremony. A drought had withered the maize-fields for some weeks, and -application for help having been made to the medicine-men they duly set to -work. On the first day one Wah-ku, or the Shield, came to the front; but -failed--that day an equally unsuccessful experiment was made by Om-pah, or -the Elk. The third day was devoted to Wa-rah-pa, or the Beaver, and on the -fourth recourse was had to Wak-a-dah-ha-ku, the White Buffalo Hair, who -was strong in the possession of a shield coloured with red lightnings, and -in the arrow which he carried in his hand. - -Taking his station by the medicine-lodge, he harangued the people, -protesting that for the good of his tribe he was willing to sacrifice -himself, and that if he did not bring the much-desired rain, he was -content to live for the rest of his life with the old women and the dogs. -He asserted that the first medicine-man had failed, because his shield -warded off the rain-clouds; the second, who wore a head-dress made of a -raven's skin, because the raven was a bird that soared above the storm, -and cared not whether the rain came or stayed; and the third, because the -beaver was always wet, and required no rain. But as for him, -Wak-a-dah-ha-ku, the red lightnings on his shield would attract the -rain-clouds, and his arrow would pierce them, and pour the water over the -thirsty fields. - -It chanced that, as he ended his oration, a steamer, the first that had -ever ploughed the Missouri river, fired a salute from a twelve-pounder -gun, as she passed the Mandan village. To the Indians the roar of the -cannon was like the voice of thunder, and their joy knew no bounds. The -successful medicine-man was loaded with valuable gifts; mothers hastened -to offer their daughters to him in marriage; and the elder medicine-men -issued from the lodge, eager to enrol him in their order. But, from the -roof of the lodge, where he had taken his stand, Wak-a-dah-ha-ku -discovered the steamer, as she dashed up the river, and discharged her gun -again and yet again. He hastened to address the chiefs and people, -explaining that the sounds they heard were not those of thunder, but that -his potent medicine had brought a thunder-boat to the village. To the -river-bank rushed the wondering population, and the rest of the day was -spent in a fever of excitement, in which the rain-maker was forgotten. -Just before sunset his quick eyes discovered a black cloud, which, -unobserved by the noisy multitude, swiftly came up from the horizon. At -once he assumed his station on the roof of the lodge; strung his bow and -made ready his arrow; arrested the attention of his fellows by his loud -and exultant speech; and as the cloud impended over the village, shot his -arrow into the sky. Lo, the rain immediately descended in torrents, -wetting the rain-maker to the skin, but establishing in everybody's mind a -firm and deep conviction of his power. - -All night raged the storm; but unhappily a flash of lightning penetrated -one of the wigwams, and killed a young girl. The newly-made medicine-man -was sorely terrified by this catastrophe, which he feared the chiefs would -impute to him, making him responsible for the girl's death, and punishing -him accordingly. - -But he was a man of much astuteness, and early in the morning, collecting -three of his best horses, he mounted the lodge-roof again, and for a third -time addressed the people of his tribe. - -"Friends," he said, "my medicine was too strong, I am young, and I did not -know where to stop. I did not regulate its power. And now the wigwam of -Mah-sish is laid low, and many are the eyes that weep for Ko-ka, the -antelope. Wak-a-dah-ha-ku gives three horses to rejoice the hearts of -those who sorrow for Ko-ka. His medicine is great. His arrow pierced the -black cloud, and the lightning came, and with it the thunder-boat. Who -says that the medicine of Wak-a-dah-ha-ku is not strong?" - -This artful address was received with much favour, and thenceforward -Wak-a-dah-ha-ku was known as the "Big Double Medicine." - -Of the medical practices of these medicine-men Mr. Kane, in his -"Wanderings of an Artist," furnishes a striking illustration. - -"About ten o'clock at night," he says, "I strolled into the village, and -on hearing a great noise in one of the lodges, I entered it, and found an -old woman supporting one of the handsomest Indian girls I had ever seen. -She was in a state of nudity. Cross-legged and naked, in the middle of the -room, sat the medicine-man, with a wooden dish of water before him; -twelve or fifteen other men were sitting round the lodge. The object in -view was to cure the girl of a disease affecting her side. As soon as my -presence was noticed, a space was cleared for me to sit down. - -"The officiating medicine-man appeared in a state of profuse perspiration, -from the exertions he had used, and soon took his seat among the rest, as -if quite exhausted; a younger medicine-man then took his place in front of -the bowl, and close beside the patient. - -"Throwing off his blanket, he commenced singing and gesticulating in the -most violent manner, whilst the others kept time by beating with little -sticks in hollow wooden bowls and drums, singing continually. After -exercising himself in this manner for about half an hour, until the -perspiration ran down his body, he darted suddenly upon the young woman, -catching hold of her side with his teeth, and shaking her for a few -minutes, while the patient seemed to suffer great agony. He then -relinquished his hold, and cried out he had got it, at the same time -holding his hands to his mouth; after which he plunged them in the water -and pretended to hold down with great difficulty the disease which he had -extracted, lest it might spring out and return to its victim. - -"At length, having obtained the mastery over it, he turned round to me in -an exulting manner, and held up something between the finger and thumb of -each hand, which had the appearance of a piece of cartilage; whereupon one -of the Indians sharpened his knife, and divided it in two, having one in -each hand. One of the pieces he threw into the water and the other into -the fire, accompanying the action with a diabolical noise which none but a -medicine-man can make. After which he got up perfectly satisfied with -himself, although the poor patient seemed to me anything but relieved by -the violent treatment she had undergone." - - * * * * * - -A considerable amount of superstition attaches to the calumet, or -medicine-pipe, by which all the great questions of peace and war are -settled. This pipe is borne by an individual specially selected for the -honour, who, during his term of office, is not less sacred than the pipe -he carries. His seat is always on the right side of the lodge, and no one -is suffered to interpose between him and the fire. He is not even allowed -to cut his own food, but his wives cut it for him, and place it in an -official food-bowl, specially reserved for his use. As for the calumet, it -is hung outside the lodge in a large bag, which is picturesquely and gaily -embroidered. Much ceremony attends its uncovering. Whatever the weather, -or the time of year, the bearer begins by stripping off all his garments -except his cloth, and he then pours upon a red-hot coal some fragrant gum, -which fills the air with perfumed smoke. Removing the different wrappers, -he fills the bowl with tobacco, and blows the smoke to the four points of -the compass, to the earth, and to the sky, with each breath uttering a -prayer to the Great Spirit for assistance in war against all enemies, and -for bison and corn from all parts. With equal ceremony the pipe, which no -woman is allowed to see, is restored to its bag. The whole proceeding -takes place in the deepest silence. - -The bowl of the calumet is made of a peculiar stone, found in the Red -Pipe-stone Quarry, on the Citeau des Prairies, a place to which the -following tradition attaches. We give it as related by Mr. Catlin: - -Here, he says, according to the Indian traditions, happened the mysterious -birth of the red pipe, which has blown its fumes of peace and war to the -remotest corners of the continent, which has visited every warrior, and -passed through its reddened stem the irrevocable oath of war and -desolation. And here, also, the peace-breathing calumet was born, and -fringed with the eagle's quills, which has shed its thrilling fumes over -the land, and soothed the fury of the relentless savage. - -At a remote period the Great Spirit here called the Indian nations -together, and, standing on the precipice of the red pipe-stone rock, broke -from its wall a piece, and made a huge pipe by turning it in his hand, -which he smoked over them, to the north, the south, the east, and the -west, and told that this stone was red,--that it was their flesh,--that -they must use it for their pipes of peace,--that it belonged to them -all,--and that the war-club and scalping-knife must not be raised on its -ground. At the last whiff of his pipe his head went into a great cloud, -and the whole surface of the rock for several miles was melted and -glazed. Two great ovens were opened beneath, and two women (guardian -spirits of the place) entered them in a blaze of fire; and they are heard -there yet, (Tso-mec-cos-tu and Tso-me-cos-te-won-du,) answering to -invocations of the high priests or medicine-men, who consult them when -they are visitors to this sacred place. - -The reader will remember, perhaps, the allusion to the Peace-pipe in -Longfellow's "Hiawatha,"-- - - "On the mountains of the Prairie, - On the great Red Pipe-stone quarry, - Gitche Manito, the Mighty, - He the Master of Life, descending, - On the red crags of the quarry - Stood erect, and called the nations, - Called the tribes of men together. - From his footprints flowed a river, - Leaped into the light of morning, - O'er the precipice plunging downward, - Gleamed like Ishkoodah, the comet. - And the Spirit, stooping earthward, - With his finger on the meadows, - Traced a winding pathway for it, - Saying to it, 'Run in this way!' - From the red stone of the quarry - With his hand he broke a fragment, - Moulded it into a pipe-head, - Shaped and fashioned it with figures; - From the margin of the river - Took a long reed for a pipe-stem, - With its dark green leaves upon it; - Filled the pipe with bark of willow; - With the bark of the red willow; - Breathed upon the neighbouring forest, - Made its great boughs chafe together, - Till in flame they burst and kindled; - And erect upon the mountains, - Gitche Manito, the mighty, - Smoked the calumet, the Peace-pipe, - As a signal to the nations." - -Some of the legends of the Indian tribes are of a very picturesque, and -even poetical character, as may be seen in Mr. Schoolcraft's "Algic -Researches." Take, as an example, the graceful tradition of the Red Swan. - -Three brothers went out to the chase, excited by a wager to see who would -carry home the first game. But the binding and limiting condition was, -that each was to shoot no other animal than those he was in the habit of -killing. - -They set out in different directions. Odjebwa, the youngest, had not gone -far before he saw a bear, an animal which by the agreement he had no right -to kill. He followed him close, however, and drove an arrow through him, -which brought him to the ground. Although contrary to the bet, he -immediately began to skin him, when suddenly something red tinged all the -air around him. He rubbed his eyes, thinking he was perhaps deceived, but -without effect, for the red hue continued. At length he heard a strange -noise in the distance. It first resembled a human voice; but after -following it up for some time, he reached the shores of a lake, and then -discovered the object he was in search of. Far out on the shining waters -sat a most beautiful Red Swan, whose plumage glittered in the sunshine; -and ever and anon he made the noise which had before attracted Odjebwa's -attention. He was within longbow range, and pulling the arrow from the -bow-string up to his ear, he took deliberate aim, and shot. The arrow took -no effect, and he shot again and again until his quiver was empty. Still -the swan remained statelily circling round and round, stretching its long -neck, and dipping its bill into the water, indifferent to the missiles -aimed at it. Odjebwa ran home, secured all his own and his brother's -arrows, and these too, ineffectually shot away: then stood and gazed at -the beautiful bird. - -While thus standing, he remembered a saying of his brother's, that in -their deceased father's medicine-bag were three magic arrows. Off he -started, his anxiety to kill the swan overcoming every scruple. At any -other time he would have deemed it a sacrilege to open his father's -medicine-bag, but now he hastily violated it, seized the three magic -arrows and ran back. The swan was still floating on the lake. He shot the -first arrow with great precision, and came very near his mark. The second -flew still nearer; and as he took the third and last arrow, he felt his -arm strengthen, and drawing it up with vigour, sent the shaft right -through the neck of the swan, a little above the breast. Still even this -death-stroke did not prevent the bird from flying off,--which it did very -slowly, flapping its wings, and rising gradually into the air, until it -passed far away into the sunset. - -Quoting again from Longfellow, we place before the reader his allusion to -this pretty legend:-- - - "Can it be the sun descending - O'er the level plain of water? - Or the Red Swan, floating, flying, - Wounded by the magic arrow, - Staining all the waves with crimson, - With the crimson of its life-blood, - Filling all the air with splendour, - With the splendour of its plumage? - Yes; it is the sun descending, - Sinking down into the water; - No; it is the Red Swan floating, - Diving down beneath the water; - To the sky its wings are lifted, - With its blood the waves are reddened!" - -The Indians regard the maize, or Indian corn, with almost superstitious -veneration,--which is not wonderful, perhaps, when its immense importance -to them is taken into consideration. They esteem it, says Schoolcraft, so -important and divine a grain, that their story-tellers invented various -tales, in which this idea is symbolised under the form of a special gift -from the Great Spirit. The Odjebwa-Algonquins, who call it Mon-da-min, or -the Spirit's grain or berry, cherish a legend, in which the stalk in full -tassel is represented as descending from the sky, under the guise of a -handsome youth; in response to the prayers of a young man offered at his -fast of virility, or coming to manhood. - - "All around the happy village - Stood the maize-fields, green and shining, - Waved the green plumes of Mondamin, - Waved his soft and sunny tresses, - Filling all the land with plenty." - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -_AMONG THE ESKIMOS._ - - -The success which has attended the labours of the Lutheran and Moravian -Missionaries among the Eskimos has been well deserved by their -self-denying devotedness. Few of the Arctic tribes are now outside the -pale of Christianity; and all have been more or less directly influenced -by its elements of purification and elevation. But prior to the coming of -the pioneers of the Cross, the moral code of the Eskimo was curiously -imperfect, and did not recognise murder, infanticide, incest, and the -burial of the living among its crimes. Woe to the unfortunate vessel which -touched upon the coast! The Eskimos were not less treacherous than the -Polynesians of the Eastern Seas. And Krantz relates the story of a Dutch -brig that was seized by the natives at the port of Disco in 1740. The -whole crew were murdered. Two years later a similar fate befell the crew -of another vessel that had accidentally stranded. - -The religion or creed of the aborigines seems to have been very vague and -imperfect. It is certain, however, that they believed in the immortality -of the spirit, and in a heaven and a hell. It was natural enough that -their conception of the latter should be affected by the conditions under -which they lived; that their experience of the miseries of an Arctic -climate should lead them to think of hell as a region of darkness and of -ice, traversed by endless snow-storms, and without any seals. - -They placed implicit confidence in their angekoks, or angekos, or -"medicine-men," ascribing to them almost unlimited powers over the things -of earth and sea, this world and the next. When setting out for the chase, -or prostrated by illness, they always sought the assistance of the -angekoks, who, on such occasions, indulged in a variety of strange -ceremonies. The nature of these may be inferred from what was witnessed by -Captain Lyon, who, during his famous Arctic voyage, bribed an angekok, -named Toolemak, to summon a Tomga, or familiar demon, in the cabin of his -ship. - -All light having been carefully excluded from the scene of operations, the -sorcerer began by vehemently chanting to his wife, who, in her turn, -responded with the Amna-aya, the favourite song of the Eskimo. This lasted -throughout the ceremony. Afterwards, Toolemak began to turn himself round -very rapidly, vociferating for Tomga, in a loud powerful voice and with -great impatience, at the same time blowing and snorting like a walrus. His -noise, agitation, and impatience increased every moment, and at length he -seated himself on the deck, varying his tones, and making a rustling with -his clothes. - -Suddenly the voice seemed smothered, and was so managed as to give the -idea that it was retreating beneath the deck, each moment becoming more -distant, and ultimately sounding as if it were many feet below the cabin, -when it ceased entirely. In answer to Captain Lyon's queries, the -sorcerer's wife seriously declared that he had dived and would send up -Tomga. - -And, in about half a minute, a distant blowing was heard approaching very -slowly, and a voice differing from that which had first been audible was -mixed with the blowing, until eventually both sounds became distinct, and -the old beldame said that Tomga had come to answer the stranger's -questions. Captain Lyon thereupon put several queries to the sagacious -spirit, receiving what was understood to be an affirmative or a favourable -answer by two loud slaps on the deck. - -A very hollow yet powerful voice, certainly differing greatly from that of -Toolemak, then chanted for some time; and a singular medley of hisses, -groans, shouts, and gobblings like a turkey's, followed in swift -succession. The old woman sang with increased energy, and as Captain Lyon -conjectured that the exhibition was intended to astonish "the Kabloona," -he said repeatedly that he was greatly terrified. As he expected, this -admission added fuel to the flame, until the form immortal, exhausted by -its own might, asked leave to retire. The voice gradually died away out of -hearing, as at first, and a very indistinct hissing succeeded. In its -advance it sounded like the tone produced by the wind upon the bass cord -of an Aeolian harp; this was soon changed to a rapid hiss, like that of a -rocket, and Toolemak, with a yell, announced the spirit's return. At the -first distant sibilation Captain Lyon held his breath, and twice exhausted -himself; but the Eskimo conjuror did not once respire, and even his -returning and powerful yell was uttered without previous pause or -inspiration of air. - -When light was admitted, the wizard, as might be expected, was in a state -of profuse perspiration, and greatly exhausted by his exertions, which had -continued for at least half an hour. Captain Lyon then observed a couple -of bunches, each consisting of two strips of white deerskin and a long -piece of sinew, attached to the back of his coat. These he had not seen -before, and he was gravely told that they had been sewn on by Tomga while -he was below. - -During his absence, the angekok professes to visit the dwelling-place of -the particular spirit he has invoked, and he will sometimes astonish his -audience with a description of the nether-world and its inhabitants. For -instance, there is a female spirit called Aywilliayoo, who commands, by -means of her right hand, all the bears, whales, seals, and walruses. -Therefore, when a lack of provisions is experienced, the angekok pays a -visit to Aywilliayoo, and attacks her hand. If he can cut off her nails, -the bears are immediately released; the loss of one finger-joint liberates -the small seals; the second joint dismisses the larger seals; the knuckles -place at liberty the whole herds of walruses, while the entire hand -liberates the whale. - -Aywilliayoo is tall, with only one eye and one pigtail, but as this -pigtail is as large as a man's leg, and descends to her knee, she may well -be contented with it. She owns a splendid house, which, however, Toolemak -refrained from entering, because it was guarded by a huge dog, with black -hindquarters and no tail. Her father, in size, might be mistaken for a -boy of ten years old; he has but one arm, which is always encased in a -large bear-skin mitten. - -Dr. Kane considers it a fact of psychological interest, as it shows that -civilised or savage wonder-workers form a single family, that the angekoks -have a firm belief in their own powers. "I have known," he says, "several -of them personally, and can speak with confidence on this point. I could -not detect them in any resort to jugglery or natural magic: their -deceptions are simply vocal, a change of voice, and perhaps a limited -profession of ventriloquism, made more imposing by the darkness." They -have, however, like the members of the learned professions everywhere -else, a certain language or jargon of their own, in which they communicate -with each other. - -While the angekoks are the dispensers of good, the issintok, or evil men, -are the workers of injurious spells, enchantments, and metamorphoses. Like -the witches of both Englands, the Old and the New, these malignant -creatures are rarely submitted to trial until they have suffered -punishment--the old "Jeddart justice"--_castigat auditque_. Two of them, -in 1818, suffered the penalty of their crime on the same day, one at -Kannonak, the other at Upernavik. The latter was laudably killed in -accordance with the "old custom" ... custom being everywhere the apology -for any act revolting to moral sense. He was first harpooned, then -disembowelled; a flap letdown from his forehead "to cover his eyes and -prevent his seeing again"--he had, it appears, the repute of an evil eye; -and then small portions of his heart were eaten, to ensure that he should -not come back to earth unchanged. - -When an Eskimo has injured any one of his countrymen,--has cut his -seal-lines, or lamed his dogs, or burned his bladder-float--or perpetrated -some equally grievous offence--the angekok summons him to meet the -countryside before the tribunal of the hunapok. The friends of the -parties, and the idlers for miles around, assemble about the justice-seat; -it may be at some little cluster of huts, or, if the weather permit, in -the open air. The accuser rises, and strikes a few discords with a -seal-rib on a tom-tom or drum. "He then passes to the charge, and pours -out in long paragraphic words all the abuse and ridicule to which his -outrageous vernacular can give expression. The accused meanwhile is -silent; but, as the orator pauses after a signal hit, or to flourish a -cadence on his musical instrument, the whole audience, friends, neutrals, -and opponents signalise their approval by outcries as harmonious as those -we sometimes hear in our town meetings at home. Stimulated by the -applause, and warming with his own fires, the accuser renews the attack, -his eloquence becoming more and more licentious and vituperative, until it -has exhausted either his strength or his vocabulary of invective. Now -comes the accused, with defence, and counter-charge, and retorted abuse; -the assembly still listening and applauding through a lengthened session. -The Homeric debate at a close, the angekoks hold a powwow, and a penalty -is denounced against the accused for his guilt, or the accuser for his -unsustained prosecution." - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -_A MEDIAEVAL SUPERSTITION: THE FLAGELLANTS._ - - -Among the extraordinary delusions of the human mind, none is more hateful -than the conviction cherished among so many sects, that the Supreme Being -can be propitiated by the self-imposed torture of His worshippers. And -nothing more vividly illustrates the difference between the GOD of the -Christian religion and the stern deity of so many human creeds, than the -aspect of the former as man's Heavenly FATHER, Who requires from him no -other offering than that of a contrite and humble heart,--Who asks not -that the Indian Fakir should cramp his limbs and lacerate his body, or -that S. Simeon Stylites should stand night and day, in the scorching sun -of summer, and the freezing cold of winter, on his lonely pillar. It is a -proof of our wider and deeper knowledge of GOD that we are beginning to -emancipate ourselves from the thraldom of this evil idea, and to recognise -in Him a tender, compassionate Guide and Friend, Who, unto them that love -Him, causeth all things to work for the best. In modern Calvinism the -superstition still lingers, and it is supposed that a gloomy life, -unrelieved even by the most innocent pleasures, must needs be acceptable -to the Almighty Love; but this shadow in the Christian's faith is rapidly -receding before the growing and broadening light. We are sons of GOD, and -heirs; and what He asks from us, what alone He will receive, is the -offering of affection and the sacrifice of fear. And the greatest claim -which Christianity puts forward to the hearts and minds of men is that it -has delivered, or will deliver them, when rightly understood, from the -degrading superstition of the ascetic solitary and the self-torturer. -"Its true dignity is, that unseen it has ever gone about doing good. Link -after link has it struck from the chain of every human thraldom; error -after error has it banished; pain after pain has it driven from body or -from mind; and so silently has the blessing come, that (like the sick man -whom the SAVIOUR made to walk) 'he that was healed wist not who it was.'" - -But error is slow to die; and long after the introduction of Christianity -men continued to think that GOD would not hear them, unless, like the -priests of Baal, they approached Him in blood and tears. At the bottom of -it lay, no doubt, a truth, that the spirit could be exalted and purified -only by contempt of the flesh:--and not perceiving that what was demanded -of them was a moral and spiritual victory, they sought, by sore treatment -of the body, to conquer its sinful appetites. They forgot that CHRIST had -spoken of the body as "a temple,"--the temple of the HOLY GHOST; that it -was as much the creation of GOD as the immortal soul, and as His wondrous -handiwork should be treated with the reverence due to all that He has -made. And they came to look upon the body as a deadly enemy, the slave and -accomplice of the devil, which could be subdued only by a regimen of pain -and terror. And so, when an evil suggestion tempted them, they scourged -themselves until the blood ran from their mangled flesh, or they plunged -naked into the deep winter snow, or barefooted they trod the flinty soil, -or they fasted until the exhausted brain sank into the stupor of delirium. - -Thus we read of S. Hilarion:-- - -Covering his limbs only with a sackcloth, and having a cloak of skin, he -wandered forth into the desert that lies beyond Gaza, and enjoyed the -"vast and terrible solitude," feeding on only fifteen figs after the -setting of the sun; and because the region was of ill repute from -robberies, no man had ever before stayed in that place. The devil, seeing -what he was doing, and whither he had gone, was tormented. And he who of -old boasted, saying: "I shall ascend into heaven, I shall sit above the -stars of heaven, and shall be like unto the Most High," now saw that he -had been conquered by a boy, and trampled under foot by him, who, on -account of his youth, could commit no sin. He therefore began to tempt his -senses; but he, enraged with himself, and beating his breast with his -fist, as if he would drive out thoughts by blows, "I will force thee, mine -ass," said he, "not to kick; and feed thee with straw, not barley. I will -wear thee out with hunger and thirst; I will burden thee with heavy loads; -I will hunt thee through heat and cold, till thou thinkest more of food -than of play." He therefore sustained his sinking spirit with the juice of -herbs and a few figs, after each three or four days, praying frequently, -and singing psalms, and digging the ground with a mattock, to increase the -labour of fasting by that of work. At the same time, by weaving baskets of -rushes, he imitated the discipline of the Egyptian monks, and the -Apostle's saying, "He that will not work, neither let him eat," till he -was so attenuated, and his body so exhausted, that his flesh scarce clung -to his bones. - -"From his sixteenth to his twentieth year," says Kingsley, "he was -sheltered from the heat and rain in a tiny cabin, which he had woven of -rush and sedge. Afterwards he built a little cell, four feet wide and five -feet high,--that is lower than his own stature, and somewhat longer than -his small body needed,--so that you would believe it a tomb rather than a -dwelling. He cut his hair only once a year, on Easter Day, and lay till -his death on the bare ground and a layer of rushes, never washing the sack -in which he was clothed, and saying that it was superfluous to seek for -cleanliness in hair-cloth. Nor did he change his linen until the first was -utterly in rags. He knew the Scriptures by heart, and recited them after -his prayers and psalms as if GOD were present." - -Of S. Simeon Stylites we read that, having gone to the well one day to -draw water, he took the rope from the bucket, and wound it round his body -from his loins to his neck, and going in, he adventured an audacious -falsehood, for he said to his brethren, "I went out to draw water, and -found no rope on the bucket." And they said, "Hold thy peace, brother, -lest the Abbot know it, till the thing has passed over." But the tightness -and roughness of the rope wore grievous wounds in his body, as the -brethren at last discovered. Then with great trouble they took off the -rope, and his flesh with it, and attending to his wounds, healed them. - -For twenty-eight years of his life he was continually experimenting in -long fasts--forty days at a time. Custom gradually made it comparatively -easy to him. For on the first days he used to stand and praise GOD; after -that, when through emptiness he could stand no longer, he would sit and -perform the divine office, and on the last day even lie down. For when his -strength failed slowly, he was forced to lie half dead. But after he stood -on the column he could not bear to lie down, but invented another way by -which he could stand. He fastened a beam to the column, and tied himself -to it by ropes, and so passed the forty days. But afterwards, when endued -with greater grace from on high, he did not need even that assistance, but -stood for the whole forty days, dispensing with food, but strengthened by -eagerness of soul and the divine help. - -At length he caused a pillar to be built, first of six cubits, then of -twelve, next of twenty-two, and finally of thirty-six, and upon the top of -this he took his station. The sun beat upon his bare head in the summer, -and the winter snows fell upon him, and the pitiless rains soaked him to -the skin,--but still he endured his self-imposed penance. He bowed himself -frequently, offering adoration to GOD; so frequently that a spectator -counted 1244 adorations, and then missing gave up counting; and each time -he bowed himself, he touched his feet with his forehead. And ever in -spirit he deprecated the wrath of an offended GOD, to Whom, as a meet -sacrifice, he offered up his poor, wounded, tortured, emaciated body. - - "I will not cease to grasp the hope I hold - Of saintdom, and to clamour, mourn and sob, - Battering the gates of heaven with storms of prayer. - Have mercy on me, LORD, and take away my sins, - Let this avail, just, dreadful, mighty GOD, - This not be all in vain, that thrice ten years - Thrice multiplied by superhuman pangs.... - A sign between the meadow and the cloud, - Patient on this tall pillar I have borne - Rain, wind, frost, heat, hail, damp, and sleet, and snow; - And I had hoped that ere this period closed, - Thou wouldst have caught me up into Thy rest, - Denying not these weather-beaten limbs - The meed of saints, the white robe, and the palm. - O take the meaning, LORD: I do not breathe - Nor whisper any murmur of complaint."[58] - -We turn from these pictures of human error,--error based, it must be -owned, on a substratum of truth,--to put together a few particulars of the -Sect of the Flagellants, which practised on a curiously elaborate scale -the science of self-punishment. - -This sect first made its appearance in Italy in 1210. The following -account of its origin is taken by Mr. Cooper from the "Chronicon Ursitius -Basiliensis" of the monk of Padua, S. Justin:[59] - -"When all Italy was sullied with crimes of every kind, a certain sudden -superstition, hitherto unknown to the world, first seized the inhabitants -of Perusa, afterwards the Romans, and then almost all the nations of -Italy. To such a degree were they affected with the fear of GOD, that -noble as well as ignoble persons, young and old, even children five years -of age, would go naked about the streets without any sense of shame, -walking in public, two and two, in the manner of a solemn procession. -Every one of them held in his hand a scourge, made of leather thongs, and -with tears and groans they lashed themselves on their backs till the blood -ran: all the while weeping and giving tokens of the same bitter -affliction, as if they had really been spectators of the passion of our -SAVIOUR, imploring the forgiveness of GOD and His Mother, and praying that -He, Who had been appeased by the repentance of so many sinners, would not -disdain theirs. And not only in the daytime, but likewise during the -nights, hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands of these penitents ran, -notwithstanding the rigour of winter, about the streets, and in churches, -with lighted wax candles in their hands, and preceded by priests who -carried crosses and banners along with them, and with humility prostrated -themselves before the altars: the same scenes were to be seen in small -towns and villages; so that the mountains and fields seemed to resound -alike the voice of men who were crying to GOD. - -"All musical instruments and love-songs ceased to be heard. The only music -that prevailed both in town and country was that of the lugubrious voice -of the penitent, whose mournful accents might have moved hearts of flint: -and even the eyes of the obdurate sinner could not refrain from tears. Nor -were women exempt from the general spirit of devotion we mention; for not -only those among the common people, but also matrons and young ladies of -noble families, would perform the same mortifications with modesty in -their own rooms. - -"Then those who were at enmity with one another became again friends. -Usurers and robbers hastened to restore their ill-gotten riches to their -right owners. Others, who were contaminated with different crimes, -confessed them with humility, and renounced their vanities. Gaols were -opened; prisoners were delivered; and banished persons permitted to return -to their native habitations. So many and so great works of sanctity and -Christian charity, in short, were then performed by both men and women, -that it seemed as if an universal apprehension had seized mankind, that -the divine power was preparing either to consume them by fire, or destroy -them by shaking the earth, or some other of those means which Divine -justice knows how to employ for avenging crimes. Such a sudden repentance, -which had thus diffused itself all over Italy, and had even reached other -countries, not only the unlearned, but wise persons also admired. They -wondered whence such a vehement fervour of piety could have proceeded: -especially since such public penances and ceremonies had been unheard of -in former times, had not been approved by the sovereign pontiff, nor -recommended by any preacher or person of eminence; but had taken their -origin among simple persons, whose example both learned and unlearned -alike had followed." - - * * * * * - -In 1260, the sect was reconstituted by Rainer, a hermit of Perugia, and it -sprang up with such vigour and alacrity, that its members soon numbered -10,000, who marched in procession, carrying banners and crosses. The folly -soon crossed the Alps into Germany, and found its disciples in Bohemia and -Poland, Alsatia and Bavaria. It was sternly repressed by the different -governments, but in 1349, when the plague broke out in Germany, it again -lifted up its head. Albert of Strasburg relates[60] that two hundred came -from Schwaben to Speier, under one chief and two lieutenants, whom they -almost slavishly obeyed. Their form of proceedings was always the same: -placing themselves within a circle drawn on the ground, they removed their -clothing, until nothing was left but a covering for the loins. Then they -walked, with arms outstretched like a cross, round and round the circle -for a time, finally prostrating themselves on the ground. Springing to -their feet, each struck his neighbour with a scourge, armed with knots and -four iron points, regulating his blows by his singing of psalms. At a -given signal the discipline ceased, and the fanatics threw themselves -first on their knees, then flat upon the ground, groaning and sobbing. The -leader, on rising, gave a brief address, exhorting them to ask the mercy -of God upon their benefactors and enemies, and also on the souls in -purgatory. This was followed by another prostration, and then another -discipline. Those who had taken charge of the clothes now came forward, -and performed the same ceremonies. - -"Penance took place twice a day: in the morning and evening the -flagellants went abroad in pairs, singing psalms amid the ringing of -bells, and when they arrived at the place of flagellation they stripped -the upper part of their bodies, and took off their shoes, wearing only a -linen dress from the waist to the ankles. Then they lay down in a large -circle in different positions, according to the nature of their crime: the -adulterer with his face to the ground; the perjurer on one side, holding -up three of his fingers, &c., and were then castigated, more or less -severely by the master, who gave the order to rise in the words of a -prescribed formula: - - 'Stant uf durch der reinen Martel ere; - Und huete dich vor der Suenden mere.'" - -After which they scourged themselves, chanting psalms and uttering prayers -for deliverance from the plague. - -Hecker, quoted by Mr. Cooper, thus describes the resuscitation of the -sect: - -"While all countries were filled with lamentations and woe, there first -arose in Hungary, and afterwards in Germany, the Brotherhood of the -Flagellants, called also the Brotherhood of the Cross, or Cross-Bearers, -who took upon themselves the repentance of the people for the sins they -had committed, and offered prayers and supplications for the averting of -this plague. The order consisted chiefly of the lowest class, who were -either actuated by sincere contrition, or joyfully availed themselves of -this pretext for idleness, and were hurried along with the tide of -distracting frenzy. But as these brotherhoods gained in repute, and were -welcomed by the people with veneration and enthusiasm, many nobles and -ecclesiastics ranged themselves under their standard, and their bands were -not unfrequently augmented by children, honourable women, and nuns, so -powerfully were minds of the most opposite temperaments enslaved by this -infatuation. They marched through the cities in well-organised -processions, with leaders and singers; their heads covered as far as their -eyes, their looks fixed on the ground, accompanied by every token of the -deepest contrition and mourning. They were robed in sombre garments with -red crosses on the breast, back, and cap, and bore triple scourges tied in -three or four knots, in which points of iron were fixed. Tapers and -magnificent banners of velvet and cloth of gold were carried before them; -wherever they made their appearance they were welcomed by the ringing of -bells, and crowds of people came from great distances to listen to their -hymns and to witness their penance with devotion and tears. In the year -1349, two hundred flagellants first entered Strasburg, where they were -received with great joy and hospitality, and lodged by the citizens. Above -a thousand joined the brotherhood, which now assumed the appearance of a -wandering tribe, and separated into two bodies for the purpose of -journeying to the north and to the south." - -The Flagellants, however, did not secure the favour of the ecclesiastical -authorities; who discerned only too clearly the demoralising effect of -their practices and pretensions. Pope Clement VI. issued a bull against -them, and their influence gradually waned and seemed on the point of -dying out, when, in 1414, it was revived by one Conrad, who, of course, -professed to have received a Divine commission. The terrors of the -Inquisition were now hurled against the sect, and ninety-one deluded -wretches were burned alive at Sangerhausen, besides numbers at other -places. It continued, however, to exhibit occasional signs of vitality; -and in the sixteenth century broke, in France, into three great branches, -the White, Black, and Grey Penitents, companions of whom were scattered -over the whole kingdom, but chiefly in the southern provinces. Catherine -de Medicis, at Avignon, in 1574, assumed the lead of the Black Penitents, -and took part in their disgusting ceremonies. Henry III., in 1585, -established a White Penance brotherhood, which paraded in public -procession through the streets of Paris. The better members of the clergy -preached against the fanaticism; the wits of Paris levelled their ridicule -at it; and finally, in 1601, the Parliament of Paris passed an act to -abolish a fraternity of Flagellants, called the Blue Penitents, in the -town of Bourges, and afterwards against all whipping brotherhoods without -distinction, declaring the members to be not only heretics, traitors, and -regicides, but unchaste. The fraternity thereafter declined, and finally -disappeared from France. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -_SCOTTISH SUPERSTITIONS: HALLOWEEN._ - - -The imaginative element in the character of the Celtic race naturally -predisposes them to the reception and retention of fanciful ideas in -connection with our relations to the unseen. Keenly sensible of the -existence of supernatural influences, they are morbidly curious as to the -mode in which they act upon humanity, and ever desirous to propitiate or -guard against them. There is something in the presence of the sea and the -mountains which fosters a habit of reverie; and the mind, awed and -perplexed by the vastness of the forces of Nature, is led to give them an -actual and definite embodiment, and to associate them directly with the -incidents of our mortal life. Granted the existence of invisible -creatures, there is no reason why man, who looks upon the universe as a -circle of which he is the centre, should not suppose them to be interested -in all that interests himself; and when this is once admitted, it follows -as an inevitable result, that he will endeavour to make them the agents of -his inclination or his will, unless he fears them as powers whose anger -must be reverently deprecated. It will be found that most of the popular -superstitions to which we refer are based upon these motives; that most of -them originate in the desire to bribe and cajole Fortune, or to command -and defeat it. Others will be found to have had their rise, as we have -hinted, in the feelings of awe and wonder awakened by the mystery or the -grandeur of Nature. The wail of waters against a rocky coast has suggested -the cries of the ocean maiden who seeks to lure the mariner to his -destruction; the wreathing mists floating in fantastic shapes across the -mountain valleys, has peopled their depths with a world of spirits or -friendly or inimical to mortals. The imagination, which has been quickened -by Nature, proceeds in turn to breathe into Nature a new life. - -To some of the superstitions which haunt the glens, and peaks, and -torrents of the Scottish Highlands, the poet Collins has alluded in one of -his most beautiful odes. He speaks of the North as fancy's land, where -still, it is said, the fairy people meet, beneath the shade of the -graceful birches, upon mead or hill. To the belief in a tribe of -hobgoblins, tiny creatures, visiting the peasant's hut in the silence of -the night, he also refers:-- - - "There, each trim lass, that skims the milky store, - To the swart tribes their creamy bowls allots; - By night they sip it round the cottage door, - While airy minstrels warble jocund notes." - -The malicious disposition of the elves is thus insisted upon:-- - - "There every herd, by sad experience, knows - How, wing'd with fate, their elf-shot arrows fly, - When the sick ewe her summer food foregoes, - Or, stretch'd on earth, the heart-smit heifers lie." - -To superstitions of higher import the poet alludes in the following noble -lines:-- - - "'Tis thine to sing, how, framing hideous spells, - In Skye's lone isle, the gifted wizard seer, - Lodged in the wintry cave with fate's fell spear, - Or in the depth of Uist's dark forest dwells: - How they, whose sight such dreary dreams engross, - With their own vision oft astonished droop, - When, o'er the watery strath, or quaggy moss. - They see the gliding ghosts' unbodied troop. - Or, if in sports, or on the festive green, - Their destined glance some fated youth descry, - Who now, perhaps, in lusty vigour seen, - And rosy health, shall soon lamented die. - For them the viewless forms of air obey; - Their bidding heed, and at their beck repair: - They know what spirit brews the stormful day, - And heartless, oft like moody madness, stare - To see the phantom train their secret work prepare." - -We may allow ourselves one more quotation, in which the poet accumulates -instances of the "second sight," or power of divination, to which the -Highland seers laid claim:-- - - "To monarchs dear, some hundred miles astray, - Oft have they seen fate give the fatal blow! - The sea, in Skye, shrieked as the blood did flow, - When headless Charles warm on the scaffold lay! - As Boreas threw his young Aurora forth, - In the first year of the first George's reign, - And battles raged in welkin of the North, - They mourned in air, fell, fell rebellion slain! - And as, of late, they joyed in Preston's fight, - Saw, at sad Falkirk, all their hopes near crowned! - They raved, divining through their second sight, - Pale-red Culloden where these hopes were drowned." - -This same power of second sight forms the groundwork of Campbell's poem of -"Lochiel's Warning," in which the poet represents the aged seer or -soothsayer in the act of warning the ferocious Highland chieftain against -the consequences of joining Prince Charles Edward's expedition of the -'45:-- - - "Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day - When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array. - The sunset of life gives me mystical lore, - And coming events cast their shadows before!" - -A curious superstition respecting "the non-giving of fire" lingers still -in some parts of Scotland, more particularly in the North, and seems to be -connected with the old sun-worship: a survival of the Pagan past which is -strange enough in this matter-of-fact and prosaic Present of ours. "At -Craigmillar, near Edinburgh, a woman, not long ago, refused to give a -neighbour 'a bit peat' to light her fire, because she was supposed to be -uncanny. The old woman muttered, as she turned away, that her churlish -neighbour might yet repent of her unkindness. This speech the other -repeated to her husband on his return from work, whereupon he went -straight to the old woman's house, and gave her a sharp cut on the -forehead, for which he was duly called to account, and pleaded his belief -that scoring the witch above the breath would destroy her glamour." - -On certain days, such as Beltane (or S. John's Eve,) Midsummer, Halloween, -and New Year's Day, it is regarded as most unlucky to allow a neighbour to -take a brand from your hearth, or even to light his pipe. - -Evil-disposed persons, desirous of doing their neighbours an ill turn, -will apply to them for "a kindling." Thus, in Ross-shire, an old beldame -repaired to a neighbour's house with this intent. There was only a child -of eight years old at home, but she was thoroughly acquainted with the -popular superstition, and stoutly refused the applicant tinder, match, or -lighted stick. When the old woman had departed, the girl fetched two -friends, who straightway followed her home, to find there a blazing fire -and a boiling pot. "See you," exclaimed the lassie, "gin the _cailliach_ -had gotten the kindling, my father would not get a herring this year." - -A poor tinker's wife walked one morning into a house in Applecross--this -was as late as July, 1868--and snatched a live peat from the hearth to -kindle her own fire. Before she had gone any distance, she was observed, -and the gudewife sped after her, overtook her, and snatched away her -prize. To a stranger who remonstrated with her for the unkindness, the -gudewife exclaimed, "Do you think I am to allow my cow to be dried up? If -I allowed her to carry away the fire, I would not have a drop of milk -to-night to wet the bairns' mouths." And she flung the peat into a pail of -water in order to undo the evil charm so far as possible. - -Allusions to this "non-giving of fire" abound in the old legends, but a -single illustration will suffice. Of old two brother giants, Akin and -Rhea, who dwelt on the Scottish mainland, were wont to pay frequent visits -to the Isle of Skye by leaping across the Straits. They reared for -themselves two strong towers in the Glenelg country, and there they lived -in peace and good fellowship, until one day, the younger brother, -returning from one of his excursions, found his hearth dark and cheerless, -and passed on therefore, to his brother's castle. Stirring the smouldering -fire into a hearty blaze, he warmed himself luxuriously, and then returned -to his own tower, carrying with him a burning peat. Unhappily, at this -moment, his elder brother came in from the chase, and discovering the -theft, broke out into a violent passion. Off sped the culprit, and after -him went his brother, hurling rock after rock in his rage, until he -perceived that further pursuit was useless. The truth of this story is -attested by the boulders which to this day lie strewn all over the -valley-side. - -A survival of the old Paganism is, undoubtedly, this apprehension of -ill-luck connected with the giving or stealing of fire; and it recalls to -us the days when every mountain-peak was as an altar raised to Baal, and -Sun and Moon were worshipped with solemn mysterious rites. On the great -Fire-festival the priests kindled fire by friction, and the people carried -it to their cottages, where it was kept alive all round the year and -extinguished only when a new supply was ready. "As the purchase of the -fire was a source of profit to the priests, it would naturally be -considered criminal for one neighbour to give it to another at the seasons -when every man was bound to purchase it for himself. Of course, though the -old customs are still retained, their original meaning is utterly -forgotten; and the man who throws a live peat after a woman who is about -to increase the population, or he who on Halloween throws a lighted brand -over his own shoulder without looking at whom he aims, little dreams -whence sprang these time-honoured games." It is said that in many parts of -the remote glens of Perthshire there are women still living who on Beltane -morn always throw ashes and a live peat over their heads, repeating a -certain formula of words to bring them back. But the strictest secrecy is -observed, lest such practices should reach the ear of "the minister:" so -the stronger their belief, the less willing are they to confess to any -knowledge of such matters. - -We cannot pass from this subject without an allusion to the Fire-Churn or -Need-Fire, which is held a sovereign charm against cattle-plague. When in -a Highland district an invasion of murrain was apprehended, a small shanty -or hut was erected near loch or river, and in it were placed various -wooden posts, vertical and horizontal: the horizontal were provided with -several spokes, and being rapidly turned round against the upright, -quickly generated a flame by the friction. Then all other fires upon the -farm were extinguished, to be re-lighted from the Need-fire, which all the -cattle were afterwards made to smell, until the charm was complete. - - * * * * * - -It was on Halloween, or All Hallows' Eve--the evening of the 31st of -October--that Superstition ran riot, because on that particular evening -the supernatural influences of the other world were supposed to be -specially prevalent, and the power of divination was likewise believed to -be at its height. Spirits then walked about with unusual freedom, and -readily responded to the call of those armed with due authority. In the -prehistoric past, the Druids at this time celebrated their great autumn -Fire-Festival, insisting that all fires, except their own, should be -extinguished, so as to compel men to purchase the sacred fire at a certain -price. This sacred fire was fed with the peeled wood of a certain tree, -and that it might not be polluted, was never blown with human breath. - -Needless to say that the sacred fire has vanished with the Druids, but the -Halloween customs which still survive may be traced back to a hoar -antiquity. For instance, various kinds of divination are practised, and -chiefly with apples and nuts. Apples are a relic of the old Celtic fairy -lore. They are thrown into a tub of water, and you endeavour to catch one -in your mouth as they bob round and round in provoking fashion. When you -have caught one, you peel it carefully, and pass the long strip of peel -thrice, _sunwise_, round your head; after which you throw it over your -shoulder, and it falls to the ground in the shape of the initial letter of -your true love's name. - -As for the nuts, they would naturally suggest themselves to the dwellers -in mighty woods, such as covered the land of old. Brand says it is a -custom in Iceland, when the maiden would know if her lover be faithful, to -put three nuts upon the bar of the grate, naming them after her lover and -herself. If a nut crack or jump, the lover will prove faithless; if it -begin to blaze or burn, it's a sign of the fervour of his affection. If -the nuts named after the girl and her swain burn together, they will be -married. - -This lover's divination is practised in Scotland, as everybody knows who -has read Burns's poem of "Halloween:"-- - - "The auld guidwife's weel hoordet nits - Are round and round divided, - An' monie lads and lasses' fates - Are there that night decided: - Some kindle, couthie, side by side, - An' burn thegither trimly; - Some start awa wi' saucy pride, - And jump out-owre the chimlie - Fu' high that night. - - "Jean slips in twa wi' tentie e'e; - Wha 'twas, she wadna tell; - But this is _Jock_, an' this is _me_, - She says in to hersel': - He bleez'd owre her an' she owre him, - As they wad never mair part; - Till, fuff! he started up the lum, - An' Jean had e'en a sair heart - To see't that night." - -In some places, on this mystic night, a stick is suspended horizontally -from the ceiling, with a candle at one end, and an apple at the other. -While it is made to revolve rapidly, the revellers successively leap up -and endeavour to grasp the apple with their teeth--the hands must not be -used--if they fail, the candle generally swings round in time to salute -them disagreeably. The reader will note the resemblance between this -pastime and the game of quintain, to which our forefathers were partial. - -Another amusement is to dive for apples in a tub of water. - -In Strathspey, a lass will steal away from the kitchen fire, make her way -to the kiln where the corn is dried, throw a ball of thread into it, and -wind it up slowly, while uttering certain words. The form of her future -lover will take hold of the end of the thread, and reveal itself to her. -The most arduous part of this charm is, that no speaking is allowed either -on the outward journey or the return. - -Another mode of lover's divination is for the young people, after being -duly blindfolded, to go forth into the kailyard, or garden, and pull the -first stalks they meet with. Returning to the fireside, they determine, -according as the stalk is big or little, straight or crooked, what the -future wife or husband will be. The quantity of earth adhering to the root -is emblematic of the dowry to be expected; and the temper is indicated by -the sweet or bitter taste of the _motoc_ or pith. Lastly, the stalks are -placed in order, over the door, and the Christian names of persons -afterwards entering the house signify in the same order those of the wives -and husbands _in futuris_. - -Burns describes another custom: - - "In order on the clean hearth-stane, - The luggies[61] three are ranged, - And every time great care is ta'en - To see them duly changed: - And uncle John wha wedlock's joys - Sin' Mar's-year did desire, - Because he gat the toom-dish[62] thrice, - He heav'd them on the fire - In wrath that night." - -For this amusement three dishes are taken: one filled with clean and one -with dirty water, and the other empty. They are set upon the hearth, and -the parties, blindfolded, advance in succession to dip their fingers. If -they chance upon the clean water, it is understood that they will marry a -maiden; if upon the foul, they will marry a widow; if upon the empty dish, -they will not marry at all. - -Again: if a damsel eat an apple in front of a looking-glass, she will -shortly see her future husband peeping over her shoulder. So Burns: - - "Wee Jenny to her Grannie says, - 'Will ye go wi' me, Grannie? - I'll eat the apple at the glass - I gat frae uncle Johnie.' - She fuff't[63] her pipe wi' sic a lunt, - In wrath she was sae vap'rin', - She notic't na an aizle[64] brunt, - Her braw new worset apron, - Out thro' that night. - - "'Ye little skelpie limmer's[65] face! - How daur you try sic sportin', - As seek the foul thief ony place, - For him to spae your fortune: - Nae doubt but ye may get a sight! - Great cause ye hae to fear it; - For mony a ane has gotten a fright, - An' liv'd an' di'd deleeret, - On sic a night.'" - -A shirt-sleeve may be wetted, and hung before the fire to dry: then if -_he_ or _she_ lie in bed and watch it until midnight, _he_ or _she_ will -behold _his_ or _her_ future partner's phantasm come in and turn it! - -Children born on Halloween were formerly supposed to be gifted with -certain mysterious endowments, such as the power of perceiving and -conversing with the "dwellers on the threshold," the inhabitants of the -World Invisible. - -Once upon a time, all over Scotland a bonfire was lighted on every farm; -and often the bonfire was surrounded by a circular trench, symbolical of -the sun. Every year these bonfires decrease in number; but within the -recollection of living men no fewer than thirty could be seen on the high -hilltops between Dunkeld and Abergeldy. And a strange weird sight it was, -worthy of the pencil of a Rembrandt,--the dusky figures of the lads and -lasses dancing wildly around them, to the hoarse music of their own -voices! Miss Cumming writes that in the neighbourhood of Crieff, the -bale-fires, as the people call them, still blaze as brightly as ever; and -from personal observation we can assert that they are still lighted in -many parts of Argyllshire. - -A remarkable Halloween story is recorded in Dr. Robert Chambers's valuable -miscellany, "The Book of Days." Mr. and Mrs. M., we are told, were a happy -young couple, who, in the middle of the last century, resided on their own -estate, in a pleasant part of the province of Leinster. Possessed of a -handsome fortune, they spent their time in various rural avocations, until -the birth of a child, a little girl, seemed to crown their felicity. On -the Halloween following this notable event, the parents retired to rest at -their usual hour, Mrs. M. cradling her infant on her bosom that she might -be roused if it showed the least sign of uneasiness. From teething or some -other ailment, the child, about midnight, became very restless, and not -receiving the usual attention from its mother, woke up Mr. M. by its -cries. He at once called his wife, and told her the baby was unwell; she -made no answer. She seemed in an uneasy slumber, and in spite of all her -husband's efforts continued to sleep on, until he was compelled to take -the child himself and endeavour to soothe it to rest. From sheer -exhaustion it at last sank into silence, while the mother slumbered until -a much later hour than usual. When she at last awoke, her husband told her -of what had happened, and of the extent to which his night's rest had been -disturbed. "I, too," she replied, "have passed the most miserable night I -ever experienced: I now see that sleep and rest are two different things, -for I never felt so unrefreshed in my life. How I wish you had been able -to awake me--it would have spared me some of my fatigue and anxiety! I -thought I was dragged against my will into a strange part of the country, -where I had never been before, and, after what appeared to me a long and -weary journey on foot, I arrived at a comfortable looking house. I went in -longing to rest, but had no power to sit down, although there was a nice -supper laid out before a good fire, and every appearance of preparations -for an expected visitor. Exhausted as I felt, I was only allowed to stand -for a minute or two, and then hurried away by the same road back again; -but now it is over, and after all it was only a dream." - -Her husband listened with deep interest to this strange narrative, and -then, sighing deeply, said, "My dear Sarah, you will not long have me -beside you; whoever is to be your second husband played last night some -evil trick, of which you have been the victim." - -Shocked as she naturally was by this assertion, she sought to subdue her -own emotion, and to rally her husband's spirits, hoping that the -impression would pass from his mind as soon as he entered into the -every-day work of life. - -Months passed away, and both husband and wife had almost forgotten the -Halloween dream, when Mr. M.'s health began to fail, and to fail so -rapidly, that in spite of loving care and the best medical skill, he sank -into a premature grave. His wife mourned him sincerely, but her natural -energy and activity prevented her from yielding to a hopeless sorrow. She -continued to farm her husband's estate, and in this employment, and in the -education of her little girl was able to divert her thoughts. Not less -admired for her conspicuous ability, than beloved for her benevolence and -amiability, she was more than once solicited to lay aside her widow's -weeds; but she persisted in a calm refusal. Her uncle, a man of much -kindness of heart and clearness of judgment, frequently visited her, -inspected her farm, and gave her advice and assistance. He had a nephew, -whom we will call C., a prudent and energetic young man, in whom he had -every confidence, and whenever they met, he would strongly recommend him -to take to himself a wife, and "settle." On one occasion C. replied that -it was not his fault he still remained a bachelor, but he had never yet -met with any woman whom he would care to call his wife. "Well, C.," said -his uncle, "you seem difficult to please, but I think I know a lady who -would approve herself even to _your_ fastidious taste." After a -good-humoured exchange of quip and repartee, the uncle invited the nephew -to ride over with him next day, and be introduced to his niece, whom C. -had never yet seen. - -The invitation was accepted; the two friends set out early on the -following morning, and after a pleasant ride drew near their destination. -At a short distance they caught sight of Mrs. M. retiring towards her -house after her usual daily inspection of her farm. Mr. C. started -violently, and displayed a considerable agitation. Pointing towards the -lady, he exclaimed, "Uncle, we need go no further, for if ever I am to be -married, yonder goes my wife!" "Well, C.," replied his uncle, "that is -fortunate, for yonder lady is my niece, to whom I am about to introduce -you. But tell me," he continued, "is this what you call love at first -sight? Or what do you mean by such a sudden decision in favour of a lady -with whom you have never exchanged a word?" "Well, sir," was the reply, -"as I have betrayed myself, it is well that I should make full confession. -A year or two ago, I was foolish enough to try a Halloween spell,--and sat -up all night to watch the result. I declare to you most solemnly that the -figure of that lady, as I now see her, entered my room, and looked at me. -She stood a minute or two by the fire, and then disappeared as suddenly -and as silently as she had entered. I was wide awake, and felt -considerable remorse at having thus ventured to tamper with the powers of -the Unseen World; but I assure you that every particular of her features, -dress, and figure have been so present to my mind ever since, that I could -not possibly make a mistake, and the moment I saw your niece I was -convinced that she was indeed the woman whose image I saw on that -never-forgotten Halloween." - -It is unnecessary to say that the uncle was considerably astonished at -this extraordinary narrative, but he forbore to comment upon it, as by -this time they had arrived at Mrs. M.'s house. The lady was delighted to -see her uncle, and made his friend heartily welcome, discharging the -duties of hostess with a simplicity and grace that fascinated her guest. - -After her visitors had rested and refreshed themselves, her uncle walked -out with her to inspect the farm, and seized the opportunity, in the -absence of Mr. C., to bespeak for him his niece's favourable -consideration. Many words were unnecessary, for the impression produced -had been mutually agreeable. Before leaving the house Mr. C. obtained Mrs. -M.'s permission to visit her in the character of a suitor for her -hand,--and after a brief courtship they were married. The story ends, as -all such stories _should_ end, with the affirmation that they lived long -and happily together, and it was from their daughter that Dr. Chambers's -informant derived his knowledge of the preceding remarkable episode in -their career. - -Dr. Chambers assures us that the leading incidents of the narrative may be -relied on as correct; but we think the reader will exercise a wise -incredulity: that at all events his belief will not go beyond the -admission of some possible resemblance, entirely accidental, between Mrs. -M. and the lady whom the imaginative Mr. C. had seen in his Halloween -dream, and whose image he had so carefully treasured in his memory. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -_SECOND SIGHT: DIVINATION: UNIVERSALITY OF CERTAIN SUPERSTITIONS: FAIRIES -IN SCOTLAND._ - - -There are many aspects of the Past which have an interest for the -psychological student as well as for the antiquary, and there are not a -few to which everybody may occasionally direct their attention with -advantage. We are too much inclined to put it aside as a "sealed book," -which none but the scholar can open,--which, when opened, is hardly worth -the reading. Or we are attracted only by its picturesque and romantic -side, and take no heed of the valuable lessons which may be deduced upon a -careful examination. Yet, as all history is more or less the history of -human error and human folly, those chapters which treat of the credulities -and superstitions of the Past, must surely embody many warnings and much -counsel for the present. - -Our glance at Halloween superstitions in Scotland reminds us of other old -Scottish practices, which serve to point a moral, if not to adorn a tale. -We have met with a volume by a Mr. Walter Gregor, which furnishes some -curious illustrative instances. On his vivid picture of the gloom and -desolation of a Scottish Sabbath, we will not dwell, for our readers will -probably have gathered from other sources, or even from personal -experience, an idea of the dreariness of that sombre institution in the -days when bigotry was mistaken for zeal, and the spirit was killed -outright by the letter. It is pleasanter to read of the strong yearning -for knowledge that then possessed the hearts of our Scottish youth; and -how, in the age before School Boards were conceived of, the parish school -supplied for twenty shillings per annum an education which fitted the -scholar for entering the University. No Royal Road to Learning had as yet -been discovered; and with much sweat of brain did the aspiring student -brood over his Homer or Virgil by the flickering light of the peat-fire. -When the time came for his removal to Glasgow or Aberdeen, thither he -trudged afoot with his little "all" in a knapsack slung from his sturdy -shoulders; and during the "sessions" it was a hard hand-to-hand fight with -poverty which he stoutly fought, while delving deep into classical and -mathematical lore; not forgetting occasional excursions into that vague -metaphysical region which has always had so keen an attraction for the -strong Scotch intellect. Our "present-day" students would too often -shrink, we suspect, from the sacrifices demanded of their forefathers, and -give way under the hardships which they endured, when a few potatoes and a -salt herring served for dinner, and all the expenses of the academical -year were covered by some twelve to sixteen pounds! We are by no means -sure that knowledge was not more valued when it was attainable only at -such a cost of self-denial and rigid effort; and we certainly believe that -it was more thorough, more entirely a man's own, because it was wrung, so -to speak, from the reluctant goddess by strenuous, steadfast work and -sheer mental travail. To the Age of Gold and the Age of Iron has succeeded -the Age of Veneer; and we trouble ourselves too little now-a-days, in -spite of the teaching of Ruskin and Carlyle, about the solidness and -durability of the material, so long as it will take a ready polish. - -But what a strange world was that of the Scotch peasant in those far off -days--far off at least they _seem_, on account of the immense social -revolution that has taken place, and set between the _now_ and the _then_ -a profound chasm. Men often speak of the hard-headedness and -matter-of-fact stolidity of the Scotch nature; but is it not true that -below the surface lies an abundant fountain of wild, quaint, original -fancy? And how, in the olden time, it surrounded itself with signs and -omens and wonders! How it loved to put itself in communion, as it were, -with that _other_ world which lies beyond and yet around us, which -perplexes us with its subtle intelligence, which we cannot discern, -though of its presence we are always sensible! From the cradle to the -grave the Scotch peasant went his way attended by the phantoms of this -mysterious world; always recognising its warnings, always seeing the -shadows which it cast of coming events, and so burdening himself with a -weight of grim and eery superstition, that we marvel he did not stumble -and grow faint, seeing that his dreary Calvinistic creed could have -brought him little hope or comfort. Nay, it is a question whether his -superstition did not partly grow out of, or was fostered by, his hard, -cold religion. Superstition is the shadow of Religion, and from the shadow -we may infer the nature of the substance or object that casts it. - -But of these darker things we shall not speak. Let us trace a few of the -common traditions and customs of the people, though in doing so we -digress, perhaps, from the main lines of the present volume. While less -impressive than the mere mystical practices, they proceeded from the same -source,--an imagination haunted by the formidable presence of Nature, by -the forms of lofty mountains, by the mysteries of pine-clad ravines, and -the murmurs of storm-swept lochs and falling waters. For it has been truly -said that the Scotch people have been made what they are by Scotland; that -the Land has moulded and fashioned the People; and that in their -literature, their religion, their manners, their history, the influence is -seen of the physical characteristics of the country. - -On the birth of a child--to begin at the beginning--we read that both -mother and offspring were "sained," a lighted fir-candle being carried -three times round the bed, and a Bible, with a bannock or bread and cheese -being placed under the pillow, while a kind of blessing was indistinctly -uttered. Sometimes a fir-candle was set on the bed to keep off fairies. If -the new-born showed any symptoms of fractiousness, it was supposed to be a -changeling; and to test the truth of the supposition, the child was placed -suddenly before a peat-fire, when, if really a changeling, it made its -escape by the "lum," throwing back words of scorn as it disappeared. Great -was the eagerness to get the babe baptised, lest it should be stolen by -the fairies. If it died unchristened, it wandered in woods and solitary -places, bewailing its miserable fate. In Ramsay's "Gentle Shepherd," -Bauldy, describing Manse the witch, says of her:-- - - "At midnight hours o'er the kirkyard she raves, - And howks unchristened weans out of their graves." - -It was considered "unlucky" to mention the name of an "unchristened wean;" -and even at baptism the name was commonly written on a slip of paper, -which was handed to the officiating minister. What care was taken that the -consecrated water should not enter the child's eyes! For if such a mishap -occurred, his future life, wherever he went and whatever he did, would be -constantly marred by the presence of wraiths and phantoms. If the babe -remained quiet at the font, it was supposed to be destined to a brief -career; and hence, to extort a cry, the woman who received it from the -father would handle it roughly or even pinch it. If a boy and girl were -baptised together, much anxiety was evinced lest the girl should first -receive the rite. And why? In the "Statistical Account of Scotland," the -minister of an Orcadian parish says: "Within these last seven years the -minister has been twice interrupted in administering baptism to a female -child before the male child, who was baptised immediately after. When the -service was over, he was gravely told he had done very wrong, for, if the -female child was first baptised, she would, on her coming to the years of -discretion, most certainly have a strong beard, and the boy would have -none." - -Following up the course of human life through the honeyed days of "wooing -and wedding," we find it darkened still by the clouds of Superstition. If -a maiden desired to call up the image of her future husband, she read the -third verse, seventeenth chapter of the Book of Job after supper, washed -the supper dishes, and retired to bed without uttering a single word, -placing before her pillow the Bible, with a pin thrust through the verse -she had read. It is curious to observe the use of the Bible in these wild -and foolish customs: was it not an indirect testimony to the reverence, -not always intelligent, perhaps, but certainly sincere, in which the holy -book was held? Nor are we certain that it is not sometimes turned to worse -purposes in these "enlightened days," when a pseudo-science seeks to -convert it into the battle-field of audacious theories, and an ignorant -intolerance too often professes to discover in its bright and blessed -pages an excuse for its uncharitable follies. - -But we must continue our _resume_. It is curious to read that the -wedding-dress might not be "tried on" before the wedding-day, and if it -did not fit, it might not be cut or altered, but was adjusted in the best -manner possible. The bride, on the way to church, was forbidden to look -back, for to do so was to ensure a succession of disasters and quarrels in -the married state. It was considered inauspicious, moreover, if she did -not "greet" or weep on the marriage-day; a superstition obviously -connected with the wide-spread idea of the necessity of propitiating the -Fates which inspired the advice of Amasis to the too fortunate -Polycrates,[66] that he should fine himself for his success by throwing -some costly thing into the sea. It was thought well to marry at the time -of the growing moon, and among fisher-folk a flowing tide was regarded as -"lucky." These customs were puerile enough, undoubtedly, but before we -censure them too severely we may ask whether our modern bridals are wholly -free from superstitious observances; whether we do not still pretend to -"bribe" the fickle Fortune by showers of rice and old slippers rained on -the departing couple! - -It is needless to say that the "last scene of all" was invested with all -the attributes of grotesque terror the wayward popular imagination could -invent. Before it took place the light of the "death-candle"--the Welsh -call it the "corpse-candle"--might be seen hovering from chamber to -chamber; or the cock crowed before midnight; or the "dead-drap," a sound -as of water falling monotonously and lingeringly, broke the silence of the -night; or three dismal and fatal knocks were heard, at regular intervals -of one or two minutes' duration; or over the doomed person fluttered the -image of a white dove. And when the spirit had departed, the doors and -windows were immediately opened wide; the clocks were stopped; the mirrors -were covered; and it was held to disturb the rest of the dead, and to be -fatal to the living, if a tear fell upon the winding sheet. And thus, from -the cradle to the grave, Superstition dogged the steps of life; nor even -at the grave did it cease to vex and worry the minds of men with the -fancies and visions born of excited imaginations. - -That such fancies, that customs so wild and grotesque, should have existed -in Scotland, and among a well-educated people, down to a comparatively -recent date, might be matter of wonder, if we were not aware of the -tenacity with which the heart clings to the "use and wont" of the Past. -Nor trivial as some, and inexcusable as all of them seem to the -philosophic eye, is it wise to regard them too contemptuously. They seem -to us to show how difficult man found it to realise to himself the idea of -a living, personal GOD,--of a GOD, a FATHER, ever watching over the -welfare of His children, chastening them in His mercy, but never refusing -them the light of His countenance when they have sought Him with faith in -the hour of sorrow and darkness. For want of this strengthening, -consoling, elevating idea, he has endeavoured to support himself by the -feeble prop of superstitious credulity, and instead of yielding wholly and -trustfully to the love of GOD the FATHER, has vainly striven to secure -some glimpse or foreshadowing of the Future, and to avert evil by peurile -practices and idle traditions. - -We may next be allowed to point out the kinship in superstition which -prevails all over the world; so that the observance or custom which seems -peculiar to England or Scotland, is found in India or Tartary. This -remarkable similarity indicates a certain general tendency to attach an -"ominous significance" to particular things and events. Take as an -illustration, the act of sneezing. In Asia as well as Europe, among -Semitic peoples as well as among Aryan, it is usual to connect with the -act some form of blessing. Sometimes the sneezer is blessed by the -bystander; sometimes he blesses himself; if a Mohammedan, he blesses GOD. -In Italy, for example, the salutation addressed to him runs: "May GOD -preserve you!" or "May you have children!" In Hindi it takes the form of -"Sadaji's" (May you live for ever!) and a similar salutation is used by -the Jews of Austria. - -But in different places and at different times sneezing has been made to -carry a very different meaning. Among the Arabs, if, while a person is -making an assertion which some may think hazardous or dubious, another -sneezes, the speaker appeals to the omen as a confirmation of what he is -saying. A writer in the "Calcutta Review" thinks this notion as old as the -Greeks of the time of Xenophon, as appears from a well known passage in -Chap. ii. Book iii. of the Anabasis: [Greek: Epei peri soterias hemon -legonton oionos tou Dios tou soteros ephane]. Sneezing among the Hindus, -if it occur behind your back, is regarded as so unfavourable an omen, that -they at once abandon the work on which at the time they may have been -engaged. - -Various but not satisfactory attempts have been made to explain these -customs. Thus, the Mohammedan accounts for his "Al hamdu-l Allah" by the -tradition that, when the breath of life was breathed into the nostrils of -Adam, he sneezed, and immediately uttered those words. While in Europe the -custom of blessing the sneezer has been traced to the occurrence in Italy -in the middle ages of some fatal epidemic, of which one of the symptoms -was sneezing. - -The superstition which regards as a favourable omen the throbbing of the -eye, was well known to the ancient Greeks, is common in England, and -flourishes all over India. In England, it is the man's right eye and the -woman's left that is auspicious; and so it was in the Greece of -Theocritus, and so it is in India and Persia. - -The curious superstition that ghosts are visible to dogs, to which we find -an allusion in Homer's Odyssey, still flourishes in India. It may have -originated in the place given to the dog in the mythology of both Greek -and Hindu, or in the position enjoyed by the watch-dog among all the -shepherd peoples of the world. The belief belongs to the Semitic as well -as the Aryan races; and its true origin after all may be the apparently -causeless howling of the dog at night,--the time when "spirits walk -abroad." Whatever the ground of the belief, it is probably in itself the -cause of the superstition that the howling of dogs presages death or -misfortune. - -Another singular coincidence of this kind is furnished "by the custom of -spitting on the breast as a charm against fascination." In his "Greek -Antiquities," Potter notes that it was an ancient Greek custom to spit -three times on the breast at the sight of a madman; and Theocritus has,-- - - [Greek: toiade muthizoisa tris eis heon eptuse kolpon.] - -"Precisely the same effect is attributed to the act among the Aryan -inhabitants of India, where its threefold repetition is also insisted on. -No sort of reason that we can imagine, can be found for this belief; and -in this case the idea is a complex one. - -"The notion of a hiccough being an indication that some one is thinking of -the person affected, is equally common in Europe and in India. - -"The same may be said of the superstition regarding an itching of the palm -of the hand; and further the idea that the palm should be rubbed against -something to make the event the more sure, prevails both in India and in -England. In England it should be 'rubbed against wood,' in India on the -forehead."[67] - -We supply but one more illustration, and that shall be in folk lore; a -nursery story which presents virtually the same features in the East as in -the West. The following is the Hindu parallel to the old Saxon nursery -tale of "The Woman that found a Silver Penny." The coincidence will be -seen to be complete. - -"Once upon a time, a little bird, on its way through the woods, picked up -a pea, and took it to the _barbhunja_ to be split; but, as ill luck would -have it, one half of it stuck fast in the mill-handle, and the _barbhunja_ -being unable to get it out, the little bird went off to the carpenter, and -said, 'Carpenter, carpenter, come and cut the mill-handle; my pea is in -the mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and what shall I -take to foreign countries?' 'Be off,' said the carpenter, 'is it likely I -shall come and cut the mill-handle for the sake of a single pea?' - -"Then the little bird went to the king, and said, 'King, king, chide the -carpenter; the carpenter won't cut the mill-handle; my pea has stuck in -the mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and what shall I -take to foreign countries?' 'Be off with you,' said the king, 'do you -think that for the sake of a single pea I am going to chide the -carpenter?' - -"Then the little bird went to the queen, and said, 'Queen, queen, speak to -the king; the king won't chide the carpenter; the carpenter won't cut the -mill-handle; my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle; what shall I eat, -what shall I drink, and what shall I take to foreign countries?' But the -queen said, 'Be off with you, do you think that for the sake of a single -pea I am going to talk to the king?' - -"Then the little bird went to the snake, and said, 'Snake, snake, bite the -queen; the queen won't talk to the king; the king won't chide the -carpenter; the carpenter won't cut the mill-handle; my pea is in the -socket of the mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and what -shall I take to foreign countries?' But the snake said, 'Be off with you, -do you think that for the sake of a single pea I am going to bite the -queen?' - -"Then the little bird went to the stick, and said, 'Stick, stick, beat the -snake; snake won't bite queen; queen won't talk to king; king won't chide -carpenter; carpenter won't cut mill-handle; my pea is in the socket of the -mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and what shall I take -to foreign countries?' But the stick said, 'Be off with you, do you think -that for the sake of a single pea I am going to beat the snake?' - -"Then the little bird went to the fire, and said, 'Fire, fire, burn stick; -stick won't beat snake; snake won't bite queen; queen won't talk to king; -king won't chide carpenter; carpenter won't cut mill-handle; my pea is in -the socket of the mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and -what shall I take to foreign countries?' But the fire said, 'Be off with -you, do you think that for the sake of a single pea I am going to burn the -stick?' - -"Then the little bird went to the sea, and said, 'Sea, sea, quench fire; -fire won't burn stick; stick won't beat snake; snake won't bite queen; -queen won't talk to king; king won't chide carpenter; carpenter won't cut -mill-handle; my pea is in the socket of the mill-handle; what shall I eat, -what shall I drink, and what shall I take to foreign countries?' But the -sea said, 'Be off with you, do you think that for the sake of a single pea -I am going to quench the fire?' - -"Then the little bird went to the elephant, and said, 'Elephant, elephant, -dry up the sea; sea won't quench fire; fire won't burn stick; stick won't -beat snake; snake won't bite queen; queen won't talk to king; king won't -chide carpenter; carpenter won't cut mill-handle; my pea is in the socket -of the mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and what shall I -take to foreign countries?' But the elephant said, 'Be off with you, to -dry up the sea would take the whole host of elephants; do you think that -for the sake of a single pea I am going to assemble all of my kith and -kin?' - -"Then the bird went to the _bhaunr_, (a tangled creeping plant,) and said, -'_Bhaunr_, _bhaunr_, snare the elephant; elephant won't drink up sea; sea -won't quench fire; fire won't burn stick; stick won't beat snake; snake -won't bite queen; queen won't talk to king; king won't chide carpenter; -carpenter won't cut mill-handle; my pea is in the socket of the -mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and what shall I take -to foreign countries?' But the _bhaunr_ said, 'Be off with you, do you -think that for the sake of a single pea I am going to snare the elephant?' - -"Then the bird went to the mouse, and said, 'Mouse, mouse, cut _bhaunr_; -_bhaunr_ won't snare elephant; elephant won't drink up sea; sea won't -quench fire; fire won't burn stick; stick won't beat snake; snake won't -bite queen; queen won't talk to king; king won't chide carpenter; -carpenter won't cut mill-handle; my pea is in the socket of the -mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and what shall I take -to foreign countries?' But the mouse said, 'Be off with you, do you think -that for the sake of a single pea I am going to cut the _bhaunr_?' - -"Then the bird went to the cat, and said, 'Cat, cat, eat mouse; mouse -won't cut _bhaunr_; _bhaunr_ won't snare elephant; elephant won't drink up -sea; sea won't quench fire; fire won't burn stick; stick won't beat -snake; snake won't bite queen; queen won't talk to king; king won't chide -carpenter; carpenter won't cut mill-handle; my pea is in the socket of the -mill-handle; what shall I eat, what shall I drink, and what shall I take -to foreign countries?' And the cat said, 'By all means; the mouse is my -natural prey, why should I not eat it?' - -"So the cat went to eat the mouse; and the mouse went to cut the _bhaunr_, -saying,-- - - 'Hamko khao, a o, mat koi, - Ham bhaunr ko katat loi.' - -'Oh, oh, eat, oh! eat me no one, I will take and cut the _bhaunr_.' And -the _bhaunr_ went to snare the elephant, saying, 'Oh, cut, oh! cut me no -one, I'll take and snare the elephant.' And so on with each one, till it -came to the carpenter, who extracted the pea, and the bird took it, and -went away rejoicing." - -The close resemblance between this fable and the English one of "The -Silver Penny," attests a common origin. For it cannot be supposed that -either was conveyed by means of oral communication from one country to the -other; and the only feasible conclusion seems to be that they are -different versions of a nursery tale which belonged to our common Aryan -forefathers. There can be no doubt as to its antiquity.[68] - - * * * * * - -Among the earlier superstitions of Scotland was a belief in the efficacy -of charms, or metrical incantations; a belief prevailing in almost every -country and period, and indirectly attesting man's strong inward -conviction of the existence of another world. That communications could be -maintained with the unseen creatures that live in the air, and "the ooze;" -above, beneath, and around us; that they could be made to assume a bodily -form and presence; that storms could be raised or dispelled, evil -prevented, secrets discovered, diseases cured, love engendered,--and that -all this was possible by the utterance of certain words arranged in -metrical form, though generally perfectly meaningless, was never doubted. -Many of those used in Scotland evidently had their origin in the reputed -efficacy of verses among the ancients; and being of an early date, they -are often "intermixed with the formula of the Roman Catholic ritual." Thus -we read that one Elspeth Reoch (in 1616) had been supernaturally -instructed to cure distempers by resting on her right knee while pulling a -certain herb "betwixt her midfinger and thumb, and saying of, _In nomine -Patris, Filii, et Spiritus Sancti_." An old and popular charm for curing -cattle (1607), is given by Dalyell as follows:--[69] - - "I charge thee for arrow shot, - For deer shot, for womb shot, - For eye shot, for tongue shot, - For liver shot, for lung shot, - For heart shot,--all the most: - In the Name of the FATHER, the SON, and HOLY GHOST. - To wind out of flesh and bone, - Into oak and stone: - In the Name of the FATHER, the SON, and HOLY GHOST. - Amen." - -Sometimes these invocations were accompanied by the administration of -medicinal herbs which had been gathered before sunrise. A woman accused of -witchcraft, in 1588, declared that she saw "the guid nychtbours makand -thair sawis with pains and fyres, and gadderit thair herbis before the -sone rysing as sche did." Among the various remedies prescribed for "the -trembling fever," or ague, by Katharine Oswald, one related to plucking up -a nettle by the root, three successive mornings, before sunrise. A -favourite time for this herb-gathering rite was Midsummer; a relic of the -old Pagan superstition connected with the sun's position in the Zodiac. -The metrical charm then made use of was popular also in England,-- - - "Haile be thou, holie hearte, - Growing on the ground; - All in the Mount Calvarie - First wast thou found. - Thou art good for manie a sore, - And healest manie a wound; - In the Name of Sweet JESUS, - I take thee from the ground." - -"Bleeding at the touch," has been accepted in several countries as a -revelation of guilt. A man suspected of murder was brought to the side of -the murdered man's body, and forced to touch it; if the suspicions were -just, blood immediately oozed from the wound, or at the mouth, or nose. -Even at the man's approach this sign of crime would appear. It is easy to -see how precarious and dangerous a test was this; how readily it might -release the guilty, and betray the innocent. Naturally therefore it was -not accepted without reluctance. A man and his sister had quarrelled; he -died suddenly, and his body was found in his own house, naked, and with a -wound on the face, but bloodless. "Although many of the neighbours in the -town came into the house to see the dead corpse, yet she, the sister, -never offered to come, howbeit her dwelling was next door, nor had she so -much as any seeming grief for his death. But the minister and bailiffs of -the town taking great suspicion of her in respect of her carriage, -commanded that she should be brought in. But when she came, she came -trembling all the way to the house; she refused to come nigh to the -corpse, or to touch, saying, that she never touched a dead corpse in her -life. But being earnestly entreated by the minister and bailiffs, and her -brother's friends, who was killed, that she would but touch the corpse -softly, she granted to do it. But before she did it, the sun shining in at -the house, she expressed herself thus: 'Humbly desiring, as the LORD made -the sun to shine and give light into that house, that also He would give -light in discovering that murder.' And with these words, she touching the -wound of the dead man very softly, it being white and clean, without any -spot of blood or the like, yet immediately, while her finger was upon it, -the blood rushed out of it, to the great admiration of all the beholders, -who took it as one discovery of the murder, according to her own prayer." - -It will seem astonishing to readers of the present day that a poor -creature's life could be taken away on such fanciful and uncertain -evidence. - -We read that a Sir James Standsfield was found lying dead in a stream. His -body was interred precipitately. Two days afterwards it was exhumed and -partially dissected, the neck in particular being laid open, in order to -ascertain the cause of death. After being well cleansed, blood burst from -that side supported by his son Philip, on returning the body to the coffin -for re-interment--not an unlikely result from the straining of the -incisions--and it deeply stained his hand. He was arraigned, on this -slight ground, for parricide; and in the course of the trial it was -gravely argued that it was the will of Providence to disclose by this -peculiar incident a secret crime. - - * * * * * - -The preservation of health and the prolongation of life are necessarily -objects of interest to all mankind, and it was natural enough that around -them should flourish a rank growth of superstitions. - -To ailing or diseased persons all kinds of potions, pills, and powders -were administered in the past as they are in the present; but whereas we -are now content with the mystic characters endorsed on his formula by the -physician, our ancestors were not satisfied unless certain mystical words, -numbers, or ceremonies accompanied them. The sign of the cross was in -constant requisition; or the medicine was to be taken according to -mystical numbers--thrice or nine times, as the case might be. For -hooping-cough was prescribed a draught from the horn of a living ox, nine -times repeated. The patient was also put "nine several times" in the -miller's hopper. - -The importance ascribed to the figure of a circle is probably a relic of -the influence of the old sun-worship. Consumptive invalids, or children -suffering from hectic fever, were thrice passed through a circular wreath -of woodbine, cut during the increase of the March moon, and let down over -the body from head to foot. We read of a sorceress who healed sundry women -by "taking a garland of green woodbine, and causing the patient to pass -thrice through it." Afterwards, the garland was cut in nine pieces, which -were cast into the fire--generally an indispensable particular in -ceremonies of this kind. Another passed her patient through a heap of -green yarn, which the nurse shook, and then divided it into nine pieces, -which were buried in the lands of three owners. A certain Thomas Grieve -directed a patient to pass thrice through a heap of yarn, which he duly -burned. He also cured the wife of a Michael Glanis by having a hole broken -on the north side of the chimney, and putting a hoop of yarn thrice -through it, and taking it back at the door; and thereafter compelling the -patient to go nine times through the said hoop of yarn. - -White of Selborne tells us of a custom, prevalent in his time in the south -of England, of stripping feeble and diseased children, and transmitting -them head foremost through an artificial cleft in a young tree, the -several parts of which were held forcibly asunder. The wound was then -bound up carefully, and it was expected that the child would recover as -the tree healed. If the cleft did not unite, the remedy proved abortive; -and if the tree were cut down, the patient relapsed or died. - -Borlase speaks of a similar custom in Cornwall, except that a perforated -stone was used instead of a cleft tree. - -In Persia, according to Alexander, passage through a long fissure or -crevice in a rock, by crawling on hands and knees, is employed as a test -of legitimate birth. And in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, -to pass between the pillars supporting an altar and the neighbouring wall, -was practised as a like test. It has been suggested, as the meaning of -these various transmissions through cleft, aperture, skein of yarn, and -garland, that they are symbolical of regeneration; a second birth, whereby -a living soul is cleansed from its former impurities and imperfections. -Wilford speaks of a sanctified fissure in a rock in the East, to which -pilgrims resort "for the purpose of regeneration, by the efficacy of a -passage through this sacred type." - - * * * * * - -The faculty of divining events, passing at a distance from the seer, or of -passively receiving a knowledge that such events are taking place, is the -well-known "second sight," which plays so important a part in many -Scottish stories. "In the stricter acceptation of this faculty," we are -told, "contemporary objects and incidents are beheld at the time, however -remote their locality, but neither those which have passed, nor those -which have yet to come. If extending to futurity, the subject of the -vision is about to be realised. Therefore the second sight borders only on -prognostication. It is affirmed to be more peculiar to Scotland, for very -faint analogy to such a property has been claimed for other countries: and -that the highlanders chiefly, together with the inhabitants of the insular -districts, or that portion of the kingdom less advanced, have enjoyed it -in the highest perfection. Marvellous to be told, they have said that -their cattle are gifted with it as well as themselves." - -The faculty was one which knew no distinction of age or sex, or class; it -was enjoyed by man and woman, young and old, rich and poor, high-born and -plebeians, and in many cases was inherited. It might occasionally be -imparted by a gifted person, or acquired by study and preparation. It is a -proof, were proof needed, of the living influence of the imagination, that -the vision beheld by one individual only, might be revealed to a companion -visionary, thus confirmed in his belief in the value of his new -prerogative; simply by the pressure of the seer's right foot on the -novice's left, holding one hand on his head, while he was admonished to -look over the master's right shoulder. Thus, Lilly, the -astrologer--Butler's "hight Sidrophel"--relates how one John Scott desired -William Hodges, an astrologer in Staffordshire, to show him the person and -features of the person he should marry. Hodges carried him into a field -not far from his home; pulled out his magic crystal; bade Scott set his -foot against his, and after awhile desired him to inspect the crystal, and -observe what he saw there. Of course he saw exactly what his fevered -wishes were resolved to see. - -Ceremonies of a more fantastic character were sometimes involved, and -round the novice's body was coiled a hair rope with which a corpse had -been bound to its bier. He was then required to look through a hole left -by the removal of a fir knot; and, on stooping, he was instructed to look -back between his legs, until an advancing funeral procession should cross -the boundary of the estates of two different owners. The inconvenience of -this complicated performance is obvious; it might also be dangerous; for -if the wind changed while the novice was girded with the mystical cord, he -was liable to the penalty of death. - -A seer gifted with this wonderful faculty could not divest himself of it, -though often he would fain have done so. However acquired, it was a -perilous endowment, fraught with physical and mental suffering, and -reputed to be no gift from on high, but to have come from the Father of -Evil. - -The objects seen were generally sad and sorrowful; calamities to persons -or nations. Woodrow says that before the Marquis of Argyll went to London -in 1660, he was playing "at the bullets," or bowls, with some Scottish -gentlemen; when one of them, as the Marquis stooped down to lift the -bullet, "fell pale," and said to those about him: "Bless me, what is this -I see? my lord with his head off, and all his shoulder full of blood?" - -On one occasion, a gentleman joined a company, all of whom were very frank -and cheerful. He had no sooner entered than one of the guests, who had not -previously known him, showed much depression of spirit. Without taking any -notice of it the new-comer quickly rose, and went his way. The other -thereupon showed great concern, and wished he would remain; for he saw -him, he said, with a shroud up to his neck, and he knew that this sign -foreboded his death. In vain some of the company would have persuaded the -doomed man to take warning, but he departed, and having ridden a short -distance, he and his horse fell, and he broke his neck. - -On the morning of the battle of Bothwell Bridge, that sore defeat to the -Covenanters--so vigorously described by Scott in his "Old Mortality"--Mr. -John Cameron, minister at Lochhead in Kintyre, fell into a fit of -melancholy, so that Mr. Morison, of his elders, observing him through his -chamber door, sore weeping and wringing his hands, knocked until he opened -to him. Then he asked what was the matter? Were his wife and children -well? "Little matter for them," he answered; "our friends at Bothwell are -gone." Mr. Morison told him it might be a mistake, and the offcome of his -gloomy thoughts: "No, no," said he, "I see them flying as clearly as I see -the wall." As near as they could calculate by the accounts they afterwards -obtained, this incident at the Lochhead of Kintyre was contemporaneous -with the flight of the Covenanters at Bothwell. - -Munro, the Scotch soldier of fortune, who bore himself so gallantly in the -wars of Gustavus Adolphus, tells a story of a vision that was seen by a -soldier of his company on the morning of the storm of Stralsund in 1628. -One Murdo Macleod, born in Assen, a soldier of tall stature and valiant -courage, being sleeping on his watch, awoke at break of day, and "jogged" -two of his comrades lying by him, much to their indignation at his -"stirring them." He replied: "Before long, you shall be otherwise -stirred." A soldier called Allan Tough, a Lochaber man, recommending his -soul to GOD, asked him what he had seen: "That you shall never behold your -country again." The other replied, the loss was but small, if the rest of -the company were well. He answered: "No, for there was great hurt and -dearth of many very near." The other again asked, what others he had seen -who would perish. He then told by name sundry of his comrades who would be -killed. The other asked, what would become of himself. Eventually, he -described by their clothes all the officers who would be hurt. "A pretty -quick boy near by," asked him, what would become of the Major (that is, -Munro himself?) "He would be shot, but not deadly," was the answer,--and -so it proved. - -A good deal is said of this _Taisch_, or "Second Sight," in Dr. Johnson's -"Journey to the Hebrides," and some striking anecdotes are told. It was -just the thing to interest his moody temperament, with its terrible dread -of death and its longing to lift the curtain that hides from us the -Unseen. He seems, however, to have been unable to convince himself of the -actual existence of such a power; all the evidence he could collect failed -to advance his curiosity to conviction, so that he could not believe, -while remaining willing to believe. To use the noble words of Goethe, -nobly rendered by Coleridge: - - "As the sun, - Ere it is risen, sometimes paints its image - In the atmosphere, so often do the spirits - Of great events stride on before the events, - And in To-day already walks To-morrow." - -_This_ it is not difficult to accept. It seems fitting that presages -should herald the death of kings and the revolutions of nations; but the -mind cannot convince itself that the spirits of the dead will cross the -shadowy borders to foretell the trivial accidents that chequer ordinary -lives. Yet, as Johnson says: "A man on a journey far from home falls from -a horse; another who is perhaps at work about the house, sees him bleeding -on the ground, commonly with a landscape of the place where the accident -befalls him. Another seer, driving home his cattle, or wandering in -idleness, or musing in the sunshine, is suddenly surprised by the -appearance of a bridal ceremony or funeral procession, and counts the -mourners or attendants, of whom, if he knows them, he relates the names, -if he knows them not he can describe the dresses." - -Woodrow tells of "a popish lady," living near Boroughbridge, who dreamed -that she saw a coach, and a lady in it, almost lost in the river. She -directed her servants to watch during two nights, to guard against an -accident, but nothing happened. "On the third night, pretty late, the Lady -Shawfield came, and of a sudden the coach was overturned, and filled with -water. The coachman got upon one of the horses, to save his life. The good -and religious Lady Shawfield was for some time under water: and upon the -cry rising, the popish lady's servants came to their assistance. With much -difficulty, the coach and lady in it were got out of the water." And the -Lady Shawfield, being laid upon the bank, gradually recovered her senses. - -In the early months of the Commonwealth, while Mackenzie of Tarbat, -afterwards Earl of Cromarty, was riding in a field among his tenants, who -were manuring barley, a stranger "called that way on his foot, and stopped -likewise, and said to the countrymen, 'You need not be so busy about that -barley, for I see the Englishmen's horses tethered among it; and other -parts mowed down for them.' Tarbet asked him how he knew them to be -Englishmen, and if he had ever seen any of them? He said, 'No; but he saw -them strangers, and heard the English were in Scotland, and guessed it -could be no other than they.' In the month of July, the thing happened -directly as the man said he saw it." - -The influence exercised on the imagination by events in which we are -deeply interested, and the manner in which our hopes or fears are mistaken -for predictions, may be illustrated by two examples from antiquity. On the -day that Caesar and Pompey contended at Pharsalia for the mastery of the -world, Cornelius, a priest and patrician of Padua, declared, under a -sudden impulse of passion, that he beheld the eddies and currents of a -desperate battle, and the fall and flight of many of the combatants, -eventually exclaiming: "Caesar has conquered!" His hearers laughed at him, -but his words were afterwards verified, and it appeared that he had -foretold not only the day, but the incidents, and the result of the famous -battle in Thessaly. The anecdote is related on the authority of the -"Noctes Atticae" of Aulus Gellius. - -Dio Cassius tells a similar story about the assassination of the Emperor -Domitian at Rome, by his freedman Stephanus. "It is to be admired," he -says, "that, as accurately proved by persons in either place, Apollonius -Thyanaeus, ascending an eminence at Ephesus or elsewhere, cried out before -the multitude: 'Well done, Stephanus, well done! Strike the murderer! thou -hast struck him, thou hast wounded him, he is slain!'" But it may well be -supposed that a secret understanding existed between Apollonius and the -murderer. - - * * * * * - -From "second sight" we pass on to "prediction" or "divination," another of -the superstitious modes by which humanity has endeavoured to read the book -of the Future. In the north this power of prophecy was largely assumed by -women, a circumstance of which Scott has made ample and picturesque use in -more than one of his admirable fictions. - -A woman foretold the tragical end of James I. of Scotland, in 1436. In the -early stage of a journey from Edinburgh to Leith, and in the midst of the -way, arose a woman of Ireland, who claimed to be a soothsayer, and as soon -as she saw the king, she cried with a loud voice, saying, "My lord king, -an ye pass this water, ye shall never turn again to live." The king was -astonished at her words, for but shortly before he had fallen in with a -prophecy, that in the self-same year the King of Scots should be slain. -And as he rode onward, he called to him one of his knights, and commanded -him to return and speak with this woman, and ask of her what she would, -and what she meant by her loud crying: and she began and told him what -would befall the king if he passed that water. The king asked her how she -knew so much, and she said that Huthart told her so. "Sire," quoth the -knight, "men may gallantly talk, nor take heed of yonder woman's words, -for she is but a drunken fool, and wots not what she saith." And so with -his folk he passed the water called the Scottish Sea, towards S. John's -town [Perth,] about four miles from the country of the wild Scots, and -there, in a convent of Black Friars, outside the town, he held a great -feast. In the course of the revel came "the said woman of Ireland, who -called herself a divineress," and made several vain attempts to gain -access to the king. Meanwhile the conspirators matured their plot, removed -the king's guards, attacked him, and slew him.[70] - -All the predictions which come true are preserved; we hear nothing of -those which fail, for no one has an interest in recording or repeating -them; hence an undue importance is gradually attached to what are nothing -more than remarkable coincidences. Many others are prophecies "after the -event." Others are based on a careful calculation of probabilities. As in -the following example: An Orkney warlock, full of displeasure with James -Paplay, a proud and haughty chief, with whose character, doubtless, she -was well acquainted, broke forth into a torrent of predictive utterances: -"Thou art now the highest man that ever thou shalt be! Thou art gone to -shear thy corn, but it shall never do you good! Thou art going to set -house with thy wife,--ye shall have no joy of one another. Oil shall not -keep you and her; ye shall have such a meit-will [craving,] and shall have -nothing to eat, but be fain to eat grass under the stones and wair -(sea-weed) under the rocks." It was seriously asserted that not only were -these predictions--or menaces--uttered, but that they were all fulfilled; -and it is possible that the prophet may have had something to do with -their fulfilment. - -A curious anecdote is related of a Scottish minister, who, on the day of -the battle of Killiecrankie, was preaching at Anworth, and in his preface -before his prayer, according to his usual mode of homely expression, began -to this purpose: "Some of you will say, What news, minister? What news -about Clavers, who has done so much mischief in this country? That man -sets up to be a young Montrose, but as the LORD liveth, he shall be cut -short this day. Be not afraid," added he, "I see them scattered and -flying: and as the LORD liveth, and sends this message by me, Claverhouse -shall no longer be a terror to GOD'S people. This day I see him -killed--lying a corpse." And on that day, and at that hour, Claverhouse -fell[71] (July 27th, 1689.) - -In their anxiety to obtain a glimpse of the dread writing in the Book of -Fate, men have resorted to divers strange expedients, applying to warlocks -and witches, or seeking to wring a response to their questionings from the -creatures of the Invisible World. The ceremony known as _Taghairm_, or -"Echo," seems to have been peculiar to Scotland. The inquirer was wrapped -in a cow's hide, his head being left free, and was carried by assistants -to a solitary spot, or left under the liquid arch formed by the "sheeted -column's silvery perpendicular" in waterfall or cataract: there he -remained during the watches of the night, with phantoms fluttering round -about him, from whence he was supposed to derive the burden of the -oracular response he delivered to his comrades on the following day. - -It is probable that this ceremony is the relic of some ancient form of -ritual. At all events, the skins of animals played an important part in -the old worship. When the Thebans slew a cow on the festival of Jupiter -Ammon, his image was clothed with the skin: all present in the temple then -struck the carcase, which was buried in a consecrated place. - -Pausanias records that a temple in honour of the soothsayer Amphiaraus, -the reputed son of Apollo, stood in the territory of Oropus in Attica. -Votaries who resorted thither for the purpose of divination, underwent -certain lustrations, or purifying rites, sacrificed a ram, and, in -expectation of seeing visions, slept upon its skin. - -Virgil, in one of the most elaborate scenes of the Aeneid, represents to us -a similar oblation as being offered at a consecrated fountain, where the -priest, to prepare himself for the delivery of responses, slept on the -skin:-- - - "Et caesarum ovium sub nocte silenti - Pellibus incubuit stratis, somnosque petivit; - Multa modis simulacra videt volitantia miris - Et varias audit voces."[72] - -It seems to have been an important part of the heathen ritual to make use -of the skin of the sacrificed animal for the purposes of clothing. Lucian, -describing the ceremonies practised in the temple of Hierapolis, says -that, on his arrival, the head and eyebrows of the novice were shaved; a -sheep was then sacrificed; he knelt on the skin, and covering his own head -with the head and feet of the animal, prayed that his offering might be -accepted while promising a worthier one. - -The Spanish invaders of the New World discovered that the religion of its -most civilised race, the Aztecs, was founded upon human sacrifices. The -number of victims offered up to the Aztec gods is stated in figures which -seem almost incredible. Peculiar to the Aztec kingdom was the horrid -ceremony entitled "the flaying of men." The Aztecs having demanded the -daughter of some neighbouring potentate as their queen, she was flayed on -the very night of her arrival by command of their deity, and a young man -clothed in her skin. In this originated the custom that a captive slave, -distinguished by the name, the honours, and the ornaments of the divinity, -should be sacrificed after a certain time; and another, clothed with his -skin, then exacted contributions for the service of the gods, which no -one, says Acosta, dared to refuse. - - * * * * * - -We have no space to dwell on the various forms of divination that were -wont to prevail. Almost everything in nature, from the stars of heaven to -the clods of earth, was made to give indications of coming events. The -historian of the darker Superstitions of Scotland brings together a few -striking illustrations. - -If a certain worm in a medicinal spring on the top of a hill in Strathdon, -were found alive, it was a sign that the patient would live; and in a well -of Ardwacloich, in Appin, if the patient were to die, a dead worm was -found in it, and a live one, if he were to recover. In the district of -Lorn, the figures assumed by an egg dropped into water were supposed to -indicate the appearance of a future spouse. "Also, one of four vessels -being filled with pure, and another with muddy water, the third with milk, -and the fourth with meal and water; if the diviner blindfold dips his hand -in the first, it augurs that his spouse shall be led to the nuptial couch -in all her pristine purity; but otherwise if dipping in the second: if -finding his way to the milk, a widow shall fall to his lot; and an old -woman awaits him from the meal and water. Three vessels are used in the -south of Scotland; one of them empty; and should fate direct the diviner -hither, it augurs perpetual celibacy." - - * * * * * - -A belief in Fairies was widespread, and has survived, in remote districts, -down even to our own time: - - "Oft fairy elves - Whose midnight revels by a forest side - Or fountain, some belated peasant sees, - Or dreams he sees, while overhead the moon - Sits arbitress, and nearer to the earth - Wheels her pale course, they on their mirth and dance - Intent, with jocund music charm his ear: - At once with joy and fear his heart rebounds."[73] - -It is not easy to reconcile the conflicting details of the disposition, -manners, habits, and influence of these liliputian spirits which we meet -with in the early writers. But on a general survey it appears that they -were very diminutive; in their intercourse with mortals sometimes -good-tempered, sometimes malignant; that they loved and married, and had -offspring; that they were very merry, and loved to dance upon the green, -and fill the air with choral music; that they possessed stores of gold and -silver, which they distributed freely; that they were invisible, but could -at will present themselves to mortals; that they were very timid, and -would inflict a summary punishment upon intruders. Their influence was at -its highest on Friday, at noon, and at midnight. - -Kirk, the Scotch minister of Aberfoyle, who died in 1688, relates some -other particulars of the "good people." Their substance, he says, is -denser than air; too subtle to be pierced, and, like that of Milton's -angels, reuniting when divided, or when any attempt is made to cleave it -asunder. Their voice is like unto whistling. They change their places of -abode every quarter of the year, floating near the surface of the earth; -and persons gifted with the second sight have often had fierce encounters -with them. The Highlanders, to preserve themselves and their cattle -against them, went regularly to church on the first Sunday of every -quarter, though they might not return during the interval. At the name of -GOD or JESUS they vanished into thin air. They were of both sexes, and -like mankind, they were mortal. - -"Some meagre allusions appear to the Queen of the Fairies, and especially -by King James, whose immediate knowledge may have been derived from the -vignettes in Olaus Magnus, and the words of his own unhappy subjects, who -perished on account of their credulity. Alexoun Perisoma was convicted, on -her confession, of repairing to the 'queen of Elfame,' with whom she was -familiar. Jean Wire (1670) declared that, while she taught a school at -Dalkeith, a woman desired to be employed 'to speik to the Queen of Fairie, -and strike ane battell in hir behalf with the said Queen.'" The name of -Titania is familiar enough to all lovers of English literature. There was -a necromancer or wizard, in the reign of Charles I., who affirmed he had -an incantation--"O Micol, Micol, regina Pigmiorum, veni,"--that Titania -could not resist. Lilly tells us that when it was tested at Hurst wood, -first a gentle murmurous sound was heard; then rose a violent whirlwind, -which swelled into a hurricane; and lastly the Fairy Queen appeared in all -her radiance. - -Fairies generally dwelt in subterraneous abodes; in the interiors of -grassy hillocks, whence issued dulcet sounds and flashes of weird light; -sometimes the side of a hill opened, and exposed them to the gaze of the -belated wayfarer. No doubt they were seen everywhere by the potent gaze of -imagination; on the meads and in the groves, or curled up among the -bending flowers; for - - "Visions as poetic eyes avow, - Hang from each leaf, and cling to every bough." - -They were reputed to be well skilled in the medical art, and to favoured -mortals they sometimes imparted their knowledge. It is difficult to -understand why they were credited with the abstraction of children, and -with the substitution of other beings in their place. For this curious -kind of theft was commonly attributed to them. A "wise woman"--a dealer in -simples and herbal potions--having failed to cure a child, declared that -"the bairn had been taken away, and an elf substituted." - -Besides the fairies, Scotland could boast of its spirits of the waters, -just as Germany had its Loreleys and Ondines. - -We can gather, however, no definite information respecting the -water-kelpie, the water-horses, or the water-bull, or of another anomalous -animal called shelly-coat. Describing Lochlomond, Graham says:--"It is -reported by the countrymen living thereabouts, that they sometimes see the -hippopotam or water-horse, where the river Cudrie falls into it, a mile -west of the church of Buchanan." A river known as the Ugly Burn, in the -county of Ross, springing from Loch Glaish, was regarded with awe by all -the countryside, as the retreat of the water-horse and other spiritual -beings. Shetland is represented as having possessed a handsome water-horse -which, when mounted, carried the rider into the sea. Mr. Dalyell, writing -in 1835, says, that the water-bull is still believed to reside in Loch Awe -and Loch Rannoch, nor, he adds, are witnesses wanting to bear testimony to -the fact. It was reputed to be invulnerable against all except silver -shot; though no one had put it to the proof. In the Isle of Man certain -persons who saw the water-bull in a field were unable to distinguish him -from one of the ordinary terrestrial species, nor did the cows show any -disposition to avoid him. But his progeny always turned out to be a rude -lump of flesh and skin, without bones. - -The spirit of the sea was believed to be malicious, and capable of -inflicting injury. Allusions are frequent to "sea-trowis, meermen, -meermaids, and a number of little creatures coming from the sea" in -response to spell and charm. Nor must we forget the practice of pouring -out libations to the aquatic divinities. A century ago, in Crawford Muir, -when a tenant was evicted and another took his place, he cut the throat of -a black lamb and threw it into a stream, with a malediction both upon -stream and lamb. - -To this futile department of human error we can, however, devote no more -space. To treat it adequately we should need at least a couple of volumes -as closely printed as the present. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Aborigines, the, of North America, 254. - - African Superstitions, 171. - - Ahetas, the, 153. - - Ancestors, Worship of, 220. - - Anecdotes of Khandikya and Kesidhwaja, 114. - - Apples, Halloween, 293. - - Ark-festival, an Indian, 90. - - Ashi, the Rabbi, 72. - - Asia, savage races of, 155. - - - Babylonian Talmud, the, 72. - - Bouru, 146. - - Brahman Religion, the, 14, 84. - - Buddhism, 16. - - Buddhists, Prayer-wheels of the, 1. - - Buffalo-dance, the, 259. - - - Cannibalism, 250. - - Caste, Brahman, 14. - - Cat, adventures of a, 218. - - Ceremonies, Hindu, 6; - Eskimo, 275. - - Chandu, Palace of, 163. - - Charms, Scottish, 310. - - China, in, 119. - - Chinese offerings to gods, 139. - - Chinese temples, 132. - - Chunda Sen, Babu Keshub, 97. - - Chung-Yung, 123. - - Confucianism, 119. - - Confucius, Life of, 120. - - Court of Justice, an Eskimo, 277. - - Cumming, Miss Gordon, Experiences of, 1; - quoted, 3. - - - Daksha, sacrifice of, 103. - - Debendunath Tagore, 97. - - Devil-dancing, 91. - - Divination, 319. - - Dorians, the, 147. - - Dyaks, the, 145. - - - Egg-trick, the, 169. - - Equatorial Savage, the, 172. - - Eskimos, the, 274. - - Etu, the, 221. - - - Fairies, belief in, 323. - - Feast of Lanterns, the, 129. - - Fetich-man, the, 174. - - Fiji-islanders, the, 230. - - Fire-superstitions, 290. - - Fish-charmers, Brahman, 87. - - Flagellants, the, 279. - - - Gemara, the, 69. - - Gods, belief in, 12. - - - Halloween, 288. - - Health-superstitions, 313. - - Hilarion, S., 280. - - Hindu Mythology, the, 99. - - Hindus, the, 203. - - Hindu Temples, Ceremonies of the, 6. - - Hiouen-thsang, Career of, 26. - - - Idol Worship, 221. - - Indians, North American, 254. - - - Jerusalem Talmud, the, 72. - - Jewish Superstitions, 68. - - Jugglery, 163. - - - Khudas, the, 89. - - King, or, the Five Canonical Works, 125. - - - Lao-tsze, the Chinese Philosopher, 129. - - Lun-Yu, the, 124. - - - Magianism, 43. - - Maize, Indian reverence for the, 273. - - Malays, among the, 142. - - Maories, the, 241. - - Medicine-bag, the Indian, 265. - - Medicine-man, the Indian, 174; - the Eskimo, 274. - - Meng-tze, the, 124. - - Mishna, the, 68. - - Mongols, the, 157. - - Mueller, Max, quoted, 10. - - - Nagpanchanic Festival, the, 210. - - New Zealand, 241. - - North American Indians, the, 254. - - Nursery tale, a Hindu, 307. - - - Old age, African veneration of, 172. - - Orang-lauts, the, 152. - - Ormuzd and Ahriman, 191. - - Ostiaks, the, 158. - - - Paharis, the Customs of, 87. - - Papeiha's witness to Christianity, 215. - - Papuan Tribes, the, 147. - - Parsees, the, 43. - - Peace-pipe, the Indian, 270. - - Polo, Marco, 161. - - Polynesian Sacrifices, 228. - - Polynesian Superstitions, 214. - - Prayer-Wheels of the Buddhists, 1. - - Public Games, 109. - - Puranas, the, 99. - - - Rammohun Roy, Life of, 92. - - Red Men, the, 257. - - Religion, Brahman, 14, 84; - Buddhism, 16; - Parsee, 43; - Chinese, 119; - among the Malays, 142; - the Dyaks, 145; - in Bouru, 146; - among the Papuan tribes, 147; - the Orang-lauts, 152; - Savage nations of Asia, 155; - in Tibet, 161; - Zabianism, 186; - in Polynesia, 214; - among the Fiji-islanders, 230; - the Maories, 241; - North American Indians, 254. - - Rudra, Origin of, 103. - - - Samoans, the, 219. - - Samojedes, 155. - - San-tsing, the Chinese deity, 131. - - Scottish Superstitions, 288. - - Second Sight, 290, 300, 314. - - Serpent-worship, 186. - - Shae-tung, the, 129. - - Shamanism, 91. - - Shang-te, the, of the Chinese, 131. - - Slamatan Bromok, the, 142. - - Snake-charmers, 87. - - Stylites, S. Simeon, 281. - - Sun-worship, 8, 200. - - Superstitions, African, 171. - - Supreme Being, belief in a, 11. - - - Taboo, or Tapu, 241. - - Tadibe, the, 156. - - Ta-heo, the, 123. - - Talmud, the, 68. - - Taossi, the, 132. - - Taouism, 129. - - Tehu-Chor, the, 3. - - Thibetan Prayer or Litany, the, 4. - - Tibet, in, 161. - - Topes, the, 203. - - Typhon and Osiris, 173. - - - Vishnu Purana, the, 100. - - - Weather-conjuring among the Mongols, 159. - - Williams, Rev. John, 214. - - - Yadageri, 160. - - - Zabianism, 186. - - Zendavesta, the, 43. - - Zoroaster, 45. - - Zulu Witch-finders, 180. - - -J. MASTERS AND CO., PRINTERS, ALBION BUILDINGS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Miss Gordon Cumming, "From the Hebrides to the Himalayas," ii. 226, -227. - -[2] Max Mueller, Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims, pp. 5, 6. - -[3] Rig-Veda, i. 164, 46. - -[4] Rig-Veda, x. 121, by Max Mueller. - -[5] The thought in this paragraph, and several of the expressions, are -from Max Mueller. - -[6] So in Shelley's lyrical drama of "Prometheus Unbound:"-- - - "_Mercury_ (addressing Prometheus.) Once more answer me: - Thou knowest not the period of Jove's power? - _Prometheus._ I know but this, that it must come. - _Mercury._ Alas! - Thou canst not count thy years to come of pain. - _Prometheus._ They last while Jove must reign; nor more nor less - Or I desire or fear." - -[7] Max Mueller, pp. 13, 14. - -[8] Professor Wilson propounded a theory to the effect that there never -was any such man as Buddha, but the theory has found few supporters. - -[9] The name "Sakya" is made into "Sakya-muni,"--_muni_ in Sanskrit -meaning "solitary," (Greek, [Greek: monos],) alluding to his solitary -habits; and to Gautama is often prefixed "Sramana," or "ascetic." - -[10] Max Mueller, pp. 14, 15. - -[11] Max Mueller, pp. 15, 16, 17. - -[12] The following sketch is founded on M. Stanislas Julien's "Voyages des -Pelerins Buddhistes," and on Max Mueller's review of that valuable work. - -[13] Max Mueller, p. 36. - -[14] Voyages des Pelerins Bouddhistes. Vol. I. Histoire de la Vie de -Hiouen-thsang, et ses Voyages dans l'Inde, depuis l'an 629 jusqu'en 645, -par Hoei-li et Yen-thsong; traduite du Chinois par Stanislas Julien. - -Vol. II. Memoires sur les Contrees Occidentales, traduits du Sanscrit en -Chinois, en l'an 648, par Hiouen-thsang, et du Chinois en Francais, par -Stanislas Julien. Paris, 1853-1857. B. Duprat. - -[15] Hoei-li terminates the last book of his biography of the Master with -a long and pompous panegyric of Hiouen-thsang. This _morceau_, which forms -(says Stanislas Julien,) twenty-five pages in the Imperial edition and ten -in the _Nan-king_, offers an analysis of the life and voyages of the -Master of the Law; but it contains no new fact or one of any interest in -relation to the history and geography of India or the Buddhist literature. -No English version has appeared of M. Julien's elaborate translation of -the Chinese History of Hiouen-thsang. - -[16] More correctly, Avesta-Zend. - -[17] Sanscrit, _Avastha_. This is Haug's conjecture. - -[18] The Pazend language was identical with the Parsi, i.e., the ancient -Persian. - -[19] Dogs are here associated with man on account of their high value in -an early stage of civilisation. Zarathustra protected them by special -ordinances and penalties. - -[20] The bridge _Chinavat_ by which the souls of the good crossed into -Paradise; a fancy afterwards adopted by Muhamad. - -[21] Quarles. - -[22] Emanuel Deutsch, "Literary Remains," (edit. 1874, pp. 32, 33.) - -[23] E. Deutsch, Literary Remains, p. 55, sqq. - -[24] The Tinnevelly Shawars, by R. Caldwell, Madras, 1849. - -[25] Calcutta Review, lii. 112, 113. - -[26] We are reminded by this extravagance of great King Arthur's sumptuous -feast at Carlisle, as described by Mr. Frere ("Whistlecraft"):-- - - "They served up salmon, venison, and wild boars - By hundreds, and by dozens, and by scores. - - "Hogsheads of honey, kilderkins of mustard, - Muttons, and fatted beeves, and bacon swine; - Herons and bitterns, peacock, swan and bustard, - Teal, mallard, pigeons, widgeons, and in fine - Plum-puddings, pancakes, apple-pies and custard; - And therewithal they drank good Gascon wine, - With mead, and ale, and cyder of our own; - For porter, punch and negus were not known." - -[27] That is, the crooked. One of the other Puranas calls her Trivakra (or -thrice-deformed.) - -[28] The Yoga philosophy prescribes about eighty-four postures. The one to -which allusion is made in the text consisted of sitting with your legs -crossed underneath you, and laying hold of your feet, on each side, with -your hands. - -[29] That is, the silent repetition of prayer. - -[30] Others say in 479 B.C., at the age of seventy. - -[31] A strong spirituous liquor, distilled from wine. - -[32] In Rashiduddin's "History of Cathay" we read: "In the reign of -Din-Wang, the twentieth King of the eleventh dynasty, _Tai Shang Lao Kun_ -was born. This person is stated to have been accounted a prophet by the -people of Khita; his father's name was Han; like Shak-muni (Buddha) he is -said to have been conceived by light, and it is related that his mother -bore him in her womb no less a period than eighty years. The people who -embraced his doctrine were called [Arabic] _Shan-shan_ or _Shin-shin_." -The title used by Rashiduddin signifies "the Great Supreme Venerable -Ruler." - -[33] Robert Fortune, "Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of -China," p. 170, et sqq. - -[34] "Three Years' Wanderings," p. 185. - -[35] Fortune, pp. 190, 191. - -[36] M. de la Gironiere, cit. in "The Eastern Archipelago," pp. 522, 526, -527. - -[37] Col. Yule, "Book of Sir Marco Polo," Vol. I. pp. 306, 307. - -[38] Edward Melton, "Engelsch Edelmans Zeldzaame en Gedenkwaardige Zee en -Land Reizen," &c., 1660, 1677, p. 468. - -[39] Miss Gordon Cumming. "From the Hebrides to the Himalayas," ii. 68, -69. - -[40] This chapter is adapted from Mr. Winwood Reade's "Savage Africa," -(Edit. 1863.) - -[41] "A Year's Housekeeping in South Africa," p. 173. - -[42] Lady Barker, "A Year's Housekeeping in South Africa," p. 179. - -[43] Abridged from Lady Barker, "A Year's Housekeeping in South Africa," -pp. 181-184. - -[44] Quoted from Chwolson ("Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus," 1856,) by -Chambers. - -[45] Deane, p. 49. - -[46] Isaac McLellan. - -[47] Deane, pp. 370-373. - -[48] Deane, pp. 446, 447. - -[49] "Tree and Serpent-worship," by James Fergusson, (edit. 1868.) - -[50] "Asiatic Researches," Vol. XX. p. 85. - -[51] Fergusson, "Tree and Serpent-worship," p. 93. - -[52] "We know," says Mr. Fergusson, "that two of the principal Vedic -gods--Indra (the firmament) and Agni (fire)--were adopted into their -pantheon by the early Buddhists, and it seems more reasonable to connect -this appearance of fire with the pre-existing worship of Agni than with -any far-fetched allusion to solar worship." But what was Agni but a type -of the sun? - -[53] Col. Meadows Taylor, Appendix to Fergusson's "Tree and -Serpent-worship," pp. 236, 237. - -[54] John Williams, "Missionary Enterprises," p. 48. - -[55] Rev. J. Williams, "Missionary Enterprises," pp. 143-146 (edit. 1841.) - -[56] "South Sea Bubbles," by the Earl and the Doctor, pp. 114-117. - -[57] R. F. Burton, "Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa." - -[58] Tennyson. - -[59] Cooper, pp. 102, 104. - -[60] Cooper, p. 105. - -[61] Dishes. - -[62] Empty. - -[63] Puffed. - -[64] Ash, or cinder. - -[65] Saucy child. - -[66] The unbounded good fortune of Polycrates, King of Samos, awakened the -fear of his friend, Amasis, King of Egypt, who wrote to warn him of the -jealousy of the gods:-- - - "This counsel of thy friend disdain not-- - Invoke Adversity! - And what of all thy worldly gear, - Thy deepest heart esteems most dear, - Cast into yonder sea!" - -[67] Calcutta Review, LI. iii. - -[68] Calcutta Review, LI., 118. In the Gaelic we find a similar story, -called "Moorochug and Meenachug." - -[69] We have Anglicised Mr. Dalyell's version. See his "Darker -Superstitions of Scotland," p. 22. (Edit. 1835.) - -[70] This is the subject of D. G. Rossetti's fine poem, "The King's -Tragedy." - -[71] At the beginning of the action he had taken his place in front of his -little band of cavalry. He bade them follow him, and rode forward. But it -seemed to be decreed that, on that day, the lowland Scotch should in both -armies appear to disadvantage. The horse hesitated. Dundee turned round, -stood up in his stirrups, and, waving his hat, invited them to come on. As -he lifted his arm, his cuirass rose, and exposed the lower part of his -left side. A musket ball struck him: his horse sprang forward, and plunged -into a cloud of smoke and dust, which hid from both armies the fall of the -victorious general. A person named Johnstone was near him, and caught him -as he sank down from the saddle. "How goes the day?" said Dundee. "Well -for King James," answered Johnstone; "but I am sorry for your lordship." -"If it is well for him," answered the dying man, "it matters the less for -me." He never spoke again: but when, half an hour later, Lord Dunfermline -and some other friends came to the spot, they thought that they could -still discover some faint remains of life. The body, wrapped up in two -plaids, was carried to the Castle of Blair.--_Macaulay_, chap. xiii. - -[72] Aeneid. lib. vii. l. 87. - -[73] Milton. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CURIOSITIES OF SUPERSTITION*** - - -******* This file should be named 41566.txt or 41566.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/1/5/6/41566 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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