diff options
Diffstat (limited to '41557-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 41557-0.txt | 6040 |
1 files changed, 6040 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/41557-0.txt b/41557-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fea133 --- /dev/null +++ b/41557-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6040 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41557 *** + +Transcriber's Note: + +This paper is a part of the Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1883-1884, +Government Printing Office, Washington, 1887, pages 3-120. The index +has been extracted from the volume index. + +Minor printing errors have been corrected in this version and are listed +below. + + p72: Inserted the first word of the sentence beginning "A section of + this bed...." + p73: "thichness" changed to "thickness" + p78: "victoms" changed to "victims" + p88: "throughot" changed to "throughout" + p114: "quelqu'vn" changed to "quelqu'un" + Footnote [29]: "Smithonian" changed to "Smithsonian" + Footnote [45]: "Vol," changed to "Vol." + +The oe ligature has been represented in this version by [oe], e.g. +M[oe]urs. In the supplemental note (page 112), a character appearing to +be an o with a u above it is used. This has been transcribed as [uo]. + + + + +SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. + + BURIAL MOUNDS + OF THE + NORTHERN SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. + + BY + + PROF. CYRUS THOMAS. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + + Introductory 9 + + Burial mounds of the Wisconsin district 14 + + Burial mounds of the Illinois or Upper Mississippi district 24 + + The Ohio district 45 + + The Appalachian district 61 + + The Cherokees probably mound-builders 87 + + Concluding remarks 108 + + Supplemental note 110 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + Page. + + PLATE I. Group of earthworks, Allamakee County, Iowa. 26 + + II. Enlarged figure and section of earthwork A, Pl. I. 30 + + III. Group of mounds and vertical section of bluff, + East Dubuque, Illinois. 36 + + IV. A mound. (From DeBry). 40 + + V. Plat of ancient works, Kanawha County, + West Virginia. 54 + + VI. Enlarged plan of part of the works shown in Plate V. 58 + + + FIG. 1. Section of mound near Racine, Wisconsin. + (After Lapham). 14 + + 2. Section of burial mound. Vernon County, Wisconsin. 15 + + 3. Earthen pot from Wisconsin burial mound. 16 + + 4. Section of burial mound. Crawford County, Wisconsin. 17 + + 5. Section of burial mound. Crawford County, Wisconsin. 18 + + 6. Section of burial mound. Vernon County, Wisconsin. 20 + + 7. Section of burial mound. Davenport, Iowa. 24 + + 8. Section of mound showing stone vault. Iowa. 31 + + 9. Plat of Indian burying ground. Wapello County, Iowa. 33 + + 10. Section of mound 4. East Dubuque, Illinois. 36 + + 11. Section of mound 16 (Plate III), showing vault. 37 + + 12. Plan of vault, mound 16 (Plate III). 37 + + 13. Pipe from Illinois mound. (From Smithsonian Report, + 1884). 38 + + 14. Pipe from Illinois mound. (From Smithsonian Report, + 1884). 38 + + 15. Pipe from Illinois mound. (From Smithsonian Report, + 1884). 38 + + 16. Group of mounds. Brown County, Illinois. 40 + + 17. Form of the larger mounds of the preceding group. 41 + + 18. Groups of mounds. Clarke County, Missouri. 43 + + 19. Ohio burial mound. (After Squier and Davis). 46 + + 20. Wooden vault of Ohio mound. (After Squier and Davis). 46 + + 21. Copper gorget from mound. Kanawha County, + West Virginia. 52 + + 22. Pipe from mound. Kanawha County, West Virginia. 53 + + 23. Pipe from Ohio mound. 53 + + 24. Mound with so-called "altar." Kanawha County, + West Virginia. 57 + + 25. T. F. Nelson mound. Caldwell County. North Carolina. 62 + + 26. T. F. Nelson triangle. Caldwell County, + North Carolina. 63 + + 27. Engraved shell gorget. Caldwell County, North Carolina. 64 + + 28. Cylindrical copper bead. Caldwell County, + North Carolina. 65 + + 29. Bracelet of copper and shell beads. Caldwell County, + North Carolina. 65 + + 30. Iron implement. Caldwell County, North Carolina. 65 + + 31. Iron implement. Caldwell County, North Carolina. 66 + + 32. W. D. Jones mound. Caldwell County, North Carolina. 67 + + 33. Plan of the R. T. Lenoir burial pit, Caldwell County, + North Carolina. 69 + + 34. Fire-bed. Wilkes County, North Carolina. 72 + + 35. Section of mound. Henderson County, North Carolina. 74 + + 36. Section of mound. Henderson County, North Carolina. 75 + + 37. Plan of burials in mound. Sullivan County, Tennessee. 76 + + 38. Pipe from mound. Sullivan County, Tennessee. 76 + + 39. Large mound of Etowah group. Bartow County, Georgia. 96 + + 40. Vertical section of small mound, same group. 97 + + 41. Plan of burials in same mound. 98 + + 42. Copper plate from Etowah mound. Georgia. 100 + + 43. Copper plate from Etowah mound. Georgia. 101 + + 44. Copper badge from Etowah mound. Georgia. 102 + + 45. Copper badge from Etowah mound. Georgia. 103 + + 46. Engraved shell from Etowah mound. Georgia. 103 + + 47. Engraved shell from Etowah mound. Georgia. 104 + + 48. Copper plate from Illinois mound. 105 + + 49. Copper plate from Indian grave. Illinois. 106 + + + + +BURIAL MOUNDS OF THE NORTHERN SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. + +BY CYRUS THOMAS, PH.D. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +All the works of the mound-builders of our country are exceedingly +interesting to the antiquarian and are valuable as illustrating the +habits, customs, and condition of the people by whom they were formed, +but the sepulchral tumuli surpass all others in importance in this +respect. Although usually simple in form and conveying thereby no +indications of the characteristics of the people by whom they were +erected, yet when explored they reveal to us, by their internal +structure and contents, more in regard to the habits, beliefs, and art +of their authors than can be learned from all their other works +combined. From them we are enabled to learn some traits of ethnical +character. The gifts to, or property of, their dead deposited in these +sepulchers illustrate their arts and customs and cast some rays of light +into their homes and daily life, and the regard for their dead indicated +by the remaining evidences of their modes of burial and sepulchral rites +affords some glimpses of their religious beliefs and superstitions. The +larger and more imposing works, as the pyramidal mounds, the enclosures, +canals, etc., furnish indications of their character, condition, +strength, and culture-status as a people or tribe, but the burial mounds +and their contents, besides the evidences they furnish in regard to the +religious belief and art of the builders, tell us something of +individual traits, something of their social life, their tastes, their +personal regard for each other, and even something of the diseases to +which they were subject. What is still more important, the modes of +burial and vestiges of art found with the dead furnish us undoubted +evidences of tribal distinctions among the authors of these works, and, +together with the differences in external form, enable us to determine +in a general way the respective areas occupied by the different tribes +or peoples during the mound-building age. + +Judging by all the data so far obtained relating to the form, internal +structure, and contents of these works, much of which has not yet been +published, we are perhaps warranted in concluding that the following +districts or areas were occupied by different peoples or tribes. As a +matter of course we can only designate these areas in general terms. + +(1) The _Wisconsin district_, or area of the emblematic or effigy +mounds. This embraces the southern half of Wisconsin, a small portion of +the northern part of Illinois, and the extreme northeast corner of +Iowa. The effigy or animal mounds form the distinguishing feature of the +works of this district, but aside from these there are other features +sufficient to separate the works of this section from those further +south. + +(2) The _Illinois_ or _Upper Mississippi district_, embracing eastern +Iowa, northeastern Missouri, and northern and central Illinois, as far +south as the mouth of the Illinois River. + +In this region the works are mostly simple conical tumuli of small or +moderate size, found on the uplands, ridges, and bluffs as well as on +the bottoms, and were evidently intended chiefly as depositories of the +dead. They are further characterized by internal rude stone and wooden +vaults or layers; by the scarcity of pottery vessels, the frequent +occurrence of pipes, the presence of copper axes, and often a hard, +mortar-like layer over the primary or original burial. The skeletons +found are usually extended, though frequently in a sitting or squatting +posture. + +Walls and enclosures are of rare occurrence in this region. + +(3) The _Ohio district_, including the State of Ohio, the western part +of West Virginia, and the eastern portion of Indiana. Although the works +of this region present some features which are common to those of the +Gulf section, there are several peculiar characteristics which warrant +us in designating it as a distinct district. Among other of these +peculiar features we notice the great circles and squares of the +enclosures, the long parallel lines of earthen walls, the so-called +"altar mounds," or mounds containing structures chiefly of clay to which +the name "altar" has been applied; the numerous carved stone pipes; the +character of the pottery and the methods of burial. + +(4) The _New York district_, confined chiefly to the northern and +western parts of the State of New York, but including also the lake +region of the central portion. + +As the antiquities of this district have been shown by Squier to be +chiefly due to the Indian tribes occupying that section at the time of +its discovery by the Europeans, it is unnecessary to note the +distinguishing characteristics. The works are chiefly enclosing walls, +remains of palisades, and burial mounds. + +(5) The _Appalachian district_, including western North Carolina, +eastern Tennessee, southwestern Virginia, and part of southeastern +Kentucky. + +The characteristics which appear to warrant us in concluding that the +works of this region pertain to a different people from those in the +other districts, at the same time seem to show some relation to those of +the Ohio district. Such are the numerous stone pipes, the altar-like +structures found in some of the mounds, and the presence of mica plates +with the skeletons. But the peculiar features are the mode of burial, +the absence of pottery, and the numerous polished celts and engraved +shells found in the mounds. + +Although it is probable that there are at least three districts in the +southern portion of the United States, they appear to pass from one into +the other by such slight changes in the character of the works as to +render it exceedingly difficult to fix the boundaries between them. I +therefore mention the following, provisionally, as being those indicated +by the data so far obtained. + +(6) The _Middle Mississippi area_ or _Tennessee district_, including +southeast Missouri, northern Arkansas, middle and western Tennessee, +southern and western Kentucky, and southern Illinois. The works of the +Wabash valley possibly belong also to this district, but the data +obtained in regard to them are not sufficient to decide this point +satisfactorily. This district, like the others of the south, is +distinguished from the northern section by its larger mounds, many of +which are pyramidal and truncated and often terraced, and which were, +beyond question, used as domiciliary mounds. Here we also meet with +repeated examples of enclosures though essentially different from those +of Ohio; also ditches and canals. From the Lower Mississippi and Gulf +districts, with which, as we have said, it is closely allied, it is +distinguished chiefly by the presence of the box-shaped stone cists or +coffins, by the small circular house-sites or hut-rings, and by the +character of the pottery. This is pre-eminently the pottery region, the +typical forms being the long-necked, gourd-shaped vase and the +image-vessels. In this district the carved stone pipes are much less +common than in the Illinois, Ohio, and Appalachian districts. + +(7) The _Lower Mississippi district_, including the southern half of +Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. There are no marked +characteristics by which to distinguish it from the Middle district; in +fact as we move southward along the Mississippi from the mouth of the +Illinois river, the works and their contents indicate a succession of +tribes differing but slightly in habits, customs, and modes of life, the +river generally forming one natural boundary between them, but the other +boundaries being arbitrary. For example, the Cahokia region appears to +have been the home of a tribe from which at one time a colony pushed +northward and settled for a while in Brown and Pike Counties, Illinois. +The extreme southeastern counties of Missouri were probably the seat of +another populous tribe which extended its borders into the western part +of southern Illinois and slightly into northeast Arkansas, and closely +resembled in customs and art the ancient people who occupied that part +of the Cumberland valley in middle Tennessee. This subsection is +principally distinguished by the presence of the small circular +house-sites, which are slightly basin-shaped, with a low ring of earth +around them. As we move farther southward into Arkansas the house-sites +change into low circular mounds, usually from 1 to 3 feet in height, and +in nearly every instance containing a layer of clay (often burned) and +ashes. + +These small mounds, which are clearly shown to have been house-sites, +were also burial places. It appears to have been a very common custom in +this section to bury the dead in the floor, burn the dwelling over them, +and cover the whole with dirt, the last operation often taking place +while the embers were yet smouldering. Burial in graves was also +practiced to a considerable extent. As we approach the Arkansas River, +moving southward and from thence into Louisiana, the pottery shows a +decided improvement in character and ornamentation. + +(8) The _Gulf district_, including the Gulf States east of the +Mississippi. The works of this section appear to be closely allied to +those of the Lower Mississippi district, as here we also find the large +flat-topped pyramidal mounds, enclosing walls, and surrounding ditches +and canals. + +The chief differences are to be found in the forms and ornamentation of +the pottery and modes of burial. + +As we approach the Mississippi River the distinguishing features +gradually disappear, although there appears to be a distinct subdistrict +in the northern part of Mississippi, and as we enter the Florida +peninsula a change is observed which appears to indicate a different +people, but the data so far obtained are not sufficient to enable us to +outline the subdistricts. + +This districting is to be regarded as a working hypothesis rather than +as a settled conclusion which will stand the test of future +investigations. It is more than likely that other subdivisions will be +found necessary, and that the boundaries of some of the districts given +will have to be more or less modified; still, I believe the arrangement +will be found substantially correct. + +As a very general and almost universal rule, mounds of the class under +consideration are more or less conical in form, and are common to all +sections where earthworks are known to exist, in fact they form almost +the only ancient remains of some localities. Often they are isolated, +with no other monuments near them, but more frequently they occur in +groups or are associated with other works. Squier and Davis say "they +are generally of considerable size, varying from 6 to 80 feet in height, +but having an average of from 15 to 25 feet."[1] + +This is probably true in regard to the mounds explored by these +archaeologists in Ohio, but is erroneous if applied generally; as very +many, evidently used and intended as burying places only, are but two or +three feet high, and so far as the more recent examinations made in +other sections--especially the explorations carried on under the Bureau +of Ethnology--have shown, tumuli of this character are usually from 3 to +10 feet high, though some, it is true, are of much larger dimensions; +but these are the exceptions and not the rule.[2] + +As the authors just alluded to are so frequently referred to by writers, +and their statements in reference to the works explored by them are +taken as of general application, I will venture to correct another +statement made by them in regard to mounds of this character. They +assert that "these mounds invariably cover a single skeleton (in very +rare instances more than one, as in the case of the Grave Creek mound), +which, at the time of its interment, was enveloped in bark or coarse +matting or enclosed in a rude sarcophagus of timber, the traces, in some +instances the very casts, of which remain. Occasionally the chamber of +the dead is built of stone rudely laid up, without cement of any +kind."[3] + +I have investigated but few of the ancient works of Ohio personally, or +through the assistants of the Bureau, hence I can only speak in regard +to them from what has been published and from communications received, +but judging from these, Messrs. Squier and Davis, while no doubt +correctly describing the mounds explored by them, have been too hasty in +drawing general conclusions. + +That burial mounds in the northern sections very frequently cover but a +single skeleton is true, but that this, even in this section, is +universally true or that it is the general rule is a mistake, as will +appear from what is shown hereafter. Nor will it apply as a rule to +those of the southern sections. + +To illustrate the character and construction of these mounds, and modes +of burial in them, I will introduce here brief descriptions of the +leading types found in the different northern districts heretofore +mentioned, confining myself chiefly to the explorations made by the +Bureau assistants. + + + + +BURIAL MOUNDS OF THE WISCONSIN DISTRICT. + + +Following the order of the geographical districts heretofore given, we +commence with the Wisconsin section, or region of the effigy mounds. + +As a general rule the burial mounds in this area are comparatively +small, seldom exceeding 10 feet in height and generally ranging from 3 +to 6 feet. In all cases these belong to that class of works usually +denominated "simple conical tumuli." + +Of the methods of construction and modes of burial there appear to be +some two or three types, though not so different as necessarily to +indicate different tribes or peoples. One of these is well represented +in the following extract from Dr. I. A. Lapham's work describing some +mounds opened by Dr. Hoy, near Racine: + + We excavated fourteen of the mounds, some with the greatest + possible care. They are all sepulchral, of a uniform + construction as represented in Fig. 1 [our Fig. 1.] Most of + them contained more than one skeleton; in one instance we found + no less than seven. We could detect no appearance of + stratification, each mound having been built at one time and + not by successive additions. During the investigations we + obtained sufficient evidence to warrant me in the following + conclusions. The bodies were regularly buried in a sitting or + partly kneeling posture facing the east, with the legs placed + under them. They were covered with a bark or log roofing over + which the mound was built.[4] + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of mound near Racine, Wisconsin.] + +In these a basin-shaped excavation some 2 or 3 feet deep was first made +in the soil in which the bodies were deposited, as shown in Fig. 1. + +Mr. Middleton, one of the Bureau assistants, in 1883, opened quite a +number of small burial mounds in Crawford and Vernon counties, belonging +to the same type as those just described; some with the excavation in +the original soil in which the skeletons were deposited, though in +others there were no such excavations, the skeletons being deposited on +the original surface or at various depths in the mounds. I give here +descriptions of a few of them from his notes: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of burial mound, Vernon County, +Wisconsin.] + +The one numbered 16, of the Courtois group, is about 20 feet in +diameter, and at present scarcely more than 1 foot high, the ground +having been in cultivation for several years and the mound considerably +lowered by the plow. A vertical section is given in Fig. 2, _a a_, +indicating the natural surface of the ground, _b_ the part of the mound +removed, and _c_ the original circular excavation in the natural soil to +the depth of 2 feet. + +Four skeletons were found in this excavation, two side by side near the +center, with heads south, faces up, one near the north margin with head +west, and the other on the south side with head east, all stretched at +full length. + +In another mound of the same group with a similar excavation nothing +save a single skull was found. In another of exactly the same kind some +of the skeletons were folded, while others were extended at full length. + +In all these cases, and in a majority of the small burial mounds opened +in this western part of the State, there was no stratification; still +there were found some exceptions to this rule. + +Vestiges of art were comparatively rare in them, yet here and there were +found an arrow-point, a chipped flint scraper or celt--in some instances +remarkably fine specimens--a few large copper gorgets, evidently +hammered from native copper, copper beads, etc. Very few vessels of +pottery were obtained from them, but one was discovered, shown in Fig. +3, which I believe is of the finest quality of this ware so far obtained +from the mounds of the United States. There were intrusive burials in a +few of these mounds, but these have been wholly omitted from +consideration in the descriptions given. + +In a few instances the mounds seem to have been built solely for the +purpose of covering a confused mass of human bones gathered together +after the flesh had disappeared or had been removed. Similar mounds are +described by Mr. Thomas Armstrong as found near Ripon, Fond du Lac +County. Speaking of these, Mr. Armstrong says: + + As to how these bones came to be placed in these mounds, we can + of course only conjecture; but from their want of arrangement, + from the lack of ornaments and implements, and from their + having been placed on the original surface, we are inclined to + believe that the dry bones were gathered together--those in the + large mounds first and those in the smaller ones + afterwards--and placed in loose piles on the ground and the + earth heaped over them until the mounds were formed.[5] + +There can be no doubt that the bones in this case were gathered up from +other temporary burial places or depositories, as was the custom of +several tribes of Indians. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Earthen pot from Wisconsin mound.] + +A number of burial mounds opened by Mr. W. G. Anderson, near Madison, +were found to be of the same general type as those mentioned by Mr. +Middleton. These he describes as being very low and poorly made. Eight +were opened, all having been built in the same way, with only one layer +of black earth, so hard as to make the work of excavation exceedingly +laborious. These were circular, and about 4 feet high. Skeletons were +found as near as 12 or 13 inches to the surface, but badly decayed. +There were no sarcophagi or coffins, and in all cases the heads pointed +towards the west.[6] + +In some instances the mound contained a circular stone wall, within +which a pit had been dug to the depth of 2 or 3 feet in the original +soil, as, for example, the one near Waukesha, described by Dr. +Lapham.[7] + +A mound in Crawford County, opened by Colonel Norris, one of the Bureau +assistants, in 1882, shows a similar vault or pit, but differs from the +preceding in being distinctly stratified and wanting the stone wall. The +construction of this tumulus and the mode of burial in it were as +follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of burial mound, Crawford County, +Wisconsin.] + +Proceeding from the top downwards, there was first a layer of soil and +sand about 1 foot thick; next, nearly 2 feet in depth of calcined human +bones, without order, mingled with which were charcoal, ashes, and a +reddish-brown mortar-like substance, burned as hard as pavement brick. +This layer is numbered 4 in the annexed cut (Fig. 4), which represents a +vertical section of the mound. Immediately below this was a layer about +1 foot thick (No. 3) of clay or mortar mixed with sand, burned to a +brick-red color. Below this, in the space marked 2 in the cut, were +found the bones of fifteen or twenty individuals, in a confused heap, +without order or arrangement. Mingled with these were fire-brands, +charcoal, and ashes. The bones were charred, some of them to charcoal, +and some were glazed with melted sand. The mass appears to have been +first covered with soft clay-mortar, which ran into and filled the +spaces, and the burning to have been done afterwards by means of brush +or wood heaped on the top, as among the bones were lumps of hard burned +clay. + +The bottom of this layer corresponded with the original surface of the +ground, but the excavation being continued, a circular vault or pit, 6 +feet in diameter, was found extending downwards, with perpendicular +sides, to the depth of nearly 3 feet. The bottom of this pit was covered +to the depth of an inch with fine chocolate-colored dust. Although the +filling of this pit was chiefly sand, there was a cavity at the bottom a +foot high in the center, over which the sand filling was arched as shown +in the figure. + +It is evident that the skeletons in this mound were buried after the +flesh had been removed, as we can on no other supposition explain the +fact that the clay or mortar had filled the interstices between the +bones, and that in some cases it had even penetrated into the skulls. + +Another mound, opened by Colonel Norris in the same neighborhood, +presented some peculiarities worthy of notice, although not sufficient +to mark it as belonging to a distinct type. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Section of burial mound, Crawford County, +Wisconsin.] + +According to his report, the southern portion had previously been +explored by Judge Branson, who found at the base some six or eight +skeletons lying stretched out horizontally, and covered by a dry, +light-colored mortar which must have been spread over them while in a +soft condition, as it had run between the bones and encased them, and in +some cases, as in the mound just described, filled the skulls. As only +the southern portion had been opened he removed the remainder. The dried +mortar-like substance was very hard and difficult to dig through, but +the pick soon struck some rough, flat limestone rocks which proved to be +parts of a rude wall about 3 feet high and 8 feet long, built on the +natural surface of the ground. In the opposite side of the mound, 12 +feet distant from and parallel with it, was another similar wall. +Between them and on the natural surface of the ground, side by side, +were a number of skeletons lying flat and lengthwise and parallel with +the walls. A vertical section of this mound is shown in Fig. 5. The +little circles at the bottom between the walls indicate the heads of the +skeletons; No. 4, the layer of mortar over the bones; 3, a layer of hard +clay mixed with ashes; 2, a layer of clay; and 1, the top covering of +sand and soil about 18 inches thick. Before being disturbed this mound +was 35 feet in diameter and 6 feet high. + +As it is evident that the burials in this case were made at one time, +and as the mortar-like substance had run into the interstices, it is +more than probable that the skeletons were deposited after the flesh had +been removed. + +The following description of a mound with a single original and several +intrusive burials is also taken from Colonel Norris' notes of work in +Crawford County: + +One large mound of this group, 70 feet in diameter and 10 feet high, +still unexplored, was opened. It had been considerably defaced, +especially on the west side. According to tradition it was a noted +burial place with the Indians, which was certainly confirmed by the +result. The surface or top layer was composed of sand and alluvial earth +to the depth of some 3 or 4 feet. Scattered through this in almost every +part of the mound were human skeletons in various stages of decay and in +different positions, but mostly stretched horizontally on the back. +Scattered among the remains were numerous fragments of blankets, +clothing and human hair, 1 copper kettle of modern pattern, 3 copper +bracelets (hammered from native copper), 1 silver locket, 10 silver +bracelets (one having the name "Montreal," and another the letters "A B" +stamped on it), 2 silver earrings, 6 silver brooches, 1 copper +finger-ring, 1 double silver cross, 1 knife-handle, and 1 battered +bullet. In fact the top layer to the depth of 3 or 4 feet seemed to be +packed as full of skeletons and relics as possible. + +Carrying the trench down to the original surface of the ground, he found +at the bottom, near the center, a single skeleton of an adult in the +last stages of decay. With it were the following articles: 2 stone +scrapers, a small stone drill, fragments of river shells, and pieces of +a mammoth tusk. The earth below the upper layer was mixed with clay and +ashes, evidently different from the surrounding soil. + +Several mounds opened by him in Grant County contained charred human +bones, and one or two covered confused masses of bones, being similar in +this respect to some of those heretofore mentioned. + +A mound which he opened in Sheboygan County, containing a single +skeleton, is described as about 50 feet in diameter and 5 feet high. +After passing through 18 inches of surface soil, the central mass, +composed of earth mingled with charcoal, ashes, and loose stones, was +reached. Near the center of this mass, and at the bottom of the mound, a +large human skeleton was discovered, apparently holding between the +hands and knees a large clay vase. Immediately over this skeleton was an +irregular layer of flat bowlders. + +Another mound of this group, about the same size as the preceding, was +found literally filled with skeletons to the depth of 2-1/2 feet, +evidently intrusive burials, as they were accompanied with iron +implements, silver ornaments, etc. Beneath these was a layer of rounded +drift bowlders aggregating several wagon loads. Below these and in a +shallow excavation in the natural surface of the ground were some forty +or more skeletons in a sitting or squatting posture, disposed in circles +around and facing the central space, which was occupied by an unusually +large shell (_Busycon perversum_). + +It is worthy of notice in this connection that there are no effigy +mounds, so far as known, in the immediate section where the two works +just mentioned are situated, but there is near by, one small oval +enclosure about 50 feet in diameter. + +In studying the burial mounds of the district now under consideration, +of which the foregoing may be considered as types, there appears to be +no marked distinction between the intrusive burials of modern Indians +and the original burials for which the mounds were constructed. In both +we observe from one to many skeletons in a place; in both we find them +stretched out horizontally and also folded; in both we sometimes notice +evidences of fire and partially-consumed bones; in both we find +instances where the mortar-like covering has been used, and in both we +meet occasionally with those confused masses of bones which seem to have +been gathered from graves or other temporary burial places into these +mounds as common depositories. Moreover the transition from one to the +other is so gradual as to leave us nothing save the position in the +mound and the presence of vestiges of civilized art to distinguish the +former from the latter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Section of burial mound, Vernon County, +Wisconsin.] + +A large portion of these mounds, as has already been stated, are +unstratified, and each was probably thrown up and completed at one time; +yet skeletons are found at various depths in some of these, as, for +example, one opened by Mr. Middleton, in Vernon County, a vertical +section of which is shown in Fig. 6, _a a_ indicating the original +surface of the ground and the stars the positions of the skeletons, some +of which were stretched out at full length while others were folded. The +heads were towards different points of the compass and the bones of all +were so much decayed that none could be preserved. Several instances of +this kind were observed, in some cases those skeletons near the surface +or top of the mound indicating burial after contact with the whites. + +It is apparent, therefore, that although some of the burial mounds of +this district must be attributed to the so-called mound-builders, others +were certainly built by the Indians found inhabiting it at the advent of +the whites. There can scarcely be a doubt that some of the small +unstratified tumuli described are the work of the Indians. If this is +conceded there would seem to be no halting place short of attributing +all of this class in this district to the same race. + +Dr. Hoy's statement that in some cases there was evidence that the +bodies had been "covered with a bark or log roofing," is in exact accord +with a well-known burial custom of some of the tribes of the Northwest. + +According to Mr. M. B. Kent, the Sacs and Foxes, who formerly resided in +the region now under consideration, buried the body "in a grave made +about 2-1/2 feet deep, which was laid always with the head towards the +east, the burial taking place as soon after death as possible. The grave +was prepared by putting bark in the bottom of it before the corpse was +deposited, a plank covering made and secured some distance above the +body." + +Another method followed by the same people, according to Mr. J. W. +Spencer[8], was to make a shallow hole in the ground, setting the body +in it up to the waist, so that most of the body was above the ground. A +trench was then dug about the grave, in which pickets were planted. But +the usual method was to place split pieces of wood about three feet long +over the body, meeting at the top in the form of a roof, on which dirt +was thrown to keep them in place. + +According to Potherie[9], the Iroquois were accustomed to cover the +bodies, after being deposited in the "fosse," with bark of trees, on +which they cast earth and stones. + +According to Schoolcraft[10], the Mohawks of New York-- + + make a large round hole in which the body can be placed upright + or upon its haunches: which after the body is placed in it is + covered with timber to support the earth which they lay over, + and thereby keep the body from being pressed. They then raise + the earth in a round hill over it.[11] + +The burial customs of northern tribes, known to have occupied portions +of the effigy mound district, agree so exactly with what we see in the +sepulchral tumuli of this district as to justify the conclusion reached +by Dr. Lapham, after a long and careful personal study of them, that +they are to be attributed to Indians. Some he was rather inclined to +ascribe to tribes which had migrated, had been driven off by other +tribes, or been incorporated into them previous to the advent of the +white race. But he maintained that the subsequent tribes or those found +occupying the country "continued the practice of mound-building so far +as to erect a circular or conical tumulus over their dead." And he adds +significantly, "This practice appears to be a remnant of ancient customs +that connects the mound-builders with the present tribes."[12] + +The evidence in regard to these unstratified mounds appears to lead +directly to the conclusion that they are all the work of the Indians +found occupying the country at the time it was first visited by whites +or of their ancestors. If it is conceded that the small unstratified +tumuli are in part the work of these aborigines, there would seem to be +no escape from the conclusion that all the burial mounds of this +district are to be ascribed to them; for, although there are some two or +three types of burial and burial mounds, the gradation from one to the +other is so complete as to leave no marked line of distinction, and Dr. +Lapham is fully justified in asserting that the evidence connects the +mound-builders with the modern Indians. The stratified mounds in which +the hard clay or mortar covering over the remains is found, and which we +shall again meet with in the adjoining district, may be the work of +different tribes from those which constructed the small unstratified +tumuli, but the distinctions between the two classes are not such as to +justify the belief that they are to be attributed to a different race or +to a people occupying a higher or widely different culture-status. + +Having reached this conclusion it is impossible for us to halt here; we +are compelled to take one step farther in the same direction and ascribe +the singular structures known as "effigy mounds" to the same people. The +two classes of work are too intimately connected to admit of the +supposition that the effigy mounds were built by one race or people, and +the conical tumuli by another. We might as well assume that the +enclosures of Ohio were the work of one people, but the mounds +accompanying them of another. + +That works of different tribes or nations may frequently be found +intermingled on areas over which successive waves of population have +passed is admitted, but that one part of what is clearly a system is to +be attributed to one people and the other part to another people is a +hypothesis unworthy of serious consideration. The only possible +explanations of the origin, object, or meaning of these singular +structures are based, whether confessedly so or not, on the theory that +they are of Indian origin. Remove the Indian element from the problem +and we are left without even the shadow of an hypothesis. + +The fact that the effigy mounds were not used as places of sepulture, +and that no cemeteries save the burial mounds are found in connection +with them, is almost conclusive proof that the two, as a rule, must be +attributed to the same people, that they belong to one system. If this +conclusion is considered legitimate, it will lend much aid to the study +of these works. It is true it is not new, but it has been generally +ignored, and hence could not aid in working out results. + +The following extract from Dr. Lapham's "Antiquities of Wisconsin" will +not be considered inappropriate at this point:[13] + + The ancient works in Wisconsin are mostly at the very places + selected by the present Indians for their abodes, thus + indicating that the habits, wants, modes of subsistence, &c., + of their builders were essentially the same. + + If the present tribes have no traditions running back as far as + the time of Allouez and Marquette, or even to the more recent + time of Jonathan Carver, it is not strange that none should + exist in regard to the mounds, which must be of much earlier + date. + + It is by considerations of this nature that we are led to the + conclusion that the mound-builders of Wisconsin were none + others than the ancestors of the present tribes of Indians. + + There is some evidence of a greater prevalence than at present + of prairie or cultivated land in this State at no very remote + age. The largest trees are probably not more than five hundred + years old, and large tracts of land are now covered with + forests of young trees where there are no traces of an + antecedent growth. Every year the high winds prostrate great + numbers of trees and frequent storms pass through the forest, + throwing down nearly everything before them. Trees are left + with a portion of the roots still in the ground, so as to keep + them alive for several years after their prostration. These + "wind-falls" are of frequent occurrence in the depths of the + forests and occasion much difficulty in making the public + surveys. The straight lines of the sections frequently + encounter them. + + The amount of earth adhering to the roots of a tree when + prostrated by the wind is, under favorable circumstances, very + considerable, and upon their decay forms an oblong mound of + greater or less magnitude, and a slight depression is left + where the tree stood. These little hillocks are often by the + inexperienced mistaken for Indian graves. From the paucity of + these little "tree-mounds" we infer that no very great + antiquity can be assigned to the dense forests of Wisconsin; + for, during a long period of time, with no material change of + climate, we would expect to find great numbers of these little + monuments of ancient storms scattered everywhere over the + ground. + + Whether the greater extent of treeless country in former times + was owing to natural or artificial causes it is now difficult + to determine, but the great extent of ancient works within the + depths of the present forests would seem to indicate that the + country was at least kept free from trees by the agency of man. + + Many of these tree-mounds were observed on and about the + ancient works. + + Another curious circumstance that may be noticed by inspection + of the figures of mounds accompanying this work is the gradual + transition, as it were, or change of one form into another. + Examples can be found of all forms, from a true circle through + the oval and elongated oval to the oblong mounds and long + ridges. Again, there is a succession of mounds, from the simple + ridge of considerable size at one end and gradually diminishing + to a point at the other, through the intermediate forms, having + one, two, three, or four projections to the "turtle-form." In + this way, also, we may trace a gradual development (so to + speak) of nearly all the more complicated forms. + + It is not pretended to assert that this was the order in which + the mounds were erected; or that the aborigines gradually + acquired the art by successive essays or lessons. Indeed, we + are led to believe that the more complicated forms are the most + ancient. + + The relative ages of the different works in Wisconsin, so far + as they can be ascertained from the facts now before us, are + probably about as follows: + + First and oldest. The animal forms, and the great works at + Aztalan. + + Second. The conical mounds built for sepulchral purposes, which + come down to a very recent period. + + Third. The indications of garden-beds planted in regular + geometrical figures or straight lines. + + Fourth. The plantations of the present tribes, who plant + without system or regularity. + + Thus the taste for regular forms and arrangements, and the + habits of construction with earthy materials seems to have been + gradually lost, until all traces of them disappear in our + modern degenerate red men. + + The animal-shaped mounds and accompanying oblongs and ridges, + constituting the first of the above series, are composed of + whitish clay or of the subsoil of the country. + + The mounds of the second series, or burial mounds, are usually + composed of black mould or loam, promiscuously intermixed with + the lighter-colored subsoil. + + + + +BURIAL MOUNDS OF THE ILLINOIS OR UPPER MISSISSIPPI DISTRICT. + + +This district, as heretofore stated, includes eastern Iowa, northeastern +Missouri, and northern and central Illinois as far south as the mouth of +the Illinois River. + +Although we are justified in concluding that this area was occupied +during the mound-building age by tribes different from those residing +in the Wisconsin district, yet the distinguishing characteristics are +more apparent in the forms of the works than in the modes of burial and +internal construction of the burial mounds. We shall see by the +illustrations hereafter given that at least one of the types found in +one district is common in the other. But this is to be expected and is +readily explained by the supposition that the tribes which have occupied +these regions moved back and forth, thus one after another coming upon +the same area. The absence of evidence of such movements would indicate +that the mound-building period was of comparatively short duration, a +theory which I believe has not been adopted by any authority, but to +which I shall have occasion again to refer. One class of the burial +mounds of this district is well represented in a group, explored by the +members of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, on the Cook farm, +near Davenport, Iowa. The mounds of this group are situated on the +immediate bank of the Mississippi at a height not exceeding 8 to 12 feet +above high-water mark; they are conical in form and of comparatively +small size, varying in height from 3 to 8 feet. Nine of them were +opened, of which we notice the following: + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section of burial mound, Davenport, Iowa. [From +the Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Sciences.]] + +In No. 1 the layers from above down were, first, a foot of earth; then a +layer of stones 1-1/2 feet thick; then a layer of shells 2 inches thick; +next a foot of earth, and lastly a second layer of shells 4 inches +thick. Immediately under this, at the depth of 5 feet, were found five +skeletons stretched horizontally on the original surface of the ground, +parallel to each other, three with heads toward the east and two with +heads west. With them were found one sea-shell (_Busycon perversum_), +two copper axes, to which fragments of cloth were attached, one copper +awl, an arrow-head, and two stone pipes, one representing a frog. + +Mound No. 2, though similar in form and external appearance to the +preceding, presented a quite different arrangement internally, as is +evident from the vertical section shown in Fig. 7. Here there were no +layers of shells, but two distinct layers of stones. At the depth of 5 +feet eight skulls (five only are shown in the figure), with some +fragments of bones were unearthed; these were lying in a semicircle of 5 +feet diameter, each surrounded by a circle of small stones (shown at _a_ +in the figure). From the position of the skulls and bones it was evident +these bodies had been buried in a sitting posture. The articles found +accompanying the skeletons were two copper axes, two small hemispheres +of copper and _one of silver_, a bear's tooth, and an arrow-head. + +No. 3, though the largest of the group, was apparently unstratified, the +original burial consisting of the bones of two adults and one infant, at +the original surface of the ground, under a thin layer of ashes, and +surrounded by a single circle of small red stones. With these were found +copper axes, copper beads, two carved stone pipes (one in the form of a +ground-hog), animal teeth, etc. Near the surface of the mound were two +well-preserved skeletons, with evidences of an "oakwood" covering over +them and accompanied by glass beads, a fire steel, clay pipe, and silver +ear-ring--evidently an intrusive burial. + +No. 4 was found similar in construction and in all other respects to No. +3, except that at the feet of the skeletons was a round heap of stones, +3 feet high, neatly laid up, and that in the earth where the skeletons +lay could be distinctly seen traces of cloth or some woven material, in +which they had probably been enveloped. + +No. 5 was similar to No. 2, except in the following respects: The +skeletons (probably two) were in a confused heap at the bottom under a +6-inch layer of hard clay (probably similar to what Colonel Norris calls +"mortar"). Near these, but outside of the clay layer, was a stone heap +similar to that in No. 4. "On this lay two very strong thigh bones and +three ribs placed diagonally across each other. There were also a few +bones leaning against the heap at one side. The stones were partly +burned to lime, and all of them showed more or less marks of fire, while +the bones in the mound showed not the slightest trace of it." + +Four or five feet south of the stone heap was a large quantity of human +bones in complete confusion. The relics were broken pots, arrow-heads, a +stone pipe, etc. + +Nos. 7, 8, and 9 were similar to No. 1, varying only in minor +details.[14] + +My object in noticing the construction of so many mounds in a single +group and the modes of burial in them, is to call attention to the +differences in detail where there can be no doubt that they were built +by one tribe and probably by one clan, as the size of the group +indicates a comparatively limited population. In these nine mounds we +notice the following differences: some are stratified, others not; in +some the skeletons are placed horizontally on the ground, in others they +are in a sitting posture, while in others they are dismembered and in +confused heaps; in some there are altar-like[15] structures of stone +which are wanting in others; in some the skeletons are covered with a +hard clay or mortar coating which is wanting in most of them, and +lastly, we see in one or two, evidences of the use of fire in the burial +ceremonies, though not found in the others. + +In some respects these mounds remind us of some of the stratified tumuli +of Wisconsin, especially those opened by Colonel Norris in Sheboygan +County, to which they bear a strong resemblance. + +In the latter part of 1882 Colonel Norris examined a group of works in +Allamakee County, Iowa, which presents some peculiarities worthy of +notice in this connection. + +This group, which is represented in Plate I, consisting of enclosures, +lines of small mounds, and excavations, is situated on the farm of Mr. +H. P. Lane, about 7 miles above New Albin. It is on a bluff in one of +the numerous bends of the Little Iowa River, the character of the +locality indicating that it was selected as one easily defended. I shall +at present only notice those particulars which seem to have some bearing +on the character of the burial mounds and mode of interment. + +Although there are no effigy mounds in the group, the relative positions +and forms of the tumuli, as shown in the figure, and other particulars +to be noticed, leave no doubt in my mind that the works, in part, are to +be attributed to the people who built the figure mounds of Wisconsin. +But, as will be seen from the particulars mentioned, there is conclusive +evidence that the locality has been occupied at different times by at +least two distinct tribes or peoples, differing widely in habits and +customs. + +[Illustration: PL. I. GROUP OF EARTHWORKS, ALLAMAKEE COUNTY, IOWA] + +The largest work is an enclosure marked _A_ in Plate I, and shown on an +enlarged scale in Plate II. It is situated on the margin of a bluff +overlooking the Little Iowa and an intervening bog-bayou, probably the +former channel of the river. It is almost exactly circular, the curve +being broken on the east side, where it touches the brink of the bluff, +being here made to conform to the line of the latter, though probably +never thrown up to the same height as the other portion. The ends at the +southeast overlap each other for a short distance, leaving at this point +an entrance way, the only one to the enclosure. A ditch runs round on +the inside from the entrance on the south to where the wall strikes the +bluff on the north, but is wanting along the bluff and overlapping +portion. The north and south diameter, measuring from outside to +outside, is 277 feet; from east to west, 235 feet; the entire outer +circumference is 807 feet, the length of the portion along the bluff 100 +feet, and of the overlapping portion at the entrance 45 feet. The wall +is quite uniform in size, about 4 feet high and from 25 to 27 in width, +except along the bluff, where it is scarcely apparent; the entrance is +16 feet wide, and the ditch 5 to 6 feet wide and 3 feet deep. On the +north, adjoining the wall on the outside and extending along it for +about 100 feet, is an excavation (_c_, Plate II) 35 feet wide at the +widest point and 3 feet deep. + +As this ground, including the circle, has been under cultivation for +fifteen years, it would be supposed the height of the wall is +considerably less than it originally was, but this is probably a +mistake. On the contrary, it was originally probably but 20 feet wide +and not more than 3 feet high, composed mainly of yellowish brown clay +obtained, in part at least, from the ditch, but during occupancy the +accumulation of countless bones of animals used as food, stone chips, +river shells, broken pottery, and dirt, and, since abandonment, the +accumulation of sand drifted by the winds from the crumbling +sandstone butte (_C_, Plate I) overlooking it, have not only filled the +ditch but elevated the wall and whole interior area 2 feet or more. This +accumulation of sand is so great and so uniform over the plateau that +fifteen years of cultivation have not sufficed to reach the clay of the +original surface nor to unearth or even penetrate to the bones, pottery +fragments, and other refuse matter covering the original surface in the +circle. + +Trenches cut across the wall at various points indicate, first, a layer +of sand about 1 foot thick; immediately below this an accumulation of +refuse matter forming a layer from 1 to 2 feet thick; under which was +the original clay embankment 2 feet thick, resting on the natural +surface of the ground. A section of the ditch, embankment, and +excavation is shown in Plate II. The dotted line _a b_ indicates the +natural surface; No. 1 the original clay layer of the wall; No. 2 the +layer of earth and refuse material with which the ditch is filled; and +No. 3 the top layer of sand. + +In No. 2 were found charcoal, ashes, fragments of pottery, fractured +bones, etc. + +A broad belt of the inner area on the east side was explored, and the +same conditions were found to exist here as were revealed by the +trenches across the wall and ditch, except that here the shells were +more abundant in layer No. 2, and there were many burnt stones. + +On the southeastern portion of the plateau (_B_, Plate I) are six nearly +parallel lines of mounds running northeast and southwest, mostly +circular in form, varying from 15 to 40 feet in diameter, and from 2 to +6 feet in height; a few, as indicated in the figure, are oblong, varying +in length from 50 to 100 feet. The number in the group exceeds one +hundred. + +While engaged in excavating these mounds Colonel Norris observed a +number of patches of the level area quite destitute of vegetation. The +owner of the land, who was present, could give no explanation of this +phenomenon, simply remarking that they had always been so, never having +produced a good crop of anything, although there was no apparent +difference between the soil of these spots and the surface around them. +As some of these extended across the area occupied by the mound group, +he concluded to explore them, and was surprised to find them to be +burying places, and scattered here and there among the graves, if such +they could be called, were stone chips, shells, charcoal, and ashes. He +was surprised at this, as he supposed the mounds alone were used as +depositories of the dead, and was at first disposed to attribute these +burials to a people who had occupied the ground long subsequent to the +authors of the works. Possibly this may be the correct solution, but if +so, they were certainly the same as those who buried in the mounds of +this group, as no difference in the contents and internal arrangement +could be observed. In both cases there was a compact layer of hard, +light-colored earth, having the appearance of lime-mortar, possibly clay +and ashes mixed together, which had been subject to the action of fire. +As the burials in these sterile spots were seldom more than 18 inches +deep, the only layer above them consisted of sand from the butte, while +the mounds were uniformly covered with a layer of richer soil, although +below this and covering the skeletons was a layer of hard, light-colored +earth. Skeletons and bones were found in great abundance in the mounds +and under the surface of the plateau, though none were discovered in the +circle or nearer than 200 yards of it. They were sometimes mingled +promiscuously with charcoal and ashes, but were usually in whole +skeletons lying horizontally, though some were in a sitting posture; +they were within from 1 to 3 feet of the surface, without any apparent +system, except that they were always covered with a layer of hard earth. + +A trench cut through the long mound of this group, No. 1, revealed near +the center an oblong pile of sandstones, beneath which was found a rude +stone coffin, formed by first placing flat sandstone slabs on the +natural surface of the ground, then other slabs at the sides and ends, +and a covering of similar stones, thus forming a cist or coffin about 6 +feet long and 18 inches wide. Within this, extended at full length, with +the head west, was the skeleton of an adult, but too much decayed for +preservation. With it were some stone chips, rude stone scrapers, a +_Unio_ shell, and some fragments of pottery similar to those dug up in +the circular enclosure. + +The mounds on the sand butte marked _C_, Plate I, which is something +over 100 feet high, were opened and found to be in every respect similar +to those already mentioned, showing them to be the work of the same +people who built the others. + +The three mounds in the square enclosures marked _D_, (Plate I), were +also opened, with the following results: The largest, oval in form, 30 +feet long, about 20 feet broad and 4 feet high, was found to consist of +a top layer of loose sand 1 foot thick, the remainder of hard yellowish +clay. In the latter were found several flat sandstone fragments, and +beneath them, on the original surface of the ground, a much decayed +skeleton, with which were a few stone chips, _Unio_ shells, and +fragments of pottery. + +The second in size, 18 feet in diameter and 3 feet high, although +covered with a layer of sand, was mainly a loose cairn of sandstones, +covering traces of human bones, charcoal, and ashes. The third was found +to be similar to the second, but in this case the pile of stones was +heaped over a mass of charred human bones, mingled with which were +charcoal, ashes, and fragments of pottery. + +Fragments of pottery were found in abundance in the circle, in the +mounds, in the washouts, and in fact at almost every point in the area +covered by the group. Judging by the fragments, for not a single entire +vessel was obtained, the prevailing forms were the ordinary earthen pot +with ears, and a flask or gourd-shaped vase with a rather broad and +short neck, often furnished with a lid. The paste with which this +pottery was made had evidently been mixed with pounded shells. The only +ornamentation observed consisted in the varied forms given the handles +or ears and indentations and scratched lines. + +Nearly all the implements found were of stone, exceedingly rude, being +little else than stone flakes with one sharp edge; many of them having +been resharpened and used as knives, scrapers, and skinners. Some had +been worked into moderately fair perforators or drills for making holes +in horn, bone, and shell--specimens of all these, with such holes, +having been found here. + +The immense quantity of charred and fractured bones, not only of fish, +birds, and the smaller quadrupeds, such as the rabbit and the fox, but +also of the bear, wolf, elk, deer, and buffalo, shows that the occupants +of this place lived chiefly by the chase, and hence must have used the +bow and arrow and spear; yet, strange to say, although careful search +was made for them, less than a dozen arrow and spear heads were found, +and these so rude as scarcely to deserve the name. A single true chipped +celt, three sandstones with mortar-shaped cavities, and a few mullers or +stones used for grinding were obtained; also, some fragments of +deer-horn, evidently cut round by some rude implement and then broken +off, and several horn and bone punches and awls, one barbed and another +with a hole through the larger end. + +The object in view in presenting these details is to give the reader an +opportunity of judging for himself in reference to some inferences drawn +from them. + +The form of the circular enclosure reminds us at the first glance of the +palisade enclosures figured by De Bry,[16] which, according to +Lafitau,[17] was the form usually adopted by the Indian tribes who were +accustomed to erect such structures. We have here the almost exact +circle, save where interrupted by the margin of the bluff, the +overlapping of the ends, and the narrow entrance-way. We have here also +the clay with which it was the custom, at least in the southern section, +to plaster the palisades or which was cast against their bases as a +means of supporting or bracing them at the bottom, a custom not entirely +unknown among the northern tribes in former times. + +The indications are therefore very strong that this enclosing wall was +originally a palisade which had been in part plastered with clay, or +against which clay had been heaped to assist in rendering it firm and +secure, and, if so, then it is probable it was built by Indians. + +Be this supposition right or wrong the evidence is conclusive that the +area on which this group is situated has been the abode of at least two +tribes or peoples: first, it was occupied by the authors of the +enclosures, whose stay was probably not very protracted, and after they +had abandoned the locality or been driven from it by a second tribe, +evidently comparatively numerous, that made it for a long time a +dwelling place; a tribe differing in customs from its predecessor, and +one that did not rely upon enclosures for protection. By no other +supposition can we account for the fact that the refuse layer which +covers the interior of the circle also spreads in equal depth over the +ditch and clay remains of the enclosing wall, as those who left this +refuse layer could have made no possible use of the wall as a defensive +work, for which the position chosen and other particulars show it was +designed. + +The form of this enclosure, as we have before intimated, seems to +connect it with some one of the Indian tribes; its age is uncertain but +the accumulation of refuse matter and sand since the abandonment by the +first occupants indicates considerable antiquity. + +Although we cannot say positively that the second occupants were the +builders of the mounds, as the investigation was not as thorough as it +should have been, still I think we may assume, with almost absolute +certainty, that such was the fact. The mounds in the square work marked +D, in Plate I, present considerable differences from those in the group, +and are probably the work of those who built the enclosures. + +The stone grave in the oblong mound indicates the presence of +individuals of a more southern tribe[18] at this place, during its +second occupancy. The position of the cist in the mound would seem to +forbid the idea of an intrusive burial, otherwise I should certainly +suppose such to be the fact. I cannot, in the present paper, enter into +a discussion of the question "to what tribe or people are the box-form +stone graves to be attributed," but will state my conviction to be, +after a somewhat careful study of the question, that they are to be +ascribed to the Shawnees, Delawares, and Kickapoos. + +[Illustration: PL. II. ENLARGED FIGURE AND SECTION OF EARTHWORK A, PL. +I.] + +Without further discussion of this group, which, as before intimated, +presents, so far as the mounds are concerned, some features which appear +to ally the latter to one class of burial mounds found in Wisconsin, we +will now refer to some other works of this district explored by the +Bureau assistants. + +On the land owned by Mr. Fish, in Iowa, near the Mississippi River, a +short distance below where the Little Iowa joins it, is a group of +mounds placed on the crest of a ridge running parallel with the former +stream about one-fourth of a mile therefrom. There are in all about +thirty of these mounds, circular in form, and varying from 20 to 40 feet +in diameter. These are all burial mounds, but one singular feature +observed is that those on the higher sandy ground, although about the +same size and having cores of clay similar to those on the firm clay +portion of the ridge, have a layer of sand, some two feet or more added +to them, yet when opened the contents and mode of construction of the +two classes were found to be the same, to wit, a layer of hard clay +covering decaying human bones, fragments of pottery, and rude stone +implements. There were generally two or more skeletons in a mound, which +were placed horizontally side by side on the natural surface of the +ground. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Section of mound showing stone vault (Iowa).] + +Upon the terrace below the group were found the remnants of a row of +comparatively large burial mounds. A railroad line having been carried +along here, the larger portion of these works were destroyed; still, +enough remained to show that the height varied from 6 to 15 feet, that +they were composed chiefly of sandy loam similar to that around them, +and that each had a hard central core of clay mixed with ashes, usually +covering but a single skeleton. The relics found in them when opened +consisted chiefly of stone axes, arrow and spear heads, and a few copper +celts. In one, which was 32 feet in diameter and 8 feet high and less +injured than the others, was a circular vault, walled as represented in +Fig. 8. This was built of flat, unworked stones, laid up without mortar, +gradually lessening as it ascended, and covered at the top by a single +flat stone. In it was a single skeleton in a squatting posture, with +which was a small earthen vase of globular form. + +A singular fact was observed in a group near the town of Peru, Dubuque +County. This group is situated on a dry, sandy bench or terrace some 20 +feet or more above a bayou which, makes out from the Mississippi. It +consists chiefly of small circular tumuli, but at the north end are four +oblong mounds varying in length from 40 to 110 feet and in height from +1-1/2 to 4 feet; there is also an excavation about 30 feet in diameter +and 6 feet deep, and scattered throughout the group are a number of +circular earthen rings varying in diameter from 12 to 30 feet and from 1 +to 2 feet in height. + +Quite a number of the circular mounds were opened, but only detached +portions of a skeleton were found in any one, as a skull in one, and a +leg, arm, or other part in another, four or five adjacent ones +apparently together containing the equivalents of an entire skeleton. +Some of these bones were charred, and all were much decayed, indicating +by their appearance great age. The inner portion of the mounds consisted +of hard, compact earth, chiefly clay, resembling in this respect most of +the burial mounds of this region. + +Unfortunately the examination of this group was too partial and too +hastily made to enable us to form any theory as to the meaning of this +singular mode of burial, or even to be satisfied that the idea of our +assistant in this regard is correct. + +As possibly having some bearing upon the question, the following facts +relating to another similar group at Eagle Point, three miles above +Dubuque, are given. + +This group, which is situated on a bluff about 50 feet above high-water +mark, consists of about seventy mounds, all of which, except two oblong +ones, are small and conical in form. Eleven of these circular tumuli +were thoroughly explored, but nothing was found in them except some +charcoal, stone chips, and fragments of pottery. But in an excavation +made in the center of a long mound just west of the group were found two +decayed skeletons. Near the breast of one of them were a blue stone +gorget and five rude stone scrapers; with the other, thirty-one +fresh-water pearls, perforated and used as beads. Excavations were made +in an oblong and circular mound near the extreme point of the bluffs. +Each was found to have a central core of very hard clay mixed with +ashes, so hard in fact that it could only be broken up with the pick, +when it crumbled like dry lime mortar, and was found to be traversed +throughout with flattened horizontal cavities. These cavities were lined +with a peculiar felt-like substance, which Colonel Norris, who opened +the mounds, was satisfied from all the indications pertained to bodies +which had been buried here, but from lapse of time had entirely crumbled +to earth save these little fragments. We are therefore perhaps justified +in concluding that a more thorough and careful examination of the mounds +of the other group would have shown that the skeletons had so far +decayed as to leave but a small part in a mound. Nevertheless it is +proper to state that Colonel Norris does not coincide with this +conclusion, but thinks that the dismembered skeletons were buried as +found. Possibly he is correct. + +In this connection, and before referring to the mounds of this district +on the Illinois side of the Mississippi, I desire to call attention to +some modern Indian burials in this region. As the statements here made +are from one claiming to be an eye-witness, I give them as related to +the Bureau assistant. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Plat of Indian burying-ground, Wapello County, +Iowa.] + +The locality is a level plat in a bend of the Des Moines River between +Eldon and Iowaville, Wapello County. The plat of this area and the sites +of the burial places, as shown in Fig. 9, are based upon the statements +of Mr. J. H. Jordan (the person referred to), who has resided here since +the close of the Black Hawk war, and was the agent of the Sacs and Foxes +from their removal hither after the war until Black Hawk's death, +September 15, 1838.[19] + +The extreme width of the area represented is about 2 miles. Close to the +point of the bend formerly stood the agency building, near which is the +present residence of Mr. Jordan. The triangle marks the position of +Black Hawk's grave; the parallel lines, the race-tracks; the rings in +the upper corner, the mounds of the Iowas; those in the lower corner, +near Iowaville, the mounds of the Pottawattamies; and the open dots, +near the same point, the place where the scaffolds for their dead stood. + +Mr. Jordan says: + +"This valley had long been a famous haunt for the warring Indians, but +was, at the time of my first personal acquaintance with it, in +possession of the Iowas, whose main village was around the point where +my present residence now stands. The race-course consisted of three hard +beaten parallel tracks nearly a mile in length, where the greater +portion of the Iowa warriors were engaged in sport when Black Hawk +surprised and slaughtered a great portion of them in 1830. After Black +Hawk and his warriors had departed with their plunder, the remaining +Iowas returned and buried their dead in little mounds of sod and earth, +from 2 to 4 feet high, at the point indicated on the diagram. + +"After the Black Hawk war was over, the remnant of the Iowas, by treaty, +formally ceded their rights in this valley to the Sacs and Foxes. At +this place this noted chief was buried, in accordance with his dying +request, in a full military suit given him by President Jackson, +together with the various memorials received by him from the whites and +the trophies won from the Indians. He was placed on his back on a +'puncheon' [split slab of wood], slanting at a low angle to the ground, +where his feet were sustained by another, and then covered with several +inches of sod. Over this was placed a roof-shaped covering of slabs or +'puncheons,' one end being higher than the other; over this was thrown a +covering of earth and sod to the depth of a foot or more, and the whole +surrounded by a line of pickets some 8 or 10 feet high." + +Here we have evidence that some at least of the Indians of this region +were accustomed to bury their dead in mounds down to a recent date. + +One of the most important burial mounds opened in this district by the +employés of the Bureau is situated on the bluff which overhangs East +Dubuque (formerly Dunleith), Jo Daviess County, Illinois. As I shall +have occasion to refer to others than the one mentioned, I give in Fig. +15, Plate III, a plan of the group, and in Fig. 16, same plate, a +vertical section of the bluff along the line of mounds numbered 13, 14, +15, 16, and 17, in which is seen the general slope of the upper area. + +The mounds of this group are conical in form, varying from 12 to 70 feet +in diameter and from 3 to 12 in height. All appear to have been built +for burial purposes. + +In No. 5, the largest of the group, measuring 70 feet in diameter and 12 +feet in height, a skeleton, apparently an intrusive burial, was found at +the depth of 2 feet immediately below the apex. Near the original +surface of the ground, several feet north of the center, were the +much-decayed skeletons of some six or eight individuals of every size +from the infant to the adult. They were placed horizontally at full +length with the heads toward the south. A few perforated _Unio_ shells +and some rude stone skinners and scrapers were found with them. Near the +original surface, some 10 or 12 feet from the center, on the lower side, +was discovered, lying at full length on its back, an unusually large +skeleton, the length being something over 7 feet. It was all distinctly +traceable though it crumbled to pieces immediately after removal from +the hard earth in which it was encased. With it were three thin, +crescent-shaped pieces of roughly-hammered native copper, respectively +6, 8, and 10 inches in length, with some small holes along the convex +margin; also a number of elongate copper beads, made by rolling together +thin sheets, and a chert lance-head 11 inches long; the latter was +placed near the left thigh. Around the neck were the remains of a +necklace of bears' teeth. Lying across the thighs were dozens of small +copper beads, evidently formed by rolling slender wire-like strips into +small rings. The assistant who opened this mound, and who is personally +well acquainted with Indian habits and customs, suggests that these +beads once formed the ornamentation of the fringe of a hunting shirt. + +As No. 4 of this group presents some peculiarities, I take the +description from Colonel Norris's notes: + +During a visit to this locality in 1857, he partially opened this mound, +finding masses of burned earth and charred human bones mingled with +charcoal and ashes. At his visit in 1882, on behalf of the Bureau, a +further examination revealed, on the lower side, the end of a double +line of flat stones set on edge, about a foot apart at the bottom and +leaned so as to meet at the top and form a roof-shaped flue or drain. +Following this up, he found that it extended inward nearly on a level, +almost to the center of the mound, at which point it was nearly 3 feet +below the original surface of the ground. Here a skeleton was discovered +stretched horizontally in a vault or grave which had been dug in the +ground before the mound was cast up. Over that portion below the waist +(including the right arm) were placed flat stones so arranged as to +support one another and prevent pressure on the body, but no traces of +fire were on them; yet, when the upper portions of the body were +reached, they were found so burned and charred as to be scarcely +traceable amid the charcoal and ashes that surrounded them. + +It was apparent that a grave had first been dug, then the right arm had +been dislocated and placed by the side of the skeleton below the waist, +and this part covered with stones as described, and then the remainder +burned by a fire kindled over it. + +A section of the mound showing the grave and stone drain is given in +Fig. 10, in which 1 is the outline of the mound on the hill slope; 2, +the pit; and 3, the stones of the drain. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Section of mound 4, East Dubuque, Illinois.] + +No. 13 was found to contain a circle or enclosure, 10 feet in diameter, +of stone slabs set on edge at the natural surface of the ground. Within +this circle, but some 2 feet below the surface, were five skeletons: two +adults, two children, and one infant. They were all lying horizontally, +side by side, with heads south, the adults at the outside and the +children between them. + +We are reminded by the mode of burial in this case of that in the mound +opened by Dr. Lapham at Waukesha, Wisconsin, before referred to. In that +the remains of a single individual were discovered, but in this it would +seem that the skeletons of an entire family, gathered from their +temporary resting places, had been carefully buried side by side, a +silent testimonial to parental love and affection of friends among the +mound-builders. + +No. 1, 6 feet high and 45 feet in diameter, was found to be an ossuary. +Beneath the top layer was an arched stratum of clay and ashes mixed, so +firm and hard as to retain its form unsupported over a space of several +feet. This covered a confused heap of human bones, many of which were +badly decayed. + +The marked feature of the group was found in No. 16, a remarkably +symmetrical mound 65 feet in diameter and 10 feet high. After passing +downward 6 feet, mostly through a hard gray layer, a vault partly of +timber and partly of stone was reached. A vertical section of the mound +and vault is shown in Fig. 11, and the ground plan of the vault in Fig. +12. + +This vault or crypt was found to be rectangular in form, inside +measurements showing it to be 13 feet long and 7 feet wide, surrounded +by a sandstone wall 3 feet high. Three feet from each end was a +crosswall or partition of like character, thus forming a main central +chamber 7 feet square, and a narrow chamber or cell at each end +something over 2 feet wide and 7 feet long. The whole had been +completely covered with a layer of logs from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, +their ends reaching slightly beyond the side walls in the manner shown +in Fig. 12. + +[Illustration: PL. III. GROUP OF MOUNDS AND VERTICAL SECTION OF BLUFF, +EAST DUBUQUE, ILL.] + +In the center chamber were found eleven skeletons: six adults and five +children of different ages, including one infant, the latter evidently +buried in the arms of one of the adults, possibly its mother. Apparently +they had all been buried at one time, arranged in a circle, in a +squatting or sitting posture, against the walls. In the center of the +space around which they were grouped was a fine specimen of _Busycon +perversum_, which had been converted into a drinking-cup by removing the +columella. Here were also numerous fragments of pottery. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Section of mound 16 (Pl. III) showing vault.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Plan of vault, mound 16 (Pl. III).] + +The end cells, walled off from the main portion, as heretofore stated, +were found nearly filled with a very fine chocolate-colored dust, which +gave out such a sickening odor that the workmen were compelled to stop +operations for the day in order to allow it to escape. + +The covering of the vault was of oak logs, most of which had been peeled +and some of the larger ones somewhat squared by slabbing off the sides; +and the slabs and bark thus removed, together with reeds or large grass +stems, had been laid over them. Over the whole was spread layer after +layer of mortar containing lime, each succeeding layer harder and +thicker than that which preceded it, a foot or so of ordinary soil +completing the mound. + +As there can be scarcely a doubt that the mounds of this group were +built by one tribe, we have here additional evidence that the same +people were accustomed to bury their dead in various ways. Some of the +skeletons are found lying horizontally side by side, others are placed +in a circle in a sitting or squatting posture, while in another mound we +find the dismembered bones heaped in a confused mass. In one place is a +single huge frame decked with the ornaments of savage life, while in +other places we see the members of a family lying side by side, and in +others the bones, possibly of the ordinary people, heaped together in a +common ossuary. + +The timber-covered vault in mound No. 16 calls to mind very vividly the +similar vaults mentioned by Squier and Davis,[20] found in the valley of +the Scioto in Ohio. In the latter the walls as well as the covering were +of logs, instead of stone, but the adaptation to circumstances may, +perhaps, form a sufficient explanation of this difference. While there +are several very marked distinctions between the Ohio works and those of +the district now under consideration, there are also some resemblances, +as we shall see as we proceed, which cannot be overlooked, and which +seem to indicate relationship, contact, or intercourse between the +people who were the authors of these different structures. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Pipe from Illinois mound. (After Smithsonian +Report.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Pipe from Illinois mound, 1/2. (After +Smithsonian Report.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Pipe from Illinois mound, 1/2. (After +Smithsonian Report.)] + +In additional support of this view, I call attention to the carved pipes +found by members of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, in the +mounds near Davenport, Iowa, already referred to, which are represented +on Plates IV and XXXIV of Vol. I of the Proceedings of that society, +and to others obtained by Judge J. G. Henderson from some mounds near +Naples, Illinois, and described in the Smithsonian Report for 1882. The +latter are shown in Figs. 13, 14, and 15. The relation of these to the +pipes found in the Ohio works by Squier and Davis is too apparent to be +attributed to accident, and forces us to the conclusion that there was +intercourse of some kind between the two peoples, and hence that the +works of the two localities are relatively of the same age. + +The mode of burial in one of the mounds near Naples is so suggestive in +this connection that I quote here Judge Henderson's description: + + The oval mound No. 1 was explored in April, 1881, by beginning + a trench at the north end and carrying it to the original + surface and through to the south end. Lateral trenches were + opened at intervals, and from these and the main one a complete + exploration was made by tunneling. + + Near the center of the mound a single skeleton was found in a + sitting position, and no objects were about it except a single + sea-shell resting on the earth _just over the head_, and a + number of the bone awls, already described, _sticking in the + sand around the skeleton_. The individual had been seated upon + the sand, these awls stuck around him in a circle 4 or 5 inches + in the sand, and the work of carrying dirt begun. + + When the mound had been elevated about 6 inches above the head + the shell was laid on and the work continued. + +The shell alluded to is a fine specimen of _Busycon perversum_, with the +columella removed in order to form a drinking cup. + +The particular point to which I call attention is this: In Plate XI, +Part II of De Bry,[21] which is reproduced in the annexed Plate IV, is +represented a very small mound, on the top of which is a large shell, +and about the base a circle of arrows sticking in the ground. The +artist, Le Moyne de Morgues, remarks, in reference to it, "Sometimes the +deceased king of this province is buried with great solemnity, and his +great cup from which he was accustomed to drink is placed on a tumulus +with many arrows set about it." The tumulus in this case is evidently +very small, and, as remarked by Dr. Brinton,[22] "scarcely rises to the +dignity of a mound." Yet it will correspond in size with what the Naples +mound was when the shell was placed upon it; nevertheless the latter, +when completed, formed an oval tumulus 132 feet long, 98 feet wide, and +10 feet high. + +It is therefore quite probable that Le Moyne figures the mound at the +time it reached the point where the shell cup was to be deposited, when, +in all likelihood, certain ceremonies were to be observed and a pause in +the work occurred. Whether this suggestion be correct or not, the cut +and the statement of Judge Henderson furnish some evidence in regard to +the presence of these articles in the mounds, and point to the people by +whom they were placed there. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Group of mounds and hut-rings, Brown County, +Illinois.] + +[Illustration: PL. IV. A MOUND, FROM DE BRY.] + +Colonel Norris opened a number of the ordinary small burial mounds found +on the bluffs and higher grounds of Pike and Brown Counties, Illinois, +which were found to be constructed in the usual method of this district; +that is, with a layer of hard, mortar-like substance, or clay and ashes +mixed, covering the skeletons. The positions of the skeletons varied, as +we have seen is the case in other localities. The number of intrusive +burials was unusually large here. In a number of cases where there were +intrusive burials near the surface, no bones, or but the slightest +fragments of the bones of the original burial, could be found, although +there were sure indications that the mounds were built and had +apparently been used for this purpose. These mounds also present +evidence of the intrusion of an element from one people into the country +of another. On the farm of Mr. Edward Welch, Brown County, Illinois, is +the group of mounds shown in Fig. 16. This consists of conical and +pyramidal mounds, and the small earthen rings designated house sites. +The form of the larger mounds is shown in Fig. 17. Although standing on +a bluff some 200 feet above the river bottom, it is evident at the first +glance that these works belong to the southern type and were built by +the people who erected those of the Cahokia group or farther south. No +opportunity was allowed to investigate the burial mounds or house sites, +but slight explorations made in the larger mounds sufficed to reveal the +fire-beds so common in southern mounds, thus confirming the impression +given by their form. It is probable that these mark the point of the +extreme northern extension of the southern mound-building tribes. A +colony, probably from the numerous and strong tribe located on Cahokia +Creek around the giant Monk's mound, pushed its way thus far and formed +a settlement, but, after contending for a time with the hostile tribes +which pressed upon it from the north, was compelled to return towards +the south. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Forms of larger mounds of the group shown in +Fig. 16.] + +Passing to the northeastern portion of Missouri, which, as heretofore +stated, we include in the North Mississippi or Illinois district, we +find a material change in the character of the burial mounds, so marked, +in fact, that it is very doubtful whether they should be embraced in the +district named. Although differing in minor particulars, the custom of +inclosing the remains of the dead in some kind of a receptacle of stone, +over which was heaped the earth forming the mound, appears to have +prevailed very generally. + +The region has been but partially explored, yet it is probable the +following examples will furnish illustrations of most of the types to be +found in it. + +From an article by Messrs. Hardy and Scheetz in the Smithsonian Report +for 1881,[23] we learn the following particulars regarding the burial +mounds of Ralls County: + +Occasionally an isolated one is found, but almost invariably they are in +groups of three to ten or more. They are usually placed along the crest +of a ridge, but when in the bottoms or on a level bluff they are in +direct lines or gentle curves. They are very numerous, being found in +almost every bottom and on nearly every bluff. They are usually circular +and from 2 to 12 feet high, and are composed wholly of earth, wholly of +stone, or of the two combined. Where stone was used the plan seems to +have been first to pave the natural surface with flat stones, in one or +two thicknesses, for a foundation. In one case the stones were thrown +together indiscriminately. Human remains are almost invariably found in +them. The bones are generally very much decayed, though each bone is +found almost entire except those of the head. This seems to have always +rested on a stone, and to have been covered by one or more stones, so +that it is always found in a crushed condition. In rare instances stone +implements, pipes, etc., are found in the mounds. The remains found in +tumuli wholly of stone are much more decayed than in those of mixed +material. + +One opened by the writers of the article is described by them as +follows: + + On the south side of it the bed stone had been formed into a + shallow trough. On removing the flat stones which covered this, + and which showed no action of fire, we found a bed of charcoal + several inches thick, both animal and vegetable, and the + limestone which composed it was burned completely through. Some + fragments of a human femur were found in a calcined state. + There were no indications of fire elsewhere in the mound, but + there were the partial remains of several skeletons, lying in + two layers, with stone and earth between them. + +In another, examined by them, fragments of human bones were found so +near the surface as to be reached by the plow; but deeper, on the north +sides, were single skeletons laid at length east and west, and between +them a mass of bones confused as though thrown in indiscriminately. The +diameter of this mound was about 30 feet, height 2-1/2 feet. + +In section 24, township 55, range 7, is a small hill, known as "Wilson's +Knob." Its crest, which is about 120 feet long, is completely covered +with stone to the depth of several feet, the pile being about 20 feet +wide. Examination brought to light the fact that this was originally a +row of stone mounds or burial vaults, nine in number, circular in form, +each from eight to nine feet in diameter (inner measure), and contiguous +to one another. Judging from appearances it would seem that each had +been of a conical or dome-like form. They were composed wholly of stone, +and the remains found in them were almost wholly decomposed. + +On another ridge the same parties found another row with four stone +mounds similar to those described, except that the cists were square +instead of circular, the sides of the latter being equal to the diameter +of the former. In these only small fragments of bone could be found. + +Although Messrs. Hardy and Scheetz evidently considered these stone +structures as receptacles for the dead, and as erected for this purpose, +yet it is possible they may have been intended for some other use. + +The mounds of Pike County are chiefly of mixed material similar to those +mentioned,[24] though some of them contain rectangular stone vaults. One +of these vaults, measuring 4 by 5 feet, was found to contain the remains +of eight skeletons. Another, a regular box-shaped cist of stone slabs, +contained nothing save a few cranial bones very much decayed. Another of +large size contained human remains with which were some arrow-heads, a +vessel of clay, and a carved steatite pipe, having upon its front a +figure-head. + +I have given these particulars in order to show how closely they agree +with the discoveries made by the Bureau assistant in this region, from +whose notes I take the following description: + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Group of mounds, Clarke County, Missouri.] + +Between Fox River and Sugar Creek, in Clarke County, a sharp dividing +ridge about 100 feet high extends in a northerly direction for nearly +two miles from where these streams enter upon the open bottom of the +Mississippi. Scattered irregularly along the crest of this ridge is a +line of circular mounds shown in Fig. 18. These range in size from 15 to +50 feet in diameter and from 2 to 6 feet high, and are circular in form. +In No. 3,[25] diameter 35 feet and height 5 feet, situated in the +central portion, was found a stone coffin or cist 7 feet long and 2 feet +wide, formed of slabs of sandstone in the usual manner. This was covered +first with similar slabs and then the whole incased in a layer of +rougher stones. Over this was a layer of hard earth, which was evidently +in a plastic state when placed there, as it had run into and filled up +the interstices. Above this was a foot or more of yellowish earth, +similar to that forming the ridge. In the coffin was the skeleton of an +adult, lying horizontally on the back, but too far gone to decay to +admit of removal. No specimens of art of any kind were found with it. + +No. 4, a trifle smaller than No. 3, was opened by running a trench from +the eastern margin. For a distance of 15 or 16 feet nothing was +encountered except the earth, with which it appeared to be covered to +the depth of 2 feet. Here was found a layer of rough stones covering a +mass of charcoal and ashes with bones intermixed. In fact the +indications leave the impression that one or more persons (or their +bones) had been burned in a fire on the natural surface of the earth +near the center of the mound, the coals and brands of which were then +covered with rough stones thrown in, without any system, to the depth of +3 feet, over a space 10 or 12 feet in diameter, and then covered with +earth. Only fragments of charred human bones, pieces of rude pottery, +and stone chips were found commingled with the charcoal and ashes. + +Another group on the farm of Mr. J. N. Boulware, near the line between +Clarke and Lewis counties, was examined by the same party. This group, +which is situated on a bench or terrace from 20 to 40 feet above the +Mississippi bottoms, consists of some 55 or 60 ordinary circular mounds +of comparatively small size. + +In one of these, 45 feet in diameter and 5 feet high, were found, near +the top, the fragments of a human skeleton much decayed, and broken +pottery, encircled by a row of flat stones set up edgewise and covered +with others of a similar character. Below these was a layer of very +hard light-colored earth, mixed throughout with fragments of charred +human bones and pottery, charcoal and stone chips. + +Another, about 60 feet in diameter, was found to consist (except the top +layer of soil, about 1 foot thick) of hard, dried "mortar" (apparently +clay and ashes mixed), in which fragments of charred human bones, small +rounded pieces of pottery, and stone scrapers were mingled with charcoal +and ashes. + +"As all the mounds opened here," remarks the assistant, "presented this +somewhat singular feature, I made a very careful examination of this +mortar-like substance. I found that there were differences between +different portions of the same mound sufficiently marked to trace the +separate masses. This would indicate that the mounds were built by +successive deposits of mortar thus mixed with charred bones, and not in +strata but in masses." + + + + +THE OHIO DISTRICT. + + +This, as before stated, includes Ohio, a portion of eastern Indiana, and +the western part of West Virginia. + +As only very limited explorations have been made in the Ohio portion of +this district by the Bureau of Ethnology, I will content myself with a +brief allusion to the observations of others. + +The descriptions given by Squier and Davis of the few burial mounds they +explored are too well known to require repeating here. Their conclusion +in regard to them, which has already been alluded to, is stated in +general terms as follows: + + Mounds of this class are very numerous. They are generally of + considerable size, varying from 6 to 80 feet in height, but + having an average altitude of from 15 to 20 or 25 feet. They + stand without the walls of enclosures at a distance more or + less remote from them. + + Many are isolated, with no other monuments near them; but they + frequently occur in groups, sometimes in close connection with + each other, and exhibiting a dependence which was not without + its meaning. They are destitute of altars, nor do they possess + the regularity which characterizes the "temple mounds." The + usual form is that of a simple cone; sometimes they are + elliptical or pear-shaped. These mounds invariably cover a + skeleton (in very rare instances more than one, as in the case + of the Grave Creek mound), which at the time of interment was + enveloped in bark or coarse matting, or inclosed in a rude + sarcophagus of timber, the traces and in some instances the + very casts of which remain. Occasionally the chamber of the + dead is built of stone, rudely laid up, without cement of any + kind. Burial by fire seems to have been frequently practiced by + the mound-builders. Urn burial also appears to have prevailed + to a considerable extent in the Southern States. With the + skeletons in these mounds are found various remains of art, + comprising ornaments, utensils, and weapons.[26] + +For the purpose of conveying to the mind a clear idea of the character +of these mounds, I give here a copy of their figure of one of them (Fig. +19), and also of the wooden vault found in it (Fig. 20). This mound, as +was the case with most of the burial mounds opened by them, although +comparatively large, is without any distinct stratification. + +In some cases (see Ancient Monuments, Figs. 52 and 53, p. 164) a layer +of bark was first spread on the natural surface of the ground after it +had been cleared, leveled, and packed; on this the body was laid at full +length. It was then covered with another layer of bark and the mound was +heaped over this. + +Although no mounds containing stone sepulchers fell under their notice +during their explorations, they obtained satisfactory evidence that one +within the limits of Chillicothe had been removed, in which a stone +coffin, "corresponding very nearly with the _kistvaen_ of English +antiquarians" was discovered. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Ohio burial mound (after Squier and Davis).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Wooden vault (after Squier and Davis).] + +Some rather singular burial mounds have been described as found in +different parts of this State, but unfortunately the descriptions are +based largely on memory and second-hand statements and hence do not have +that stamp of accuracy and authenticity that is desirable. For example, +a large stone mound, which formerly stood a short distance from Newark, +is described[27] as conical in form, 182 feet in diameter, and from 40 +to 50 feet high, composed of stones in their natural shape. This, upon +removal, was found to cover some fifteen or sixteen small earth mounds. +In one of these were found human bones and river shells. In another was +encountered a layer of hard white fire-clay. Two or three feet below +this was a wooden trough. This was overlaid by small logs of wood to +serve as a cover, and in it was found a skeleton, around which appeared +the impression of a coarse cloth. With it were fifteen copper rings and +a "breastplate" of the same metal. The wood of the trough and covering +was in a good state of preservation. The clay which covered it was +impervious both to air and water. The logs which overlaid the wooden +sarcophagus "were so well preserved that the ends showed the axe marks, +and the steepness of the kerf seemed to indicate that some instrument +sharper than the stone axe found throughout the West had been employed +to cut them." + +"In another of these mounds a large number of human bones, but no other +relics worthy of note, were found."[28] + +In a mound situated in Clear Creek Township, Ashland County, a stone +coffin or cist was discovered, constructed of flat stones set up +edgewise. It contained six or eight skeletons, "neatly cleaned and +packed, in a good state of preservation."[29] + +A statement worthy of notice in this connection is made by Mr. H. B. +Case in the Smithsonian Report for 1881.[30] The Delaware Indians +formerly had a village in the northern part of Green Township, Ashland +County, which was still occupied by them when the white settlers reached +there in 1809. An examination of their graves in 1876 brought to light +the fact that in some cases the dead were buried in stone cists; in +others small, round, drift bowlders were placed around the skeletons. + +One of the most satisfactory and most important accounts of Ohio burial +mounds will be found in a "Report of Explorations of Mounds in Southern +Ohio," by Prof. E. B. Andrews, published in the Tenth Annual Report of +the Peabody Museum. Speaking of the George Connet mound, in Athens +County, he says: + + This is a low mound about 6 feet high with a broad base perhaps + 40 feet in diameter. It has for years been plowed over and its + original height has been considerably reduced. My attention was + drawn to this mound by the burnt clay on its top. A trench 5 + feet wide was dug through the center. On the east side much + burnt yellow clay was found, while on the west end of the + trench considerable black earth appeared, which I took to be + kitchen refuse. + + About 5 feet below the top we came upon large quantities of + charcoal, especially on the western side. Underneath the + charcoal was found a skeleton with the head to the east. The + body had evidently been enclosed in some wooden structure. + First there was a platform of wood placed upon the ground, on + the original level of the plain. On this wooden floor timbers + or logs were placed longitudinally, and over these timbers + there were laid other pieces of wood, forming an enclosed box + or coffin. A part of this wood was only charred, the rest was + burnt to ashes. The middle part of the body was in the hottest + fire and many of the vertebræ, ribs, and other bones were burnt + to a black cinder, and at this point the enclosing timbers were + burnt to ashes. The timbers enclosing the lower extremities + were only charred. + + I am led to think that before any fire was kindled a layer of + dirt was thrown over the wooden structure, making a sort of + burial. On this dirt a fire was built, but by some misplacement + of the dirt the fire reached the timbers below, and at such + points as the air could penetrate there was an active + combustion, but at others, where the dirt still remained, there + was only a smothered fire, like that in a charcoal pit. It is + difficult to explain the existence of the charred timbers in + any other way. There must have been other fires than that + immediately around and above the body, and many of them, + because on one side of the mound the clay is burned even to the + top of the mound. In one place, 3 feet above the body, the clay + is vitrified. + + It is possible that fires were built at different levels, open + fires, and that most of the ashes were blown away by the winds + which often sweep over the plain. I have stated that there was + first laid down a sort of floor of wood, on which the body was + placed. On the same floor were placed about 500 copper beads, + forming a line almost around the body. + +In addition to these copper beads a number of shell beads, and also a +hollow copper implement in the shape of a caulker's chisel, were found. +The copper implement and beads were made of thin sheet-copper which, +Professor Andrews says, had been "hammered out into so smooth and even a +sheet that no traces of the hammer were visible. It would be taken +indeed for rolled sheet copper." Some of the bones were pretty well +preserved. + +The professor closes his description with the remark: "The skeleton +undoubtedly belonged to a veritable mound-builder." In this he is +certainly correct, as the mode of burial in this case agrees so exactly +with that observed by Squier and Davis in the larger mounds opened by +them as to leave no doubt that both are to be attributed to one people, +although the mound described by Professor Andrews is probably of much +more recent date than those mentioned by Squier and Davis. + +What explanation shall we give of the presence in this work of thin +sheet-copper "hammered out into so smooth and even a sheet that no +traces of the hammer were visible," and that "would be taken for rolled +copper"? + +The simple and most natural explanation would be that it was derived +from European traders and early adventurers; and such, I am disposed to +believe, is the correct one. The distinction between the sheets and +ornaments hammered from native copper with the rude implements of the +aborigines, and many specimens made of this smooth sheet-copper found in +mounds, is too apparent to be overlooked. But of this more hereafter, as +I shall have occasion again to refer to the subject. + +In another mound, 8 or 9 feet high, in the same county, he found near +the top a considerable bed of kitchen refuse; at the bottom, on the +original surface, ashes and burnt human bones. "These bones," he +remarks, "had evidently been burned before burial, and had been gathered +in miscellaneous confusion and placed in a narrow space 5 or 6 inches +wide and from 2 to 3 feet long. The ashes were doubtless brought with +them, at least there appeared to be no evidences of a local fire in the +reddening or hardening of the clay or in remnants of charcoal." + +As bearing upon a suggestion made by Colonel Norris, and previously +referred to,[31] in regard to the probable use of copper beads found +across the limbs of a skeleton, I call attention to another statement of +Professor Andrews. Speaking of the School-house mound he says: + + At a point near the northwestern corner of the school-house and + perhaps 15 feet from the center of the mound, there was plowed + up, in extremely hard and dry dirt, a large piece of what I + suppose to have been an ornamented dress. It was covered with + copper beads, which were strung on a buckskin string and placed + on four layers of the same skin. It was found 8 feet below the + original surface of the mound and in extremely hard, dry dirt + which had never been disturbed. + +From the figure and the description we can have but little doubt that +this was a buckskin hunting-shirt, which gives support to Colonel +Norris's suggestion. + +Recently some interesting burial mounds near Madisonville have been +carefully explored by Dr. C. L. Metz in the interest of the Peabody +Museum. Only partial notices of these explorations, which are not yet +completed, have been published, but we deem these of sufficient +importance in this connection to quote freely from them,[32] so far as +they serve to illustrate the modes of burial and construction of burial +mounds of this region. + +Speaking of one of the mounds of a group situated in Anderson Township, +Professor Putnam remarks: + + Mound 21 of Group C was about 4 feet high and 50 in diameter. + It proved to be made entirely of the sandy loam of the + immediate vicinity. The remains of five skeletons were + discovered at different points in the lower portion of the + mound. The bones were nearly all reduced to dust, and only a + fragment here and there could be saved. There was not a single + relic found with the skeletons, and a few flint chips and a + broken arrow-head were the only artificial objects found in the + earth composing the mound. The condition of the bones showed + considerable antiquity, but their advanced decay and friability + were probably largely due to the character of the soil in which + they were enclosed. The position of the skeletons rather goes + to show that the several bodies were buried at different times, + and that the mound was gradually constructed as the burials + took place. For the present we are inclined to consider this + mound, with some others in the valley, as a place of sepulcher + by tribes of a more recent time than the builders of the + earthworks of the Turner group. + + Mound No. 22 proved to be of a more interesting character than + the last. This mound was 14 feet high and about 100 in + diameter. It was composed of pure clay, except in the central + portion. Five feet from the top there was found a hard mass of + burnt earth and ashes, 7 feet deep and a little over 9 feet in + width and length. Resting on top of this, about in the center, + and covered in part by the overlying clay, lay a large stone + celt. A foot below this, in the burnt material, was a stone + implement perforated at its upper end. Below this, at points + several feet apart, in the burnt mass, were three holes or + pockets, each of which contained the remains of portions of + human skeletons, surrounded by a thin layer of clay. Near the + bones in the lowest pocket were three spear-heads or chipped + points. A few potsherds and several flint chips were found + throughout the burnt mass. Under it was a circular bed of black + soil and ashes, 13 inches thick in the center and 14 feet in + diameter, beneath which was a layer of fine sand and gravel, 3 + inches thick, which covered another circular bed of black soil + and ashes, 14 inches thick in the center and 15 feet in + diameter. Directly under the center of this lower layer was a + pit 4 feet deep and 10 feet 4 inches long, 4 feet wide at the + ends and 3 feet 5 inches wide at the center. This pit probably + had contained a wooden structure, as its sides showed rough + striations, as if large logs had once rested against them. The + pit had been dug in the drift gravel upon which the mound was + built, and was nearly filled with soft, spongy ashes mixed with + a reddish substance. Extended at full length at the bottom of + the pit was a human skeleton, with the head to the west. Among + the bones of the neck a single shell bead was found; at the + feet were ten stones or small bowlders, such as are common in + the drift gravel. It is evident that this interesting tumulus + was erected over the grave which was dug in the underlying + gravel, and that the human bones placed in the burnt mass above + the grave, with the few stone implements found in or on the + mass, had some connection with the funeral ceremonies which + took place in connection with the burial of the body in the pit + below. The regularity of the deposits over the pit, which was + under the center of the mound, seems to be sufficient proof of + this. + +Another mound, nearer the river, situated on an elevated portion of +bottom land, was found to differ in construction from any of the others +explored in this vicinity. This is described as follows:[33] + + According to Mr. William Edwards, sixty years ago it was about 9 + feet high, and covered by a heavy forest growth, which also + extended over the region about. Over fifty years ago the land was + cleared and the mound scraped down by Mr. Edwards, who, after + removing about 4 feet of earth from its summit, came to a large + quantity of stones, with which were many human bones. Since that + time the mound has been plowed over and stones have been taken from + it until it has been so nearly leveled as hardly to be noticed. + Thus only the base of the mound could be explored; but that has + proved of great interest in connection with the other works of the + valley. On removing the earth around the base it was found that + stones, many of considerable size, had been so arranged as to form + a mound about 5 feet high in the center and 90 feet in diameter, + over which the earth had been placed to the height of about 4 feet, + as stated by Mr. Edwards. In height about one-half of the stone + portion of the mound was undisturbed. On removing the outer + covering of stones it was found that many burials, probably at + least one hundred, had been made in the mound. The remains of + seventy-one skeletons were obtained. These skeletons were all more + or less crushed by the stones which surrounded them, as, in + addition to the outer stones of the mound, each body had been + surrounded with stones at the time of its burial. In many instances + large slabs of limestone had been used, and in a few cases they + were set on edge around the body. In other cases small stones had + been piled around and over the bodies, which had been placed in + various positions, some extended and others flexed in various ways. + With many of the skeletons were stone implements and ornaments, + among which were several of the flat stones with two or more + perforations, generally known as gorgets. There were also many bone + implements, shell and bone ornaments, and cut teeth of bears. + Several small copper awls in bone handles, and the shells of + box-turtles, were also found with the skeletons. Many fragments of + pottery and broken bones of animals were scattered through the mass + of stones and human bones. At the feet of the skeleton, in the + center of the mound, there was an upright slab of limestone 2 feet + long by 20 inches wide, and with this skeleton were the following + objects: Resting on the chest was a large ornament made from the + apex of a conch shell, with a hole at one edge for suspension; + below this, on the ribs, was a spear-shaped gorget, with one hole, + and by its side were several shell ornaments, also perforated. + Lying near the right femur and parallel with it was a carved bone, + grooved on the under side and having two holes; between this and + the leg bone were four small pieces of carved bone about an inch in + length. In the bones of the right hand was a small awl made of + native copper and inserted in a little round handle made of bone, + similar to others found with other skeletons in the mound. At the + south side of the mound, on the original surface, was a burnt + space, on which was a large quantity, several bushels, of broken + bones of animals, clam shells, and fragments of pottery mixed with + ashes. This mass seems to have existed before the mound was made, + or at all events completed, as five of the burials had taken place + above it. On the plain about the mound are evidences of the site of + a former village, and the annual plowing brings to light many + animal remains, fragments of pottery, and stone implements of the + same character as those from, the mound. From this fact, and from + the character of the burials in the mound, as well as that of the + objects found with the skeletons, and from the absence of the + characteristic ornaments found with so many of the human remains in + the Turner group and other ancient mounds of the Ohio Valley, we + are led to look upon this stone mound as the burial place of a + tribe of Indians living in the region subsequent to the builders of + the Turner mounds. The remains found in this stone mound, as a + whole, indicate that the people here buried were closely connected + with those who made the singular ash-pits in the ancient cemetery + near Madisonville.[34] + +Passing into West Virginia we notice first the celebrated Grave Greek +mound. This has been described and figured so often that it is +unnecessary for me to do more than call attention to certain particulars +in regard to it to which I may desire hereafter to refer by way of +comparison. It is in the form of a regular cone, about 70 feet high and +nearly 300 feet in diameter at the base. A shaft sunk from the apex to +the base disclosed two wooden vaults, the first about half way down and +the other at the bottom. In the first or upper one was a single +skeleton, decorated with a profusion of shell beads, copper bracelets, +and plates of mica. The lower vault, which was partly in an excavation +made in the natural ground, was found to be rectangular, 12 by 8 feet +and 7 feet high. Along each side and across the ends upright timbers had +been placed, which supported other timbers thrown across the vault as a +covering. These were covered with a layer of rough stones. In this vault +were two human skeletons, one of which had no ornaments, while the other +was surrounded with hundreds of shell beads. In attempting to enlarge +this vault the workmen discovered around it ten other skeletons. While +carrying the horizontal tunnel, several masses of charcoal and burnt +bones were encountered after a distance of 12 or 15 feet had been +reached. + +Before making any comments on the construction of this noted work and +the mode of burial in it, I will present some facts recently brought to +light in regard to the burial mounds of the Kanawha Valley by the +assistants of the Bureau. + +A large mound situated on the farm of Col. B. H. Smith, near Charleston, +is conical in form, about 175 feet in diameter at the base and 35 feet +high. It appears to be double; that is to say, it consists of two +mounds, one built on the other, the lower or original one 20 feet and +the upper 15 feet high. + +The exploration was made by sinking a shaft, 12 feet square at the top +and narrowing gradually to 6 feet square at the bottom, down through the +center of the structure to the original surface of the ground and a +short distance below it. After removing a slight covering of earth, an +irregular mass of large, rough, flat sandstones, evidently brought from +the bluffs half a mile distant, was encountered. Some of these +sandstones were a good load for two ordinary men. + +The removal of a wagon load or so of these stones brought to light a +stone vault 7 feet long and 4 feet deep, in the bottom of which was +found a large and much decayed human skeleton, but wanting the head, +which the most careful examination failed to discover. A single rough +spearhead was the only accompanying article found in this vault. At the +depth of 6 feet, in earth similar to that around the base of the mound, +was found a second skeleton, also much decayed, of an adult of ordinary +size. At 9 feet a third skeleton was encountered, in a mass of loose, +dry earth, surrounded by the remains of a bark coffin. This was in a +much, better state of preservation than the other two. The skull, which +was preserved, is of the compressed or "flat-head" type. + +For some 3 or 4 feet below this the earth was found to be mixed with +ashes. At this depth in his downward progress Colonel Norris began to +encounter the remains of what further excavation showed to have been a +timber vault, about 12 feet square and 7 or 8 feet high. From the +condition in which the remains of the cover were found, he concludes +that this must have been roof-shaped, and, having become decayed, was +crushed in by the weight of the addition made to the mound. Some of the +walnut timbers of this vault were as much as 12 inches in diameter. + +In this vault were found five skeletons, one lying prostrate on the +floor at the depth of 19 feet from the top of the mound, and four +others, which, from the positions in which they were found, were +supposed to have been placed standing in the four corners. The first of +these was discovered at the depth of 14 feet, amid a commingled mass of +earth and decaying bark and timbers, nearly erect, leaning against the +wall, and surrounded by the remains of a bark coffin. All the bones +except those of the left forearm were too far decayed to be saved; these +were preserved by two heavy copper bracelets which yet surrounded them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Copper gorget from mound, Kanawha County, West +Virginia.] + +The skeleton found lying in the middle of the floor of the vault was of +unusually large size, "measuring 7 feet 6 inches in length and 19 inches +between the shoulder sockets." It had also been inclosed in a wrapping +or coffin of bark, remains of which were still distinctly visible. It +lay upon the back, head east, legs together, and arms by the sides. +There were six heavy bracelets on each wrist; four others were found +under the head, which, together with a spear-point of black flint, were +incased in a mass of mortar-like substance, which had evidently been +wrapped in some textile fabric. On the breast was a copper gorget (Fig. +21). In each hand were three spear-heads of black flint, and others +were about the head, knees, and feet. Near the right hand were two +hematite celts, and on the shoulder were three large and thick plates of +mica. About the shoulders, waist, and thighs were numerous minute +perforated shells and shell beads. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Pipe from mound, Kanawha County, West +Virginia.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Pipe from mound, Butler County, Ohio.] + +While filling in the excavation, the pipe represented in Fig. 22 was +found in the dirt which had been removed from it. This pipe has been +carved out of gray steatite and highly polished. It is worthy of note +that it is precisely of the form described by Adair as made by the +Cherokees, and also that it approaches very near to an Ohio type (Fig. +23). + +Another mound of rather large size, in the same locality, was opened by +the Bureau assistant. + +In order that all the facts bearing on its uses may be understood it is +necessary to notice its immediate surroundings. + +Plate V is a map showing the ancient works in the valley of the Kanawha, +from 3 to 5 miles below Charleston, and Plate VI is an enlarged plat of +the area embracing those numbered I, II and 1, 3, and 4 on the map. As +will be seen by an inspection of the latter plate, the works included +are two circular enclosures, 1 and 2; one excavation; one included +mound, 2; three mounds, 3, 1, and 4, outside of the enclosures; and a +graded way. As our attention at present is directed only to the large +mound, 1, it is unnecessary to notice the other works further than to +add that each enclosure is about 220 feet in diameter, and consists of a +circular wall and an inside ditch. The excavation is nearly circular and +about 140 feet in diameter. The large mound is conical in form, 173 feet +in diameter, and 33 feet high. It is slightly truncated, the top having +been leveled off some forty years ago for the purpose of building a +judge's stand in connection with a race-course that was laid out around +the mound. + +A shaft 12 feet square at the top and narrowing downward was sunk to the +base. At the depth of 4 feet, in a very hard bed of earth and ashes +mixed, were found two much decayed human skeletons, both stretched +horizontally on their backs, heads south, and near their heads several +stone implements. From this point until a depth of 24 feet was reached +the shaft passed through very hard earth of a light-gray color, +apparently clay and ashes mixed, in which nothing of consequence was +found. When a depth of 24 feet was reached the material suddenly changed +to a much softer and darker earth, disclosing the casts and some decayed +fragments of timbers from 6 to 12 inches in diameter. Here were found +fragments of bark, ashes, and also numerous fragments of animal bones, +some of which had been split lengthwise. At the depth of 31 feet was a +human skeleton, lying prostrate, head north, which had evidently been +enclosed in a coffin or wrapping of elm bark. In contact with the head +was a thin sheet of hammered native copper. By enlarging the base of the +shaft until a space some 16 feet in diameter was opened, the character +and the contents of the base of the mound were more fully ascertained. +This brought to light the fact that the builders, after having first +smoothed, leveled, and packed the natural surface, carefully spread upon +the floor a layer of bark (chiefly elm), the inner side up, and upon +this a layer of fine white ashes, clear of charcoal, to the depth, +probably, of 5 or 6 inches, though pressed now to little more than 1 +inch. On this the bodies were laid and presumably covered with bark. + +The enlargement of the shaft also brought to view ten other skeletons, +all apparently adults, five on one side and five on the other side of +the central skeleton, and, like it, extended horizontally, with their +feet pointing toward the central one but not quite touching it. Like the +first, they had all been buried in bark coffins or wrappings. With each +skeleton on the east side was a fine, apparently unused lance-head about +3 inches long, and by the right side of the northern one a fish-dart, +three arrow-heads, and some fragments of _Unio_ shells and pottery. No +implements or ornaments were found with either of the five skeletons on +the west side, although careful search was made therefor. In addition to +the copper plate, a few shell beads and a large lance-head were found +with the central skeleton. As there were a number of holes resembling +post-holes, about the base, which were filled with rotten bark and +decayed vegetable matter, I am inclined to believe there was a vault +here similar to the lower vault in the Grave Creek mound, in which the +walls were of timbers set up endwise in the ground. But it is proper to +state that the assistant who opened the mound is rather disposed to +doubt the correctness of this explanation. + +In order to show the character of the smaller burial mounds of this +region, I give descriptions of a few opened by Colonel Norris. + +[Illustration: PL. V. PLAT OF ANCIENT WORKS, KANAWHA COUNTY, W. VA.] + +One 20 feet in diameter and 7 feet high, with a beech tree 30 inches in +diameter growing on it, was opened by running a broad trench through it. +The material of which it was composed was yellow clay, evidently from an +excavation in the hillside near it. Stretched horizontally on the +natural surface of the ground, faces up and heads south, were seven +skeletons, six adults and one child, all charred. They were covered +several inches thick with ashes, charcoal, and fire-brands, evidently +the remains of a very heavy fire which must have been smothered before +it was fully burned out. Three coarse lance-heads were found among the +bones of the adults, and around the neck of the child three copper +beads, apparently of hammered native copper. + +Another mound, 50 feet in diameter and 5 feet high, standing guard, as +it were, at the entrance of an inclosure, was opened, revealing the +following particulars: The top was strewn with fragments of flat rocks, +most of which were marked with one or more small, artificial, cup-shaped +depressions. Below these, to the depth, of 2 or 3 feet, the hard yellow +clay was mixed throughout with similar stones, charcoal, ashes, stone +chips, and fragments of rude pottery. Near the center and 3 feet from +the top of the mound were the much decayed remains of a human skeleton, +lying on its back, in a very rude stone-slab coffin. Beneath this were +other flat stones, and under them charcoal, ashes, and baked earth, +covering the decayed bones of some three or four skeletons which lay +upon the original surface of the ground. So far as could be ascertained, +the skeletons in this mound lay with their heads toward the east. No +relics of any kind worthy of notice were found with them. + +Another mound of similar size, upon a dry terrace, was found to consist +chiefly of very hard clay, scattered through which were stone chips and +fragments of rude pottery. Near the natural surface of the ground a +layer of ashes and charcoal was encountered, in which were found the +remains of at least two skeletons. + +A mound some 200 yards south of the inclosure, situated on a slope and +measuring 50 feet in diameter and 6 feet in height, gave a somewhat +different result. It consisted wholly of very hard clay down to the +natural surface of the hill-slope. But further excavation revealed a +vault or pit in the original earth 8 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet +deep at the upper end. In this was found a decayed skeleton, with the +head up hill or toward the north. Upon the breast was a sandstone +gorget, and upon it a leaf-shaped knife of black flint and a neatly +polished hematite celt. The bones of the right arm were found stretched +out at right angles to the body, along a line of ashes. Upon the bones +of the open hand were three piles (five in each) of small leaf-shaped +flint knives. + +As the four small mounds just mentioned pertain to the Clifton groups, +in the Elk River Valley, we will call attention to one or two of the +Charleston group, for the purpose of affording the reader the means of +comparison. + +Below the center of No. 7 (see Plate), sunk into the original earth, was +a vault about 8 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep. Lying extended +on the back in the bottom of this, amid the rotten fragments of a bark +coffin, was a decayed human skeleton, fully 7 feet long, with head west. +No evidence of fire was to be seen, nor were any stone implements +discovered, but lying in a circle just above the hips were fifty +circular pieces of white perforated shell, each about 1 inch in diameter +and an eighth of an inch thick. The bones of the left arm lay by the +side of the body, but those of the right arm, as in one of the mounds +heretofore mentioned, were stretched at right angles to the body, +reaching out to a small oven-shaped vault, the mortar or cement roof of +which was still unbroken. The capacity of this small circular vault was +probably two bushels, and the peculiar appearance of the dark-colored +deposit therein, and other indications, led to the belief that it had +been filled with corn (maize) in the ear. The absence of weapons would +indicate that the individual buried here was not a warrior, though a +person of some importance. + +Mound No. 23 of this group presents some peculiarities worthy of notice. +It is 312 feet in circumference at the base and 25 feet high, covered +with a second growth of timber, some of the stumps of the former growth +yet remaining. It is unusually sharp and symmetrical. From the top down +the material was found to be a light-gray and apparently mixed earth, so +hard as to require the vigorous use of the pick to penetrate it. At the +depth of 15 feet the explorers began to find the casts and fragments of +poles or round timbers less than a foot in diameter. These casts and +rotten remains of wood and bark increased in abundance from this point +until the original surface of the ground was reached. By enlarging the +lower end of the shaft to 14 feet in diameter it was ascertained that +this rotten wood and bark were the remains of what had once been a +circular or polygonal, timber-sided, and conical-roofed vault. Many of +the timbers of the sides and roof, being considerably longer than +necessary, had been allowed to extend beyond the points of support often +8 or 10 feet, those on the sides beyond the crossing and those of the +roof downward beyond the wall. Upon the floor and amid the remains of +the timber were numerous human bones and also two whole skeletons, the +latter but slightly decayed, though badly crushed by the weight pressing +on them, but unaccompanied by an ornament or an implement of any kind. A +further excavation of about 4 feet below the floor, or what was supposed +to be the floor, of this vault, and below the original surface of the +ground, brought to light six circular, oven-shaped vaults, each about 3 +feet in diameter and the same in depth. As these six were so placed as +to form a semicircle, it is presumed there are others under that portion +of the mound not reached by the excavation. All were filled with dry, +dark dust or decayed substances, supposed to be the remains of Indian +corn in the ear, as it was similar to that heretofore mentioned. In the +center of the circle indicated by the positions of these minor vaults, +and the supposed center of the base of the mound (the shaft not being +exactly central), and but 2 feet below the floor of the main vault, and +in a fine mortar or cement, were found two cavities resembling in form +the bottle or gourd shaped vessel so frequently met with in the mounds +of southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas. Unfortunately the +further investigation of this work was stopped at this stage of progress +by cold weather. + +In another mound of this group the burial was in a box-shaped stone +vault, not of slabs in the usual method, but built up of rough, angular +stones. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Mound with so-called "altar," Kanawha County, +West Virginia.] + +Mound 31 of this group seems to furnish a connecting link between the +West Virginia and the Ohio mounds. It is sharp in outline, has a steep +slope, and is flattened on the top; is 318 feet in circumference at the +base and about 25 feet high. It was opened by digging a shaft 10 feet in +diameter from the center of the top to the base. After passing through +the top layer of surface soil, some 2 feet thick, a layer of clay and +ashes 1 foot thick was encountered. Here, near the center of the shaft, +were two skeletons, lying horizontally, one immediately over the other, +the upper and larger one with the face down and the lower with the face +up. There were no indications of fire about them. Immediately over the +heads were one celt and three lance-heads. At the depth of 13 feet and a +little north of the center of the mound were two very large skeletons, +in a sitting posture, with their extended legs interlocked to the knees. +Their arms were extended and their hands slightly elevated, as if +together holding up a sandstone mortar which was between their faces. +This stone is somewhat hemispherical, about 2 feet in diameter across +the top, which is hollowed in the shape of a shallow basin or mortar. It +had been subjected to the action of fire until burned to a bright red. +The cavity was filled with white ashes, containing small fragments of +bones burned to cinders. Immediately over this, and of sufficient size +to cover it, was a slab of bluish-gray limestone about 3 inches thick, +which had small cup-shaped excavations on the under side. This bore no +marks of fire. Near the hands of the eastern skeleton were a small +hematite celt and a lance-head, and upon the left wrist of the other two +copper bracelets. At the depth of 25 feet, and on the natural surface, +was found what in an Ohio mound would have been designated an "altar." +This was not thoroughly traced throughout, but was about 12 feet long +and over 8 feet wide, of the form shown in Fig. 24. + +It consisted of a layer of well-prepared mortar, apparently clay, +slightly mixed with ashes. This was not more than 6 or 8 inches thick in +the center of the basin-shaped depression, where it was about 1 foot +lower than at the other margin. It was burned to a brick-red and covered +with a compact layer of very fine white ashes, scattered thickly, +through which were small water-worn bowlders, bearing evidences of +having undergone an intense heat. Mingled with this mass were a few +thoroughly charred human bones. The material of the shaft, after the +first 3 feet at the top, consisted almost wholly of finely packed ashes, +which appeared to have been deposited at intervals of considerable +length and not at one time. + +It is evident from this description, which is abridged from the report +of the assistant, that we have here a true representation of the +so-called "altars" of the Ohio mounds. But, contrary to the usual +custom, as shown by an examination of the Ohio works, this mound appears +to have been used by the people who erected it as a burial place, for +the mode of construction and the material used for the body of it forbid +the supposition that the lower burial was by a different people from +those who formed the clay structure at the base. + +It is proper to state that around and near the inclosure (No. 7 of Plate +V) were a number of stone graves of the ordinary box shape, constructed +in the usual way, of stone slabs. + +At this place was also discovered a pit or cache resembling those found +at Madisonville, Ohio. A more thorough examination will probably bring +to light others. + +The descriptions of other burial mounds of this region, differing +slightly in minor details from those mentioned, might be presented, but +the foregoing will suffice to give the types and show the character of +the structures of this kind in this section. The details given will, I +think, satisfy any one that the authors of these structures were also +the authors of the Ohio works, or that they belonged to tribes so +closely related that we may justly consider them as one people. + +I have been and am still disposed to connect the mound-builders of the +Kanawha valley with those of western North Carolina, but our +explorations in the two sections have convinced me of their close +relation to the people whose mysterious monuments dot the hills and +valleys of Ohio. That they were related in some way to the +mound-builders of North Carolina and East Tennessee is more than +probable, but the key to unlock this mystery, if it exists anywhere, is +most likely to be found in the history, traditions, and works of the +Cherokees, and the traditions relating to the Tallegwi. + +As a result of my examination and discussion of the burial mounds of +Wisconsin, I reached the conclusion that they were built by the Indian +tribes found inhabiting that section at the advent of the whites, or by +their ancestors. The data, of which but a comparatively small portion +is given, seem to justify this conclusion. But the case is somewhat +different in reference to the works of the Ohio district. Although the +data obtained here point with satisfactory certainty to the conclusion +that Indians were the authors of these works, it cannot be claimed that +all or even the larger portion of them were built by Indians inhabiting +the district when first visited by the whites, or by their ancestors. + +[Illustration: PL. VI. ENLARGED PLAN OF PART OF THE WORKS SHOWN IN PL. +V.] + +Hence the mystery which enshrouds them is deeper and much more difficult +to penetrate than that which hangs about the antiquities of some of the +other districts; in fact, they present probably the most difficult +problem for solution in this respect of any ancient works of our +country. That some of the burial mounds, graves, and other works are to +be attributed to Indians who entered this district after the Europeans +had planted colonies in Canada and along the Atlantic coast is probably +true, but that much the greater portion of the typical works belong to a +more distant period must be conceded. It is a singular fact that in the +latter half of the seventeenth century, when European explorers began to +penetrate into this region, what is now the State of Ohio was +uninhabited. + + The Miami confederacy, inhabiting the southern shore of Lake + Michigan, extended southeasterly to the Wabash. The Illinois + confederacy extended down the eastern shore of the Mississippi + to about where Memphis now stands. The Cherokees occupied the + slopes and valleys of the mountains about the borders of what + is now East Tennessee, North Carolina, and Georgia. The great + basin bounded north by Lake Erie, the Miamis, and the Illinois, + west by the Mississippi, east by the Alleghanies, and south by + the headwaters of the streams that flow into the Gulf of + Mexico, seems to have been uninhabited except by bands of + Shawnees, and scarcely visited except by war parties of the + Five Nations.[35] + +With the exception of some slight notices of the Erie or Cat Nation +dwelling south of Lake Erie, the mere mention of the Tongarias (possibly +but another name for the Eries, with whom Colden identifies them), +located somewhere on the Ohio, and the tradition regarding the Tallegwi, +the only history which remains to us regarding this region previous to +the close of the seventeenth century, is to be gathered from the ancient +monuments which dot its surface. Even conjecture can find but few +pointers on this desert field to give direction to its flight. But it +does not necessarily follow, because we are unable to determine the +direction in which the goal we are seeking lies, that we cannot tell +some of the directions in which it does not lie, and thus narrow the +field of our investigation. I will therefore venture to offer the +following suggestions: + +As the evidence in regard to the antiquities of the northwestern, the +southern, and the Appalachian districts points so decidedly to the +Indians as the authors, I think we may assume that the works of Ohio are +attributable to the same race. As they bear a strong resemblance in +several respects to the West Virginia and North Carolina works, and as +the geographical positions of the defensive works indicate pressure +from the north and north-west, we are perhaps justified in excluding +from consideration all tribes known to have had their principal seats +north of the Ohio in historic times, except the Eries, which form an +uncertain and so far indeterminable factor in the problem. + +The data so far obtained seem to me to indicate the following as the +most promising lines of research: The possible identity or relation of +the Tallegwi and the Cherokees; the possibility of this region having +been the ancient home of the Shawnees or their ancestors (though I +believe the testimony of the mounds is most decidedly against this and +the following supposition); and the theory that the builders of these +works were driven southward and were merged into the Chahta-Muscogee +family. + +Be our conclusion on this question what it may, one important result of +the explorations in this northern section of the United States is the +conviction that there was during the mound-building age a powerful tribe +or association of closely allied tribes occupying the valley of the +Ohio, whose chief seats were in the Kanawha, Scioto, and Little Miami +Valleys. We might suppose that one strong tribe had occupied +successively these various points, yet the slight though persistent +differences in methods and customs indicated by the works seem to favor +the other view. Moreover, the data furnished by the burial mounds lead +to the conclusion that all the works of these localities are relatively +contemporaneous. Not that those of either section are all of the same +age, perhaps by some two or three or possibly more centuries, but that +those of one section, as a whole, are relatively of the same age as +those of the other sections. Nevertheless a somewhat careful study of +all the data bearing on this subject leads me to the conclusion that the +Cherokees are the modern representatives of the Tallegwi, and that most +of the typical works of Ohio and West Virginia owe their origin to this +people. + +In each section there are some indications that the authors of these +works followed the custom of erecting burial mounds down to the time the +Europeans appeared on the continent. These evidences have not been given +here, as it is not my intention to discuss them in this paper. + +In Ohio there are undoubted evidences of one, if not two, waves of +population subsequent to the occupancy of that region by the builders of +the chief works. But these were of comparatively short duration, and +were evidently Indian hordes pressed westward and southward by the +Iroquois tribes and the advance of the whites. + + + + +THE APPALACHIAN DISTRICT. + + +This district, as already defined, includes East Tennessee, western +North Carolina, southwestern Virginia, and the southeastern part of +Kentucky. It is probable that northeastern Georgia and the northwestern +part of South Carolina should be included, but the investigations in +most of the sections named have not been sufficiently thorough to +enable us to fix with any degree of certainty the boundaries of the +district. + +Although there is uncertainty in reference to the area occupied by the +people who left behind them the antiquities found in this region, there +can be no doubt that here we find a class of burial mounds differing in +several important respects from any we have so far noticed. + +Some of the most important mounds of this class found in this district +were discovered in Caldwell County, North Carolina, and opened in 1882 +by Mr. J. P. Rogan, one of the Bureau assistants, aided by Dr. J. M. +Spainhour, a resident of the county. + +As Mr. Rogan's descriptions are somewhat full, I give them substantially +as found in his report: + +_The T. F. Nelson mound._--This mound, so insignificant in appearance as +scarcely to attract any notice, was located on the farm of Rev. T. F. +Nelson, in Caldwell County, North Carolina, on the bottom land of the +Yadkin, about 100 yards from the river-bank. It was almost a true circle +in outline, 38 feet in diameter, but not exceeding at any point 18 +inches in height. The thorough excavation made revealed the fact that +the builders of the mound had first dug a circular pit, with +perpendicular margin, to the depth of 3 feet, and 38 feet in diameter, +then deposited their dead in the manner hereafter shown, and afterwards +covered them over, raising a slight mound above the pit. + +A plan of the pit, drawn at the time (after the removal of the dirt), +showing the stone graves and skeletons, is given in Fig. 25. + +The walled graves or vaults and altar-shaped mass were built of water +worn bowlders and clay or earth merely sufficient to hold them in place. + +No. 1, a stone grave or vault standing exactly in the center of the pit. +In this case a small circular hole, a little over 3 feet in diameter and +extending down 3 feet below the bottom of the large pit, had been dug, +the body or skeleton placed perpendicularly upon its feet, and the wall +built up around it from the bottom of the hole, converging, after a +height of 4 feet was reached, so as to be covered at the top by a single +soapstone rock of moderate size. On the top of the head of the skeleton +and immediately under the capstone of the vault were found several +plates of silver mica, which had evidently been cut with some rude +implement. Although the bones were much decayed, yet they were retained +in position by the dirt which filled the vault, an indication that the +flesh had been removed before burial and the vault filled with dirt as +it was built up. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Appearance of T. F. Nelson mound after +excavation.] + +Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, although walled around in a similar +manner, were in a sitting posture on the bottom of the pit. In the grave +of No. 2 was found a polished celt, in that of No. 3 a single discoidal +stone, in that of No. 6 two polished celts, and immediately over No. 9 a +pitted stone. + +Nos. 11, 12, and 13 are three skeletons in a squatting posture, with no +wall around them and unaccompanied by relics of any kind. + +Nos. 14 and 15 are two uninclosed skeletons, lying horizontally at full +length. With the former some pieces of broken soapstone pipes were +found, and with the latter one polished celt. + +No. 16, an uninclosed "squatter," of unusually large size, not less than +7 feet high when living. Near the mouth was an uninjured soapstone pipe. +The legs were extended in a southwest direction, upon a bed of burnt +earth. + +The faces of all the squatting skeletons were turned away from the +standing central one. + +At A was found a considerable quantity of black paint in little lumps, +which appear to have been molded in the hull of some nut. At B was a +cubical mass of water-worn bowlders, built up solidly and symmetrically, +24 inches long, 18 inches wide, and 18 inches high, but with no bones, +specimens of art, coal, ashes, or indications of fire on or around it. +Many of the stones of the vaults and the earth immediately around them, +on the contrary, bore unmistakable evidences of fire; in fact, the heat +in some cases left its mark on the bones of the inclosed skeletons, +another indication that the flesh had been removed before burial here, +either by previous burial or otherwise. + +Scattered through the dirt which filled the pit were small pieces of +pottery and charcoal. The bottom, and sides of the pit were so +distinctly marked that they could be traced without difficulty. + +This mound stood about 75 yards south of the triangular burial pit +described below. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Burials in the T. F. Nelson triangle, Caldwell +County, North Carolina.] + +_The T. F. Nelson triangle._--This is the name applied by Mr. Rogan to +an ancient triangular burying ground found on the same farm as the mound +just described and about 75 yards north of it. + +It is not a mound, but simply a burial pit in the form of a triangle, +the two longest sides each 48 feet and the (southern) base 32 feet, in +which the bodies and accompanying articles were deposited and then +covered over, but not heaped up into a mound; or, if so, it had +subsequently settled until on a level with the natural surface of the +ground. The apex, which points directly north, was found to extend +within 3 feet of the break of the bank of the Yadkin River, the height +above the usual water-level being about 12 feet. The depth of the +original excavation, the lines of which could be distinctly traced, +varied from 2-1/2 to 3 feet. A rude sketch of this triangle, showing the +relative positions of the skeletons, is given in Fig. 26. + +Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 indicate the positions of single +skeletons found lying horizontally, on their backs, heads east and +northeast. With No. 2 was found a broken soapstone pipe, and with Nos. 5 +and 9 one small polished celt each. + +Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 indicate the positions of skeletons +inclosed in rude stone vaults built of cobblestones and similar to those +in the preceding mound. (See Fig. 25.) Nos. 10, 12, 13, and 15 were in a +sitting posture, without any accompanying articles. + +Graves 11 and 14 contained each two bodies, extended horizontally, the +lower ones, which were of smaller stature than the upper ones, face up +and with heavy flat stones on the extended arms and legs. The upper +ones, with face down, were resting on those below. No implements or +ornaments were found with them. + +Near No. 12 about a peck of singular, pinkish-colored earth was found. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Engraved shell gorget from mound, Caldwell +County, North Carolina.] + +In the northwest part of the triangle (at A in Fig. 26) ten or more +skeletons were found in one grave or group, which from the arrangement +the explorers concluded must have been buried at one time; the "old +chief" (?), or principal personage of the group, resting horizontally on +his face, with his head northeast and feet southwest. Under his head was +a large engraved shell gorget (Fig. 27); around his neck were a number +of large-sized shell beads, evidently the remains of a necklace; at the +sides of the head, near the ears, were five elongate copper beads, or +rather small cylinders, varying in length from one and a quarter to four +and a half inches, part of the leather thong on which the smaller were +strung yet remaining in them. These are made of thin pieces of copper +cut into strips and then rolled together so that the edges meet in a +straight joint on one side. (See Fig. 28.) The plate out of which they +were made was as smooth and even in thickness as though it had been +rolled. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Cylindrical copper bead from mound, Caldwell +County, North Carolina.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Bracelet of copper and shell beads, Caldwell +County, North Carolina.] + +A piece of copper was also under his breast. His arms were partially +extended, his hands resting about a foot from his head. Around each +wrist were the remains of a bracelet composed of copper and shell beads, +alternating, thus (Fig. 29): + +[Illustration FIG. 30.--Iron celt from mound, Caldwell County, North +Carolina.] + +At his right hand were four iron specimens, much corroded but still +showing the form. Two of them were of uniform thickness, one not +sharpened at the ends or edges, the other slightly sharpened at one end, +3 to 3-1/2 inches long, 1 to 1-1/2 inches broad, and about a quarter of +an inch thick. The form is shown in Fig. 30. Another is 5 inches long, +slightly tapering in width from one and an eighth to seven-eighths of an +inch, both edges sharp; it is apparently part of the blade of a long, +slender, cutting or thrusting weapon of some kind, as a sword, dagger, +or knife. (Shown in Fig. 31.) The other specimen is part of a round, +awl-shaped implement, a small part of the bone handle in which it was +fixed yet remaining attached to it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Iron implement from mound, Caldwell County, +North Carolina.] + +Under his left hand was another engraved shell, the concave surface +upward and filled with shell beads of all sizes. + +Around and over the skeleton of this chief personage, with their heads +near his, were nine other skeletons. Under the heads of two of these +were two engraved shells. Scattered over and between the ten skeletons +of the group were numerous polished celts, discoidal stones, copper +arrow-points, plates of mica, lumps of paint, black lead, etc. + +_The W. D. Jones mound._--Two miles east of Patterson, same county, and +near the north bank of the Yadkin River, running out from a low ridge to +the river bank, is a natural terrace about 12 feet high, with a level +area on top of about an acre, the sides steep and abrupt. According to +tradition this terrace was formerly occupied by an Indian village. + +About 200 yards east of this, on the second river bottom or terrace, was +located a low, circular mound 33 feet in diameter and not more than 1 +foot high, on the land of Mr. W. D. Jones. + +This mound was found on investigation to cover a circular pit 32 feet in +diameter and 3 feet deep, the margin and bottom being so well defined as +to leave no doubt as to the limits of the pit; in fact, the bottom, +which was of clay, had been baked hard by fire to the depth of 2 or 3 +inches. The mound and the filling of the pit consisted of earth and +loose yellow clay, similar to that around it. In this mound were found +twenty-five skeletons and one stone heap, the relative positions of +which are shown in Fig. 32. + +1. A "squatter," walled in with water-worn stones, the face turned +toward the west; no relics. + +2. Sitting with the face toward the center; two polished celts at the +feet, and immediately in front of the face a cylinder of hard gray +mortar (not burned) about 5 inches long and 2 inches in diameter, with a +hole through one end. + +3. Sitting with the face toward the center; several polished celts at +the feet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--W. D. Jones mound, Caldwell County, North +Carolina.] + +4. Horizontal, head southeast; several celts at the feet. + +5. Horizontal, head toward the center; several celts at the feet. + +6. Facing the center, sitting; shell beads around the neck, a _Unio_ +shell on top of the head, with the concave surface down, a conch shell +(_Busycon perversum_) in front of the face, and celts at the feet. + +7. Sitting, facing the center; celts at the feet. + +8. Very large, lying on the left side, legs partially drawn up, walled +in with bowlders; no implements. + +9. Horizontal, face down, head toward the center; celts and discoidal +stones at the feet, and a pot resting, mouth down, upon the head. + +10. Horizontal, face up, feet toward the center; pot resting on the +face, stone implements at the feet. + +11. Horizontal, head southeast, arms extended, and a bracelet of copper +and shell beads around each wrist; shell beads around the neck; face up +and food-cup (without handle) at the right side of the head. + +12. Horizontal, face up, head southeast; shell beads around the neck, a +hook or crescent shaped piece of copper on the breast, and a soapstone +pipe near the face; one hand near each side of the head, each grasping +small, conical copper ornaments (ear-drops) and a bunch of hair. Was +this individual, apparently a female, buried alive? + +13. Horizontal, lying on the back, head southeast; copper and shell +beads around the neck and wrists, a hook or crescent shaped piece of +copper on the breast, a food-cup (with handle) lying on its side with +mouth close to the face, a pipe near the mouth, and two celts over the +head. + +14. Horizontal, lying on the back, head northeast, arms extended; each +hand resting on a shell which had evidently been engraved, though the +figures are almost totally obliterated. + +15. Horizontal, on the back, head west, knees drawn up; stone implements +at the feet. + +16. Too much decayed to determine the position. + +17. Four skeletons in one grave, horizontal, heads toward the east, and +large rocks lying on the legs below the knees; no implements. + +18. Two skeletons in one grave, heads west, faces down, knees drawn up; +no implements. + +19. On the back, horizontal, head east; no implements. + +20. Sitting, with face toward the east, walled in, a large rock lying on +the feet (though this may have fallen from the wall); no implements. + +21. Sitting, walled in; over the head, but under the capstone of the +vault, a handful of flint arrow-heads. + +22. Doubled up, with the head between the feet. + +A. A solid oval-shaped mass of bowlders, 33 inches long, 22 inches wide, +and 24 inches high, resting on the bottom of the pit. No ashes or other +indications of fire about it. + +Fragments of pottery, mica, galena, charcoal, red and black paint, and +stone chips were found scattered in small quantities through the earth +which filled the pit. All the celts were more or less polished. + +_R. T. Lenoir burial pit._--This is a circular burial pit, similar to +those already described, but without any rounding up of the surface. It +is located on the farm of Mr. Rufus T. Lenoir, about 9 miles northeast +of Lenoir and nearly a mile west of Fort Defiance. + +A diagram showing the relative positions of the graves or burials is +given in Fig. 33. + +It is on the first river terrace or bottom of Buffalo Creek and some 200 +yards from the stream, which empties into the Yadkin about half a mile +southwest of this point. This bottom is subject to overflow in time of +high water. + +The pit, which is 27 feet in diameter and about 3-1/2 feet deep, is +almost a perfect circle, and well marked, the margin, which is nearly +perpendicular, and the bottom being easily traced. The dirt in this +case, as in the others, was all thrown out. + +No. 1. A bed of charred or rather burnt bones, occupying a space 3 feet +long, 2 feet wide, and about 1 foot deep. The bones were so thoroughly +burned that it was impossible to determine whether they were human or +animal. Beneath this bed the yellow sand was baked to the depth of 2 or +3 inches. Under the bones was an uncharred shell gorget. + +No. 2. A skeleton in a sitting posture, facing northeast; a pipe near +the mouth and a polished celt over the head. + +No. 3. Sitting, facing east, with shell beads around the neck and also +around the arms just below the shoulders. + +No. 4. Horizontal, on the back, head east and resting on the concave +surface of an engraved shell; a conch shell (_Busycon perversum_) at the +side of the head, and copper and shell beads around the neck. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Plan of the R. T. Lenoir burial pit, Caldwell +County, North Carolina.] + +No. 5. Horizontal, head northeast; shell beads around the neck and two +discoidal stones and one celt at the feet. + +No. 6. A communal grave, containing at least twenty-five skeletons, in +two tiers, buried without any apparent regularity as to direction or +relative position. Thirteen of the twenty-five were "flat-heads;" that +is, "the heads running back and compressed in front." + +Scattered through this grave, between and above the skeletons, were +polished celts, discoidal stones, shells, mica, galena, fragments of +pottery, and one whole pot. Around the neck and wrists of some of the +skeletons were also shell beads. There may have been more than +twenty-five individuals buried here, this, however, being the number of +skulls observed. + +No. 7. Horizontal, on the left side, head northwest; no implements. + +No. 8. An irregular layer of water-worn stones, about 4 feet square. On +top was a bed of charcoal 3 or 4 inches thick, on and partially imbedded +in which were three skeletons, but showing no indications of having been +in the fire. Scattered over these were discoidal stones, one small, +saucer-shaped dish, shells (of which one is engraved), pipes, shell +beads, and pieces of pottery. + +No. 9. A grave containing three skeletons, lying horizontally on their +backs and side by side, the outer ones with their heads east and the +middle one with the head west; no implements. + +No. 10. Horizontal, on the right side, head north, with stone implements +in front of the face. + +No. 11. Doubled up, top of the head south; shell beads around the neck +and celts at the feet. + +No. 12. A grave containing seventeen skeletons, seven of which had flat +heads, two of the number children. Two of the adult heads were resting +on engraved shells. + +In this grave were found four pots and two food-cups, the handle of one +representing an owl's head and that of the other an eagle's head. One of +the small pots was inside a larger one. Scattered among the skeletons +were shell beads, polished celts, discoidal stones, paint, etc. None of +the skeletons were inclosed in stone graves.[36] + +In order to convey an idea of the number of articles deposited with the +dead in some of these burial places, I give here a list of those +obtained from the pit last described: + +One stone ax. + +Forty-three polished celts. + +Nine vessels of clay. + +Thirty-two arrow-heads. + +Twenty soapstone pipes, mostly uninjured. + +Twelve discoidal stones. + +Ten rubbing stones. + +Two hammer stones. + +One broken soapstone vessel. + +Six engraved shells. + +Four shell gorgets. + +One _Busycon perversum_ entire, and two or three broken ones. + +Five very large copper beads. + +One lot of fragments of shells, some of them engraved. + +A few rude shell pins. + +Shell beads. + +A few small copper beads. + +Specimens of paint and plumbago. + +Three skulls. + +It is evident from the foregoing descriptions that the mode of burial +and the depositories of the dead of the mound-building tribes of this +part of North Carolina differed in several marked and important respects +from the mode of burial and burial mounds of the sections previously +alluded to, and in fact from those of any other district. + +Here the pit seems to have been the important part of the depository and +the mound a mere adjunct. In some cases the bodies appear to have been +buried soon after death, while in others--as, for example, the groups in +the triangle and Lenoir burial pit--the skeletons were probably +deposited after the flesh was removed. + +We are reminded by these pits of the mode of burial practiced by some of +the Indian tribes, as mentioned by Lafitau,[37] Brebeuf,[38] etc.; but, +before attempting to draw conclusions, we will give other illustrations +of the burial mounds of this district, which are far from being uniform +in character. + +Comparatively few mounds have as yet been opened in North Carolina; +hence the data relating to this region is somewhat meager. As bearing +upon the subject, and probably relating to a period immediately +following the close of the mound-building era, I give from Mr. Rogan's +notes the description of a burial place explored by him on the farm of +Mr. Charles Hunt, in the central part of Wilkes County: + +This is not a "burial place," in the usual sense of that term, but is +probably the site of a camp or temporary village. It is about three +miles and a half east of Wilkesborough, on the second bottom or terrace +of the Yadkin River. It differs from the burial places just described in +having no large pit, the graves being separate and independent of each +other. A diagram showing the relative positions of the graves and small +pits accompanies Mr. Rogan's report but is omitted here, although the +numbering of the graves is retained in the description. + +No. 1 is a grave or oval-shaped pit 2 feet long and 18 inches wide, the +top within 8 inches of the surface of the ground, while the bottom is +2-1/2 feet below it. This contained the remains of two skeletons, which +were surrounded by charcoal; some of the bones were considerably +charred. In the pit were some fragments of pottery, a few flint chips, +and a decayed tortoise shell. + +No. 2. A grave 2 feet wide, 6 feet long, and 5 feet deep. It contained +quite a quantity of animal bones, some of them evidently those of a +bear; also charcoal, mussel shells, and one bone implement. + +No. 3. A grave of the same size and depth as No. 2, containing animal +bones, broken pottery, and some charcoal. + +No. 4. Grave; the size, depth, and contents same as the preceding. + +No. 5. A circular pit 2 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep. This contained +a very large pot, in which were some animal bones; it was on its side +and crushed. + +No. 6. A pit 2-1/2 feet deep and 2 feet square, with a bed of charcoal +in the bottom 6 inches deep. On this bed was a layer of flint chips, and +on the chips a quantity of broken pottery, animal bones, a discoidal +stone, and a bone implement. + +No. 7. A grave similar to those described. + +No. 8. A large grave, containing three skeletons, lying at full length +upon the right side, with the heads a little east of north. Between the +front and the middle one was a mass of mussel shells. At the head and +back of the front one were a number of animal bones, and between it and +the middle one, opposite the pelvis, was a large broken pot. The right +arm of the third or back one was extended forward and upward, the left +arm resting across the head, a white flint chip grasped in the hand. The +head of this skeleton was resting on a piece of a broken pot, and in +front of the face, at the distance of a foot, was also part of a pot, +containing a stone fragment and some animal bones. Under the legs of the +three skeletons, the head extending in front of the legs of the third or +back one, was the skeleton of a bear, and in front of the latter were +three broken pots, containing animal bones. + +[Illustration FIG. 34.--Fire-bed, Wilkes County, North Carolina.] + +No. 9. A basin-shaped fire-bed, or bed of burnt clay, 8 inches thick. A +section of this bed is shown in Fig. 34--_b_, _b_, _b_, the bed of burnt +clay, 8 inches thick, the material evidently placed here and not a part +of the original soil. The basin _a_ was filled with ashes, to the depth +of 12 inches; the diameter, from 1 to 2, 2 feet 3 inches, from 1 to 3 +and from 2 to 4, 1 foot 6 inches. + +No. 10. A bed of mussel shells, 3 inches thick and 3 feet in diameter, +lying on a flat bed of burnt earth 3 inches thick. + +No. 11. A pit 5 feet deep and 3 feet in diameter, filled with animal +bones, mussel shells, and broken pottery. + +There was no mounding over any of these graves or pits. + +The basin-shaped fire-bed, No. 9, reminds us very strongly of the +so-called altars of the Ohio mounds, and may possibly assist us in +arriving at a correct conclusion concerning these puzzling structures. + +A mound opened by Dr. J. M. Spainhour in Burke County, some years ago, +presents some variations, though, so far as the posture and relative +positions of the skeletons are concerned, reminding us of those in +Caldwell County. The following extract is from the article containing +the description:[39] + + Digging down I struck a stone about 18 inches below the surface, + which was found to be 18 inches long and 16 inches wide and from + 2 to 3 inches in thickness, the corners rounded. It rested on + solid earth and had been smoothed on top. + + I then made an excavation in the south of the mound, and soon + struck another stone, which upon examination proved to be in + front of the remains of a human skeleton in a sitting posture; + the bones of the fingers of the right hand had been resting on + the stone. Near the hand was a small stone about 5 inches long, + resembling a tomahawk or Indian hatchet. Upon a further + examination many of the bones were found, though in a very + decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air they soon + crumbled to pieces. The heads of the bones, a considerable + portion of the skull, jaw-bones, teeth, neck-bones, and the + vertebræ were in their proper places. Though the weight of the + earth above them had driven them down, yet the frame was + perfect, and the bones of the head were slightly inclined + toward the east. Around the neck were found coarse beads that + seemed to be of some substance resembling chalk. + + A small lump of red paint, about the size of an egg, was found + near the right side of this skeleton. From my knowledge of + anatomy, the sutures of the skull would indicate the subject to + have been twenty-five or twenty-eight years of age. The top of + the skull was about 12 inches below the mark of the plow. + + I made a further excavation in the west part of this mound and + found another skeleton similar to the first, in a sitting + posture, facing the last. A stone was on the right, on which + the right hand had been resting, and on this was a tomahawk + which had been about 7 inches in length, broken into two + pieces, and much better finished than the first. Beads were + also on the neck of this one, but were much smaller and of + finer quality than those on the neck of the first; the + material, however, seemed to be the same. A much larger amount + of paint was found by the side of this than the first. The + bones indicated a person of larger frame and I think of about + fifty years of age. Everything about this one had the + appearance of superiority over the first. The top of the skull + was about 6 inches below the mark of the plow. + + I continued the examination, and after diligent search found + nothing at the north part of the mound, but on reaching the + east side found another skeleton, in the same posture as the + others, facing the west. On the right side of this was a stone + on which the right hand had been resting, and on the stone was + also a tomahawk about 8 inches in length, broken into three + pieces, much smoother and of finer material than the others. + Beads were also found on the neck of this, but much smaller and + finer than on those of the others, as well as a large amount of + paint. The bones would indicate a person of forty years of age. + The top of the skull had been moved by the plow. + + There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the + principal bones were almost entirely decomposed, and crumbled + when handled. + +A complete exploration of this mound, the dimensions of which are not +given, would possibly have shown that the skeletons were arranged +somewhat in a circle. The doctor does not state whether there was a +pit. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Section of mound, Henderson County, North +Carolina.] + +Some mounds in Henderson County, opened in 1884 by Mr. J. W. Emmert, who +was temporarily employed by the Bureau, present some peculiarities +worthy of notice. One of these, situated on the farm of Mrs. Rebecca +Conner, and perfectly circular, was found to be 44 feet in diameter and +6 feet high; a number of small trees were growing on it. The annexed cut +(Fig. 35) shows a vertical section of it, the dark central triangle +representing a conical mass of charcoal and ashes. The conical mass +measured 16 feet in diameter at the base and 5 feet high, the top +reaching within 1 foot of the top of the mound. The outer portion +consisted of charcoal, evidently the remains of pine poles, which had +been placed in several layers, sloping toward the apex. The inner +portion consisted of ashes and coals mixed with earth, in which were +found some burnt human (?) bones, and some accompanying articles, among +which were two stones with holes drilled through them. The fragments of +bones and the specimens were at the base, in the center. + +A mound on the farm of Mr. J. B. Alexander, 2 miles above the one just +described, was examined by Mr. Emmert, and found to cover a pit similar +to those explored in Caldwell County. + +This mound was situated on an elevated level, about a quarter of a mile +from the creek, in an old field which had been plowed over for sixty +years. It was 2 feet high when he explored it, but the old people stated +to him that it was formerly 10 feet high, and had a "tail" or ridge +running away from it 200 feet long; but the only indication of this that +Mr. Emmert could see was a strip of clay running off where it was stated +to have been. It runs in the direction of the creek bottom, where any +quantity of broken pottery may be picked up. The mound, which was 30 +feet in diameter and composed wholly of red clay, was entirely removed +to the original surface of the ground. Nothing was found in it, but +after reaching the surface he discovered a circular pit 12 feet in +diameter, which had been dug to the depth of 4 feet in the solid red +clay. This he found to be filled full of ashes and charcoal, but failed +to find any bones or specimens in it. + +Although Mr. Emmert failed to find any evidence that this was a burial +mound, its similarity with those of Caldwell County will, I think, +justify us in concluding it was constructed for this purpose. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Section of mound, Henderson County, North +Carolina.] + +Another mound on the same farm as the one last mentioned, a +cross-section of which is shown in Fig. 36, is of the common type, +examples of which are found in most of the districts: diameter 52 feet +and height 9 feet; the upper layer, No. 1, red clay, about 4 feet thick, +No. 2, a thin layer of charcoal, about 3 inches thick; the lower stratum +or central core, No. 3, dark-colored earth. In this lower layer were +found five skeletons, on the natural surface and at the points indicated +by the dots, which crumbled to pieces as soon as exposed to the air. +With one were sixteen large, rudely made, white flint arrow-heads, so +nearly alike as to make it apparent they were the work of one +individual, and with another a small pipe and some arrow-heads. + +Passing westward over the mountains into East Tennessee, we find some +variations in the modes of burial, but not so widely different from +those east of the range as to justify the belief that the authors of the +works of the two localities were different peoples or belonged to +different tribes. + +A burial mound opened by Mr. Emmert in the valley of the Holston, +Sullivan County, described by him as mound No. 1, on the north side of +the river, was found to be 22 feet in diameter and 4 feet high. It was +composed of red clay and sand. Digging down to the level of the +surrounding ground, there was found a pile of rock in the center, which +proved to be a burial vault built of water-worn bowlders, over a sitting +skeleton. It was 3-1/2 feet in diameter at the base and 3 feet high. On +the head of the skeleton was a slender, square copper spindle about 11 +inches long and a quarter of an inch thick in the middle. It has +evidently been hammered out with a stone hammer. Under the lower jaw +were two small copper drills or awls, with portions of the deer-horn +handles still attached. About the shoulders, one on each side, were two +polished stones, with holes in them. Near the head was a small pile of +flint chips, and at the knees a flint scalping knife. The bones were so +badly decayed that but few of them could be secured. + +Mound No. 2 was on the south side of the river, opposite No. 1 and about +the same distance from the river. It was 38 feet in diameter and 5 feet +high, and on the top was a pine stump 14 inches in diameter. + +Mr. Emmert, in opening it, commenced at the edge to cut a ditch 4 feet +wide through it, but soon reached a wall 3 feet high, built of "river +rock." He then worked around this, finding it to be an almost perfect +circle, 14 feet in diameter, inside of which were found, on throwing out +the dirt, twelve stone graves or vaults, built of the same kind of +stones, each containing a sitting skeleton, as shown in Fig. 37. One of +these graves or vaults was exactly in the center, the other eleven being +placed in a circle around it, and about equally spaced, as shown in the +diagram. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Mound on Holston River, Sullivan County, +Tennessee.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Pipe from mound, Sullivan County, Tennessee.] + +In the center grave he found shell beads around the neck of the +skeleton, and near the mouth the pipe shown in Fig. 38. + +The bottom of the area within the circular wall was covered to the depth +of about 3 inches with charcoal, and the graves were built on this +layer. Both of these mounds were on the bench or upper bottom, and about +three-fourths of a mile from the river. + +Mr. Emmert says he learned that there was a tradition of the +neighborhood that the Indians once fought a great battle at this place, +and that one party buried some of their dead in mound No. 2, and the +other party buried their dead on the opposite side of the river, where +there is a large pile or mound of "river rock." + +He opened one of the rock mounds occurring in this region half a mile +from the river and near the foot of the mountain. A large tree had grown +up through it, the stump of which was yet standing, or the mound had +been built around it. After removing the rock and digging up the stump, +he found, at the depth of 4 feet and directly under the stump, two stone +axes, a large number of arrow-heads, two polished celts, and some pieces +of mica. + +Another mound on the Holston River, 2 miles above the two heretofore +described, was examined. This was 60 feet in diameter and 4-1/2 feet +high. The original surface of the earth had been first covered over +about 3 inches thick with charcoal, then the bodies or skeletons laid on +it, and each walled up separately with river rock. These were then +covered with black earth, over which was cast a layer of sand about the +same thickness, the remainder being top soil. + +Mr. Emmert, who opened this, commenced cutting a ditch 4 feet wide, +proceeding until he struck the bed of charcoal; then followed around the +outer edge of it, finally removing all the dirt inside the circle. One +side of the circle had six skeletons in it, all walled up, as before +stated, separately, but so thoroughly decayed that only one skull could +be saved. + +The other side of the mound had nothing in it except a fine pipe which +he found on the bed of coals, some 10 or 12 feet from the nearest +skeleton; some beautiful arrow-heads, shell beads, a polished celt, and +two small stones with holes in them were also discovered. + +In addition to the foregoing descriptions from the reports of my +assistants, I present the following, from accounts of earlier +explorations in this region: + +A burial mound situated on the left bank of the Tennessee River, about 1 +mile from Chattanooga, was opened by Mr. M. O. Read in 1865. This was +oval in form and flat on top, the diameters of the base 158 and 120 +feet, and those of the top 82 and 44 feet; height, 19 feet. Mr. Read +says:[40] + + For the purpose of examination, a tunnel was excavated into the + mound from the east, a little one side of the center and on a + level with the natural surface of the ground. When the point + directly under the outer edge of the top of the mound was + reached, holes were found containing fragments of rotted wood + showing that stakes or palisades had been erected here when + the mound was commenced. The sound of the pick indicating a + cavity or different material below, the excavation was carried + downward about 2 feet, when two skeletons were uncovered, + fragments of which preserved are marked No. 1. The bones were + packed in a small space, as though the bodies were crowded + down, without much regard to position of hands, into a pit not + exceeding 3 feet in length. One of the skulls is of especial + interest, as possibly indicating that the remains are those of + victims immolated in some sacrificial or burial rites. + The side was crushed in, as if with a club. I have connected + together the pieces of the upper jaw so that they retain the + position in which they were found, a position which cannot with + probability be supposed to be the result of the settling of the + earth around it, if unbroken when buried. The bones of the + bodies, although so friable that they could not be preserved, + were entire, in positions indicating that the bodies had not + been dismembered and forbidding the supposition that they were + the remains of a cannibal feast. + + The excavation was carried forward as indicated on the plat and + on a level with the location of the skeletons first found. It + became evident at once that the material of which the mound was + constructed was taken from the immediate neighborhood, it being + composed of the same alluvial soil, full of the shells found on + the surface, but in a much better state of preservation; but no + arrow-heads, chippings of flints, or fragments of pottery now + covering the surface were found. These would have been abundant + if the mound had been erected subsequent to the manufacture of + the pottery and arrow-heads at that place. Single fragments of + pottery were found, but these were painted and of much better + quality than those found on the surface. + + The mound was composed of alternate layers of earth and ashes, + showing that a surface of the size of the top, when finished, + was kept substantially level, and raised only 2 to 3 feet at a + time, when fires were kindled, which must have been large or + continued for a long time, as the amount of the ashes and + charcoal abundantly indicates. + + Near the center of the mound rows of stake-holes were found, as + far as followed, marking two sides of a rectangular + parallelogram, which continued would have formed an enclosure + around the center. In some of these were the remains of the + wood and bark, not enough to show the marks of tools, if any + had been used. They penetrated the natural surface of the + ground to the depth of about 2 feet. + + Here and at about the same level as at No. 1 were found the + skeletons of which the skull bones and other parts are marked + No. 2. They were apparently the remains of a youngish woman and + two children, all so far decomposed that only the parts sent + could be preserved. The larger skeleton was in such a position + as a person would take on kneeling down, then sitting upon the + feet; the hands were brought to the head and the body doubled + down upon the knees. The head was toward the south. The remains + of the children were found at the right side of this body, the + bones mingled together. + + About 2 feet directly under these the skeleton of which the + skull is marked No. 3 was found, in a similar position, it is + said (I was not present when it was taken out), with the one + above it. + + I attempt no description and indulge in no speculations in + regard to these remains, as I have decided to forward them to + you for the examination of those who can compare them with + other skulls and are better qualified to make a proper use of + them. They are unquestionably of the age of the mound-builders. + +We are reminded, by the remains of upright timbers found here, of the +wooden vaults of the Grave Creek and other mounds of West Virginia, but +in the form of the mound we have an indication that it belongs to the +southern class of ancient works. + +Rev. E. O. Dunning mentions[41] a stone-grave mound which he examined in +the valley of the Little Tennessee. Speaking of this mound he remarks: + + I did not expect to find rock graves in a mound of earth, but + after clearing away rubbish and penetrating 6 feet below the + top, near the center the workman struck a slab of slate, which + proved to be part of the covering of a stone tomb. It was much + like those scattered over the "river bottom"--more nicely + constructed, however, and fitted with more care, being arched + over the top, at an acute angle, with pieces of slate 3 inches + thick. Owing to its situation, raised above the level of the + river and covered with sand to the depth of 6 feet, its + contents were better preserved than those of the graves just + mentioned. At the head of it I took out a vessel of fine red + clay and pulverized mussel shells a foot in diameter, + gourd-shaped, and having a handle and spout 6 inches long, and + holding about a quart. It was preserved nearly whole. + Artificial fire had been kindled in the tomb, but it had been + smothered by the throwing in of sand before all the contents + were consumed. Besides some entire bones of the human skeleton, + flint arrow-heads and a large number of flint and stone beads + were removed. The beads could be traced along the lines of the + legs and arms, as if they had been attached to the garment in + which the dead was buried. Further excavations disclosed two + more of these stone sepulchers, the first 3 feet below the one + described, the other 2 feet from it, in the same plane. They + contained only fragments of bones, charcoal, and ashes. + + The mound, which was conical in shape, must have been 15 feet + high and 50 feet in diameter. Successive floods had impaired + its original dimensions. The last carried away a section on the + west side, exposing a tomb and some valuable relics, which have + not been preserved. Among them were large shells, pyrulas, + probably, judging from the description, from the Gulf of + Mexico. In connection with marine shells, images in stone were + found in this tomb. The mound was composed of sand-loam taken + from the bank of the river, and raised upon a foundation of + water-washed rocks 4 feet high, from the bed of the stream hard + by. There had been extensive burnings throughout this mound, at + various depths, indicated by layers of charcoal, ashes, and + burned clay, simply in honor of the dead, or to consume their + effects or mortal parts, or for human sacrifices to their + manes. + +Speaking of stone graves in the immediate vicinity as explanatory of +those in the mound, he says: + + They are built of slabs of slate, nicely fitted together, about + 3 inches thick, 4 feet long, and 2 broad, enclosing receptacles + not of uniform space, generally 5 feet long, 4 feet high, and 2 + broad, covered with flat pieces, resting upon the upright slabs + and conforming to the rounded corners of the tomb. + +As one of the principal objects in view in exploring and studying the +mounds of our country is to ascertain, if possible, by what people or +tribes they were built, a brief discussion of the question so far as it +relates to the district now under consideration will be in place. My +reasons for touching upon the topic in this connection, and limiting the +discussion to the antiquities of the one district, are as follows: + +First. The characteristics of the works of this section are so well +marked as to leave little, if any, doubt on the mind of any one who will +study them carefully that they are work of one people, probably of a +single tribe. + +Second. Because in this instance I think the evidence points with at +least reasonable certainty to the particular tribe by which they were +erected. + +Third. Whether our second reason prove to be correct or not, we find +data here which appear to form connecting links between the prehistoric +and the historic times, and hence call for some discussion in regard to +the authors. + +Fourth. The statement of the result of our explorations of these works +(especially the burial mounds) will, as I conceive, be incomplete +without some intimation of the bearing they have had on my own mind in +reference to their authorship. This it is true will apply with equal +force to the works of other districts. I have already briefly stated my +conclusions in this respect regarding the antiquities of Wisconsin, but +have refrained from entering at length upon the question as to the Ohio +and West Virginia works, as I confess and have already intimated that +these present more difficulties in the way of explanation than most of +the other sections. + +It may be thought premature to speculate in this direction, and some of +our ablest scientific journals appear to deprecate any such attempts +until more data have been obtained and the materials already collected +are more thoroughly digested. I admit that, as a very general and almost +universal rule, such a course is the proper one in respect to scientific +investigations, but must dissent from its application in this instance, +for the following reasons: + +The thought that a mighty nation once occupied the great valley of the +Mississippi, with its frontier settlements resting on the lake shores +and Gulf coasts, nestling in the valleys of the Appalachian Range and +skirting the broad plains of the West, a nation with its systems of +government and religion, its chief ruler, its great central city, and +all the necessary accompaniments, but which has disappeared before the +inroads of savage hordes, leaving behind it no evidences of its +existence, its glory, power, and extent save these silent forest-covered +remains, has something so fascinating and attractive in it, that when +once it has taken possession of the mind, it warps and biases all its +conclusions.[42] + +So strong, in fact, is the hold which this theory (in the broad sense, +including also the Toltec and Aztec theories) has taken of the minds of +both American and European archæologists, that it not only biases their +conclusions, but also molds and modifies their nomenclature, and is +thrust into their speculations and even into their descriptions as +though no longer a simple theory but a conceded fact. Hence it is +necessary, before a fair and unbiased discussion of the data can be had, +to call attention to the fact that there is another side to the +question. + +Unless some protest is presented or some expression of opinion is made +on this point in my paper, the facts I give will be viewed through the +medium of this "lost race" theory. This I desire, if possible, to +prevent, and whether the "Indian theory" proves to be correct or not, I +wish to obtain for it at least a fair consideration. I believe the +latter theory to be the correct one, as the facts so far ascertained +appear to point in that direction, but I am not wedded to it; on the +contrary, I am willing to follow the facts wherever they lead. + +Although additional data will hereafter be obtained and many new and +important facts be brought to light, yet, as I believe, sufficient +evidence has been collected (though much of it remains unpublished) to +indicate what will be the final result so far as this general question +is concerned. + +We see that already the theory that these remains scattered over the +face of our country from Dakota to Florida and from New York to +Louisiana were the work of one people, one great nation, is fast +breaking down before the evidence that is being produced. + +The following quotation from the last report of the Peabody Museum, +which is repeated in substance in Science, June 27, 1884, p. 775, will +serve not only to indicate the conflict which is going on in the minds +of some of our most active and progressive archæologists on this +subject, but also to show the difficulty of finding applicable and +well-defined terms, and of clearly stating the real question at issue: + + The different periods to which the various mounds and burial + places belong can only be made out by such a series of + explorations as the museum is now conducting in the Little + Miami Valley, and when they are completed we shall be better + able to answer the question, "Who were the mound-builders?" + than we are now. That more than one of the several American + stocks or nations or groups of tribes built mounds seems to me + to be established. What their connections were is not yet by + any means made clear, and to say that they all must have been + one and the same people seems to be making a statement directly + contrary to the facts, which are yearly increasing as the spade + and pick in careful hands bring them to light. That many Indian + tribes built mounds and earthworks is beyond doubt, but that + all the mounds and earthworks of North America were made by + these same tribes or their immediate ancestors is not thereby + proved. + + Mr. Carr, in his recent paper published by the Kentucky + Geological Survey, has taken up the historical side of the + question, but it must not be received for more than he + intended. He only shows from historical data what the spade and + pick have disclosed to the archæologist. It is simply one side + of the shield; the other is still waiting to be turned to the + light; and as history will not help us to read the reverse, + only patient and careful exploration will bring out its + meaning.[43] + +This, it is true, is but an incidental paragraph thrown into a report of +the work of the museum, but I have selected it as the latest expression +on this subject by one of our most active and practical American +archæologists, and because it will furnish a basis for the remarks I +desire to make on this subject. + +In order that the reader may clearly understand the particular points to +which I shall call attention, I will introduce here a brief review of +the leading opinions so far presented regarding the authorship of these +ancient works. + +It was not until about the close of the eighteenth century that the +scientific men of the Eastern States became fully impressed with the +fact that remarkable antiquities were to be found in our country. + +About this time President Stiles, of New Haven, Dr. Franklin, Dr. +Barton, and a few other leading minds of that day, becoming thoroughly +convinced of the existence of these antiquities, and having received +descriptions of a number of them, began to advance theories as to their +origin. William Bartram had come to the conclusion, from personal +observation and from the statement of the Indians that "they knew +nothing of their origin," that they belonged to the most distant +antiquity. + +Dr. Franklin, in reply to the inquiry of President Stiles, suggested +that the works in Ohio might have been constructed by De Soto in his +wanderings. This suggestion was followed up by Noah Webster with an +attempt to sustain it,[44] but he afterwards abandoned this position +and attributed these works to Indians. + +Captain Heart, in reply to the inquiries addressed to him by Dr. Barton, +gives his opinion that the works could not have been constructed by De +Soto and his followers, but belonged to an age preceding the discovery +of America by Columbus; that they were not due to the Indians or their +predecessors, but to a people not altogether in an uncultivated state, +as they must have been under the subordination of law and a +well-governed police.[45] + +This is probably the first clear and distinct expression of a view which +has subsequently obtained the assent of so many of the leading writers +on American archæology. + +About the commencement of the nineteenth century two new and important +characters appear on the stage of American archæology. These are Bishop +Madison, of Virginia, and Rev. Thaddeus M. Harris, of Massachusetts. + +Dr. Haven, to whose work we are indebted for reference to several of the +facts above stated, remarks: + + These two gentlemen are among the first who, uniting + opportunities of personal observation to the advantages of + scientific culture, imparted to the public their impressions of + western antiquities. They represent the two classes of + observers whose opposite views still divide the sentiment of + the country; one class seeing no evidence of art beyond what + might be expected of existing tribes, with the simple + difference of a more numerous population, and consequently + better defined and more permanent habitations; the other + finding proofs of skill and refinement, to be explained, as + they believe, only on the supposition that a superior race, or + more probably a people of foreign and higher civilization, once + occupied the soil.[46] + +Bishop Madison was the representative of the first class. Dr. Harris +represented that section of the second class maintaining the opinion +that the mound-builders were Toltecs, who after leaving this region +moved south into Mexico. + +As we find the principal theories which are held at the present day on +this subject substantially set forth in these authorities, it is +unnecessary to follow up the history of the controversy except so far as +is required to notice the various modifications of the two leading +opinions. + +Those holding the opinion that the Indians were not the authors of these +works, although agreeing as to this point and hence included in one +class, differ widely among themselves as to the people to whom they are +to be ascribed, one section, of which, as we have seen, Dr. Harris may +be considered the pioneer, holding that they were built by the Toltecs, +who, as they supposed, occupied the Mississippi Valley previous to their +appearance in the vale of Anahuac. + +Among the more recent advocates of this theory are Mr. John T. Short, +author of "The North Americans of Antiquity;"[47] Dr. Dawson, in his +"Fossil Man," who accepts the tradition respecting the Tallegwi, but +identifies them with the Toltecs; Rev. J. P. MacLean, author of the +"Mound Builders" and Dr. Joseph Jones, in his "Antiquities of +Tennessee." + +Wilson, in his "Prehistoric Man,"[48] modifies this view somewhat, +looking to the region south of Mexico for the original home of the +Toltecs, and deriving the Aztecs from the mound-builders. + +Another section of this class includes those who, although rejecting the +idea of an Indian origin, are satisfied with simply designating the +authors of these works a "lost race," without following the inquiry into +the more uncertain field of racial, national, or ethnical relations. To +this type belong a large portion of the recent authors of short articles +and brief reports on American archæology, and quite a number of diligent +workers in this field whose names are not before the world as authors. + +Baldwin believes that the mound-builders were Toltecs, but thinks they +came originally from Mexico or farther south, and, occupying the Ohio +Valley and the Gulf States, probably for centuries, were at the last +driven southward by an influx of barbarous hordes from the more northern +regions, and appeared again in Mexico.[49] Bradford, thirty years +previous to this, had suggested Mexico as their original home.[50] Lewis +H. Morgan, on the other hand, supposes that the authors of these remains +came from the Pueblo tribes of New Mexico. Dr. Foster[51] agrees +substantially with Baldwin. We might include in this class a number of +extravagant hypotheses, such as those held by Haywood, Rafinesque, and +others among the older, as well as by a few of the more recent authors. + +The opposite class, holding that the mound-builders were the ancestors +of some one or more of the modern tribes of Indians, or of those found +inhabiting the country at the time of its discovery, numbers +comparatively few leading authorities among its advocates; in other +words, the followers of Bishop Madison are far less numerous than the +followers of Dr. Harris. The differences between the advocates of this +view are of minor importance, and only appear when the investigation is +carried one step further back and the attempt is made to designate the +particular tribe, nation, people, or ethnic family to which they +appertained. + +The traditions of the Delawares, as given by Heckewelder, in his +"History of the Indian Nations," having brought upon the stage the +Tallegwi, they are made to play a most important part in the +speculations of those inclined to the theory of an Indian origin. As +this tradition agrees very well with a number of facts brought to light +by antiquarian and philological researches, it has had considerable +influence in shaping the conclusions even of those who are not professed +believers in it. + +One of the ablest early advocates of the Indian origin of these works +was Dr. McCulloch; and his conclusions, based as they were on the +comparatively slender data then obtainable, are remarkable not only for +the clearness with which they are stated and the distinctness with which +they are defined, but as being more in accordance with all the facts +ascertained than perhaps those of any contemporary. + +Samuel G. Drake, Schoolcraft, and Sir John Lubbock were also disposed to +ascribe these ancient works to the Indians. But the most recent advocate +of this view is Prof. Lucien Carr, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, who has +presented, in a recent paper entitled "The Mounds of the Mississippi +Valley historically considered" (contained in the Memoirs of the +Kentucky Geological Survey), a very strong array of historical evidence +going to show not only that the Indian tribes at the time of the +discovery were capable of producing these works, but also that several +of the tribes were in the habit of erecting mounds. + +But it is proper that we should mention an article by Dr. D. G. Brinton +in the October number, 1881, of the American Antiquarian, bearing upon +the same subject, in which considerable historical evidence tending to +the same conclusion is given. These two papers may justly be considered +the commencement of a rediscussion of this question, in which the +Indians, after a long exclusion, will be readmitted as a possible factor +in the problem. + +The reader will observe from the foregoing brief review that the +opinions regarding the authors of the mounds--or, as Dr. Brinton +expresses it, "the nationality of the mound-builders"--as heretofore +given to the world, may be divided into two classes--those holding that +the builders were "Indians," and those holding that they were not +"Indians." But the paragraph we have quoted from the Report of the +Peabody Museum introduces other considerations, which render it +necessary not only to define the terms used but to restate the question +at issue in a more exact and definite form. + +What mounds? What earth works? The authority quoted remarks, "That many +Indian tribes built mounds and earthworks is beyond doubt, but that _all +the mounds and earthworks of North America_ were made by _these same +tribes_ or their immediate ancestors is not thereby proved." + +That the term "mound-builders" is as applicable to the people who +constructed the mounds of Siberia, Japan, or elsewhere as those who +built the tumuli of the Mississippi Valley must be admitted, but the +term, when used in this country with reference to the mounds of this +country, has, as is well known, been generally understood to include +only those found in that part of the United States east of the Rocky +Mountains unless otherwise stated; and Mr. Carr's paper, to which +allusion is made in the next sentence of the quotation, is expressly +limited to the "mounds of the Mississippi Valley." North America is +therefore a broader field than is generally understood by those who +enter upon the discussion, and I may add that "these same tribes," +unless with explicit definition, is a limitation claimed by no one. + +The term "Indian" is so indefinite and so variously applied that more or +less uncertainty must ensue unless the writer discussing this question +makes clear the sense in which he uses it. It was probably an +appreciation of this fact that caused the author of the report referred +to to make use of the terms "American stocks," "nations," and "groups of +tribes." We can fully appreciate the difficulty he and all others +writing upon this subject experience from the want of an adequate and +definite nomenclature that is applicable. But his expansions in one +direction and limitations in another, in the paragraph quoted, as it +seems to me, have left the statement of the question in worse confusion +than it was before. + +In what sense does he use the terms "Indians," "Indian tribes," +"American stocks," and "groups of tribes"? Are the cultured Central +American and Mexican nations and the Pueblo tribes to be included or +excluded? Professor Carr evidently proceeds upon the idea that they are +to be excluded, and that the mounds and other ancient works of the +Mississippi Valley are to be attributed to one or more of the American +stocks found in possession of this region at the time of its discovery +by Europeans. + +This I believe to be the correct view, except in this: Professor Carr +fails to clear his work of the idea of one people, one stock, when the +evidence is conclusive that the mound-builders were divided into tribes +and stocks, as were the Indians when first encountered by the whites. +Hence when I use the terms "Indians," "Indian tribes," and "American +stocks" in this connection, they are to be understood as thus limited. + +I do not claim that this use of these terms is correct, but it is not my +intention at present to discuss the question "What is the proper use of +the indefinite term _Indian_?" My only object in referring to it and the +other equivalent terms is to explain the sense in which I use them in +this connection, because I can find no better ones. + +As thus limited the question for discussion maybe stated as follows: + +Were all the mounds and other ancient works found in that part of the +United States east of the Rocky Mountains (except such as are manifestly +the work of Europeans of post-Columbian times) built by the Indians +found in possession of this region at the time of its discovery and +their ancestors, or are they in part to be attributed to other more +civilized races or peoples, as the Aztecs, Toltecs, Pueblo tribes, or +some lost race of which we possess no historical mention? I say in part, +as it has long been conceded, that some of these works are to be +attributed to the Indians. + +If it can be shown that some of the mounds and other works of all the +different types and classes found in the Mississippi Valley and Gulf +States were built by Indians, or even that they were built by people in +the same stage of culture and art and having the same customs and habits +as the Indians of this region in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, +we shall be justified in concluding that the rest are the work of the +same race and of the same tribes, or those, closely allied in habits, +customs, art, and culture. That here and there a single mound-building +tribe may have become extinct or absorbed into other tribes in +pre-Columbian times, as has been the fate of some since the discovery of +the continent, does not alter the case, unless it be claimed that such +tribes belonged to different "American stocks" and had reached a higher +degree of culture than those found in this part of the continent at the +time of the arrival of the Europeans. + +No one believes that we will ever be able to ascertain the history of +the construction of each mound and earthwork; the utmost to be hoped is +that we may be able to determine with satisfactory certainty that such +and such works were built by such and such tribes. + +But one step in the investigation is to reach the general conclusion as +to whether all classes of these remains in the region designated may +justly be attributed to the Indians, or whether there are some types +which must be ascribed to a different race, to a people that had +attained a higher position in the scale of civilization than the +Indians. This it is possible to accomplish, without being able to +determine conclusively what tribe erected any particular work. + +Nevertheless the conclusion will be strengthened by every proof that the +works of certain sections are to be ascribed to certain tribes or +stocks. It is for this reason that I propose to discuss somewhat briefly +the question of the probable authorship of the works in the Appalachian +district. + + + + +THE CHEROKEES PROBABLY MOUND-BUILDERS. + + +In 1876, Prof. Lucien Carr, assistant curator of the Peabody Museum, +opened a mound in Lee County, Virginia, in which he made certain +discoveries which, with the form of the mound and the historical data, +led him to the conclusion that it was the work of the Cherokees. + +This monument, as he informs us, was a truncated oval, the level space +on the top measuring 40 feet in length by 15 in width. + + At the distance of 8 feet from the brow of the mound, on the + slope, there were found buried in the earth the decaying stumps + of a series of cedar posts, which I was informed by Mr. Ely + [the owner] at one time completely encircled it. He also told + me that at every plowing he struck more or less of these posts, + and, on digging for them, some six or seven were found at + different places, and in such order as showed that they had + been placed in the earth at regular intervals and according to + a definite plan. On the top, in the line of the greatest + diameter and near the center of the mound, another and a larger + post or column, also of cedar, was found.[52] + +Quoting Bartram's description (given below) of the council house of the +Cherokees in the town of Cowe, he concludes, and I think correctly, that +this mound was the site of a similar building. + +Bartram's description is as follows:[53] + + The Council or Town House is a large rotunda, capable of + accommodating several hundred people. It stands on the top of + an ancient artificial mount of earth of about 20 feet + perpendicular and the rotunda on the top of it, being above 30 + feet more, gives the whole fabric an elevation of about 60 feet + from the common surface of the ground. But it may be proper to + observe that this mount on which the rotunda stands is of a + much ancienter date than the building, and perhaps was raised + for another purpose. The Cherokees themselves are as ignorant + as we are by what people or for what purpose these artificial + hills were raised. * * * + + The rotunda is constructed after the following manner: They + first fix in the ground a circular range of posts or trunks of + trees, about 6 feet high, at equal distances, which are notched + at top to receive into them, from one to another, a range of + beams or wall plates. Within this is another circular order of + very large and strong pillars, above 12 feet high, notched in + like manner at top to receive another range of wall plates, and + within this is yet another or third range of stronger and + higher pillars, but fewer in number, and standing at a greater + distance from each other; and, lastly, in the center stands a + very strong pillar, which forms the pinnacle of the building, + and to which the rafters center at top; these rafters are + strengthened and bound together by cross-beams and laths, which + sustain the roof or covering, which is a layer of bark neatly + placed and tight enough to exclude the rain, and sometimes they + cast a thin superficies of earth over all. + + There is but one large door, which serves at the same time to + admit light from without and the smoke to escape when a fire is + kindled; but as there is but a small fire kept, sufficient to + give light at night, and that fed with dry, small, sound wood, + divested of its bark, there is but little smoke; all around the + inside of the building, betwixt the second range of pillars and + the wall, is a range of cabins or sophas consisting of two or + three steps, one above or behind the other, in theatrical + order, where the assembly sit or lean down; these sophas are + covered with mats or carpets very curiously made with thin + splits of ash or oak woven or platted together; near the great + pillar in the center the fire is kindled for light, near which + the musicians seat themselves, and around about this the + performers exhibit their dances and other shows at public + festivals, which happen almost every night throughout the year. + +From indications, not necessary to be mentioned here, Professor Carr +argues that the mound could not have been intended for burial purposes, +but was evidently erected for the foundation of a building of some kind. + +In a subsequent paper,[54] "Mounds of the Mississippi Valley," he not +only adheres to the theory advanced in the tenth report of the Peabody +Museum, but gives additional reasons for believing it to be true. + +Although guided by very dim and feeble rays of light I am nevertheless +inclined to believe that Professor Carr has succeeded in entering the +pathway that is to lead to a correct solution of the problem in this +case. As is apparent from what has been given in this paper regarding +the burial mounds of this district, much additional data bearing on the +point have been obtained since Professor Carr's explorations were made, +on which he bases his conclusions. + +The Cherokee tribe has long been a puzzling factor to students of +ethnology and North American languages. Whether to be considered an +abnormal offshoot from one of the well-known Indian stocks or families +of North America, or the remnant of some undetermined or almost extinct +family which has merged into another, appear to be questions yet +unsettled; but they are questions which do not trouble us in the present +inquiry; on the contrary, their ethnic isolation and tribal +characteristics are aids in the investigation. + +That the internal arrangement of the mounds, modes of burial, and +vestiges of art of this district present sufficient peculiarities to +distinguish them from the mounds, modes of burial, and vestiges of art +of all the other districts, as I have already stated, will be conceded +by any one who will carefully study them and make the comparison. If, +therefore, it be admitted, as stated, that the Cherokees are a somewhat +peculiar people, an abnormal tribe, we have in this a coincidence worthy +of note, if strengthened by corroborating testimony. + +As the mounds and other remains to be referred to are located in the +northwest part of North Carolina and the northern part of East +Tennessee, the first point to be established is that the Cherokees did +actually, at some time, occupy this region. + +In the first place, it is well known that they claimed all that portion +of the country east of Clinch River to and including the northwest part +of North Carolina, at least to the Yadkin, a claim which was conceded by +the whites and acted on officially by State and national authority and +denied by no Indian tribe. + +Haywood expressly states that[55]-- + + the Cherokees were firmly established on the Tennessee River or + Hogohega [the Holston] before the year 1650, and had dominion + over all the country on the east side of the Alleghany + Mountains, which includes the headwaters of the Yadkin, + Catawba, Broad River, and the headwaters of the Savannah-- + +a statement borne out by the fact that, as late as 1756, when the +English built Fort Dobbs on the Yadkin, not far from Salisbury, they +first obtained the privilege of doing so by treaty with Attacullaculla, +the Cherokee chief.[56] + +Haywood asserts,[57] upon what authority is not known, that-- + + before the year 1690 the Cherokees, who were once settled on + the Appomattox River, in the neighborhood of Monticello, left + their former abodes and came to the west. The Powhatans are + said by their descendants to have been once a part of this + nation. The probability is that migration took place about, or + soon after, the year 1632, when the Virginians suddenly and + unexpectedly fell upon the Indians, killing all they could + find, cutting up and destroying their crops, and causing great + numbers to perish by famine. They came to New River and made a + temporary settlement, and also on the head of the Holston. + +That they formerly had settlements on New River (Upper Kanawha) and on +the Holston is, as I believe, true, but that they came from the vicinity +of Monticello and the Appomattox River, were connected with the +Powhatans, or first appeared in Tennessee in 1632, cannot be believed. +First, because Jefferson makes no mention of their occupancy of this +part of Virginia; on the contrary, he locates them in the "western part +of North Carolina." Secondly, because John Lederer, who visited this +region in 1669-'70, speaking of the Indians of the "Apalatean +Mountains," doubtless the Cherokees, as he was at that time somewhere in +western North Carolina, says: "The Indians of these parts are none of +those which the English removed from Virginia; these were far more rude +and barbarous, feeding only upon raw flesh and fish, until these taught +them to sow corn and showed them the use of it."[58] Thirdly, because +it is evident that they were located in substantially the same territory +when De Soto passed through the northern part of Georgia, as it is now +admitted that the "Chelaques" or "Achalaques" mentioned by the +chroniclers of his ill-starred expedition were the Cherokees. That they +extended their territory a considerable distance farther southward after +the time of the Adelantado's visit can be easily demonstrated, but it is +unnecessary for me to present the proof of this assertion at this time, +as I presume it will be admitted. + +Their traditions in regard to their migrations are uncertain and +somewhat conflicting, still there are a few items to be gleaned from +them, which, I think, may be relied upon as pointing in the proper +direction. The first is, the positive statement that they formerly had a +settlement, or were settled on or near the Nolichucky; the second is, +that they were driven from some more northern section by their enemies; +and third, their constant and persistent claim that, of right, the +country about the headwaters of the Holston and eastward into North +Carolina belonged to them. + +From all the light, therefore, that I can obtain on this subject, I am +satisfied the Cherokees had at some time in the past moved southward +from a more northern location than that which they were found occupying +when first encountered by the whites. This corresponds with one of their +traditions given by Haywood, that they formerly dwelt on the Ohio and +built the mounds there. That they did at one time actually occupy the +section in which the mounds we allude to are situated cannot be doubted. + +Turning now to the mounds of East Tennessee and North Carolina, to which +allusion has been made, let us see what testimony they furnish on the +point now under discussion. + +The particular works to which we refer are those located in Caldwell +County, North Carolina, and Sullivan County, East Tennessee, +descriptions of which have been given. + +Although we cannot say positively that no other tribe occupied this +particular section between 1540 and 1690, still the evidence and +indications leading to that conclusion are so strong as to justify us in +assuming it. We find their frontiers on the borders of Georgia in 1540; +we can trace back their settlements on the Hiawassee to a period +preceding 1652. We have evidence that the settlements on the Little +Tennessee were still older, and that even these were made subsequent to +those on the Nolichucky. We have their own tradition, as given by +Lederer, that they migrated to this region about the close of the +thirteenth century from a more northern section; and, finally, their +uniform and persistent statement, from the time first encountered by +Europeans, that when they came to this region they found it uninhabited, +with the exception of a Creek settlement on the lower Hiawassee. This +clearly indicates a movement southward, a fact of much importance in the +study of this somewhat abnormal tribe. + +If, therefore, we can show that these mounds, or any of the typical +ones, were constructed since the discovery of America, we have good +reason to believe that they are to be attributed to the Cherokees, +notwithstanding their statement to Bartram that they did not build the +one at Cowe. + +At the bottom of one of the largest mounds found in this region, the T. +F. Nelson triangle heretofore described, and by the side of the skeleton +of the principal personage interred in it, as shown by the arrangement +of the bodies of those buried with him, and by the ornaments and +implements found with him, were discovered three pieces of iron. That +one of the pieces, at least, is part of an implement of European +manufacture, I think no one who examines it will doubt (see Fig. 31). It +appears to be part of a sword blade or the blade of a large knife. +Another of the pieces is apparently a large awl or punch, a part of the +deer-horn handle yet remaining attached to it. A chemical examination +made by Professor Clarke, chemist of the United States Geological +Survey, shows that these were not made of meteoric iron. + +That these cannot be attributed to an intrusive burial is evident from +the following facts: _First_, they were found at the very bottom of the +pit, which had been dug before depositing the bodies; _second_, they +were found with engraved shells, celts, and other relics of this +character; and _third_, they were deposited with the principal personage +who had been buried in the mound. + +In the same mound and under the same circumstances some large copper +beads or cylinders were also found. A careful examination of these +specimens shows, as I think very clearly, that the copper plate of which +they were made was not manufactured by any means at the command of the +Indians or the more civilized races of Mexico or Central America, as it +is as smooth and even as any rolled copper; moreover, the beads appear +to have been cut into the proper shape by some metallic instrument. If +this supposition be correct (and I believe an inspection of the +specimens will satisfy any one that it is), it certainly indicates +contact with civilized people. If so, then we have positive proof that +this mound was made subsequent to the discovery of America by Columbus +and in all probability after the date of De Soto's expedition in 1540. + +As I have shown that the Cherokees alone inhabited this particular +section from the time of De Soto's expedition until it was settled by +the whites, it follows that if the mound was built subsequent to that +date it must have been by the Cherokees. The nearest neighbors of this +tribe on the east, at the time the whites came in contact with them, +were the Tuscaroras. We learn from John Lederer, who visited them in +1670, on his return from the Cherokee country, that they were in the +habit of "decking themselves very fine with pieces of bright copper in +their hair and ears and about their neck, which, upon festival +occasions, they use as an extraordinary bravery."[59] While it is well +known that these two tribes were brought into contact with each other +through being constantly at war, until the latter removed to the north +and joined the Five Nations, it is more likely that these articles of +European workmanship were obtained chiefly from the Spaniards, who, as +is now known, worked the gold mines in northern Georgia at an early +date. We learn from Barcia's "Ensayo Cronologico"[60] that Tristan de +Luna, who, in 1559, went in search of the mines of "Coza" (the name by +which the region of northern Georgia was then known), succeeded in +reaching the region sought, and even heard, while there, of the negro +Robles, who was left behind by De Soto. When John Lederer reached the +borders of Georgia the Spaniards were then at work at these mines, which +fact, as he informs us, checked his further advance, as he feared he +might be made a captive by them. As further and conclusive evidence of +this, we have only to state that the remains of their cabins in the +vicinity of the mines were found in 1834 with trees from 2 to 3 feet in +diameter growing over them. The old shafts were discovered in which they +worked, as also some of the machinery they used.[61] Be this supposition +correct or not, if the articles we have mentioned were of European +workmanship, or if the material was obtained of civilized people, we +must take for granted, until evidence to the contrary is produced, that +the mound in which they were found was built after the commencement of +the sixteenth century, hence by Indians, and in all probability by the +Cherokees. + +Our next argument is the discovery in the ancient works of this region +of evidences that the habits and customs of the builders were similar to +those of the Cherokees and some of the immediately surrounding tribes. + +I have already alluded to the evidence found in the mound opened by +Professor Carr, that it had once supported a building similar to the +council house observed by Bartram on a mound at the old Cherokee town, +Cowe. Both were on mounds, both were circular, both were built on posts +set in the ground at equal distances from each other, and each had a +central pillar. + +As confirming this statement of Bartram, we are informed in Ramsey's +Annals of Tennessee[62] that when Colonel Christian marched against the +Cherokee towns, in 1776, he found in the center of each "a circular +tower rudely built and covered with dirt, 30 feet in diameter, and about +20 feet high. This tower was used as a council house and as a place for +celebrating the green-corn dance and other national ceremonials." +Lawson, who traveled through North Carolina in 1700, says:[63] "They +[the Indians] oftentimes make of this shell [alluding to a certain large +sea shell] a sort of gorge, which they wear about their neck in a +string, so it hangs on their collar, whereon is sometimes engraven a +cross or some odd sort of figure which comes next in their fancy." +Beverly, speaking of the Indians of Virginia, says:[64] "Of this shell +they also make round tablets of about 4 inches in diameter, which they +polish as smooth as the other, and sometimes they etch or grave thereon +circles, stars, a half-moon, or any other figure, suitable to their +fancy." + +Now it so happens that, in the same mound in which the iron specimens +before alluded to were found, and in other mounds in the same section, +the Bureau assistants discovered shell ornaments precisely of the +character described by these old writers. Some of them were smooth and +without any devices engraved on them, but with holes for inserting the +strings by which they were to be held in position; others were engraved +with figures which would readily be taken for stars and half-moons, and +one among the number had a cross engraved on it. The testimony in this +case that these relics were the work of the Indians found in possession +of the country at the time of the discovery is, therefore, too strong to +be put aside by mere conjectures or inferences. If the work of the +Indians, then they must have been used by the Cherokees and buried with +their dead. The engraved figures are strangely uniform, indicating some +common origin, but the attempt to trace this is foreign to our present +purpose. In these mounds were found a large number of nicely carved +soapstone pipes, usually with the stem made in connection with the bowl, +though some were without this addition, consisting only of the bowl, +with a hole for the insertion of a cane or wooden stem. + +By turning to Adair's "History of the North American Indians,"[65] we +find the following statement: + + They [the Indians] make beautiful stone pipes, and the + Cherokees the best of any of the Indians, for their mountainous + country contains many different sorts and colors of soils + proper for such uses. They easily form them with their + tomahawks, and afterwards finish them in any desired form with + their knives, the pipes being of a very soft quality till they + are smoked with and used with the fire, when they become quite + hard. They are often a full span long, and the bowls are about + half as long again as those of our English pipes. The fore part + of each commonly runs out, with a sharp peak two or three + fingers broad and a quarter of an inch thick. + +Not only were pipes made of soapstone found in these mounds, but two or +three were obtained precisely of the form mentioned by Adair, with the +fore part running out in front of the bowl; and another of the same form +has been found in a mound on the Kanawha, which is at least suggestive. +Jones says:[66] + + It has been more than hinted by at least one person whose + statement is entitled to every belief, that among the Cherokees + dwelling in the mountains there existed certain artists whose + professed occupation was the manufacture of stone pipes, which + were by them transported to the coast and there bartered away + for articles of use and ornament foreign to and highly esteemed + among the members of their own tribe. + +This not only strengthens our conclusion, drawn from the presence of +such pipes in the mounds alluded to, but may also assist in explaining +the presence of the copper ornaments in them. The writer last quoted +says:[67] + + Copper implements are rarely found in Georgia. The present [a + copper ax] is the finest specimen which, after no mean search, + has rewarded our investigations. Native copper exists in + portions of Cherokee Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and + Alabama, but it is generally found in combination with sulphur + and not in malleable form. We are not aware of any locality + among those enumerated whence the Indians could have secured + that metal either in quantity or purity sufficient to have + enabled them to manufacture this implement. + +Adair says:[68] + + From the time we supplied them with our European ornaments they + have used brass and silver ear-rings and finger-rings; the + young warriors now frequently fasten bell-buttons or pieces of + tinkling brass to their moccasins. + +From these facts I am inclined to believe that most of the copper used +by them was obtained directly or indirectly from the whites, and hence +subsequent to the discovery of America. But should this supposition be +erroneous, the fact still remains that the Cherokees were in the habit +of using just such ornaments as we find in these mounds. + +As showing that the Europeans began to trade copper to the Indians at a +very early day, I call attention to a statement made by Beverly in his +"History of Virginia."[69] Speaking of a settlement made at Powhatan, +six miles below the falls of James River, in 1609, he says it was +"bought of Powhatan for a certain quantity of copper." + +By reference to Smith's History and the narratives of the early +explorers we find that the amount of sheet copper traded to the Indians +and taken by them from wrecks was quite large. + +But we are not yet through with the items under this class of +testimony. + +Haywood, in his "Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee,"[70] says: + + Mr. Brown, a Scotchman, came into the Cherokee Nation, in the + year 1761 and settled on the Hiawassee River or near it. He saw + on the Hiawassee and Tennessee the remains of old forts, about + which were axes, guns, hoes, and other metallic utensils. The + Indians at that time told him that the French had formerly been + there and built these forts. + +I am fully aware that this author indulges in some extravagant +speculations; still, so far as I have tested his original statements I +have generally found them correct. During the year 1883 one of the +assistants of the Bureau was sent to this particular region, which is +too limited to allow the question of locality to be raised. An overflow +and a change in the channel of the river brought to light the remains of +old habitations and numerous relics of the people who formerly dwelt +there. Moreover, this was in the precise locality where tradition +located a Cherokee town. Digging was resorted to in order to complete +what the water had begun. + +Now let me mention some of the things obtained here: + +Ten discoidal stones, precisely like those from the mounds of Caldwell +County, North Carolina. + +Nine strings of glass beads. + +A large number of shell beads exactly like those from the mounds. + +A number of flint arrow-points. + +One soapstone pipe. + +Some pieces of smooth sheet-copper. + +Three conical copper ear-pendants. + +Three buttons of modern type. + +One small brass gouge. + +Fragments of iron articles belonging to a bridle. + +One bronze sleigh-bell. + +One stone awl or drill. + +Fragment of a soapstone pot. + +One soapstone gorget. + +Several polished stone celts of the same pattern as those found in the +North Carolina mounds. + +Grooved stone axes. + +A piece of sheet lead. + +This admixture of articles of civilized and savage life confirms the +statement made by Haywood, at least so far as regards the early presence +of white people in this section. It follows from what has been presented +that the Indians must have been Cherokees, and the fact that the +implements and ornaments of aboriginal manufacture found here are +throughout precisely like those found in the mounds before mentioned +affords a very strong proof that they were built by the Cherokees. + +It is worthy of notice that close by the side of this washout stands a +mound. Permission to open it has not yet been obtained. + +Returning to our mounds, we note that a large number of stones, +evidently used for cracking nuts, were found in and about them; some +charred acorns, or nuts of some kind, were also found in them. We have +only to refer to Adair and other early writers to see how well the +indications agree with the customs of the Cherokees. + +According to the Cherokee tradition, they found a settlement of Creeks +on the Lower Hiawassee, when they reached that region, and drove them +away. Ramsay expresses the opinion in his Annals of Tennessee, on what +authority is not known, that this was a Uchee settlement. Hence the +southern boundary of their possessions, at this early date, which must +have been before the time of De Soto's expedition, was about the present +northern boundary of Georgia. That their borders, at the time of De +Soto's march, extended into northeastern Georgia is proved by the +chroniclers of his expedition, but that they did not reach as far south +as Bartow County can be shown from one somewhat singular circumstance, +which, at the same time, will furnish strong reasons for believing that +the authors of the works immediately south of this boundary could not +have built the mounds we have been considering. + +It will be admitted, I presume, by every one, that the people over whom +the famous cacique of Cutifachiqui reigned could not have been +Cherokees; yet her territory included Xuala, probably in Nacoochee +valley, and extended westward well toward Guaxule on the headwaters of +the Coosa, but that the latter was not within the territory of her tribe +is expressly stated by Garcilasso de la Vega. I think it may be safely +assumed that her people were Creeks; and, if so, that the people of +Guaxule, who, as we judge from the chroniclers of De Soto's expedition, +were mound-builders, belonged to another distinct tribe. + +Garcilasso, who is our authority in reference to the first point now to +be considered, says: + + La casa estava en un cerro alto, como de otras semejantes hemos + dicho. Tenia toda ella al derredor un paseadero que podian + pasearse por el seis hombres juntos.[71] The house was on a + high hill (mound) similar to others we have already mentioned. + It had all round about it a roadway on which six men could walk + abreast. + +This language is peculiar, and, so far as I am aware, can apply to no +other mound in Georgia than the large one near Cartersville. The words +"similar to others we have mentioned," are evidently intended to signify +that it was artificial, and this is conceded by all who have noted the +passage. The word "alto" (high), in the mouth of the explorers, +indicates something more elevated than the ordinary mounds. The roadway +or passageway (paseadero) "round about it" is peculiar, and is the only +mention of the kind by either of the three chroniclers. How is it to be +explained? + +As Garcilasso wrote from information and not from personal observation +he often failed to catch from his informants a correct notion of the +things described to him; this is frequently apparent in his work where +there is no reason to attribute it to his vivid imagination. In this +case it is clear he understood there was a terrace running entirely +around the mound, or possibly a roadway around the top outside of a +rampart or stockade. + +But as neither conclusion could have been correct, as no such terrace +has been found in any part of this region, and a walk around the summit +would have thwarted the very design they had in view in building the +mound, what was it Garcilasso's informants saw? C. C. Jones says "a +terrace," but it is scarcely possible that any terrace at the end or +side of a southern mound, forming an apron-like extension (which is the +only form found there), could have been so described as to convey the +idea of a roadway, as the mode of estimating the width shows clearly was +intended. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Large mound of Etowah group, Bartow County, +Georgia.] + +The broad way winding around and up the side of the Etowah mound (Fig. +39) appears to answer the description better than any other in Georgia. +It is a large mound, high, and one that would doubtless attract the +attention of the Spanish soldiers; its dimensions indicate that the +tribe by which it was built was strong in numbers and might easily send +forth five hundred warriors to greet the Spaniards. The locality is also +within the limits of De Soto's route as given by the best authorities; +and lastly, there is no other mound within the possible limits of his +route which will in any respect answer the description. As Garcillasso +must have learned of this mound from his informants, and has described +it according to the impression conveyed to his mind, we are justified in +accepting it as a statement of fact. I am, therefore, satisfied that the +work alluded to is none other than the Etowah mound near Cartersville, +Georgia, and that here we can point to the spot where the unfortunate +Adelantado rested his weary limbs and where the embassadors of the noted +cacique of Cutifachiqui delivered their final message. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Vertical section, small mound, same group.] + +Recently the smallest of the three large mounds of this group was opened +and carefully explored by Mr. Rogan, one of the Bureau assistants. As +the result will be of much interest to archæologists aside from the +question now under discussion, although belonging to the southern type +of burial mounds not discussed in this paper, I will venture to give a +description of its construction and contents as a means of comparison +and as also bearing somewhat on the immediate question under discussion. +This mound is the one marked _c_ in Jones's plate;[72] also _c_ in +Colonel Whittlesey's figure 2.[73] A vertical section of it is given +in Fig. 40. The measurements, as ascertained by Mr. Rogan, are as +follows: Average diameter at the base, 120 feet; diameter of the level +top, 60 feet; height above the original surface of the ground, 16 feet. +The form is more nearly that of a truncated cone than represented in the +figures alluded to. + +The construction was found, by very thorough excavation, to be as +follows: the entire surrounding slope (No. 4, Fig. 40) was of hard, +tough red clay, which could not have been obtained nearer than half a +mile; the cylindrical core, 60 feet in diameter and extending down to +the original surface of the ground, was composed of three horizontal +layers; the bottom layer (No. 1) 10 feet thick, of rich, dark, and +rather loose loam; the next (No. 2) 4 feet thick, of hard, beaten (or +tramped) clay, so tough and hard that it was difficult to penetrate it +even with a pick; and the uppermost (No. 3) of sand and surface soil +between 1 and 2 feet thick. A trench was dug from opposite sides to the +central core; and when the arrangement was ascertained, this central +portion was carefully explored to the original surface of the ground. + +Nothing was found in the layer of clay (No. 2) except a rude clay pipe, +some small shell beads, a piece of mica, and a chunkee stone. The +burials were all in the lower layer (No. 1), of dark rich loam, and +chiefly in stone cists or coffins of the usual box-shape, formed of +stone slabs, and distributed horizontally, as shown in Fig. 41, which is +a plan of this lower bed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Plan of burials in small mound.] + +According to Mr. Rogan's field-notes, the form and contents of these +graves and the mode of burial in them were as follows: + +Grave _a_, Fig. 41.--A stone sepulcher, 2-1/2 feet wide, 8 feet long, +and 2 feet deep, formed by placing steatite slabs on edge at the sides +and ends, and others across the top. The bottom consisted simply of +earth hardened by fire. It contained the remains of a single skeleton, +lying on its back, with the head east. The frame was heavy and about 7 +feet long. The head was resting on a thin copper plate, ornamented with +stamped figures; but the skull was crushed and the plate injured by +fallen slabs. Under the copper were the remains of a skin of some kind; +and under this, coarse matting, probably of split cane. The skin and +matting were both so rotten that they could be secured only in +fragments. At the left of the feet were two clay vessels, one a +water-bottle, and the other a very small vase. On the right of the feet +were some mussel and sea shells; and immediately under the feet two +conch-shells (_Busycon perversum_), partially filled with small shell +beads. Around each ankle was a strand of similar beads. The bones and +most of the shells were so far decomposed that they could not be saved. + +Grave _b_.--A stone sepulcher, 4-1/4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 1-1/2 +feet deep, differing from _a_ only in size and the fact that the bottom +was covered with stone slabs. The skeleton was extended on the back, +head east. On the forehead was a thin plate of copper, the only article +found. + +Grave _c_.--A stone sepulcher, 3-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 feet wide, and +1-1/2 deep; the bottom being formed of burnt earth. Although extending +east and west, as shown in the figure, the bones had probably been +interred without regard to order and disconnected, the head being found +in the northeast corner with face to the wall and the remaining portion +of the skeleton in a promiscuous heap. Yet there was no indication of +disturbance after burial as the coffin was intact. Between some of the +bones was found a thin plate of copper that had been formed by uniting +and riveting together smaller sections. Some of the bones found in this +grave were saved. + +Grave _d_.--A small sepulcher, 1-1/2 feet square by 1 foot deep, +contained the remains of an infant, also a few small shell beads. The +slabs forming the sides and bottom of this grave bore very distinct +marks of fire. + +Grave _e_.--Simply a headstone and footstone, with the skeleton of a +very small child between them; head east. On the wrists were some very +small shell beads. The earth on the north and south sides had been +hardened in order to form the walls. + +Grave _f_.--Stone sepulcher, 6 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 1-1/2 feet +deep, with stone in the bottom; skeleton with the head north. There was +a lot of copper about the head, which, together with the skeleton, was +wrapped in a skin. The head rested on a large conch-shell (_Busycon +perversum_), and this on the remains of a coarse mat. Shell beads were +found around the neck, each wrist, and ankle. On the right was a small +cup, and on the breast an engraved shell. The copper had preserved a +portion of the hair, which was saved; portions of the skin and matting +were also secured. + +Immediately under _b_ was another stone grave or coffin, 3 feet long, +1-1/2 feet wide, and as deep, extending north and south. The head of the +skeleton was toward the north, but the feet were doubled back under the +frame in order to get it in the allotted space. The only things found +with this skeleton were some beads around the neck. + +At _g_ the remains of a child were found without any stones about them. +Some shell beads were around the neck and wrists and an engraved shell +on the breast. + +Grave _h_.--A stone sepulcher, 1-1/2 feet square and 1 foot deep, stone +slabs on the four sides and top; the bottom consisted simply of earth +hardened by fire. This contained only a trace of bones and presented +indications of at least partial cremation, as all around the slabs, +outside and inside, was a solid mass of charcoal and the earth was +burned to the depth of a foot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Copper plate from Etowah mound, Georgia.] + +Grave _i_.--A stone sepulcher, 4-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 feet wide, and as +deep, the bottom earth; contained the remains of a skeleton resting on +the back, head north, and feet doubled back so as to come within the +coffin. On the breast was a thin plate of copper, five inches square, +with a hole through the center. Around the wrists were beads, and about +the neck rather more than a quart of the same. + +At _j_ were the remains of a small child, without stone surroundings; +under the head was a piece of copper, and about the neck and wrists were +shell beads. + +These graves were not all on the same level; the top of some being but +two feet below the clay bed (No. 2), while others were from two to three +feet lower. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Copper plate from Etowah mound, Georgia.] + +All the articles obtained in this mound were forwarded at once to the +Bureau of Ethnology and are now in the National Museum. Examining them +somewhat carefully since their reception, I find there are really more +copper plates among them than Mr. Rogan supposed, the number and +description being as follows: + +1. A human figure with wings, represented in Fig. 42. This is 13 inches +long and 9 inches wide. A portion of the lower part, as shown by the +figure, is wanting, probably some 3 or 4 inches. There is a break +across the middle, but not sufficient to interfere with tracing out the +design. A crown piece to the head ornament is also wanting. + +2. Also a human figure, shown in Fig. 43. Length, 16 inches; width, +7-1/2 inches. + +3. Figure of a bird; this is imperfect, as part of the head and the +outer margin of the wings are wanting. Length, 13-1/2 inches; width +7-1/2 inches. This plate shows indubitable evidence of having been +formed of smaller pieces welded together, as the overlapping portions +can be easily traced. It has also undergone repairs: a fracture +commencing on the left margin and running irregularly half-way across +the body has been mended by placing a strip of copper along it on the +under side and riveting it to the main plate; a small piece has also +been riveted to the head and the head to the body; several other pieces +are attached in the same way. The rivets are small and the work is +neatly done. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Copper badge, from Etowah mound, Georgia.] + +4. An ornament or badge of some kind, shown in Fig. 44. The two +crescent-shaped pieces are entirely plain, except some slightly +impressed lines on the portion connecting them with the central stem. +This central stem, throughout its entire length and to the width of +six-tenths of an inch, is raised, and cross strips are placed at various +points along the under side for the purpose of inserting a slip of bone, +a part of which yet remains in it, and is seen in the figure at the +break immediately below the point where the oblique strips meet. This +specimen presents, as I believe, indubitable evidence that the workmen +who formed it made use of metallic tools, as the cutting in this case +could not possibly have been done with anything except a metallic +implement. A single glance at it is sufficient to satisfy any one of the +truth of this assertion. Length of the stem, 9 inches; width across the +crescents, 7-1/2 inches. + +5. Part of an ornament similar to No. 4. These plates, especially No. 4, +appear to be enlarged patterns of that seen behind the head of Fig. 43. + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Copper badge, from Etowah mound, Georgia.] + +6. An ornament or badge, shown in Fig. 45, which Mr. Rogan, when he +found it under the head of the skeleton in grave _a_, was inclined to +consider a crown. It is imperfect, a narrow strip across the middle and +a portion of the tip being missing. As shown in the figure, it measures +around the outer border 19 inches and across the broad end 3-1/2 inches. +The six holes at the larger end, in which the remains of strings can be +detected, indicate that when in use it was attached to some portion of +the dress or fastened on a staff. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Engraved shell from Etowah mound, Georgia.] + +7. A fragment from the larger end of a piece similar to the preceding. +Attached to this is a piece of cloth. + +In addition to the foregoing, there are a number of small fragments +probably broken from these plates, but, so far, I have been unable to +fit them to their proper places. + +These plates and the ones mentioned below are very thin, and as even and +smooth (except as interrupted by the figures) as tin plate. The figures +are all stamped, the lines and indentations being very sharp and +regular. + +An examination of what Mr. Rogan calls a skin shows beyond question that +it is animal matter. The matting he speaks of appears to be made of +split canes. + +The shell represented in Fig. 46 is the one obtained in grave _g_. The +one shown in Fig. 47 is that found in grave _f_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Engraved shell from Etowah mound, Georgia.] + +I shall at present simply call attention to one or two facts which +appear to bear upon the age and distribution of these singular +specimens of art. + +First. We notice the fact alluded to by Mr. Holmes,[74] which is +apparent to every one who inspects his accurately drawn figures, that in +all their leading features the designs themselves are suggestive of +Mexican or Central American work. Yet a close inspection brings to light +one or two features which are anomalies in Mexican or Central American +designs; as, for example, in Figs. 42 and 43, where the wings are +represented as _rising from the back of the shoulders_, a fact alluded +to by Mr. Holmes.[75] Although we can find numerous figures of winged +individuals in Mexican designs (they are unknown in Central American), +they always carry with them the idea that the individual is partly or +completely clothed in the skin of the bird. This is partially carried +out in our copper plate, as we see by the bird-bill over the head, the +eye being that of the bird and not of the man. But when we come to the +wings we at once see that the artist had in mind the _angel figure_, +with wings arising from the _back of the shoulders_, an idea wholly +foreign to Mexican art. It is further worthy of note in regard to these +two plates that there is a combination of Central American and Mexican +designs: the graceful limbs, and the ornaments of the arms, legs, waist, +and top of the head are Central American, and the rest, with the +exception possibly of what is carried in the right hand, are Mexican. + +That these plates are not the work of the Indians found inhabiting the +southern sections of the United States, or of their direct ancestors, I +freely concede. That they were not made by an aboriginal artisan of +Central America or Mexico of ante-Columbian times, I think is evident, +if not from the designs themselves, certainly from the indisputable +evidence that the work was done with hard metallic tools. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Copper plate from Illinois mound.] + +Second. Plates like those of this collection have only been found, so +far as I can ascertain, in northern Georgia and northern and southern +Illinois. The bird figure represented in Fig. 48 was obtained by Major +Powell, the director of the United States Geological Survey, from a +mound near Peoria, Illinois. Another was obtained in Jackson County, +Illinois, by Mr. Thing, from an ordinary stone grave. From another +similar grave, at the same place, he also obtained the plate represented +in Fig. 49. Fragments of a similar plate were obtained by Mr. Earle from +a stone grave in a mound in Alexander County, Illinois. All these +specimens were received by the Bureau of Ethnology and deposited in the +National Museum. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Copper plate from Indian grave, Illinois.] + +The box-form stone cists and the figures on the copper plates and +engraved shells differ so widely from the stone vaults and vestiges of +art found in the North Carolina and East Tennessee mounds as to forbid +the belief that the works of the two regions were constructed by one and +the same people. The stone cists and to some extent the construction of +the mound appear to connect the authors with the mound-builders and +authors of the stone graves of the Cumberland Valley and Southern +Illinois, and several other facts, which we cannot now stop to present, +seem to strengthen this suggestion. + +The presence of these stone cists in this mound of northern Georgia, +when coupled with the fact that similar stone graves are found in +Habersham County, indicate a Shawnee or closely allied element where we +should expect to find only Creeks or some branch of the Chahta-Muscogee +family. This is a puzzle by no means easy of solution, but one which the +scope of our paper does not require us to discuss. Still, we may add, +that if our conclusions in regard to this group be correct, we must +believe that the large mound was built before De Soto reached that +region while the one explored was built afterwards. Some facts brought +to light by the recent discovery of a cemetery within the area inclosed +by the ditch, which I have for some years believed would be found, and +for which I caused search to be made, appear to sustain these +conclusions, and to indicate that two different peoples have occupied +this site and have had a hand in constructing or adding to these works. + +Whatever may be our conclusion in reference to these questions, I think +it will be conceded that the builders of these Etowah mounds belonged to +different tribes from those who erected the East Tennessee and North +Carolina works, and hence, if we are right in regard to the latter, the +Etowah mounds were not built by the Cherokees. The important bearing +which this conclusion has upon the question under discussion, as the +reader will see, is that the mounds immediately outside of the territory +occupied by the Cherokees were built by a different people from those +who erected the works in that territory. Thus we see that, judging by +the mounds alone, immediately upon passing outside the Cherokee country +we encounter a different type of works. This fact, therefore, when taken +in connection with the other evidence adduced, becomes strongly +corroborative of the view that the Cherokees were the authors of the +works in their territory. + + + + +CONCLUDING REMARKS. + + +The results of our examination of the burial mounds of the northern +districts may be briefly summed up as follows: + +First. That different sections were occupied by different mound-building +tribes, which, though belonging to much the same stage in the scale of +civilization, differed in most instances in habits and customs to a +sufficient extent to mark, by their modes of burial, construction of +their mounds, and their works of art, the boundaries of the respective +areas occupied. + +Second. That each tribe adopted several different modes of burial +depending, in all probability, to some extent upon the social condition, +position, and occupation of the deceased. + +Third. That the custom of removing the flesh before the final burial +prevailed very extensively among the mound-builders of the northern +sections. The bones of the common people being often gathered together +and cast in promiscuous heaps, over which mounds were built. + +Fourth. That usually some kind of religious or superstitious ceremony +was performed at the burial, in which fire played a prominent part. +That, notwithstanding the very common belief to the contrary, there is +no evidence whatever that human sacrifice was practiced. + +Fifth. That there is nothing found in the mode of constructing these +mounds, nor in the vestiges of art they contain, to indicate that their +builders had reached a higher culture-status than that attained by some +of the Indian tribes found occupying the country at the time of the +first arrival of Europeans. + +Sixth. That the custom of erecting mounds over the dead continued to be +practiced in several localities in post-Columbian times. + +Seventh. That the character and condition of the ancient monuments, and +the relative uniformity in the culture status of the different tribes +shown by the works and the remains of art found in them, indicate that +the mound-building age could not have continued in this part of the +continent longer than a thousand years, and hence that its commencement +probably does not antedate the fifth or sixth century. + +Nothing has been found connected with them to sustain or justify the +opinion, so frequently advanced, of their great antiquity. The +calculations based upon the supposed age of trees found growing on some +of them is fast giving way before recent investigations made in regard +to the growth of forests, as it has been ascertained that the rings of +trees are not a sure indication of age. + +Quatrefages may not be correct in fixing the date of the appearance of +the "Red skins" in the "basin of the Missouri" in the eighth or ninth +century,[76] but nothing has been found in connection with the +ancient works of this country, supposing the Indians to have been their +authors, to prove that he has greatly erred in his calculation. Other +races or peoples may have preceded the mound-builders in this region, +but better proof of this is required than that based on the differences +between the supposed palæolithic and neolithic implements of New Jersey +and other sections, as every type discovered can be duplicated a hundred +times in the surface finds from different parts of the country. + +Eighth. That all the mounds which have been examined and carefully +studied are to be attributed to the indigenous tribes found inhabiting +this region and their ancestors. + + + + +SUPPLEMENTAL NOTE.[77] + +BURIAL CEREMONIES OF THE HURONS.[78] + + +Our savages are not savages as regards the duties which nature herself +requires us to render to the dead. They do not yield in this respect to +several nations much more civilized. You would say that all their labor +and efforts were for scarcely anything but to amass means of honoring +the dead. They have nothing too valuable for this purpose; they devote +to this use the robes, the hatchets, and the shell beads in such +quantities, that you would think to see them, on these occasions, that +they were considered of no great value, and yet they are all the riches +of the country; you may often see them in midwinter almost entirely +naked, while they have good and fine robes in their chests, which they +are keeping in reserve for the dead; this is, indeed, their point of +honor. It is on this occasion especially that they wish to appear +magnificent. But I speak here only of their peculiar funerals. + +These good people are not like many Christians, who cannot suffer death +to be spoken of, and who, in a mortal sickness, hesitate to break the +news to the sick one for fear of hastening his death. Here, when the +recovery of any one is despaired of, not only do they not hesitate to +tell him that his end is near, but they even prepare in his presence all +that is necessary for the burial; they often show him the shroud, the +hose, the shoes, and the girdle which he is to wear; frequently they are +enshrouded, after their custom, before they have expired, and they hold +a feast of farewell to their friends, during which they sing, sometimes +without showing any apprehension of death, which they regard very +indifferently, considering it only as a change to a life very little +different from this. As soon as the dying man has drawn his last breath, +they arrange the body in the same position that is to be preserved in +the tomb; they do not lay it out horizontally, as is our custom, but +crouched, like a ball (en peloton), "quasi en la mesme posture que les +enfants sont an ventre de la mere." Until this time they restrain their +mourning. After having performed these duties, all in the cabin begin to +utter sighs, groans, and lamentations; the children cry _Aistan_, if it +is their father, and the mother _Aien, Aien_, "My son, my son." No one +seeing them thus weeping and mourning would think that they were only +ceremonial lamentations; they blend their voices all in one accord and +in a lugubrious tone, until some one in authority calls for peace; at +once they cease and the captain hastens to announce through all the +cabins that such a one is dead. Upon the arrival of the friends they +resume their mourning. Frequently some one of more importance will begin +to speak and will console the mother and the children, now extolling the +deceased, praising his patience, his kindness, his liberality, his +magnificence, and, if he was a warrior, his great courage; now saying, +"What do you wish? there is no longer any remedy; it was necessary for +him to die; we are all subject to death;" and then, "He lingered a very +long time," &c. It is true that on this occasion they do not lack for +conversation; I am sometimes surprised to see them discourse a long time +on this subject, and bring up, with much discretion, all considerations +that may afford any consolation to the friends of the deceased. + +Notice is also given of this death to the friends who live in other +villages, and as each family employs another who has the care of their +dead, they come as soon as possible to give orders about everything and +to fix the day of the funeral. They usually inter the dead on the third +day; in the morning the captain gives an order that kettles shall be +boiled for the deceased throughout the village. No one spares his best +efforts. They do this, in my opinion, for three reasons: First, to +console each other, for they exchange dishes among themselves, and +scarcely any one eats out of the kettle that he has prepared; secondly, +on account of the arrival of those of other villages, who often come in +large numbers, lastly and principally, to gratify the soul of the +deceased, who, they think, takes pleasure in eating his share. All the +kettles being emptied, or at least distributed, the captain informs all +the village that the body is to be carried to the cemetery. All the +people assemble in the cabin; the mourning is renewed, and those who +have charge of the funeral prepare a litter upon which the body is +placed, laid upon a mat and wrapped in a robe of beaver skin; they then +raise it and carry it by the four corners. All the people follow in +silence to the cemetery. + +There is in the cemetery a tomb made of bark and raised on four stakes +of from 8 to 10 feet in height. While the body is placed in this, and +the bark is trimmed, the captain makes known the presents that have been +given by the friends. In this country, as well as in others, the most +agreeable consolations for the loss of relations are always accompanied +by presents, which consist of kettles, hatchets, beaver skins, and +necklaces of shell beads. If the deceased was of some importance in the +country, not only the friends and neighbors but even the captains of +other villages will come in person to bring their presents. Now, all +these presents do not follow the body into the tomb; a necklace of beads +is sometimes placed on its neck and near it a comb, a gourd-full of oil, +and two or three small loaves of bread; that is all. A large part of +them goes to the relatives to dry their tears; the rest is given to +those who have had charge of the funeral, to pay them for their trouble. +They also keep in reserve some robes or hatchets to make presents +(largesse) to the young men. The captain places in the hand of one of +them a stick about a foot long, offering a prize to any one who will +take it from him. They throw themselves headlong upon him and remain +engaged in the contest sometimes for an hour. After this each one +returns peaceably to his cabin. + +I forgot to say that generally throughout the ceremony the mother or +wife stands at the foot of the sepulcher, calling the deceased, singing, +or rather lamenting, in mournful tones. + +These ceremonies are not always all observed; those who die in war they +place in the ground, and the relatives make presents to their patrons, +if they have any, which is generally the case in this country, to +encourage them to raise soldiers and avenge the death of the warrior. +Those who are drowned are also buried, after the most fleshy parts of +the body have been taken away in pieces, as I have explained more +particularly in speaking of their superstitions. The presents are +doubled on this occasion, and all the people of the country are often +there, contributing from their store; all this, they say, is to appease +the Heaven or the Lake. + +There are even special ceremonies for small children deceased under one +or two months; they are not placed as others, in sepulchers of bark +raised on stakes, but buried in the road, in order, they say, "que +quelque femme passant par là, ils entrent secrètement en son ventre, et +que derechef elle leur donne la vie et les enfante." I doubt that the +good Nicodemus would have found much difficulty there, although he +doubted only for old men, "_Quomodo potest homo nasci cum sit senex._" + +This beautiful ceremony took place this winter in the person of one of +our little Christians, who had been named Joseph in baptism. I learned +it on this occasion from the lips of the father of the child himself. + +When the funeral is over the mourning does not cease: the wife continues +it all the year for her husband, the husband for the wife; but the grand +mourning itself lasts only ten days. During this time they remain lying +on their mats wrapped in their robes, with their faces against the +earth, without speaking or replying to anything, save _C[uo]ay_, to +those who come to visit them. They do not warm themselves in winter or +eat warm things; they do not go to the feasts nor go out, save at night, +for what they need; they cut a lock of hair from the back of the head +and declare that it is not without deep sorrow, especially when the +husband performs this ceremony on the death of his wife, or the wife on +the death of her husband. Such is the great mourning. + +The lesser mourning lasts all the year. When they wish to visit any one, +they do not salute them nor say _C[uo]ay_, neither do they grease their +hair. The women do this, however, when commanded to do so by their +mothers, who have at their disposal their hair, and even their persons. +It is also their privilege to send their daughters to the feasts, +without which several will not go. What I think strange is that during +the whole year neither the wife nor the husband marries again, else they +would cause themselves to be talked about in the country. + +The sepulchers are not perpetual, as their villages are only permanent +for some years, as long as the wood lasts. The bodies remain in the +cemeteries only until the feast of the dead, which usually takes place +every twelve years. During this time they do not neglect to honor the +dead often. From time to time kettles are boiled for their souls +throughout the village, as on the day of the funeral, and their names +are revived as often as possible. For this purpose presents are given to +the captains to be given to him who will consent to take the name of the +deceased; and if the latter was of consideration and had been esteemed +in the country during his life, he who represents him, after giving a +grand feast to all the people of the country, to introduce himself under +this name, raises a body of free young men and goes to war to accomplish +some brave feat which will show to the nation that he has not only +inherited the name but also the bravery and courage of the deceased. + + +THE SOLEMN FEAST OF THE DEAD. + +The feast of the dead is the most celebrated ceremony that takes place +among the Hurons. They give it the name of festival for the reason, as I +should say now, that when the bodies are taken from the cemeteries each +captain makes a "feast to the souls" in his village. The most important +and magnificent is that of the master of the feast, who is for this +reason called, par excellence, the "Maistre du Festin." + +This feast is full of ceremonies, but the chief one is evidently that of +"boiling the kettle." This outdoes all the others, and the festival of +the dead is spoken of, even in the most serious councils, only under the +name Chaudiere (the kettle). They appropriate to it all the terms of +cookery, so that when they speak of hastening or retarding the feast +they say "rake out" or "stir up the fire under the kettle;" and when any +one says "the kettle is overturned," that means there will be no feast. + +There is generally only one festival in each nation. All the bodies are +placed in the same grave. I say generally, for this year when the fête +des Morts took place the kettle-boiling was divided and five villages at +this point where we are stationed made a separate band and placed their +dead in a separate grave. He who had been captain of the preceding +feast, and who is like the chief at this point, made the excuse that his +kettle and his feast had been spoiled and that he was obliged to make +another. But, in fact, this was only a pretext. The real reason of this +separation is that the great heads of the village have complained for a +long time that the others took everything to themselves, that they did +not share as they wished the knowledge of the affairs of the country, +and that they were not called to the most secret and important councils +and to the division of the presents. + +This separation has been followed by distrust on both sides. God grant +that it cause no hindrance to the spreading of the sacred Gospel. But I +must touch briefly upon the order and the events of the feast. + +The twelve years or more having expired, the old people and great men of +the nation assemble to decide upon the time when the feast shall be +held, so as to satisfy all the people of the country and the outside +nations who are to be invited. + +When the decision is made, as all the bodies are to be transported to +the village where the common grave is made, each family takes charge of +its dead with a care and affection that cannot be described. If they +have relatives buried in any part of the country whatever they spare no +trouble to go and bring them. They take them from the cemeteries, carry +them on their own shoulders, and cover them with the finest robes they +have in their possession. In each village a good day is chosen, and they +repair to the cemetery, where those called _Aiheonde_, who have had the +care of the sepulcher, take the bodies from the tomb in the presence of +the relatives, who renew their tears and repeat the mourning of the day +of the funeral. + +I was present at this ceremony, and willingly invited all our servants, +for I do not think that there can be seen in this world a livelier image +or more perfect representation of the condition of man. + +It is true that in France our cemeteries speak forcibly, and that all +these bones heaped upon one another without distinction, the poor with +the rich or the small with the great, are so many voices continually +reminding us of death, the vanity of worldly things, and the +insignificance of this present life. But it seems to me that the custom +of our savages on this occasion shows us still more sensibly our +wretchedness, for after the graves are opened all the bodies are laid +out on the ground and left thus uncovered for some time, giving the +spectators an opportunity for once to see what will be their condition +some day. Some of the bodies are entirely devoid of flesh and have only +a dry skin on the bones; others appear as if they had been smoked and +dried and show scarcely any signs of decay. Others still are covered +with worms. + +The friends, being satisfied with this sight, cover them with handsome +robes of beaver-skin, entirely new. Finally, after a while, they strip +off the flesh and the skin, which they throw into the fire, together +with the robes and mats in which the bodies have been buried. The +complete bodies of those newly buried are left in the same condition and +the friends content themselves with simply covering them with new robes. +They touched only one old man, of whom I have spoken heretofore, who +died this autumn on the return from fishing. This large body had only +begun to decay a month ago, at the time of the first heat of spring; the +worms were swarming all over it, and the pus which came from it caused +an odor almost intolerable; nevertheless they had the courage to take +the body from the robe in which it was enveloped, cleansed it as much as +possible, took it up carefully and placed it in a new mat and robe, and +all this was accomplished without exposing any of this corruption. Is +here not a good example to animate the hearts of Christians, who should +have more noble ideas to deeds of charity and works of pity towards +their brethren? After this who will look with horror upon the misery of +a hospital? And who will not feel a peculiar pleasure in serving a sick +man covered with wounds, in whose person he serves the Son of God? + +As they were stripping the bodies they found in two of them a species of +charm. The one that I saw with my own eyes was a turtle's egg with a +leather strap (courroye); the other, which was examined by our fathers, +was a small turtle the size of a nut. This leads to the belief that +there were sorcerers in our village, on account of which some resolved +to leave it as soon as possible. Indeed, two or three days after one of +the richest men, fearing that some misfortune would befall him, +transported his cabin two miles from us to the village of Arontaen. + +Now, when these bones are well cleaned, part of them are placed in +sacks, part in blankets, and they carry them on their shoulders, +covering these bundles with other beautiful hanging robes. Entire bodies +are put on a sort of litter and carried with all the others, each one +taking his bundle into his cabin, where every family makes a feast to +its dead. + +Returning from this festival with a captain, who has considerable +intelligence and who will be some day of high standing in the affairs of +the country, I asked him why they called the bones of the dead +_Atisken_. He explained as clearly as he could, and I learned from what +he said that many believe that we have two souls, both divisible and +material and yet both rational; one leaves the body at death, but +remains, however, in the cemetery until the feast of the dead, after +which it either is changed into a turtle-dove, or according to the more +general belief, it goes immediately to the village of souls. + +The other soul is attached to the body; it marks the corpse, as it were, +and remains in the grave after the feast, never to leave it, "si ce +n'est que quelqu'un l'enfante de rechef." He mentioned to me, as a proof +of this metempsychosis, the perfect resemblance which some persons bear +to others who are deceased. Here is a grand philosophy. This is why they +call the bones of the dead _Atisken_, "the souls." + +A day or two before departing for the feast they carried all these +bodies into one of the largest cabins of the village, where some of them +were attached to the poles of the cabin, and others laid around it, and +the captain entertained and made a grand feast in the name of the +deceased captain, whose name he bore. I was present at this "feast of +spirits," and observed four things in particular: First, that the +offerings which were given for the feast by the friends, and which +consisted of robes, necklaces of shell beads, and kettles, were hung on +poles extending the whole length of the cabin from one side to the +other. Second, the captain sang the song of the dead captain, according +to the desire he had expressed before his death, that it should be sung +on this occasion. Third, all the guests had the privilege of dividing +among themselves all the good things they had brought, and even of +carrying them home, contrary to the custom at ordinary feasts. Lastly, +at the close of the feast, as a compliment to him who had entertained +them, they imitated as they sang the cry of the spirits, and left the +cabin crying _haéé haé_. + +The master of the feast, and even _Anenkhiondic_, captain-general of all +the country, sent to invite us several times with much solicitation. You +would have thought that the feast could not be a success without us. I +sent two of our fathers several days beforehand to see the preparations +and to learn exactly the day of the feast. _Anenkhiondic_ received them +very kindly, and on their departure conducted them himself a quarter of +a league from there to where the grave was dug, and showed them with +much display of emotion all the arrangements, &c., of the feast. + +This feast was to have taken place on the Saturday of Pentecost, but +some affairs which came up unexpectedly, and the uncertainty of the +weather, caused it to be put off until Monday. + +The seven or eight days before the feast were passed in collecting the +bodies (les âmes) as well as assembling the strangers who were invited; +meanwhile from morning till night gifts were distributed by the living +to the young men in honor of the dead. On one side women were drawing +the bow to see who should have the prize, which was sometimes a girdle +of porcupine quills or a necklace of beads; on the other hand, in +several parts of the village the young men were drawing clubs upon any +who would try to capture them. The prize of this victory was a hatchet, +some knives, or even a beaver robe. Every day the remains were arriving. +There is some pleasure in seeing these funeral processions which number +sometimes from two to three hundred persons. Each one carries the +remains of his friends, that is the bones, packed upon his back after +the manner that I have described, under a beautiful robe. Some arranged +their packets in the shape of a man, decorated with strings of beads, +with a fine crown of red hair. On leaving their village the whole +company cried _haéé haé_ and repeated this "cry of the spirits" all +along the way. This cry, they say, comforts them greatly, otherwise +their burdens, although souls, would weigh very heavily and cause a +weakness of the side (costé) for the rest of their lives. They travel by +short stages; the people of our village were three days in going four +leagues and in reaching _Ossossané_, which we call Rochelle, where all +the ceremonies were to be held. As soon as they arrive near any village +they shout again the haéé haé. The whole village comes out to meet them; +many presents are again distributed on this occasion. Each one repairs +to some one of the cabins; all find a place to put their bundles; this +is done without confusion. At the same time the captains hold a council +to decide upon the time that the company shall spend in this village. +All the bodies of the dead of eight or nine villages were taken to +Rochelle on Saturday of Pentecost; but the fear of bad weather obliged +them, as I have said, to postpone the ceremony till Monday. We were +lodged a quarter of a league from there, at the old village, in a cabin +where there were at least a hundred skeletons hung up to the poles, some +of which smelled stronger than musk. + +Monday at midday, word was sent that they were ready and that the +ceremony would begin. The bundles of skeletons were at once taken down +and the friends unfolded the wrappings to say their last farewells. +Their tears flowed anew. I admired the tenderness of one woman towards +the remains of her father and children. She is the daughter of a captain +who died at a great age and who formerly occupied a high position in the +country. She combed his hair; she touched the bones one after another +with as much affection as if she would have given them life; she placed +near him his _Atsatonesai_, that is, his packet of rods (bûchettes) of +the council, which are all the books and papers of the country. As for +her children, she put upon their arms bracelets of shells and glass +beads and bathed their bones with her tears. She could hardly be +separated from them, but they were in haste, and it was necessary to +start at once. The one who carried the body of this old captain walked +at the head, the men following and then the women. They marched in this +order until they arrived at the grave. + +The following is the arrangement of this place: There was a space about +as large as the Place Royale at Paris. In the center was a large grave +about 10 feet (pieds) deep and 5 fathoms (brasses) in diameter, round it +a scaffolding and a sort of stage nicely made, from 9 to 10 fathoms +(brasses) in diameter and 9 or 10 feet high; above the stage there were +several poles raised and well arranged, and others laid across them on +which to hang all the bundles of skeletons. The entire bodies, as these +were to be placed at the bottom of the grave, were laid under the +scaffolding the day before, resting on bark, or mats raised on stones to +the height of a man around the grave. The whole company arrived with the +bodies about an hour after midday, and divided into parties according to +the families and villages, and laid their bundles upon the ground, +almost as the pots of earth were made at the village fairs; they also +unfolded their robes and all the offerings they had brought and hung +them upon the poles which extended for from 500 to 600 fathoms (toises); +there were nearly twelve hundred gifts which remained thus on exhibition +for two whole hours, to give strangers an opportunity to see the riches +and magnificence of the country. I did not find the company as great as +I had expected; there were not more than two thousand persons. About 3 +o'clock each one fastened up his bundles and folded his robes. Meanwhile +each captain, in order, gave a signal, and all immediately took up their +bundles of bones, ran as if at the assault of a city, mounted upon this +stage by means of ladders which were placed all around, and hung them +(the bundles) to the poles; each village had its department. This done, +all the ladders were taken away. Some of the captains remained upon the +platform and spent the rest of the afternoon, until 7 o'clock, in +announcing the lists of presents which were given in the name of the +deceased to some particular persons. For instance, they would say, here +is what such a one, deceased, gives to a certain relative. + +About 5 or 6 o'clock they lined (pauerent) the bottom of the grave and +bordered it with large new robes, the skins of ten beavers, in such a +way that these extend more than a foot out of it. As they were preparing +the robes which were to be used for this purpose, some of them descended +into the grave, and came from it with their hands full of sand. I +inquired what this ceremony meant, and learned that they believed that +this sand will render them happy at their games (au ieu). + +Of the twelve hundred offerings that had been exhibited on the platform, +forty-eight robes were to line and trim the grave, and each complete +body had, besides the robe in which it was wrapped, another one, and +some even two others, to cover it. This is all: so that I do not think +[? but] that each body had one to itself, taking one with another, which +is the least that it could have for its burial; for these robes of +beaver skin are what the clothes and shrouds are in France. But what +becomes then of the rest? We will see presently. + +At 7 o'clock the bodies were lowered into the grave. We had great +difficulty in approaching it. Nothing ever pictured better to me the +confusion among the damned. You could see unloaded on all sides bodies +half decayed, and everywhere was heard a terrible uproar of confused +voices of persons who were speaking without hearing one another; ten or +twelve men were in the grave and were arranging the bodies all around +it, one after the other. They placed, exactly in the center, three large +kettles, which were of no use save for the spirits; one was pierced with +holes, another had no handle, and the third was worth little more. I saw +a few necklaces of shell beads there; it is true, many of them were put +on the body. This was all that was done on this day. + +The whole company passed the night on the spot, having lit a great many +fires and boiled kettles. We retired to the old village with the +intention of returning the next day at daylight when they were to cast +the bones into the grave; but we barely arrived in time, notwithstanding +all the diligence we employed, on account of an accident which happened. +One of the skeletons, which was not well fastened, or perhaps was too +heavy for the cord which held it, fell of itself into the grave. The +noise it made awoke the whole troupe, who ran and immediately mounted, +in a crowd, to the platform and emptied, without order, all the bundles +into the grave, reserving, however, the robes in which they had been +wrapped. We were just leaving the village at that time, but the noise +was so great that it seemed almost as though we were there. Approaching +we saw suddenly an image of the infernal regions. This great space was +filled with fire and smoke and the air resounded on all sides with the +mingled voices of the savages. This noise, nevertheless, ceased for a +while, and was changed to singing, but in a tone so doleful and weird +that it represented to us the terrible sadness and the depth of despair +in which condemned souls are forever plunged. + +Nearly all the bones had been cast in when we arrived, for it was done +almost in a moment, each one being in haste for fear that there was not +room for all these skeletons; nevertheless we saw enough of it to judge +of the rest. There were five or six men in the grave, with poles, to +arrange the bones. It was filled up within 2 feet of the top with bones, +after which they turned over upon them the robes that bordered the grave +all around, and covered the whole with mats and bark. The pit was then +filled up with sand, rods, and stakes of wood which were thrown in +promiscuously. Some of the women brought dishes of corn, and on the same +day and the following days several cabins of the village furnished +basketfuls of it, which were cast into the pit. + +We have fifteen or twenty Christians buried with these infidels. We say +a _De profundis_ for their souls, with the firm hope that if the Divine +goodness does not cease His blessings on His people this feast will be +made no more, or will be only for Christians, and will be celebrated +with rites as holy as these are foolish and useless. They also begin to +be a burden upon the people for the excess and superfluous expenses that +are caused by them. + +All the morning was spent in distributing gifts (largesses), and most of +the robes that had been wrapped around the bodies were cut in pieces and +thrown from the top of the platform into the midst of the crowd for +whoever could seize them first. There was great sport when two or three +contested the possession of one beaver skin. In order to settle it +peaceably it was necessary to cut it into so many pieces, and thus they +came out nearly empty-handed, for these tatters were hardly worth the +picking up. I admired here the industry of one savage. He did not hurry +himself to run after these flying pieces; but, as there is nothing so +valuable this year in the country as tobacco (petun), he held some +pieces of it in his hand, which he presented at once to those who were +disputing over the skin, and thus acquired it for himself. + +Before leaving the place we learned that, on the evening when presents +had been given to the foreign nations, on the part of the master of the +feast, we also had been named; and, in fact, as we were going, +_Anenkhiondic_ came and presented a new robe composed of ten beaver +skins, in return for the necklace which I had given them in the midst of +the council to show them the heavenly way. They were so much obliged for +this present that they wished to show some acknowledgment of it in so +good an assembly. I would not accept it, however, saying to him that, as +we had made them this present only to persuade them to embrace our +faith, they could not oblige us more than in listening to us willingly +and believing in Him who rules over all. He asked what I desired that he +should do with the robe. I replied that he could dispose of it in +whatever way he deemed best, with which he remained perfectly satisfied. +Of the rest of the twelve hundred presents forty-eight robes were used +to adorn the grave. Each body wore its robe and some of them two or +three. Twenty were given to the master of the feast, to reward the +nations who had assisted at it. A number were distributed on the part of +the dead, through the captains, to their living friends. A part of them +were only used for show, and were returned to those who had exhibited +them. The old people (anciens), and great leaders of the country, who +had the administration and management of it, privately took a great +deal, and the rest were cut in pieces, as I have said, and scattered +through the assembly. However, it was only the rich who lost nothing, or +very little, at this feast. The mendicants and poor people brought and +left there all they possessed of any value, and suffered much by +striving to appear as well as others in this celebration. Every one +stood upon this point of honor. + +Indeed, it was only by a chance that we were not also participants of +the feast. During this winter the Captain Aenons, of whom I have spoken +before, came to make us a proposal on the part of all the anciens of the +country. At that time the boiling of the kettle (chaudiere) was not yet +divided. They proposed to us then that we should consent to exhume the +remains of the two Frenchmen who had died in this country, to wit, +Guillaume Chaudron and Estienne Bruslé, who was killed four years ago, +and that their bones might be placed in the common grave of their dead. +We replied at first that this could not be done; that it was forbidden; +that as they had been baptized, and were, as we hoped, in heaven, we +respected their bones too highly to allow them to be mixed with the +bones of those who had not been baptized. Besides, it was not our custom +to exhume the bodies of those who had been buried. + +We decided, however, after all, that as they were interred in the wood +and since the people desired it so much, we would consent to take up +their bones on the condition that they allowed us to put them in a +particular grave, with the bones of all that we had baptized in the +country. + +Four reasons especially persuaded us to give them this final answer. +First, as it is the greatest expression of friendship and good-will +that can be shown in this country, we yielded to them readily in this +point that which they wished, and thus showed that we desired to love +them as brothers and to live and die with them. Second, we hoped that +God would be glorified in it, especially, in that separating by consent +of all the nation the bodies of the Christians from those of the +unbelievers, it would not be difficult afterwards to obtain special +permission that their Christians should be interred in a separate +cemetery, which we would bless for that purpose. Third, we claimed to +bury them with all the rites of the Church. Fourth, the old men, of +their own accord, desired us to raise there a beautiful and magnificent +cross, as they showed us afterwards more particularly. Thus the cross +would have been established by the authority of the whole country and +honored in the midst of this heathenism, and they would have been +careful not to impute to it afterwards, as they have done in the past, +all the misfortunes that befell them. + +This captain thought our proposition very reasonable and the old men +(anciens) of the country remained very well contented with it. Some time +after, the chaudiere was divided, and, as I have said, five villages of +our part of the country resolved to hold their feast apart. + +In the spring a general assembly of all the principal men was held, to +consult about the feast and to endeavor to prevent this schism and +reunite the cooking of the kettle. These dissatisfied ones were there +and I also was invited. They made me the same proposition as before. I +replied that we were very well satisfied, provided that this was done +under the conditions that we had demanded. I was reminded of the +division, and they asked me, since there were two feasts (chaudieres), +that is, two graves, on which side I desired to have our special grave. +To this I answered, in order to offend no one, that I would leave it to +their judgment; that they were just and wise and they could decide +between themselves. The master of the feast of Rochelle said, thereupon, +with condescension, that he did not claim anything and that he was +willing that the other, who is the chief at this place, should have on +his side the remains of our two Frenchmen. The latter replied that he +laid no claim to the one that had been buried at Rochelle, but that as +for the body of Estienne Bruslé it belonged to him, as it was he that +had engaged with him and led him into this country. So here the bodies +were separated, one on one side, the other on the other side. At this +some one said privately that indeed he (the chief) had the right to +demand the body of Estienne Bruslé, and that it was reasonable that he +should render some honor to his bones, since they had killed him. This +could not be said so discreetly but that the captain had a hint of it; +he concealed his feelings, however, at the time. After the council, as +we had already gone, he raised this reproach and began to talk with the +captain of Rochelle, and finally gave over entirely the body of Bruslé, +in order not to embitter and make bloody this sore, of which the people +of this point have not yet cleared themselves. This caused us to +resolve, that we might keep in favor with those of Rochelle, not to +meddle with either the one or the other. + +Truly there is reason to admire the secret judgments of God, for this +infamous man certainly did not merit that honor; and to tell the truth +we had hesitated much in resolving to make on this occasion a particular +cemetery, and to transport to holy ground a body that had led so wicked +a life in the country and given the savages such a wrong impression of +the manners of the French. At first some thought hard of it that we +should have this opinion and were offended, alleging that this being so +they could not boast as they hoped among strange nations of being +related to the French, otherwise it would be said to them that they did +not have much appearance of it, since we had not wished to put the bones +of our people with theirs. Afterwards, however, having heard all our +reasons, they decided that we had acted prudently and that it was the +best means of maintaining our friendship with each other. + +Shall I finish for the present with this funeral? Yes; since it is a +mark sufficiently clear of the hope of a future life which nature seems +to furnish us in the minds of these people, as a good means of making +them understand the promises of Jesus Christ. Is there not reason to +hope that they will do this, and that as soon as possible? Certainly I +dare to assert that with this prospect we have reason to fortify our +courage and to say of our Hurons what St. Paul wrote to the +Philippians: "_Confidens hoc ipsum, quia qui c[oe]pit in vobis opus +bonum, perficiet usque in diem Christi Iesu._" These poor people open +their ears to what we tell them of the kingdom of heaven; they think it +very reasonable, and do not dare to contradict it. They are learning the +judgments of God in the other life; they are beginning to have recourse +with us to His goodness in their necessities, and our Lord seems to +favor them sometimes with some particular assistance. They procure +baptism for those who they think are about to die; they give us their +children to be instructed, even permitting them to come three hundred +leagues for this purpose, notwithstanding the tender affection they have +for them; they promise to follow them one day and show us that they +would not give us such precious pledges if they did not desire to keep +faith with us. You would say that they were waiting only to see some one +among them to be the first to take this bold step and dare to go +contrary to the custom of the country. They are, finally, a people who +have a permanent home (demeure arrestée), are judicious, capable of +reason, and well multiplied. + +I made mention, the past year, of twelve nations entirely sedentary and +harmonious, who understand the language of our Hurons; and the Hurons +make in, twenty villages, about 30,000 souls; if the rest is in +proportion, there are more than 300,000 who speak only the Huron +language. God gives us influence among them; they esteem us, and we are +in such favor with them, that we know not whom to listen to, so much +does each one aspire to have us. In truth we would be very ungrateful +for the goodness of God if we should lose courage in the midst of all +this, and did not wait for Him to bring forth the fruit in his own time. + +It is true that I have some little apprehension for the time when it +will be necessary to speak to them in a new way of their manners and to +teach them "à clouër leur chairs" and restrain themselves in the honesty +of marriage, breaking off their excesses for fear of the judgment of God +upon their vices. Then it will be a question of telling them openly, +"_Quoniam qui talia agunt regnum Dei non possidebunt._" I fear that they +will prove stubborn, when we speak to them of assuming Jesus Christ, +wearing his colors, and distinguishing themselves in the quality of +Christians from what they have been formerly, by a virtue of which they +scarcely know the name; when we cry unto them with the Apostle: "For +this is the will of God, your sanctification: that you should abstain +from fornication, that every one of you should know how to possess his +vessel in sanctification and honor: not in the passion of lust, like the +gentiles that know not God." There is, I repeat, reason to fear that +they may be frightened with the subject of purity and chastity, and that +they will be disheartened with the doctrine of the Son of God, saying +with those of Capernaum, on another subject, "_Durus est hic sermo et +quis potest eum audire?_" Nevertheless, since with the grace of God we +have already persuaded them, by the open profession we have made of this +virtue, neither to do or say in our presence anything which may be +averse to it--even to threaten strangers when they forget themselves +before us, warning them that the French and especially the "black +robes," detest these intimacies--is it not credible that if the Holy +Spirit touches them once, it will so impress upon them henceforth, in +every place and at all times, the reverence which they should give to +His divine presence and immensity, that they will be glad to be chaste +in order to be Christians, and will desire earnestly to be Christians in +order to be chaste? I believe that it is for this very purpose that our +Lord has inspired us to put them under the charge of St. Joseph. This +great saint, who was formerly given for a husband to the glorious +Virgin, to conceal from the world and the devil a virginity which God +honored with His incarnation, has so much influence over the "Sainte +Dame," in whose hands His Son has placed, as in deposit, all the graces +which co-operate with this celestial virtue, that there is almost +nothing to fear in the contrary vice, for those who are devoted to Him, +as we desire our Hurons to be, as well as ourselves. It is for this +purpose, and for the entire conversion of all these peoples, that we +commend ourselves heartily to the prayers of all those who love or wish +to love God and especially of all our fathers and brothers. + + Your very humble and obedient servant in our Lord, + JEAN DE BREBEUF. + +From the residence of St. Joseph, among the Hurons, at the village +called Ihonatiria, this 16th of July, 1636. + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +[1] Ancient Monuments, p. 161. + +[2] It is somewhat strange that Rev. J. P. MacLean, who has long resided +in Ohio and has studied the mounds and other works of the southern +portion of that State with much care, should follow almost word for word +this and the next statement of Squier and Davis (Mound-Builders, p. 50) +and adopt them as his own, without modification or protest, when in the +appendix containing his exceedingly valuable notes on the "Archæology of +Butler County" nearly all the facts given bearing on these points show +them to be incorrect. + +[3] Ancient Monuments, p. 161. + +[4] Antiquities of Wisconsin, p. 9. + +[5] Smithsonian Report 1879, p. 337. + +[6] Smithsonian Report 1879, p. 343. + +[7] Antiquities of Wisconsin, p. 28. + +[8] Pioneer Life. + +[9] Potherie, Histoire de l'Amérique Septentrionale, II, p. 43. + +[10] History of Indian Tribes of the United States, Part III, p. 193. + +[11] As Dr. Yarrow has described the burial customs of the North +American Indians in the first Annual Report of the Bureau, I will omit +further quotations and refer the reader to his paper. + +[12] Antiquities of Wisconsin, p. 89. + +[13] Pp. 90-92. + +[14] Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, Vol. I, pp. +118-122. + +[15] I wish it distinctly understood, that I do not by the use of this +term, commit myself to the theory that these mounds or any others +contain altars in the true sense of the term, as I very much doubt it. + +[16] Brevis Narratio, Plate XXX. Admiranda Narratio, Plate XIX + +[17] M[oe]urs des Sauvages, II, p. 4. + +[18] See "Early Notices of the Indians of Ohio" by M. F. Force, pp. +18-20. + +[19] According to Drake, "Indians of North America," he died October 3, +1838. + +[20] Ancient Monuments, p. 162. + +[21] Brevis Narratio, Tab. XI. + +[22] American Antiquarian, October, 1881, p. 14. + +[23] Pages 533-6. + +[24] Smithsonian Report 1881, p. 537. + +[25] Counting from the southern end of the line. + +[26] Ancient Monuments, p. 161. It may be remarked here that the +statement that "urn burial appears to have prevailed to a considerable +extent in the Southern States" cannot be sustained by facts. + +[27] Smithsonian Report 1866, p. 359. + +[28] See, also, Smithsonian Report 1881, p. 596. + +[29] Smithsonian Report 1877, p. 264. + +[30] Page 598. + +[31] Page 35. + +[32] See 17th Report Peabody Museum, pp. 339-347. + +[33] 17th Report Peabody Museum, pp. 342-343. + +[34] 17th Report Peabody Museum, p. 344. + +[35] Early Notices of the Indians of Ohio, by M. F. Force, 1879, p. 3. + +[36] The circles and parallelograms in Figs. 32 and 33 have no other +significance than to indicate the relative positions of the graves and +the positions of the skeletons. + +[37] M[oe]urs des Sauvages Amériquains, II, pp. 447-445. + +[38] Jesuit Relations for 1636, pp. 128-139. For a translation of the +lively description of the burial ceremonies of the Hurons by Father +Brebeuf, see "Supplemental Note," at the end of this paper. + +[39] Smithsonian Report, 1871, pp. 404, 405. + +[40] Smithsonian Report 1867, p. 401. + +[41] Smithsonian Report 1870, p. 378. + +[42] See, for example, Foster's "Prehistoric Races," p. 97; Squier and +Davis's, "Ancient Monuments," p. 30; Baldwin's "Ancient America," p. 57; +Bancroft's "Native Races," IV, p. 785; Conant's "Foot-Prints of Vanished +Races," p. 38; Marquis de Nadaillac's "L'Amérique Préhistorique," p. +185, etc. + +[43] Sixteenth and Seventeenth Report Peabody Museum, p. 346. + +[44] Referred to by Dr. Haven, Smithsonian Contributions, VIII, p. 25. + +[45] Transactions of the American Philological Society, Vol. III. + +[46] Archæology of the United States, Smithsonian Contributions, Vol. +VIII, p. 31. + +[47] Page 253. + +[48] Vol. I, p. 353, 3d edition. + +[49] Ancient America, pp. 70-75. + +[50] American Antiquities, p. 71. + +[51] Prehistoric Races, p. 339. + +[52] Tenth Report Peabody Museum, p. 75. + +[53] Travels, p. 365. + +[54] Memoirs of the Kentucky Geological Survey, Vol. II. + +[55] Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee, p. 225. + +[56] Ramsey. Annals of Tennessee, p. 51. + +[57] Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee, p. 223. + +[58] Discoveries, etc., p. 3, London edition, 1672. + +[59] Discoveries, London edition, p. 20. + +[60] Pages 33-39. + +[61] Jones, Southern Indians, p. 18. + +[62] Page 169. + +[63] History of Carolina, Raleigh, reprint, 1850, p. 315. + +[64] History of Virginia, London, 1705, p. 58. + +[65] Page 423. + +[66] Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 400. + +[67] Page 228. + +[68] History of North America. + +[69] Page 19. + +[70] Page 324. + +[71] History of Florida, edition 1723, Lib. III, Cap. XX, p. 139, and +edition of 1605. + +[72] Jones's Antiquities of the Southern Indians, Chap. VI, Pl. 1. + +[73] Smithsonian Report 1880, p. 624. + +[74] Science, April 11, 1884. + +[75] Science, April, 1884. + +[76] The Human Species, English translation, p. 307. + +[77] Referred to on p. 71. + +[78] Translated from Relations des Jésuites, 1636, pp. 128-139, by Miss +Nora Thomas. + + + + +INDEX + + + Alexander, J. B., mounds on farm of 74 + + Allamakee County, Iowa, mounds 26 + + Altar mounds 57, 58 + + Anderson, W. G., opened Wisconsin mounds 16 + + Anderson Township, Ohio, mounds 49 + + Andrews, E. B., on Ohio mounds 47, 48 + + Appalachian mound district and mounds 10, 61-86 + + Arkansas mounds 11 + + Armstrong, Thomas, on Wisconsin mounds 16 + + Ashland County, Ohio, mounds 47 + + Athens County, Ohio, mounds 47 + + + Baldwin, J. D., on mound builders 83 + + Bartow County, Georgia, mounds 96-104 + + Bartram, William, description of Cherokee council house 87 + + Beverly on shell ornaments 92 + + Black Hawk's grave 33, 34 + + Boulware, J. N., mounds on farm of 44 + + Branson, Judge, opening of Wisconsin mounds by 18 + + Brebeuf, Jean, on burial ceremonies of the Hurons 71, 110-119 + + Brinton, D. G., on a burial mound 39 + --, on Indians as mound builders 84 + + Brown County, Illinois, mounds 39-41 + + Buffalo Creek, Worth Carolina, mounds near 68 + + Burial mounds of the northern sections of the United States, by + Cyrus Thomas 3-119 + + Burke County, North Carolina, mounds 73 + + Butler County, Ohio, archæology of 13 + + + Caldwell County, North Carolina, mounds 61-71 + + Carr, Lucien, cited 84, 87, 88, 92 + + Cartersville, Georgia, mounds near 96-104 + + Case, H. B., on Indian burial customs 47 + + Charleston, West Virginia, mounds near 51, 53, 55 + + Chattanooga, Tennessee, mounds near 77 + + Chelaque identical with Cherokee 89 + + Cherokee, the, probably mound builders 60, 87-107 + + Cherokee and Tallegwi, relation of 60 + + Chillicothe, Ohio, mounds 46 + + Clarke, F. W., analyzed iron from mounds 91 + + Clarke County, Missouri, mounds 43 + + Clifton, West Virginia, mounds 55, 58 + + Conner, Rebecca, mounds on farm of 74 + + Copper in use among Indians 93, 94, 100-106 + + Courtois group of mounds 15 + + Cowe, description of Cherokee councilhouse at 87 + + Crawford County, Wisconsin, mounds 14, 17, 18, 20 + + + Davenport, Iowa, mounds near 24 + + Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, explorations by members of 24 + --, pipes found by members of 38 + + Davis, E. H., and Squier on mounds 12, 13, 38, 45, 48 + + De Bry on Indian burial customs 29, 39 + + Delaware Indian graves in Ashland County, Ohio 47 + + Des Moines River mounds 33, 34 + + Drake, Samuel G., advocates Indian origin of mounds 84 + + Dubuque County, Iowa, mounds 31, 32 + + Dunning, E. O., on stone grave mound in valley of the Little + Tennessee 78, 79 + + + Eagle Point, Iowa, mounds 32 + + East Dubuque, Illinois, mounds 34-38 + + Eldon, Iowa, mounds 33, 34 + + Elk River Valley, West Virginia, mounds 55 + + Emmert, John W., explorations of 74-77 + + Etowah, Georgia, mounds 96-104, 106, 107 + + + Florida mounds 12 + + Force, M. F., on distribution of Indians 59 + + Fort Defiance, North Carolina, mounds near 68 + + + Garcilasso de la Vega on Indian mounds 95, 96 + + George Connet mound, Athens County, Ohio, description of 47, 48 + + Grant County, Wisconsin, mounds 19 + + Grave Creek, West Virginia, mounds 51 + + Gulf mounds 12 + + + Hardy and Scheetz on Missouri mounds 42 + + Harris, Thaddeus M., on mound builders 82 + + Haven, S. F., quoted 82 + + Haywood, John, on location of Cherokee 89, 90 + --, on European implements among Cherokee 94 + + Heart, Captain, on mound builders 82 + + Henderson, J. G., opening of Illinois mounds by 39 + + Henderson County, North Carolina, mounds 74 + + Holston Valley, Tennessee, mounds 75-77 + + Hoy, Philip, opening of mounds by 14, 20 + + Hunt, Charles, mounds on farm of 71 + + Hurons, burial ceremonies of 110-119 + + + Illinois mounds 10, 11 + + Illinois or Upper Mississippi burial mound district 24-44 + + Indiana mounds 10 + + Iowa mounds 10, 24 + + Iowaville, Iowa, mounds 33, 34 + + Iroquois burial customs 21 + + + Jones, C. C., on Indian pipes 93 + + Jones, Joseph, on mound builders 83 + + Jones, W. D., mound on land of 66-68 + + + Kanawha Valley, explorations in 51, 53, 57 + + Kent, M. B., on Indian burial customs 20 + + Kentucky mounds 10, 11 + + Kickapoo stone graves 30 + + + Lafitau on Indian burial customs 29 + + Lane, H. P., mounds on farm of 26 + + Lapham, I. A., on Wisconsin mounds 14, 17, 21, 22 + + Lawson on shell ornaments 92 + + Lederer, John, on copper among Cherokee 91 + + Lee County, Virginia, mounds 87 + + Le Moyne de Morgues on burial mounds 39 + + Lenoir, R. T., burial pit on farm of 68-71 + + Little Tennessee Valley mounds 78, 79 + + Louisiana mounds 11 + + Lower Mississippi mounds 11 + + Lubbock, John, advocates Indian origin of mounds 84 + + + McCulloch, J. H., advocates Indian origin of mounds 84 + + MacLean, J. P., on Ohio mounds 13 + --, on mound builders 83 + + Madison, Bishop, on mound builders 82, 83 + + Madison, Wisconsin, mounds near 16 + + Madisonville, Ohio, mounds near 49 + + Metz, C. L., on burial mounds 49 + + Middle Mississippi mounds 11 + + Middleton, James D., explorations by 14 + + Middleton, Jeff, mound opened by 20 + + Mississippi mounds, Upper 10, 24-44 + Middle and Lower 11 + + Missouri, mounds in 10, 11, 41-44 + + Mohawk burial customs 21 + + Mound builders, conclusions as to who were the 9, 58, 79, 80, 86, 97 + --, probably Cherokee 87-107 + + Mounds, burial 3-119 + + + Naples, Illinois, mounds 39 + + Nelson, T. F., mounds on farm of 61-66, 90 + + New Albin, Iowa, mounds near 26 + + Newark, Ohio, mounds 46 + + New York mounds 10 + + Norris, P. W., investigations of 17, 18, 26, 27, 32, 35, 39, 40, + 52, 55 + + North Carolina, mounds in 10, 61-75 + + + Ohio mound district 45-60 + + Ohio mounds 10, 12, 13, 45-60 + + + Peru, Iowa, monnds near 31 + + Pike County, Illinois, mounds 39 + + Pike County, Missouri, mounds 43 + + Pipes, soapstone 93, 94 + + Potherie on Iroquois burial customs 21 + + Pottawattamie mounds 34 + + Powell, J. W., copper plate from Illinois mound obtained by 105 + + Powhatan, Virginia, site bought with copper 94 + + Putnam, F. W., on Ohio mounds 49-51 + + + Quatrefages on appearance of Indians in the valley of the Missouri + 109 + + + Racine, Wisconsin, mounds near 14 + + Ralls County, Missouri, mounds 42 + + Read, M. O., on mounds near Chattanooga 77, 78 + + Ripon, Wisconsin, mounds near 16 + + Rogan, J. P., explorations of 61, 71, 72, 97, 98, 104 + + + Sac and Fox, burial customs of 20, 21 + + Scheetz and Hardy on Slissouri mounds 42 + + Schoolcraft, H. R., on Indian burial customs 21 + --, advocates Indian origin of mounds 84 + + School-house mound 48, 49 + + Shawnee, stone graves of 30 + + Sheboygan County, Wisconsin, mounds 19 + + Short, John T., on mound builders 83 + + Smith, B. H., mounds on farm of 51 + + Spainhour, J. M., opening of North Carolina mounds by 61, 73 + + Spencer, J. W., on Indian burial customs 21 + + Squier and Davis on mounds 12, 38, 45, 48 + + Squier, E. G., on Indian antiquities 10 + + Sullivan County, Tennessee, mounds 75-77 + + + Tallegwi and Cherokee, relation of 60 + + Tallegwi as mound builders 84 + + Tennessee mounds 10, 11 + + Tennessee River, mounds near 77 + + Thomas, Cyrus, paper by, on burial mounds of the northern section of + the United States 3-119 + + Thomas, Nora, translation of description of burial ceremonies of + the Hurons by 110-119 + + Tuscarora, neighbors of the Cherokee 91 + + + Upper Mississippi mounds 10, 24-44 + + + Vernon County, Wisconsin, mounds 14, 20 + + Virginia mounds 10, 87 + + + Wapello County, Iowa, mounds 33 + + Waukesha, Wisconsin, mounds near 17 + + Welch, Edward, mounds on farm of 41 + + West Virginia, mounds in 10, 51-60 + + Wilkes County, North Carolina, mounds 71, 72 + + Wisconsin, mounds in 10, 14-23 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections +of the United States, by Cyrus Thomas + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41557 *** |