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Leadwork, by W. R. Lethaby—A Project Gutenberg eBook.
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<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41544 ***</div>
<div class="tnote">
<p class="center"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></p>
<p>Punctuation has been standardised. Spelling has been retained as
it appears in the original publication except as marked
<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'likethis'">like
this</ins> in the text. <span class="noepub">The original text appears when hovering the cursor
over the marked text.</span> A <a href="#tn-end">list of amendments</a> is
at the end of the text.</p>
<p class="noepub">The text contains a few greek phrases, marked
<span class="greek" title="Transliteration">like this</span>. The transliterated text appears
when hovering the cursor over the marked text.</p>
<p class="epubonly">The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed
in the public domain.</p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[i]</span></p>
<div class="center sp"><big>LEADWORK</big></div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span></p>
<div class="blockquot sp">
“<i>That which gives to the leadwork of the Middle
Ages a particular charm is that the means they
employed and the forms they adopted are exactly
appropriate to the material. Like Carpentry or
Cabinet work, Plumbing was an art apart which
borrowed neither from stone nor wood in its design.
Mediæval lead was wrought like colossal goldsmith’s
work.</i>”—<span class="smcap lowercase">VIOLLET-LE-DUC</span>.</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<h1 title="LEADWORK: OLD AND ORNAMENTAL AND FOR THE MOST PART ENGLISH">
<big>LEADWORK</big><br />
OLD AND ORNAMENTAL<br />
AND FOR THE MOST PART<br />
ENGLISH. BY W. R. LETHABY<br />
WITH ILLVSTRATIONS</h1>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
<img src="images/i_004.png" width="200" height="203" alt="" />
</div>
<div class="center sp">1893<br />
Macmillan & Co., London & New York.</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></p>
<hr />
<div class="center sp"><span class="smcap">Richard Clay and Sons, Limited</span><br />
LONDON AND BUNGAY.</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p>
<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
<div class="center">
<table id="toc" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents.">
<tr>
<td class="sect"><small>SECT.</small></td>
<td> </td>
<td class="pgref"><small>PAGE</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">I.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_1">Of Material and Craftsmanship</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">II.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_5">An Historical Sketch</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">III.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_17">Of Lead Coverings to Buildings</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">IV.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_20">Of Leaded Spires and Turrets</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">V.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_33">Of Domes</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">VI.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_36">Of Roofs</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">VII.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_40">Of Lead Coffins</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">VIII.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_51">Of Fonts</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">IX.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_65">Of Inscriptions, Etc.</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">X.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_72">Of the Decoration of Lead</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XI.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_80">Of Lead Ornamentation of other Materials</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XII.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_84">Of Decorative Objects</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XIII.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_87">Of Lead Glazing</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XIV.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_90">Of Lead Statues</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XV.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_112">Of Lead Fountains</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XVI.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_114">Of Vases and Gate Piers</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XVII.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_124">Of Finials and Crestings</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XVIII.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_131">Of Cisterns, etc.</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XIX.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_137">Of Gutters</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sect">XX.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Page_139">Of Pipes and Pipe Heads</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
</tr>
</table></div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span></p>
<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
<div class="center">
<table id="loi" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Illustrations.">
<tr>
<td class="fig"><small>FIG.</small></td>
<td> </td>
<td class="pgref"><small>PAGE</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">1.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_1">Egyptian inscribed Tablet</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_1">7</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">2.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_2">Greek Quiver</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_2">8</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">3.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_3">Builder’s Plummet</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_3">9</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">4, 5.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_4_5">Greek Weights</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_4_5">10</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">6, 7.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_6_7">Greek Weights</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_6_7">11</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">8, 9.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_8_9">Cists From the Kircherian Museum</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_8_9">12</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">10.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_10">Roman Jewelled Cup</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_10">14</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">11.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_11">Spire, Barnstaple</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_11">26</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">12.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_12">Another Spire</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_12">27</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">13.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_13">Turret, Barnard’s Inn Hall</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_13">29</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">14.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_14">Calais Belfry</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_14">32</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">15.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_15">Ornaments from Coffins, Constantinople</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_15">41</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">16, 17.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_16_17">Cists, British Museum</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_16_17">42</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">18, 19.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_18_19">Roman Coffins, British Museum</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_18_19">44</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">20.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_20">Roman Coffin, British Museum</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_20">45</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">21.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_21">Thirteenth Century Coffin, Temple Church</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_21">46</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">22, 23.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_22_23">Thirteenth Century Coffins, Temple Church</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_22_23">47</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">24.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_24">Coffin, Winchester</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_24">48</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">25.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_25">At Moissac</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_25">49</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">26.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_26">Vessel, Lewes Museum</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_26">52</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">27.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_27">Font, Brookland, Kent</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_27">54</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">28.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_28">Font, Brookland</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_28">55</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">29.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_29">Font, Edburton, Sussex</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_29">57</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">30.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_30">Font, Walton, Surrey</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_30">59</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">31.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_31">Font, Parham, Sussex</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_31">61</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">32.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_32">Heart Box of King Richard</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_32">67</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">33.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_33">Inscribed Cross</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_33">68</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">34.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_34">Arms from Bourges</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_34">70</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">35.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_35">Incised Decoration, Bourges</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_35">75</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">36.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_36">Painted Decoration, Bourges</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_36">76</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">37.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_37">Flashings, Bourges</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_37">77</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">38.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_38">A Valance</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_38">78</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">39, 40.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_39">Lead Glazing</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_39">88</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">41.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_41">Ventilating Quarry</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_41">89</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">42.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_42">Statue of Mercury</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_42">98</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">43.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_43">Sun-dial, Temple Gardens</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_43">100</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">44.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_44">Cymbal Player</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_44">106</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">45.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_45">Terminal at Castle Hill</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_45">107</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">46.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_46">Time, Temple Dinsley</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_46">108</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">47.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_47">Vase, Hampton Court</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_47">115</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">48.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_48">From Vase, Hampton Court</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_48">116</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">49.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_49">Vase, Castle Hill</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_49">117</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">50.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_50"> Albert Gate</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_50">118</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">51.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_51"> Albert Gate</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_51">119</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">52.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_52">Vase, Knole</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_52">120</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">53.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_53">Cupid, Temple Dinsley</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_53">121</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">54.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_54">Sphinx, Syon House</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_54">122</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">55.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_55">Syon House</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_55">123</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">56.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_56">Finial at Lille</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_56">126</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">57.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_57">Finial at Angers</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_57">126</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">58.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_58">Angers</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_58">128</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">59.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_59">Finials, Bourges</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_59">129</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">60.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_60">From Newcastle</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_60">130</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">61.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_61">Poundisford Park, Taunton</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_61">132</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">62.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_62">Cistern, Exeter</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_62">133</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">63.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_63">Cistern, London</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_63">134</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">64.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_64">Cistern, S. Kensington Museum</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_64">135</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">65.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_65">Gutter, Lincoln Cathedral</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_65">137</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">66.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_66">Gutter, Taunton</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_66">138</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">67.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_67">Bramhall, Cheshire</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_67">140</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">68, 69.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_68_69">Pipe Heads, Haddon Hall</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_68_69">141</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">70.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_70">Pipe Head, Haddon</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_70">142</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">71.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_71">Bodleian, Oxford</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_71">143</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">72.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_72">St. John’s, Oxford</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_72">144</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">73.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_73">Sherborne</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_73">145</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">74.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_74">Liverpool</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_74">145</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">75.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_75">Ashbourne</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_75">146</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="fig">76.</td>
<td class="title"><a href="#Fig_76">Haddon</a></td>
<td class="pgref"><a href="#Fig_76">147</a></td>
</tr>
</table></div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
<h2>LEADWORK</h2>
<hr class="chap" />
<h2>§ I. OF MATERIAL AND CRAFTSMANSHIP.</h2>
<p class="cap">To none of the processes of modern
mechanism do more vulgar associations
cling than to “Plumbing.” It is the
very serviceableness and ductility of lead as a
material that have brought about the easy and
familiar contempt with which it is treated. While
few are more worthy of artistic care no metal is
more perfectly adaptable to noble use through
a range of treatments that cannot be matched
by any other metal whatsoever. It combines
extreme ease of manipulation with practically
endless durability, and a suitability to any scale,
from a tiny inkwell, or a medal, to the statue of
horse and rider, a Versailles fountain, or the
greatest cathedral spire.</p>
<p>The range of method in handling follows
from the equal ease with which it can be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>
hammered out, cast, or cut, and all three,
employed concurrently on the same piece.</p>
<p>The main purpose of the pages which follow
is not to set out a history of the use of this
material in various forms, although this is
involved. It is intended by pointing out the
characteristics and methods of the art of lead
working in the past to show its possibilities for
us, and for the future. A picture of what has
been done is the best means of coming to a view
of what may again be done. But it cannot be
too strongly asserted that the <em>forms</em> of past art
cannot be <em>copied</em>; that certain things have been
done is evidence enough to show that we cannot
do them over again. Reproduction is impossible;
to attempt it is but to make a poor
diagram at the best.</p>
<p>Commercially produced imitations of ornamental
works are infinitely beneath the merely
utilitarian object which serves its purpose and
attempts nothing more. Behind all design there
must be a personality expressing himself; but
certain principles of treatment and methods of
working may be understood in some degree by a
study of past work without going all through it
again. History thus makes the experience of
the past available to us, but it does not relieve
us of the necessity of ourselves having experiences.
There is a great stimulus in feeling one of a
chain, and entering into the traditions of a body
of art. The workman Bezin said to Mr.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>
Stevenson of museums, “One sees in them little
miracles of workmanship—it fires a spark.”</p>
<p>New design must ever be founded on a strict
consideration of the exact purpose to be fulfilled
by the proposed object, of how it will serve its
purpose best, and show perfect suitability to the
end in view when made in this or that material
by easy means. This, not the torturing
of a material into forms which have not before
been used, is the true ground of beauty, and this
to a certain extent is enough without any
ornamentation. Ornament is quite another matter,
it has no justification in service, it can
only justify itself by being beautiful.</p>
<p>In so far as history is involved here it has been
necessary to refer to and to figure many works,
not bearing the impress of a fine living style, but
only passable exercises in the respectabilities of
a sort of conventional design learnt by rote. As
a general rule it will be found that the workers of
the middle ages penetrated at once to the reason
of a thing in structure and then decorated it
with an evidence of fresh thought—a delight in
growth, form, humanity, in one word Nature,
the source of all beauty and subject of all art.
Each thing made is evidently by an <em>artist</em>; it
expresses reasonable workmanship and happy
thought in pleasant solution of some necessity of
actual service. Many of the later things are
not thus natural and spontaneous but pedantic
and pompous, fulfilling their chief intention if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>
they were expensive; while to-day the chief
care of design is often to <em>appear</em> expensive
without being so in fact.</p>
<p>Only in our century in England would it be
possible for the metals which are so especially
hers, iron, tin, and lead, to have been so degraded
that it is hardly possible to think of them as
vehicles of art. It should not be so, for each of
the metals can give us characteristics that others
cannot, and the capabilities of lead have been
sufficiently proved by more than two thousand
years of artistic manipulation.</p>
<p>The only way in which the crafts can again be
made harmonious by beauty is for men with a
sense of architectural fitness and a feeling for
design to take up the actual workmanship and
practise it themselves as they would painting or
sculpture, seeking the delight of being good
artists not the reputation of being successful
merchants or clever professional men. To any
such, lead-working may be recommended.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p>
<h2>§ <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads '2'">II.</ins> AN HISTORICAL SKETCH.</h2>
<p class="cap">The ease with which lead ores may be
gained from the earth and then worked,
is sufficient to show that the application
of lead to the service of the arts must have been
made very early.</p>
<p>Nowhere does it seem to have been so easily
found as “in England herself <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'whch'">which</ins> is the
classic land of lead and tin” (Abbé Cochet).
These two metals made the early fame of Britain;
they brought here the Phœnician trader
and had doubtless much to do with the Roman
occupation of this distant island.</p>
<p>“Tin and lead,” says Harrison in his <cite>Description
of England</cite>, “metals which Strabo noteth
in his time to be carried into Marseilles from
hence, as Diodorus also confirmeth, are very
plentiful with us, the one in Cornwall, Devonshire,
and elsewhere in the north, the other in
Derbyshire, Weredale, and sundry places of this
island.... There were mines of lead sometimes
also in Wales which endured so long till
the people had consumed all their wood by
melting of the same.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span></p>
<p>Tin, which was of such sovereign necessity
for the composition of bronze, was, with lead, an
object of wide commerce, as we may learn from
the prophecy of Ezekiel against Tyre, whose
long black ships did the carrying trade of the
world. As the Tarshish of Scripture is the
Tartessus of classic authors—an entrepôt of
Phœnician trade in Spain—it may well be of
English mined metal that the prophet speaks:—“Tarshish
was thy merchant by reason
of the multitude of all kinds of riches; with
silver, iron, tin, and lead they traded in thy
fairs.”</p>
<p>The Assyrian slabs which contain the accounts
of the expedition into Syria in the ninth century
<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> include among the tribute exacted of
Tyre and of Jerusalem itself “bars of gold,
silver, copper, and lead.” Solomon used lead
in the structure of the great wall of Jerusalem.</p>
<p>Sir H. Layard says the mountains three or
four days’ journey from Nineveh furnished iron,
copper, lead, and silver in abundance, and he
found instances of its actual use at Nineveh.
Place also, in his excavations at Khorsabad, discovered
a foundation inscription of Sargon II.,
the great builder of the eighth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> engraved
on a plate of lead. A leaden jar and a
piece of pipe were found by Loftus at Mugheir.</p>
<p>In Egypt it was sparingly used. Sir G.
Wilkinson says:—“Lead was comparatively<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>
useless, but was sometimes used for inlaying
temple doors, coffers and furniture, small statuettes
of the gods were occasionally made in this
metal, especially those of Osiris and Anubis.”</p>
<p>In Egypt as well as in Babylonia it was the
custom to make a deposit of several objects in
the foundations, a tradition which we still
follow to-day. At Daphnae Mr. Flinders
Petrie found a set of little slabs of different
stones and small plates of metal, gold, silver,
copper, and lead, all engraved with
the name of Psamtik. The lead
tablet is here <a href="#Fig_1">figured</a>.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 125px;" id="Fig_1">
<img src="images/i_016.png" width="125" height="272" alt="Egyptian inscribed Tablet." />
<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 1.</p>
</div>
<p>The ornamental objects of lead
to which the earliest date can be
assigned are those found by Dr.
Schliemann in his excavations at
Mycenæ and Tiryns.<ins title="Transcriber's Note: added missing footnote marker"><a name="Anchor-1" id="Anchor-1" href="#Footnote-1" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 1.">[1]</a></ins></p>
<p>The Greeks very largely used
lead for many purposes. It is twice
mentioned in the Iliad, and its
familiar use as a building material
is shown by Herodotus, who says that Queen
Nitocris built a bridge over the river at Babylon,
of stone bound together with lead and iron;
and the story the Greek historian gives of the
celebrated hanging gardens describes how they
were raised on high terraces of arches covered
with bitumen and sheets of lead.</p>
<p>Sufficient actual examples of Greek lead work<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span>
are stored up in museums, masonry with dowels
of lead, inscribed tablets, small toys and tokens,
little vases for eye salve about as large as a
thimble, boxes for unguents, and sling bullets.
These last are often inscribed so
that the warrior might know his
work, often with flouts and jibes
and jeers. One in the Lewes Museum
has <span class="greek" title="Transliteration: EUGEI">ΕΥΓΕΙ</span>,—“Well done”; others
have “Hit Hard,” &c.</p>
<p>In the museums of Athens are
some small figures, a Dionysiac
wreath of gilt lead leaves to be
worn as a garland, a <a href="#Fig_2">lead quiver</a> for
arrows about fifteen inches long,
also plummets and market weights,
with other objects. Mr. Cockerell
found that parts of the early pediment
sculptures at Ægina were of
lead, and lead is inlaid in the
volute of the early Ionic capital
from the archaic temple of Ephesus
now in the British Museum.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;" id="Fig_2">
<img src="images/i_017.png" width="100" height="509" alt="Greek Quiver." />
<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 2.</p>
</div>
<p>The plummets are interesting to
us as builders’ implements; there
are two or three dozen in the British
Museum, about three inches high
and one inch at the base tapering
upwards: some are marked with the
letter A on one side and on the <a href="#Fig_3">obverse</a>
a little relief, a throne-seat with an owl. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>
owl was Athene’s own symbol, and appears on
the coinage of Athens in a form from which
this seems copied. The Acropolis
was her throne. We will stretch
our imaginations far enough to
believe that the A stands for
Athens and that these are the
very implements used in setting
the masonry of one of the corner
stones of the world’s art—the
Parthenon.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 125px;" id="Fig_3">
<img src="images/i_018.png" width="125" height="272" alt="Builder’s Plummet." />
<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 3.</p>
</div>
<p>The market weights are remarkable
in bearing devices like
the types of coins. For the
most part they are square cakes
and the devices simple almost to
rudeness, yet they have that impress
of style and grace in the design, with the
large free handling in which is the exquisiteness
of Greek art. A sketchiness so simple and easy
can be the only right treatment for a metal so
likely to receive injury in the use; to these as
in all art so considered the inevitable injuries
of wear are little loss. We can hardly suppose
that such a simple industry as making lead
weights for the markets would have had artists
capable of designing, and suggesting in relief
types like these, rather we may suppose that
some of the great coiners furnished the models,
especially as they would be issued by the authorities
of the several towns.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span></p>
<p>We may take this first opportunity of remarking
that the patterns for all ornament
<em>intended for casting</em> should be <em>modelled</em> like these,
never <em>carved</em>, as is now so universally the case
for cast iron and the applied enrichments of
picture frames, the reason being that cast material
of this sort, so easily injured, is unsuited
for giving definition and high relief, and should
accept all the limitations of material frankly
and make the most of dull suggestiveness; for
in all these the “best are but shadows” the
modelling emerging from or melting away in the
ground. In two attempts the present writer
has made in modelling for lead casting wax
was used in one instance, and in the other, where
very delicate relief was required made up
mostly of threads and dots, gesso was found to
answer.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_4_5">
<img src="images/i_019.png" width="500" height="245" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 4</span> and 5.—Greek Weights.</p>
</div>
<p>The ram’s head (see <a href="#Fig_4_5">Fig. 4</a>) for instance has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>
only the frontal, the lips, and the horn, made out,
the rest the imagination sees transparently below
the field. In the words of Blake “it is everything
and nothing.” The raised rim is a good
protection.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_6_7">
<img src="images/i_020.png" width="500" height="248" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 6</span> and 7.—Greek Weights.</p>
</div>
<p>The <a href="#Fig_4_5">second</a>, a half Mina of Ægina, is yet
simpler—just a pot, but a beautiful one well
placed. The <a href="#Fig_6_7">third</a> is Attic, a quarter Dimnoun
with scarabeus-like tortoise. The <a href="#Fig_6_7">last</a> is a Mina
of Ægina, it bears the well-known Greek
rendering of the Dolphin and the letters
<span class="greek" title="Transliteration: MNA AGOR">Μ Ν Α Α Γ Ο Ρ</span>. “Market Mina.” The
dolphin has the “bowed back” Sir Thomas
Browne pointed out as a “popular error” of
painters, but the dolphin was to the Greek
mind, rather the genius of the waving sea itself
than any mere particular fish, and this is the
time consecrated form, like this it swims
amongst the undulating hair of the Arethusa<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>
of Syracuse, the most beautiful coin in the
world.</p>
<p>The Romans used lead extensively and much
in the same way as we do—for roof coverings
and water pipes, in masonry and for coffins. In
Rome an immense quantity of lead piping has
been found. The pipes were formed of strips
of cast lead bent round a rod and then soldered.
Most of the work was signed by the plumber,
his name and that of the owner being impressed
in the sand mould.<a name="Anchor-2" id="Anchor-2" href="#Footnote-2" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 2.">[2]</a></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_8_9">
<img src="images/i_021.png" width="500" height="286" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 8</span> and 9.—From the Kircherian Museum.</p>
</div>
<p>There are many beautiful cistae or circular boxes
in the museums of Naples and Rome. These
are decorated with little medallions, shells,
beaded rods, &c., stock patterns which were
impressed in the sand mould in such fresh<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>
combinations as the thought of the workmen
suggested, just as a cook makes pie crust, which
is the subject of nearly the only spontaneous
decorative art now remaining to us. <a href="#Fig_8_9">Figs. 8 and
9</a> are from the Kircherian Museum.</p>
<p>Of the Roman leadwork in the British
Museum the specimens are mostly coffins, and a
number of ingots of lead. These “pigs” have
been found in Cheshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire,
Nottingham, Norfolk, Hants, Somerset,
and Sussex. Of these there are ten in the
British Museum bearing names of emperors and
dates which, put into our era, are—A.D. 49,
Claudius; 59, Nero; 76, Vespasian; 81,
Domitian; 117, Hadrian.</p>
<p>These pigs are about 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> by 18 inches; and
even they are not without design, for some of
them have the well-known classic label to receive
the name.</p>
<p>A beautiful object, remarkable as an instance
of lead used in an article of price, is a vase some
5 inches high. This is evidently a wine cup
from the figures and emblems which decorate it—Bacchus,
Silenus, thyrsi bound with cords, and
four genii of the Seasons carrying appropriate
symbols, one being a garland, another a sheaf
of corn; around the middle is a belt set with
glass jewels of varied colour, dull reds, greens, and
blue, and below this is a wreath of vine (<a href="#Fig_10">Fig. 10</a>).</p>
<p>Compare a very richly decorated vessel in
the engravings of the Museo Borbonico.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span></p>
<p>Lead water pipes of Roman make are frequently
found in England; at Bath there is a
water channel 1 foot 9 inches by 7 inches, of lead
nearly one inch in thickness, and sheets of it 10
feet long lined the basin of the great bath, 30
lbs. in weight to the foot. In the refuse of the
Mendip mines Roman lamps and other articles
of lead have been found.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;" id="Fig_10">
<img src="images/i_023.png" width="450" height="507" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Roman Jewelled Cup.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span></p>
<p>During the Byzantine era lead was much used.
In a curious relief found at Tunis “the founder
seems to have used up all the old models in his
studio. Here a Good Shepherd, Peacocks, and
stags drinking from the four mystical rivers,
palms and vines, are found side by side with
Silenus, a Victory, a Nymph, an Athlete, and
scenes of the chase.”<a name="Anchor-3" id="Anchor-3" href="#Footnote-3" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 3.">[3]</a> In Saxon England lead
was a staple commodity for export and used in
great quantities at home. English merchants of
lead and tin are mentioned as attending the
French fairs from the time of Dagobert. During
the middle ages it was largely applied to many
purposes and manipulated by the various methods
and decorated with the ornaments, particulars
of some of which follow. England was still
the best esteemed source of supply. About
1680 M. Felibien wrote a book on the crafts
connected with architecture, in which he says
that “The greatest part of the lead we use in
France comes from England in large ingots
called ‘Salmons,’ a little lead also comes from
Germany, but it is dry and not so sweet as the
English.”</p>
<p>Up to the 15th century sheet lead was cast
only, but a coffin of the Duke of Bedford (Joan
of Arc’s) at Rouen is already laminated.</p>
<p>Lead is an easy medium for the forgery of
antiques, and some of the objects so produced
are quite pretty. In the museum at Taunton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>
there is a small lead bottle which seems to be a
forgery.</p>
<p>The Plumbers’ Company in London appears
to have been in existence early in the fourteenth
century. In 1365 (39 Edward III.) ordinances
were granted to the Company which had then
been in existence some years. In 1588 (31
Elizabeth) arms and crest were granted; and
in 1611 (9 James I.) a charter was given
renewing all powers and privileges.</p>
<p>Throughout the middle ages lead was more
extensively used in England than elsewhere—our
cathedral roofs, for instance, were all of lead,
whereas abroad they are often of corrugated or flat
tiles, stone or slate. The methods of conducting
water from the roof by stone gutters and
gargoyles was much further developed in France
than here, where lead always came to hand.
Lead pipes with ornamental heads were first
introduced here in England for this purpose, and
they reached a development without parallel
abroad. During the eighteenth century there
was, as we shall see, a large industry in lead
statues, and the plumber’s art continued to the
opening of the present century; indeed, cisterns
decorated with the old devices may be seen as
late as 1840, and some of the old methods have
not yet passed entirely out of memory. The
Exhibition of 1851 marked exactly the general
eclipse of craft tradition. England was no
longer to be saved by work, but by commerce.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p>
<h2>§ III. OF LEAD COVERINGS TO
BUILDINGS.</h2>
<p class="cap">Sheeting buildings with decorative
plates of metal has been one of man’s
architectural instincts. M. Chipiez, in
his essay on the origins of Greek architecture,
considers first:—“The temple, metallic or
covered with metal, which obtained in Medea,
Judaea, and in Asia Minor. Greek writers like
Pausanias speak of edifices having been constructed
of brass; such was the legendary
temple of Apollo at Delphi, that of Athena
Calkhioecos in Sparta, and the treasury of
Myron, tyrant of Sicyon. In the <cite>Eneid</cite> the
temple erected at Carthage by the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Phoenician'">Phœnician</ins>
Dido is also of brass.” From Homer to the
<cite>Arabian Nights</cite> and the mediæval romance
writers, a metal-cased architecture, shining with
gold, has been preeminently the architecture of
the poets.</p>
<p>It would almost seem as if in the Merovingian
age Western Europe passed through the
phase of a metal-cased architecture, but in this
case it was lead that formed the external vestment—an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>
architecture of lead. “Under the
Merovingian kings,” says M. Viollet-le-Duc,
“they covered entire edifices, churches, or palaces,
in lead. St. Eloi is said to have so covered the
church of St. Paul des Champs with sheets of
lead artistically wrought.”</p>
<p>In England Bede mentions a parallel instance.
Finian the successor of St. Aidan in the See of
Lindisfarne built a church after the manner of
the Scots of hewn oak with a thatched roof;
afterwards “Eadbert also bishop of that place
(638) took off the thatch and covered it both
roof and walls with lead.”</p>
<p>The exaggerated lead roofs of the early
mediæval churches in England were in nowise
dictated by utilitarian considerations. The
creeping of the lead on steep surfaces, the
many burnings, and the great expense in large
churches which would take literally acres of
lead, made maintenance a burden, but they liked
this metal casing, and that was enough.</p>
<p>This is still more evident in the mediæval
delight in the tall leaded spires, not in their
aspect as mere roof coverings, but intrinsically
as metal shrines, looking on them with their
decorations as vast pieces of goldsmith’s tabernacle
work. The steep pitch of the roof of
the main building when applied to a square
tower quite naturally produced leaded spires.
These already appear in the drawing made of
Canterbury Cathedral about the year 1160.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>
That these metal-sheeted spires were the best
loved form, and that stone was adopted at last
but as a truce with fire is proved by the spires
of lead which appear in the wall paintings
(those that were at St. Stephen’s for instance),
in the MSS., and by the splendid leaded spire of
St. Paul’s which we shall speak of below. The
spire so treated is not a mere roof, or a cheap
substitute for stone, but takes its place in metal-cased
architecture, as do also the leaded Byzantine
domes of <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Sta.'">St.</ins> Sophia and St. Mark’s.</p>
<p>In that most splendid work of the English
renaissance, the palace of Nonsuch, which was
begun by Henry VIII. in 1538, the structure
was what we call half-timber, the panels were
filled with coloured and gilt reliefs by Italian
modellers, and the timber framing is described
by Pepys, who visited it in 1665, as sheeted
with lead. This casing we may be sure was
covered with delicate Italian arabesques. His
words are, “One great thing is that most of
the house is covered, I mean the posts and
quarters in the walls, with lead and gilded.”</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span></p>
<h2>§ IV. OF LEADED SPIRES AND
TURRETS.</h2>
<p class="cap">Our own old St. Paul’s, the once highest
steeple in the world, which rose 500
feet and more into the clouds, from
whence it at last drew the lightning to its
destruction, was the proudest example of these
lead spires which for beauty at least equalled
the finest examples in stone. When the second
church, begun at the end of the eleventh
century, was but just completed; “the quire was
not thought beautiful enough, though in uniformity
of building it suited with the church:
so that resolving to make it better they began
with the steeple, which was finished in A.D.
1221.” This was the lead-covered steeple, the
only spire of the church which stood centrally
over the crossing. It was 1312 before the
modification of the old church was done, and
thenceforth that part was known as the “new
work.” Within three years afterwards a great
part of the spire of timber covered with lead
being weak and in danger of falling was taken
down and a new cross, with pommel large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>
enough to contain ten bushels of corn, well
gilt was set on the top thereof by Gilbert de
Segrave the Bishop of London with great and
solemn procession, and relics of saints were
placed in it.<a name="Anchor-4" id="Anchor-4" href="#Footnote-4" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 4.">[4]</a> The relics of saints were thus
put at the apex as a safeguard from lightning.</p>
<p>This lead spire, repaired in 1315, must have
been the work spoken of as finished in 1221,
and it was thus the earliest lead spire of considerable
dimensions of which we have any knowledge:
it was an extraordinary development from
the square lead pyramids that covered the
Norman towers at Canterbury and other places.</p>
<p>Stow says the height was 520 feet “whereof
the stone-work is 260 feet, and the spire
was likewise 260 feet. The cross was
15 feet high by 6 feet over the arms, the
inner body was of oak, the next cover was of
lead, and the uttermost was of copper red varnished.
The bowl and the eagle or cock were
of copper and gilt also.” The ball at the apex
was three feet across and the weathercock four
feet from bill to tail and three feet six inches
across the wings. “Certes,” says Harrison,
“the toppe of this spire where the weathercocke
stode was 520 foote from the ground of which
the spire was one half.” The measurements of
Wren confirm the height of the stone tower
(which alone was standing in his day) as being
260 feet, the spire, he says, had been 40 feet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>
diameter at the base and rose 200 feet or more.
It must have been altogether worthy of this vast
church of twenty-five compartments in the interior
vista of arch and vault, 600 feet in
greatest length and 100 feet high. In 1444
the spire narrowly escaped destruction by lightning,
but the fire was put out. “In the year
1561, the 4th of June, between the hours of
three and four of the clock in the afternoon, the
great spire of the steeple of St. Paul’s Church
was fired by lightning, which brake forth as it
seemed two or three yards beneath the foot of
the cross: and from thence it went downwards
the spire to the battlements, stonework, and
bells, so furiously that within the space of four
hours the same steeple with all the roofs of the
church were consumed to the great sorrow and
perpetual remembrance of the beholders.”<a name="Anchor-5" id="Anchor-5" href="#Footnote-5" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 5.">[5]</a> It
was thus destroyed a hundred years before the
great fire when the cathedral perished.</p>
<p>London was a city of lead spires. Stow tells
us that at St. Paul’s School close by the Cathedral
was “of old time a great and high clochiard
or bell-house, four square built of stone and in
the same a most strong frame of timber with
four bells the greatest that I have ever heard.
The same has a great spire covered with lead
with the image of St. Paul on the top.” It was
said that Sir Thomas Partridge won it by a throw
of dice from Henry VIII., and pulled it down.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>
Stow, who would have thought the Society for
the Preservation of Ancient Buildings, to which
we owe so much good work, much too cautious
in its methods, reports with much pleasure,
“This man was afterwards hanged on Tower
Hill.” At St. Bartholomew’s Priory, Smithfield,
was another of these timber spires.</p>
<p>A spire said to have been even higher than this
of St. Paul’s was erected in the fourteenth century
over the central tower at Lincoln. The two
western towers also had spires which were taken
down to save the cost of repair within this century.
This group of three great leaded spires
crowning the Hill-city must have been one of
the most wonderful the whole world over. The
central tower as it now stands is 270 feet high
54 feet on the face; it was finished in 1311.
“The spire of timber covered with lead reaching
a height of 524 feet which once surmounted it
was destroyed by a tempest in 1548.”<a name="Anchor-6" id="Anchor-6" href="#Footnote-6" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 6.">[6]</a></p>
<p>The plates in Dugdale’s <cite>Monasticon</cite> engraved
by Hollar and others surprise us by the number
of leaded spires to the cathedrals not one of
which has survived storm and flames or the
crueller hatred of beauty which the modern
mind has developed. There are those of the
two west towers of Durham, western spires at
Canterbury, Peterborough, and Ely, all three at
Lincoln, and four smaller pinnacles at Norwich.
Two square pyramids shown to the west tower<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>
of Southwell, were probably the original covering
of the twelfth century. These are now
“restored” and they look as false as the word.</p>
<p>The great central spires at Rochester and at
Hereford and the central and two western spires
at Ripon are shown of lead, as is also that of
the beautiful isolated belfry at Salisbury, which
was destroyed “to improve the view of the
cathedral.” Of three of these large central
spires shown in Dugdale, Rochester and Hereford
rise from square towers with “broaches”:
the first is of a curious and yet happy form,
with recessed faces, and the other is an octagon
of which the cardinal faces are wider than the
alternate sides. The great spire of Ripon rose
within the stone parapet of the tower, apparently
at first twelve-sided with gables, and the spire
itself twenty-four, each pair making a slight reentering
angle—a beautiful composition it must
have been of light and delicate shadow on the
silver white of the old lead. This fair colour is
of great importance; several of the old spires
which remain to us are as white as if whitewashed.
Modern ones, like the grimy thing at
Lynn, would be improved by being whitewashed.
The old, that at Minster in Kent for instance, tell
as bright high lights in a general view of the landscape
such as that you obtain from Richborough.</p>
<p>The finest of the English spires now existing
constructed of timber and sheeted with lead is
that of Long Sutton in Lincolnshire, the highest,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>
oldest, and most perfect. The stone tower with
octagon projections at the angles, is 25 feet square
and 65 high, standing free from the church to
which it is attached by one angle only. The
flèche itself is 85 feet from the eaves to the top
of an enormous relic “pommel” some four feet
in diameter, which is thus 150 feet in the air.
The four octagonal projections carry large
pinnacles 25 feet high, which at a little height
disengage themselves wholly from the great
flèche, but with consummate art all lean their
axes inwards towards it as much as two feet.
The wooden framing, carefully measured by Mr.
Austin,<a name="Anchor-7" id="Anchor-7" href="#Footnote-7" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 7.">[7]</a> shows that this grouping of the lines
was as much done from set purpose as the inclination
of the lines in the Parthenon of which we
hear so much. Each face of the leading has the
rolls arranged in a double row of herringbone,
and the faces of the pinnacles have the leading
slanting in one direction only. Altogether it is
a most interesting and most beautiful work of
the thirteenth century.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;" id="Fig_11">
<img src="images/i_035.png" width="200" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Spire, Barnstaple.</p>
</div>
<p>The <a href="#Fig_11">drawing</a> here given is of the fine old
steeple at Barnstaple, which was saved from
destruction by the good advice of Sir Gilbert
Scott—and lack of funds! It is a delightfully
careless and cheerful looking object, like that at
Chesterfield, warped and nodding, which outrages
the precise sensibilities of the townspeople; it
was erected in 1389, as appears from the accounts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>
and was repaired and altered in the seventeenth
century (as shown by a date and initials,
“1636 W. T.”), at which time the spire lights
were opened out. The external bells are unusual
in England. There are two other spires of
village churches in the neighbourhood at
Braunton and Swymbridge. The spires at
Chesterfield, Godalming, Almondsbury in
Gloucestershire, Wrighton in
Northumberland, and Harrow
(1481), are among the finest
that remain. Of the destroyed
church at Reculver the west
towers, which are retained as landmarks,
had lead spires. In some
spires in Norfolk, about Cromer,
two or three feet of the leading
is omitted, thus forming an
open band through which the
timbering and a bell hung here
may be seen. In some of the
spires the lead is laid in vertical
strips, as at Minster in Thanet,
and a <a href="#Fig_12">sketch</a> given from a church in Hertfordshire
shows the lower part in a way arcaded by an
ingenious arrangement of the rolls. At great
Baddow Church, Essex, vertical rolls run up
about two-thirds of the spire, and the rest is
plain. Generally, however, the lead work is
arranged in herring-bone with careful irregularity
and change so as to get a texture in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>
surface so different to the dead and dreary
accuracy we should attain to. Low square
spires at Ottery St. Mary are good examples
of lead texture for those who see some beauty
in the jointing of the armour of a tortoise.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 125px;" id="Fig_12">
<img src="images/i_036.png" width="125" height="259" alt="Another Spire." />
<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 12.</p>
</div>
<p>The construction of the wood framing of the
greater of these spires is a forest of intricate
interlacing timbers, the best authority for which
is the article <cite>Flèche</cite> in Viollet-le-Duc, or Burges’
drawing of Amiens in his volume of careful
studies of the Gothic art of France.</p>
<p>The most decorated of these lead spires in
England—although not very large—is at East
Harling in Norfolk. It rises within the stone
battlement and has an open stage with wood
pinnacles and crocketed “flying buttresses” all
covered with lead. The sides of the spire proper,
very narrow and acute, have the rolls arranged
in lozenges instead of the usual herring-bone
or vertical lines, the lozenges are on one side as
wide as the face, breaking into a zig-zag above,
on another side are smaller lozenges three or
four in the width changing into one again
above: at the apex is a large finial knob.<a name="Anchor-8" id="Anchor-8" href="#Footnote-8" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 8.">[8]</a></p>
<p>Wren’s knowledge of the spire of old St.
Paul’s possibly led him to try his hand at leaded
spires, and the result in some of the City churches,
particularly that one on Ludgate Hill that is
such a perfect foil for the great dome of St.
Paul’s, shows his usual assured mastery. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>
spire of St. Olave, Hart Street, is said to have
a crystal ball at the apex.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="Fig_13">
<img src="images/i_038.png" width="300" height="590" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Barnard’s Inn Hall.</p>
</div>
<p>The smaller turrets on college halls are
generally covered with lead in an ogee form.
Those at Oxford
have often a lozenge
raised on each face,
that on <a href="#Fig_13">Barnard’s
Inn</a> in the City is
wholly enveloped
in lead. A turret
on the alms-houses
at Abingdon has
large letters and
crowns, which are
gilt, standing up
free on the slanting
faces. At
Hampton Court
there are turret
roofs, ogee with
crockets and finials
and little pinnacles
set round at the
springing. At
Nonsuch leaded
turrets surmounted
the great octagons
at the angles, they were probably much decorated
and certainly of considerable size, making
very picturesque compositions, as we may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>
see in the rude views of the palace which
exist.</p>
<p>In France and Germany there are many
remarkable leaded spires, but we can only stay
to mention the steeple at Chalons-sur-Marne,
the central flèche at Amiens, and the belfry at
Calais. The steeple at Chalons is a most
interesting work, large and well-designed, with
faint and fascinating remains of a gorgeous
scheme of colour decoration patterning the
whole surface of the lead with figures and
canopies resembling the drawing on stained glass,
the lead rolls passing across the design like the
iron glazing bars. This was carefully drawn by
Burges and illustrated in the <cite>Builder</cite> for 1856,
and the whole spire is represented to scale in the
Sketch Book of the Architectural Association
for 1883. This is a work of the end of the
thirteenth century, and the decoration was done
in the following century. It will be well to
mention it more particularly later, but as Viollet-le-Duc
says that nearly all the lead work of the
middle ages was so decorated we may conclude
that such a magnificent spire as St. Paul’s was
not entirely bare of gold and colour.</p>
<p>The flèche at Amiens, which rises from the
roof some 100 feet of “transparent fretwork
which seems to bend to the west wind,” is well
illustrated in Viollet-le-Duc’s Dictionary as well
as by Burges. Every resource of the art was
lavished on it, pinnacles and niches, lead statues,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>
tracery, great circular coronets of pierced cast
work. The sheet lead was diapered with fleurs-de-lis,
and all was decorated with designs in
colour and gold. Although perfectly Gothic
in form it is a work of the sixteenth century,
and the painting is in the manner of the Renaissance.</p>
<p>At Calais the fine belfry represented in <a href="#Fig_14">Fig.
14</a>, which was completed about 1600, is in some
respects very English in character, while on the
other hand it is a northern representative of a
class of bulbous spires which are as much cupolas
as spires, and were probably often intended as
fantastic domes. These, although later found
all across Europe, from Russia to Belgium, were
never naturalised in England on a large scale,
our nearest approach to them being in the ogee
cupolas of small turrets and lanterns and some
of Wren’s spires. In Holland they were very
much affected in the most extravagant forms,
and they are now the constant form of church
spire seen in eastern Europe. They seem much
at home in such a city as Buda-Pesth, and have
doubtless characteristics which endear them to
those of Mongolian blood and speech. It is
an interesting point to decide whether these
forms are in origin actually Eastern—“travelled
topes” as a friend says—or whether they are
the natural outcome of a combination of spire
and dome in a period of extravagant and declining
taste.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 239px;" id="Fig_14">
<img src="images/i_041.png" width="239" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Calais Belfry.</p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span></p>
<h2>§ V. OF DOMES.</h2>
<p class="cap">The Romans covered domes in lead; during
the Byzantine empire they very generally
did so. Constantinople in the age of
Justinian was a city of lead domes, as it has
always since remained. The domes of St. Sophia
are still covered with lead laid over the brickwork.
This tradition was carried on by the
Greek master builders who erected the great
mosques for the conquerors. A large mosque
has as many as twenty or thirty domes of all
sizes grouped about the central one. The
bazaars, caravansaries, and bakeries, have long
level rows of cupolas. This prospect of dome
beyond dome in a succession as of billows is of
marvellous beauty in a general view of the city
as seen from the sea. The lead is laid over the
brickwork, the rolls are very small, and as they
have no wood core the lines are very irregular.
Some of the lead domes of Constantinople were
melon-shaped, that is having large <em>convex</em>
gores. A Turkish example of this remains in an
ogee-shaped dome at the angle of the Seraglio
wall near St. Sophia.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span></p>
<p>Most interesting works of this tradition are
the “domes” or rather domical roofs of St.
Mark’s at Venice. Those eastern-looking forms
which give such fantasy to it were raised to
their present form on wooden framework in the
thirteenth century. They are sheeted with plain
rolls except the bulb-formed lanterns, which are
much like an umbrella in which every gore has
a salient angle, a “ridge and valley.” These
five timber-framed spire-like domes, erected for
their own sake and not lying close to the interior
form of the building, in this respect resemble
northern spires. The whole group rising over
the level front of St. Mark’s is a work of the
highest imaginative genius. It is not a building
with a dome but a building roofed in domes,
bubbling over with domes; and it expresses the
metal shrine idea in perfection. The original
leaded domes of St. Mark’s were copied from
those of the church of the Holy Apostles at
Constantinople, a church built by Justinian.</p>
<p>At the Renaissance the leaded dome became a
popular commonplace especially at Venice. For
the most part these were covered like a roof with
ordinary rolls. By forming ribs and panels in
the wooden foundation a more elaborate but not
more successful aspect is obtained. St. Paul’s is
well designed in this way. This design with the
great ribs Sir Christopher Wren considered “less
gothick than sticking it full of rows of little
windows” as at St. Peter’s. It was first intended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>
to cover St. Paul’s dome with copper, but £500
was saved by substituting lead at a cost of
£2,500.</p>
<p>At the National Gallery—a very careful and
refined work, one of the last of the old scholarly
dead language sort we call classic—the lead
covering is formed into raised scales and frets,
very well and successfully done of its kind.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span></p>
<h2>§ VI. OF ROOFS.</h2>
<p class="cap">The Romans used lead as a roof covering.
In the West “one can hardly (Viollet-le-Duc
says) explore the ruins of a Gallo-Roman
erection without finding some sheet-lead
that had been employed for gutters or roofs.”
In the East—Eusebius says of Constantine’s
Basilica (the Holy Sepulchre) at Jerusalem—“the
roof with its chambers was covered with
lead to protect it from the winter rain.” In
England Bede tells us of Wilfrid having roofed
his church at York with lead in the seventh
century, and it has continued without a break in
its use as the most perfect of coverings.</p>
<p>The methods employed in the middle ages are
described by Burges and Viollet-le-Duc. The
latter well remarks that of lead covering, as well as
many other parts of the construction of buildings,
we are a little too apt to think overmuch of the
perfection of our modern methods while we are
too little careful to learn the experience acquired
by our forefathers.</p>
<p>The old cast lead is much thicker than the
modern milled lead, being as much as twelve or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>
thirteen pounds to the foot of surface. It is
certainly not quite even in thickness, and is
subject to faults in the casting, but it is not so
liable to crack as is milled lead. The old lead
employed has also a considerable quantity of
silver and arsenic in it, which was the cause of
the beautiful white oxide it obtained. Modern
lead blackens as the preparation of lead now
includes its “de-silverisation.” The acid of
timber which has not lost its sap decomposes lead;
old building timber was water-seasoned as only
ship timber now is.</p>
<p>The chief difficulties that had to be overcome
in the use of lead were the weight of the sheets
of lead to be maintained in position, and the great
dilatation of the metal under the heat of the sun,
so that it had to be at once strongly attached and
free to move. The method followed was to
nail it at the top and roll the lateral edges
together.</p>
<p>The roofing at Canterbury was of twelve-pound
lead and about 2.0 between the rolls. The
thirteenth century lead of Chartres Cathedral,
“covered externally by time with a patina hard,
brown, and wrinkled, and shining in the sun,”
was in sheets eight feet long, attached at the top
by nails with very large heads and held at the
bottom by clips of iron that passed down between
the sheets and turned over the bottom edge of
the upper one. The rolls were formed by turning
over the margins one in the other without a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>
wood roll; they were much smaller than the
modern ones.</p>
<p>Our milled lead is rolled out in sheets about
16 × 6 feet and is usually cut in half lengthways,
and 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inches is allowed in each edge to form
the rolls which are thus 2′-3″ apart. Lead one
inch thick is sixty pounds to the square foot, so
six-pounds lead is <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>10</sub>th of an inch in thickness.
We generally make the mistake of putting
a longitudinal roll along the ridge, but it is not
so done in our old roofs, nor should it be, for
the running out of the rolls frets the ridge into
a simple decoration.</p>
<p>The lead covering of old roofs should be
jealously maintained—its loss is irreparable. If
repair becomes absolutely necessary for the
protection of the building, such lead should be
recast, it should never be replaced by milled
lead. The old metal is easily recast on the
ground, and this is now frequently done, but
not frequently enough. It was cast on a
wood table with a projecting margin or curb
all round; on this slid up and down a cross
piece notched down to give the proper gauge to
the lead which it levelled.</p>
<p>Where lead was applied to the vertical or
steep planes of dormers or spires the interlocking
of the sheets in herring-bone was a practical as
well as an artistic expedient. Where nails had
to be driven through exposed lead, in repairs or
otherwise, flaps like little shields were laid over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>
them soldered on the top edge. Lead, where
used to incase wood tracery, as in the open work
of spires or dormers, was secured by means of
laps and rolls without solder so that it was free
to expand and contract. The modern plumber
is much too apt to employ soldered joints even
in structural work.</p>
<p>Small openings were made like little dormers,
for ventilation of the roof timbers, by dressing a
stout piece of lead up into a triangle or half
circle in front dying back on the roof with the
back turned up under the tiles or slates.</p>
<p>Sometimes cast ornaments were applied to a
slated roof; the disc with undulating rays on the
slated apex of the north-west tower at Rouen is
an instance.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span></p>
<h2>§ VII. OF LEAD COFFINS.</h2>
<p class="cap">In the later classical period lead was much
used for coffins; several of very fine workmanship
have been discovered in Syria, some
of these, very delicately ornamented are figured by
Perrot, and Chipiez.<a name="Anchor-9" id="Anchor-9" href="#Footnote-9" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 9.">[9]</a> In the Louvre there is a finely
decorated example of the Roman period, and
large numbers of Roman lead coffins have been
found both in England and in France. There
is a very beautifully decorated early Christian
coffin in the museum at Cannes, this has a
border of vine and birds with monograms of
Christ—<span class="greek" title="Transliteration: CHR. ICHTHYS">ΧΡ. ΙΧΘΥΣ</span>.<a name="Anchor-10" id="Anchor-10" href="#Footnote-10" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 10.">[10]</a> <a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a> shows portions
of ornamentation from a remarkable series of
coffins now in the museum of Constantinople.
There are some eight or ten of these and all
decorated in the most elaborate way with
tendrils and medallions beautifully modelled in
very slight relief. None of the symbols are
definitely Christian, but they evidently belong to
the same school as the last named. The neighbourhood
of Beyrout and the ancient Sidon was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>
the site of the discovery of most of these coffins
of early Christian date.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_15">
<img src="images/i_050.png" width="500" height="255" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Ornaments from early Christian Coffins, Constantinople.</p>
</div>
<p>The coffins found in England are not so much
Roman as strictly Anglo-Roman, for far more
have been found here than in any other country,
such as have been found in France are near our
shores as if certainly made of our lead, and the
ornamentation of the English examples has a
common likeness in the use of the scallop shell
which is not represented abroad. The comparison
can best be made in a little book by the
learned archæologist Abbé Cochet of Rouen,
<cite>Les Cercueils de Plomb</cite> (1871), in which the
examples found in France are figured.</p>
<p>These English coffins and sepulchral cists
are mostly in the British Museum and at
Colchester. The <a href="#Fig_16_17">cists</a> are plain circular boxes
some ten inches diameter by fourteen inches high;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>
one of these is decorated by simple circles and
another has crossed rods of “reel and bead,”
with applied small panels of chariots and horses.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_16_17">
<img src="images/i_051.png" width="500" height="352" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 16</span> and 17.—Cists, British Museum.</p>
</div>
<p>The coffins have been found chiefly in the London
district—in the Minories, Stepney, Stratford;
at East Ham, Plumstead in Kent (this last is
now in Maidstone Museum)—at Southfleet and
at Colchester and Norwich. They are decorated
by rods of “bead and reel” differently arranged
on the lids in zig-zags or lozenges, with scallop
shells and plain rings placed in the spaces. The
rods and shells were evidently separately impressed
into the flat field of the sand mould and
that with the artful carelessness which shows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>
that the designer and the workmen were one and
the same person, an artist. With these simple
elements compositions are made of quite classic
distinction and grace. Mr. Alma-Tadema
apparently drew the fine leaden oleander tub in
his picture from these coffins, and it makes a
perfect flower-pot.</p>
<p>A coffin found at Pettham in Kent was
decorated by a simple cord which passed around
once transversely in the middle and then each of
the spaces thus formed on lid, sides, and ends
had diagonals of cord. A fragment of one
in the museum at Cirencester is more finished
and refined, it has a saltire of the twisted bars
with terminations at their ends, and in one of the
spaces is a small female head.</p>
<p>The coffins are made like a modern paper
box with a lid lapping over the sides. Some
sketches are given from those in the British
Museum. That shown in <a href="#Fig_18_19">Fig. 19</a> was of
full length (6 ft.) but only a part of the lid
remains. The other two (Figs. <a href="#Fig_18_19">18</a> and <a href="#Fig_20">20</a>) are
less than 4 ft., one of which is ornamented
with rings and ropes and curious forms like the
letter B. Those at Colchester are like the
former. These coffins are all very white with
oxide.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 418px;" id="Fig_18_19">
<img src="images/i_053.png" width="418" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 18</span> and 19.—Roman Coffins, British Museum.</p>
</div>
<p>The French examples have been found at
Boulogne, Beauvais, Amiens, Angers, Rouen,
and Valogne near Cherbourg, but none are like
the English in having rods of beads with scallop<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>
shells. One has only
groups of rings which,
simple as it is, makes
a design. Another at
Rouen has a human
head in a circle at the
centre with six lions’
heads in octagons.
That at Valogne has a
trunk-shaped lid with
flying genii and birds;
and one at Nismes has
lions and griffins, and
between each pair persons
planting a vine.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;" id="Fig_20">
<img src="images/i_054.png" width="175" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Roman Coffin, British Museum.</p>
</div>
<p>There is just enough
evidence to show that
the use of leaden coffins
was continued by the
English after they had
superseded the Romans.
St. Guthlac, Abbot of
Croyland, was, Leland
says, buried in a sarcophagus
of lead. And
St. Dunstan was buried
at Canterbury in a lead
coffin.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 354px;" id="Fig_21">
<img src="images/i_055.png" width="354" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Thirteenth Century Coffin, Temple Church.</p>
</div>
<p>Directly after the
Conquest we find them
in use. At Lewes there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>
are two coffins of De Warren (1088), and his
wife the daughter of the Conqueror (1085);
they are covered with the reticulated meshes of
a net, both sides and lid as if cast from actual
netted cord. At the heads are the names
WILLELM, GVNDRADA.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_22_23">
<img src="images/i_056.png" width="500" height="440" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 22</span> and 23.—Thirteenth Century Coffins, Temple Church.</p>
</div>
<p>St. Dunstan was re-interred in the new work,
at Canterbury in 1180 in a coffin of lead which
was “not plain, but of beautiful plaited work.”</p>
<p>Some most remarkable coffins thus decorated
were discovered in 1841 in relaying the floor of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>
the Temple Church in London; the style of
their design would show that they were made
about the year 1200. They contained the
bodies represented above them by the cross-legged
stone effigies of knights. These coffins
were drawn and published by Mr. Edward
Richardson in 1845, from whose careful drawings
are made the <a href="#Fig_21">accompanying</a> <a href="#Fig_22_23">illustrations</a>.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;" id="Fig_24">
<img src="images/i_057.png" width="175" height="540" alt="Coffin, Winchester." />
<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 24.</p>
</div>
<p>The extreme delicacy of the
ornament is most remarkable.
Here again the pattern design
is made up of portions several
times repeated in similar or
different combinations; the
panels were either cast to the
required number and then
arranged on a board from
which the final mould was
made; or the parts were impressed
separately in a smooth
and level surface of moulding
sand, and this with all the
rapid ease of self-sufficient
art. They are about 6 feet
6 inches long, and some are
formed like the stone coffins
of the time with a circular end
for the head. The sides as
well as the covering are decorated
in the richest example
by two of the same small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>
square patterns alternating, and in others by
vertical cords at intervals.</p>
<p>At Winchester there has recently been exposed
a fifteenth century coffin bearing on the
lid a cross and the arms of the Bishop Courtenay.
(<a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>.)</p>
<p>Later the form was made to conform more
closely to the body, being rather a wrapping than
a box. That of Henry IV. (1413) at Canterbury
was of this form, as also was that found at
Westminster under the tomb of Henry VII., the
latter had a small cross at the breast only.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_25">
<img src="images/i_058.png" width="500" height="349" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—At Moissac.</p>
</div>
<p>The heart-box of Richard Cœur de Lion is
mentioned in another place. There is a heart
casket in the British Museum, circular and much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>
like a flower-pot; on the lid is the device of a
spear-head within a garter, and engraved outside
is this inscription:—“Here lith the Harte of
Sir Henrye Sydney. Anno Domini 1586.”</p>
<p>A fine coffin (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>) is represented in the lead
group of the entombment at Moissac in France.
This is 15th century work.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span></p>
<h2>§ VIII. OF FONTS.</h2>
<p class="cap">England is extremely rich in the possession
of early fonts in lead; these are for
the most part alike in being of the
twelfth or early thirteenth century. Nearly all
of them agree in being circular and have other
similarities which with many repetitions in their
design would seem to relate them to one family.
As in Sussex there are in the neighbouring
villages of Edburton and Piecombe two fonts
substantially alike, and in Gloucestershire
another pair, with others that have close
resemblances; they have been claimed for local
manufacture, yet a strong case could be made
out for most of them coming from one common
centre. As, further, there are several specimens
in Normandy entirely parallel, the question
arises whether the type arose here or there, for
there can be no doubt as to one set being
indebted to the other. As England was so
especially a lead producing and exporting
country, and as such a number of these fonts
remain with us broadly scattered over the
country, while there are but comparatively few in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>
France, and those mostly in Normandy, this,
with the local coincidences pointed out, would
seem to give us the best claim.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_26">
<img src="images/i_061.png" width="500" height="312" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Vessel, Lewes Museum.</p>
</div>
<p>There is in the Lewes Museum a lead cistern-like
object of Saxon work, which is represented
in <a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>. It is about 14 inches long and 8
inches high, the sides are decorated with triangles
of interlacing patterns cast with the lead. It has
two handles of iron; but as it would be much
too heavy for a movable vessel, and as the small
foreign lead font in Kensington Museum has
handles also, it is probably a font. The cross
in the decoration would go to confirm this.</p>
<p>Some of the fonts of Norman date it cannot
be doubted were made in England. But unless
we would claim the two figured by Viollet-le-Duc<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>
and that at St. Evrault-le-Montford which
is similar to ours at Brookland described below,
we can hardly claim to have made all our own.
Possibly examples were brought here, as was the
case with several black stone fonts in England.</p>
<p>Some of these lead fonts (that at Wareham for
instance) appear to have been cast in one piece.
But for the most part they are small low cylinders
cast flat in sheet with the ornaments repeated
usually more than once in the sand mould; the
casting was then bent round and soldered. In
one case, where it is not joined so as to form a
cylinder, but with the sides spreading to the top,
the band of ornamentation which was straight
on the sheet runs up as it approaches the joint
in a most amusing way. The patterns consist
of delicate scroll-work, arcades and boldly
modelled figures 10 or 12 inches high; a
moulding strengthens the upper and lower
edges. They stand on stone pedestals.</p>
<p>There are altogether some twenty-eight or
thirty of these fonts in England.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;" id="Fig_27">
<img src="images/i_063.png" width="401" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Font, Brookland, Kent.</p>
</div>
<p>The font at Brookland at Kent is very small,
only 11 inches high, an arcade surrounds it of
two stages in twelve bays. In the upper tier are
the signs of the Zodiac with their Latin names,
and below the subjects of the labours appropriate
to the months with their names in Norman
French. This scheme of imagery is well known
abroad but while often occurring in English
MSS. this is one of very few examples of its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>
treatment in sculpture. Although the scale of
the figures is small and they are but slightly
modelled, there is a great deal of character,
appropriateness, and grace, in their gesture.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_28">
<img src="images/i_064.png" width="500" height="533" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Font, Brookland.</p>
</div>
<p>A comparative table of the usual scenes
which accompany the signs has been given in
<cite>Archæologia</cite>, and another, probably more accessible,
in the <cite>Stones of Venice</cite>. With the examples<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>
there given the scenes on the font very closely
agree. They are inscribed in capitals:—</p>
<ul id="zodiac">
<li><span class="smcap">Aquarius.—Janvier.</span> A Janus-headed figure feasting.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Pisces.—Fevrier.</span> Warming feet at fire.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Aries.—Mars.</span> Man hooded and pruning a vine.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Taurus.—Avril.</span> Young girl with lilies in her hand.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Gemini.—Mai.</span> Man on horse, hawk on wrist.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Cancer.—Juin.</span> Mowing with a scythe.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Leo.—Julius.</span> Man with wide brim hat raking hay.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Virgo.—Aout.</span> Cutting corn.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Libra.—Septembre.</span> Threshing corn.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Scorpio.—Octobre.</span> Treading out wine.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Sagittarius.—Novembre.</span> Woman lighting with candles the next scene, or feeding the pigs.</li>
<li><span class="smcap">Capricornus.—Decembre.</span> Man, killing swine with axe.</li>
</ul>
<p>The signs are thus represented:—Aquarius,
man pouring water from a jug. Pisces, two
fish as usual reversed. The ram and the bull
are much alike. The twins and the crab are
not remarkable, except the latter for unlikeness.
Leo is a good heraldic beast. The Virgin,
much obscured. Libra, a man with scales.
Scorpio, is certainly a frog. Sagittarius, a
centaur. Capricorn is indeed a capricious
creature like a cockatrice with horns. The
forequarters of a goat with fish-tail is the traditional
form for this sign handed on from the
Roman Zodiac.</p>
<p>In the months, the Mower, the man raking,
and especially the Reaper, are well designed; the
man pruning is also good, and the girl with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>
long stalked lilies in her hand is charming.
The four last are shown in the <a href="#Fig_27">sketches</a> <a href="#Fig_28">given</a>.
The pillars are varied, every third standing on
the loop as shown.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_29">
<img src="images/i_066.png" width="500" height="400" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Font, Edburton, Sussex.</p>
</div>
<p>The font at <a href="#Fig_29">Edburton</a> in Sussex is 21
inches in diameter and 14 inches high; it
has a wide band of foliage and at the top a row
of trefoil panels. At Piecombe, the adjoining
parish, the upper row of small trefoil arches and
the narrow band of ornament are the same, but
instead of the lower panels there is a row of
round-headed arches.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span></p>
<p>At Lancourt, or Llancault, and Tedenham in
Gloucestershire there are fonts in duplicate.
These are much larger, 2 feet 8 inches in
diameter by 1 foot 7 inches high. An
arcade of twelve arches surrounds the bowl; each
compartment has a throned figure or a panel of
foliage alternately. There are two varieties of
figure and foliage, each is thrice repeated and the
little columns are twisted and decorated. These
two fonts are evidently of the twelfth century.<a name="Anchor-11" id="Anchor-11" href="#Footnote-11" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 11.">[11]</a>
At Frampton-on-Severn is a font with similar
seated figures and foliage.</p>
<p>At Wareham in Dorsetshire the font is
hexagonal with two standing figures under
arches in each face, twelve altogether. The
sides instead of being vertical slope outwards.
The style seems central Norman not transitional,
like several of the examples.</p>
<p>At Dorchester, Oxfordshire, the bowl is
2 feet 1 inch diameter 14 inches deep, it
has an arcade wholly of seated figures of bishops.
It is a very beautiful work, the figures are
extremely well modelled, and the whole in good
condition, the lead of great substance.</p>
<p><a href="#Fig_30">Walton-on-the-hill</a>, Surrey, has a similar font
14 inches high, surrounded by an arcade,
and in each compartment a sitting figure. A
sketch of one arch given is necessarily rough, as
the modelling, even at first soft and sketchy, has
suffered some injury in the use of 700 years.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span></p>
<p>At Wansford, Northamptonshire, is another
of these with arcades and figures.<a name="Anchor-12" id="Anchor-12" href="#Footnote-12" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 12.">[12]</a></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_30">
<img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="500" height="593" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Font, Walton, Surrey.</p>
</div>
<p>At Childrey, in Berkshire, there is also a font
with twelve mitred bishops with pastoral staffs
and books.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span></p>
<p>Another at Long-Wittenham, in the same
county, has the arcade at bottom of very tiny
pointed arches of some thirty bays with figures,
above are panels with discs and rosettes.<a name="Anchor-13" id="Anchor-13" href="#Footnote-13" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 13.">[13]</a> One
at Warborough, in Oxfordshire, is similar in
style, made in the same workshop apparently.
The bottom half has a small arcade interrupted
after every four arches by three higher ones:
in the twelve small niches are figures of bishops
with mitre and staff and lifted hand in benediction,
the three high arches and the space above
the little ones have discs of ornament, the
bishops are repeated from one pattern; the size
is 1-3 in height by 2-2 diameter.<a name="Anchor-14" id="Anchor-14" href="#Footnote-14" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 14.">[14]</a></p>
<p>Woolhampton, in Berkshire, has a font in
which the lead is placed over stone and pierced,
leaving an arcade and figures showing against
the stone background.</p>
<p>The font at <a href="#Fig_31">Parham</a> is of later Gothic. Mr.
André gives an account of it in Vol. 32,
<cite>Sussex Archæological Society</cite>; it is only 18
inches in diameter, and a portion of the bottom
is hidden by being sunk into the stone block on
which it stands. The decoration is made by
repeats of a label bearing + IHC NAZAR placed
alternately upright and horizontally with small
shields in the interspaces which are said to bear
the arms of Andrew Peverell, knight of the
shire in 1351. The style of the lettering would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>
seem earlier than this. IHC NAZAR was frequently
engraved on the front of knights’ helmets.
This is an extremely good example of
how a fine design may be made of simplest
elements.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_31">
<img src="images/i_070.png" width="500" height="369" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Parham, Sussex.</p>
</div>
<p>A Norman font of lead at Great Plumstead
was destroyed with the church in the fire of
December, 1891. It is figured by Cotman.<a name="Anchor-15" id="Anchor-15" href="#Footnote-15" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 15.">[15]</a></p>
<p>The font at Avebury, Wiltshire, has often
erroneously been stated to be of lead; there is a
resemblance in the design, but it is of stone
painted.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p>
<p>At Ashover, Derbyshire, the stone font has
leaden <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'statutes'">statues</ins> of the Apostles.</p>
<p>There is a seventeenth century lead font at
Clunbridge, Gloucestershire.</p>
<p>A complete list as far as possible follows:—</p>
<table id="fonts" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Lead Fonts.">
<tr>
<td class="county">Berkshire</td>
<td class="fonts">Childrey and Long-Wittenham, Clewer, Woolhampton, and Woolstone (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Derbyshire</td>
<td class="fonts">Ashover (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Dorsetshire</td>
<td class="fonts">Wareham (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Gloucestershire</td>
<td class="fonts">Frampton-on-Severn and Llancourt (similar, Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td class="fonts">Siston and Tidenham (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td class="fonts">Gloucester Museum (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td class="fonts">Clunbridge (1640)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Kent</td>
<td class="fonts">Brookland (Norman), Chilham, and Eythorne (the latter dated 1628, a copy of a Norman original)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Lincolnshire</td>
<td class="fonts">Barnetby-le-Wolde (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Norfolk</td>
<td class="fonts">Brundal, Hastingham (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Northamptonshire</td>
<td class="fonts"><ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Walmsford'">Wansford</ins></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Oxfordshire</td>
<td class="fonts">Clifton, Dorchester, Warborough, (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Somerset</td>
<td class="fonts">Pitcombe</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Surrey</td>
<td class="fonts">Walton-on-the-hill (Norman)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Sussex</td>
<td class="fonts">Edburton and Piecombe (early English)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td class="fonts">Parham (Decorated)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="county">Wiltshire</td>
<td class="fonts">Chirton</td>
</tr></table>
<p>Two of the French fonts are figured by
Viollet-le-Duc,<a name="Anchor-16" id="Anchor-16" href="#Footnote-16" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 16.">[16]</a> that at Berneuil is of the twelfth
century and very similar to that at Tidenham<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>
in Gloucestershire, with alternate arches occupied
by figures and foliage.</p>
<p>At Lombez (Gers) is a very beautiful example,
small and delicate, with two girdles of
decoration, the upper row continuous foliage
and figures, but made up of one scene, a man
discharging an arrow at a lion and a basilisk,
five times repeated; the lower row has sixteen
quatre-foils with figures of four varieties repeated,
these are the religious orders. It is
remarked that the decorations were evidently
“stock patterns” because the upper row is
much older than the lower, which is of the late
thirteenth century.</p>
<p>At Visine (Somme) is one of the fifteenth
century with separate cast figures in sixteen
niches.</p>
<p>At Bourg-Achard, in Normandy, is another
lead font,<a name="Anchor-17" id="Anchor-17" href="#Footnote-17" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 17.">[17]</a> and one is also in the Museum of
Antiquities in Rouen, this last has a long
inscription and date, 1415. There is a cast of
one of these fonts in the Trocadero collection
in Paris.</p>
<p>At St. Evrouet-de-Monford (Orne) is another
very similar to our Brookland font with Zodiac
and Seasons.</p>
<p>In Germany, at Mayence, there is a very fine
example of the fourteenth century. And in
the South Kensington Museum is a copy of a
small circular lead font in the Berlin Museum;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>
this is cast in one piece, it stands on three lions’
feet and has two handles, around it is an inscription
in Lombardic letters. It was presented
to Treves by Bishop Baldani in the thirteenth
century.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span></p>
<h2>§ IX. OF INSCRIPTIONS, ETC.</h2>
<p class="cap">A sheet of lead is a most inviting surface
for inscriptions, as may be seen by
making a trip to the leads of some
cathedral or castle and inspecting the series of
names, dates, hand-marks and foot-prints left
by generations of plumbers and visitors. So
lead has been one of the chief materials used for
written documents, not merely ephemeral, and
even now it would be difficult to find anything
more ready to receive the legend, more enduring
to transmit it, and so easily decorated with the
charm of art which makes an object worthy to
live. Our first illustration shows the foundation
record of an Egyptian King inscribed on lead.</p>
<p>It was the custom also in ancient Babylonia
to insert inscriptions below the foundation
stones of the great temples and palaces. In
1854 Place found at Khorsabad the memorial
inscriptions of the great palace of the later
Sargon, father of Sennacherib, a building
founded in the eighth century before our era.
There were five of these inscribed plates all of
different metals, gold, silver, antimony, copper,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>
and lead; the four former are in the Louvre,
but the lead, which must thus have been of some
size, “was too heavy to be carried off at once”;
it was dispatched by raft, and was lost with most
of the collection. The inscription, translated by
Oppert, ends with the imprecation on disturbers
which it has been the wont of great builders in
all times to conjure.</p>
<p>“May the great Lord Assur destroy from the
face of this country the name and race of him
who shall injure the works of my hands or who
shall carry off my treasure.”</p>
<p>At Dodona many tablets of lead have been
found inscribed in Greek; these are questions to
the oracle of that shrine.</p>
<p>In the British Museum there are several tablets
inscribed in Greek about the area of this book
and covered with text, they are for the most part
imprecations on the heads of injurious persons,
and were hid as a magic rite in Temple enclosures.
They are quite little stories.</p>
<p>“Imprecation of Antigone against her accuser.”</p>
<p>“Imprecation of Prosodion against those who
misled her husband Nakron.”</p>
<p>“Imprecations of a woman against some one
who stole her bracelet.”</p>
<p>Pausanias mentions having seen a text of
Hesiod which was inscribed on lead leaves; and
Pliny also tells us of lead books. A lead
inscribed tablet was found in the Roman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>
remains at Lydney slightly scratched with a
stylus.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="Fig_32">
<img src="images/i_076.png" width="300" height="407" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Heart Box of King Richard.</p>
</div>
<p>Of the Carlovingian age there are examples of
lead documents in the British Museum; one
being an edict of Charlemagne himself, in which
he assumes the style of Emperor of the West;
and it bears his well-known cypher and the date,
18th Sept., 801. Another is signed Ludovic
(Louis the Younger), 822. In the Londesborough
collection there is a leaden book-cover
of Saxon work with an inscription from Ælfric’s
Homilies.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p>
<p>For sepulchral use lead is especially fitted; it
was customary in the twelfth century to inscribe
a tablet or cross and to place it in the coffin
on the breast of the dead.</p>
<p>In the Museum at Bruges there is a tablet
with a long inscription to Gunilda the sister of
Harold.<a name="Anchor-18" id="Anchor-18" href="#Footnote-18" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 18.">[18]</a> Two were found at Canterbury of the
thirteenth century with
lines of beautifully drawn
Lombard capitals in incised
outline with lines
ruled between each row.<a name="Anchor-19" id="Anchor-19" href="#Footnote-19" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 19.">[19]</a></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="Fig_33">
<img src="images/i_077.png" width="250" height="507" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Inscribed Cross.</p>
</div>
<p>In 1838 was discovered
in Rouen Cathedral
choir the heart
casket of Lion-hearted
Richard, there were two
boxes, one within the
other, the inner one,
covered inside with thin
silver leaf, was inscribed
with the simple words
given in <a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a> from
<cite>Archæologia</cite> (xxix).</p>
<p>A <a href="#Fig_33">cruciform tablet</a> is
given in Camden<a name="Anchor-20" id="Anchor-20" href="#Footnote-20" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 20.">[20]</a> with
an inscription purporting
to record King
Arthur; the form shows that it was made in the
twelfth century. In the fifteenth century Chronicle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>
of Capgrave, under the year 1170, he writes—“In
these days was Arthures body founde in the
cherch yerd at Glaskinbury in a hol hok, a crosse
of led leyd to a ston and the letteris hid betwyx
the ston and the led.” He gives Giraldus,
“whech red it,” as his authority. Giraldus
Cambrensis gives the inscription as “Hic jacet
sepultus inclytus Rex Arthurus cum Wennevereia
uxore sua secunda in Insula Avalonia.”<a name="Anchor-21" id="Anchor-21" href="#Footnote-21" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 21.">[21]</a></p>
<p>Now William of Malmesbury, who died about
1145, says distinctly that the tomb of Arthur
had never been found, so this dates the fabrication
of this cross by the monks of Glastonbury
always so especially greedy of relics, as within a
year or two of this time when Giraldus saw it
(“quam nos quoque vidimus”). The inscription
on the lead cross engraved by Camden agrees
word for word with the exception of “with
Guenevere his second wife.” Must we not suppose
that Giraldus here improved even upon the
monks, and added this poetic touch himself?</p>
<p>Few of these absolution crosses have been
found abroad; one discovered in Perigord was
inscribed on the arms <span class="smcap lowercase">LVX . PAX . REX . LEX</span>.</p>
<p>Wall tablets in churches are represented by
one at Burford in Shropshire, the monument of
Lady Corbett, 1516. Her effigy is incised under
a canopy much like the brasses of the same time,
and it suggests simple decorative possibilities,
such as filling cavities with mastics of several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>
colours, parcel gilding, damascening in brass
wire, or inlay of metal on metal.</p>
<p>In Saltash Church, Cornwall, a lead tablet
records that “This Chapple was repaired in the
Mairty of Matthew Veale, Gent. Anno 1689.”</p>
<p>Inscriptions may be either cast with raised
letters, engraved like the early ones, or punched.
Ornamental borders might also be made up of
punched lines, loops and dots.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="Fig_34">
<img src="images/i_079.png" width="400" height="308" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Arms from Bourges.</p>
</div>
<p>Of Coat Arms there was an instance at Jacques
Cœur’s house in <a href="#Fig_34">Bourges</a>, which is quite a lead
mine. The Angel shield bearer alone remains,
with signs of the erasure of the arms. In London,
about Copthall Buildings, in the City, are several
tablets with the arms of the “Armorers Brasiers,”
as also a large number of shields of cast lead with
dates and initials or names of the City wards.
The insurance companies also used shields of
stamped lead.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p>
<p>In Vere Street, Clare Market, over the angle
of what is at present a baker’s shop, there is a
panel with two negroes’ heads in relief, and the
legend “S. W. M. 1715.”</p>
<p>We began with a foundation inscription, we
will conclude with one twenty-six centuries later.
This is a large cast plate of lead 3.6 by 2.4 and
an inch thick, now preserved in the Guildhall
Museum, which was laid in the foundation of old
Blackfriars, then Pitt Bridge:—</p>
<p>“On the last day of October in the year 1760
and in the beginning of the most auspicious
reign of George III., Sir Thomas Chitty, Knight,
Lord Mayor, laid the first stone of this bridge
undertaken by the Common Council of London
(in the height of an extensive war) for the
public accommodation and ornament of the city
(Robert Milne being the architect) and that
there may remain to posterity a monument of
this city’s affection to the man who by the
strength of his genius, the steadiness of his mind,
and a kind of happy contagion of his probity
and spirit, under the divine favour and fortunate
auspices of George II., recovered, augmented
and secured the British Empire in Asia, Africa,
and America, and restored the ancient reputation
and influence of his country amongst the nations
of Europe.</p>
<p>“The Citizens of London have unanimously
voted this bridge to be inscribed with the name
of William Pitt.”</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span></p>
<h2>§ X. OF THE DECORATION OF LEAD.</h2>
<p class="cap">One of the most usual methods of
decorating lead was to gild it; whole
domes were gilt in this way. The
dome of St. Sophia at Constantinople seems to
have been so treated, and the great arc of gold
dominating such an Eastern city must have been
a most impressive sight. Many of the late
domes are partly gilt, as at the Invalides in Paris.
The roof of the ancient basilica at Tours is said
to have been like “a mountain of gold.”</p>
<p>Old recipe books of the last century give
instructions for gilding lead. The following are
examples:—</p>
<p>“Take two pounds of yellow ochre, half a
pound of red lead, and one ounce of varnish,
with which grind your ochre, but the red lead
grind with oil; temper them both together; lay
your ground with this upon the lead, and when it
is almost dry, lay your gold; let it be thoroughly
dry before you polish it.”</p>
<p>For another ground—“Take varnish of linseed
oil, red lead, white lead and turpentine; boil in
a pipkin and grind together on a stone.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p>
<p>“Or take sheets of tinfoil, and grind them in
common gold size; with this wipe your pewter
or lead over; lay on your leaf gold and press it
with cotton; it is a fine gilding, and has a
beautiful lustre.”</p>
<p>Dutch metal was also used on a ground of
varnish and red lead, as in second recipe; or gilt
leaves of tinfoil on white lead ground in linseed
oil, this last took a polish “as if it had been
gilded in fire.” Dutch metal should be lacquered
on the surface. A cheap substitute for gilding
could doubtless be made for large surfaces by
laying tinfoil lacquered gold colour. Or for
statues the surface of the lead might be made
bright and lacquered.</p>
<p>The external gilding on the Ste. Chapelle
in Paris was done in leaf gold on two coats of
varnish.</p>
<p>Smaller decorative objects of lead in the
middle ages were often entirely gilt or parcel gilt
in patterns; for instance, in an inventory of 1553
we find an altar cross “of lead florysshed withe
golde foyle.” The effect of silver is obtained
by “tinning” with solder, and when this is
intended to form patterns on the surface of the
lead the method is thus described by Burges.
The surface is coated with lamp black mixed
with size; the pattern is either transferred on it
or drawn direct and then marked round with a
point; all the part to be tinned has the surface
removed by a “shave hook” so as to leave the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>
pattern quite bright, a little sweet oil is rubbed
over this and the solder is applied and spread in
the usual way of soldering with a “copper bit.”
This is more conveniently done in the shop, but
the spire at Chalons was decorated in this way
long after the lead covering was finished. A
specimen of this work prepared by Burges may
be seen in the Architectural Museum, Westminster.</p>
<p>Transparent colour was often applied over
this tinning, which, shining through, gave it
lustre; or the tinning alternated with the
colour as in chevrons of tin and blue and red.
We may suppose that this sort of work was done
in England, for some leaded spires shown in the
paintings at St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster,
were coloured vermilion and gold, or green and
white, in chevrons following the leading.</p>
<p>Stow also tells us that at the Priory of St. John
of Jerusalem, Clerkenwell, rebuilt after a fire in
1381, there was a steeple decorated in this way
which remained to his day and was then destroyed.
“The great bell tower, a most curious piece of workmanship,
graven, gilt, and enamelled, to the great
beautifying of the city, and passing all others
that I have seen.”</p>
<p>Rain-pipe heads at Knole have patterns formed
in this way by bright tin applied to the surface.
There are also heads of water pipes at the
Bodleian and at St. John’s College, Oxford (see
Figs. <a href="#Fig_71">71</a> and <a href="#Fig_72">72</a>), treated all over with patterns of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>
chequers and zig-zags.
Those at St. John’s
have cast coats of arms
in wreaths brightly emblazoned
in gold and
colours. The collars to
the pipes are painted
with patterns, as also
are some pipes at Framlingham,
Suffolk.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 181px;" id="Fig_35">
<img src="images/i_084.png" width="181" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Incised Decoration,
Bourges.</p>
</div>
<p>Sometimes the pattern
was incised on the
lead in deep broad lines,
and these, when filled
with black mastic, traced
the pattern without any
tinning. An example of
this method is found in a
ridge and finial <a href="#Fig_35">sketched</a>
at Bourges—the hearts
and scallop shell
were badges of Jacques
Cœur. Other portions
of the lead work at this
house are decorated by
patterns in lamp-black
painted on the lead. See
the ridge and examples
of flashings drawn in
Figures <a href="#Fig_36">36</a> and <a href="#Fig_37">37</a>. A
ridge designed for St.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>
Vincent’s Church at Rouen, of which a drawing
is preserved, is a beautiful instance of this treatment;
it is divided into lengths in which branches
with leaves and flowers alternate with a stiffer
pattern. The spire before spoken of, at
Chalons-sur-Marne, furnishes the finest example
of these methods used
in combination. See
drawings in <cite>Builder</cite>,
1856, and in the sketch
book of the Architectural
Association for
1883, both by Burges.
This decoration is of
the fourteenth century
and is thus described by
Viollet-le-Duc:—“The
sheets of lead were
engraved in outlines
and filled in with black
material, of which traces
may yet be seen.
Painting and gilding
illuminated the spaces
between these black lines, and we must observe
that nearly all the leadwork of the middle ages
was thus decorated by paintings applied to the
metal by means of an energetic mordant. The
plumber’s art of the middle ages is wrought out
like colossal goldsmith’s work, and we have
found striking correspondence between the two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>
arts as well in the methods of application as in
the forms admitted: gilding and applied colour
here replace enamel.” The design is of tabernacle
work with figures and the whole was clearly
intended to recall a
shrine of goldsmith’s
work. Large engraved
patterns filled with
black used alone on the
silvery lead become
great <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">niellos</i>, exactly
parallel to the method
of treating silver.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="Fig_36">
<img src="images/i_085.png" width="250" height="407" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Painted Decoration,
Bourges.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="Fig_37">
<img src="images/i_086.png" width="250" height="496" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Flashings, Bourges.</p>
</div>
<p>The flèche called
“the golden” at
Amiens retains traces
of arabesque patterns
on grounds of bright
blue and vermilion.</p>
<p>Repoussé by hammering,
another method
most appropriate to the
material, was more used
in France than with us,
where casting has been
throughout the chief means for obtaining relief
decoration. In France the finials were mostly
formed in this way. “Recalling the best goldsmith’s
work of the epoch,” withal so easily and
carelessly wrought that it is plain that they were
done at once without pattern and yet with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>
ample knowledge of the ultimate form desired;
so a leaf cut out of a sheet is hammered and
twisted till it cups and curls itself into living
grace.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="Fig_38">
<img src="images/i_087.png" width="400" height="260" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—A Valance.</p>
</div>
<p>In these finials applied castings were also used,
and at the end of the fifteenth century they
superseded repoussé for a time. Many of the
moulds in stone and plaster, for the ornaments
which were used on the roofs and finials at
Beaune are preserved. The castings were not
so free and decorative however as those done by
repoussé.</p>
<p>Of piercing into delicate tracery the pipe-heads
at Haddon give many charming examples.
At Aston Hall, Warwickshire, the curved lead
roofs of the turrets have all round the eaves a
brattishing of pierced sheet in simple scroll
work, it stands up freely and gives a dainty
finish: the pattern is something like that above.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>
In the East pierced valances of this kind are very
general; the roofs of the larger fountains at
Constantinople are usually finished in this way.
<a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a> is from the portico roof of the
Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem drawn from a
photograph. Casting and piercing were also
combined, the pattern being strengthened thus
by ribs and the veins, and interspaces being cut
away.</p>
<p>In small Japanese work brass is sometimes
inlaid into lead or pewter in the form of flowers,
which are further defined by surface engraving.
Engraving on sheet lead similar to the old
memorial brasses has been mentioned before, and
we may go on to look at the decorative processes
in which lead was used applied to other
materials.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span></p>
<h2>§ XI. OF LEAD ORNAMENTATION
OF OTHER MATERIALS.</h2>
<p class="cap">Lead trappings and appendages have often
been applied to stone statues. The
sceptres and bishops’ crosses of the fine
fourteenth century statues of St. Mary’s spire
at Oxford are of wrought lead. The leaves of
the sceptre heads and the crosses are embossed
out in two pieces and then soldered at the edges.</p>
<p>Inlaying of lead in stone slabs making
grisaille designs was a method much used—a
magnificent example remains in the pavement
at St. Remy, Rheims (formerly in the choir of
St. Nicaise in the same town), where foliated
panels with figure subjects from Scripture are
made out on the stones; it is a work of the early
fourteenth century.<a name="Anchor-22" id="Anchor-22" href="#Footnote-22" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 22.">[22]</a> We have in England an
example of this treatment in a tomb slab at St.
Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, and there is mention of
the process in the account by William of Malmesbury
of the Saxon part of the “Ealde Chirche”
at Glastonbury. We may well suppose this was
an imitation in the national material of Roman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>
mosaic. The floor was “inlaid with polished
stone ... moreover in the pavement may be
remarked on every side stone designedly <em>interlaid
in triangles and squares and figured with lead</em>,
under which if I believe some sacred enigma to
be contained I do no injustice to religion. The
antiquity and multitude of its saints have
endowed the place with so much sanctity that
at night scarcely anyone presumes to keep vigil
there or during the day to spit upon its floor ... and
certainly the more magnificent the ornaments
of churches are the more they incline the brute
mind to prayer and bend the stubborn to
supplication.”</p>
<p>The method is still followed in lettering on
tombs and the like: the design is engraved in
the marble and holes are drilled with a bow drill
in the sunk parts, some inclined at an angle to
give a better hold; strips of lead of sufficient
substance are then hammered into the casements
with a wooden mallet, and the superfluous metal
removed with a sharp chisel.</p>
<p>Some of the sixteenth and seventeenth century
engraved brasses have portions of the arms, etc.,
inlaid in lead in the brass; there are instances of
this in Westminster Abbey. Lead might also
be inlaid in cast iron with good effect, where it
has not to be painted: the recesses would be
left in the casting of either cast brass or cast
iron. The stars that spangle the ceilings of
churches on a blue ground are usually of cast<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>
lead gilt. The ceiling of the well-known panel
and rib kind attributed to Holbein at the
Chapel Royal, St. James’s had the enrichments
in the panels of lead. Chimney-pieces were also
decorated in the same way, and even furniture
is found at times with applied badges of gilt
lead. These methods it must be understood are
not all recommended here, they are only recorded.</p>
<p>The delicate applied enrichments so much
used in work influenced by the practice of the
Brothers Adam are in the best work of lead;
cast with extraordinary delicacy in relief figure
panels, after the manner of the antique, or fragile
garlands, vases, and frets. Much of this work
was used in the internal decoration at Somerset
House. The accounts under 1780 show payments
to Edward Watson—for lead pateras
from 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub><i>d.</i> to 10<i>d.</i> each; nineteen ornamental
friezes to chimney pieces £10 17<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; lead
frieze to the bookcases in the Royal Academy
Library at 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per foot; 137 feet run of
large lead frieze in the exhibition room at 4<i>s.</i>
Dutch bracket clocks of the eighteenth century
have pierced and gilt ornamentations of
lead.</p>
<p>This method of applying pierced lead to wood
was known in the middle ages. In the Kensington
Museum there is a delicate openwork panel,
three inches square, which with others, decorated
the front of a fourteenth century chest in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span>
church at Newport, Essex. A beautiful little
panel of open work, which contains the subject
of the Annunciation, was found some years since
in the Thames. One of the last instances of
this decorative use of lead is on the great doors
of Inwood’s church, at St. Pancras, where the
panels are filled with reliefs and the margins
have the palmette border. At Christchurch,
Hampshire, some of the tracery panels at the
back of the stalls have been replaced in lead.</p>
<p>The front door fanlights so well known in
the London houses of the eighteenth century
were made by applying lead castings to a backing
of iron. Even staircase balustrades were cast
in panels of lattice work of hard lead and fixed
between iron standards some three or four feet
apart.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span></p>
<h2>§ XII. OF DECORATIVE OBJECTS.</h2>
<p class="cap">A great number of small objects in lead
are in our museums, and first we should
mention the medals and plaques of the
great masters of the Renaissance. Lead will
cast with more delicacy than any other material,
and Cellini especially recommended it for proofs.
The proofs of the great work of the medallists,—the
modelling just a film, fading into the
background—presentments and allegories of
the Malatestas and Gonzagas by Pisanello and
Sperandio, are certainly the most precious things
ever formed in lead. There are a great number
of these medals and decorative plaques in the
British Museum and at Kensington.</p>
<p>For coins in lead see Gaetani and Fiscorni.
For tokens and pilgrim badges, of which a great
number have been found in the Seine, see
<cite>Gazette des Beaux Arts</cite>, Vol. VI. and XVIII.
Some of these remind us of the lead figures
that, according to “Quentin Durward,” Louis
XI. wore in his hat. At the Guildhall there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span>
is a collection of hundreds of these small
objects found in the Thames; most are of
great delicacy, many very beautiful. There
are, in the British Museum, little Greek objects,
rings and toys, armlets of a snake pattern,
and pierced ornaments for applying to other
objects.</p>
<p>Other objects in the Kensington Museum
are:—A small tankard only two and a half
inches diameter but modelled with figures in low
relief, it is German of the sixteenth or seventeenth
century; a pair of little inkstands the
circular drums modelled with foliage and projecting
top and bottom rims, also German; and
a square canister with panel of St. George on
each face.</p>
<p>Another is a beautiful little Gothic box of the
fourteenth century. It is hexagonal, with three
feet, a flat hinged cover has a sitting lion which
forms the knob, a slight relief of the Annunciation
under a canopy, and two shields of arms.
Round the sides are delicate bands of foliage and
Gothic lettering; it is three and a half inches
high, and of cast lead. There are other portions
of little Gothic boxes in the British Museum.
At Gloucester Museum there is a square box
of late fifteenth century work, the sides formed
of four cast panels of lead, soldered at the
angles. The panels all repeat the same
relief of the dead Christ and the Virgin,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>
right and left are the other two Marys, and
the background bears the cross, crown, spears,
dice, and all the implements of the Passion.<a name="Anchor-23" id="Anchor-23" href="#Footnote-23" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 23.">[23]</a>
Small canisters, and candlesticks the stems of
which are formed of a little lead figure, were
made quite recently.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p>
<h2>§ XIII. OF LEAD GLAZING.</h2>
<p class="cap">This subject, in which lead is only secondary,
has been treated so often by others
in connection with glass that little
more need be said here.</p>
<p>Already, when Theophilus wrote his treatise
on the arts, some time from the tenth to the
twelfth century, leaded glazing of coloured glass
was practised much as we do it now, and he
describes how the leads were cast with the two
grooves for the glass and how it was put together
on a table. Coloured glass windows
were placed in the Basilica at Lyons in the fifth
century, as described in the letters of Sidonius.
From the thirteenth century there are crowds
of examples of glazing wholly of white glass in
which patterns are made by the arrangement of
the leads. In the cathedrals of north France,
especially Bayeux, Coutances, Mantes, and
through Brittany, most elaborate patterns of
this kind fill the windows; not only diapers but
interlacing bands, over and under in effect, and
this in plain white glass. This method does not
seem to have been followed here, where for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span>
most part, unless in colour arrangements, the
leading for church windows was in plain lozenges
and parallelograms.</p>
<p>Later, however, in houses, pattern glazing,
sometimes of an elaborate kind, is found,
especially in the north of England, at Moreton
Hall in Cheshire, at Bramhall, and at Levens in
Westmorland. In some
parts the glass may not
be more than a circle
or diamond of an inch
across.</p>
<p>These patterns have
been amply treated in
other places, and we may
consider those that have
a diapered pattern all
over the light to belong
rather to the glass than
the lead. There are
others, however, in which
the lead lines are made
still more important by being arranged in a
single intricate panel to each light, the centre
usually being charged with an heraldic device.
Two simple examples are given in Figs. <a href="#Fig_39">39</a>
and <a href="#Fig_40">40</a>.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;" id="Fig_39">
<img src="images/i_097.png" width="200" height="320" alt="Lead Glazing." />
<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 39.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;" id="Fig_40">
<img src="images/i_098a.png" width="200" height="282" alt="Lead Glazing." />
<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 40.</p>
</div>
<p>There is one point to speak of in regard to
the fretted patterns not usually noticed. The
frets are sometimes leaded up so that the glass
does not lie in one plane, but there is an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>
intentional change, so that the
faces of glass reflect the light
differently in a uniform manner
all over the window, the
forward panes being some
<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> or <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> inch in front of the
plane of the inner ones and
between them others are placed
obliquely. This is best known
in Holland, but a similar
practice was followed at Levens in Westmorland.</p>
<p>Lozenges of lead pierced for ventilation, either
one or several together, are sometimes found;
they are cast with a delicate pattern, or cut in a
lattice. Some of the best are in the museum of
Fountains Abbey, others are at Ely and at
Haddon. <a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41</a> is from a Surrey cottage.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;" id="Fig_41">
<img src="images/i_098b.png" width="150" height="204" alt="Ventilating Quarry." />
<p class="caption smcap">Fig. 41.</p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span></p>
<h2>§ XIV. OF LEAD STATUES.</h2>
<p class="cap">The making of lead statues was frequent up
to the end of the 18th century, and then
more frequent than at any other time, to
cease at once on the introduction of the Italian
plaster model shops, which in the eyes of the connoisseurs
of the time brought with them a time of
purer taste, the taste whose god was the Apollo
of the Belvidere.</p>
<p>These statues of lead were known to the
ancients. There was one of Mamurius at
Rome.<a name="Anchor-24" id="Anchor-24" href="#Footnote-24" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 24.">[24]</a></p>
<p>In the middle ages there were not only small
cast lead figures like those around the font at
Ashover and a figure from a crucifix now in the
library of Wells Cathedral which is about 12
inches high, of 15th century work, but figures
full size and more were also made; this was
especially the case in France; these, however, were
generally repoussé.</p>
<p>In the garden of the Cluny Museum in Paris
is a fine figure of St. John Evangelist, fully
eight feet high; it is of early 14th century work,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>
and looks as if it had stood at the central pier of
a doorway.</p>
<p>At Moissac, in the south of France, is a most
remarkable work of lead, a tomb, above which
is a lead sarcophagus and several figures representing
the entombment of Christ, who is being
laid in the open coffin. It is 15th century
work; the figures, six in all, are full of character
and vigour like the wooden statuary of the time.
It appears from a photograph to be cast in
separate portions.</p>
<p>The figures formed by repoussé usually serve
as finials on the roof, or stand in niches of the
flèche. In the great flèche at Amiens there
are six figures as large as life, with other smaller
figures of angels which hold emblems of the
Passion. M. Viollet-le-Duc says these figures
were nearly always <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">embouties</i> that is to say
hammered out on a wooden model in portions,
and soldered together. The artist had to be
careful that the model should be thin and “dry”
so the thickness of the lead should not make it
too coarse in the forms. Burges cites an account
of 1514 of a payment to John Pothyn, sculptor,
for having carved a prophet in walnut wood to
serve as a mould and pattern to the lead-workers.
Sometimes the lead casing was put on with lapping
joints, the skeleton frame being iron.</p>
<p>There are not now in England lead statues of
any size executed during the middle ages;
but magnificent figures of bronze cast by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>
<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cire perdu</i> method remain to us. The effigy of
Queen Eleanor at Westminster cannot be
matched in Europe.</p>
<p>The founder’s art was carried to much perfection
in Germany in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Mr. Seymour Haden has in Hampshire a statue
of a city herald of lead which formerly belonged
to the great clock at Nuremburg.</p>
<p>Many statues of lead were set up in English
towns after the earlier Renaissance, they are our
national version of the bronze of Italy, a
material which we used but little; such bronze
statues as were cast here since the middle ages
seem to have been the work of foreigners. Le
Sieur, for instance, did the statue of Charles II.
at Charing Cross, and many others. The statue
of Queen Anne that was to surmount Gibbs’
proposed column in the Strand was ordered in
Rome.</p>
<p>At Bristol there is a large Neptune of lead
roughly modelled; the limbs are contorted with
too much life and yet it is a decorative feature in
the centre of a wide street. On the pedestal has
been engraved a little history of the statue, an
example that might be followed—“Neptune,
cast and given <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1588 by a citizen of Temple
parish to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish
Armada. Re-erected on its fourth site in 1872.”
This seems to be a tradition unsubstantiated by
record, but the time is not so remote that it may
not as well be true, especially as the style of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>
figure would seem to agree with the date named.
The story says that it was the gift of a plumber in
the town, the metal being that of the captured
ships’ pumps.</p>
<p>At Bungay in Suffolk there used to be a large
statue at the Market Cross known as “Astræa.”</p>
<p>One of the most interesting portrait statues in
London, the Queen Anne at Queen Anne’s Gate,
Westminster, is of lead. The surface ornament on
the robes is especially appropriate to the material.
There is also in Golden Square a statue of
George II. which seems to be nearly a repeat of
the stone statue on Bloomsbury steeple; it
suggested the statue in Fred Walker’s picture,
“The Harbour of Refuge.”</p>
<p>There were also many full size equestrian
statues founded in this metal, that of George I.,
until 1874 in Leicester Square, was one of these,
and like the last it was brought from Canons, the
celebrated house of the Duke of Chandos at
Edgware, dismantled about 1747. The George I.
resembled Le Sieur’s statue at Charing Cross
and was known as the Golden Horse, for the
whole was gilt, as many of the statues seem to
have been at Canons, in that garden where, according
to Pope, “The trees were clipped like
statues—the statues thick as trees.”</p>
<p>The statue of William of Orange at Dublin is
another of these, and it is celebrated alike in
political demonstrations and Catholic polemics.
Cardinal Newman wrote of it, “The very flower<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>
and cream of Protestantism used to glory in the
statue of King William on College Green, Dublin,
and though I cannot make any reference in print
I recollect well what a shriek they raised some
years ago when the figure was unhorsed. Some
profane person one night applied gunpowder and
blew the king right out of his saddle, and he was
found by those who took interest in him, like
Dagon, on the ground.”</p>
<p>Yet another equestrian statue is that of Charles
the Second at Edinburgh, set up by the magistrates
of the city in Parliament Square, in honour
of the restoration of the king. A writer in the
<cite>Athenæum</cite> for April 13th, 1850, speaks of it as
the “finest piece of statuary in Edinburgh,” and
urges the suitability of lead for the purpose.
“In <cite>Black’s Guide through Edinburgh</cite> it is spoken
of as the best specimen of bronze statuary which
Edinburgh possesses; it is, however, composed of
lead. Now this leaden equestrian statue has already
without sensible deterioration stood the test of
165 years’ (in 1850) exposure to the weather, and
it still seems as fresh as if erected but yesterday.”
Some years before this, one of the interior irons
having given way, a part of the shoulder <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'sank a a little'">sank a
little</ins> and it was taken down and repaired and
sufficiently proved to be lead. Taking the
figures above, it appears that the date of this
work is 1685.</p>
<p>Mr. James Nasmyth also wrote to the <cite>Athenæum</cite>,
June, 1850, “to confirm as a practical man<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>
the perfect fitness of lead” as a substitute for
bronze, and to recommend the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cire perdu</i> method
of casting, at that time discontinued in England;
the process being to model the statue in wax on
a solid core, to cast in plaster the finished wax
model, and then to melt out the wax from this
plaster mould, the space which it occupied being
refilled with lead. Of course only one cast can
be obtained in this way, whereas the old decorative
statues spoken of later were cast in a piece mould
and reproduced again and again.</p>
<p>“The addition (still quoting) of about five
per cent. of antimony will give it not only greater
hardness but enhance its capability to run into
the most delicate details ... it is in every sense
as durable as bronze when subject simply to
atmospheric action.”</p>
<p>We shall see that an addition of block tin was
made to the lead by the old figure founders. Type
metal, which is so much harder than lead, is an
alloy of lead and <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> to <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> of antimony, or of two
parts of lead to one of tin and one of antimony.</p>
<p>In the courtyard of Houghton Tower, Lancashire,
there is a statue of William III.
brought from the dismantled Walton-le-Dale
in 1834.</p>
<p>The statues decorating the parapets of the large
“classic” country houses are at times of lead;
there are five of these at Lyme in Cheshire.
Over the portico of the Clarendon at Oxford
there are four of these statues representing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>
sciences. Until recently there was a figure of
King James high up in a niche at the Bodleian.</p>
<p>The figures of the good little boy and girl
common at charity schools are also often of lead.
The great Percy lion that surmounted old
Northumberland House at Charing Cross (destroyed
twenty years ago) is now on the river
front of Syon House; it weighs about three tons,
and it was placed in its original position in 1749.
The lion on the bridge at Alnwick is also of
lead, as the little boy found to his cost who
climbed out on its tail.</p>
<p>There are a series of lead busts in oval panels
on the front of Ham House, Petersham, Surrey,
1610 being the date of its erection.</p>
<p>Before passing into the garden a word on the
practical details of casting as traditionally followed
may be added. The casting of lead statues is
much the same process as founding in bronze,
but it is simpler from the much lower temperature
at which lead flows, and the ease with which
limbs can be cast separately and joined to the body.
The technical details may be found in a text-book
of modelling and casting—<cite>Mouler en Plâtre,
Plomb</cite>, &c. (Lebrun, Paris, 1860). The course
followed is to cut up the model in such parts as
is determined, to mould these in loam, the cores
are then cast in plaster after the thickness that
will be occupied by the lead has been first applied
to the moulds in sand (terre). The cores are
then removed and dried and baked, for in this as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>
in all founding everything depends on the absolute
dryness of the mould. After the first mould had
been added to, for the casting of the core, a
second mould would be prepared from the original
figure and the core supported in that by irons.
The castings are then made, and the portions
reunited and finished on the surface. Large works
have to be sufficiently supported with internal
irons. All the mysteries of vents, and false
coring when necessary, can only be understood
by practical familiarity with founding.</p>
<p>Modern figures for Dundee were cast from
plaster; cast iron also makes good moulds.</p>
<p>If the roof is the place for those earlier
figures formed by repoussé, the garden is rightly
inhabited by cast lead statues. It is a material
in which the designer might well permit himself
slightness, caprice, or even triteness. A statue
that would be tame in stone, or contemptible
in marble, may well be a charming decoration
if only in lead, set in the vista of a green walk
against a dark yew hedge or broad-leaved fig,
or where the lilac waves its plumes above them
and the syringa thrusts its flowers under their
arms and shakes its petals on the pedestal.
“How charming it must be to walk in one’s
own garden, and sit on a bench in the open air
with a fountain and a leaden statue and a rolling-stone
and an arbour. Have a care though of
sore throat and the <em>agoe</em>.<a name="Anchor-25" id="Anchor-25" href="#Footnote-25" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 25.">[25]</a>”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 240px;" id="Fig_42">
<img src="images/i_107.png" width="240" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Mercury.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span></p>
<p>When sculptors learn again that their art
is to shape many materials in various ways for
diverse uses, and that a statue is not necessarily
of whitest marble or to be exhibited on the 1st
of May, then we may get back the delight
of sculpture in the garden.</p>
<p>Sculptured marble, unless the art is of a high
order, does not please us out of doors by a pond
or on a terrace, if it is not weathered down to
a ruin, but lead is homely and ordinary and
not too good to receive the <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">graffiti</i> of lovers’
knots, red letter dates and initials. Here is a
<a href="#Fig_42">sketch</a> of a Mercury not at all too fine for further
decoration of this sort; it came from a London
sale room, the surface was quite white and exfoliated
like old stone. The jaunty messenger
has a garden thought too, for it is honeycomb
in his hand.</p>
<p>One of the best known of these garden
statues was a group of Cain and Abel that so
recently gave an interest to the great grass quad
of Brasenose College, Oxford. It was given
by Dr. Clarke, of All Souls, “who bought it of
some London statuary.” Hearne speaks of it
as “some silly statue”—superiority has always
been the greatest enemy to beauty. Forty or
fifty years ago there was a Mercury in Tom
Quad which has also been improved away.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;" id="Fig_43">
<img src="images/i_109.png" width="414" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Sun-dial, Temple Gardens.</p>
</div>
<p>Our next <a href="#Fig_43">example</a> fulfils a purpose. It is
the sun-dial formerly in Clement’s Inn, which was
known locally as the “Blackamoor.” It is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>
strongly, if simply modelled, a piece of art full
of character, and we may be glad that it has
been restored to us although now placed in the
gardens of the Inner Temple, instead of before
the “Garden House” in Clement’s Inn.</p>
<p>The negro is the full size of life and bears
the stone disc of the dial on his head with one
hand, the other being free. The dial is beautifully
engraved and is signed on the edge of the
gnomon <cite>Ben Scott in the Strand Londini Fecit</cite>.
The sides have the initials of the donor, P. I. P.,
and the date, 1731. Mr. Hare in his <cite>Walks
in London</cite> states that it was brought from
Italy late in the seventeenth century by Holles
Lord Clare, whose name is preserved in the
neighbouring Clare market. This statement is
also found in Thornbury’s <cite>Old and New London</cite>,
and the statue is said to be bronze, which it is
not, nor do the initials and date above agree
with Mr. Hare’s statement, who goes on to
remark that “there are similar figures at Knowsley,
and at Arley in Cheshire,” but he does not
say if these also were brought from Italy by Lord
Clare.</p>
<p>No authority is given by Mr. Hare, but his
statement is in the main a transcript from John
Thomas Smith, who also gives the verses quoted
by Mr. Hare, said to have been attached to the
statue on one occasion with a pitying reference
to the legal atmosphere the African had to
breathe. That it was brought from Italy is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>
seemingly local gossip added to the account of
Mr. Smith who knew well enough the English
workshop, as we shall see, where these figures
were made.</p>
<p>Similar figures are mentioned by this writer in
his gossiping <cite>Antiquarian Rambles in London</cite> in
which he wrote the memories of his own travels
in the streets in the beginning of the present
century, and gives quite a history of this
“despicable manufactory.” The founding of
these lead garden statues seems specially to have
been an industry of the eighteenth century; with
the dreary opening of the nineteenth “a purer
taste,” so we are assured, banished these and
most other charms of an old-fashioned garden.
“In Piccadilly, on the site of the houses east of
the Poulteney Hotel including that, now No.
102, stood the original leaden figure yard, founded
by John Van Nost, a Dutch sculptor, who came to
England with King William III. His effects
were sold March, 1711.” As late as 1763 a
John Van Nost (supposed descendant of the
former) was following the profession of a statuary
in St. Martin’s Lane, on the left, a little
farther up than where the old brick houses
now stand in 1893. The original business
was taken in 1739 by Mr. John Cheere, who
served his time with his brother, Sir H. Cheere,
the statuary who did several of the Abbey
monuments.</p>
<p>“This despicable manufactory must still be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>
within memory, as the attention of nine persons
in ten were arrested by these garden ornaments.
The figures were cast in lead as large as life and
frequently painted with an intention to resemble
nature. They consisted of Punch, Harlequin,
Columbine and other pantomimical characters;
mowers whetting their scythes; haymakers
resting on their rakes; gamekeepers shooting;
and Roman soldiers with <em>firelocks</em>; but above
all an African kneeling with a sundial upon his
head found the most extensive sale.</p>
<p>“For these imaginations in lead there were
other workshops in Piccadilly, viz., Dickenson’s,
which stood on the site of the Duke of
Gloucester’s house, Manning’s at the corner
of White Horse Street, and Carpenter’s, that
stood where Egmont house afterwards stood.</p>
<p><ins title="Transcriber's Note: added missing paragraph break">“All</ins> the above four figure yards were in high
vogue about the year 1740. They certainly had
casts from some of the finest works of art, the
Apollo Belvidere, the Venus de Medici, &c., but
these leaden productions, although they found
numerous admirers and purchasers, were never
countenanced by men of taste; for it is well
known that when application was made to the
Earl of Burlington for his sanction he always
spoke of them with sovereign contempt, observing
that the uplifted arms of leaden figures, in
consequence of the pliability and weight of the
material, would in course of time appear little
better than crooked billets.... There has not been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>
a leaden figure manufactory in London since the
year 1787, when Mr. Cheere died.”</p>
<p>Walpole knew little of these lead-working
sculptors, his only notice occurring under
“Carpentier or Charpentiere”—our Carpenter
above—“a statuary much employed by the
Duke of Chandos at Canons, was for some years
principal assistant to Van Ost (our Van Nost)
an artist of whom I have found no memorials,
and afterwards set up for himself. Towards the
end of his life he kept a manufactory of leaden
statues in Piccadilly and died in 1737, aged
above sixty.” The original Van Nost came
from Mechlin, and married in England the
widow of another Dutch sculptor.</p>
<p>In the account books of the building of
Somerset House the following entry, which
occurs under 1778, is interesting as showing
John Cheere working on particular works, and
for giving us the composition of the metal
and the price. “John Cheere, figure maker;
to moulding, casting, and finishing four large
sphinxes in a strong substantial manner, lead
and block tin, at each £31.”</p>
<p>It is curious if Lord Burlington gave the
critical dictum attributed to him, that there were
so many lead garden statues at his villa at
Chiswick, in 1892 dismantled by the Duke of
Devonshire. Doubtless they belonged to that
garden described by Walpole as in the Italian
taste, where “the lavish quantity of urns and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>
sculpture behind the garden front should be
retrenched,” a wish that time accomplishes.
There was a Bacchus, a Venus, an Achilles, a
Samson, and Cain and Abel.</p>
<p>In the first quadrangle at Knole there are two
good reproductions of the antique, one being a
crouching Venus. In the courtyard of Burton
Agnes in Yorkshire stands a Fighting Gladiator.</p>
<p>Studley Royal, near Ripon, is a fine example
of the best effort of park-gardening, if the
phrase be allowed, for the term “landscape
gardening” is degraded to mean productions in
the cemetery style, an affair of wriggling paths,
little humps, and nursery specimens, which might
best be described as <em>cemetery gardening</em>, and
between which and the manner of Kent there
is no parallel. Here lakes in ordered circles
and crescents occupy the grassy flat between
hanging woods, and several groups of lead
statuary stand above the water.</p>
<p>In the beautiful old gardens at Melbourne in
Derbyshire are a large number of lead figures,
two of which are drawn in <cite>The Formal
Garden</cite>.<a name="Anchor-26" id="Anchor-26" href="#Footnote-26" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 26.">[26]</a> There are two heroic sized figures
of Perseus and Andromeda beside the great
water; a Flying Mercury after Giovanni
Bologna; two slaves, which are painted black,
with white drapery, carrying vases on salvers;
and several Cupids in pairs or single. Of these
“the single figures” Mr. Blomfield says “are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>
about two feet high. One has fallen off his tree,
another is flying upward, another shooting,
another shaping his
bow with a spoke
shave. All of these
are painted and some
covered with stone
dust to imitate stone,
a gratuitous insult to
lead which will turn
to a delicate silver
grey if left to its own
devices.”</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;" id="Fig_44">
<img src="images/i_115.png" width="261" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—Cymbal Player.</p>
</div>
<p>In the old gardens
at Rousham described
by Pope are
still some Cupids
riding on swans; at
Holmerook Hall are
statues and other
objects in lead, and
at Newton Ferrars
in Cornwall are two
statues of Mars and
Perseus. At the
Mote House, Hersham,
are some garden
figures.</p>
<p>There are also
some figures of lead in the gardens of Castle Hill,
Lord Fortescue’s house in Devonshire. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>
two niches of a garden
temple there is a <a href="#Fig_44">Cymbal
Player</a> from the
antique and a Venus in
the manner of William
and Mary. Amongst the
foliage of a wood-path
is a terminal figure of
<a href="#Fig_45">Pan</a>, the pillar being
stone and the head and
shoulders only of lead.
In the gardens here are
also two large couchant
lions, four sphinxes, and
some greyhounds. At
Nun Moncton in Yorkshire,
on a terrace by the
river Ouse are several
lead figures on each side
of the walk, these have
gilded trappings. At
Glemham in Suffolk are
figures of the Duke of
Marlborough and Prince
Eugène at the entrance.
In the garden are two
black slaves with sun-dials,
and
the Seasons:
also hounds
at the gateway.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;" id="Fig_45">
<img src="images/i_116.png" width="271" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Terminal at Castle Hill.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span></p>
<p>In the garden at Canons Ashby is a figure of
a shepherd playing a flute. In a garden at
Exeter are four
or five figures,
amongst which
is a Skater and a
Flower Girl, and
at Whitchurch is
a Quoit Thrower.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 303px;" id="Fig_46">
<img src="images/i_117.png" width="303" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—Time.</p>
</div>
<p>In the niches
of a large circular
yew hedge at
Hardwick are
four figures,
three are playing
on musical instruments;
pipe,
trumpet, and
violin, and the
fourth represents
Painting. There
are also two other
figures in the gardens.
At Temple
Dinsley near Hitchin
is a figure of
Time, hour-glass
in hand, of which
a <a href="#Fig_46">sketch</a> is given.
The left hand formerly held a scythe, now
lost. At Shrewsbury is a Hercules.</p>
<p>The statues in the grounds at Blarney<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span>
celebrated in the “Groves of Blarney” were of
lead:—</p>
<div class="container">
<div class="poem">
<div class="line">“There’s statues gracing this noble place in</div>
<div class="line i2">All heathen Goddesses so fair,</div>
<div class="line">Bold Neptune, Plutarch and Nicodemus</div>
<div class="line i2">All standing naked in the open air.”</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>These statues were sold by auction to Sir
Thomas Dene who bought the castle, and
pictures:—</p>
<div class="container">
<div class="poem">
<div class="line">“And took off in a cart</div>
<div class="line">(’Twas <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'enought'">enough</ins> to break my heart)</div>
<div class="line">All the statues made of lead and pictures O!”<a name="Anchor-27" id="Anchor-27" href="#Footnote-27" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 27.">[27]</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The eighteenth century must have been busy
in the “manufacture” of these garden figures
and ornaments, some of the gardens mentioned
have as many as twenty to thirty pieces still. A
great number was doubtless absorbed in the
London public gardens and the villas up the
Thames. In old Vauxhall was a statue of Milton
by Roubilliac, but it is difficult to attribute many
specimens to individuals. The negro we saw was
sold by Mr. John <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Chere'">Cheere</ins> in St. Martin’s Lane,
but likely enough the model was a part of the
stock of Van Nost, as also the fine vases at Hampton
Court. Many of these statues were destroyed to
suit the “purer taste” of this century, and a
great number were exported during the American<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>
War to become bullets, because at that time as
“works of art” the lead escaped the Customs.
A large number have been accidentally crushed
by the fall of a tree or otherwise destroyed, and
many not adequately supported have flattened
down out of shape.</p>
<p>There was a large display <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à la</i> Louis Quatorze,
of lead casting in the gorgeous gardens of
Versailles; where in the fountains, groups of
statues, and vases, the greatest sculptors of the
time worked indifferently in marble, bronze, or
<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">plomb doré</i>. François Girardon was one of
these. Born in 1628, at Troyes, he lived to the
year 1715, achieving a reputation that placed him
amongst the foremost of French artists of that
time.</p>
<p>The immense structure entirely of lead known
as the Fountain of the Pyramid is his work.
From a basin in which sport three man-sized
tritons rises a pedestal, with a circular basin much
enriched by gadroons, set on three classic
zoomorphous legs; and above it three other
like basins of diminishing size, each supported
from the one below around the rim; by baby
tritons for the lowest, the next with dolphins,
and the last with lobsters. In the last basin is a
vase. The whole is a composition showing great
refinement of scholarship, recalling in general
form the great pine cone of bronze in the
Vatican gardens, once the fountain in the atrium
of old St. Peter’s. It is exquisitely drawn and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>
engraved by Rouyer et Darcel<a name="Anchor-28" id="Anchor-28" href="#Footnote-28" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 28.">[28]</a> together with
two vases also of lead from the Basin of
Neptune.</p>
<p>Other groups, some of colossal proportions—“France
Victorious,” “The Four Seasons,” and so
on—were the work of Thomas Renaudin of
Moulins, J. B. Tubi from Rome, Pierre
Mazaline and Gaspard de Marcu; their individual
works, with illustrations, may be distinguished
in the volume of engraved statues of
the Versailles gardens by S. Thomassin published
in Paris 1694.</p>
<p>Versailles certainly set the fashion, which we
followed and which influenced the gardens of the
most of Europe. In Russia a Swiss gardener
arranged a labyrinth at the summer palace of
Peter the Great with animal groups from Æsop
in gilt lead forming fountains. Beckford,
writing from Lisbon in 1789, describes a garden
at <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Bemfila'">Bemfica</ins> “which eclipses our Clapham and
Islington villas in all the attractions of leaden
statues, Chinese temples, serpentine rivers, and
dusty hermitages.”</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p>
<h2>§ XV. OF LEAD FOUNTAINS.</h2>
<p class="cap">None of the old English gardens were
complete without a fountain, and no
fountain was complete without a
figure. Bacon says—“For fountains ... the
ornaments of images, gilt or of marble, which
are in use do well.”</p>
<p>Paul Hentzner writes of the sixteenth century
garden of Theobalds, the seat of Lord Treasurer
Burleigh—“There was a summer house, in the
lower part of which, built semicircularly, are the
twelve Roman emperors in white marble and a
table of touchstone (alabaster) the upper part
is set around with cisterns of lead into which the
water is conveyed by pipes so that fish may be
kept in them, and in summer time they are very
convenient for bathing.”</p>
<p>At St. Fagan’s, near Cardiff, in front of the
house is a remarkable lead tank; it is octagonal,
ten feet across and nearly four feet high; it is
ornamented round the sides with flowers, and
shields in panels, and is dated 1620.</p>
<p>At Syon House there is a fountain in which a
lead figure forms the jet d’eau.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span></p>
<p>At Wooton in Staffordshire there is a fountain
basin with a lead duck so suspended as to float on
the water spouting water from its bill. The
Swan which seemed to float on the water described
by Borrow in <cite>Lavengro</cite> must have been of lead.
At Sprotborough in Yorkshire are some lead
toads about nine inches long, which also seem to
have belonged to a fountain.</p>
<p>Some of the figures mentioned before stand
in the centre of basins, and occasionally simple
groups, as of Neptune in a two-horsed chariot,
may be found, but we have nothing in England
to compare to the great fountain compositions
of the Versailles Gardens or to the fountain
called <cite>Le Buffet</cite> in the Trianon Park, designed
by Mansard, and profusely decorated by the gilt
lead sculptures of Van Clève and other artists.</p>
<p>In Germany some of the earlier town fountains
are of lead.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span></p>
<h2>§ XVI. OF VASES AND GATE PIERS.</h2>
<p class="cap">The <a href="#Fig_47">vases</a> at Hampton Court mentioned
above are particularly fine in design and
well modelled; their height is about
2.3 and the little sitting <a href="#Fig_48">figures</a>, slight as they
are, are charming in their pose; the folded arms
and prettily arranged hair give us a suggestion
of life which most of these things supposed to be
in the classic taste lack. The inventory taken
by the Commission at Hampton Court mentions
“Fower large flower potts of lead.” Similar vases
are in the gardens at Windsor, also larger and
later examples with figure plaques in Flaxman’s
manner. At Castle Hill, North Devon, there are
ten <a href="#Fig_49">vases</a>, some with mouldings and gadroons
formed in repoussé, others cast.</p>
<p>At Melbourne in Derbyshire there is an enormous
vase some seven or eight feet high in a very
rococo style.<a name="Anchor-29" id="Anchor-29" href="#Footnote-29" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 29.">[29]</a> There is one at Penshurst, which
comes from Old Leicester House in London; and
at Sprotborough are others of similar design.
These vases will not bear comparison with the
beautiful lead Gothic fonts before given.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;" id="Fig_47">
<img src="images/i_124.png" width="480" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Vase, Hampton Court.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_48">
<img src="images/i_125.png" width="500" height="516" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—From Vase, Hampton Court.</p>
</div>
<p>There are several vases at Wimpole near Cambridge,
at Wilton, and at Wrest. Little square
flower boxes with cast or repoussé devices on the
sides were also made; Charles Lamb describes
some flower pots for us from the gardens of
Blakesware in Herefordshire, a fine old house,
destroyed even when he wrote—“The owner of
it had lately pulled it down; still I had a vague
notion that it could not all have perished.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>
<em>How shall they build it up again?</em>” There was a beautiful
fruit garden and “ampler pleasure garden
rising backwards from the house in triple terraces,
with flower pots now of palest lead save that a spot
here and there saved from the elements bespake
their pristine state to have been gilt and glittering.”</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;" id="Fig_49">
<img src="images/i_126.png" width="200" height="406" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Vase, Castle Hill.</p>
</div>
<p>At Knole are a pair of circular pots figured
on <a href="#Fig_52">page 120</a>. Circular baskets of open interlacing
work and other forms were also made.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;" id="Fig_50">
<img src="images/i_127.png" width="367" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—Albert Gate.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;" id="Fig_51">
<img src="images/i_128.png" width="363" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Albert Gate.</p>
</div>
<p>Garden seats were also made entirely of lead.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>
There are six lead seats at Castle Hill, North
Devon; they are large square boxes with heavy
“classic” forms, the top and ends imitating the
folds of drapery. At Chiswick similar seats in
every way were sculptured in stone. These show
how lead should not be used.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_52">
<img src="images/i_129.png" width="500" height="282" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Vase on Gate Pier, Knole.</p>
</div>
<p>At Castle Hill are also several greyhounds;
they are particularly lively and well modelled and
suitable for their purpose as guards to the gates.
Gate piers are most inviting pedestals for leaden
imagery. At Albert Gate, Hyde Park, there are
two beautiful <a href="#Fig_50">lead</a> <a href="#Fig_51">stags</a>—another pair of them
are at Loughton in Essex; no more appropriate
English park gate could well be thought of. At
Carshalton, Surrey, where a park was enclosed by
Thomas Scawen, the great gate pillars of the entrance
have large boldly modelled statues of Diana
and Actæon, the date 1726. The little Cupids that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>
stand out of the ivy that covers the piers at
Temple Dinsley are sketched in <a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a>.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="Fig_53">
<img src="images/i_130.jpg" width="350" height="568" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Temple Dinsley.</p>
</div>
<p>Perhaps the finest gate pier groups are those
to the Flower Pot Gate at Hampton Court,
where Cupids uphold a basket of flowers. These
able pieces of work are not generally known for
lead, because, like so many figures and vases,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>
they have been painted and sanded to imitate
stone.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_54">
<img src="images/i_131.png" width="500" height="354" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Syon House.</p>
</div>
<p>In 1744 the then member for Southampton
presented two lions for the Bar Gate in that
town. These not very beautiful creatures still
remain.</p>
<p>Syon House, on the Thames, has besides the
great lion, a lesser lion set over Adam’s “lace
gateway,” weighing a ton and half, it is unfortunately
newly <em>painted and sanded</em> to look like
stone, and as the tail sticks out in a way utterly
impossible for anything but metal it makes it
entirely absurd. There is a plague of paint
over old leadwork, which should be gilt or let
alone.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_55">
<img src="images/i_132.png" width="500" height="407" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Syon House.</p>
</div>
<p>On the park wall facing the road there are <a href="#Fig_54">fine</a>
<a href="#Fig_55">sphinxes</a>, about five feet long, in every way different
to the lion, well designed exercises in the
“classic taste.” Well modelled, with impressive
heads, in the dark and dinted metal, they are
pleasant both in colour and texture. They are
quite “Adam’s” in character but not at all petty
like some of his work and very different to a
pair of sphinxes also of lead, on the gates of
Chiswick House.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span></p>
<h2>§ XVII. OF FINIALS AND CRESTINGS.</h2>
<p class="cap">The lead finial is typically a French
feature; there cannot be said to be a
single instance of a large ornamental
finial of lead remaining in England of the kind
once so universal in France and of which so
many still remain there. These French finials
from the 12th to the 18th centuries have been
sufficiently described, especially by M. De la
Queriere, who devotes a volume to them and the
cresting of ridges; by Viollet-le-Duc; and in
De <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Caumonts’s'">Caumont’s</ins> <cite>Abcdaire</cite>.</p>
<p>Many of these early French Gothic finials of
the 12th and 13th centuries were lead statues
formed out of repoussé sheet metal and they
surmounted the culminating point of the church,
at the apex of the chevet; here was often
placed an immense angel with great wings
turning as vanes in the wind. At Rouen it is
the Virgin with the infant Christ which stands
over the Lady Chapel; there was formerly on
the main apse a giant St. George horsed and
spearing the dragon, melted at the Revolution
“they say” into bullets. At Clermont
Ferrand is the most remarkable composition, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>
tall pillar on which stands a colossal Virgin
facing the sunrise; round the stem spring out
great branches of foliage on which sit four
figures—King David with the harp and three
others with musical instruments—the ridge is
ornamented with open work, and a length of
similar foliage reaches down the slope of the roof
for some feet on either side of the finial where
are two other figures, these are full life size, and
the whole must be 20 or more feet high.</p>
<p>At Evreux the apse had a St. Michael treading
down Satan. The immense St. Michael that
surmounted the central tower at Mont St.
Michel, which could be seen many leagues out at
sea, was also probably of lead.</p>
<p>We had in England in the twelfth century a
large figure serving as a finial to the central
tower at Canterbury. This tower was built by
Lanfranc, and Gervase tells us it was surmounted
by a gilt angel, this is shown in the contemporary
drawing of Canterbury; and the tower,
Professor Willis says, ever retained the name of
the Angel Tower. Stow also told us of a
lead spire close by St. Paul’s with an image of
St. Paul on the top.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;" id="Fig_56">
<img src="images/i_135a.png" width="183" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Finial at Lille.</p>
</div>
<p>The early French examples of finials without
a figure were formed of foliage in repoussé on a
stem or pillar with swelling bands or bowl-like
forms at the point of growth: these and the
foliage were beaten out of thick sheet lead, the
larger forms in two halves and soldered together.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>
The central stem was an iron rod covered with
lead tube slipped over it in short pieces, with
hooks to hang the branching leaves to; sometimes
slender rods rise out of the foliage and
droop with lilies at their extremities.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 118px;" id="Fig_57">
<img src="images/i_135b.png" width="118" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Finial at Angers.</p>
</div>
<p>Later, cast ornaments became general; on the
Hôtel Dieu at Beaune is a wonderful series of
these finials made up of portions partly repoussé
partly cast, these have coronets of delicate open
work which were cast in strips and bent round.
Where the finial joins the roof a rayed sun of
cast metal is placed. Mr. Clutton gives drawings
of these.</p>
<p>In the Museum at Lille there are two fine
finials, one of these is carefully analysed to
a large scale by Burges in his book of drawings
and the other, wholly made up of castings, is given
<a href="#Fig_56">here</a> from a photograph. In the Museum in the
splendid old hall of the Hôtel Dieu at Angers
are two, sketches of which are given in Figs.
<a href="#Fig_57">57</a> and <a href="#Fig_58">58</a>. The leaves and scrolls are cast with
ribs to make them stiffer.</p>
<p>The later Gothic and Renaissance finials are
often charmingly suggestive in the <em>subject</em> of
their design—some have figures, a huntsman at
Bourges, a Cupid shooting arrows or a man-at-arms;
some are made up with suns or sun and
moon, or moon and stars, as at Troyes; at
Beaune, cup-like forms are made of openwork
for birds’ nests. Again we find a vase of lilies or
branch of drooping thistles, a pigeon, a coronet,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>
or personal devices and badges. Mr. Burges
noted how the early poets spoke of the <em>music</em> of
the vanes, and there can be little doubt that some
of them were intended to resound to the wind:
in the <cite>Hypnerotomachia</cite> (1499) a finial is shown
with little bells hanging to chains which swang
against a metal bowl; Viollet-le-Duc also tells
us that in certain crestings he found a singular
musical conceit in contrivances for producing
“sifflements” under the action of the wind—Æolian
flutes.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="Fig_58">
<img src="images/i_137.png" width="250" height="448" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Angers.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="Fig_59">
<img src="images/i_138.png" width="250" height="595" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Finials, Bourges.</p>
</div>
<p>At <a href="#Fig_59">Bourges</a> on the Hôtels Jacques Cœur and
Cujas are some finials consisting of little more
than a lead-covered stick bearing a rod and
girouettes. Flags were properly only set up in
the due heraldic precedence of the proprietor, a
Knight might fly a pennon and so on; they were
centred at times on a piece of agate to reduce the
friction of revolution. We have only to look at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>
the views of old towns given in manuscripts to
see how the mediæval mind delighted in these flag
finials; but there are probably not half a dozen
old ones now left in England. When there are
many revolving flags to the finials on one
building and these are bright with new gold,
they have the delightful property of flashing the
light to a great distance. The gilt flags on the
pinnacles of the west front of Wells Cathedral
twinkle simultaneously against the setting sun.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="Fig_60">
<img src="images/i_139.png" width="250" height="237" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—From Newcastle.</p>
</div>
<p>Crestings, sometimes large and most ornamental,
were formed along the ridges of French
buildings, especially in the early Renaissance.<a name="Anchor-30" id="Anchor-30" href="#Footnote-30" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 30.">[30]</a>
These ornamental ridges, especially in this exaggerated
form, are not English.</p>
<p>A row of fleurs-de-lis exists at Exeter, a portion
of which is in the Architectural Museum,
Westminster: and probably many other roofs
had similar crestings.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span></p>
<h2>§ XVIII. OF CISTERNS, ETC.</h2>
<p class="cap">The use of lead pipes for conducting water
was introduced into England by the
Romans, the ordinary draw-off tap is
another gift of theirs. The twelfth century
plan of Canterbury cathedral shows a remarkable
system of water pipes for collecting the water
from the roofs and distributing it to the several
buildings and fountains. Mr. Micklethwaite has
described in <cite>Archæologia</cite> a lead filtering cistern
with draw-off tap found at Westminster Abbey;
and in the British Museum (Gothic Room) there
is a small circular lead cistern with delicate
fifteenth century ornament.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="Fig_61">
<img src="images/i_141.png" width="300" height="564" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Poundisford Park, Taunton.</p>
</div>
<p>Some old country houses preserve the original
scheme for conducting the rain water from the
roofs into a lead cistern which, adorned by devices
and gilding, stood close to the front door.
<a href="#Fig_61">Poundisford Park</a>, near Taunton, is one of these.
Lead spouting, delicately ornamented, crosses
the front and brings the water to the head of
the vertical pipe, which has turrets and loopholes—a
toy castle. This and its pipe stand over a
circular fronted cistern panelled and modelled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>
with a crest, pots of flowers, and the date 1671.
There are some of these cisterns at Exeter; one
of them, <a href="#Fig_62">here given</a>, is much like that at Taunton,
and is dated 1696; the ribs and devices are gilt.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>
At Bovey Tracy, in Devonshire, there is another,
as also at Sackville College, East Grinstead.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_62">
<img src="images/i_142.png" width="500" height="272" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Cistern, Exeter.</p>
</div>
<p>In the London houses of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, ornamented lead
cisterns seem to have been generally placed in
the courtyards and areas. The earliest known
was illustrated and described in the <cite>Builder</cite> for
August 23rd, 1862. The centre was a coat of
arms quartering the lions of England and the
lilies of France, right and left two quatrefoil
panels contained the letters E.R., and below
in a long panel was the date 15—. Two upright
strips formed the margins, which, with the ends,
were covered with Gothic diaper. It was drawn
while in the possession of a dealer, who obtained
it in Crutched Friars.</p>
<p>There was quite a crusade preached against<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>
these cisterns, as the occasion of lead poisoning,
in the first half of this century, and hundreds
were destroyed, but a large number still remain;
about Bloomsbury quite a dozen may be seen
down front areas. For the most part they were
decorated with panelling of ribs formed of squares
and semicircles with strips and spots of cast
ornament, flowers, fruit baskets, stags, dolphins,
cherubs’ heads, and even the gods Bacchus and
Ceres; others have nothing but the fretted panel
with initials and date like <a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63</a>.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_63">
<img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="500" height="457" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Cistern, London.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_64">
<img src="images/i_144.png" width="500" height="594" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—Cistern, S. Kensington Museum.</p>
</div>
<p>The ribs, with the stock enrichments in new
combinations, the date and initials, were attached
to a wood panel the size of the cistern front;
this was moulded in the sand and the casting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span>
made of good substance; stout strips were
soldered across the inside as ties. One of the
finest known of these is that at South Kensington
Museum, of which one half of the front is
here <a href="#Fig_64">illustrated</a>, the other half repeats exactly,
even to the initials on the shield; the date is
1732. This is in every way well designed and
beautifully modelled. A part of one in the
Guildhall Museum is an early example of the
ordinary pattern, dated 1674.</p>
<p>The ribs for the pattern were formed in lead—a
plumber disdaining the assistance of wood
if he could avoid it—by beating strips of lead
into an iron swage block, that was cut as a
matrix about four inches long; these strips
could be easily bent to the curved lines. Plain
panelled cisterns like this were made as late as
1840.</p>
<p>Old lead pumps are now very seldom to be
found. One remains at Wick, Christchurch, which
is 6 inches in diameter, and is decorated by a
crest—a boar’s head in a wreath—and the initials
“G. B.” as well as the signature “<span class="smcap">J. Jenkins</span>,
Plummer, 1797.”</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span></p>
<h2>§ XIX. OF GUTTERS.</h2>
<p class="cap">In England the gutters of important churches
were generally formed behind the stone
parapet, but at <a href="#Fig_65">Lincoln</a> the whole is formed
of lead above a carved stone cornice. It is about
two feet high and the outside is decorated with
foiled circles closer or farther apart with due
disregard for precision. In France gutters were
often like this made on the top of the stone
cornice; irons turned up carry a continuous rod,
over which the lead was dressed, and as the outlets
were frequent little fall was required.<a name="Anchor-31" id="Anchor-31" href="#Footnote-31" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 31.">[31]</a></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_65">
<img src="images/i_146.png" width="500" height="188" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—Gutter, Lincoln Cathedral.</p>
</div>
<p>To some bay windows of a fine old timber<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>
house at Derby there are little parapets formed
out of lead, the front edge being cut into notches
like a tiny battlement, and short lengths of pipe
form spouts for the water. At <a href="#Fig_66">Taunton</a> there is
a bay window with a similar battlement of lead;
this is cast with a running pattern and wavy
upper edge, to this below is soldered a similar
strip reversed making a fringe; the same pattern
forms the isolated gutters at Poundisford House
above mentioned. At Montacute the spouting
has a series of little upright panels, the top
moulding breaking up higher over every alternate
pair in crenelations, leaving a space filled with
a boss. At Bramhall there is a cottage to which
both the spouting and the <a href="#Fig_67">down pipe</a> have a
running scroll of flowery ornament. Sometimes
the end of a roof gutter between two gables is
stopped by an apron of lead with pattern on it,
such as a knot of cord and initials.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_66">
<img src="images/i_147.png" width="500" height="135" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Gutter, Taunton.</p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p>
<h2>§ XX. OF PIPES AND PIPE HEADS.</h2>
<p class="cap">The water was discharged from the gutters
into the heads of down pipes, or sometimes
from jutting lengths of spout
supported by iron props, the nozzles cut into a
form often simulating an animal’s jaws.</p>
<p>The down pipes are particularly English,
nowhere else can the ornate constructions of lead
forming the pipe heads of Haddon and other
great houses of the sixteenth century be matched.
According to Viollet-le-Duc, here in England this
arrangement was already in use in the fourteenth
century, when nowhere except in England were
these lead pipes from the roof down to the base
of the wall known. He also remarks on the
advantage of these being square as they can expand
if required when the water freezes, while a
circular pipe can only burst.<a name="Anchor-32" id="Anchor-32" href="#Footnote-32" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 32.">[32]</a> Fragments of
pierced work in Gothic patterns which formed
parts of pipe heads have been found at Fountains
Abbey.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 481px;" id="Fig_67">
<img src="images/i_149.png" width="481" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Bramhall, Cheshire.</p>
</div>
<p>At Haddon there are a great number of these
pipe heads of several dates, and every one is different
from the rest; some are plain and small,
others great spreading things elaborately decorated.
The <a href="#Fig_70">general form</a> of these is constructed
like a box from cast sheet lead, the cornices are
beaten to their shape over a pattern; and the top
edge is cut into a little fringe of crenellations.
Cast discs of ornament, badges, pendant knobs,
and initials are arranged on their fronts, on the
funnel-shaped portion leading to the pipe, and on
the ears of the pipe and the side flaps of the head
itself. The <a href="#Fig_68_69">more elaborate</a> heads have an outer
casing of lead with panels pierced through it of
delicate tracery work of Gothic tradition which
shows bright against the shadow.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_68_69">
<img src="images/i_150.png" width="500" height="278" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 68</span> and 69.—Pipe Heads, Haddon Hall.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 454px;" id="Fig_70">
<img src="images/i_151.png" width="454" height="600" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—Pipe head, Haddon.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p>
<p>At Windsor Castle some pipe heads bear the
date 1589, the Tudor rose, and the letters E. R.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="Fig_71">
<img src="images/i_152.png" width="400" height="587" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—Bodleian, Oxford.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="Fig_72">
<img src="images/i_153.png" width="500" height="351" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—St. John’s, Oxford.</p>
</div>
<p>At Knole there are also many heads having
pierced work of this kind in panels, and projecting
turrets; some of these also have a decoration
of bright solder applied to the lead in patterns—these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>
were made about 1600. At the <a href="#Fig_71">Bodleian</a>
and <a href="#Fig_72">St. John’s College</a>, Oxford, there is a fine
series of pipe heads with painted patterns. At
Norham Castle some pipe heads are dated 1605.
Abbot’s Hospital at Guildford has a large series
of heads later in character than those at Haddon.
Here pierced work is used as a brattishing to the
top edge of the fronts; they are signed G. A. and
dated 1627. At Canons Ashby there is a pair
of most rococo pipe heads, with applied pierced
castings, masks and acanthus leaves.<a name="Anchor-33" id="Anchor-33" href="#Footnote-33" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 33.">[33]</a> These heads
are fixed on iron cramps, or brackets; at Haddon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>
lead cylinders with pierced ends project and carry
the heads.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;" id="Fig_73">
<img src="images/i_154a.png" width="150" height="385" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—Sherborne.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;" id="Fig_74">
<img src="images/i_154b.png" width="150" height="275" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—Liverpool.</p>
</div>
<p>Sometimes the heads are very long, extending
five or six feet like a length of gutter; it was a
favourite method to decorate them with salient
projections at intervals, like the cut-waters of a
bridge, the top edge of these is cut into little
battlements which were curled over in loops.
The projections make convenient birds’ nests.
The pipe is sometimes central to these long
heads but often at the end.</p>
<p>Entirely the reverse of these, other heads are
tall in proportion, like the examples at Shrewsbury
and Ludlow or the little fiddle pattern design
given here from the Grammar School at Sherborne<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>
(<a href="#Fig_73">Fig. 73</a>). The two examples <a href="#Fig_74">74</a> and <a href="#Fig_74">75</a> are from
Liverpool and Ashbourn.</p>
<p>There are three or four original pipe heads
which are well designed in the Architectural
Museum.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;" id="Fig_75">
<img src="images/i_155.png" width="150" height="244" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—Ashbourne.</p>
</div>
<p>The later ones, as in London, are often tall
square funnels moulded and bent into vase-like
forms, the projection was small compared to the
width, only three or four inches sometimes. A
piece of projecting pipe is at times inserted in the
front of the head to serve as an overflow. The
late pipes were circular and the heads very often
followed this form.</p>
<p>The material has an appropriateness for this
purpose that cast iron cannot pretend to; a simple
square box of lead and round pipe is much to be
preferred to fussy things in cast iron, they will
not require painting, nor do they fill the drains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>
with rust; and although it has been necessary to
draw the elaborate and eccentric forms, the
simpler ones form better models for our purpose.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="Fig_76">
<img src="images/i_156.png" width="300" height="446" alt="" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Haddon.</p>
</div>
<p>The earlier pipes were almost always a flat
square, sometimes ornamented up its whole length,
but usually only at the collars, where the bands of
lead for attachment to the wall were placed, <a href="#Fig_76">here</a>
and on the flaps of the collars are often crests,
flowers, or letters. The lead band was cut long
enough, so that after the nails had been driven
through it into the wall the ends were folded
back over their heads. Those at Canons Ashby,
Northants, have the ends curled and cut like the
scroll of a mediæval text.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span></p>
<p>Lead working as an art for the expression of
beauty through material, with this ancestry of
nearly two thousand years of beautiful workmanship
behind it here in England, has in the
present century been entirely killed out. Only
one simple present use of lead can be mentioned
as having the characteristic of an art—the expression
of personal thought by the worker to
give pleasure. This is nothing but the lining of
stairs and floor spaces with sheet lead nailed with
rows of copper nails, some examples of which are
done with a certain taste. Pipe heads and other
objects of a somewhat ornamental kind have
recently been made again, but we must remember
that ornament is not art, and these have only
been carefully, painfully, “executed” to the architect’s
drawings. The plumber’s art, as it was, for
instance, when the Guild of Plumbers was formed,
a craft to be graced by the free fancy of the
worker, is a field untilled. That someone may
again take up this fine old craft of lead-working
as an artist and original worker, refusing to follow
“designs” compiled by another from imperfectly
understood old examples, but expressing only
himself—this has been my chief hope in preparing
the little book NOW CONCLUDED.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_a-1">[1]</span></p>
<h2 title=""><span class="smcap">Messrs.</span> MACMILLAN & CO.’S<br />
<big>BOOKS FOR TECHNICAL CLASSES.</big></h2>
<div class="blockquot-a">
<p class="text"><b>DRAWING AND DESIGN.</b> A Class Text-book for Beginners. By <span class="smcap">E. R.
Taylor</span>. Head Master of the Birmingham Municipal School of Art. With
Illustrations. Oblong crown 8vo, 5<i>s.</i> net.</p>
<p class="text"><b>ELEMENTS OF HANDICRAFT AND DESIGN.</b> By <span class="smcap">W. A. S.
Benson</span>, M.A. Oxon. With Illustrations. Extra crown 8vo, 5<i>s.</i> net.</p>
<p class="text"><b>A TEXT-BOOK OF NEEDLEWORK, KNITTING AND CUTTING-OUT.</b>
With Methods of Teaching. By Miss <span class="smcap">Elizabeth Rosevear</span>, Senior
Teacher, and Lecturer on Needlework, Training College, Stockwell, London.
With Original Illustrations and Sectional Diagrams. Crown 8vo, 6<i>s.</i></p>
<p class="review"><cite>SATURDAY REVIEW.</cite>—“A very useful book of reference for teachers of
elementary sewing classes.”</p>
<p class="review"><cite>SCHOOLMASTER.</cite>—“This is a remarkably clever and practical text-book on
Needlework.”</p>
<p class="review"><cite>QUEEN.</cite>—“It has been carefully prepared by an intellectual teacher, expert in
the art of demonstration lessons, and anxious to impart to others the results of her
experience as Senior Teacher and Lecturer at Stockwell Training College.”</p>
<p class="text"><b>A PRIMER OF DOMESTIC ECONOMY.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edith A. Barnett</span> and
<span class="smcap">H. C. O’Neill</span>. Pott 8vo, 1<i>s.</i></p>
<p class="review"><cite>SCOTSMAN.</cite>—“It is in its way unique among school books, touching the
fringe of a great variety of subjects—hygiene, economics, physiology, cooking,
medicine, and the sciences dealing with money. Of these it says a little that every
housekeeper ought to know, and opens the way for more. It is an admirable school
book.”</p>
<p class="review"><cite>SATURDAY REVIEW.</cite>—“A capital little book for the young householder.”</p>
<p class="text"><b>A PRIMER OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE.</b> Ten Lectures
delivered for the Surrey County Council, by <span class="smcap">J. Wright</span>, F.R.H.S. (Horticultural
Instructor), Assistant Editor of the “Journal of Horticulture,” Editor
of “Garden Work.” With 37 Illustrations. Pott 8vo, 1<i>s.</i></p>
<p class="review"><cite>SPECTATOR.</cite>—“A most useful little book, giving hints on various profitable
kinds of cultivation. The contents were originally given as lectures, and it is an
excellent idea to have them re-published.”</p>
<p class="text"><b>THE FOOD OF PLANTS.</b> By <span class="smcap">A. P. Laurie</span>, M.A., Fellow of King’s
College, Cambridge. Adviser in Technical Education to the Bedfordshire
County Council. Pott 8vo, 1<i>s.</i></p>
<p class="review"><cite>NATURE.</cite>—“This little book is intended to be an introduction to agriculture.
The experiments are carefully chosen and described and can be performed with inexpensive
materials, and the book, especially if used as the author suggests, in conjunction
with a Chemistry Primer, can well be recommended as an interesting guide
to the study of agriculture.”</p>
<p class="text"><b>A MANUAL OF DAIRY WORK.</b> By Professor <span class="smcap">James Muir</span>, of the
Yorkshire College, Leeds. Pott 8vo, 1<i>s.</i></p>
<p class="review"><cite>SCHOOL BOARD CHRONICLE.</cite>—“A very useful and authoritative handbook....
A happy combination of scientific and of practical facts, explanations,
and advice.”</p>
<p class="text"><b>THE GRAMMAR OF WOODWORK.</b> A Graduated System of <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Manua'">Manual</ins>
Training for Elementary, Secondary, and Technical Schools, designed for the
Pupils of the Whitechapel Craft-School by Walter E. Degerdon, Head
Instructor in Woodwork at the Whitechapel Craft-School, formerly Woodwork
Instructor in the Cambridge University Engineering Workshops. With a
Preface by <span class="smcap">H. Llewellyn Smith</span>. 4to, Paper Covers, 2<i>s.</i></p>
<p class="review"><cite>SCHOOLMASTER.</cite>—“The order of work is clearly mapped out, and the book
will be found to be most useful for reference at the bench. We warmly recommend
it to the notice of all manual instructors.”</p></div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_a-2">[2]</span></p>
<h2 title="">MACMILLAN’S SCIENCE PRIMERS.</h2>
<div class="blockquot-a">
<div class="center">
Pott 8vo. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> each.<br />
Under the joint Editorship of Prof. <span class="smcap">Huxley</span>, Sir <span class="smcap">H. E. Roscoe</span>, and
Prof. <span class="smcap">Balfour Stewart</span>.<br />
</div>
<p class="text">INTRODUCTORY.</p>
<p class="byline">By Professor <span class="smcap">Huxley</span>, F.R.S.</p>
<p class="text">ASTRONOMY.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">J. N. Lockyer</span>, F.R.S. Illustrated. New Edition.</p>
<p class="text">PHYSICS.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">Balfour Stewart</span>, F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations
and Questions. New Edition.</p>
<p class="text">CHEMISTRY.</p>
<p class="byline">By Sir <span class="smcap">H. E. Roscoe</span>, F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations and
Questions. New Edition.</p>
<p class="text">GEOLOGY.</p>
<p class="byline">By Sir <span class="smcap">A. Geikie</span>, F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. New
Edition.</p>
<p class="text">PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.</p>
<p class="byline">By Sir <span class="smcap">A. Geikie</span>, F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations and
Questions. New Edition.</p>
<p class="text">BOTANY.</p>
<p class="byline">By Sir <span class="smcap">J. D. Hooker</span>, F.R.S. New Edition, revised and
corrected.</p>
<p class="text">PHYSIOLOGY.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">Michael Foster</span>, M.D., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations.
New Edition.</p>
<p class="text">LOGIC.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">W. Stanley Jevons</span>, F.R.S. New Edition.</p>
<p class="text">POLITICAL ECONOMY.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">W. Stanley Jevons</span>, F.R.S.</p>
<p class="center"><i>Uniform with the Above.</i></p>
<p class="text">FIRST LESSONS IN PRACTICAL BOTANY.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">G. T. Bettany</span>, M.A., F.L.S. Pott 8vo. 1<i>s.</i></p>
<p class="text">FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">H. Tanner</span>, F.C.S. Pott 8vo. 1<i>s.</i></p></div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_a-3">[3]</span></p>
<h2 title="">ELEMENTARY SCIENCE CLASS BOOKS.</h2>
<div class="blockquot-a">
<p class="text">ALGEBRA FOR BEGINNERS. By <span class="smcap">H. S. Hall</span>,
M.A., and <span class="smcap">S. R. Knight</span>, B.A. 2<i>s.</i> <span class="smcap">With Answers.</span> 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">MECHANICS FOR BEGINNERS. By Rev. <span class="smcap">J. B.
Lock</span>, M.A. Part I. Mechanics of Solids. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="review"><cite>SCHOOLMASTER.</cite>—“Bears the stamp of an author who is thoroughly at home
in his subject. Careful arrangement, logical explanation, suitable illustrations and
numerous examples testify to the value of the book.”</p>
<p><i>Part II. Mechanics of Fluids.</i> <span class="prep">In preparation.</span></p>
<p class="text">ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN HEAT, LIGHT,
AND SOUND. By Prof. <span class="smcap">D. E. Jones</span>, B.Sc. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>
<b>Adapted to the Elementary Stage of the South
Kensington Syllabus.</b></p>
<p><small><i>The questions at the ends of chapters are taken partly from the Elementary
Papers of the Science and Art Department.</i></small></p>
<p class="text">ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM FOR
BEGINNERS. <b>Adapted to the Elementary Stage of
the South Kensington Syllabus.</b> By Prof. <span class="smcap">S. P.
Thompson</span>. <span class="prep">In preparation.</span></p>
<p class="text">INORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR BEGINNERS.
By Sir <span class="smcap">Henry Roscoe</span>, F.R.S., assisted by <span class="smcap">Joseph Lunt</span>, B.Sc.
2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> <b>Adapted to the Elementary Stage of the South
Kensington Syllabus.</b></p>
<p class="text">ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR BEGINNERS.
By <span class="smcap">G. S. Turpin</span>, M.A. <b>Adapted to the Elementary
Stage of the South Kensington Syllabus.</b> <span class="prep">Ready shortly.</span></p>
<p class="text">PHYSIOGRAPHY FOR BEGINNERS. By <span class="smcap">J.
E. Marr</span>, M.A., F.R.S., and <span class="smcap">A. Harker</span>, M.A., F.G.S.
<b>Adapted to the Elementary Stage of the South
Kensington Syllabus.</b> <span class="prep">Ready shortly.</span></p>
<p class="text">PHYSIOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS. By Prof.
<span class="smcap">Michael Foster</span> and Dr. <span class="smcap">L. E. Shore</span>. <b>Adapted to the
Elementary Stage of the South Kensington Syllabus.</b> <span class="prep">Ready shortly.</span></p></div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_a-4">[4]</span></p>
<h2 title="">SOME VOLUMES OF “NATURE” SERIES.</h2>
<div class="blockquot-a">
<p class="center">Crown 8vo. Cloth.</p>
<p class="text">SEEING AND THINKING.</p>
<p class="byline">By Prof. <span class="smcap">W. K. Clifford</span>, F.R.S. Diagrams. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">POPULAR LECTURES AND ADDRESSES.</p>
<p class="byline">By Lord <span class="smcap">Kelvin</span>, P.R.S. In 3 vols. Vol. I. Constitution of
Matter. Illustrated. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Vol. III. Navigation. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">MODERN VIEWS OF ELECTRICITY.</p>
<p class="byline">By Prof. <span class="smcap">O. J. Lodge</span>, LL.D. Illustrated. 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">A CENTURY OF ELECTRICITY.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">T. C. Mendenhall</span>. 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">CHARLES DARWIN.</p>
<p class="byline">Memorial Notices reprinted from “Nature.” By <span class="smcap">Thomas H.
Huxley</span>, F.R.S., <span class="smcap">G. J. Romanes</span>, F.R.S., Sir <span class="smcap">Archibald
Geikie</span>, F.R.S., and <span class="smcap">W. T. Dyer</span>, F.R.S. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">THE SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCES OF ORGANIC
EVOLUTION.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">George J. Romanes</span>, F.R.S. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">ARE THE EFFECTS OF USE AND DISUSE INHERITED?
An Examination of the View held by
Spencer and Darwin.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">W. Platt Ball</span>. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">ON THE COLOURS OF FLOWERS.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span>. Illustrated. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="text">THE APODIDÆ: A MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY.</p>
<p class="byline">By <span class="smcap">Henry Meyners Bernard</span>, M.A. Cantab. With 71
Illustrations. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
<p class="review"><cite>SCOTSMAN.</cite>—“A book which zoologists will very greatly prize.
The writer has worked out the task he set before him with the greatest
care and in the most elaborate manner, and has presented the fruits of
his labour in a volume which every lover of scientific investigation will
thoroughly appreciate.... A valuable contribution to zoological
investigation.”</p>
<p class="text">THE RIGHT HAND: LEFT-HANDEDNESS.</p>
<p class="byline">By Sir <span class="smcap">D. Wilson</span>. Illustrated. 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></div>
<p class="center">MACMILLAN AND CO., LONDON.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="footnotes"><h3 title="">FOOTNOTES:</h3>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-1" id="Footnote-1" href="#Anchor-1" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>See</i> Dr. Schuchardt, translation 1891 (Macmillan).</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-2" id="Footnote-2" href="#Anchor-2" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>See</i> Prof. Middleton, <cite>Ancient Rome</cite>.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-3" id="Footnote-3" href="#Anchor-3" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[3]</span></a> Pératé, <cite>L’Archéologie Chrétienne</cite>.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-4" id="Footnote-4" href="#Anchor-4" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[4]</span></a> Longmans, <cite>Three Cathedrals</cite>.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-5" id="Footnote-5" href="#Anchor-5" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[5]</span></a> Stow.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-6" id="Footnote-6" href="#Anchor-6" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[6]</span></a> <cite>Cathedral Guide.</cite></div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-7" id="Footnote-7" href="#Anchor-7" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[7]</span></a> <cite>Spring Gardens Sketch Book</cite>, vol. v.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-8" id="Footnote-8" href="#Anchor-8" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>See</i> drawing in <cite>Sketch Book of Architectural Association</cite>, 1881.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-9" id="Footnote-9" href="#Anchor-9" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[9]</span></a> <cite>History of Art</cite>, “Phœnicia.”</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-10" id="Footnote-10" href="#Anchor-10" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[10]</span></a> Illustrated by Reber.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-11" id="Footnote-11" href="#Anchor-11" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[11]</span></a> For engravings see <cite>Archæologia</cite>, vol. xxix.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-12" id="Footnote-12" href="#Anchor-12" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>See</i> Parker’s <cite>Glossary</cite>, vol. iii.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-13" id="Footnote-13" href="#Anchor-13" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[13]</span></a> See <cite>Archæological Journal</cite>, vol. ii.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-14" id="Footnote-14" href="#Anchor-14" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>See</i> Paley’s <cite>Fonts</cite>.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-15" id="Footnote-15" href="#Anchor-15" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[15]</span></a> <cite>Arch. Remains</cite>, vol. i., series 2.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-16" id="Footnote-16" href="#Anchor-16" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[16]</span></a> <cite>Art. Fons.</cite></div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-17" id="Footnote-17" href="#Anchor-17" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[17]</span></a> Dawson Turner’s <cite>Tour</cite>.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-18" id="Footnote-18" href="#Anchor-18" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[18]</span></a> <cite>Archæologia</cite>, xxv.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-19" id="Footnote-19" href="#Anchor-19" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</i> xlv.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-20" id="Footnote-20" href="#Anchor-20" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[20]</span></a> Folio, plate v. vol. i.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-21" id="Footnote-21" href="#Anchor-21" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[21]</span></a> Capgrave, in Rolls Series.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-22" id="Footnote-22" href="#Anchor-22" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>See</i> Viollet-le-Duc, “Dallage.”</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-23" id="Footnote-23" href="#Anchor-23" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[23]</span></a> See <cite>Antiquary</cite>, Feb., 1893.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-24" id="Footnote-24" href="#Anchor-24" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[24]</span></a> Fosbroke, <cite>Ency. Antiq.</cite></div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-25" id="Footnote-25" href="#Anchor-25" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[25]</span></a> Gray’s <cite>Letter from Pembroke Coll.</cite>, 1769.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-26" id="Footnote-26" href="#Anchor-26" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[26]</span></a> Blomfield and Thomas. Macmillan, 1892.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-27" id="Footnote-27" href="#Anchor-27" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[27]</span></a> <cite>Reliques of Father Prout</cite>, i., 140.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-28" id="Footnote-28" href="#Anchor-28" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[28]</span></a> <cite>L’Art Arch. en France</cite>, vol. ii.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-29" id="Footnote-29" href="#Anchor-29" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[29]</span></a> <cite>The Formal Garden</cite>, Blomfield and Thomas.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-30" id="Footnote-30" href="#Anchor-30" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>See</i> De la Queriere or Viollet-le-Duc (<cite>Art.</cite> “Crête”).</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-31" id="Footnote-31" href="#Anchor-31" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[31]</span></a> <i>See</i> Viollet-le-Duc.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-32" id="Footnote-32" href="#Anchor-32" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[32]</span></a> Art. “Conduite,” Fig. 6.</div>
<div class="footnote">
<a name="Footnote-33" id="Footnote-33" href="#Anchor-33" title="Return to text.">
<span class="label">[33]</span></a> Figured in the <cite>Spring Gardens Sketch Book</cite>, vol. v., 58.</div></div>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="tnote-end" id="tn-end">
<p class="center"><b>Transcriber’s Note:</b></p>
<p>Missing periods and dashes have been supplied where obviously
required. All other original errors and inconsistencies have been
retained (of particular note is the ‘v’ for ‘u’ substitution in
‘ILLVSTRATIONS’ on the title page), except as follows (the first
line is the original text, the second the passage as currently stands):</p>
<ul class="corrections">
<li><a href="#Page_5">Page 5</a>:<br />
§ <span class="correction">2</span> AN HISTORICAL SKETCH.<br />
§ <span class="correction">II.</span> AN HISTORICAL SKETCH.
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_5">Page 5</a>:<br />
England herself <span class="correction">whch</span> is the<br />
England herself <span class="correction">which</span> is the
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_7">Page 7</a>:<br />
Mycenæ and Tiryns.<br />
Mycenæ and Tiryns.<span class="correction"><sup>[1]</sup></span>
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_17">Page 17</a>:<br />
Carthage by the <span class="correction">Phoenician</span> Dido is<br />
Carthage by the <span class="correction">Phœnician</span> Dido is
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_19">Page 19</a>:<br />
domes of <span class="correction">Sta.</span> Sophia and St. Mark’s.<br />
domes of <span class="correction">St.</span> Sophia and St. Mark’s.
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_62">Page 62</a>:<br />
font has leaden <span class="correction">statutes</span> of the<br />
font has leaden <span class="correction">statues</span> of the
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_62">Page 62</a>:<br />
Northamptonshire <span class="correction">Walmsford</span><br />
Northamptonshire <span class="correction">Wansford</span>
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_94">Page 94</a>:<br />
shoulder sank a <span class="correction">a</span> little<br />
shoulder sank a little
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_103">Page 103</a>:<br />
<span class="correction">stood. “All</span> the above<br />
<span class="correction">stood.</span><br /><br /><span class="correction">“All</span> the above
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_109">Page 109</a>:<br />
’Twas <span class="correction">enought</span> to break my heart<br />
’Twas <span class="correction">enough</span> to break my heart
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_109">Page 109</a>:<br />
Mr. John <span class="correction">Chere</span> in St. Martin’s lane<br />
Mr. John <span class="correction">Cheere</span> in St. Martin’s lane
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_111">Page 111</a>:<br />
a garden at <span class="correction">Bemfila</span> “which eclipses<br />
a garden at <span class="correction">Bemfica</span> “which eclipses
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_124">Page 124</a>:<br />
De <span class="correction">Caumonts’s</span> <cite>Abcdaire</cite>.<br />
De <span class="correction">Caumont’s</span> <cite>Abcdaire</cite>.
</li>
<li><a href="#Page_a-1">Ads page 1</a>:<br />
A Graduated System of <span class="correction">Manua</span><br />
A Graduated System of <span class="correction">Manual</span>
</li></ul>
</div>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41544 ***</div>
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