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diff --git a/41544-0.txt b/41544-0.txt index 257e865..715a383 100644 --- a/41544-0.txt +++ b/41544-0.txt @@ -1,35 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Leadwork, by W. R. Lethaby - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Leadwork - Old and Ornamental and for the most part English - -Author: W. R. Lethaby - -Release Date: January 5, 2013 [EBook #41544] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEADWORK *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Rosanna Murphy and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41544 *** Transcriber’s Note: italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equals signs=. @@ -3196,362 +3165,4 @@ substitution in ‘ILLVSTRATIONS’ on the title page), except as follows: End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Leadwork, by W. R. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Leadwork - Old and Ornamental and for the most part English - -Author: W. R. Lethaby - -Release Date: January 5, 2013 [EBook #41544] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEADWORK *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Rosanna Murphy and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold -text by =equals signs=. - - - - -LEADWORK - - - "_That which gives to the leadwork of the Middle Ages a particular - charm is that the means they employed and the forms they adopted - are exactly appropriate to the material. Like Carpentry or Cabinet - work, Plumbing was an art apart which borrowed neither from stone - nor wood in its design. Mediæval lead was wrought like colossal - goldsmith's work._"--VIOLLET-LE-DUC. - - - - - LEADWORK - OLD AND ORNAMENTAL - AND FOR THE MOST PART - ENGLISH. BY W. R. LETHABY - WITH ILLVSTRATIONS - - [Illustration] - - 1893 - Macmillan & Co., London & New York. - - -RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED - -LONDON AND BUNGAY. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - SECT. PAGE - - I. OF MATERIAL AND CRAFTSMANSHIP 1 - - II. AN HISTORICAL SKETCH 5 - - III. OF LEAD COVERINGS TO BUILDINGS 17 - - IV. OF LEADED SPIRES AND TURRETS 20 - - V. OF DOMES 33 - - VI. OF ROOFS 36 - - VII. OF LEAD COFFINS 40 - - VIII. OF FONTS 51 - - IX. OF INSCRIPTIONS, ETC. 65 - - X. OF THE DECORATION OF LEAD 72 - - XI. OF LEAD ORNAMENTATION OF OTHER MATERIALS 80 - - XII. OF DECORATIVE OBJECTS 84 - - XIII. OF LEAD GLAZING 87 - - XIV. OF LEAD STATUES 90 - - XV. OF LEAD FOUNTAINS 112 - - XVI. OF VASES AND GATE PIERS 114 - - XVII. OF FINIALS AND CRESTINGS 124 - - XVIII. OF CISTERNS, ETC. 131 - - XIX. OF GUTTERS 137 - - XX. OF PIPES AND PIPE HEADS 139 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIG. PAGE - - 1. EGYPTIAN INSCRIBED TABLET 7 - - 2. GREEK QUIVER 8 - - 3. BUILDER'S PLUMMET 9 - - 4, 5. GREEK WEIGHTS 10 - - 6, 7. GREEK WEIGHTS 11 - - 8, 9. CISTS FROM THE KIRCHERIAN MUSEUM 12 - - 10. ROMAN JEWELLED CUP 14 - - 11. SPIRE, BARNSTAPLE 26 - - 12. ANOTHER SPIRE 27 - - 13. TURRET, BARNARD'S INN HALL 29 - - 14. CALAIS BELFRY 32 - - 15. ORNAMENTS FROM COFFINS, CONSTANTINOPLE 41 - - 16, 17. CISTS, BRITISH MUSEUM 42 - - 18, 19. ROMAN COFFINS, BRITISH MUSEUM 44 - - 20. ROMAN COFFIN, BRITISH MUSEUM 45 - - 21. THIRTEENTH CENTURY COFFIN, TEMPLE CHURCH 46 - - 22, 23. THIRTEENTH CENTURY COFFINS, TEMPLE CHURCH 47 - - 24. COFFIN, WINCHESTER 48 - - 25. AT MOISSAC 49 - - 26. VESSEL, LEWES MUSEUM 52 - - 27. FONT, BROOKLAND, KENT 54 - - 28. FONT, BROOKLAND 55 - - 29. FONT, EDBURTON, SUSSEX 57 - - 30. FONT, WALTON, SURREY 59 - - 31. FONT, PARHAM, SUSSEX 61 - - 32. HEART BOX OF KING RICHARD 67 - - 33. INSCRIBED CROSS 68 - - 34. ARMS FROM BOURGES 70 - - 35. INCISED DECORATION, BOURGES 75 - - 36. PAINTED DECORATION, BOURGES 76 - - 37. FLASHINGS, BOURGES 77 - - 38. A VALANCE 78 - - 39, 40. LEAD GLAZING 88 - - 41. VENTILATING QUARRY 89 - - 42. STATUE OF MERCURY 98 - - 43. SUN-DIAL, TEMPLE GARDENS 100 - - 44. CYMBAL PLAYER 106 - - 45. TERMINAL AT CASTLE HILL 107 - - 46. TIME, TEMPLE DINSLEY 108 - - 47. VASE, HAMPTON COURT 115 - - 48. FROM VASE, HAMPTON COURT 116 - - 49. VASE, CASTLE HILL 117 - - 50. ALBERT GATE 118 - - 51. ALBERT GATE 119 - - 52. VASE, KNOLE 120 - - 53. CUPID, TEMPLE DINSLEY 121 - - 54. SPHINX, SYON HOUSE 122 - - 55. SYON HOUSE 123 - - 56. FINIAL AT LILLE 126 - - 57. FINIAL AT ANGERS 126 - - 58. ANGERS 128 - - 59. FINIALS, BOURGES 129 - - 60. FROM NEWCASTLE 130 - - 61. POUNDISFORD PARK, TAUNTON 132 - - 62. CISTERN, EXETER 133 - - 63. CISTERN, LONDON 134 - - 64. CISTERN, S. KENSINGTON MUSEUM 135 - - 65. GUTTER, LINCOLN CATHEDRAL 137 - - 66. GUTTER, TAUNTON 138 - - 67. BRAMHALL, CHESHIRE 140 - - 68, 69. PIPE HEADS, HADDON HALL 141 - - 70. PIPE HEAD, HADDON 142 - - 71. BODLEIAN, OXFORD 143 - - 72. ST. JOHN'S, OXFORD 144 - - 73. SHERBORNE 145 - - 74. LIVERPOOL 145 - - 75. ASHBOURNE 146 - - 76. HADDON 147 - - - - -LEADWORK - - - - -§ I. OF MATERIAL AND CRAFTSMANSHIP. - - -To none of the processes of modern mechanism do more vulgar associations -cling than to "Plumbing." It is the very serviceableness and ductility -of lead as a material that have brought about the easy and familiar -contempt with which it is treated. While few are more worthy of artistic -care no metal is more perfectly adaptable to noble use through a range -of treatments that cannot be matched by any other metal whatsoever. It -combines extreme ease of manipulation with practically endless -durability, and a suitability to any scale, from a tiny inkwell, or a -medal, to the statue of horse and rider, a Versailles fountain, or the -greatest cathedral spire. - -The range of method in handling follows from the equal ease with which -it can be hammered out, cast, or cut, and all three, employed -concurrently on the same piece. - -The main purpose of the pages which follow is not to set out a history -of the use of this material in various forms, although this is involved. -It is intended by pointing out the characteristics and methods of the -art of lead working in the past to show its possibilities for us, and -for the future. A picture of what has been done is the best means of -coming to a view of what may again be done. But it cannot be too -strongly asserted that the _forms_ of past art cannot be _copied_; that -certain things have been done is evidence enough to show that we cannot -do them over again. Reproduction is impossible; to attempt it is but to -make a poor diagram at the best. - -Commercially produced imitations of ornamental works are infinitely -beneath the merely utilitarian object which serves its purpose and -attempts nothing more. Behind all design there must be a personality -expressing himself; but certain principles of treatment and methods of -working may be understood in some degree by a study of past work without -going all through it again. History thus makes the experience of the -past available to us, but it does not relieve us of the necessity of -ourselves having experiences. There is a great stimulus in feeling one -of a chain, and entering into the traditions of a body of art. The -workman Bezin said to Mr. Stevenson of museums, "One sees in them -little miracles of workmanship--it fires a spark." - -New design must ever be founded on a strict consideration of the exact -purpose to be fulfilled by the proposed object, of how it will serve its -purpose best, and show perfect suitability to the end in view when made -in this or that material by easy means. This, not the torturing of a -material into forms which have not before been used, is the true ground -of beauty, and this to a certain extent is enough without any -ornamentation. Ornament is quite another matter, it has no justification -in service, it can only justify itself by being beautiful. - -In so far as history is involved here it has been necessary to refer to -and to figure many works, not bearing the impress of a fine living -style, but only passable exercises in the respectabilities of a sort of -conventional design learnt by rote. As a general rule it will be found -that the workers of the middle ages penetrated at once to the reason of -a thing in structure and then decorated it with an evidence of fresh -thought--a delight in growth, form, humanity, in one word Nature, the -source of all beauty and subject of all art. Each thing made is -evidently by an _artist_; it expresses reasonable workmanship and happy -thought in pleasant solution of some necessity of actual service. Many -of the later things are not thus natural and spontaneous but pedantic -and pompous, fulfilling their chief intention if they were expensive; -while to-day the chief care of design is often to _appear_ expensive -without being so in fact. - -Only in our century in England would it be possible for the metals which -are so especially hers, iron, tin, and lead, to have been so degraded -that it is hardly possible to think of them as vehicles of art. It -should not be so, for each of the metals can give us characteristics -that others cannot, and the capabilities of lead have been sufficiently -proved by more than two thousand years of artistic manipulation. - -The only way in which the crafts can again be made harmonious by beauty -is for men with a sense of architectural fitness and a feeling for -design to take up the actual workmanship and practise it themselves as -they would painting or sculpture, seeking the delight of being good -artists not the reputation of being successful merchants or clever -professional men. To any such, lead-working may be recommended. - - - - -§ II. AN HISTORICAL SKETCH. - - -The ease with which lead ores may be gained from the earth and then -worked, is sufficient to show that the application of lead to the -service of the arts must have been made very early. - -Nowhere does it seem to have been so easily found as "in England herself -which is the classic land of lead and tin" (Abbé Cochet). These two -metals made the early fame of Britain; they brought here the Phoenician -trader and had doubtless much to do with the Roman occupation of this -distant island. - -"Tin and lead," says Harrison in his _Description of England_, "metals -which Strabo noteth in his time to be carried into Marseilles from -hence, as Diodorus also confirmeth, are very plentiful with us, the one -in Cornwall, Devonshire, and elsewhere in the north, the other in -Derbyshire, Weredale, and sundry places of this island.... There were -mines of lead sometimes also in Wales which endured so long till the -people had consumed all their wood by melting of the same." - -Tin, which was of such sovereign necessity for the composition of -bronze, was, with lead, an object of wide commerce, as we may learn from -the prophecy of Ezekiel against Tyre, whose long black ships did the -carrying trade of the world. As the Tarshish of Scripture is the -Tartessus of classic authors--an entrepôt of Phoenician trade in -Spain--it may well be of English mined metal that the prophet -speaks:--"Tarshish was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of all -kinds of riches; with silver, iron, tin, and lead they traded in thy -fairs." - -The Assyrian slabs which contain the accounts of the expedition into -Syria in the ninth century B.C. include among the tribute exacted of -Tyre and of Jerusalem itself "bars of gold, silver, copper, and lead." -Solomon used lead in the structure of the great wall of Jerusalem. - -Sir H. Layard says the mountains three or four days' journey from -Nineveh furnished iron, copper, lead, and silver in abundance, and he -found instances of its actual use at Nineveh. Place also, in his -excavations at Khorsabad, discovered a foundation inscription of Sargon -II., the great builder of the eighth century B.C. engraved on a plate of -lead. A leaden jar and a piece of pipe were found by Loftus at Mugheir. - -In Egypt it was sparingly used. Sir G. Wilkinson says:--"Lead was -comparatively useless, but was sometimes used for inlaying temple -doors, coffers and furniture, small statuettes of the gods were -occasionally made in this metal, especially those of Osiris and Anubis." - -In Egypt as well as in Babylonia it was the custom to make a deposit of -several objects in the foundations, a tradition which we still follow -to-day. At Daphnae Mr. Flinders Petrie found a set of little slabs of -different stones and small plates of metal, gold, silver, copper, and -lead, all engraved with the name of Psamtik. The lead tablet is here -figured. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -The ornamental objects of lead to which the earliest date can be -assigned are those found by Dr. Schliemann in his excavations at Mycenæ -and Tiryns.[1] - - [1] _See_ Dr. Schuchardt, translation 1891 (Macmillan). - -The Greeks very largely used lead for many purposes. It is twice -mentioned in the Iliad, and its familiar use as a building material is -shown by Herodotus, who says that Queen Nitocris built a bridge over the -river at Babylon, of stone bound together with lead and iron; and the -story the Greek historian gives of the celebrated hanging gardens -describes how they were raised on high terraces of arches covered with -bitumen and sheets of lead. - -Sufficient actual examples of Greek lead work are stored up in museums, -masonry with dowels of lead, inscribed tablets, small toys and tokens, -little vases for eye salve about as large as a thimble, boxes for -unguents, and sling bullets. These last are often inscribed so that the -warrior might know his work, often with flouts and jibes and jeers. One -in the Lewes Museum has [Greek: EUGEI],--"Well done"; others have "Hit -Hard," &c. - -In the museums of Athens are some small figures, a Dionysiac wreath of -gilt lead leaves to be worn as a garland, a lead quiver for arrows about -fifteen inches long, also plummets and market weights, with other -objects. Mr. Cockerell found that parts of the early pediment sculptures -at Ægina were of lead, and lead is inlaid in the volute of the early -Ionic capital from the archaic temple of Ephesus now in the British -Museum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -The plummets are interesting to us as builders' implements; there are -two or three dozen in the British Museum, about three inches high and -one inch at the base tapering upwards: some are marked with the letter A -on one side and on the obverse a little relief, a throne-seat with an -owl. The owl was Athene's own symbol, and appears on the coinage of -Athens in a form from which this seems copied. The Acropolis was her -throne. We will stretch our imaginations far enough to believe that the -A stands for Athens and that these are the very implements used in -setting the masonry of one of the corner stones of the world's art--the -Parthenon. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -The market weights are remarkable in bearing devices like the types of -coins. For the most part they are square cakes and the devices simple -almost to rudeness, yet they have that impress of style and grace in the -design, with the large free handling in which is the exquisiteness of -Greek art. A sketchiness so simple and easy can be the only right -treatment for a metal so likely to receive injury in the use; to these -as in all art so considered the inevitable injuries of wear are little -loss. We can hardly suppose that such a simple industry as making lead -weights for the markets would have had artists capable of designing, and -suggesting in relief types like these, rather we may suppose that some -of the great coiners furnished the models, especially as they would be -issued by the authorities of the several towns. - -We may take this first opportunity of remarking that the patterns for -all ornament _intended for casting_ should be _modelled_ like these, -never _carved_, as is now so universally the case for cast iron and the -applied enrichments of picture frames, the reason being that cast -material of this sort, so easily injured, is unsuited for giving -definition and high relief, and should accept all the limitations of -material frankly and make the most of dull suggestiveness; for in all -these the "best are but shadows" the modelling emerging from or melting -away in the ground. In two attempts the present writer has made in -modelling for lead casting wax was used in one instance, and in the -other, where very delicate relief was required made up mostly of threads -and dots, gesso was found to answer. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 4 and 5.--Greek Weights.] - -The ram's head (see Fig. 4) for instance has only the frontal, the -lips, and the horn, made out, the rest the imagination sees -transparently below the field. In the words of Blake "it is everything -and nothing." The raised rim is a good protection. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 6 and 7.--Greek Weights.] - -The second, a half Mina of Ægina, is yet simpler--just a pot, but a -beautiful one well placed. The third is Attic, a quarter Dimnoun with -scarabeus-like tortoise. The last is a Mina of Ægina, it bears the -well-known Greek rendering of the Dolphin and the letters [Greek: MNA -AGOR]. "Market Mina." The dolphin has the "bowed back" Sir Thomas -Browne pointed out as a "popular error" of painters, but the dolphin was -to the Greek mind, rather the genius of the waving sea itself than any -mere particular fish, and this is the time consecrated form, like this -it swims amongst the undulating hair of the Arethusa of Syracuse, the -most beautiful coin in the world. - -The Romans used lead extensively and much in the same way as we do--for -roof coverings and water pipes, in masonry and for coffins. In Rome an -immense quantity of lead piping has been found. The pipes were formed of -strips of cast lead bent round a rod and then soldered. Most of the work -was signed by the plumber, his name and that of the owner being -impressed in the sand mould.[2] - - [2] _See_ Prof. Middleton, _Ancient Rome_. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 8 and 9.--From the Kircherian Museum.] - -There are many beautiful cistae or circular boxes in the museums of -Naples and Rome. These are decorated with little medallions, shells, -beaded rods, &c., stock patterns which were impressed in the sand mould -in such fresh combinations as the thought of the workmen suggested, -just as a cook makes pie crust, which is the subject of nearly the only -spontaneous decorative art now remaining to us. Figs. 8 and 9 are from -the Kircherian Museum. - -Of the Roman leadwork in the British Museum the specimens are mostly -coffins, and a number of ingots of lead. These "pigs" have been found in -Cheshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, Norfolk, Hants, -Somerset, and Sussex. Of these there are ten in the British Museum -bearing names of emperors and dates which, put into our era, are--A.D. -49, Claudius; 59, Nero; 76, Vespasian; 81, Domitian; 117, Hadrian. - -These pigs are about 4 1/2 by 18 inches; and even they are not without -design, for some of them have the well-known classic label to receive -the name. - -A beautiful object, remarkable as an instance of lead used in an article -of price, is a vase some 5 inches high. This is evidently a wine cup -from the figures and emblems which decorate it--Bacchus, Silenus, thyrsi -bound with cords, and four genii of the Seasons carrying appropriate -symbols, one being a garland, another a sheaf of corn; around the middle -is a belt set with glass jewels of varied colour, dull reds, greens, and -blue, and below this is a wreath of vine (Fig. 10). - -Compare a very richly decorated vessel in the engravings of the Museo -Borbonico. - -Lead water pipes of Roman make are frequently found in England; at Bath -there is a water channel 1 foot 9 inches by 7 inches, of lead nearly one -inch in thickness, and sheets of it 10 feet long lined the basin of the -great bath, 30 lbs. in weight to the foot. In the refuse of the Mendip -mines Roman lamps and other articles of lead have been found. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Roman Jewelled Cup.] - -During the Byzantine era lead was much used. In a curious relief found -at Tunis "the founder seems to have used up all the old models in his -studio. Here a Good Shepherd, Peacocks, and stags drinking from the four -mystical rivers, palms and vines, are found side by side with Silenus, a -Victory, a Nymph, an Athlete, and scenes of the chase."[3] In Saxon -England lead was a staple commodity for export and used in great -quantities at home. English merchants of lead and tin are mentioned as -attending the French fairs from the time of Dagobert. During the middle -ages it was largely applied to many purposes and manipulated by the -various methods and decorated with the ornaments, particulars of some of -which follow. England was still the best esteemed source of supply. -About 1680 M. Felibien wrote a book on the crafts connected with -architecture, in which he says that "The greatest part of the lead we -use in France comes from England in large ingots called 'Salmons,' a -little lead also comes from Germany, but it is dry and not so sweet as -the English." - - [3] Pératé, _L'Archéologie Chrétienne_. - -Up to the 15th century sheet lead was cast only, but a coffin of the -Duke of Bedford (Joan of Arc's) at Rouen is already laminated. - -Lead is an easy medium for the forgery of antiques, and some of the -objects so produced are quite pretty. In the museum at Taunton there is -a small lead bottle which seems to be a forgery. - -The Plumbers' Company in London appears to have been in existence early -in the fourteenth century. In 1365 (39 Edward III.) ordinances were -granted to the Company which had then been in existence some years. In -1588 (31 Elizabeth) arms and crest were granted; and in 1611 (9 James -I.) a charter was given renewing all powers and privileges. - -Throughout the middle ages lead was more extensively used in England -than elsewhere--our cathedral roofs, for instance, were all of lead, -whereas abroad they are often of corrugated or flat tiles, stone or -slate. The methods of conducting water from the roof by stone gutters -and gargoyles was much further developed in France than here, where lead -always came to hand. Lead pipes with ornamental heads were first -introduced here in England for this purpose, and they reached a -development without parallel abroad. During the eighteenth century there -was, as we shall see, a large industry in lead statues, and the -plumber's art continued to the opening of the present century; indeed, -cisterns decorated with the old devices may be seen as late as 1840, and -some of the old methods have not yet passed entirely out of memory. The -Exhibition of 1851 marked exactly the general eclipse of craft -tradition. England was no longer to be saved by work, but by commerce. - - - - -§ III. OF LEAD COVERINGS TO BUILDINGS. - - -Sheeting buildings with decorative plates of metal has been one of man's -architectural instincts. M. Chipiez, in his essay on the origins of -Greek architecture, considers first:--"The temple, metallic or covered -with metal, which obtained in Medea, Judaea, and in Asia Minor. Greek -writers like Pausanias speak of edifices having been constructed of -brass; such was the legendary temple of Apollo at Delphi, that of Athena -Calkhioecos in Sparta, and the treasury of Myron, tyrant of Sicyon. In -the _Eneid_ the temple erected at Carthage by the Phoenician Dido is also -of brass." From Homer to the _Arabian Nights_ and the mediæval romance -writers, a metal-cased architecture, shining with gold, has been -preeminently the architecture of the poets. - -It would almost seem as if in the Merovingian age Western Europe passed -through the phase of a metal-cased architecture, but in this case it was -lead that formed the external vestment--an architecture of lead. "Under -the Merovingian kings," says M. Viollet-le-Duc, "they covered entire -edifices, churches, or palaces, in lead. St. Eloi is said to have so -covered the church of St. Paul des Champs with sheets of lead -artistically wrought." - -In England Bede mentions a parallel instance. Finian the successor of -St. Aidan in the See of Lindisfarne built a church after the manner of -the Scots of hewn oak with a thatched roof; afterwards "Eadbert also -bishop of that place (638) took off the thatch and covered it both roof -and walls with lead." - -The exaggerated lead roofs of the early mediæval churches in England -were in nowise dictated by utilitarian considerations. The creeping of -the lead on steep surfaces, the many burnings, and the great expense in -large churches which would take literally acres of lead, made -maintenance a burden, but they liked this metal casing, and that was -enough. - -This is still more evident in the mediæval delight in the tall leaded -spires, not in their aspect as mere roof coverings, but intrinsically as -metal shrines, looking on them with their decorations as vast pieces of -goldsmith's tabernacle work. The steep pitch of the roof of the main -building when applied to a square tower quite naturally produced leaded -spires. These already appear in the drawing made of Canterbury Cathedral -about the year 1160. That these metal-sheeted spires were the best -loved form, and that stone was adopted at last but as a truce with fire -is proved by the spires of lead which appear in the wall paintings -(those that were at St. Stephen's for instance), in the MSS., and by the -splendid leaded spire of St. Paul's which we shall speak of below. The -spire so treated is not a mere roof, or a cheap substitute for stone, -but takes its place in metal-cased architecture, as do also the leaded -Byzantine domes of St. Sophia and St. Mark's. - -In that most splendid work of the English renaissance, the palace of -Nonsuch, which was begun by Henry VIII. in 1538, the structure was what -we call half-timber, the panels were filled with coloured and gilt -reliefs by Italian modellers, and the timber framing is described by -Pepys, who visited it in 1665, as sheeted with lead. This casing we may -be sure was covered with delicate Italian arabesques. His words are, -"One great thing is that most of the house is covered, I mean the posts -and quarters in the walls, with lead and gilded." - - - - -§ IV. OF LEADED SPIRES AND TURRETS. - - -Our own old St. Paul's, the once highest steeple in the world, which -rose 500 feet and more into the clouds, from whence it at last drew the -lightning to its destruction, was the proudest example of these lead -spires which for beauty at least equalled the finest examples in stone. -When the second church, begun at the end of the eleventh century, was -but just completed; "the quire was not thought beautiful enough, though -in uniformity of building it suited with the church: so that resolving -to make it better they began with the steeple, which was finished in -A.D. 1221." This was the lead-covered steeple, the only spire of the -church which stood centrally over the crossing. It was 1312 before the -modification of the old church was done, and thenceforth that part was -known as the "new work." Within three years afterwards a great part of -the spire of timber covered with lead being weak and in danger of -falling was taken down and a new cross, with pommel large enough to -contain ten bushels of corn, well gilt was set on the top thereof by -Gilbert de Segrave the Bishop of London with great and solemn -procession, and relics of saints were placed in it.[4] The relics of -saints were thus put at the apex as a safeguard from lightning. - - [4] Longmans, _Three Cathedrals_. - -This lead spire, repaired in 1315, must have been the work spoken of as -finished in 1221, and it was thus the earliest lead spire of -considerable dimensions of which we have any knowledge: it was an -extraordinary development from the square lead pyramids that covered the -Norman towers at Canterbury and other places. - -Stow says the height was 520 feet "whereof the stone-work is 260 feet, -and the spire was likewise 260 feet. The cross was 15 feet high by 6 -feet over the arms, the inner body was of oak, the next cover was of -lead, and the uttermost was of copper red varnished. The bowl and the -eagle or cock were of copper and gilt also." The ball at the apex was -three feet across and the weathercock four feet from bill to tail and -three feet six inches across the wings. "Certes," says Harrison, "the -toppe of this spire where the weathercocke stode was 520 foote from the -ground of which the spire was one half." The measurements of Wren -confirm the height of the stone tower (which alone was standing in his -day) as being 260 feet, the spire, he says, had been 40 feet diameter -at the base and rose 200 feet or more. It must have been altogether -worthy of this vast church of twenty-five compartments in the interior -vista of arch and vault, 600 feet in greatest length and 100 feet high. -In 1444 the spire narrowly escaped destruction by lightning, but the -fire was put out. "In the year 1561, the 4th of June, between the hours -of three and four of the clock in the afternoon, the great spire of the -steeple of St. Paul's Church was fired by lightning, which brake forth -as it seemed two or three yards beneath the foot of the cross: and from -thence it went downwards the spire to the battlements, stonework, and -bells, so furiously that within the space of four hours the same steeple -with all the roofs of the church were consumed to the great sorrow and -perpetual remembrance of the beholders."[5] It was thus destroyed a -hundred years before the great fire when the cathedral perished. - - [5] Stow. - -London was a city of lead spires. Stow tells us that at St. Paul's -School close by the Cathedral was "of old time a great and high -clochiard or bell-house, four square built of stone and in the same a -most strong frame of timber with four bells the greatest that I have -ever heard. The same has a great spire covered with lead with the image -of St. Paul on the top." It was said that Sir Thomas Partridge won it by -a throw of dice from Henry VIII., and pulled it down. Stow, who would -have thought the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Buildings, to -which we owe so much good work, much too cautious in its methods, -reports with much pleasure, "This man was afterwards hanged on Tower -Hill." At St. Bartholomew's Priory, Smithfield, was another of these -timber spires. - -A spire said to have been even higher than this of St. Paul's was -erected in the fourteenth century over the central tower at Lincoln. The -two western towers also had spires which were taken down to save the -cost of repair within this century. This group of three great leaded -spires crowning the Hill-city must have been one of the most wonderful -the whole world over. The central tower as it now stands is 270 feet -high 54 feet on the face; it was finished in 1311. "The spire of timber -covered with lead reaching a height of 524 feet which once surmounted it -was destroyed by a tempest in 1548."[6] - - [6] _Cathedral Guide._ - -The plates in Dugdale's _Monasticon_ engraved by Hollar and others -surprise us by the number of leaded spires to the cathedrals not one of -which has survived storm and flames or the crueller hatred of beauty -which the modern mind has developed. There are those of the two west -towers of Durham, western spires at Canterbury, Peterborough, and Ely, -all three at Lincoln, and four smaller pinnacles at Norwich. Two square -pyramids shown to the west tower of Southwell, were probably the -original covering of the twelfth century. These are now "restored" and -they look as false as the word. - -The great central spires at Rochester and at Hereford and the central -and two western spires at Ripon are shown of lead, as is also that of -the beautiful isolated belfry at Salisbury, which was destroyed "to -improve the view of the cathedral." Of three of these large central -spires shown in Dugdale, Rochester and Hereford rise from square towers -with "broaches": the first is of a curious and yet happy form, with -recessed faces, and the other is an octagon of which the cardinal faces -are wider than the alternate sides. The great spire of Ripon rose within -the stone parapet of the tower, apparently at first twelve-sided with -gables, and the spire itself twenty-four, each pair making a slight -reentering angle--a beautiful composition it must have been of light and -delicate shadow on the silver white of the old lead. This fair colour is -of great importance; several of the old spires which remain to us are as -white as if whitewashed. Modern ones, like the grimy thing at Lynn, -would be improved by being whitewashed. The old, that at Minster in Kent -for instance, tell as bright high lights in a general view of the -landscape such as that you obtain from Richborough. - -The finest of the English spires now existing constructed of timber and -sheeted with lead is that of Long Sutton in Lincolnshire, the highest, -oldest, and most perfect. The stone tower with octagon projections at -the angles, is 25 feet square and 65 high, standing free from the church -to which it is attached by one angle only. The flèche itself is 85 feet -from the eaves to the top of an enormous relic "pommel" some four feet -in diameter, which is thus 150 feet in the air. The four octagonal -projections carry large pinnacles 25 feet high, which at a little height -disengage themselves wholly from the great flèche, but with consummate -art all lean their axes inwards towards it as much as two feet. The -wooden framing, carefully measured by Mr. Austin,[7] shows that this -grouping of the lines was as much done from set purpose as the -inclination of the lines in the Parthenon of which we hear so much. Each -face of the leading has the rolls arranged in a double row of -herringbone, and the faces of the pinnacles have the leading slanting in -one direction only. Altogether it is a most interesting and most -beautiful work of the thirteenth century. - - [7] _Spring Gardens Sketch Book_, vol. v. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Spire, Barnstaple.] - -The drawing here given is of the fine old steeple at Barnstaple, which -was saved from destruction by the good advice of Sir Gilbert Scott--and -lack of funds! It is a delightfully careless and cheerful looking -object, like that at Chesterfield, warped and nodding, which outrages -the precise sensibilities of the townspeople; it was erected in 1389, as -appears from the accounts and was repaired and altered in the -seventeenth century (as shown by a date and initials, "1636 W. T."), at -which time the spire lights were opened out. The external bells are -unusual in England. There are two other spires of village churches in -the neighbourhood at Braunton and Swymbridge. The spires at -Chesterfield, Godalming, Almondsbury in Gloucestershire, Wrighton in -Northumberland, and Harrow (1481), are among the finest that remain. Of -the destroyed church at Reculver the west towers, which are retained as -landmarks, had lead spires. In some spires in Norfolk, about Cromer, two -or three feet of the leading is omitted, thus forming an open band -through which the timbering and a bell hung here may be seen. In some of -the spires the lead is laid in vertical strips, as at Minster in Thanet, -and a sketch given from a church in Hertfordshire shows the lower part -in a way arcaded by an ingenious arrangement of the rolls. At great -Baddow Church, Essex, vertical rolls run up about two-thirds of the -spire, and the rest is plain. Generally, however, the lead work is -arranged in herring-bone with careful irregularity and change so as to -get a texture in the surface so different to the dead and dreary -accuracy we should attain to. Low square spires at Ottery St. Mary are -good examples of lead texture for those who see some beauty in the -jointing of the armour of a tortoise. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.] - -The construction of the wood framing of the greater of these spires is a -forest of intricate interlacing timbers, the best authority for which is -the article _Flèche_ in Viollet-le-Duc, or Burges' drawing of Amiens in -his volume of careful studies of the Gothic art of France. - -The most decorated of these lead spires in England--although not very -large--is at East Harling in Norfolk. It rises within the stone -battlement and has an open stage with wood pinnacles and crocketed -"flying buttresses" all covered with lead. The sides of the spire -proper, very narrow and acute, have the rolls arranged in lozenges -instead of the usual herring-bone or vertical lines, the lozenges are on -one side as wide as the face, breaking into a zig-zag above, on another -side are smaller lozenges three or four in the width changing into one -again above: at the apex is a large finial knob.[8] - - [8] _See_ drawing in _Sketch Book of Architectural Association_, 1881. - -Wren's knowledge of the spire of old St. Paul's possibly led him to try -his hand at leaded spires, and the result in some of the City churches, -particularly that one on Ludgate Hill that is such a perfect foil for -the great dome of St. Paul's, shows his usual assured mastery. The -spire of St. Olave, Hart Street, is said to have a crystal ball at the -apex. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Barnard's Inn Hall.] - -The smaller turrets on college halls are generally covered with lead in -an ogee form. Those at Oxford have often a lozenge raised on each face, -that on Barnard's Inn in the City is wholly enveloped in lead. A turret -on the alms-houses at Abingdon has large letters and crowns, which are -gilt, standing up free on the slanting faces. At Hampton Court there are -turret roofs, ogee with crockets and finials and little pinnacles set -round at the springing. At Nonsuch leaded turrets surmounted the great -octagons at the angles, they were probably much decorated and certainly -of considerable size, making very picturesque compositions, as we may -see in the rude views of the palace which exist. - -In France and Germany there are many remarkable leaded spires, but we -can only stay to mention the steeple at Chalons-sur-Marne, the central -flèche at Amiens, and the belfry at Calais. The steeple at Chalons is a -most interesting work, large and well-designed, with faint and -fascinating remains of a gorgeous scheme of colour decoration patterning -the whole surface of the lead with figures and canopies resembling the -drawing on stained glass, the lead rolls passing across the design like -the iron glazing bars. This was carefully drawn by Burges and -illustrated in the _Builder_ for 1856, and the whole spire is -represented to scale in the Sketch Book of the Architectural Association -for 1883. This is a work of the end of the thirteenth century, and the -decoration was done in the following century. It will be well to mention -it more particularly later, but as Viollet-le-Duc says that nearly all -the lead work of the middle ages was so decorated we may conclude that -such a magnificent spire as St. Paul's was not entirely bare of gold and -colour. - -The flèche at Amiens, which rises from the roof some 100 feet of -"transparent fretwork which seems to bend to the west wind," is well -illustrated in Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionary as well as by Burges. Every -resource of the art was lavished on it, pinnacles and niches, lead -statues, tracery, great circular coronets of pierced cast work. The -sheet lead was diapered with fleurs-de-lis, and all was decorated with -designs in colour and gold. Although perfectly Gothic in form it is a -work of the sixteenth century, and the painting is in the manner of the -Renaissance. - -At Calais the fine belfry represented in Fig. 14, which was completed -about 1600, is in some respects very English in character, while on the -other hand it is a northern representative of a class of bulbous spires -which are as much cupolas as spires, and were probably often intended as -fantastic domes. These, although later found all across Europe, from -Russia to Belgium, were never naturalised in England on a large scale, -our nearest approach to them being in the ogee cupolas of small turrets -and lanterns and some of Wren's spires. In Holland they were very much -affected in the most extravagant forms, and they are now the constant -form of church spire seen in eastern Europe. They seem much at home in -such a city as Buda-Pesth, and have doubtless characteristics which -endear them to those of Mongolian blood and speech. It is an interesting -point to decide whether these forms are in origin actually -Eastern--"travelled topes" as a friend says--or whether they are the -natural outcome of a combination of spire and dome in a period of -extravagant and declining taste. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Calais Belfry.] - - - - -§ V. OF DOMES. - - -The Romans covered domes in lead; during the Byzantine empire they very -generally did so. Constantinople in the age of Justinian was a city of -lead domes, as it has always since remained. The domes of St. Sophia are -still covered with lead laid over the brickwork. This tradition was -carried on by the Greek master builders who erected the great mosques -for the conquerors. A large mosque has as many as twenty or thirty domes -of all sizes grouped about the central one. The bazaars, caravansaries, -and bakeries, have long level rows of cupolas. This prospect of dome -beyond dome in a succession as of billows is of marvellous beauty in a -general view of the city as seen from the sea. The lead is laid over the -brickwork, the rolls are very small, and as they have no wood core the -lines are very irregular. Some of the lead domes of Constantinople were -melon-shaped, that is having large _convex_ gores. A Turkish example of -this remains in an ogee-shaped dome at the angle of the Seraglio wall -near St. Sophia. - -Most interesting works of this tradition are the "domes" or rather -domical roofs of St. Mark's at Venice. Those eastern-looking forms which -give such fantasy to it were raised to their present form on wooden -framework in the thirteenth century. They are sheeted with plain rolls -except the bulb-formed lanterns, which are much like an umbrella in -which every gore has a salient angle, a "ridge and valley." These five -timber-framed spire-like domes, erected for their own sake and not lying -close to the interior form of the building, in this respect resemble -northern spires. The whole group rising over the level front of St. -Mark's is a work of the highest imaginative genius. It is not a building -with a dome but a building roofed in domes, bubbling over with domes; -and it expresses the metal shrine idea in perfection. The original -leaded domes of St. Mark's were copied from those of the church of the -Holy Apostles at Constantinople, a church built by Justinian. - -At the Renaissance the leaded dome became a popular commonplace -especially at Venice. For the most part these were covered like a roof -with ordinary rolls. By forming ribs and panels in the wooden foundation -a more elaborate but not more successful aspect is obtained. St. Paul's -is well designed in this way. This design with the great ribs Sir -Christopher Wren considered "less gothick than sticking it full of rows -of little windows" as at St. Peter's. It was first intended to cover -St. Paul's dome with copper, but £500 was saved by substituting lead at -a cost of £2,500. - -At the National Gallery--a very careful and refined work, one of the -last of the old scholarly dead language sort we call classic--the lead -covering is formed into raised scales and frets, very well and -successfully done of its kind. - - - - -§ VI. OF ROOFS. - - -The Romans used lead as a roof covering. In the West "one can hardly -(Viollet-le-Duc says) explore the ruins of a Gallo-Roman erection -without finding some sheet-lead that had been employed for gutters or -roofs." In the East--Eusebius says of Constantine's Basilica (the Holy -Sepulchre) at Jerusalem--"the roof with its chambers was covered with -lead to protect it from the winter rain." In England Bede tells us of -Wilfrid having roofed his church at York with lead in the seventh -century, and it has continued without a break in its use as the most -perfect of coverings. - -The methods employed in the middle ages are described by Burges and -Viollet-le-Duc. The latter well remarks that of lead covering, as well -as many other parts of the construction of buildings, we are a little -too apt to think overmuch of the perfection of our modern methods while -we are too little careful to learn the experience acquired by our -forefathers. - -The old cast lead is much thicker than the modern milled lead, being as -much as twelve or thirteen pounds to the foot of surface. It is -certainly not quite even in thickness, and is subject to faults in the -casting, but it is not so liable to crack as is milled lead. The old -lead employed has also a considerable quantity of silver and arsenic in -it, which was the cause of the beautiful white oxide it obtained. Modern -lead blackens as the preparation of lead now includes its -"de-silverisation." The acid of timber which has not lost its sap -decomposes lead; old building timber was water-seasoned as only ship -timber now is. - -The chief difficulties that had to be overcome in the use of lead were -the weight of the sheets of lead to be maintained in position, and the -great dilatation of the metal under the heat of the sun, so that it had -to be at once strongly attached and free to move. The method followed -was to nail it at the top and roll the lateral edges together. - -The roofing at Canterbury was of twelve-pound lead and about 2.0 between -the rolls. The thirteenth century lead of Chartres Cathedral, "covered -externally by time with a patina hard, brown, and wrinkled, and shining -in the sun," was in sheets eight feet long, attached at the top by nails -with very large heads and held at the bottom by clips of iron that -passed down between the sheets and turned over the bottom edge of the -upper one. The rolls were formed by turning over the margins one in the -other without a wood roll; they were much smaller than the modern ones. - -Our milled lead is rolled out in sheets about 16 × 6 feet and is usually -cut in half lengthways, and 4 1/2 inches is allowed in each edge to form -the rolls which are thus 2'-3" apart. Lead one inch thick is sixty -pounds to the square foot, so six-pounds lead is 1/10th of an inch in -thickness. We generally make the mistake of putting a longitudinal roll -along the ridge, but it is not so done in our old roofs, nor should it -be, for the running out of the rolls frets the ridge into a simple -decoration. - -The lead covering of old roofs should be jealously maintained--its loss -is irreparable. If repair becomes absolutely necessary for the -protection of the building, such lead should be recast, it should never -be replaced by milled lead. The old metal is easily recast on the -ground, and this is now frequently done, but not frequently enough. It -was cast on a wood table with a projecting margin or curb all round; on -this slid up and down a cross piece notched down to give the proper -gauge to the lead which it levelled. - -Where lead was applied to the vertical or steep planes of dormers or -spires the interlocking of the sheets in herring-bone was a practical as -well as an artistic expedient. Where nails had to be driven through -exposed lead, in repairs or otherwise, flaps like little shields were -laid over them soldered on the top edge. Lead, where used to incase -wood tracery, as in the open work of spires or dormers, was secured by -means of laps and rolls without solder so that it was free to expand and -contract. The modern plumber is much too apt to employ soldered joints -even in structural work. - -Small openings were made like little dormers, for ventilation of the -roof timbers, by dressing a stout piece of lead up into a triangle or -half circle in front dying back on the roof with the back turned up -under the tiles or slates. - -Sometimes cast ornaments were applied to a slated roof; the disc with -undulating rays on the slated apex of the north-west tower at Rouen is -an instance. - - - - -§ VII. OF LEAD COFFINS. - - -In the later classical period lead was much used for coffins; several of -very fine workmanship have been discovered in Syria, some of these, very -delicately ornamented are figured by Perrot, and Chipiez.[9] In the -Louvre there is a finely decorated example of the Roman period, and -large numbers of Roman lead coffins have been found both in England and -in France. There is a very beautifully decorated early Christian coffin -in the museum at Cannes, this has a border of vine and birds with -monograms of Christ--[Greek: ChR. IChThYS].[10] Fig. 15 shows portions of -ornamentation from a remarkable series of coffins now in the museum of -Constantinople. There are some eight or ten of these and all decorated -in the most elaborate way with tendrils and medallions beautifully -modelled in very slight relief. None of the symbols are definitely -Christian, but they evidently belong to the same school as the last -named. The neighbourhood of Beyrout and the ancient Sidon was the site -of the discovery of most of these coffins of early Christian date. - - [9] _History of Art_, "Phoenicia." - - [10] Illustrated by Reber. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Ornaments from early Christian Coffins, -Constantinople.] - -The coffins found in England are not so much Roman as strictly -Anglo-Roman, for far more have been found here than in any other -country, such as have been found in France are near our shores as if -certainly made of our lead, and the ornamentation of the English -examples has a common likeness in the use of the scallop shell which is -not represented abroad. The comparison can best be made in a little book -by the learned archæologist Abbé Cochet of Rouen, _Les Cercueils de -Plomb_ (1871), in which the examples found in France are figured. - -These English coffins and sepulchral cists are mostly in the British -Museum and at Colchester. The cists are plain circular boxes some ten -inches diameter by fourteen inches high; one of these is decorated by -simple circles and another has crossed rods of "reel and bead," with -applied small panels of chariots and horses. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 16 and 17.--Cists, British Museum.] - -The coffins have been found chiefly in the London district--in the -Minories, Stepney, Stratford; at East Ham, Plumstead in Kent (this last -is now in Maidstone Museum)--at Southfleet and at Colchester and -Norwich. They are decorated by rods of "bead and reel" differently -arranged on the lids in zig-zags or lozenges, with scallop shells and -plain rings placed in the spaces. The rods and shells were evidently -separately impressed into the flat field of the sand mould and that with -the artful carelessness which shows that the designer and the workmen -were one and the same person, an artist. With these simple elements -compositions are made of quite classic distinction and grace. Mr. -Alma-Tadema apparently drew the fine leaden oleander tub in his picture -from these coffins, and it makes a perfect flower-pot. - -A coffin found at Pettham in Kent was decorated by a simple cord which -passed around once transversely in the middle and then each of the -spaces thus formed on lid, sides, and ends had diagonals of cord. A -fragment of one in the museum at Cirencester is more finished and -refined, it has a saltire of the twisted bars with terminations at their -ends, and in one of the spaces is a small female head. - -The coffins are made like a modern paper box with a lid lapping over the -sides. Some sketches are given from those in the British Museum. That -shown in Fig. 19 was of full length (6 ft.) but only a part of the lid -remains. The other two (Figs. 18 and 20) are less than 4 ft., one of -which is ornamented with rings and ropes and curious forms like the -letter B. Those at Colchester are like the former. These coffins are all -very white with oxide. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 18 and 19.--Roman Coffins, British Museum.] - -The French examples have been found at Boulogne, Beauvais, Amiens, -Angers, Rouen, and Valogne near Cherbourg, but none are like the English -in having rods of beads with scallop shells. One has only groups of -rings which, simple as it is, makes a design. Another at Rouen has a -human head in a circle at the centre with six lions' heads in octagons. -That at Valogne has a trunk-shaped lid with flying genii and birds; and -one at Nismes has lions and griffins, and between each pair persons -planting a vine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Roman Coffin, British Museum.] - -There is just enough evidence to show that the use of leaden coffins was -continued by the English after they had superseded the Romans. St. -Guthlac, Abbot of Croyland, was, Leland says, buried in a sarcophagus of -lead. And St. Dunstan was buried at Canterbury in a lead coffin. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Thirteenth Century Coffin, Temple Church.] - -Directly after the Conquest we find them in use. At Lewes there are -two coffins of De Warren (1088), and his wife the daughter of the -Conqueror (1085); they are covered with the reticulated meshes of a net, -both sides and lid as if cast from actual netted cord. At the heads are -the names WILLELM, GVNDRADA. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 22 and 23.--Thirteenth Century Coffins, Temple -Church.] - -St. Dunstan was re-interred in the new work, at Canterbury in 1180 in a -coffin of lead which was "not plain, but of beautiful plaited work." - -Some most remarkable coffins thus decorated were discovered in 1841 in -relaying the floor of the Temple Church in London; the style of their -design would show that they were made about the year 1200. They -contained the bodies represented above them by the cross-legged stone -effigies of knights. These coffins were drawn and published by Mr. -Edward Richardson in 1845, from whose careful drawings are made the -accompanying illustrations. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.] - -The extreme delicacy of the ornament is most remarkable. Here again the -pattern design is made up of portions several times repeated in similar -or different combinations; the panels were either cast to the required -number and then arranged on a board from which the final mould was made; -or the parts were impressed separately in a smooth and level surface of -moulding sand, and this with all the rapid ease of self-sufficient art. -They are about 6 feet 6 inches long, and some are formed like the stone -coffins of the time with a circular end for the head. The sides as well -as the covering are decorated in the richest example by two of the same -small square patterns alternating, and in others by vertical cords at -intervals. - -At Winchester there has recently been exposed a fifteenth century coffin -bearing on the lid a cross and the arms of the Bishop Courtenay. (Fig. -24.) - -Later the form was made to conform more closely to the body, being -rather a wrapping than a box. That of Henry IV. (1413) at Canterbury was -of this form, as also was that found at Westminster under the tomb of -Henry VII., the latter had a small cross at the breast only. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--At Moissac.] - -The heart-box of Richard Coeur de Lion is mentioned in another place. -There is a heart casket in the British Museum, circular and much like a -flower-pot; on the lid is the device of a spear-head within a garter, -and engraved outside is this inscription:--"Here lith the Harte of Sir -Henrye Sydney. Anno Domini 1586." - -A fine coffin (Fig. 25) is represented in the lead group of the -entombment at Moissac in France. This is 15th century work. - - - - -§ VIII. OF FONTS. - - -England is extremely rich in the possession of early fonts in lead; -these are for the most part alike in being of the twelfth or early -thirteenth century. Nearly all of them agree in being circular and have -other similarities which with many repetitions in their design would -seem to relate them to one family. As in Sussex there are in the -neighbouring villages of Edburton and Piecombe two fonts substantially -alike, and in Gloucestershire another pair, with others that have close -resemblances; they have been claimed for local manufacture, yet a strong -case could be made out for most of them coming from one common centre. -As, further, there are several specimens in Normandy entirely parallel, -the question arises whether the type arose here or there, for there can -be no doubt as to one set being indebted to the other. As England was so -especially a lead producing and exporting country, and as such a number -of these fonts remain with us broadly scattered over the country, while -there are but comparatively few in France, and those mostly in -Normandy, this, with the local coincidences pointed out, would seem to -give us the best claim. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Vessel, Lewes Museum.] - -There is in the Lewes Museum a lead cistern-like object of Saxon work, -which is represented in Fig. 26. It is about 14 inches long and 8 inches -high, the sides are decorated with triangles of interlacing patterns -cast with the lead. It has two handles of iron; but as it would be much -too heavy for a movable vessel, and as the small foreign lead font in -Kensington Museum has handles also, it is probably a font. The cross in -the decoration would go to confirm this. - -Some of the fonts of Norman date it cannot be doubted were made in -England. But unless we would claim the two figured by Viollet-le-Duc -and that at St. Evrault-le-Montford which is similar to ours at -Brookland described below, we can hardly claim to have made all our own. -Possibly examples were brought here, as was the case with several black -stone fonts in England. - -Some of these lead fonts (that at Wareham for instance) appear to have -been cast in one piece. But for the most part they are small low -cylinders cast flat in sheet with the ornaments repeated usually more -than once in the sand mould; the casting was then bent round and -soldered. In one case, where it is not joined so as to form a cylinder, -but with the sides spreading to the top, the band of ornamentation which -was straight on the sheet runs up as it approaches the joint in a most -amusing way. The patterns consist of delicate scroll-work, arcades and -boldly modelled figures 10 or 12 inches high; a moulding strengthens the -upper and lower edges. They stand on stone pedestals. - -There are altogether some twenty-eight or thirty of these fonts in -England. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Font, Brookland, Kent.] - -The font at Brookland at Kent is very small, only 11 inches high, an -arcade surrounds it of two stages in twelve bays. In the upper tier are -the signs of the Zodiac with their Latin names, and below the subjects -of the labours appropriate to the months with their names in Norman -French. This scheme of imagery is well known abroad but while often -occurring in English MSS. this is one of very few examples of its -treatment in sculpture. Although the scale of the figures is small and -they are but slightly modelled, there is a great deal of character, -appropriateness, and grace, in their gesture. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Font, Brookland.] - -A comparative table of the usual scenes which accompany the signs has -been given in _Archæologia_, and another, probably more accessible, in -the _Stones of Venice_. With the examples there given the scenes on the -font very closely agree. They are inscribed in capitals:-- - - AQUARIUS.--JANVIER. A Janus-headed figure feasting. - - PISCES.--FEVRIER. Warming feet at fire. - - ARIES.--MARS. Man hooded and pruning a vine. - - TAURUS.--AVRIL. Young girl with lilies in her hand. - - GEMINI.--MAI. Man on horse, hawk on wrist. - - CANCER.--JUIN. Mowing with a scythe. - - LEO.--JULIUS. Man with wide brim hat raking hay. - - VIRGO.--AOUT. Cutting corn. - - LIBRA.--SEPTEMBRE. Threshing corn. - - SCORPIO.--OCTOBRE. Treading out wine. - - SAGITTARIUS.--NOVEMBRE. Woman lighting with candles the next - scene, or feeding the pigs. - - CAPRICORNUS.--DECEMBRE. Man, killing swine with axe. - -The signs are thus represented:--Aquarius, man pouring water from a jug. -Pisces, two fish as usual reversed. The ram and the bull are much alike. -The twins and the crab are not remarkable, except the latter for -unlikeness. Leo is a good heraldic beast. The Virgin, much obscured. -Libra, a man with scales. Scorpio, is certainly a frog. Sagittarius, a -centaur. Capricorn is indeed a capricious creature like a cockatrice -with horns. The forequarters of a goat with fish-tail is the traditional -form for this sign handed on from the Roman Zodiac. - -In the months, the Mower, the man raking, and especially the Reaper, are -well designed; the man pruning is also good, and the girl with the long -stalked lilies in her hand is charming. The four last are shown in the -sketches given. The pillars are varied, every third standing on the loop -as shown. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Font, Edburton, Sussex.] - -The font at Edburton in Sussex is 21 inches in diameter and 14 inches -high; it has a wide band of foliage and at the top a row of trefoil -panels. At Piecombe, the adjoining parish, the upper row of small -trefoil arches and the narrow band of ornament are the same, but instead -of the lower panels there is a row of round-headed arches. - -At Lancourt, or Llancault, and Tedenham in Gloucestershire there are -fonts in duplicate. These are much larger, 2 feet 8 inches in diameter -by 1 foot 7 inches high. An arcade of twelve arches surrounds the bowl; -each compartment has a throned figure or a panel of foliage alternately. -There are two varieties of figure and foliage, each is thrice repeated -and the little columns are twisted and decorated. These two fonts are -evidently of the twelfth century.[11] At Frampton-on-Severn is a font -with similar seated figures and foliage. - - [11] For engravings see _Archæologia_, vol. xxix. - -At Wareham in Dorsetshire the font is hexagonal with two standing -figures under arches in each face, twelve altogether. The sides instead -of being vertical slope outwards. The style seems central Norman not -transitional, like several of the examples. - -At Dorchester, Oxfordshire, the bowl is 2 feet 1 inch diameter 14 inches -deep, it has an arcade wholly of seated figures of bishops. It is a very -beautiful work, the figures are extremely well modelled, and the whole -in good condition, the lead of great substance. - -Walton-on-the-hill, Surrey, has a similar font 14 inches high, -surrounded by an arcade, and in each compartment a sitting figure. A -sketch of one arch given is necessarily rough, as the modelling, even at -first soft and sketchy, has suffered some injury in the use of 700 -years. - -At Wansford, Northamptonshire, is another of these with arcades and -figures.[12] - - [12] _See_ Parker's _Glossary_, vol. iii. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Font, Walton, Surrey.] - -At Childrey, in Berkshire, there is also a font with twelve mitred -bishops with pastoral staffs and books. - -Another at Long-Wittenham, in the same county, has the arcade at bottom -of very tiny pointed arches of some thirty bays with figures, above are -panels with discs and rosettes.[13] One at Warborough, in Oxfordshire, -is similar in style, made in the same workshop apparently. The bottom -half has a small arcade interrupted after every four arches by three -higher ones: in the twelve small niches are figures of bishops with -mitre and staff and lifted hand in benediction, the three high arches -and the space above the little ones have discs of ornament, the bishops -are repeated from one pattern; the size is 1-3 in height by 2-2 -diameter.[14] - - [13] See _Archæological Journal_, vol. ii. - - [14] _See_ Paley's _Fonts_. - -Woolhampton, in Berkshire, has a font in which the lead is placed over -stone and pierced, leaving an arcade and figures showing against the -stone background. - -The font at Parham is of later Gothic. Mr. André gives an account of it -in Vol. 32, _Sussex Archæological Society_; it is only 18 inches in -diameter, and a portion of the bottom is hidden by being sunk into the -stone block on which it stands. The decoration is made by repeats of a -label bearing + IHC NAZAR placed alternately upright and horizontally -with small shields in the interspaces which are said to bear the arms of -Andrew Peverell, knight of the shire in 1351. The style of the lettering -would seem earlier than this. IHC NAZAR was frequently engraved on the -front of knights' helmets. This is an extremely good example of how a -fine design may be made of simplest elements. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Parham, Sussex.] - -A Norman font of lead at Great Plumstead was destroyed with the church -in the fire of December, 1891. It is figured by Cotman.[15] - - [15] _Arch. Remains_, vol. i., series 2. - -The font at Avebury, Wiltshire, has often erroneously been stated to be -of lead; there is a resemblance in the design, but it is of stone -painted. - -At Ashover, Derbyshire, the stone font has leaden statues of the -Apostles. - -There is a seventeenth century lead font at Clunbridge, Gloucestershire. - -A complete list as far as possible follows:-- - - Berkshire Childrey and Long-Wittenham, - Clewer, Woolhampton, and - Woolstone (Norman) - - Derbyshire Ashover (Norman) - - Dorsetshire Wareham (Norman) - - Gloucestershire Frampton-on-Severn and Llancourt - (similar, Norman) - Siston and Tidenham (Norman) - Gloucester Museum (Norman) - Clunbridge (1640) - - Kent Brookland (Norman), Chilham, and - Eythorne (the latter dated 1628, - a copy of a Norman original) - - Lincolnshire Barnetby-le-Wolde (Norman) - - Norfolk Brundal, Hastingham (Norman) - - Northamptonshire Wansford - - Oxfordshire Clifton, Dorchester, Warborough, - (Norman) - - Somerset Pitcombe - - Surrey Walton-on-the-hill (Norman) - - Sussex Edburton and Piecombe (early - English) - Parham (Decorated) - - Wiltshire Chirton - -Two of the French fonts are figured by Viollet-le-Duc,[16] that at -Berneuil is of the twelfth century and very similar to that at Tidenham -in Gloucestershire, with alternate arches occupied by figures and -foliage. - - [16] _Art. Fons._ - -At Lombez (Gers) is a very beautiful example, small and delicate, with -two girdles of decoration, the upper row continuous foliage and figures, -but made up of one scene, a man discharging an arrow at a lion and a -basilisk, five times repeated; the lower row has sixteen quatre-foils -with figures of four varieties repeated, these are the religious orders. -It is remarked that the decorations were evidently "stock patterns" -because the upper row is much older than the lower, which is of the late -thirteenth century. - -At Visine (Somme) is one of the fifteenth century with separate cast -figures in sixteen niches. - -At Bourg-Achard, in Normandy, is another lead font,[17] and one is also -in the Museum of Antiquities in Rouen, this last has a long inscription -and date, 1415. There is a cast of one of these fonts in the Trocadero -collection in Paris. - - [17] Dawson Turner's _Tour_. - -At St. Evrouet-de-Monford (Orne) is another very similar to our -Brookland font with Zodiac and Seasons. - -In Germany, at Mayence, there is a very fine example of the fourteenth -century. And in the South Kensington Museum is a copy of a small -circular lead font in the Berlin Museum; this is cast in one piece, it -stands on three lions' feet and has two handles, around it is an -inscription in Lombardic letters. It was presented to Treves by Bishop -Baldani in the thirteenth century. - - - - -§ IX. OF INSCRIPTIONS, ETC. - - -A sheet of lead is a most inviting surface for inscriptions, as may be -seen by making a trip to the leads of some cathedral or castle and -inspecting the series of names, dates, hand-marks and foot-prints left -by generations of plumbers and visitors. So lead has been one of the -chief materials used for written documents, not merely ephemeral, and -even now it would be difficult to find anything more ready to receive -the legend, more enduring to transmit it, and so easily decorated with -the charm of art which makes an object worthy to live. Our first -illustration shows the foundation record of an Egyptian King inscribed -on lead. - -It was the custom also in ancient Babylonia to insert inscriptions below -the foundation stones of the great temples and palaces. In 1854 Place -found at Khorsabad the memorial inscriptions of the great palace of the -later Sargon, father of Sennacherib, a building founded in the eighth -century before our era. There were five of these inscribed plates all of -different metals, gold, silver, antimony, copper, and lead; the four -former are in the Louvre, but the lead, which must thus have been of -some size, "was too heavy to be carried off at once"; it was dispatched -by raft, and was lost with most of the collection. The inscription, -translated by Oppert, ends with the imprecation on disturbers which it -has been the wont of great builders in all times to conjure. - -"May the great Lord Assur destroy from the face of this country the name -and race of him who shall injure the works of my hands or who shall -carry off my treasure." - -At Dodona many tablets of lead have been found inscribed in Greek; these -are questions to the oracle of that shrine. - -In the British Museum there are several tablets inscribed in Greek about -the area of this book and covered with text, they are for the most part -imprecations on the heads of injurious persons, and were hid as a magic -rite in Temple enclosures. They are quite little stories. - -"Imprecation of Antigone against her accuser." - -"Imprecation of Prosodion against those who misled her husband Nakron." - -"Imprecations of a woman against some one who stole her bracelet." - -Pausanias mentions having seen a text of Hesiod which was inscribed on -lead leaves; and Pliny also tells us of lead books. A lead inscribed -tablet was found in the Roman remains at Lydney slightly scratched with -a stylus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Heart Box of King Richard.] - -Of the Carlovingian age there are examples of lead documents in the -British Museum; one being an edict of Charlemagne himself, in which he -assumes the style of Emperor of the West; and it bears his well-known -cypher and the date, 18th Sept., 801. Another is signed Ludovic (Louis -the Younger), 822. In the Londesborough collection there is a leaden -book-cover of Saxon work with an inscription from Ælfric's Homilies. - -For sepulchral use lead is especially fitted; it was customary in the -twelfth century to inscribe a tablet or cross and to place it in the -coffin on the breast of the dead. - -In the Museum at Bruges there is a tablet with a long inscription to -Gunilda the sister of Harold.[18] Two were found at Canterbury of the -thirteenth century with lines of beautifully drawn Lombard capitals in -incised outline with lines ruled between each row.[19] - - [18] _Archæologia_, xxv. - - [19] _Ibid._ xlv. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Inscribed Cross.] - -In 1838 was discovered in Rouen Cathedral choir the heart casket of -Lion-hearted Richard, there were two boxes, one within the other, the -inner one, covered inside with thin silver leaf, was inscribed with the -simple words given in Fig. 32 from _Archæologia_ (xxix). - -A cruciform tablet is given in Camden[20] with an inscription purporting -to record King Arthur; the form shows that it was made in the twelfth -century. In the fifteenth century Chronicle of Capgrave, under the year -1170, he writes--"In these days was Arthures body founde in the cherch -yerd at Glaskinbury in a hol hok, a crosse of led leyd to a ston and the -letteris hid betwyx the ston and the led." He gives Giraldus, "whech red -it," as his authority. Giraldus Cambrensis gives the inscription as "Hic -jacet sepultus inclytus Rex Arthurus cum Wennevereia uxore sua secunda -in Insula Avalonia."[21] - - [20] Folio, plate v. vol. i. - - [21] Capgrave, in Rolls Series. - -Now William of Malmesbury, who died about 1145, says distinctly that the -tomb of Arthur had never been found, so this dates the fabrication of -this cross by the monks of Glastonbury always so especially greedy of -relics, as within a year or two of this time when Giraldus saw it ("quam -nos quoque vidimus"). The inscription on the lead cross engraved by -Camden agrees word for word with the exception of "with Guenevere his -second wife." Must we not suppose that Giraldus here improved even upon -the monks, and added this poetic touch himself? - -Few of these absolution crosses have been found abroad; one discovered -in Perigord was inscribed on the arms LVX . PAX . REX . LEX. - -Wall tablets in churches are represented by one at Burford in -Shropshire, the monument of Lady Corbett, 1516. Her effigy is incised -under a canopy much like the brasses of the same time, and it suggests -simple decorative possibilities, such as filling cavities with mastics -of several colours, parcel gilding, damascening in brass wire, or inlay -of metal on metal. - -In Saltash Church, Cornwall, a lead tablet records that "This Chapple -was repaired in the Mairty of Matthew Veale, Gent. Anno 1689." - -Inscriptions may be either cast with raised letters, engraved like the -early ones, or punched. Ornamental borders might also be made up of -punched lines, loops and dots. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Arms from Bourges.] - -Of Coat Arms there was an instance at Jacques Coeur's house in Bourges, -which is quite a lead mine. The Angel shield bearer alone remains, with -signs of the erasure of the arms. In London, about Copthall Buildings, -in the City, are several tablets with the arms of the "Armorers -Brasiers," as also a large number of shields of cast lead with dates and -initials or names of the City wards. The insurance companies also used -shields of stamped lead. - -In Vere Street, Clare Market, over the angle of what is at present a -baker's shop, there is a panel with two negroes' heads in relief, and -the legend "S. W. M. 1715." - -We began with a foundation inscription, we will conclude with one -twenty-six centuries later. This is a large cast plate of lead 3.6 by -2.4 and an inch thick, now preserved in the Guildhall Museum, which was -laid in the foundation of old Blackfriars, then Pitt Bridge:-- - -"On the last day of October in the year 1760 and in the beginning of the -most auspicious reign of George III., Sir Thomas Chitty, Knight, Lord -Mayor, laid the first stone of this bridge undertaken by the Common -Council of London (in the height of an extensive war) for the public -accommodation and ornament of the city (Robert Milne being the -architect) and that there may remain to posterity a monument of this -city's affection to the man who by the strength of his genius, the -steadiness of his mind, and a kind of happy contagion of his probity and -spirit, under the divine favour and fortunate auspices of George II., -recovered, augmented and secured the British Empire in Asia, Africa, and -America, and restored the ancient reputation and influence of his -country amongst the nations of Europe. - -"The Citizens of London have unanimously voted this bridge to be -inscribed with the name of William Pitt." - - - - -§ X. OF THE DECORATION OF LEAD. - - -One of the most usual methods of decorating lead was to gild it; whole -domes were gilt in this way. The dome of St. Sophia at Constantinople -seems to have been so treated, and the great arc of gold dominating such -an Eastern city must have been a most impressive sight. Many of the late -domes are partly gilt, as at the Invalides in Paris. The roof of the -ancient basilica at Tours is said to have been like "a mountain of -gold." - -Old recipe books of the last century give instructions for gilding lead. -The following are examples:-- - -"Take two pounds of yellow ochre, half a pound of red lead, and one -ounce of varnish, with which grind your ochre, but the red lead grind -with oil; temper them both together; lay your ground with this upon the -lead, and when it is almost dry, lay your gold; let it be thoroughly dry -before you polish it." - -For another ground--"Take varnish of linseed oil, red lead, white lead -and turpentine; boil in a pipkin and grind together on a stone." - -"Or take sheets of tinfoil, and grind them in common gold size; with -this wipe your pewter or lead over; lay on your leaf gold and press it -with cotton; it is a fine gilding, and has a beautiful lustre." - -Dutch metal was also used on a ground of varnish and red lead, as in -second recipe; or gilt leaves of tinfoil on white lead ground in linseed -oil, this last took a polish "as if it had been gilded in fire." Dutch -metal should be lacquered on the surface. A cheap substitute for gilding -could doubtless be made for large surfaces by laying tinfoil lacquered -gold colour. Or for statues the surface of the lead might be made bright -and lacquered. - -The external gilding on the Ste. Chapelle in Paris was done in leaf gold -on two coats of varnish. - -Smaller decorative objects of lead in the middle ages were often -entirely gilt or parcel gilt in patterns; for instance, in an inventory -of 1553 we find an altar cross "of lead florysshed withe golde foyle." -The effect of silver is obtained by "tinning" with solder, and when this -is intended to form patterns on the surface of the lead the method is -thus described by Burges. The surface is coated with lamp black mixed -with size; the pattern is either transferred on it or drawn direct and -then marked round with a point; all the part to be tinned has the -surface removed by a "shave hook" so as to leave the pattern quite -bright, a little sweet oil is rubbed over this and the solder is applied -and spread in the usual way of soldering with a "copper bit." This is -more conveniently done in the shop, but the spire at Chalons was -decorated in this way long after the lead covering was finished. A -specimen of this work prepared by Burges may be seen in the -Architectural Museum, Westminster. - -Transparent colour was often applied over this tinning, which, shining -through, gave it lustre; or the tinning alternated with the colour as in -chevrons of tin and blue and red. We may suppose that this sort of work -was done in England, for some leaded spires shown in the paintings at -St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, were coloured vermilion and gold, or -green and white, in chevrons following the leading. - -Stow also tells us that at the Priory of St. John of Jerusalem, -Clerkenwell, rebuilt after a fire in 1381, there was a steeple decorated -in this way which remained to his day and was then destroyed. "The great -bell tower, a most curious piece of workmanship, graven, gilt, and -enamelled, to the great beautifying of the city, and passing all others -that I have seen." - -Rain-pipe heads at Knole have patterns formed in this way by bright tin -applied to the surface. There are also heads of water pipes at the -Bodleian and at St. John's College, Oxford (see Figs. 71 and 72), -treated all over with patterns of chequers and zig-zags. Those at St. -John's have cast coats of arms in wreaths brightly emblazoned in gold -and colours. The collars to the pipes are painted with patterns, as also -are some pipes at Framlingham, Suffolk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Incised Decoration, Bourges.] - -Sometimes the pattern was incised on the lead in deep broad lines, and -these, when filled with black mastic, traced the pattern without any -tinning. An example of this method is found in a ridge and finial -sketched at Bourges--the hearts and scallop shell were badges of Jacques -Coeur. Other portions of the lead work at this house are decorated by -patterns in lamp-black painted on the lead. See the ridge and examples -of flashings drawn in Figures 36 and 37. A ridge designed for St. -Vincent's Church at Rouen, of which a drawing is preserved, is a -beautiful instance of this treatment; it is divided into lengths in -which branches with leaves and flowers alternate with a stiffer pattern. -The spire before spoken of, at Chalons-sur-Marne, furnishes the finest -example of these methods used in combination. See drawings in _Builder_, -1856, and in the sketch book of the Architectural Association for 1883, -both by Burges. This decoration is of the fourteenth century and is thus -described by Viollet-le-Duc:--"The sheets of lead were engraved in -outlines and filled in with black material, of which traces may yet be -seen. Painting and gilding illuminated the spaces between these black -lines, and we must observe that nearly all the leadwork of the middle -ages was thus decorated by paintings applied to the metal by means of an -energetic mordant. The plumber's art of the middle ages is wrought out -like colossal goldsmith's work, and we have found striking -correspondence between the two arts as well in the methods of -application as in the forms admitted: gilding and applied colour here -replace enamel." The design is of tabernacle work with figures and the -whole was clearly intended to recall a shrine of goldsmith's work. Large -engraved patterns filled with black used alone on the silvery lead -become great _niellos_, exactly parallel to the method of treating -silver. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Painted Decoration, Bourges.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Flashings, Bourges.] - -The flèche called "the golden" at Amiens retains traces of arabesque -patterns on grounds of bright blue and vermilion. - -Repoussé by hammering, another method most appropriate to the material, -was more used in France than with us, where casting has been throughout -the chief means for obtaining relief decoration. In France the finials -were mostly formed in this way. "Recalling the best goldsmith's work of -the epoch," withal so easily and carelessly wrought that it is plain -that they were done at once without pattern and yet with ample -knowledge of the ultimate form desired; so a leaf cut out of a sheet is -hammered and twisted till it cups and curls itself into living grace. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A Valance.] - -In these finials applied castings were also used, and at the end of the -fifteenth century they superseded repoussé for a time. Many of the -moulds in stone and plaster, for the ornaments which were used on the -roofs and finials at Beaune are preserved. The castings were not so free -and decorative however as those done by repoussé. - -Of piercing into delicate tracery the pipe-heads at Haddon give many -charming examples. At Aston Hall, Warwickshire, the curved lead roofs of -the turrets have all round the eaves a brattishing of pierced sheet in -simple scroll work, it stands up freely and gives a dainty finish: the -pattern is something like that above. In the East pierced valances of -this kind are very general; the roofs of the larger fountains at -Constantinople are usually finished in this way. Fig. 38 is from the -portico roof of the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem drawn from a -photograph. Casting and piercing were also combined, the pattern being -strengthened thus by ribs and the veins, and interspaces being cut away. - -In small Japanese work brass is sometimes inlaid into lead or pewter in -the form of flowers, which are further defined by surface engraving. -Engraving on sheet lead similar to the old memorial brasses has been -mentioned before, and we may go on to look at the decorative processes -in which lead was used applied to other materials. - - - - -§ XI. OF LEAD ORNAMENTATION OF OTHER MATERIALS. - - -Lead trappings and appendages have often been applied to stone statues. -The sceptres and bishops' crosses of the fine fourteenth century statues -of St. Mary's spire at Oxford are of wrought lead. The leaves of the -sceptre heads and the crosses are embossed out in two pieces and then -soldered at the edges. - -Inlaying of lead in stone slabs making grisaille designs was a method -much used--a magnificent example remains in the pavement at St. Remy, -Rheims (formerly in the choir of St. Nicaise in the same town), where -foliated panels with figure subjects from Scripture are made out on the -stones; it is a work of the early fourteenth century.[22] We have in -England an example of this treatment in a tomb slab at St. Mary -Redcliffe, Bristol, and there is mention of the process in the account -by William of Malmesbury of the Saxon part of the "Ealde Chirche" at -Glastonbury. We may well suppose this was an imitation in the national -material of Roman mosaic. The floor was "inlaid with polished stone ... -moreover in the pavement may be remarked on every side stone designedly -_interlaid in triangles and squares and figured with lead_, under which -if I believe some sacred enigma to be contained I do no injustice to -religion. The antiquity and multitude of its saints have endowed the -place with so much sanctity that at night scarcely anyone presumes to -keep vigil there or during the day to spit upon its floor ... and -certainly the more magnificent the ornaments of churches are the more -they incline the brute mind to prayer and bend the stubborn to -supplication." - - [22] _See_ Viollet-le-Duc, "Dallage." - -The method is still followed in lettering on tombs and the like: the -design is engraved in the marble and holes are drilled with a bow drill -in the sunk parts, some inclined at an angle to give a better hold; -strips of lead of sufficient substance are then hammered into the -casements with a wooden mallet, and the superfluous metal removed with a -sharp chisel. - -Some of the sixteenth and seventeenth century engraved brasses have -portions of the arms, etc., inlaid in lead in the brass; there are -instances of this in Westminster Abbey. Lead might also be inlaid in -cast iron with good effect, where it has not to be painted: the recesses -would be left in the casting of either cast brass or cast iron. The -stars that spangle the ceilings of churches on a blue ground are usually -of cast lead gilt. The ceiling of the well-known panel and rib kind -attributed to Holbein at the Chapel Royal, St. James's had the -enrichments in the panels of lead. Chimney-pieces were also decorated in -the same way, and even furniture is found at times with applied badges -of gilt lead. These methods it must be understood are not all -recommended here, they are only recorded. - -The delicate applied enrichments so much used in work influenced by the -practice of the Brothers Adam are in the best work of lead; cast with -extraordinary delicacy in relief figure panels, after the manner of the -antique, or fragile garlands, vases, and frets. Much of this work was -used in the internal decoration at Somerset House. The accounts under -1780 show payments to Edward Watson--for lead pateras from 2 1/2_d._ to -10_d._ each; nineteen ornamental friezes to chimney pieces £10 17_s._ -8_d._; lead frieze to the bookcases in the Royal Academy Library at -2_s._ 6_d._ per foot; 137 feet run of large lead frieze in the -exhibition room at 4_s._ Dutch bracket clocks of the eighteenth century -have pierced and gilt ornamentations of lead. - -This method of applying pierced lead to wood was known in the middle -ages. In the Kensington Museum there is a delicate openwork panel, three -inches square, which with others, decorated the front of a fourteenth -century chest in the church at Newport, Essex. A beautiful little panel -of open work, which contains the subject of the Annunciation, was found -some years since in the Thames. One of the last instances of this -decorative use of lead is on the great doors of Inwood's church, at St. -Pancras, where the panels are filled with reliefs and the margins have -the palmette border. At Christchurch, Hampshire, some of the tracery -panels at the back of the stalls have been replaced in lead. - -The front door fanlights so well known in the London houses of the -eighteenth century were made by applying lead castings to a backing of -iron. Even staircase balustrades were cast in panels of lattice work of -hard lead and fixed between iron standards some three or four feet -apart. - - - - -§ XII. OF DECORATIVE OBJECTS. - - -A great number of small objects in lead are in our museums, and first we -should mention the medals and plaques of the great masters of the -Renaissance. Lead will cast with more delicacy than any other material, -and Cellini especially recommended it for proofs. The proofs of the -great work of the medallists,--the modelling just a film, fading into -the background--presentments and allegories of the Malatestas and -Gonzagas by Pisanello and Sperandio, are certainly the most precious -things ever formed in lead. There are a great number of these medals and -decorative plaques in the British Museum and at Kensington. - -For coins in lead see Gaetani and Fiscorni. For tokens and pilgrim -badges, of which a great number have been found in the Seine, see -_Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Vol. VI. and XVIII. Some of these remind us of -the lead figures that, according to "Quentin Durward," Louis XI. wore in -his hat. At the Guildhall there is a collection of hundreds of these -small objects found in the Thames; most are of great delicacy, many very -beautiful. There are, in the British Museum, little Greek objects, rings -and toys, armlets of a snake pattern, and pierced ornaments for applying -to other objects. - -Other objects in the Kensington Museum are:--A small tankard only two -and a half inches diameter but modelled with figures in low relief, it -is German of the sixteenth or seventeenth century; a pair of little -inkstands the circular drums modelled with foliage and projecting top -and bottom rims, also German; and a square canister with panel of St. -George on each face. - -Another is a beautiful little Gothic box of the fourteenth century. It -is hexagonal, with three feet, a flat hinged cover has a sitting lion -which forms the knob, a slight relief of the Annunciation under a -canopy, and two shields of arms. Round the sides are delicate bands of -foliage and Gothic lettering; it is three and a half inches high, and of -cast lead. There are other portions of little Gothic boxes in the -British Museum. At Gloucester Museum there is a square box of late -fifteenth century work, the sides formed of four cast panels of lead, -soldered at the angles. The panels all repeat the same relief of the -dead Christ and the Virgin, right and left are the other two Marys, and -the background bears the cross, crown, spears, dice, and all the -implements of the Passion.[23] Small canisters, and candlesticks the -stems of which are formed of a little lead figure, were made quite -recently. - - [23] See _Antiquary_, Feb., 1893. - - - - -§ XIII. OF LEAD GLAZING. - - -This subject, in which lead is only secondary, has been treated so often -by others in connection with glass that little more need be said here. - -Already, when Theophilus wrote his treatise on the arts, some time from -the tenth to the twelfth century, leaded glazing of coloured glass was -practised much as we do it now, and he describes how the leads were cast -with the two grooves for the glass and how it was put together on a -table. Coloured glass windows were placed in the Basilica at Lyons in -the fifth century, as described in the letters of Sidonius. From the -thirteenth century there are crowds of examples of glazing wholly of -white glass in which patterns are made by the arrangement of the leads. -In the cathedrals of north France, especially Bayeux, Coutances, Mantes, -and through Brittany, most elaborate patterns of this kind fill the -windows; not only diapers but interlacing bands, over and under in -effect, and this in plain white glass. This method does not seem to have -been followed here, where for the most part, unless in colour -arrangements, the leading for church windows was in plain lozenges and -parallelograms. - -Later, however, in houses, pattern glazing, sometimes of an elaborate -kind, is found, especially in the north of England, at Moreton Hall in -Cheshire, at Bramhall, and at Levens in Westmorland. In some parts the -glass may not be more than a circle or diamond of an inch across. - -These patterns have been amply treated in other places, and we may -consider those that have a diapered pattern all over the light to belong -rather to the glass than the lead. There are others, however, in which -the lead lines are made still more important by being arranged in a -single intricate panel to each light, the centre usually being charged -with an heraldic device. Two simple examples are given in Figs. 39 and -40. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.] - -There is one point to speak of in regard to the fretted patterns not -usually noticed. The frets are sometimes leaded up so that the glass -does not lie in one plane, but there is an intentional change, so that -the faces of glass reflect the light differently in a uniform manner all -over the window, the forward panes being some 1/3 or 1/4 inch in front -of the plane of the inner ones and between them others are placed -obliquely. This is best known in Holland, but a similar practice was -followed at Levens in Westmorland. - -Lozenges of lead pierced for ventilation, either one or several -together, are sometimes found; they are cast with a delicate pattern, or -cut in a lattice. Some of the best are in the museum of Fountains Abbey, -others are at Ely and at Haddon. Fig. 41 is from a Surrey cottage. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.] - - - - -§ XIV. OF LEAD STATUES. - - -The making of lead statues was frequent up to the end of the 18th -century, and then more frequent than at any other time, to cease at once -on the introduction of the Italian plaster model shops, which in the -eyes of the connoisseurs of the time brought with them a time of purer -taste, the taste whose god was the Apollo of the Belvidere. - -These statues of lead were known to the ancients. There was one of -Mamurius at Rome.[24] - - [24] Fosbroke, _Ency. Antiq._ - -In the middle ages there were not only small cast lead figures like -those around the font at Ashover and a figure from a crucifix now in the -library of Wells Cathedral which is about 12 inches high, of 15th -century work, but figures full size and more were also made; this was -especially the case in France; these, however, were generally repoussé. - -In the garden of the Cluny Museum in Paris is a fine figure of St. John -Evangelist, fully eight feet high; it is of early 14th century work, -and looks as if it had stood at the central pier of a doorway. - -At Moissac, in the south of France, is a most remarkable work of lead, a -tomb, above which is a lead sarcophagus and several figures representing -the entombment of Christ, who is being laid in the open coffin. It is -15th century work; the figures, six in all, are full of character and -vigour like the wooden statuary of the time. It appears from a -photograph to be cast in separate portions. - -The figures formed by repoussé usually serve as finials on the roof, or -stand in niches of the flèche. In the great flèche at Amiens there are -six figures as large as life, with other smaller figures of angels which -hold emblems of the Passion. M. Viollet-le-Duc says these figures were -nearly always _embouties_ that is to say hammered out on a wooden model -in portions, and soldered together. The artist had to be careful that -the model should be thin and "dry" so the thickness of the lead should -not make it too coarse in the forms. Burges cites an account of 1514 of -a payment to John Pothyn, sculptor, for having carved a prophet in -walnut wood to serve as a mould and pattern to the lead-workers. -Sometimes the lead casing was put on with lapping joints, the skeleton -frame being iron. - -There are not now in England lead statues of any size executed during -the middle ages; but magnificent figures of bronze cast by the _cire -perdu_ method remain to us. The effigy of Queen Eleanor at Westminster -cannot be matched in Europe. - -The founder's art was carried to much perfection in Germany in the 15th -and 16th centuries. Mr. Seymour Haden has in Hampshire a statue of a -city herald of lead which formerly belonged to the great clock at -Nuremburg. - -Many statues of lead were set up in English towns after the earlier -Renaissance, they are our national version of the bronze of Italy, a -material which we used but little; such bronze statues as were cast here -since the middle ages seem to have been the work of foreigners. Le -Sieur, for instance, did the statue of Charles II. at Charing Cross, and -many others. The statue of Queen Anne that was to surmount Gibbs' -proposed column in the Strand was ordered in Rome. - -At Bristol there is a large Neptune of lead roughly modelled; the limbs -are contorted with too much life and yet it is a decorative feature in -the centre of a wide street. On the pedestal has been engraved a little -history of the statue, an example that might be followed--"Neptune, cast -and given A.D. 1588 by a citizen of Temple parish to commemorate the -defeat of the Spanish Armada. Re-erected on its fourth site in 1872." -This seems to be a tradition unsubstantiated by record, but the time is -not so remote that it may not as well be true, especially as the style -of the figure would seem to agree with the date named. The story says -that it was the gift of a plumber in the town, the metal being that of -the captured ships' pumps. - -At Bungay in Suffolk there used to be a large statue at the Market Cross -known as "Astræa." - -One of the most interesting portrait statues in London, the Queen Anne -at Queen Anne's Gate, Westminster, is of lead. The surface ornament on -the robes is especially appropriate to the material. There is also in -Golden Square a statue of George II. which seems to be nearly a repeat -of the stone statue on Bloomsbury steeple; it suggested the statue in -Fred Walker's picture, "The Harbour of Refuge." - -There were also many full size equestrian statues founded in this metal, -that of George I., until 1874 in Leicester Square, was one of these, and -like the last it was brought from Canons, the celebrated house of the -Duke of Chandos at Edgware, dismantled about 1747. The George I. -resembled Le Sieur's statue at Charing Cross and was known as the Golden -Horse, for the whole was gilt, as many of the statues seem to have been -at Canons, in that garden where, according to Pope, "The trees were -clipped like statues--the statues thick as trees." - -The statue of William of Orange at Dublin is another of these, and it is -celebrated alike in political demonstrations and Catholic polemics. -Cardinal Newman wrote of it, "The very flower and cream of -Protestantism used to glory in the statue of King William on College -Green, Dublin, and though I cannot make any reference in print I -recollect well what a shriek they raised some years ago when the figure -was unhorsed. Some profane person one night applied gunpowder and blew -the king right out of his saddle, and he was found by those who took -interest in him, like Dagon, on the ground." - -Yet another equestrian statue is that of Charles the Second at -Edinburgh, set up by the magistrates of the city in Parliament Square, -in honour of the restoration of the king. A writer in the _Athenæum_ for -April 13th, 1850, speaks of it as the "finest piece of statuary in -Edinburgh," and urges the suitability of lead for the purpose. "In -_Black's Guide through Edinburgh_ it is spoken of as the best specimen -of bronze statuary which Edinburgh possesses; it is, however, composed -of lead. Now this leaden equestrian statue has already without sensible -deterioration stood the test of 165 years' (in 1850) exposure to the -weather, and it still seems as fresh as if erected but yesterday." Some -years before this, one of the interior irons having given way, a part of -the shoulder sank a little and it was taken down and repaired and -sufficiently proved to be lead. Taking the figures above, it appears -that the date of this work is 1685. - -Mr. James Nasmyth also wrote to the _Athenæum_, June, 1850, "to confirm -as a practical man the perfect fitness of lead" as a substitute for -bronze, and to recommend the _cire perdu_ method of casting, at that -time discontinued in England; the process being to model the statue in -wax on a solid core, to cast in plaster the finished wax model, and then -to melt out the wax from this plaster mould, the space which it occupied -being refilled with lead. Of course only one cast can be obtained in -this way, whereas the old decorative statues spoken of later were cast -in a piece mould and reproduced again and again. - -"The addition (still quoting) of about five per cent. of antimony will -give it not only greater hardness but enhance its capability to run into -the most delicate details ... it is in every sense as durable as bronze -when subject simply to atmospheric action." - -We shall see that an addition of block tin was made to the lead by the -old figure founders. Type metal, which is so much harder than lead, is -an alloy of lead and 1/4 to 1/3 of antimony, or of two parts of lead to -one of tin and one of antimony. - -In the courtyard of Houghton Tower, Lancashire, there is a statue of -William III. brought from the dismantled Walton-le-Dale in 1834. - -The statues decorating the parapets of the large "classic" country -houses are at times of lead; there are five of these at Lyme in -Cheshire. Over the portico of the Clarendon at Oxford there are four of -these statues representing the sciences. Until recently there was a -figure of King James high up in a niche at the Bodleian. - -The figures of the good little boy and girl common at charity schools -are also often of lead. The great Percy lion that surmounted old -Northumberland House at Charing Cross (destroyed twenty years ago) is -now on the river front of Syon House; it weighs about three tons, and it -was placed in its original position in 1749. The lion on the bridge at -Alnwick is also of lead, as the little boy found to his cost who climbed -out on its tail. - -There are a series of lead busts in oval panels on the front of Ham -House, Petersham, Surrey, 1610 being the date of its erection. - -Before passing into the garden a word on the practical details of -casting as traditionally followed may be added. The casting of lead -statues is much the same process as founding in bronze, but it is -simpler from the much lower temperature at which lead flows, and the -ease with which limbs can be cast separately and joined to the body. The -technical details may be found in a text-book of modelling and -casting--_Mouler en Plâtre, Plomb_, &c. (Lebrun, Paris, 1860). The -course followed is to cut up the model in such parts as is determined, -to mould these in loam, the cores are then cast in plaster after the -thickness that will be occupied by the lead has been first applied to -the moulds in sand (terre). The cores are then removed and dried and -baked, for in this as in all founding everything depends on the -absolute dryness of the mould. After the first mould had been added to, -for the casting of the core, a second mould would be prepared from the -original figure and the core supported in that by irons. The castings -are then made, and the portions reunited and finished on the surface. -Large works have to be sufficiently supported with internal irons. All -the mysteries of vents, and false coring when necessary, can only be -understood by practical familiarity with founding. - -Modern figures for Dundee were cast from plaster; cast iron also makes -good moulds. - -If the roof is the place for those earlier figures formed by repoussé, -the garden is rightly inhabited by cast lead statues. It is a material -in which the designer might well permit himself slightness, caprice, or -even triteness. A statue that would be tame in stone, or contemptible in -marble, may well be a charming decoration if only in lead, set in the -vista of a green walk against a dark yew hedge or broad-leaved fig, or -where the lilac waves its plumes above them and the syringa thrusts its -flowers under their arms and shakes its petals on the pedestal. "How -charming it must be to walk in one's own garden, and sit on a bench in -the open air with a fountain and a leaden statue and a rolling-stone and -an arbour. Have a care though of sore throat and the _agoe_.[25]" - - [25] Gray's _Letter from Pembroke Coll._, 1769. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Mercury.] - -When sculptors learn again that their art is to shape many materials in -various ways for diverse uses, and that a statue is not necessarily of -whitest marble or to be exhibited on the 1st of May, then we may get -back the delight of sculpture in the garden. - -Sculptured marble, unless the art is of a high order, does not please us -out of doors by a pond or on a terrace, if it is not weathered down to a -ruin, but lead is homely and ordinary and not too good to receive the -_graffiti_ of lovers' knots, red letter dates and initials. Here is a -sketch of a Mercury not at all too fine for further decoration of this -sort; it came from a London sale room, the surface was quite white and -exfoliated like old stone. The jaunty messenger has a garden thought -too, for it is honeycomb in his hand. - -One of the best known of these garden statues was a group of Cain and -Abel that so recently gave an interest to the great grass quad of -Brasenose College, Oxford. It was given by Dr. Clarke, of All Souls, -"who bought it of some London statuary." Hearne speaks of it as "some -silly statue"--superiority has always been the greatest enemy to beauty. -Forty or fifty years ago there was a Mercury in Tom Quad which has also -been improved away. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Sun-dial, Temple Gardens.] - -Our next example fulfils a purpose. It is the sun-dial formerly in -Clement's Inn, which was known locally as the "Blackamoor." It is -strongly, if simply modelled, a piece of art full of character, and we -may be glad that it has been restored to us although now placed in the -gardens of the Inner Temple, instead of before the "Garden House" in -Clement's Inn. - -The negro is the full size of life and bears the stone disc of the dial -on his head with one hand, the other being free. The dial is beautifully -engraved and is signed on the edge of the gnomon _Ben Scott in the -Strand Londini Fecit_. The sides have the initials of the donor, P. I. -P., and the date, 1731. Mr. Hare in his _Walks in London_ states that it -was brought from Italy late in the seventeenth century by Holles Lord -Clare, whose name is preserved in the neighbouring Clare market. This -statement is also found in Thornbury's _Old and New London_, and the -statue is said to be bronze, which it is not, nor do the initials and -date above agree with Mr. Hare's statement, who goes on to remark that -"there are similar figures at Knowsley, and at Arley in Cheshire," but -he does not say if these also were brought from Italy by Lord Clare. - -No authority is given by Mr. Hare, but his statement is in the main a -transcript from John Thomas Smith, who also gives the verses quoted by -Mr. Hare, said to have been attached to the statue on one occasion with -a pitying reference to the legal atmosphere the African had to breathe. -That it was brought from Italy is seemingly local gossip added to the -account of Mr. Smith who knew well enough the English workshop, as we -shall see, where these figures were made. - -Similar figures are mentioned by this writer in his gossiping -_Antiquarian Rambles in London_ in which he wrote the memories of his -own travels in the streets in the beginning of the present century, and -gives quite a history of this "despicable manufactory." The founding of -these lead garden statues seems specially to have been an industry of -the eighteenth century; with the dreary opening of the nineteenth "a -purer taste," so we are assured, banished these and most other charms of -an old-fashioned garden. "In Piccadilly, on the site of the houses east -of the Poulteney Hotel including that, now No. 102, stood the original -leaden figure yard, founded by John Van Nost, a Dutch sculptor, who came -to England with King William III. His effects were sold March, 1711." As -late as 1763 a John Van Nost (supposed descendant of the former) was -following the profession of a statuary in St. Martin's Lane, on the -left, a little farther up than where the old brick houses now stand in -1893. The original business was taken in 1739 by Mr. John Cheere, who -served his time with his brother, Sir H. Cheere, the statuary who did -several of the Abbey monuments. - -"This despicable manufactory must still be within memory, as the -attention of nine persons in ten were arrested by these garden -ornaments. The figures were cast in lead as large as life and frequently -painted with an intention to resemble nature. They consisted of Punch, -Harlequin, Columbine and other pantomimical characters; mowers whetting -their scythes; haymakers resting on their rakes; gamekeepers shooting; -and Roman soldiers with _firelocks_; but above all an African kneeling -with a sundial upon his head found the most extensive sale. - -"For these imaginations in lead there were other workshops in -Piccadilly, viz., Dickenson's, which stood on the site of the Duke of -Gloucester's house, Manning's at the corner of White Horse Street, and -Carpenter's, that stood where Egmont house afterwards stood. - -"All the above four figure yards were in high vogue about the year 1740. -They certainly had casts from some of the finest works of art, the -Apollo Belvidere, the Venus de Medici, &c., but these leaden -productions, although they found numerous admirers and purchasers, were -never countenanced by men of taste; for it is well known that when -application was made to the Earl of Burlington for his sanction he -always spoke of them with sovereign contempt, observing that the -uplifted arms of leaden figures, in consequence of the pliability and -weight of the material, would in course of time appear little better -than crooked billets.... There has not been a leaden figure manufactory -in London since the year 1787, when Mr. Cheere died." - -Walpole knew little of these lead-working sculptors, his only notice -occurring under "Carpentier or Charpentiere"--our Carpenter above--"a -statuary much employed by the Duke of Chandos at Canons, was for some -years principal assistant to Van Ost (our Van Nost) an artist of whom I -have found no memorials, and afterwards set up for himself. Towards the -end of his life he kept a manufactory of leaden statues in Piccadilly -and died in 1737, aged above sixty." The original Van Nost came from -Mechlin, and married in England the widow of another Dutch sculptor. - -In the account books of the building of Somerset House the following -entry, which occurs under 1778, is interesting as showing John Cheere -working on particular works, and for giving us the composition of the -metal and the price. "John Cheere, figure maker; to moulding, casting, -and finishing four large sphinxes in a strong substantial manner, lead -and block tin, at each £31." - -It is curious if Lord Burlington gave the critical dictum attributed to -him, that there were so many lead garden statues at his villa at -Chiswick, in 1892 dismantled by the Duke of Devonshire. Doubtless they -belonged to that garden described by Walpole as in the Italian taste, -where "the lavish quantity of urns and sculpture behind the garden -front should be retrenched," a wish that time accomplishes. There was a -Bacchus, a Venus, an Achilles, a Samson, and Cain and Abel. - -In the first quadrangle at Knole there are two good reproductions of the -antique, one being a crouching Venus. In the courtyard of Burton Agnes -in Yorkshire stands a Fighting Gladiator. - -Studley Royal, near Ripon, is a fine example of the best effort of -park-gardening, if the phrase be allowed, for the term "landscape -gardening" is degraded to mean productions in the cemetery style, an -affair of wriggling paths, little humps, and nursery specimens, which -might best be described as _cemetery gardening_, and between which and -the manner of Kent there is no parallel. Here lakes in ordered circles -and crescents occupy the grassy flat between hanging woods, and several -groups of lead statuary stand above the water. - -In the beautiful old gardens at Melbourne in Derbyshire are a large -number of lead figures, two of which are drawn in _The Formal -Garden_.[26] There are two heroic sized figures of Perseus and Andromeda -beside the great water; a Flying Mercury after Giovanni Bologna; two -slaves, which are painted black, with white drapery, carrying vases on -salvers; and several Cupids in pairs or single. Of these "the single -figures" Mr. Blomfield says "are about two feet high. One has fallen -off his tree, another is flying upward, another shooting, another -shaping his bow with a spoke shave. All of these are painted and some -covered with stone dust to imitate stone, a gratuitous insult to lead -which will turn to a delicate silver grey if left to its own devices." - - [26] Blomfield and Thomas. Macmillan, 1892. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Cymbal Player.] - -In the old gardens at Rousham described by Pope are still some Cupids -riding on swans; at Holmerook Hall are statues and other objects in -lead, and at Newton Ferrars in Cornwall are two statues of Mars and -Perseus. At the Mote House, Hersham, are some garden figures. - -There are also some figures of lead in the gardens of Castle Hill, Lord -Fortescue's house in Devonshire. In the two niches of a garden temple -there is a Cymbal Player from the antique and a Venus in the manner of -William and Mary. Amongst the foliage of a wood-path is a terminal -figure of Pan, the pillar being stone and the head and shoulders only of -lead. In the gardens here are also two large couchant lions, four -sphinxes, and some greyhounds. At Nun Moncton in Yorkshire, on a terrace -by the river Ouse are several lead figures on each side of the walk, -these have gilded trappings. At Glemham in Suffolk are figures of the -Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugène at the entrance. In the garden are -two black slaves with sun-dials, and the Seasons: also hounds at the -gateway. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Terminal at Castle Hill.] - -In the garden at Canons Ashby is a figure of a shepherd playing a flute. -In a garden at Exeter are four or five figures, amongst which is a -Skater and a Flower Girl, and at Whitchurch is a Quoit Thrower. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Time.] - -In the niches of a large circular yew hedge at Hardwick are four -figures, three are playing on musical instruments; pipe, trumpet, and -violin, and the fourth represents Painting. There are also two other -figures in the gardens. At Temple Dinsley near Hitchin is a figure of -Time, hour-glass in hand, of which a sketch is given. The left hand -formerly held a scythe, now lost. At Shrewsbury is a Hercules. - -The statues in the grounds at Blarney celebrated in the "Groves of -Blarney" were of lead:-- - - "There's statues gracing this noble place in - All heathen Goddesses so fair, - Bold Neptune, Plutarch and Nicodemus - All standing naked in the open air." - -These statues were sold by auction to Sir Thomas Dene who bought the -castle, and pictures:-- - - "And took off in a cart - ('Twas enough to break my heart) - All the statues made of lead and pictures O!"[27] - - [27] _Reliques of Father Prout_, i., 140. - -The eighteenth century must have been busy in the "manufacture" of these -garden figures and ornaments, some of the gardens mentioned have as many -as twenty to thirty pieces still. A great number was doubtless absorbed -in the London public gardens and the villas up the Thames. In old -Vauxhall was a statue of Milton by Roubilliac, but it is difficult to -attribute many specimens to individuals. The negro we saw was sold by -Mr. John Cheere in St. Martin's Lane, but likely enough the model was a -part of the stock of Van Nost, as also the fine vases at Hampton Court. -Many of these statues were destroyed to suit the "purer taste" of this -century, and a great number were exported during the American War to -become bullets, because at that time as "works of art" the lead escaped -the Customs. A large number have been accidentally crushed by the fall -of a tree or otherwise destroyed, and many not adequately supported have -flattened down out of shape. - -There was a large display _à la_ Louis Quatorze, of lead casting in the -gorgeous gardens of Versailles; where in the fountains, groups of -statues, and vases, the greatest sculptors of the time worked -indifferently in marble, bronze, or _plomb doré_. François Girardon was -one of these. Born in 1628, at Troyes, he lived to the year 1715, -achieving a reputation that placed him amongst the foremost of French -artists of that time. - -The immense structure entirely of lead known as the Fountain of the -Pyramid is his work. From a basin in which sport three man-sized tritons -rises a pedestal, with a circular basin much enriched by gadroons, set -on three classic zoomorphous legs; and above it three other like basins -of diminishing size, each supported from the one below around the rim; -by baby tritons for the lowest, the next with dolphins, and the last -with lobsters. In the last basin is a vase. The whole is a composition -showing great refinement of scholarship, recalling in general form the -great pine cone of bronze in the Vatican gardens, once the fountain in -the atrium of old St. Peter's. It is exquisitely drawn and engraved by -Rouyer et Darcel[28] together with two vases also of lead from the Basin -of Neptune. - - [28] _L'Art Arch. en France_, vol. ii. - -Other groups, some of colossal proportions--"France Victorious," "The -Four Seasons," and so on--were the work of Thomas Renaudin of Moulins, -J. B. Tubi from Rome, Pierre Mazaline and Gaspard de Marcu; their -individual works, with illustrations, may be distinguished in the volume -of engraved statues of the Versailles gardens by S. Thomassin published -in Paris 1694. - -Versailles certainly set the fashion, which we followed and which -influenced the gardens of the most of Europe. In Russia a Swiss gardener -arranged a labyrinth at the summer palace of Peter the Great with animal -groups from Æsop in gilt lead forming fountains. Beckford, writing from -Lisbon in 1789, describes a garden at Bemfica "which eclipses our -Clapham and Islington villas in all the attractions of leaden statues, -Chinese temples, serpentine rivers, and dusty hermitages." - - - - -§ XV. OF LEAD FOUNTAINS. - - -None of the old English gardens were complete without a fountain, and no -fountain was complete without a figure. Bacon says--"For fountains ... -the ornaments of images, gilt or of marble, which are in use do well." - -Paul Hentzner writes of the sixteenth century garden of Theobalds, the -seat of Lord Treasurer Burleigh--"There was a summer house, in the lower -part of which, built semicircularly, are the twelve Roman emperors in -white marble and a table of touchstone (alabaster) the upper part is set -around with cisterns of lead into which the water is conveyed by pipes -so that fish may be kept in them, and in summer time they are very -convenient for bathing." - -At St. Fagan's, near Cardiff, in front of the house is a remarkable lead -tank; it is octagonal, ten feet across and nearly four feet high; it is -ornamented round the sides with flowers, and shields in panels, and is -dated 1620. - -At Syon House there is a fountain in which a lead figure forms the jet -d'eau. - -At Wooton in Staffordshire there is a fountain basin with a lead duck so -suspended as to float on the water spouting water from its bill. The -Swan which seemed to float on the water described by Borrow in -_Lavengro_ must have been of lead. At Sprotborough in Yorkshire are some -lead toads about nine inches long, which also seem to have belonged to a -fountain. - -Some of the figures mentioned before stand in the centre of basins, and -occasionally simple groups, as of Neptune in a two-horsed chariot, may -be found, but we have nothing in England to compare to the great -fountain compositions of the Versailles Gardens or to the fountain -called _Le Buffet_ in the Trianon Park, designed by Mansard, and -profusely decorated by the gilt lead sculptures of Van Clève and other -artists. - -In Germany some of the earlier town fountains are of lead. - - - - -§ XVI. OF VASES AND GATE PIERS. - - -The vases at Hampton Court mentioned above are particularly fine in -design and well modelled; their height is about 2.3 and the little -sitting figures, slight as they are, are charming in their pose; the -folded arms and prettily arranged hair give us a suggestion of life -which most of these things supposed to be in the classic taste lack. The -inventory taken by the Commission at Hampton Court mentions "Fower large -flower potts of lead." Similar vases are in the gardens at Windsor, also -larger and later examples with figure plaques in Flaxman's manner. At -Castle Hill, North Devon, there are ten vases, some with mouldings and -gadroons formed in repoussé, others cast. - -At Melbourne in Derbyshire there is an enormous vase some seven or eight -feet high in a very rococo style.[29] There is one at Penshurst, which -comes from Old Leicester House in London; and at Sprotborough are others -of similar design. These vases will not bear comparison with the -beautiful lead Gothic fonts before given. - - [29] _The Formal Garden_, Blomfield and Thomas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Vase, Hampton Court.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--From Vase, Hampton Court.] - -There are several vases at Wimpole near Cambridge, at Wilton, and at -Wrest. Little square flower boxes with cast or repoussé devices on the -sides were also made; Charles Lamb describes some flower pots for us -from the gardens of Blakesware in Herefordshire, a fine old house, -destroyed even when he wrote--"The owner of it had lately pulled it -down; still I had a vague notion that it could not all have perished. -_How shall they build it up again?_" There was a beautiful fruit garden -and "ampler pleasure garden rising backwards from the house in triple -terraces, with flower pots now of palest lead save that a spot here and -there saved from the elements bespake their pristine state to have been -gilt and glittering." - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Vase, Castle Hill.] - -At Knole are a pair of circular pots figured on page 120. Circular -baskets of open interlacing work and other forms were also made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Albert Gate.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Albert Gate.] - -Garden seats were also made entirely of lead. There are six lead -seats at Castle Hill, North Devon; they are large square boxes with -heavy "classic" forms, the top and ends imitating the folds of drapery. -At Chiswick similar seats in every way were sculptured in stone. These -show how lead should not be used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Vase on Gate Pier, Knole.] - -At Castle Hill are also several greyhounds; they are particularly lively -and well modelled and suitable for their purpose as guards to the gates. -Gate piers are most inviting pedestals for leaden imagery. At Albert -Gate, Hyde Park, there are two beautiful lead stags--another pair of -them are at Loughton in Essex; no more appropriate English park gate -could well be thought of. At Carshalton, Surrey, where a park was -enclosed by Thomas Scawen, the great gate pillars of the entrance have -large boldly modelled statues of Diana and Actæon, the date 1726. The -little Cupids that stand out of the ivy that covers the piers at Temple -Dinsley are sketched in Fig. 53. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Temple Dinsley.] - -Perhaps the finest gate pier groups are those to the Flower Pot Gate at -Hampton Court, where Cupids uphold a basket of flowers. These able -pieces of work are not generally known for lead, because, like so many -figures and vases, they have been painted and sanded to imitate stone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Syon House.] - -In 1744 the then member for Southampton presented two lions for the Bar -Gate in that town. These not very beautiful creatures still remain. - -Syon House, on the Thames, has besides the great lion, a lesser lion set -over Adam's "lace gateway," weighing a ton and half, it is unfortunately -newly _painted and sanded_ to look like stone, and as the tail sticks -out in a way utterly impossible for anything but metal it makes it -entirely absurd. There is a plague of paint over old leadwork, which -should be gilt or let alone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Syon House.] - -On the park wall facing the road there are fine sphinxes, about five -feet long, in every way different to the lion, well designed exercises -in the "classic taste." Well modelled, with impressive heads, in the -dark and dinted metal, they are pleasant both in colour and texture. -They are quite "Adam's" in character but not at all petty like some of -his work and very different to a pair of sphinxes also of lead, on the -gates of Chiswick House. - - - - -§ XVII. OF FINIALS AND CRESTINGS. - - -The lead finial is typically a French feature; there cannot be said to -be a single instance of a large ornamental finial of lead remaining in -England of the kind once so universal in France and of which so many -still remain there. These French finials from the 12th to the 18th -centuries have been sufficiently described, especially by M. De la -Queriere, who devotes a volume to them and the cresting of ridges; by -Viollet-le-Duc; and in De Caumont's _Abcdaire_. - -Many of these early French Gothic finials of the 12th and 13th centuries -were lead statues formed out of repoussé sheet metal and they surmounted -the culminating point of the church, at the apex of the chevet; here was -often placed an immense angel with great wings turning as vanes in the -wind. At Rouen it is the Virgin with the infant Christ which stands over -the Lady Chapel; there was formerly on the main apse a giant St. George -horsed and spearing the dragon, melted at the Revolution "they say" into -bullets. At Clermont Ferrand is the most remarkable composition, a tall -pillar on which stands a colossal Virgin facing the sunrise; round the -stem spring out great branches of foliage on which sit four -figures--King David with the harp and three others with musical -instruments--the ridge is ornamented with open work, and a length of -similar foliage reaches down the slope of the roof for some feet on -either side of the finial where are two other figures, these are full -life size, and the whole must be 20 or more feet high. - -At Evreux the apse had a St. Michael treading down Satan. The immense -St. Michael that surmounted the central tower at Mont St. Michel, which -could be seen many leagues out at sea, was also probably of lead. - -We had in England in the twelfth century a large figure serving as a -finial to the central tower at Canterbury. This tower was built by -Lanfranc, and Gervase tells us it was surmounted by a gilt angel, this -is shown in the contemporary drawing of Canterbury; and the tower, -Professor Willis says, ever retained the name of the Angel Tower. Stow -also told us of a lead spire close by St. Paul's with an image of St. -Paul on the top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Finial at Lille.] - -The early French examples of finials without a figure were formed of -foliage in repoussé on a stem or pillar with swelling bands or bowl-like -forms at the point of growth: these and the foliage were beaten out of -thick sheet lead, the larger forms in two halves and soldered -together. The central stem was an iron rod covered with lead tube -slipped over it in short pieces, with hooks to hang the branching leaves -to; sometimes slender rods rise out of the foliage and droop with lilies -at their extremities. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Finial at Angers.] - -Later, cast ornaments became general; on the Hôtel Dieu at Beaune is a -wonderful series of these finials made up of portions partly repoussé -partly cast, these have coronets of delicate open work which were cast -in strips and bent round. Where the finial joins the roof a rayed sun of -cast metal is placed. Mr. Clutton gives drawings of these. - -In the Museum at Lille there are two fine finials, one of these is -carefully analysed to a large scale by Burges in his book of drawings -and the other, wholly made up of castings, is given here from a -photograph. In the Museum in the splendid old hall of the Hôtel Dieu at -Angers are two, sketches of which are given in Figs. 57 and 58. The -leaves and scrolls are cast with ribs to make them stiffer. - -The later Gothic and Renaissance finials are often charmingly suggestive -in the _subject_ of their design--some have figures, a huntsman at -Bourges, a Cupid shooting arrows or a man-at-arms; some are made up with -suns or sun and moon, or moon and stars, as at Troyes; at Beaune, -cup-like forms are made of openwork for birds' nests. Again we find a -vase of lilies or branch of drooping thistles, a pigeon, a coronet, or -personal devices and badges. Mr. Burges noted how the early poets spoke -of the _music_ of the vanes, and there can be little doubt that some of -them were intended to resound to the wind: in the _Hypnerotomachia_ -(1499) a finial is shown with little bells hanging to chains which swang -against a metal bowl; Viollet-le-Duc also tells us that in certain -crestings he found a singular musical conceit in contrivances for -producing "sifflements" under the action of the wind--Æolian flutes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Angers.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Finials, Bourges.] - -At Bourges on the Hôtels Jacques Coeur and Cujas are some finials -consisting of little more than a lead-covered stick bearing a rod and -girouettes. Flags were properly only set up in the due heraldic -precedence of the proprietor, a Knight might fly a pennon and so on; -they were centred at times on a piece of agate to reduce the friction of -revolution. We have only to look at the views of old towns given in -manuscripts to see how the mediæval mind delighted in these flag -finials; but there are probably not half a dozen old ones now left in -England. When there are many revolving flags to the finials on one -building and these are bright with new gold, they have the delightful -property of flashing the light to a great distance. The gilt flags on -the pinnacles of the west front of Wells Cathedral twinkle -simultaneously against the setting sun. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--From Newcastle.] - -Crestings, sometimes large and most ornamental, were formed along the -ridges of French buildings, especially in the early Renaissance.[30] -These ornamental ridges, especially in this exaggerated form, are not -English. - - [30] _See_ De la Queriere or Viollet-le-Duc (_Art._ "Crête"). - -A row of fleurs-de-lis exists at Exeter, a portion of which is in the -Architectural Museum, Westminster: and probably many other roofs had -similar crestings. - - - - -§ XVIII. OF CISTERNS, ETC. - - -The use of lead pipes for conducting water was introduced into England -by the Romans, the ordinary draw-off tap is another gift of theirs. The -twelfth century plan of Canterbury cathedral shows a remarkable system -of water pipes for collecting the water from the roofs and distributing -it to the several buildings and fountains. Mr. Micklethwaite has -described in _Archæologia_ a lead filtering cistern with draw-off tap -found at Westminster Abbey; and in the British Museum (Gothic Room) -there is a small circular lead cistern with delicate fifteenth century -ornament. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Poundisford Park, Taunton.] - -Some old country houses preserve the original scheme for conducting the -rain water from the roofs into a lead cistern which, adorned by devices -and gilding, stood close to the front door. Poundisford Park, near -Taunton, is one of these. Lead spouting, delicately ornamented, crosses -the front and brings the water to the head of the vertical pipe, which -has turrets and loopholes--a toy castle. This and its pipe stand over a -circular fronted cistern panelled and modelled with a crest, pots of -flowers, and the date 1671. There are some of these cisterns at Exeter; -one of them, here given, is much like that at Taunton, and is dated -1696; the ribs and devices are gilt. At Bovey Tracy, in Devonshire, -there is another, as also at Sackville College, East Grinstead. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Cistern, Exeter.] - -In the London houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, -ornamented lead cisterns seem to have been generally placed in the -courtyards and areas. The earliest known was illustrated and described -in the _Builder_ for August 23rd, 1862. The centre was a coat of arms -quartering the lions of England and the lilies of France, right and left -two quatrefoil panels contained the letters E.R., and below in a long -panel was the date 15--. Two upright strips formed the margins, which, -with the ends, were covered with Gothic diaper. It was drawn while in -the possession of a dealer, who obtained it in Crutched Friars. - -There was quite a crusade preached against these cisterns, as the -occasion of lead poisoning, in the first half of this century, and -hundreds were destroyed, but a large number still remain; about -Bloomsbury quite a dozen may be seen down front areas. For the most part -they were decorated with panelling of ribs formed of squares and -semicircles with strips and spots of cast ornament, flowers, fruit -baskets, stags, dolphins, cherubs' heads, and even the gods Bacchus and -Ceres; others have nothing but the fretted panel with initials and date -like Fig. 63. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Cistern, London.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Cistern, S. Kensington Museum.] - -The ribs, with the stock enrichments in new combinations, the date and -initials, were attached to a wood panel the size of the cistern front; -this was moulded in the sand and the casting made of good substance; -stout strips were soldered across the inside as ties. One of the finest -known of these is that at South Kensington Museum, of which one half of -the front is here illustrated, the other half repeats exactly, even to -the initials on the shield; the date is 1732. This is in every way well -designed and beautifully modelled. A part of one in the Guildhall Museum -is an early example of the ordinary pattern, dated 1674. - -The ribs for the pattern were formed in lead--a plumber disdaining the -assistance of wood if he could avoid it--by beating strips of lead into -an iron swage block, that was cut as a matrix about four inches long; -these strips could be easily bent to the curved lines. Plain panelled -cisterns like this were made as late as 1840. - -Old lead pumps are now very seldom to be found. One remains at Wick, -Christchurch, which is 6 inches in diameter, and is decorated by a -crest--a boar's head in a wreath--and the initials "G. B." as well as -the signature "J. JENKINS, Plummer, 1797." - - - - -§ XIX. OF GUTTERS. - - -In England the gutters of important churches were generally formed -behind the stone parapet, but at Lincoln the whole is formed of lead -above a carved stone cornice. It is about two feet high and the outside -is decorated with foiled circles closer or farther apart with due -disregard for precision. In France gutters were often like this made on -the top of the stone cornice; irons turned up carry a continuous rod, -over which the lead was dressed, and as the outlets were frequent little -fall was required.[31] - - [31] _See_ Viollet-le-Duc. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Gutter, Lincoln Cathedral.] - -To some bay windows of a fine old timber house at Derby there are -little parapets formed out of lead, the front edge being cut into -notches like a tiny battlement, and short lengths of pipe form spouts -for the water. At Taunton there is a bay window with a similar -battlement of lead; this is cast with a running pattern and wavy upper -edge, to this below is soldered a similar strip reversed making a -fringe; the same pattern forms the isolated gutters at Poundisford House -above mentioned. At Montacute the spouting has a series of little -upright panels, the top moulding breaking up higher over every alternate -pair in crenelations, leaving a space filled with a boss. At Bramhall -there is a cottage to which both the spouting and the down pipe have a -running scroll of flowery ornament. Sometimes the end of a roof gutter -between two gables is stopped by an apron of lead with pattern on it, -such as a knot of cord and initials. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Gutter, Taunton.] - - - - -§ XX. OF PIPES AND PIPE HEADS. - - -The water was discharged from the gutters into the heads of down pipes, -or sometimes from jutting lengths of spout supported by iron props, the -nozzles cut into a form often simulating an animal's jaws. - -The down pipes are particularly English, nowhere else can the ornate -constructions of lead forming the pipe heads of Haddon and other great -houses of the sixteenth century be matched. According to Viollet-le-Duc, -here in England this arrangement was already in use in the fourteenth -century, when nowhere except in England were these lead pipes from the -roof down to the base of the wall known. He also remarks on the -advantage of these being square as they can expand if required when the -water freezes, while a circular pipe can only burst.[32] Fragments of -pierced work in Gothic patterns which formed parts of pipe heads have -been found at Fountains Abbey. - - [32] Art. "Conduite," Fig. 6. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Bramhall, Cheshire.] - -At Haddon there are a great number of these pipe heads of several dates, -and every one is different from the rest; some are plain and small, -others great spreading things elaborately decorated. The general form of -these is constructed like a box from cast sheet lead, the cornices are -beaten to their shape over a pattern; and the top edge is cut into a -little fringe of crenellations. Cast discs of ornament, badges, pendant -knobs, and initials are arranged on their fronts, on the funnel-shaped -portion leading to the pipe, and on the ears of the pipe and the side -flaps of the head itself. The more elaborate heads have an outer casing -of lead with panels pierced through it of delicate tracery work of -Gothic tradition which shows bright against the shadow. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 68 and 69.--Pipe Heads, Haddon Hall.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Pipe head, Haddon.] - -At Windsor Castle some pipe heads bear the date 1589, the Tudor rose, -and the letters E. R. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Bodleian, Oxford.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--St. John's, Oxford.] - -At Knole there are also many heads having pierced work of this kind in -panels, and projecting turrets; some of these also have a decoration of -bright solder applied to the lead in patterns--these were made about -1600. At the Bodleian and St. John's College, Oxford, there is a fine -series of pipe heads with painted patterns. At Norham Castle some pipe -heads are dated 1605. Abbot's Hospital at Guildford has a large series -of heads later in character than those at Haddon. Here pierced work is -used as a brattishing to the top edge of the fronts; they are signed G. -A. and dated 1627. At Canons Ashby there is a pair of most rococo pipe -heads, with applied pierced castings, masks and acanthus leaves.[33] -These heads are fixed on iron cramps, or brackets; at Haddon lead -cylinders with pierced ends project and carry the heads. - - [33] Figured in the _Spring Gardens Sketch Book_, vol. v., 58. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Sherborne.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Liverpool.] - -Sometimes the heads are very long, extending five or six feet like a -length of gutter; it was a favourite method to decorate them with -salient projections at intervals, like the cut-waters of a bridge, the -top edge of these is cut into little battlements which were curled over -in loops. The projections make convenient birds' nests. The pipe is -sometimes central to these long heads but often at the end. - -Entirely the reverse of these, other heads are tall in proportion, like -the examples at Shrewsbury and Ludlow or the little fiddle pattern -design given here from the Grammar School at Sherborne (Fig. 73). The -two examples 74 and 75 are from Liverpool and Ashbourn. - -There are three or four original pipe heads which are well designed in -the Architectural Museum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Ashbourne.] - -The later ones, as in London, are often tall square funnels moulded and -bent into vase-like forms, the projection was small compared to the -width, only three or four inches sometimes. A piece of projecting pipe -is at times inserted in the front of the head to serve as an overflow. -The late pipes were circular and the heads very often followed this -form. - -The material has an appropriateness for this purpose that cast iron -cannot pretend to; a simple square box of lead and round pipe is much to -be preferred to fussy things in cast iron, they will not require -painting, nor do they fill the drains with rust; and although it has -been necessary to draw the elaborate and eccentric forms, the simpler -ones form better models for our purpose. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Haddon.] - -The earlier pipes were almost always a flat square, sometimes ornamented -up its whole length, but usually only at the collars, where the bands of -lead for attachment to the wall were placed, here and on the flaps of -the collars are often crests, flowers, or letters. The lead band was cut -long enough, so that after the nails had been driven through it into the -wall the ends were folded back over their heads. Those at Canons Ashby, -Northants, have the ends curled and cut like the scroll of a mediæval -text. - -Lead working as an art for the expression of beauty through material, -with this ancestry of nearly two thousand years of beautiful workmanship -behind it here in England, has in the present century been entirely -killed out. Only one simple present use of lead can be mentioned as -having the characteristic of an art--the expression of personal thought -by the worker to give pleasure. This is nothing but the lining of stairs -and floor spaces with sheet lead nailed with rows of copper nails, some -examples of which are done with a certain taste. Pipe heads and other -objects of a somewhat ornamental kind have recently been made again, but -we must remember that ornament is not art, and these have only been -carefully, painfully, "executed" to the architect's drawings. The -plumber's art, as it was, for instance, when the Guild of Plumbers was -formed, a craft to be graced by the free fancy of the worker, is a field -untilled. That someone may again take up this fine old craft of -lead-working as an artist and original worker, refusing to follow -"designs" compiled by another from imperfectly understood old examples, -but expressing only himself--this has been my chief hope in preparing -the little book NOW CONCLUDED. - - - - -MESSRS. MACMILLAN & CO.'S - -BOOKS FOR TECHNICAL CLASSES. - - - =DRAWING AND DESIGN.= A Class Text-book for Beginners. By E. R. - TAYLOR. Head Master of the Birmingham Municipal School of Art. - With Illustrations. Oblong crown 8vo, 5_s._ net. - - =ELEMENTS OF HANDICRAFT AND DESIGN.= By W. A. S. 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Illustrated. 4_s._ 6_d._ - - -MACMILLAN AND CO., LONDON. - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber's Note - -Punctuation has been standardised. Missing periods and dashes have been -supplied where obviously required. All other original errors and -consistencies have been retained (of particular note is the 'v' for 'u' -substitution in 'ILLVSTRATIONS' on the title page), except as follows: - - Page 5: changed 2 to II - (§ II. AN HISTORICAL SKETCH.) - Page 5: changed whch to which - (England herself which is the) - Page 7: added missing footnote marker - (Mycenæ and Tiryns.[1]) - Page 19: changed Sta. to St. - (domes of St. Sophia and St. Mark's.) - Page 62: changed statutes to statues - (font has leaden statues of the) - Page 62: changed Walmsford to Wansford - (Northamptonshire Wansford) - Page 94: removed duplicate word 'a' - (shoulder sank a little and) - Page 103: added missing paragraph break - ("All the above four figure yards) - Page 109: changed enought to enough - ('Twas enough to break my heart) - Page 109: changed Chere to Cheere - (Mr. John Cheere in St. Martin's Lane,) - Page 111: changed Bemfila to Bemfica - (a garden at Bemfica "which eclipses) - Page 124: changed Caumonts's to Caumont's - (De Caumont's _Abcdaire_.) - Ads page 1: changed Manua to Manual - (A Graduated System of Manual) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Leadwork, by W. R. 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Lethaby - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Leadwork - Old and Ornamental and for the most part English - -Author: W. R. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Leadwork - Old and Ornamental and for the most part English - -Author: W. R. Lethaby - -Release Date: January 5, 2013 [EBook #41544] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEADWORK *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Rosanna Murphy and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold -text by =equals signs=. - - - - -LEADWORK - - - "_That which gives to the leadwork of the Middle Ages a particular - charm is that the means they employed and the forms they adopted - are exactly appropriate to the material. Like Carpentry or Cabinet - work, Plumbing was an art apart which borrowed neither from stone - nor wood in its design. Mediaeval lead was wrought like colossal - goldsmith's work._"--VIOLLET-LE-DUC. - - - - - LEADWORK - OLD AND ORNAMENTAL - AND FOR THE MOST PART - ENGLISH. BY W. R. LETHABY - WITH ILLVSTRATIONS - - [Illustration] - - 1893 - Macmillan & Co., London & New York. - - -RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED - -LONDON AND BUNGAY. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - SECT. PAGE - - I. OF MATERIAL AND CRAFTSMANSHIP 1 - - II. AN HISTORICAL SKETCH 5 - - III. OF LEAD COVERINGS TO BUILDINGS 17 - - IV. OF LEADED SPIRES AND TURRETS 20 - - V. OF DOMES 33 - - VI. OF ROOFS 36 - - VII. OF LEAD COFFINS 40 - - VIII. OF FONTS 51 - - IX. OF INSCRIPTIONS, ETC. 65 - - X. OF THE DECORATION OF LEAD 72 - - XI. OF LEAD ORNAMENTATION OF OTHER MATERIALS 80 - - XII. OF DECORATIVE OBJECTS 84 - - XIII. OF LEAD GLAZING 87 - - XIV. OF LEAD STATUES 90 - - XV. OF LEAD FOUNTAINS 112 - - XVI. OF VASES AND GATE PIERS 114 - - XVII. OF FINIALS AND CRESTINGS 124 - - XVIII. OF CISTERNS, ETC. 131 - - XIX. OF GUTTERS 137 - - XX. OF PIPES AND PIPE HEADS 139 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIG. PAGE - - 1. EGYPTIAN INSCRIBED TABLET 7 - - 2. GREEK QUIVER 8 - - 3. BUILDER'S PLUMMET 9 - - 4, 5. GREEK WEIGHTS 10 - - 6, 7. GREEK WEIGHTS 11 - - 8, 9. CISTS FROM THE KIRCHERIAN MUSEUM 12 - - 10. ROMAN JEWELLED CUP 14 - - 11. SPIRE, BARNSTAPLE 26 - - 12. ANOTHER SPIRE 27 - - 13. TURRET, BARNARD'S INN HALL 29 - - 14. CALAIS BELFRY 32 - - 15. ORNAMENTS FROM COFFINS, CONSTANTINOPLE 41 - - 16, 17. CISTS, BRITISH MUSEUM 42 - - 18, 19. ROMAN COFFINS, BRITISH MUSEUM 44 - - 20. ROMAN COFFIN, BRITISH MUSEUM 45 - - 21. THIRTEENTH CENTURY COFFIN, TEMPLE CHURCH 46 - - 22, 23. THIRTEENTH CENTURY COFFINS, TEMPLE CHURCH 47 - - 24. COFFIN, WINCHESTER 48 - - 25. AT MOISSAC 49 - - 26. VESSEL, LEWES MUSEUM 52 - - 27. FONT, BROOKLAND, KENT 54 - - 28. FONT, BROOKLAND 55 - - 29. FONT, EDBURTON, SUSSEX 57 - - 30. FONT, WALTON, SURREY 59 - - 31. FONT, PARHAM, SUSSEX 61 - - 32. HEART BOX OF KING RICHARD 67 - - 33. INSCRIBED CROSS 68 - - 34. ARMS FROM BOURGES 70 - - 35. INCISED DECORATION, BOURGES 75 - - 36. PAINTED DECORATION, BOURGES 76 - - 37. FLASHINGS, BOURGES 77 - - 38. A VALANCE 78 - - 39, 40. LEAD GLAZING 88 - - 41. VENTILATING QUARRY 89 - - 42. STATUE OF MERCURY 98 - - 43. SUN-DIAL, TEMPLE GARDENS 100 - - 44. CYMBAL PLAYER 106 - - 45. TERMINAL AT CASTLE HILL 107 - - 46. TIME, TEMPLE DINSLEY 108 - - 47. VASE, HAMPTON COURT 115 - - 48. FROM VASE, HAMPTON COURT 116 - - 49. VASE, CASTLE HILL 117 - - 50. ALBERT GATE 118 - - 51. ALBERT GATE 119 - - 52. VASE, KNOLE 120 - - 53. CUPID, TEMPLE DINSLEY 121 - - 54. SPHINX, SYON HOUSE 122 - - 55. SYON HOUSE 123 - - 56. FINIAL AT LILLE 126 - - 57. FINIAL AT ANGERS 126 - - 58. ANGERS 128 - - 59. FINIALS, BOURGES 129 - - 60. FROM NEWCASTLE 130 - - 61. POUNDISFORD PARK, TAUNTON 132 - - 62. CISTERN, EXETER 133 - - 63. CISTERN, LONDON 134 - - 64. CISTERN, S. KENSINGTON MUSEUM 135 - - 65. GUTTER, LINCOLN CATHEDRAL 137 - - 66. GUTTER, TAUNTON 138 - - 67. BRAMHALL, CHESHIRE 140 - - 68, 69. PIPE HEADS, HADDON HALL 141 - - 70. PIPE HEAD, HADDON 142 - - 71. BODLEIAN, OXFORD 143 - - 72. ST. JOHN'S, OXFORD 144 - - 73. SHERBORNE 145 - - 74. LIVERPOOL 145 - - 75. ASHBOURNE 146 - - 76. HADDON 147 - - - - -LEADWORK - - - - -Sec. I. OF MATERIAL AND CRAFTSMANSHIP. - - -To none of the processes of modern mechanism do more vulgar associations -cling than to "Plumbing." It is the very serviceableness and ductility -of lead as a material that have brought about the easy and familiar -contempt with which it is treated. While few are more worthy of artistic -care no metal is more perfectly adaptable to noble use through a range -of treatments that cannot be matched by any other metal whatsoever. It -combines extreme ease of manipulation with practically endless -durability, and a suitability to any scale, from a tiny inkwell, or a -medal, to the statue of horse and rider, a Versailles fountain, or the -greatest cathedral spire. - -The range of method in handling follows from the equal ease with which -it can be hammered out, cast, or cut, and all three, employed -concurrently on the same piece. - -The main purpose of the pages which follow is not to set out a history -of the use of this material in various forms, although this is involved. -It is intended by pointing out the characteristics and methods of the -art of lead working in the past to show its possibilities for us, and -for the future. A picture of what has been done is the best means of -coming to a view of what may again be done. But it cannot be too -strongly asserted that the _forms_ of past art cannot be _copied_; that -certain things have been done is evidence enough to show that we cannot -do them over again. Reproduction is impossible; to attempt it is but to -make a poor diagram at the best. - -Commercially produced imitations of ornamental works are infinitely -beneath the merely utilitarian object which serves its purpose and -attempts nothing more. Behind all design there must be a personality -expressing himself; but certain principles of treatment and methods of -working may be understood in some degree by a study of past work without -going all through it again. History thus makes the experience of the -past available to us, but it does not relieve us of the necessity of -ourselves having experiences. There is a great stimulus in feeling one -of a chain, and entering into the traditions of a body of art. The -workman Bezin said to Mr. Stevenson of museums, "One sees in them -little miracles of workmanship--it fires a spark." - -New design must ever be founded on a strict consideration of the exact -purpose to be fulfilled by the proposed object, of how it will serve its -purpose best, and show perfect suitability to the end in view when made -in this or that material by easy means. This, not the torturing of a -material into forms which have not before been used, is the true ground -of beauty, and this to a certain extent is enough without any -ornamentation. Ornament is quite another matter, it has no justification -in service, it can only justify itself by being beautiful. - -In so far as history is involved here it has been necessary to refer to -and to figure many works, not bearing the impress of a fine living -style, but only passable exercises in the respectabilities of a sort of -conventional design learnt by rote. As a general rule it will be found -that the workers of the middle ages penetrated at once to the reason of -a thing in structure and then decorated it with an evidence of fresh -thought--a delight in growth, form, humanity, in one word Nature, the -source of all beauty and subject of all art. Each thing made is -evidently by an _artist_; it expresses reasonable workmanship and happy -thought in pleasant solution of some necessity of actual service. Many -of the later things are not thus natural and spontaneous but pedantic -and pompous, fulfilling their chief intention if they were expensive; -while to-day the chief care of design is often to _appear_ expensive -without being so in fact. - -Only in our century in England would it be possible for the metals which -are so especially hers, iron, tin, and lead, to have been so degraded -that it is hardly possible to think of them as vehicles of art. It -should not be so, for each of the metals can give us characteristics -that others cannot, and the capabilities of lead have been sufficiently -proved by more than two thousand years of artistic manipulation. - -The only way in which the crafts can again be made harmonious by beauty -is for men with a sense of architectural fitness and a feeling for -design to take up the actual workmanship and practise it themselves as -they would painting or sculpture, seeking the delight of being good -artists not the reputation of being successful merchants or clever -professional men. To any such, lead-working may be recommended. - - - - -Sec. II. AN HISTORICAL SKETCH. - - -The ease with which lead ores may be gained from the earth and then -worked, is sufficient to show that the application of lead to the -service of the arts must have been made very early. - -Nowhere does it seem to have been so easily found as "in England herself -which is the classic land of lead and tin" (Abbe Cochet). These two -metals made the early fame of Britain; they brought here the Phoenician -trader and had doubtless much to do with the Roman occupation of this -distant island. - -"Tin and lead," says Harrison in his _Description of England_, "metals -which Strabo noteth in his time to be carried into Marseilles from -hence, as Diodorus also confirmeth, are very plentiful with us, the one -in Cornwall, Devonshire, and elsewhere in the north, the other in -Derbyshire, Weredale, and sundry places of this island.... There were -mines of lead sometimes also in Wales which endured so long till the -people had consumed all their wood by melting of the same." - -Tin, which was of such sovereign necessity for the composition of -bronze, was, with lead, an object of wide commerce, as we may learn from -the prophecy of Ezekiel against Tyre, whose long black ships did the -carrying trade of the world. As the Tarshish of Scripture is the -Tartessus of classic authors--an entrepot of Phoenician trade in -Spain--it may well be of English mined metal that the prophet -speaks:--"Tarshish was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of all -kinds of riches; with silver, iron, tin, and lead they traded in thy -fairs." - -The Assyrian slabs which contain the accounts of the expedition into -Syria in the ninth century B.C. include among the tribute exacted of -Tyre and of Jerusalem itself "bars of gold, silver, copper, and lead." -Solomon used lead in the structure of the great wall of Jerusalem. - -Sir H. Layard says the mountains three or four days' journey from -Nineveh furnished iron, copper, lead, and silver in abundance, and he -found instances of its actual use at Nineveh. Place also, in his -excavations at Khorsabad, discovered a foundation inscription of Sargon -II., the great builder of the eighth century B.C. engraved on a plate of -lead. A leaden jar and a piece of pipe were found by Loftus at Mugheir. - -In Egypt it was sparingly used. Sir G. Wilkinson says:--"Lead was -comparatively useless, but was sometimes used for inlaying temple -doors, coffers and furniture, small statuettes of the gods were -occasionally made in this metal, especially those of Osiris and Anubis." - -In Egypt as well as in Babylonia it was the custom to make a deposit of -several objects in the foundations, a tradition which we still follow -to-day. At Daphnae Mr. Flinders Petrie found a set of little slabs of -different stones and small plates of metal, gold, silver, copper, and -lead, all engraved with the name of Psamtik. The lead tablet is here -figured. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -The ornamental objects of lead to which the earliest date can be -assigned are those found by Dr. Schliemann in his excavations at Mycenae -and Tiryns.[1] - - [1] _See_ Dr. Schuchardt, translation 1891 (Macmillan). - -The Greeks very largely used lead for many purposes. It is twice -mentioned in the Iliad, and its familiar use as a building material is -shown by Herodotus, who says that Queen Nitocris built a bridge over the -river at Babylon, of stone bound together with lead and iron; and the -story the Greek historian gives of the celebrated hanging gardens -describes how they were raised on high terraces of arches covered with -bitumen and sheets of lead. - -Sufficient actual examples of Greek lead work are stored up in museums, -masonry with dowels of lead, inscribed tablets, small toys and tokens, -little vases for eye salve about as large as a thimble, boxes for -unguents, and sling bullets. These last are often inscribed so that the -warrior might know his work, often with flouts and jibes and jeers. One -in the Lewes Museum has [Greek: EUGEI],--"Well done"; others have "Hit -Hard," &c. - -In the museums of Athens are some small figures, a Dionysiac wreath of -gilt lead leaves to be worn as a garland, a lead quiver for arrows about -fifteen inches long, also plummets and market weights, with other -objects. Mr. Cockerell found that parts of the early pediment sculptures -at AEgina were of lead, and lead is inlaid in the volute of the early -Ionic capital from the archaic temple of Ephesus now in the British -Museum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -The plummets are interesting to us as builders' implements; there are -two or three dozen in the British Museum, about three inches high and -one inch at the base tapering upwards: some are marked with the letter A -on one side and on the obverse a little relief, a throne-seat with an -owl. The owl was Athene's own symbol, and appears on the coinage of -Athens in a form from which this seems copied. The Acropolis was her -throne. We will stretch our imaginations far enough to believe that the -A stands for Athens and that these are the very implements used in -setting the masonry of one of the corner stones of the world's art--the -Parthenon. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -The market weights are remarkable in bearing devices like the types of -coins. For the most part they are square cakes and the devices simple -almost to rudeness, yet they have that impress of style and grace in the -design, with the large free handling in which is the exquisiteness of -Greek art. A sketchiness so simple and easy can be the only right -treatment for a metal so likely to receive injury in the use; to these -as in all art so considered the inevitable injuries of wear are little -loss. We can hardly suppose that such a simple industry as making lead -weights for the markets would have had artists capable of designing, and -suggesting in relief types like these, rather we may suppose that some -of the great coiners furnished the models, especially as they would be -issued by the authorities of the several towns. - -We may take this first opportunity of remarking that the patterns for -all ornament _intended for casting_ should be _modelled_ like these, -never _carved_, as is now so universally the case for cast iron and the -applied enrichments of picture frames, the reason being that cast -material of this sort, so easily injured, is unsuited for giving -definition and high relief, and should accept all the limitations of -material frankly and make the most of dull suggestiveness; for in all -these the "best are but shadows" the modelling emerging from or melting -away in the ground. In two attempts the present writer has made in -modelling for lead casting wax was used in one instance, and in the -other, where very delicate relief was required made up mostly of threads -and dots, gesso was found to answer. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 4 and 5.--Greek Weights.] - -The ram's head (see Fig. 4) for instance has only the frontal, the -lips, and the horn, made out, the rest the imagination sees -transparently below the field. In the words of Blake "it is everything -and nothing." The raised rim is a good protection. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 6 and 7.--Greek Weights.] - -The second, a half Mina of AEgina, is yet simpler--just a pot, but a -beautiful one well placed. The third is Attic, a quarter Dimnoun with -scarabeus-like tortoise. The last is a Mina of AEgina, it bears the -well-known Greek rendering of the Dolphin and the letters [Greek: MNA -AGOR]. "Market Mina." The dolphin has the "bowed back" Sir Thomas -Browne pointed out as a "popular error" of painters, but the dolphin was -to the Greek mind, rather the genius of the waving sea itself than any -mere particular fish, and this is the time consecrated form, like this -it swims amongst the undulating hair of the Arethusa of Syracuse, the -most beautiful coin in the world. - -The Romans used lead extensively and much in the same way as we do--for -roof coverings and water pipes, in masonry and for coffins. In Rome an -immense quantity of lead piping has been found. The pipes were formed of -strips of cast lead bent round a rod and then soldered. Most of the work -was signed by the plumber, his name and that of the owner being -impressed in the sand mould.[2] - - [2] _See_ Prof. Middleton, _Ancient Rome_. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 8 and 9.--From the Kircherian Museum.] - -There are many beautiful cistae or circular boxes in the museums of -Naples and Rome. These are decorated with little medallions, shells, -beaded rods, &c., stock patterns which were impressed in the sand mould -in such fresh combinations as the thought of the workmen suggested, -just as a cook makes pie crust, which is the subject of nearly the only -spontaneous decorative art now remaining to us. Figs. 8 and 9 are from -the Kircherian Museum. - -Of the Roman leadwork in the British Museum the specimens are mostly -coffins, and a number of ingots of lead. These "pigs" have been found in -Cheshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, Norfolk, Hants, -Somerset, and Sussex. Of these there are ten in the British Museum -bearing names of emperors and dates which, put into our era, are--A.D. -49, Claudius; 59, Nero; 76, Vespasian; 81, Domitian; 117, Hadrian. - -These pigs are about 4 1/2 by 18 inches; and even they are not without -design, for some of them have the well-known classic label to receive -the name. - -A beautiful object, remarkable as an instance of lead used in an article -of price, is a vase some 5 inches high. This is evidently a wine cup -from the figures and emblems which decorate it--Bacchus, Silenus, thyrsi -bound with cords, and four genii of the Seasons carrying appropriate -symbols, one being a garland, another a sheaf of corn; around the middle -is a belt set with glass jewels of varied colour, dull reds, greens, and -blue, and below this is a wreath of vine (Fig. 10). - -Compare a very richly decorated vessel in the engravings of the Museo -Borbonico. - -Lead water pipes of Roman make are frequently found in England; at Bath -there is a water channel 1 foot 9 inches by 7 inches, of lead nearly one -inch in thickness, and sheets of it 10 feet long lined the basin of the -great bath, 30 lbs. in weight to the foot. In the refuse of the Mendip -mines Roman lamps and other articles of lead have been found. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Roman Jewelled Cup.] - -During the Byzantine era lead was much used. In a curious relief found -at Tunis "the founder seems to have used up all the old models in his -studio. Here a Good Shepherd, Peacocks, and stags drinking from the four -mystical rivers, palms and vines, are found side by side with Silenus, a -Victory, a Nymph, an Athlete, and scenes of the chase."[3] In Saxon -England lead was a staple commodity for export and used in great -quantities at home. English merchants of lead and tin are mentioned as -attending the French fairs from the time of Dagobert. During the middle -ages it was largely applied to many purposes and manipulated by the -various methods and decorated with the ornaments, particulars of some of -which follow. England was still the best esteemed source of supply. -About 1680 M. Felibien wrote a book on the crafts connected with -architecture, in which he says that "The greatest part of the lead we -use in France comes from England in large ingots called 'Salmons,' a -little lead also comes from Germany, but it is dry and not so sweet as -the English." - - [3] Perate, _L'Archeologie Chretienne_. - -Up to the 15th century sheet lead was cast only, but a coffin of the -Duke of Bedford (Joan of Arc's) at Rouen is already laminated. - -Lead is an easy medium for the forgery of antiques, and some of the -objects so produced are quite pretty. In the museum at Taunton there is -a small lead bottle which seems to be a forgery. - -The Plumbers' Company in London appears to have been in existence early -in the fourteenth century. In 1365 (39 Edward III.) ordinances were -granted to the Company which had then been in existence some years. In -1588 (31 Elizabeth) arms and crest were granted; and in 1611 (9 James -I.) a charter was given renewing all powers and privileges. - -Throughout the middle ages lead was more extensively used in England -than elsewhere--our cathedral roofs, for instance, were all of lead, -whereas abroad they are often of corrugated or flat tiles, stone or -slate. The methods of conducting water from the roof by stone gutters -and gargoyles was much further developed in France than here, where lead -always came to hand. Lead pipes with ornamental heads were first -introduced here in England for this purpose, and they reached a -development without parallel abroad. During the eighteenth century there -was, as we shall see, a large industry in lead statues, and the -plumber's art continued to the opening of the present century; indeed, -cisterns decorated with the old devices may be seen as late as 1840, and -some of the old methods have not yet passed entirely out of memory. The -Exhibition of 1851 marked exactly the general eclipse of craft -tradition. England was no longer to be saved by work, but by commerce. - - - - -Sec. III. OF LEAD COVERINGS TO BUILDINGS. - - -Sheeting buildings with decorative plates of metal has been one of man's -architectural instincts. M. Chipiez, in his essay on the origins of -Greek architecture, considers first:--"The temple, metallic or covered -with metal, which obtained in Medea, Judaea, and in Asia Minor. Greek -writers like Pausanias speak of edifices having been constructed of -brass; such was the legendary temple of Apollo at Delphi, that of Athena -Calkhioecos in Sparta, and the treasury of Myron, tyrant of Sicyon. In -the _Eneid_ the temple erected at Carthage by the Phoenician Dido is also -of brass." From Homer to the _Arabian Nights_ and the mediaeval romance -writers, a metal-cased architecture, shining with gold, has been -preeminently the architecture of the poets. - -It would almost seem as if in the Merovingian age Western Europe passed -through the phase of a metal-cased architecture, but in this case it was -lead that formed the external vestment--an architecture of lead. "Under -the Merovingian kings," says M. Viollet-le-Duc, "they covered entire -edifices, churches, or palaces, in lead. St. Eloi is said to have so -covered the church of St. Paul des Champs with sheets of lead -artistically wrought." - -In England Bede mentions a parallel instance. Finian the successor of -St. Aidan in the See of Lindisfarne built a church after the manner of -the Scots of hewn oak with a thatched roof; afterwards "Eadbert also -bishop of that place (638) took off the thatch and covered it both roof -and walls with lead." - -The exaggerated lead roofs of the early mediaeval churches in England -were in nowise dictated by utilitarian considerations. The creeping of -the lead on steep surfaces, the many burnings, and the great expense in -large churches which would take literally acres of lead, made -maintenance a burden, but they liked this metal casing, and that was -enough. - -This is still more evident in the mediaeval delight in the tall leaded -spires, not in their aspect as mere roof coverings, but intrinsically as -metal shrines, looking on them with their decorations as vast pieces of -goldsmith's tabernacle work. The steep pitch of the roof of the main -building when applied to a square tower quite naturally produced leaded -spires. These already appear in the drawing made of Canterbury Cathedral -about the year 1160. That these metal-sheeted spires were the best -loved form, and that stone was adopted at last but as a truce with fire -is proved by the spires of lead which appear in the wall paintings -(those that were at St. Stephen's for instance), in the MSS., and by the -splendid leaded spire of St. Paul's which we shall speak of below. The -spire so treated is not a mere roof, or a cheap substitute for stone, -but takes its place in metal-cased architecture, as do also the leaded -Byzantine domes of St. Sophia and St. Mark's. - -In that most splendid work of the English renaissance, the palace of -Nonsuch, which was begun by Henry VIII. in 1538, the structure was what -we call half-timber, the panels were filled with coloured and gilt -reliefs by Italian modellers, and the timber framing is described by -Pepys, who visited it in 1665, as sheeted with lead. This casing we may -be sure was covered with delicate Italian arabesques. His words are, -"One great thing is that most of the house is covered, I mean the posts -and quarters in the walls, with lead and gilded." - - - - -Sec. IV. OF LEADED SPIRES AND TURRETS. - - -Our own old St. Paul's, the once highest steeple in the world, which -rose 500 feet and more into the clouds, from whence it at last drew the -lightning to its destruction, was the proudest example of these lead -spires which for beauty at least equalled the finest examples in stone. -When the second church, begun at the end of the eleventh century, was -but just completed; "the quire was not thought beautiful enough, though -in uniformity of building it suited with the church: so that resolving -to make it better they began with the steeple, which was finished in -A.D. 1221." This was the lead-covered steeple, the only spire of the -church which stood centrally over the crossing. It was 1312 before the -modification of the old church was done, and thenceforth that part was -known as the "new work." Within three years afterwards a great part of -the spire of timber covered with lead being weak and in danger of -falling was taken down and a new cross, with pommel large enough to -contain ten bushels of corn, well gilt was set on the top thereof by -Gilbert de Segrave the Bishop of London with great and solemn -procession, and relics of saints were placed in it.[4] The relics of -saints were thus put at the apex as a safeguard from lightning. - - [4] Longmans, _Three Cathedrals_. - -This lead spire, repaired in 1315, must have been the work spoken of as -finished in 1221, and it was thus the earliest lead spire of -considerable dimensions of which we have any knowledge: it was an -extraordinary development from the square lead pyramids that covered the -Norman towers at Canterbury and other places. - -Stow says the height was 520 feet "whereof the stone-work is 260 feet, -and the spire was likewise 260 feet. The cross was 15 feet high by 6 -feet over the arms, the inner body was of oak, the next cover was of -lead, and the uttermost was of copper red varnished. The bowl and the -eagle or cock were of copper and gilt also." The ball at the apex was -three feet across and the weathercock four feet from bill to tail and -three feet six inches across the wings. "Certes," says Harrison, "the -toppe of this spire where the weathercocke stode was 520 foote from the -ground of which the spire was one half." The measurements of Wren -confirm the height of the stone tower (which alone was standing in his -day) as being 260 feet, the spire, he says, had been 40 feet diameter -at the base and rose 200 feet or more. It must have been altogether -worthy of this vast church of twenty-five compartments in the interior -vista of arch and vault, 600 feet in greatest length and 100 feet high. -In 1444 the spire narrowly escaped destruction by lightning, but the -fire was put out. "In the year 1561, the 4th of June, between the hours -of three and four of the clock in the afternoon, the great spire of the -steeple of St. Paul's Church was fired by lightning, which brake forth -as it seemed two or three yards beneath the foot of the cross: and from -thence it went downwards the spire to the battlements, stonework, and -bells, so furiously that within the space of four hours the same steeple -with all the roofs of the church were consumed to the great sorrow and -perpetual remembrance of the beholders."[5] It was thus destroyed a -hundred years before the great fire when the cathedral perished. - - [5] Stow. - -London was a city of lead spires. Stow tells us that at St. Paul's -School close by the Cathedral was "of old time a great and high -clochiard or bell-house, four square built of stone and in the same a -most strong frame of timber with four bells the greatest that I have -ever heard. The same has a great spire covered with lead with the image -of St. Paul on the top." It was said that Sir Thomas Partridge won it by -a throw of dice from Henry VIII., and pulled it down. Stow, who would -have thought the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Buildings, to -which we owe so much good work, much too cautious in its methods, -reports with much pleasure, "This man was afterwards hanged on Tower -Hill." At St. Bartholomew's Priory, Smithfield, was another of these -timber spires. - -A spire said to have been even higher than this of St. Paul's was -erected in the fourteenth century over the central tower at Lincoln. The -two western towers also had spires which were taken down to save the -cost of repair within this century. This group of three great leaded -spires crowning the Hill-city must have been one of the most wonderful -the whole world over. The central tower as it now stands is 270 feet -high 54 feet on the face; it was finished in 1311. "The spire of timber -covered with lead reaching a height of 524 feet which once surmounted it -was destroyed by a tempest in 1548."[6] - - [6] _Cathedral Guide._ - -The plates in Dugdale's _Monasticon_ engraved by Hollar and others -surprise us by the number of leaded spires to the cathedrals not one of -which has survived storm and flames or the crueller hatred of beauty -which the modern mind has developed. There are those of the two west -towers of Durham, western spires at Canterbury, Peterborough, and Ely, -all three at Lincoln, and four smaller pinnacles at Norwich. Two square -pyramids shown to the west tower of Southwell, were probably the -original covering of the twelfth century. These are now "restored" and -they look as false as the word. - -The great central spires at Rochester and at Hereford and the central -and two western spires at Ripon are shown of lead, as is also that of -the beautiful isolated belfry at Salisbury, which was destroyed "to -improve the view of the cathedral." Of three of these large central -spires shown in Dugdale, Rochester and Hereford rise from square towers -with "broaches": the first is of a curious and yet happy form, with -recessed faces, and the other is an octagon of which the cardinal faces -are wider than the alternate sides. The great spire of Ripon rose within -the stone parapet of the tower, apparently at first twelve-sided with -gables, and the spire itself twenty-four, each pair making a slight -reentering angle--a beautiful composition it must have been of light and -delicate shadow on the silver white of the old lead. This fair colour is -of great importance; several of the old spires which remain to us are as -white as if whitewashed. Modern ones, like the grimy thing at Lynn, -would be improved by being whitewashed. The old, that at Minster in Kent -for instance, tell as bright high lights in a general view of the -landscape such as that you obtain from Richborough. - -The finest of the English spires now existing constructed of timber and -sheeted with lead is that of Long Sutton in Lincolnshire, the highest, -oldest, and most perfect. The stone tower with octagon projections at -the angles, is 25 feet square and 65 high, standing free from the church -to which it is attached by one angle only. The fleche itself is 85 feet -from the eaves to the top of an enormous relic "pommel" some four feet -in diameter, which is thus 150 feet in the air. The four octagonal -projections carry large pinnacles 25 feet high, which at a little height -disengage themselves wholly from the great fleche, but with consummate -art all lean their axes inwards towards it as much as two feet. The -wooden framing, carefully measured by Mr. Austin,[7] shows that this -grouping of the lines was as much done from set purpose as the -inclination of the lines in the Parthenon of which we hear so much. Each -face of the leading has the rolls arranged in a double row of -herringbone, and the faces of the pinnacles have the leading slanting in -one direction only. Altogether it is a most interesting and most -beautiful work of the thirteenth century. - - [7] _Spring Gardens Sketch Book_, vol. v. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Spire, Barnstaple.] - -The drawing here given is of the fine old steeple at Barnstaple, which -was saved from destruction by the good advice of Sir Gilbert Scott--and -lack of funds! It is a delightfully careless and cheerful looking -object, like that at Chesterfield, warped and nodding, which outrages -the precise sensibilities of the townspeople; it was erected in 1389, as -appears from the accounts and was repaired and altered in the -seventeenth century (as shown by a date and initials, "1636 W. T."), at -which time the spire lights were opened out. The external bells are -unusual in England. There are two other spires of village churches in -the neighbourhood at Braunton and Swymbridge. The spires at -Chesterfield, Godalming, Almondsbury in Gloucestershire, Wrighton in -Northumberland, and Harrow (1481), are among the finest that remain. Of -the destroyed church at Reculver the west towers, which are retained as -landmarks, had lead spires. In some spires in Norfolk, about Cromer, two -or three feet of the leading is omitted, thus forming an open band -through which the timbering and a bell hung here may be seen. In some of -the spires the lead is laid in vertical strips, as at Minster in Thanet, -and a sketch given from a church in Hertfordshire shows the lower part -in a way arcaded by an ingenious arrangement of the rolls. At great -Baddow Church, Essex, vertical rolls run up about two-thirds of the -spire, and the rest is plain. Generally, however, the lead work is -arranged in herring-bone with careful irregularity and change so as to -get a texture in the surface so different to the dead and dreary -accuracy we should attain to. Low square spires at Ottery St. Mary are -good examples of lead texture for those who see some beauty in the -jointing of the armour of a tortoise. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.] - -The construction of the wood framing of the greater of these spires is a -forest of intricate interlacing timbers, the best authority for which is -the article _Fleche_ in Viollet-le-Duc, or Burges' drawing of Amiens in -his volume of careful studies of the Gothic art of France. - -The most decorated of these lead spires in England--although not very -large--is at East Harling in Norfolk. It rises within the stone -battlement and has an open stage with wood pinnacles and crocketed -"flying buttresses" all covered with lead. The sides of the spire -proper, very narrow and acute, have the rolls arranged in lozenges -instead of the usual herring-bone or vertical lines, the lozenges are on -one side as wide as the face, breaking into a zig-zag above, on another -side are smaller lozenges three or four in the width changing into one -again above: at the apex is a large finial knob.[8] - - [8] _See_ drawing in _Sketch Book of Architectural Association_, 1881. - -Wren's knowledge of the spire of old St. Paul's possibly led him to try -his hand at leaded spires, and the result in some of the City churches, -particularly that one on Ludgate Hill that is such a perfect foil for -the great dome of St. Paul's, shows his usual assured mastery. The -spire of St. Olave, Hart Street, is said to have a crystal ball at the -apex. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Barnard's Inn Hall.] - -The smaller turrets on college halls are generally covered with lead in -an ogee form. Those at Oxford have often a lozenge raised on each face, -that on Barnard's Inn in the City is wholly enveloped in lead. A turret -on the alms-houses at Abingdon has large letters and crowns, which are -gilt, standing up free on the slanting faces. At Hampton Court there are -turret roofs, ogee with crockets and finials and little pinnacles set -round at the springing. At Nonsuch leaded turrets surmounted the great -octagons at the angles, they were probably much decorated and certainly -of considerable size, making very picturesque compositions, as we may -see in the rude views of the palace which exist. - -In France and Germany there are many remarkable leaded spires, but we -can only stay to mention the steeple at Chalons-sur-Marne, the central -fleche at Amiens, and the belfry at Calais. The steeple at Chalons is a -most interesting work, large and well-designed, with faint and -fascinating remains of a gorgeous scheme of colour decoration patterning -the whole surface of the lead with figures and canopies resembling the -drawing on stained glass, the lead rolls passing across the design like -the iron glazing bars. This was carefully drawn by Burges and -illustrated in the _Builder_ for 1856, and the whole spire is -represented to scale in the Sketch Book of the Architectural Association -for 1883. This is a work of the end of the thirteenth century, and the -decoration was done in the following century. It will be well to mention -it more particularly later, but as Viollet-le-Duc says that nearly all -the lead work of the middle ages was so decorated we may conclude that -such a magnificent spire as St. Paul's was not entirely bare of gold and -colour. - -The fleche at Amiens, which rises from the roof some 100 feet of -"transparent fretwork which seems to bend to the west wind," is well -illustrated in Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionary as well as by Burges. Every -resource of the art was lavished on it, pinnacles and niches, lead -statues, tracery, great circular coronets of pierced cast work. The -sheet lead was diapered with fleurs-de-lis, and all was decorated with -designs in colour and gold. Although perfectly Gothic in form it is a -work of the sixteenth century, and the painting is in the manner of the -Renaissance. - -At Calais the fine belfry represented in Fig. 14, which was completed -about 1600, is in some respects very English in character, while on the -other hand it is a northern representative of a class of bulbous spires -which are as much cupolas as spires, and were probably often intended as -fantastic domes. These, although later found all across Europe, from -Russia to Belgium, were never naturalised in England on a large scale, -our nearest approach to them being in the ogee cupolas of small turrets -and lanterns and some of Wren's spires. In Holland they were very much -affected in the most extravagant forms, and they are now the constant -form of church spire seen in eastern Europe. They seem much at home in -such a city as Buda-Pesth, and have doubtless characteristics which -endear them to those of Mongolian blood and speech. It is an interesting -point to decide whether these forms are in origin actually -Eastern--"travelled topes" as a friend says--or whether they are the -natural outcome of a combination of spire and dome in a period of -extravagant and declining taste. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Calais Belfry.] - - - - -Sec. V. OF DOMES. - - -The Romans covered domes in lead; during the Byzantine empire they very -generally did so. Constantinople in the age of Justinian was a city of -lead domes, as it has always since remained. The domes of St. Sophia are -still covered with lead laid over the brickwork. This tradition was -carried on by the Greek master builders who erected the great mosques -for the conquerors. A large mosque has as many as twenty or thirty domes -of all sizes grouped about the central one. The bazaars, caravansaries, -and bakeries, have long level rows of cupolas. This prospect of dome -beyond dome in a succession as of billows is of marvellous beauty in a -general view of the city as seen from the sea. The lead is laid over the -brickwork, the rolls are very small, and as they have no wood core the -lines are very irregular. Some of the lead domes of Constantinople were -melon-shaped, that is having large _convex_ gores. A Turkish example of -this remains in an ogee-shaped dome at the angle of the Seraglio wall -near St. Sophia. - -Most interesting works of this tradition are the "domes" or rather -domical roofs of St. Mark's at Venice. Those eastern-looking forms which -give such fantasy to it were raised to their present form on wooden -framework in the thirteenth century. They are sheeted with plain rolls -except the bulb-formed lanterns, which are much like an umbrella in -which every gore has a salient angle, a "ridge and valley." These five -timber-framed spire-like domes, erected for their own sake and not lying -close to the interior form of the building, in this respect resemble -northern spires. The whole group rising over the level front of St. -Mark's is a work of the highest imaginative genius. It is not a building -with a dome but a building roofed in domes, bubbling over with domes; -and it expresses the metal shrine idea in perfection. The original -leaded domes of St. Mark's were copied from those of the church of the -Holy Apostles at Constantinople, a church built by Justinian. - -At the Renaissance the leaded dome became a popular commonplace -especially at Venice. For the most part these were covered like a roof -with ordinary rolls. By forming ribs and panels in the wooden foundation -a more elaborate but not more successful aspect is obtained. St. Paul's -is well designed in this way. This design with the great ribs Sir -Christopher Wren considered "less gothick than sticking it full of rows -of little windows" as at St. Peter's. It was first intended to cover -St. Paul's dome with copper, but L500 was saved by substituting lead at -a cost of L2,500. - -At the National Gallery--a very careful and refined work, one of the -last of the old scholarly dead language sort we call classic--the lead -covering is formed into raised scales and frets, very well and -successfully done of its kind. - - - - -Sec. VI. OF ROOFS. - - -The Romans used lead as a roof covering. In the West "one can hardly -(Viollet-le-Duc says) explore the ruins of a Gallo-Roman erection -without finding some sheet-lead that had been employed for gutters or -roofs." In the East--Eusebius says of Constantine's Basilica (the Holy -Sepulchre) at Jerusalem--"the roof with its chambers was covered with -lead to protect it from the winter rain." In England Bede tells us of -Wilfrid having roofed his church at York with lead in the seventh -century, and it has continued without a break in its use as the most -perfect of coverings. - -The methods employed in the middle ages are described by Burges and -Viollet-le-Duc. The latter well remarks that of lead covering, as well -as many other parts of the construction of buildings, we are a little -too apt to think overmuch of the perfection of our modern methods while -we are too little careful to learn the experience acquired by our -forefathers. - -The old cast lead is much thicker than the modern milled lead, being as -much as twelve or thirteen pounds to the foot of surface. It is -certainly not quite even in thickness, and is subject to faults in the -casting, but it is not so liable to crack as is milled lead. The old -lead employed has also a considerable quantity of silver and arsenic in -it, which was the cause of the beautiful white oxide it obtained. Modern -lead blackens as the preparation of lead now includes its -"de-silverisation." The acid of timber which has not lost its sap -decomposes lead; old building timber was water-seasoned as only ship -timber now is. - -The chief difficulties that had to be overcome in the use of lead were -the weight of the sheets of lead to be maintained in position, and the -great dilatation of the metal under the heat of the sun, so that it had -to be at once strongly attached and free to move. The method followed -was to nail it at the top and roll the lateral edges together. - -The roofing at Canterbury was of twelve-pound lead and about 2.0 between -the rolls. The thirteenth century lead of Chartres Cathedral, "covered -externally by time with a patina hard, brown, and wrinkled, and shining -in the sun," was in sheets eight feet long, attached at the top by nails -with very large heads and held at the bottom by clips of iron that -passed down between the sheets and turned over the bottom edge of the -upper one. The rolls were formed by turning over the margins one in the -other without a wood roll; they were much smaller than the modern ones. - -Our milled lead is rolled out in sheets about 16 x 6 feet and is usually -cut in half lengthways, and 4 1/2 inches is allowed in each edge to form -the rolls which are thus 2'-3" apart. Lead one inch thick is sixty -pounds to the square foot, so six-pounds lead is 1/10th of an inch in -thickness. We generally make the mistake of putting a longitudinal roll -along the ridge, but it is not so done in our old roofs, nor should it -be, for the running out of the rolls frets the ridge into a simple -decoration. - -The lead covering of old roofs should be jealously maintained--its loss -is irreparable. If repair becomes absolutely necessary for the -protection of the building, such lead should be recast, it should never -be replaced by milled lead. The old metal is easily recast on the -ground, and this is now frequently done, but not frequently enough. It -was cast on a wood table with a projecting margin or curb all round; on -this slid up and down a cross piece notched down to give the proper -gauge to the lead which it levelled. - -Where lead was applied to the vertical or steep planes of dormers or -spires the interlocking of the sheets in herring-bone was a practical as -well as an artistic expedient. Where nails had to be driven through -exposed lead, in repairs or otherwise, flaps like little shields were -laid over them soldered on the top edge. Lead, where used to incase -wood tracery, as in the open work of spires or dormers, was secured by -means of laps and rolls without solder so that it was free to expand and -contract. The modern plumber is much too apt to employ soldered joints -even in structural work. - -Small openings were made like little dormers, for ventilation of the -roof timbers, by dressing a stout piece of lead up into a triangle or -half circle in front dying back on the roof with the back turned up -under the tiles or slates. - -Sometimes cast ornaments were applied to a slated roof; the disc with -undulating rays on the slated apex of the north-west tower at Rouen is -an instance. - - - - -Sec. VII. OF LEAD COFFINS. - - -In the later classical period lead was much used for coffins; several of -very fine workmanship have been discovered in Syria, some of these, very -delicately ornamented are figured by Perrot, and Chipiez.[9] In the -Louvre there is a finely decorated example of the Roman period, and -large numbers of Roman lead coffins have been found both in England and -in France. There is a very beautifully decorated early Christian coffin -in the museum at Cannes, this has a border of vine and birds with -monograms of Christ--[Greek: ChR. IChThYS].[10] Fig. 15 shows portions of -ornamentation from a remarkable series of coffins now in the museum of -Constantinople. There are some eight or ten of these and all decorated -in the most elaborate way with tendrils and medallions beautifully -modelled in very slight relief. None of the symbols are definitely -Christian, but they evidently belong to the same school as the last -named. The neighbourhood of Beyrout and the ancient Sidon was the site -of the discovery of most of these coffins of early Christian date. - - [9] _History of Art_, "Phoenicia." - - [10] Illustrated by Reber. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Ornaments from early Christian Coffins, -Constantinople.] - -The coffins found in England are not so much Roman as strictly -Anglo-Roman, for far more have been found here than in any other -country, such as have been found in France are near our shores as if -certainly made of our lead, and the ornamentation of the English -examples has a common likeness in the use of the scallop shell which is -not represented abroad. The comparison can best be made in a little book -by the learned archaeologist Abbe Cochet of Rouen, _Les Cercueils de -Plomb_ (1871), in which the examples found in France are figured. - -These English coffins and sepulchral cists are mostly in the British -Museum and at Colchester. The cists are plain circular boxes some ten -inches diameter by fourteen inches high; one of these is decorated by -simple circles and another has crossed rods of "reel and bead," with -applied small panels of chariots and horses. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 16 and 17.--Cists, British Museum.] - -The coffins have been found chiefly in the London district--in the -Minories, Stepney, Stratford; at East Ham, Plumstead in Kent (this last -is now in Maidstone Museum)--at Southfleet and at Colchester and -Norwich. They are decorated by rods of "bead and reel" differently -arranged on the lids in zig-zags or lozenges, with scallop shells and -plain rings placed in the spaces. The rods and shells were evidently -separately impressed into the flat field of the sand mould and that with -the artful carelessness which shows that the designer and the workmen -were one and the same person, an artist. With these simple elements -compositions are made of quite classic distinction and grace. Mr. -Alma-Tadema apparently drew the fine leaden oleander tub in his picture -from these coffins, and it makes a perfect flower-pot. - -A coffin found at Pettham in Kent was decorated by a simple cord which -passed around once transversely in the middle and then each of the -spaces thus formed on lid, sides, and ends had diagonals of cord. A -fragment of one in the museum at Cirencester is more finished and -refined, it has a saltire of the twisted bars with terminations at their -ends, and in one of the spaces is a small female head. - -The coffins are made like a modern paper box with a lid lapping over the -sides. Some sketches are given from those in the British Museum. That -shown in Fig. 19 was of full length (6 ft.) but only a part of the lid -remains. The other two (Figs. 18 and 20) are less than 4 ft., one of -which is ornamented with rings and ropes and curious forms like the -letter B. Those at Colchester are like the former. These coffins are all -very white with oxide. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 18 and 19.--Roman Coffins, British Museum.] - -The French examples have been found at Boulogne, Beauvais, Amiens, -Angers, Rouen, and Valogne near Cherbourg, but none are like the English -in having rods of beads with scallop shells. One has only groups of -rings which, simple as it is, makes a design. Another at Rouen has a -human head in a circle at the centre with six lions' heads in octagons. -That at Valogne has a trunk-shaped lid with flying genii and birds; and -one at Nismes has lions and griffins, and between each pair persons -planting a vine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Roman Coffin, British Museum.] - -There is just enough evidence to show that the use of leaden coffins was -continued by the English after they had superseded the Romans. St. -Guthlac, Abbot of Croyland, was, Leland says, buried in a sarcophagus of -lead. And St. Dunstan was buried at Canterbury in a lead coffin. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Thirteenth Century Coffin, Temple Church.] - -Directly after the Conquest we find them in use. At Lewes there are -two coffins of De Warren (1088), and his wife the daughter of the -Conqueror (1085); they are covered with the reticulated meshes of a net, -both sides and lid as if cast from actual netted cord. At the heads are -the names WILLELM, GVNDRADA. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 22 and 23.--Thirteenth Century Coffins, Temple -Church.] - -St. Dunstan was re-interred in the new work, at Canterbury in 1180 in a -coffin of lead which was "not plain, but of beautiful plaited work." - -Some most remarkable coffins thus decorated were discovered in 1841 in -relaying the floor of the Temple Church in London; the style of their -design would show that they were made about the year 1200. They -contained the bodies represented above them by the cross-legged stone -effigies of knights. These coffins were drawn and published by Mr. -Edward Richardson in 1845, from whose careful drawings are made the -accompanying illustrations. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.] - -The extreme delicacy of the ornament is most remarkable. Here again the -pattern design is made up of portions several times repeated in similar -or different combinations; the panels were either cast to the required -number and then arranged on a board from which the final mould was made; -or the parts were impressed separately in a smooth and level surface of -moulding sand, and this with all the rapid ease of self-sufficient art. -They are about 6 feet 6 inches long, and some are formed like the stone -coffins of the time with a circular end for the head. The sides as well -as the covering are decorated in the richest example by two of the same -small square patterns alternating, and in others by vertical cords at -intervals. - -At Winchester there has recently been exposed a fifteenth century coffin -bearing on the lid a cross and the arms of the Bishop Courtenay. (Fig. -24.) - -Later the form was made to conform more closely to the body, being -rather a wrapping than a box. That of Henry IV. (1413) at Canterbury was -of this form, as also was that found at Westminster under the tomb of -Henry VII., the latter had a small cross at the breast only. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--At Moissac.] - -The heart-box of Richard Coeur de Lion is mentioned in another place. -There is a heart casket in the British Museum, circular and much like a -flower-pot; on the lid is the device of a spear-head within a garter, -and engraved outside is this inscription:--"Here lith the Harte of Sir -Henrye Sydney. Anno Domini 1586." - -A fine coffin (Fig. 25) is represented in the lead group of the -entombment at Moissac in France. This is 15th century work. - - - - -Sec. VIII. OF FONTS. - - -England is extremely rich in the possession of early fonts in lead; -these are for the most part alike in being of the twelfth or early -thirteenth century. Nearly all of them agree in being circular and have -other similarities which with many repetitions in their design would -seem to relate them to one family. As in Sussex there are in the -neighbouring villages of Edburton and Piecombe two fonts substantially -alike, and in Gloucestershire another pair, with others that have close -resemblances; they have been claimed for local manufacture, yet a strong -case could be made out for most of them coming from one common centre. -As, further, there are several specimens in Normandy entirely parallel, -the question arises whether the type arose here or there, for there can -be no doubt as to one set being indebted to the other. As England was so -especially a lead producing and exporting country, and as such a number -of these fonts remain with us broadly scattered over the country, while -there are but comparatively few in France, and those mostly in -Normandy, this, with the local coincidences pointed out, would seem to -give us the best claim. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Vessel, Lewes Museum.] - -There is in the Lewes Museum a lead cistern-like object of Saxon work, -which is represented in Fig. 26. It is about 14 inches long and 8 inches -high, the sides are decorated with triangles of interlacing patterns -cast with the lead. It has two handles of iron; but as it would be much -too heavy for a movable vessel, and as the small foreign lead font in -Kensington Museum has handles also, it is probably a font. The cross in -the decoration would go to confirm this. - -Some of the fonts of Norman date it cannot be doubted were made in -England. But unless we would claim the two figured by Viollet-le-Duc -and that at St. Evrault-le-Montford which is similar to ours at -Brookland described below, we can hardly claim to have made all our own. -Possibly examples were brought here, as was the case with several black -stone fonts in England. - -Some of these lead fonts (that at Wareham for instance) appear to have -been cast in one piece. But for the most part they are small low -cylinders cast flat in sheet with the ornaments repeated usually more -than once in the sand mould; the casting was then bent round and -soldered. In one case, where it is not joined so as to form a cylinder, -but with the sides spreading to the top, the band of ornamentation which -was straight on the sheet runs up as it approaches the joint in a most -amusing way. The patterns consist of delicate scroll-work, arcades and -boldly modelled figures 10 or 12 inches high; a moulding strengthens the -upper and lower edges. They stand on stone pedestals. - -There are altogether some twenty-eight or thirty of these fonts in -England. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Font, Brookland, Kent.] - -The font at Brookland at Kent is very small, only 11 inches high, an -arcade surrounds it of two stages in twelve bays. In the upper tier are -the signs of the Zodiac with their Latin names, and below the subjects -of the labours appropriate to the months with their names in Norman -French. This scheme of imagery is well known abroad but while often -occurring in English MSS. this is one of very few examples of its -treatment in sculpture. Although the scale of the figures is small and -they are but slightly modelled, there is a great deal of character, -appropriateness, and grace, in their gesture. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Font, Brookland.] - -A comparative table of the usual scenes which accompany the signs has -been given in _Archaeologia_, and another, probably more accessible, in -the _Stones of Venice_. With the examples there given the scenes on the -font very closely agree. They are inscribed in capitals:-- - - AQUARIUS.--JANVIER. A Janus-headed figure feasting. - - PISCES.--FEVRIER. Warming feet at fire. - - ARIES.--MARS. Man hooded and pruning a vine. - - TAURUS.--AVRIL. Young girl with lilies in her hand. - - GEMINI.--MAI. Man on horse, hawk on wrist. - - CANCER.--JUIN. Mowing with a scythe. - - LEO.--JULIUS. Man with wide brim hat raking hay. - - VIRGO.--AOUT. Cutting corn. - - LIBRA.--SEPTEMBRE. Threshing corn. - - SCORPIO.--OCTOBRE. Treading out wine. - - SAGITTARIUS.--NOVEMBRE. Woman lighting with candles the next - scene, or feeding the pigs. - - CAPRICORNUS.--DECEMBRE. Man, killing swine with axe. - -The signs are thus represented:--Aquarius, man pouring water from a jug. -Pisces, two fish as usual reversed. The ram and the bull are much alike. -The twins and the crab are not remarkable, except the latter for -unlikeness. Leo is a good heraldic beast. The Virgin, much obscured. -Libra, a man with scales. Scorpio, is certainly a frog. Sagittarius, a -centaur. Capricorn is indeed a capricious creature like a cockatrice -with horns. The forequarters of a goat with fish-tail is the traditional -form for this sign handed on from the Roman Zodiac. - -In the months, the Mower, the man raking, and especially the Reaper, are -well designed; the man pruning is also good, and the girl with the long -stalked lilies in her hand is charming. The four last are shown in the -sketches given. The pillars are varied, every third standing on the loop -as shown. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Font, Edburton, Sussex.] - -The font at Edburton in Sussex is 21 inches in diameter and 14 inches -high; it has a wide band of foliage and at the top a row of trefoil -panels. At Piecombe, the adjoining parish, the upper row of small -trefoil arches and the narrow band of ornament are the same, but instead -of the lower panels there is a row of round-headed arches. - -At Lancourt, or Llancault, and Tedenham in Gloucestershire there are -fonts in duplicate. These are much larger, 2 feet 8 inches in diameter -by 1 foot 7 inches high. An arcade of twelve arches surrounds the bowl; -each compartment has a throned figure or a panel of foliage alternately. -There are two varieties of figure and foliage, each is thrice repeated -and the little columns are twisted and decorated. These two fonts are -evidently of the twelfth century.[11] At Frampton-on-Severn is a font -with similar seated figures and foliage. - - [11] For engravings see _Archaeologia_, vol. xxix. - -At Wareham in Dorsetshire the font is hexagonal with two standing -figures under arches in each face, twelve altogether. The sides instead -of being vertical slope outwards. The style seems central Norman not -transitional, like several of the examples. - -At Dorchester, Oxfordshire, the bowl is 2 feet 1 inch diameter 14 inches -deep, it has an arcade wholly of seated figures of bishops. It is a very -beautiful work, the figures are extremely well modelled, and the whole -in good condition, the lead of great substance. - -Walton-on-the-hill, Surrey, has a similar font 14 inches high, -surrounded by an arcade, and in each compartment a sitting figure. A -sketch of one arch given is necessarily rough, as the modelling, even at -first soft and sketchy, has suffered some injury in the use of 700 -years. - -At Wansford, Northamptonshire, is another of these with arcades and -figures.[12] - - [12] _See_ Parker's _Glossary_, vol. iii. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Font, Walton, Surrey.] - -At Childrey, in Berkshire, there is also a font with twelve mitred -bishops with pastoral staffs and books. - -Another at Long-Wittenham, in the same county, has the arcade at bottom -of very tiny pointed arches of some thirty bays with figures, above are -panels with discs and rosettes.[13] One at Warborough, in Oxfordshire, -is similar in style, made in the same workshop apparently. The bottom -half has a small arcade interrupted after every four arches by three -higher ones: in the twelve small niches are figures of bishops with -mitre and staff and lifted hand in benediction, the three high arches -and the space above the little ones have discs of ornament, the bishops -are repeated from one pattern; the size is 1-3 in height by 2-2 -diameter.[14] - - [13] See _Archaeological Journal_, vol. ii. - - [14] _See_ Paley's _Fonts_. - -Woolhampton, in Berkshire, has a font in which the lead is placed over -stone and pierced, leaving an arcade and figures showing against the -stone background. - -The font at Parham is of later Gothic. Mr. Andre gives an account of it -in Vol. 32, _Sussex Archaeological Society_; it is only 18 inches in -diameter, and a portion of the bottom is hidden by being sunk into the -stone block on which it stands. The decoration is made by repeats of a -label bearing + IHC NAZAR placed alternately upright and horizontally -with small shields in the interspaces which are said to bear the arms of -Andrew Peverell, knight of the shire in 1351. The style of the lettering -would seem earlier than this. IHC NAZAR was frequently engraved on the -front of knights' helmets. This is an extremely good example of how a -fine design may be made of simplest elements. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Parham, Sussex.] - -A Norman font of lead at Great Plumstead was destroyed with the church -in the fire of December, 1891. It is figured by Cotman.[15] - - [15] _Arch. Remains_, vol. i., series 2. - -The font at Avebury, Wiltshire, has often erroneously been stated to be -of lead; there is a resemblance in the design, but it is of stone -painted. - -At Ashover, Derbyshire, the stone font has leaden statues of the -Apostles. - -There is a seventeenth century lead font at Clunbridge, Gloucestershire. - -A complete list as far as possible follows:-- - - Berkshire Childrey and Long-Wittenham, - Clewer, Woolhampton, and - Woolstone (Norman) - - Derbyshire Ashover (Norman) - - Dorsetshire Wareham (Norman) - - Gloucestershire Frampton-on-Severn and Llancourt - (similar, Norman) - Siston and Tidenham (Norman) - Gloucester Museum (Norman) - Clunbridge (1640) - - Kent Brookland (Norman), Chilham, and - Eythorne (the latter dated 1628, - a copy of a Norman original) - - Lincolnshire Barnetby-le-Wolde (Norman) - - Norfolk Brundal, Hastingham (Norman) - - Northamptonshire Wansford - - Oxfordshire Clifton, Dorchester, Warborough, - (Norman) - - Somerset Pitcombe - - Surrey Walton-on-the-hill (Norman) - - Sussex Edburton and Piecombe (early - English) - Parham (Decorated) - - Wiltshire Chirton - -Two of the French fonts are figured by Viollet-le-Duc,[16] that at -Berneuil is of the twelfth century and very similar to that at Tidenham -in Gloucestershire, with alternate arches occupied by figures and -foliage. - - [16] _Art. Fons._ - -At Lombez (Gers) is a very beautiful example, small and delicate, with -two girdles of decoration, the upper row continuous foliage and figures, -but made up of one scene, a man discharging an arrow at a lion and a -basilisk, five times repeated; the lower row has sixteen quatre-foils -with figures of four varieties repeated, these are the religious orders. -It is remarked that the decorations were evidently "stock patterns" -because the upper row is much older than the lower, which is of the late -thirteenth century. - -At Visine (Somme) is one of the fifteenth century with separate cast -figures in sixteen niches. - -At Bourg-Achard, in Normandy, is another lead font,[17] and one is also -in the Museum of Antiquities in Rouen, this last has a long inscription -and date, 1415. There is a cast of one of these fonts in the Trocadero -collection in Paris. - - [17] Dawson Turner's _Tour_. - -At St. Evrouet-de-Monford (Orne) is another very similar to our -Brookland font with Zodiac and Seasons. - -In Germany, at Mayence, there is a very fine example of the fourteenth -century. And in the South Kensington Museum is a copy of a small -circular lead font in the Berlin Museum; this is cast in one piece, it -stands on three lions' feet and has two handles, around it is an -inscription in Lombardic letters. It was presented to Treves by Bishop -Baldani in the thirteenth century. - - - - -Sec. IX. OF INSCRIPTIONS, ETC. - - -A sheet of lead is a most inviting surface for inscriptions, as may be -seen by making a trip to the leads of some cathedral or castle and -inspecting the series of names, dates, hand-marks and foot-prints left -by generations of plumbers and visitors. So lead has been one of the -chief materials used for written documents, not merely ephemeral, and -even now it would be difficult to find anything more ready to receive -the legend, more enduring to transmit it, and so easily decorated with -the charm of art which makes an object worthy to live. Our first -illustration shows the foundation record of an Egyptian King inscribed -on lead. - -It was the custom also in ancient Babylonia to insert inscriptions below -the foundation stones of the great temples and palaces. In 1854 Place -found at Khorsabad the memorial inscriptions of the great palace of the -later Sargon, father of Sennacherib, a building founded in the eighth -century before our era. There were five of these inscribed plates all of -different metals, gold, silver, antimony, copper, and lead; the four -former are in the Louvre, but the lead, which must thus have been of -some size, "was too heavy to be carried off at once"; it was dispatched -by raft, and was lost with most of the collection. The inscription, -translated by Oppert, ends with the imprecation on disturbers which it -has been the wont of great builders in all times to conjure. - -"May the great Lord Assur destroy from the face of this country the name -and race of him who shall injure the works of my hands or who shall -carry off my treasure." - -At Dodona many tablets of lead have been found inscribed in Greek; these -are questions to the oracle of that shrine. - -In the British Museum there are several tablets inscribed in Greek about -the area of this book and covered with text, they are for the most part -imprecations on the heads of injurious persons, and were hid as a magic -rite in Temple enclosures. They are quite little stories. - -"Imprecation of Antigone against her accuser." - -"Imprecation of Prosodion against those who misled her husband Nakron." - -"Imprecations of a woman against some one who stole her bracelet." - -Pausanias mentions having seen a text of Hesiod which was inscribed on -lead leaves; and Pliny also tells us of lead books. A lead inscribed -tablet was found in the Roman remains at Lydney slightly scratched with -a stylus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Heart Box of King Richard.] - -Of the Carlovingian age there are examples of lead documents in the -British Museum; one being an edict of Charlemagne himself, in which he -assumes the style of Emperor of the West; and it bears his well-known -cypher and the date, 18th Sept., 801. Another is signed Ludovic (Louis -the Younger), 822. In the Londesborough collection there is a leaden -book-cover of Saxon work with an inscription from AElfric's Homilies. - -For sepulchral use lead is especially fitted; it was customary in the -twelfth century to inscribe a tablet or cross and to place it in the -coffin on the breast of the dead. - -In the Museum at Bruges there is a tablet with a long inscription to -Gunilda the sister of Harold.[18] Two were found at Canterbury of the -thirteenth century with lines of beautifully drawn Lombard capitals in -incised outline with lines ruled between each row.[19] - - [18] _Archaeologia_, xxv. - - [19] _Ibid._ xlv. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Inscribed Cross.] - -In 1838 was discovered in Rouen Cathedral choir the heart casket of -Lion-hearted Richard, there were two boxes, one within the other, the -inner one, covered inside with thin silver leaf, was inscribed with the -simple words given in Fig. 32 from _Archaeologia_ (xxix). - -A cruciform tablet is given in Camden[20] with an inscription purporting -to record King Arthur; the form shows that it was made in the twelfth -century. In the fifteenth century Chronicle of Capgrave, under the year -1170, he writes--"In these days was Arthures body founde in the cherch -yerd at Glaskinbury in a hol hok, a crosse of led leyd to a ston and the -letteris hid betwyx the ston and the led." He gives Giraldus, "whech red -it," as his authority. Giraldus Cambrensis gives the inscription as "Hic -jacet sepultus inclytus Rex Arthurus cum Wennevereia uxore sua secunda -in Insula Avalonia."[21] - - [20] Folio, plate v. vol. i. - - [21] Capgrave, in Rolls Series. - -Now William of Malmesbury, who died about 1145, says distinctly that the -tomb of Arthur had never been found, so this dates the fabrication of -this cross by the monks of Glastonbury always so especially greedy of -relics, as within a year or two of this time when Giraldus saw it ("quam -nos quoque vidimus"). The inscription on the lead cross engraved by -Camden agrees word for word with the exception of "with Guenevere his -second wife." Must we not suppose that Giraldus here improved even upon -the monks, and added this poetic touch himself? - -Few of these absolution crosses have been found abroad; one discovered -in Perigord was inscribed on the arms LVX . PAX . REX . LEX. - -Wall tablets in churches are represented by one at Burford in -Shropshire, the monument of Lady Corbett, 1516. Her effigy is incised -under a canopy much like the brasses of the same time, and it suggests -simple decorative possibilities, such as filling cavities with mastics -of several colours, parcel gilding, damascening in brass wire, or inlay -of metal on metal. - -In Saltash Church, Cornwall, a lead tablet records that "This Chapple -was repaired in the Mairty of Matthew Veale, Gent. Anno 1689." - -Inscriptions may be either cast with raised letters, engraved like the -early ones, or punched. Ornamental borders might also be made up of -punched lines, loops and dots. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Arms from Bourges.] - -Of Coat Arms there was an instance at Jacques Coeur's house in Bourges, -which is quite a lead mine. The Angel shield bearer alone remains, with -signs of the erasure of the arms. In London, about Copthall Buildings, -in the City, are several tablets with the arms of the "Armorers -Brasiers," as also a large number of shields of cast lead with dates and -initials or names of the City wards. The insurance companies also used -shields of stamped lead. - -In Vere Street, Clare Market, over the angle of what is at present a -baker's shop, there is a panel with two negroes' heads in relief, and -the legend "S. W. M. 1715." - -We began with a foundation inscription, we will conclude with one -twenty-six centuries later. This is a large cast plate of lead 3.6 by -2.4 and an inch thick, now preserved in the Guildhall Museum, which was -laid in the foundation of old Blackfriars, then Pitt Bridge:-- - -"On the last day of October in the year 1760 and in the beginning of the -most auspicious reign of George III., Sir Thomas Chitty, Knight, Lord -Mayor, laid the first stone of this bridge undertaken by the Common -Council of London (in the height of an extensive war) for the public -accommodation and ornament of the city (Robert Milne being the -architect) and that there may remain to posterity a monument of this -city's affection to the man who by the strength of his genius, the -steadiness of his mind, and a kind of happy contagion of his probity and -spirit, under the divine favour and fortunate auspices of George II., -recovered, augmented and secured the British Empire in Asia, Africa, and -America, and restored the ancient reputation and influence of his -country amongst the nations of Europe. - -"The Citizens of London have unanimously voted this bridge to be -inscribed with the name of William Pitt." - - - - -Sec. X. OF THE DECORATION OF LEAD. - - -One of the most usual methods of decorating lead was to gild it; whole -domes were gilt in this way. The dome of St. Sophia at Constantinople -seems to have been so treated, and the great arc of gold dominating such -an Eastern city must have been a most impressive sight. Many of the late -domes are partly gilt, as at the Invalides in Paris. The roof of the -ancient basilica at Tours is said to have been like "a mountain of -gold." - -Old recipe books of the last century give instructions for gilding lead. -The following are examples:-- - -"Take two pounds of yellow ochre, half a pound of red lead, and one -ounce of varnish, with which grind your ochre, but the red lead grind -with oil; temper them both together; lay your ground with this upon the -lead, and when it is almost dry, lay your gold; let it be thoroughly dry -before you polish it." - -For another ground--"Take varnish of linseed oil, red lead, white lead -and turpentine; boil in a pipkin and grind together on a stone." - -"Or take sheets of tinfoil, and grind them in common gold size; with -this wipe your pewter or lead over; lay on your leaf gold and press it -with cotton; it is a fine gilding, and has a beautiful lustre." - -Dutch metal was also used on a ground of varnish and red lead, as in -second recipe; or gilt leaves of tinfoil on white lead ground in linseed -oil, this last took a polish "as if it had been gilded in fire." Dutch -metal should be lacquered on the surface. A cheap substitute for gilding -could doubtless be made for large surfaces by laying tinfoil lacquered -gold colour. Or for statues the surface of the lead might be made bright -and lacquered. - -The external gilding on the Ste. Chapelle in Paris was done in leaf gold -on two coats of varnish. - -Smaller decorative objects of lead in the middle ages were often -entirely gilt or parcel gilt in patterns; for instance, in an inventory -of 1553 we find an altar cross "of lead florysshed withe golde foyle." -The effect of silver is obtained by "tinning" with solder, and when this -is intended to form patterns on the surface of the lead the method is -thus described by Burges. The surface is coated with lamp black mixed -with size; the pattern is either transferred on it or drawn direct and -then marked round with a point; all the part to be tinned has the -surface removed by a "shave hook" so as to leave the pattern quite -bright, a little sweet oil is rubbed over this and the solder is applied -and spread in the usual way of soldering with a "copper bit." This is -more conveniently done in the shop, but the spire at Chalons was -decorated in this way long after the lead covering was finished. A -specimen of this work prepared by Burges may be seen in the -Architectural Museum, Westminster. - -Transparent colour was often applied over this tinning, which, shining -through, gave it lustre; or the tinning alternated with the colour as in -chevrons of tin and blue and red. We may suppose that this sort of work -was done in England, for some leaded spires shown in the paintings at -St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, were coloured vermilion and gold, or -green and white, in chevrons following the leading. - -Stow also tells us that at the Priory of St. John of Jerusalem, -Clerkenwell, rebuilt after a fire in 1381, there was a steeple decorated -in this way which remained to his day and was then destroyed. "The great -bell tower, a most curious piece of workmanship, graven, gilt, and -enamelled, to the great beautifying of the city, and passing all others -that I have seen." - -Rain-pipe heads at Knole have patterns formed in this way by bright tin -applied to the surface. There are also heads of water pipes at the -Bodleian and at St. John's College, Oxford (see Figs. 71 and 72), -treated all over with patterns of chequers and zig-zags. Those at St. -John's have cast coats of arms in wreaths brightly emblazoned in gold -and colours. The collars to the pipes are painted with patterns, as also -are some pipes at Framlingham, Suffolk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Incised Decoration, Bourges.] - -Sometimes the pattern was incised on the lead in deep broad lines, and -these, when filled with black mastic, traced the pattern without any -tinning. An example of this method is found in a ridge and finial -sketched at Bourges--the hearts and scallop shell were badges of Jacques -Coeur. Other portions of the lead work at this house are decorated by -patterns in lamp-black painted on the lead. See the ridge and examples -of flashings drawn in Figures 36 and 37. A ridge designed for St. -Vincent's Church at Rouen, of which a drawing is preserved, is a -beautiful instance of this treatment; it is divided into lengths in -which branches with leaves and flowers alternate with a stiffer pattern. -The spire before spoken of, at Chalons-sur-Marne, furnishes the finest -example of these methods used in combination. See drawings in _Builder_, -1856, and in the sketch book of the Architectural Association for 1883, -both by Burges. This decoration is of the fourteenth century and is thus -described by Viollet-le-Duc:--"The sheets of lead were engraved in -outlines and filled in with black material, of which traces may yet be -seen. Painting and gilding illuminated the spaces between these black -lines, and we must observe that nearly all the leadwork of the middle -ages was thus decorated by paintings applied to the metal by means of an -energetic mordant. The plumber's art of the middle ages is wrought out -like colossal goldsmith's work, and we have found striking -correspondence between the two arts as well in the methods of -application as in the forms admitted: gilding and applied colour here -replace enamel." The design is of tabernacle work with figures and the -whole was clearly intended to recall a shrine of goldsmith's work. Large -engraved patterns filled with black used alone on the silvery lead -become great _niellos_, exactly parallel to the method of treating -silver. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Painted Decoration, Bourges.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Flashings, Bourges.] - -The fleche called "the golden" at Amiens retains traces of arabesque -patterns on grounds of bright blue and vermilion. - -Repousse by hammering, another method most appropriate to the material, -was more used in France than with us, where casting has been throughout -the chief means for obtaining relief decoration. In France the finials -were mostly formed in this way. "Recalling the best goldsmith's work of -the epoch," withal so easily and carelessly wrought that it is plain -that they were done at once without pattern and yet with ample -knowledge of the ultimate form desired; so a leaf cut out of a sheet is -hammered and twisted till it cups and curls itself into living grace. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A Valance.] - -In these finials applied castings were also used, and at the end of the -fifteenth century they superseded repousse for a time. Many of the -moulds in stone and plaster, for the ornaments which were used on the -roofs and finials at Beaune are preserved. The castings were not so free -and decorative however as those done by repousse. - -Of piercing into delicate tracery the pipe-heads at Haddon give many -charming examples. At Aston Hall, Warwickshire, the curved lead roofs of -the turrets have all round the eaves a brattishing of pierced sheet in -simple scroll work, it stands up freely and gives a dainty finish: the -pattern is something like that above. In the East pierced valances of -this kind are very general; the roofs of the larger fountains at -Constantinople are usually finished in this way. Fig. 38 is from the -portico roof of the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem drawn from a -photograph. Casting and piercing were also combined, the pattern being -strengthened thus by ribs and the veins, and interspaces being cut away. - -In small Japanese work brass is sometimes inlaid into lead or pewter in -the form of flowers, which are further defined by surface engraving. -Engraving on sheet lead similar to the old memorial brasses has been -mentioned before, and we may go on to look at the decorative processes -in which lead was used applied to other materials. - - - - -Sec. XI. OF LEAD ORNAMENTATION OF OTHER MATERIALS. - - -Lead trappings and appendages have often been applied to stone statues. -The sceptres and bishops' crosses of the fine fourteenth century statues -of St. Mary's spire at Oxford are of wrought lead. The leaves of the -sceptre heads and the crosses are embossed out in two pieces and then -soldered at the edges. - -Inlaying of lead in stone slabs making grisaille designs was a method -much used--a magnificent example remains in the pavement at St. Remy, -Rheims (formerly in the choir of St. Nicaise in the same town), where -foliated panels with figure subjects from Scripture are made out on the -stones; it is a work of the early fourteenth century.[22] We have in -England an example of this treatment in a tomb slab at St. Mary -Redcliffe, Bristol, and there is mention of the process in the account -by William of Malmesbury of the Saxon part of the "Ealde Chirche" at -Glastonbury. We may well suppose this was an imitation in the national -material of Roman mosaic. The floor was "inlaid with polished stone ... -moreover in the pavement may be remarked on every side stone designedly -_interlaid in triangles and squares and figured with lead_, under which -if I believe some sacred enigma to be contained I do no injustice to -religion. The antiquity and multitude of its saints have endowed the -place with so much sanctity that at night scarcely anyone presumes to -keep vigil there or during the day to spit upon its floor ... and -certainly the more magnificent the ornaments of churches are the more -they incline the brute mind to prayer and bend the stubborn to -supplication." - - [22] _See_ Viollet-le-Duc, "Dallage." - -The method is still followed in lettering on tombs and the like: the -design is engraved in the marble and holes are drilled with a bow drill -in the sunk parts, some inclined at an angle to give a better hold; -strips of lead of sufficient substance are then hammered into the -casements with a wooden mallet, and the superfluous metal removed with a -sharp chisel. - -Some of the sixteenth and seventeenth century engraved brasses have -portions of the arms, etc., inlaid in lead in the brass; there are -instances of this in Westminster Abbey. Lead might also be inlaid in -cast iron with good effect, where it has not to be painted: the recesses -would be left in the casting of either cast brass or cast iron. The -stars that spangle the ceilings of churches on a blue ground are usually -of cast lead gilt. The ceiling of the well-known panel and rib kind -attributed to Holbein at the Chapel Royal, St. James's had the -enrichments in the panels of lead. Chimney-pieces were also decorated in -the same way, and even furniture is found at times with applied badges -of gilt lead. These methods it must be understood are not all -recommended here, they are only recorded. - -The delicate applied enrichments so much used in work influenced by the -practice of the Brothers Adam are in the best work of lead; cast with -extraordinary delicacy in relief figure panels, after the manner of the -antique, or fragile garlands, vases, and frets. Much of this work was -used in the internal decoration at Somerset House. The accounts under -1780 show payments to Edward Watson--for lead pateras from 2 1/2_d._ to -10_d._ each; nineteen ornamental friezes to chimney pieces L10 17_s._ -8_d._; lead frieze to the bookcases in the Royal Academy Library at -2_s._ 6_d._ per foot; 137 feet run of large lead frieze in the -exhibition room at 4_s._ Dutch bracket clocks of the eighteenth century -have pierced and gilt ornamentations of lead. - -This method of applying pierced lead to wood was known in the middle -ages. In the Kensington Museum there is a delicate openwork panel, three -inches square, which with others, decorated the front of a fourteenth -century chest in the church at Newport, Essex. A beautiful little panel -of open work, which contains the subject of the Annunciation, was found -some years since in the Thames. One of the last instances of this -decorative use of lead is on the great doors of Inwood's church, at St. -Pancras, where the panels are filled with reliefs and the margins have -the palmette border. At Christchurch, Hampshire, some of the tracery -panels at the back of the stalls have been replaced in lead. - -The front door fanlights so well known in the London houses of the -eighteenth century were made by applying lead castings to a backing of -iron. Even staircase balustrades were cast in panels of lattice work of -hard lead and fixed between iron standards some three or four feet -apart. - - - - -Sec. XII. OF DECORATIVE OBJECTS. - - -A great number of small objects in lead are in our museums, and first we -should mention the medals and plaques of the great masters of the -Renaissance. Lead will cast with more delicacy than any other material, -and Cellini especially recommended it for proofs. The proofs of the -great work of the medallists,--the modelling just a film, fading into -the background--presentments and allegories of the Malatestas and -Gonzagas by Pisanello and Sperandio, are certainly the most precious -things ever formed in lead. There are a great number of these medals and -decorative plaques in the British Museum and at Kensington. - -For coins in lead see Gaetani and Fiscorni. For tokens and pilgrim -badges, of which a great number have been found in the Seine, see -_Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Vol. VI. and XVIII. Some of these remind us of -the lead figures that, according to "Quentin Durward," Louis XI. wore in -his hat. At the Guildhall there is a collection of hundreds of these -small objects found in the Thames; most are of great delicacy, many very -beautiful. There are, in the British Museum, little Greek objects, rings -and toys, armlets of a snake pattern, and pierced ornaments for applying -to other objects. - -Other objects in the Kensington Museum are:--A small tankard only two -and a half inches diameter but modelled with figures in low relief, it -is German of the sixteenth or seventeenth century; a pair of little -inkstands the circular drums modelled with foliage and projecting top -and bottom rims, also German; and a square canister with panel of St. -George on each face. - -Another is a beautiful little Gothic box of the fourteenth century. It -is hexagonal, with three feet, a flat hinged cover has a sitting lion -which forms the knob, a slight relief of the Annunciation under a -canopy, and two shields of arms. Round the sides are delicate bands of -foliage and Gothic lettering; it is three and a half inches high, and of -cast lead. There are other portions of little Gothic boxes in the -British Museum. At Gloucester Museum there is a square box of late -fifteenth century work, the sides formed of four cast panels of lead, -soldered at the angles. The panels all repeat the same relief of the -dead Christ and the Virgin, right and left are the other two Marys, and -the background bears the cross, crown, spears, dice, and all the -implements of the Passion.[23] Small canisters, and candlesticks the -stems of which are formed of a little lead figure, were made quite -recently. - - [23] See _Antiquary_, Feb., 1893. - - - - -Sec. XIII. OF LEAD GLAZING. - - -This subject, in which lead is only secondary, has been treated so often -by others in connection with glass that little more need be said here. - -Already, when Theophilus wrote his treatise on the arts, some time from -the tenth to the twelfth century, leaded glazing of coloured glass was -practised much as we do it now, and he describes how the leads were cast -with the two grooves for the glass and how it was put together on a -table. Coloured glass windows were placed in the Basilica at Lyons in -the fifth century, as described in the letters of Sidonius. From the -thirteenth century there are crowds of examples of glazing wholly of -white glass in which patterns are made by the arrangement of the leads. -In the cathedrals of north France, especially Bayeux, Coutances, Mantes, -and through Brittany, most elaborate patterns of this kind fill the -windows; not only diapers but interlacing bands, over and under in -effect, and this in plain white glass. This method does not seem to have -been followed here, where for the most part, unless in colour -arrangements, the leading for church windows was in plain lozenges and -parallelograms. - -Later, however, in houses, pattern glazing, sometimes of an elaborate -kind, is found, especially in the north of England, at Moreton Hall in -Cheshire, at Bramhall, and at Levens in Westmorland. In some parts the -glass may not be more than a circle or diamond of an inch across. - -These patterns have been amply treated in other places, and we may -consider those that have a diapered pattern all over the light to belong -rather to the glass than the lead. There are others, however, in which -the lead lines are made still more important by being arranged in a -single intricate panel to each light, the centre usually being charged -with an heraldic device. Two simple examples are given in Figs. 39 and -40. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.] - -There is one point to speak of in regard to the fretted patterns not -usually noticed. The frets are sometimes leaded up so that the glass -does not lie in one plane, but there is an intentional change, so that -the faces of glass reflect the light differently in a uniform manner all -over the window, the forward panes being some 1/3 or 1/4 inch in front -of the plane of the inner ones and between them others are placed -obliquely. This is best known in Holland, but a similar practice was -followed at Levens in Westmorland. - -Lozenges of lead pierced for ventilation, either one or several -together, are sometimes found; they are cast with a delicate pattern, or -cut in a lattice. Some of the best are in the museum of Fountains Abbey, -others are at Ely and at Haddon. Fig. 41 is from a Surrey cottage. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.] - - - - -Sec. XIV. OF LEAD STATUES. - - -The making of lead statues was frequent up to the end of the 18th -century, and then more frequent than at any other time, to cease at once -on the introduction of the Italian plaster model shops, which in the -eyes of the connoisseurs of the time brought with them a time of purer -taste, the taste whose god was the Apollo of the Belvidere. - -These statues of lead were known to the ancients. There was one of -Mamurius at Rome.[24] - - [24] Fosbroke, _Ency. Antiq._ - -In the middle ages there were not only small cast lead figures like -those around the font at Ashover and a figure from a crucifix now in the -library of Wells Cathedral which is about 12 inches high, of 15th -century work, but figures full size and more were also made; this was -especially the case in France; these, however, were generally repousse. - -In the garden of the Cluny Museum in Paris is a fine figure of St. John -Evangelist, fully eight feet high; it is of early 14th century work, -and looks as if it had stood at the central pier of a doorway. - -At Moissac, in the south of France, is a most remarkable work of lead, a -tomb, above which is a lead sarcophagus and several figures representing -the entombment of Christ, who is being laid in the open coffin. It is -15th century work; the figures, six in all, are full of character and -vigour like the wooden statuary of the time. It appears from a -photograph to be cast in separate portions. - -The figures formed by repousse usually serve as finials on the roof, or -stand in niches of the fleche. In the great fleche at Amiens there are -six figures as large as life, with other smaller figures of angels which -hold emblems of the Passion. M. Viollet-le-Duc says these figures were -nearly always _embouties_ that is to say hammered out on a wooden model -in portions, and soldered together. The artist had to be careful that -the model should be thin and "dry" so the thickness of the lead should -not make it too coarse in the forms. Burges cites an account of 1514 of -a payment to John Pothyn, sculptor, for having carved a prophet in -walnut wood to serve as a mould and pattern to the lead-workers. -Sometimes the lead casing was put on with lapping joints, the skeleton -frame being iron. - -There are not now in England lead statues of any size executed during -the middle ages; but magnificent figures of bronze cast by the _cire -perdu_ method remain to us. The effigy of Queen Eleanor at Westminster -cannot be matched in Europe. - -The founder's art was carried to much perfection in Germany in the 15th -and 16th centuries. Mr. Seymour Haden has in Hampshire a statue of a -city herald of lead which formerly belonged to the great clock at -Nuremburg. - -Many statues of lead were set up in English towns after the earlier -Renaissance, they are our national version of the bronze of Italy, a -material which we used but little; such bronze statues as were cast here -since the middle ages seem to have been the work of foreigners. Le -Sieur, for instance, did the statue of Charles II. at Charing Cross, and -many others. The statue of Queen Anne that was to surmount Gibbs' -proposed column in the Strand was ordered in Rome. - -At Bristol there is a large Neptune of lead roughly modelled; the limbs -are contorted with too much life and yet it is a decorative feature in -the centre of a wide street. On the pedestal has been engraved a little -history of the statue, an example that might be followed--"Neptune, cast -and given A.D. 1588 by a citizen of Temple parish to commemorate the -defeat of the Spanish Armada. Re-erected on its fourth site in 1872." -This seems to be a tradition unsubstantiated by record, but the time is -not so remote that it may not as well be true, especially as the style -of the figure would seem to agree with the date named. The story says -that it was the gift of a plumber in the town, the metal being that of -the captured ships' pumps. - -At Bungay in Suffolk there used to be a large statue at the Market Cross -known as "Astraea." - -One of the most interesting portrait statues in London, the Queen Anne -at Queen Anne's Gate, Westminster, is of lead. The surface ornament on -the robes is especially appropriate to the material. There is also in -Golden Square a statue of George II. which seems to be nearly a repeat -of the stone statue on Bloomsbury steeple; it suggested the statue in -Fred Walker's picture, "The Harbour of Refuge." - -There were also many full size equestrian statues founded in this metal, -that of George I., until 1874 in Leicester Square, was one of these, and -like the last it was brought from Canons, the celebrated house of the -Duke of Chandos at Edgware, dismantled about 1747. The George I. -resembled Le Sieur's statue at Charing Cross and was known as the Golden -Horse, for the whole was gilt, as many of the statues seem to have been -at Canons, in that garden where, according to Pope, "The trees were -clipped like statues--the statues thick as trees." - -The statue of William of Orange at Dublin is another of these, and it is -celebrated alike in political demonstrations and Catholic polemics. -Cardinal Newman wrote of it, "The very flower and cream of -Protestantism used to glory in the statue of King William on College -Green, Dublin, and though I cannot make any reference in print I -recollect well what a shriek they raised some years ago when the figure -was unhorsed. Some profane person one night applied gunpowder and blew -the king right out of his saddle, and he was found by those who took -interest in him, like Dagon, on the ground." - -Yet another equestrian statue is that of Charles the Second at -Edinburgh, set up by the magistrates of the city in Parliament Square, -in honour of the restoration of the king. A writer in the _Athenaeum_ for -April 13th, 1850, speaks of it as the "finest piece of statuary in -Edinburgh," and urges the suitability of lead for the purpose. "In -_Black's Guide through Edinburgh_ it is spoken of as the best specimen -of bronze statuary which Edinburgh possesses; it is, however, composed -of lead. Now this leaden equestrian statue has already without sensible -deterioration stood the test of 165 years' (in 1850) exposure to the -weather, and it still seems as fresh as if erected but yesterday." Some -years before this, one of the interior irons having given way, a part of -the shoulder sank a little and it was taken down and repaired and -sufficiently proved to be lead. Taking the figures above, it appears -that the date of this work is 1685. - -Mr. James Nasmyth also wrote to the _Athenaeum_, June, 1850, "to confirm -as a practical man the perfect fitness of lead" as a substitute for -bronze, and to recommend the _cire perdu_ method of casting, at that -time discontinued in England; the process being to model the statue in -wax on a solid core, to cast in plaster the finished wax model, and then -to melt out the wax from this plaster mould, the space which it occupied -being refilled with lead. Of course only one cast can be obtained in -this way, whereas the old decorative statues spoken of later were cast -in a piece mould and reproduced again and again. - -"The addition (still quoting) of about five per cent. of antimony will -give it not only greater hardness but enhance its capability to run into -the most delicate details ... it is in every sense as durable as bronze -when subject simply to atmospheric action." - -We shall see that an addition of block tin was made to the lead by the -old figure founders. Type metal, which is so much harder than lead, is -an alloy of lead and 1/4 to 1/3 of antimony, or of two parts of lead to -one of tin and one of antimony. - -In the courtyard of Houghton Tower, Lancashire, there is a statue of -William III. brought from the dismantled Walton-le-Dale in 1834. - -The statues decorating the parapets of the large "classic" country -houses are at times of lead; there are five of these at Lyme in -Cheshire. Over the portico of the Clarendon at Oxford there are four of -these statues representing the sciences. Until recently there was a -figure of King James high up in a niche at the Bodleian. - -The figures of the good little boy and girl common at charity schools -are also often of lead. The great Percy lion that surmounted old -Northumberland House at Charing Cross (destroyed twenty years ago) is -now on the river front of Syon House; it weighs about three tons, and it -was placed in its original position in 1749. The lion on the bridge at -Alnwick is also of lead, as the little boy found to his cost who climbed -out on its tail. - -There are a series of lead busts in oval panels on the front of Ham -House, Petersham, Surrey, 1610 being the date of its erection. - -Before passing into the garden a word on the practical details of -casting as traditionally followed may be added. The casting of lead -statues is much the same process as founding in bronze, but it is -simpler from the much lower temperature at which lead flows, and the -ease with which limbs can be cast separately and joined to the body. The -technical details may be found in a text-book of modelling and -casting--_Mouler en Platre, Plomb_, &c. (Lebrun, Paris, 1860). The -course followed is to cut up the model in such parts as is determined, -to mould these in loam, the cores are then cast in plaster after the -thickness that will be occupied by the lead has been first applied to -the moulds in sand (terre). The cores are then removed and dried and -baked, for in this as in all founding everything depends on the -absolute dryness of the mould. After the first mould had been added to, -for the casting of the core, a second mould would be prepared from the -original figure and the core supported in that by irons. The castings -are then made, and the portions reunited and finished on the surface. -Large works have to be sufficiently supported with internal irons. All -the mysteries of vents, and false coring when necessary, can only be -understood by practical familiarity with founding. - -Modern figures for Dundee were cast from plaster; cast iron also makes -good moulds. - -If the roof is the place for those earlier figures formed by repousse, -the garden is rightly inhabited by cast lead statues. It is a material -in which the designer might well permit himself slightness, caprice, or -even triteness. A statue that would be tame in stone, or contemptible in -marble, may well be a charming decoration if only in lead, set in the -vista of a green walk against a dark yew hedge or broad-leaved fig, or -where the lilac waves its plumes above them and the syringa thrusts its -flowers under their arms and shakes its petals on the pedestal. "How -charming it must be to walk in one's own garden, and sit on a bench in -the open air with a fountain and a leaden statue and a rolling-stone and -an arbour. Have a care though of sore throat and the _agoe_.[25]" - - [25] Gray's _Letter from Pembroke Coll._, 1769. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Mercury.] - -When sculptors learn again that their art is to shape many materials in -various ways for diverse uses, and that a statue is not necessarily of -whitest marble or to be exhibited on the 1st of May, then we may get -back the delight of sculpture in the garden. - -Sculptured marble, unless the art is of a high order, does not please us -out of doors by a pond or on a terrace, if it is not weathered down to a -ruin, but lead is homely and ordinary and not too good to receive the -_graffiti_ of lovers' knots, red letter dates and initials. Here is a -sketch of a Mercury not at all too fine for further decoration of this -sort; it came from a London sale room, the surface was quite white and -exfoliated like old stone. The jaunty messenger has a garden thought -too, for it is honeycomb in his hand. - -One of the best known of these garden statues was a group of Cain and -Abel that so recently gave an interest to the great grass quad of -Brasenose College, Oxford. It was given by Dr. Clarke, of All Souls, -"who bought it of some London statuary." Hearne speaks of it as "some -silly statue"--superiority has always been the greatest enemy to beauty. -Forty or fifty years ago there was a Mercury in Tom Quad which has also -been improved away. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Sun-dial, Temple Gardens.] - -Our next example fulfils a purpose. It is the sun-dial formerly in -Clement's Inn, which was known locally as the "Blackamoor." It is -strongly, if simply modelled, a piece of art full of character, and we -may be glad that it has been restored to us although now placed in the -gardens of the Inner Temple, instead of before the "Garden House" in -Clement's Inn. - -The negro is the full size of life and bears the stone disc of the dial -on his head with one hand, the other being free. The dial is beautifully -engraved and is signed on the edge of the gnomon _Ben Scott in the -Strand Londini Fecit_. The sides have the initials of the donor, P. I. -P., and the date, 1731. Mr. Hare in his _Walks in London_ states that it -was brought from Italy late in the seventeenth century by Holles Lord -Clare, whose name is preserved in the neighbouring Clare market. This -statement is also found in Thornbury's _Old and New London_, and the -statue is said to be bronze, which it is not, nor do the initials and -date above agree with Mr. Hare's statement, who goes on to remark that -"there are similar figures at Knowsley, and at Arley in Cheshire," but -he does not say if these also were brought from Italy by Lord Clare. - -No authority is given by Mr. Hare, but his statement is in the main a -transcript from John Thomas Smith, who also gives the verses quoted by -Mr. Hare, said to have been attached to the statue on one occasion with -a pitying reference to the legal atmosphere the African had to breathe. -That it was brought from Italy is seemingly local gossip added to the -account of Mr. Smith who knew well enough the English workshop, as we -shall see, where these figures were made. - -Similar figures are mentioned by this writer in his gossiping -_Antiquarian Rambles in London_ in which he wrote the memories of his -own travels in the streets in the beginning of the present century, and -gives quite a history of this "despicable manufactory." The founding of -these lead garden statues seems specially to have been an industry of -the eighteenth century; with the dreary opening of the nineteenth "a -purer taste," so we are assured, banished these and most other charms of -an old-fashioned garden. "In Piccadilly, on the site of the houses east -of the Poulteney Hotel including that, now No. 102, stood the original -leaden figure yard, founded by John Van Nost, a Dutch sculptor, who came -to England with King William III. His effects were sold March, 1711." As -late as 1763 a John Van Nost (supposed descendant of the former) was -following the profession of a statuary in St. Martin's Lane, on the -left, a little farther up than where the old brick houses now stand in -1893. The original business was taken in 1739 by Mr. John Cheere, who -served his time with his brother, Sir H. Cheere, the statuary who did -several of the Abbey monuments. - -"This despicable manufactory must still be within memory, as the -attention of nine persons in ten were arrested by these garden -ornaments. The figures were cast in lead as large as life and frequently -painted with an intention to resemble nature. They consisted of Punch, -Harlequin, Columbine and other pantomimical characters; mowers whetting -their scythes; haymakers resting on their rakes; gamekeepers shooting; -and Roman soldiers with _firelocks_; but above all an African kneeling -with a sundial upon his head found the most extensive sale. - -"For these imaginations in lead there were other workshops in -Piccadilly, viz., Dickenson's, which stood on the site of the Duke of -Gloucester's house, Manning's at the corner of White Horse Street, and -Carpenter's, that stood where Egmont house afterwards stood. - -"All the above four figure yards were in high vogue about the year 1740. -They certainly had casts from some of the finest works of art, the -Apollo Belvidere, the Venus de Medici, &c., but these leaden -productions, although they found numerous admirers and purchasers, were -never countenanced by men of taste; for it is well known that when -application was made to the Earl of Burlington for his sanction he -always spoke of them with sovereign contempt, observing that the -uplifted arms of leaden figures, in consequence of the pliability and -weight of the material, would in course of time appear little better -than crooked billets.... There has not been a leaden figure manufactory -in London since the year 1787, when Mr. Cheere died." - -Walpole knew little of these lead-working sculptors, his only notice -occurring under "Carpentier or Charpentiere"--our Carpenter above--"a -statuary much employed by the Duke of Chandos at Canons, was for some -years principal assistant to Van Ost (our Van Nost) an artist of whom I -have found no memorials, and afterwards set up for himself. Towards the -end of his life he kept a manufactory of leaden statues in Piccadilly -and died in 1737, aged above sixty." The original Van Nost came from -Mechlin, and married in England the widow of another Dutch sculptor. - -In the account books of the building of Somerset House the following -entry, which occurs under 1778, is interesting as showing John Cheere -working on particular works, and for giving us the composition of the -metal and the price. "John Cheere, figure maker; to moulding, casting, -and finishing four large sphinxes in a strong substantial manner, lead -and block tin, at each L31." - -It is curious if Lord Burlington gave the critical dictum attributed to -him, that there were so many lead garden statues at his villa at -Chiswick, in 1892 dismantled by the Duke of Devonshire. Doubtless they -belonged to that garden described by Walpole as in the Italian taste, -where "the lavish quantity of urns and sculpture behind the garden -front should be retrenched," a wish that time accomplishes. There was a -Bacchus, a Venus, an Achilles, a Samson, and Cain and Abel. - -In the first quadrangle at Knole there are two good reproductions of the -antique, one being a crouching Venus. In the courtyard of Burton Agnes -in Yorkshire stands a Fighting Gladiator. - -Studley Royal, near Ripon, is a fine example of the best effort of -park-gardening, if the phrase be allowed, for the term "landscape -gardening" is degraded to mean productions in the cemetery style, an -affair of wriggling paths, little humps, and nursery specimens, which -might best be described as _cemetery gardening_, and between which and -the manner of Kent there is no parallel. Here lakes in ordered circles -and crescents occupy the grassy flat between hanging woods, and several -groups of lead statuary stand above the water. - -In the beautiful old gardens at Melbourne in Derbyshire are a large -number of lead figures, two of which are drawn in _The Formal -Garden_.[26] There are two heroic sized figures of Perseus and Andromeda -beside the great water; a Flying Mercury after Giovanni Bologna; two -slaves, which are painted black, with white drapery, carrying vases on -salvers; and several Cupids in pairs or single. Of these "the single -figures" Mr. Blomfield says "are about two feet high. One has fallen -off his tree, another is flying upward, another shooting, another -shaping his bow with a spoke shave. All of these are painted and some -covered with stone dust to imitate stone, a gratuitous insult to lead -which will turn to a delicate silver grey if left to its own devices." - - [26] Blomfield and Thomas. Macmillan, 1892. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Cymbal Player.] - -In the old gardens at Rousham described by Pope are still some Cupids -riding on swans; at Holmerook Hall are statues and other objects in -lead, and at Newton Ferrars in Cornwall are two statues of Mars and -Perseus. At the Mote House, Hersham, are some garden figures. - -There are also some figures of lead in the gardens of Castle Hill, Lord -Fortescue's house in Devonshire. In the two niches of a garden temple -there is a Cymbal Player from the antique and a Venus in the manner of -William and Mary. Amongst the foliage of a wood-path is a terminal -figure of Pan, the pillar being stone and the head and shoulders only of -lead. In the gardens here are also two large couchant lions, four -sphinxes, and some greyhounds. At Nun Moncton in Yorkshire, on a terrace -by the river Ouse are several lead figures on each side of the walk, -these have gilded trappings. At Glemham in Suffolk are figures of the -Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene at the entrance. In the garden are -two black slaves with sun-dials, and the Seasons: also hounds at the -gateway. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Terminal at Castle Hill.] - -In the garden at Canons Ashby is a figure of a shepherd playing a flute. -In a garden at Exeter are four or five figures, amongst which is a -Skater and a Flower Girl, and at Whitchurch is a Quoit Thrower. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Time.] - -In the niches of a large circular yew hedge at Hardwick are four -figures, three are playing on musical instruments; pipe, trumpet, and -violin, and the fourth represents Painting. There are also two other -figures in the gardens. At Temple Dinsley near Hitchin is a figure of -Time, hour-glass in hand, of which a sketch is given. The left hand -formerly held a scythe, now lost. At Shrewsbury is a Hercules. - -The statues in the grounds at Blarney celebrated in the "Groves of -Blarney" were of lead:-- - - "There's statues gracing this noble place in - All heathen Goddesses so fair, - Bold Neptune, Plutarch and Nicodemus - All standing naked in the open air." - -These statues were sold by auction to Sir Thomas Dene who bought the -castle, and pictures:-- - - "And took off in a cart - ('Twas enough to break my heart) - All the statues made of lead and pictures O!"[27] - - [27] _Reliques of Father Prout_, i., 140. - -The eighteenth century must have been busy in the "manufacture" of these -garden figures and ornaments, some of the gardens mentioned have as many -as twenty to thirty pieces still. A great number was doubtless absorbed -in the London public gardens and the villas up the Thames. In old -Vauxhall was a statue of Milton by Roubilliac, but it is difficult to -attribute many specimens to individuals. The negro we saw was sold by -Mr. John Cheere in St. Martin's Lane, but likely enough the model was a -part of the stock of Van Nost, as also the fine vases at Hampton Court. -Many of these statues were destroyed to suit the "purer taste" of this -century, and a great number were exported during the American War to -become bullets, because at that time as "works of art" the lead escaped -the Customs. A large number have been accidentally crushed by the fall -of a tree or otherwise destroyed, and many not adequately supported have -flattened down out of shape. - -There was a large display _a la_ Louis Quatorze, of lead casting in the -gorgeous gardens of Versailles; where in the fountains, groups of -statues, and vases, the greatest sculptors of the time worked -indifferently in marble, bronze, or _plomb dore_. Francois Girardon was -one of these. Born in 1628, at Troyes, he lived to the year 1715, -achieving a reputation that placed him amongst the foremost of French -artists of that time. - -The immense structure entirely of lead known as the Fountain of the -Pyramid is his work. From a basin in which sport three man-sized tritons -rises a pedestal, with a circular basin much enriched by gadroons, set -on three classic zoomorphous legs; and above it three other like basins -of diminishing size, each supported from the one below around the rim; -by baby tritons for the lowest, the next with dolphins, and the last -with lobsters. In the last basin is a vase. The whole is a composition -showing great refinement of scholarship, recalling in general form the -great pine cone of bronze in the Vatican gardens, once the fountain in -the atrium of old St. Peter's. It is exquisitely drawn and engraved by -Rouyer et Darcel[28] together with two vases also of lead from the Basin -of Neptune. - - [28] _L'Art Arch. en France_, vol. ii. - -Other groups, some of colossal proportions--"France Victorious," "The -Four Seasons," and so on--were the work of Thomas Renaudin of Moulins, -J. B. Tubi from Rome, Pierre Mazaline and Gaspard de Marcu; their -individual works, with illustrations, may be distinguished in the volume -of engraved statues of the Versailles gardens by S. Thomassin published -in Paris 1694. - -Versailles certainly set the fashion, which we followed and which -influenced the gardens of the most of Europe. In Russia a Swiss gardener -arranged a labyrinth at the summer palace of Peter the Great with animal -groups from AEsop in gilt lead forming fountains. Beckford, writing from -Lisbon in 1789, describes a garden at Bemfica "which eclipses our -Clapham and Islington villas in all the attractions of leaden statues, -Chinese temples, serpentine rivers, and dusty hermitages." - - - - -Sec. XV. OF LEAD FOUNTAINS. - - -None of the old English gardens were complete without a fountain, and no -fountain was complete without a figure. Bacon says--"For fountains ... -the ornaments of images, gilt or of marble, which are in use do well." - -Paul Hentzner writes of the sixteenth century garden of Theobalds, the -seat of Lord Treasurer Burleigh--"There was a summer house, in the lower -part of which, built semicircularly, are the twelve Roman emperors in -white marble and a table of touchstone (alabaster) the upper part is set -around with cisterns of lead into which the water is conveyed by pipes -so that fish may be kept in them, and in summer time they are very -convenient for bathing." - -At St. Fagan's, near Cardiff, in front of the house is a remarkable lead -tank; it is octagonal, ten feet across and nearly four feet high; it is -ornamented round the sides with flowers, and shields in panels, and is -dated 1620. - -At Syon House there is a fountain in which a lead figure forms the jet -d'eau. - -At Wooton in Staffordshire there is a fountain basin with a lead duck so -suspended as to float on the water spouting water from its bill. The -Swan which seemed to float on the water described by Borrow in -_Lavengro_ must have been of lead. At Sprotborough in Yorkshire are some -lead toads about nine inches long, which also seem to have belonged to a -fountain. - -Some of the figures mentioned before stand in the centre of basins, and -occasionally simple groups, as of Neptune in a two-horsed chariot, may -be found, but we have nothing in England to compare to the great -fountain compositions of the Versailles Gardens or to the fountain -called _Le Buffet_ in the Trianon Park, designed by Mansard, and -profusely decorated by the gilt lead sculptures of Van Cleve and other -artists. - -In Germany some of the earlier town fountains are of lead. - - - - -Sec. XVI. OF VASES AND GATE PIERS. - - -The vases at Hampton Court mentioned above are particularly fine in -design and well modelled; their height is about 2.3 and the little -sitting figures, slight as they are, are charming in their pose; the -folded arms and prettily arranged hair give us a suggestion of life -which most of these things supposed to be in the classic taste lack. The -inventory taken by the Commission at Hampton Court mentions "Fower large -flower potts of lead." Similar vases are in the gardens at Windsor, also -larger and later examples with figure plaques in Flaxman's manner. At -Castle Hill, North Devon, there are ten vases, some with mouldings and -gadroons formed in repousse, others cast. - -At Melbourne in Derbyshire there is an enormous vase some seven or eight -feet high in a very rococo style.[29] There is one at Penshurst, which -comes from Old Leicester House in London; and at Sprotborough are others -of similar design. These vases will not bear comparison with the -beautiful lead Gothic fonts before given. - - [29] _The Formal Garden_, Blomfield and Thomas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Vase, Hampton Court.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--From Vase, Hampton Court.] - -There are several vases at Wimpole near Cambridge, at Wilton, and at -Wrest. Little square flower boxes with cast or repousse devices on the -sides were also made; Charles Lamb describes some flower pots for us -from the gardens of Blakesware in Herefordshire, a fine old house, -destroyed even when he wrote--"The owner of it had lately pulled it -down; still I had a vague notion that it could not all have perished. -_How shall they build it up again?_" There was a beautiful fruit garden -and "ampler pleasure garden rising backwards from the house in triple -terraces, with flower pots now of palest lead save that a spot here and -there saved from the elements bespake their pristine state to have been -gilt and glittering." - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Vase, Castle Hill.] - -At Knole are a pair of circular pots figured on page 120. Circular -baskets of open interlacing work and other forms were also made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Albert Gate.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Albert Gate.] - -Garden seats were also made entirely of lead. There are six lead -seats at Castle Hill, North Devon; they are large square boxes with -heavy "classic" forms, the top and ends imitating the folds of drapery. -At Chiswick similar seats in every way were sculptured in stone. These -show how lead should not be used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Vase on Gate Pier, Knole.] - -At Castle Hill are also several greyhounds; they are particularly lively -and well modelled and suitable for their purpose as guards to the gates. -Gate piers are most inviting pedestals for leaden imagery. At Albert -Gate, Hyde Park, there are two beautiful lead stags--another pair of -them are at Loughton in Essex; no more appropriate English park gate -could well be thought of. At Carshalton, Surrey, where a park was -enclosed by Thomas Scawen, the great gate pillars of the entrance have -large boldly modelled statues of Diana and Actaeon, the date 1726. The -little Cupids that stand out of the ivy that covers the piers at Temple -Dinsley are sketched in Fig. 53. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Temple Dinsley.] - -Perhaps the finest gate pier groups are those to the Flower Pot Gate at -Hampton Court, where Cupids uphold a basket of flowers. These able -pieces of work are not generally known for lead, because, like so many -figures and vases, they have been painted and sanded to imitate stone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Syon House.] - -In 1744 the then member for Southampton presented two lions for the Bar -Gate in that town. These not very beautiful creatures still remain. - -Syon House, on the Thames, has besides the great lion, a lesser lion set -over Adam's "lace gateway," weighing a ton and half, it is unfortunately -newly _painted and sanded_ to look like stone, and as the tail sticks -out in a way utterly impossible for anything but metal it makes it -entirely absurd. There is a plague of paint over old leadwork, which -should be gilt or let alone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Syon House.] - -On the park wall facing the road there are fine sphinxes, about five -feet long, in every way different to the lion, well designed exercises -in the "classic taste." Well modelled, with impressive heads, in the -dark and dinted metal, they are pleasant both in colour and texture. -They are quite "Adam's" in character but not at all petty like some of -his work and very different to a pair of sphinxes also of lead, on the -gates of Chiswick House. - - - - -Sec. XVII. OF FINIALS AND CRESTINGS. - - -The lead finial is typically a French feature; there cannot be said to -be a single instance of a large ornamental finial of lead remaining in -England of the kind once so universal in France and of which so many -still remain there. These French finials from the 12th to the 18th -centuries have been sufficiently described, especially by M. De la -Queriere, who devotes a volume to them and the cresting of ridges; by -Viollet-le-Duc; and in De Caumont's _Abcdaire_. - -Many of these early French Gothic finials of the 12th and 13th centuries -were lead statues formed out of repousse sheet metal and they surmounted -the culminating point of the church, at the apex of the chevet; here was -often placed an immense angel with great wings turning as vanes in the -wind. At Rouen it is the Virgin with the infant Christ which stands over -the Lady Chapel; there was formerly on the main apse a giant St. George -horsed and spearing the dragon, melted at the Revolution "they say" into -bullets. At Clermont Ferrand is the most remarkable composition, a tall -pillar on which stands a colossal Virgin facing the sunrise; round the -stem spring out great branches of foliage on which sit four -figures--King David with the harp and three others with musical -instruments--the ridge is ornamented with open work, and a length of -similar foliage reaches down the slope of the roof for some feet on -either side of the finial where are two other figures, these are full -life size, and the whole must be 20 or more feet high. - -At Evreux the apse had a St. Michael treading down Satan. The immense -St. Michael that surmounted the central tower at Mont St. Michel, which -could be seen many leagues out at sea, was also probably of lead. - -We had in England in the twelfth century a large figure serving as a -finial to the central tower at Canterbury. This tower was built by -Lanfranc, and Gervase tells us it was surmounted by a gilt angel, this -is shown in the contemporary drawing of Canterbury; and the tower, -Professor Willis says, ever retained the name of the Angel Tower. Stow -also told us of a lead spire close by St. Paul's with an image of St. -Paul on the top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Finial at Lille.] - -The early French examples of finials without a figure were formed of -foliage in repousse on a stem or pillar with swelling bands or bowl-like -forms at the point of growth: these and the foliage were beaten out of -thick sheet lead, the larger forms in two halves and soldered -together. The central stem was an iron rod covered with lead tube -slipped over it in short pieces, with hooks to hang the branching leaves -to; sometimes slender rods rise out of the foliage and droop with lilies -at their extremities. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Finial at Angers.] - -Later, cast ornaments became general; on the Hotel Dieu at Beaune is a -wonderful series of these finials made up of portions partly repousse -partly cast, these have coronets of delicate open work which were cast -in strips and bent round. Where the finial joins the roof a rayed sun of -cast metal is placed. Mr. Clutton gives drawings of these. - -In the Museum at Lille there are two fine finials, one of these is -carefully analysed to a large scale by Burges in his book of drawings -and the other, wholly made up of castings, is given here from a -photograph. In the Museum in the splendid old hall of the Hotel Dieu at -Angers are two, sketches of which are given in Figs. 57 and 58. The -leaves and scrolls are cast with ribs to make them stiffer. - -The later Gothic and Renaissance finials are often charmingly suggestive -in the _subject_ of their design--some have figures, a huntsman at -Bourges, a Cupid shooting arrows or a man-at-arms; some are made up with -suns or sun and moon, or moon and stars, as at Troyes; at Beaune, -cup-like forms are made of openwork for birds' nests. Again we find a -vase of lilies or branch of drooping thistles, a pigeon, a coronet, or -personal devices and badges. Mr. Burges noted how the early poets spoke -of the _music_ of the vanes, and there can be little doubt that some of -them were intended to resound to the wind: in the _Hypnerotomachia_ -(1499) a finial is shown with little bells hanging to chains which swang -against a metal bowl; Viollet-le-Duc also tells us that in certain -crestings he found a singular musical conceit in contrivances for -producing "sifflements" under the action of the wind--AEolian flutes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Angers.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Finials, Bourges.] - -At Bourges on the Hotels Jacques Coeur and Cujas are some finials -consisting of little more than a lead-covered stick bearing a rod and -girouettes. Flags were properly only set up in the due heraldic -precedence of the proprietor, a Knight might fly a pennon and so on; -they were centred at times on a piece of agate to reduce the friction of -revolution. We have only to look at the views of old towns given in -manuscripts to see how the mediaeval mind delighted in these flag -finials; but there are probably not half a dozen old ones now left in -England. When there are many revolving flags to the finials on one -building and these are bright with new gold, they have the delightful -property of flashing the light to a great distance. The gilt flags on -the pinnacles of the west front of Wells Cathedral twinkle -simultaneously against the setting sun. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--From Newcastle.] - -Crestings, sometimes large and most ornamental, were formed along the -ridges of French buildings, especially in the early Renaissance.[30] -These ornamental ridges, especially in this exaggerated form, are not -English. - - [30] _See_ De la Queriere or Viollet-le-Duc (_Art._ "Crete"). - -A row of fleurs-de-lis exists at Exeter, a portion of which is in the -Architectural Museum, Westminster: and probably many other roofs had -similar crestings. - - - - -Sec. XVIII. OF CISTERNS, ETC. - - -The use of lead pipes for conducting water was introduced into England -by the Romans, the ordinary draw-off tap is another gift of theirs. The -twelfth century plan of Canterbury cathedral shows a remarkable system -of water pipes for collecting the water from the roofs and distributing -it to the several buildings and fountains. Mr. Micklethwaite has -described in _Archaeologia_ a lead filtering cistern with draw-off tap -found at Westminster Abbey; and in the British Museum (Gothic Room) -there is a small circular lead cistern with delicate fifteenth century -ornament. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Poundisford Park, Taunton.] - -Some old country houses preserve the original scheme for conducting the -rain water from the roofs into a lead cistern which, adorned by devices -and gilding, stood close to the front door. Poundisford Park, near -Taunton, is one of these. Lead spouting, delicately ornamented, crosses -the front and brings the water to the head of the vertical pipe, which -has turrets and loopholes--a toy castle. This and its pipe stand over a -circular fronted cistern panelled and modelled with a crest, pots of -flowers, and the date 1671. There are some of these cisterns at Exeter; -one of them, here given, is much like that at Taunton, and is dated -1696; the ribs and devices are gilt. At Bovey Tracy, in Devonshire, -there is another, as also at Sackville College, East Grinstead. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Cistern, Exeter.] - -In the London houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, -ornamented lead cisterns seem to have been generally placed in the -courtyards and areas. The earliest known was illustrated and described -in the _Builder_ for August 23rd, 1862. The centre was a coat of arms -quartering the lions of England and the lilies of France, right and left -two quatrefoil panels contained the letters E.R., and below in a long -panel was the date 15--. Two upright strips formed the margins, which, -with the ends, were covered with Gothic diaper. It was drawn while in -the possession of a dealer, who obtained it in Crutched Friars. - -There was quite a crusade preached against these cisterns, as the -occasion of lead poisoning, in the first half of this century, and -hundreds were destroyed, but a large number still remain; about -Bloomsbury quite a dozen may be seen down front areas. For the most part -they were decorated with panelling of ribs formed of squares and -semicircles with strips and spots of cast ornament, flowers, fruit -baskets, stags, dolphins, cherubs' heads, and even the gods Bacchus and -Ceres; others have nothing but the fretted panel with initials and date -like Fig. 63. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Cistern, London.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Cistern, S. Kensington Museum.] - -The ribs, with the stock enrichments in new combinations, the date and -initials, were attached to a wood panel the size of the cistern front; -this was moulded in the sand and the casting made of good substance; -stout strips were soldered across the inside as ties. One of the finest -known of these is that at South Kensington Museum, of which one half of -the front is here illustrated, the other half repeats exactly, even to -the initials on the shield; the date is 1732. This is in every way well -designed and beautifully modelled. A part of one in the Guildhall Museum -is an early example of the ordinary pattern, dated 1674. - -The ribs for the pattern were formed in lead--a plumber disdaining the -assistance of wood if he could avoid it--by beating strips of lead into -an iron swage block, that was cut as a matrix about four inches long; -these strips could be easily bent to the curved lines. Plain panelled -cisterns like this were made as late as 1840. - -Old lead pumps are now very seldom to be found. One remains at Wick, -Christchurch, which is 6 inches in diameter, and is decorated by a -crest--a boar's head in a wreath--and the initials "G. B." as well as -the signature "J. JENKINS, Plummer, 1797." - - - - -Sec. XIX. OF GUTTERS. - - -In England the gutters of important churches were generally formed -behind the stone parapet, but at Lincoln the whole is formed of lead -above a carved stone cornice. It is about two feet high and the outside -is decorated with foiled circles closer or farther apart with due -disregard for precision. In France gutters were often like this made on -the top of the stone cornice; irons turned up carry a continuous rod, -over which the lead was dressed, and as the outlets were frequent little -fall was required.[31] - - [31] _See_ Viollet-le-Duc. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Gutter, Lincoln Cathedral.] - -To some bay windows of a fine old timber house at Derby there are -little parapets formed out of lead, the front edge being cut into -notches like a tiny battlement, and short lengths of pipe form spouts -for the water. At Taunton there is a bay window with a similar -battlement of lead; this is cast with a running pattern and wavy upper -edge, to this below is soldered a similar strip reversed making a -fringe; the same pattern forms the isolated gutters at Poundisford House -above mentioned. At Montacute the spouting has a series of little -upright panels, the top moulding breaking up higher over every alternate -pair in crenelations, leaving a space filled with a boss. At Bramhall -there is a cottage to which both the spouting and the down pipe have a -running scroll of flowery ornament. Sometimes the end of a roof gutter -between two gables is stopped by an apron of lead with pattern on it, -such as a knot of cord and initials. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Gutter, Taunton.] - - - - -Sec. XX. OF PIPES AND PIPE HEADS. - - -The water was discharged from the gutters into the heads of down pipes, -or sometimes from jutting lengths of spout supported by iron props, the -nozzles cut into a form often simulating an animal's jaws. - -The down pipes are particularly English, nowhere else can the ornate -constructions of lead forming the pipe heads of Haddon and other great -houses of the sixteenth century be matched. According to Viollet-le-Duc, -here in England this arrangement was already in use in the fourteenth -century, when nowhere except in England were these lead pipes from the -roof down to the base of the wall known. He also remarks on the -advantage of these being square as they can expand if required when the -water freezes, while a circular pipe can only burst.[32] Fragments of -pierced work in Gothic patterns which formed parts of pipe heads have -been found at Fountains Abbey. - - [32] Art. "Conduite," Fig. 6. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Bramhall, Cheshire.] - -At Haddon there are a great number of these pipe heads of several dates, -and every one is different from the rest; some are plain and small, -others great spreading things elaborately decorated. The general form of -these is constructed like a box from cast sheet lead, the cornices are -beaten to their shape over a pattern; and the top edge is cut into a -little fringe of crenellations. Cast discs of ornament, badges, pendant -knobs, and initials are arranged on their fronts, on the funnel-shaped -portion leading to the pipe, and on the ears of the pipe and the side -flaps of the head itself. The more elaborate heads have an outer casing -of lead with panels pierced through it of delicate tracery work of -Gothic tradition which shows bright against the shadow. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 68 and 69.--Pipe Heads, Haddon Hall.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Pipe head, Haddon.] - -At Windsor Castle some pipe heads bear the date 1589, the Tudor rose, -and the letters E. R. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Bodleian, Oxford.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--St. John's, Oxford.] - -At Knole there are also many heads having pierced work of this kind in -panels, and projecting turrets; some of these also have a decoration of -bright solder applied to the lead in patterns--these were made about -1600. At the Bodleian and St. John's College, Oxford, there is a fine -series of pipe heads with painted patterns. At Norham Castle some pipe -heads are dated 1605. Abbot's Hospital at Guildford has a large series -of heads later in character than those at Haddon. Here pierced work is -used as a brattishing to the top edge of the fronts; they are signed G. -A. and dated 1627. At Canons Ashby there is a pair of most rococo pipe -heads, with applied pierced castings, masks and acanthus leaves.[33] -These heads are fixed on iron cramps, or brackets; at Haddon lead -cylinders with pierced ends project and carry the heads. - - [33] Figured in the _Spring Gardens Sketch Book_, vol. v., 58. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Sherborne.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Liverpool.] - -Sometimes the heads are very long, extending five or six feet like a -length of gutter; it was a favourite method to decorate them with -salient projections at intervals, like the cut-waters of a bridge, the -top edge of these is cut into little battlements which were curled over -in loops. The projections make convenient birds' nests. The pipe is -sometimes central to these long heads but often at the end. - -Entirely the reverse of these, other heads are tall in proportion, like -the examples at Shrewsbury and Ludlow or the little fiddle pattern -design given here from the Grammar School at Sherborne (Fig. 73). The -two examples 74 and 75 are from Liverpool and Ashbourn. - -There are three or four original pipe heads which are well designed in -the Architectural Museum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Ashbourne.] - -The later ones, as in London, are often tall square funnels moulded and -bent into vase-like forms, the projection was small compared to the -width, only three or four inches sometimes. A piece of projecting pipe -is at times inserted in the front of the head to serve as an overflow. -The late pipes were circular and the heads very often followed this -form. - -The material has an appropriateness for this purpose that cast iron -cannot pretend to; a simple square box of lead and round pipe is much to -be preferred to fussy things in cast iron, they will not require -painting, nor do they fill the drains with rust; and although it has -been necessary to draw the elaborate and eccentric forms, the simpler -ones form better models for our purpose. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Haddon.] - -The earlier pipes were almost always a flat square, sometimes ornamented -up its whole length, but usually only at the collars, where the bands of -lead for attachment to the wall were placed, here and on the flaps of -the collars are often crests, flowers, or letters. The lead band was cut -long enough, so that after the nails had been driven through it into the -wall the ends were folded back over their heads. Those at Canons Ashby, -Northants, have the ends curled and cut like the scroll of a mediaeval -text. - -Lead working as an art for the expression of beauty through material, -with this ancestry of nearly two thousand years of beautiful workmanship -behind it here in England, has in the present century been entirely -killed out. Only one simple present use of lead can be mentioned as -having the characteristic of an art--the expression of personal thought -by the worker to give pleasure. This is nothing but the lining of stairs -and floor spaces with sheet lead nailed with rows of copper nails, some -examples of which are done with a certain taste. Pipe heads and other -objects of a somewhat ornamental kind have recently been made again, but -we must remember that ornament is not art, and these have only been -carefully, painfully, "executed" to the architect's drawings. The -plumber's art, as it was, for instance, when the Guild of Plumbers was -formed, a craft to be graced by the free fancy of the worker, is a field -untilled. That someone may again take up this fine old craft of -lead-working as an artist and original worker, refusing to follow -"designs" compiled by another from imperfectly understood old examples, -but expressing only himself--this has been my chief hope in preparing -the little book NOW CONCLUDED. - - - - -MESSRS. MACMILLAN & CO.'S - -BOOKS FOR TECHNICAL CLASSES. - - - =DRAWING AND DESIGN.= A Class Text-book for Beginners. By E. R. - TAYLOR. Head Master of the Birmingham Municipal School of Art. - With Illustrations. Oblong crown 8vo, 5_s._ net. - - =ELEMENTS OF HANDICRAFT AND DESIGN.= By W. A. S. 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